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2018-04793	Why does California seem to have so many more bans and warnings that other states don't?	California specifically passed a regulation known as "Proposition 65" which requires (in addition to a few other provisions) warning labels on products that contain ingredients that may be linked to cancer or birth defects. No other states have such a regulation on the books, but companies often put the California warning on products sold on other states just so that they don't have to make multiple product labels for different markets.	[ "BULLET::::- Calabasas, California, United States, prohibited smoking in almost all indoor and outdoor public places in 2006, believed to be the strictest such regulations in the United States. At least 13 California cities (including Los Angeles) have prohibited smoking on their beaches, at least four other California cities (including San Francisco) ban smoking in parks or outdoor venues. For more information, see List of smoking bans in the United States#Outdoor smoking bans.\n\nBULLET::::- Belmont, California, prohibited smoking in outdoor places on 25 September 2007; this also applies inside condominiums, apartments and other kinds of multi-unit housing.\n", "In 1965, California became the first state to regulate vehicle exhaust by setting limits on hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions. In 1967, the California EPA set the nation's first air quality standards for total suspended particulates, photochemical oxidants, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and other pollutants. The United States Congress has allowed California to set its own pollution standards, and the state's legislators have responded with some of the strongest environmental laws ever passed.\n", "CBE collaborated with Liberty Hill Foundation and an academic research team from University of California, Santa Cruz, Brown University, and Occidental College to have Rule 1402 reviewed. Rule 1402, included in the South Coast Air Quality Management District was the state's goal in 1994 to reduce public health risk from cancerous and noncancerous emissions by large industries. The maximum individual cancer risk was initially set at 100 cancer risks per million, yet due to CBE's collaboration, it was reduced to 25 cancer risks per million 6 years later, representing a reduction in acceptable risk levels to 75%. This collaboration led to more efforts in the reduction of allowable risk level faced by various communities and encouraged the California Environmental Protection Agency to broaden their view on issues such as these, to put more emphasis on risk exposure when making new policies.\n", "In Connecticut, Oregon, Montana, Utah, and Wisconsin, the state law preempts local governments from enacting stricter smoking bans than the state, though some cities and/or counties in some of those states have enacted local versions of the state's smoking ban. In the other 23 states with a statewide general smoking ban, some cities and/or counties have enacted stricter local smoking bans to varying degrees. In California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Maine, New Jersey, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah, and Vermont, usage of e-cigarettes is prohibited indoors. The strictest smoking ban in the United States is in Calabasas, California, where smoking anywhere a non-smoker could congregate, including public sidewalks and apartment complexes, is a misdemeanor punishable by a fine of at least $250.\n", "Notably, nearly all of the reductions in toxic exposures caused by Proposition 65 have occurred in areas also subject to federal laws and regulations intended to control toxic chemicals, reductions which those federal controls had failed to achieve.\n\nSection::::Warning label.\n\nThe following warning language is standard on products sold in California if they contain chemicals on the Proposition 65 list and the amount of exposure caused by the product is not within defined safety limits.\n\nWARNING: This product contains chemicals known to the State of California to cause cancer and birth defects or other reproductive harm.\n", "On June 10, 2009, The Senate Environmental Quality Committee voted to recommend that OEHHA be kept intact and expanded with the addition of California Department Pesticide Regulation's risk assessment activities, California Department of Toxic Substances Control's hazard evaluation functions, and lead roles in the children's health initiative and the Cal/EPA portion of the biomonitoring program. The recommendation will be forwarded to the Budget Conference Committee.\n", "In 1995, California was the first state to enact a statewide smoking ban; throughout the early to mid-2000s, especially between 2004 and 2007, an increasing number of states enacted a statewide smoking ban of some kind. As of July 2018, the most recent statewide smoking ban is Alaska's, which was signed into law on July 18, 2018, and went into effect on October 1, 2018.\n", "BULLET::::- California Athletic Commission\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Accountancy\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Acupuncture\n\nBULLET::::- California Architects Board\n\nBULLET::::- California Board for Professional Engineers, Land Surveyors, and Geologists\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Barbering and Cosmetology\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Behavioral Sciences\n\nBULLET::::- California Bureau of Electronic and Appliance Repair, Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Guide Dogs for the Blind\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Optometry\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Pharmacy\n\nBULLET::::- California Board of Vocational Nursing and Psychiatric Technicians\n\nBULLET::::- California Bureau of Automotive Repair\n", "The wording can be changed as necessary, as long as it communicates that the chemical in question is known to the state to cause cancer, or birth defects or other reproductive harm. For exposures from other sources, such as car exhaust in a parking garage, a standard sign might read: \"This area contains chemicals known to the State of California to cause cancer, or birth defects or other reproductive harm\".\n\nSection::::Controversy and claimed abuse.\n", "BULLET::::- Delta Protection Commission\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado River Board of California\n\nBULLET::::- Central Valley Flood Protection Board\n\nBULLET::::- Board of Forestry\n\nBULLET::::- Fish and Game Commission\n\nBULLET::::- Mining and Geology Board\n\nBULLET::::- Native American Heritage Commission\n\nBULLET::::- Parks and Recreation Commission\n\nBULLET::::- State Historical Resources Commission\n\nBULLET::::- State Off-Highway Motor Vehicle Recreation Commission\n\nBULLET::::- California Water Commission\n\nBULLET::::- California Boating and Waterways Commission\n\nBULLET::::- Wildlife Conservation Board\n\nSection::::Organization.:Conservancies.\n\nBULLET::::- Baldwin Hills Conservancy\n\nBULLET::::- California Tahoe Conservancy\n\nBULLET::::- Coachella Valley Mountains Conservancy\n\nBULLET::::- Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Conservancy\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego River Conservancy\n", "BULLET::::- Long Beach, California bans smoking in all city parks, at or within 20 feet of busstops, and at farmers' markets.\n\nBULLET::::- Los Angeles, 2007, banned in all city parks, and, 2011, all outdoor dining areas.\n", "Many cities and local governments in California are opposed to the state's sanctuary policies and have passed ordinances opposed to it. Most of these ordinances are symbolic however, some have joined the Trump administrations law suit against California. These cities and counties include: Orange County Board of Supervisors, San Diego County Board of Supervisors, Beaumont, Dana Point, Ripon, Los Alamitos, Laguna Niguel, San Juan Capistrano, Aliso Viejo, Mission Viejo, Yorba Linda, Newport Beach, Westminster, Huntington Beach, Orange, Fountain Valley, and Escondido.\n", "CalEPA, and its departmental California Air Resources Board, were one of the key supporters of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, making the state the first in the United States to cap all greenhouse gas emissions from major industries.\n\nIn June 2008, CalEPA announced that new global warming performance labels would be placed on all new cars effective on January 1, 2009. The stickers will provide two scores: a smog score and a global warming score with a grade from 1 to 10, where the higher the grade, the more environmentally friendly the vehicle.\n\nSection::::Executive Management.\n", "BULLET::::- David Chatfield, Executive Director of Californians for Pesticide Reform\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Magavern, JD, Director of Sierra Club California\n\nBULLET::::- Renee Sharp, MS, Environmental Working Group\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Allayaud, MRP, Director of Government Affairs for Environmental Working Group\n\nBULLET::::- Bonnie Holmes-Gen, Senior Policy Director, American Lung Association\n\nBULLET::::- Kyle Gardner, Center for Environmental Health\n\nBULLET::::- Donne Brownsey, JD, Breast Cancer Fund\n\nBULLET::::- Amy Kyle, Ph.D., MPH, UC Berkeley School of Public Health faculty\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Notthoff, MCRP, California Advocacy Director, Natural Resources Defense Council\n", "Opponents of Prop 2 note that a process called \"traceback\" is conducted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and helps to maintain a safe food supply. The FDA's guidance to its staff for conducting tracebacks has sections entitled \"Farm Investigations\" and \"Egg Processor/Packer Investigations,\" which contain detailed protocols explaining who goes on the farm, how the investigation is carried out, biosecurity procedures and other important steps to ensure that should an outbreak from eggs occur, the traceback would successfully reveal the original source. These opponents to Prop 2 say that California already has adequate and exemplary disease control techniques.\n", "The state of California has a waiver that allows it to set its own auto emissions standards, which it has used to combat smog and, more recently, global warming. Thirteen other states and the District of Columbia have adopted the California standards as their own. \n", "Section::::The California Fire Safe Council: initially an inclusive coalition.:The Fire Safe Advisory Council: 1993 to 1995.\n", "BULLET::::- and a number of other State and Federal bodies of law dealing with hazardous materials and the environment.\n\nBULLET::::- Scope\n\nOver the years the scope of activity of the agency has expanded significantly to include the regulation of commercial products including toys, jewelry and even food packaging as it pertains to toxic substances contained within them and the exposure of humans and the environment to these toxic substances.\n", "California Regulatory Notice Register\n\nThe California Regulatory Notice Register (Notice Register or Z Register) contains notices of proposed regulatory actions by California state agencies to adopt, amend, or repeal regulations contained in the \"California Code of Regulations\" (CCR). It is similar to the role of the \"Federal Register\".\n", "BULLET::::- California Bureau of Marijuana Control, formerly the Bureau of Medical Marijuana Regulation\n\nBULLET::::- California Bureau of Naturopathic Medicine\n\nBULLET::::- California Bureau for Private Postsecondary Education\n\nBULLET::::- California Bureau of Real Estate\n\nBULLET::::- California Bureau of Real Estate Appraisers\n\nBULLET::::- California Bureau of Security and Investigative Services\n\nBULLET::::- California Cemetery and Funeral Bureau\n\nBULLET::::- California Complaint Resolution Program\n\nBULLET::::- California Contractors State License Board\n\nBULLET::::- California Court Reporters Board\n\nBULLET::::- California Dental Board\n\nBULLET::::- California Dental Hygiene Committee\n\nBULLET::::- California Hearing Aid Dispensers Bureau\n\nBULLET::::- California Landscape Architects Technical Committee\n\nBULLET::::- Medical Board of California\n", "BULLET::::- 1960 - The Air District banned open burning at dumps;\n\nBULLET::::- 1962 - Ambient air monitoring network established;\n\nBULLET::::- 1968 - The Air District later began to regulate agricultural burning in 1968;\n\nBULLET::::- 1970 - Backyard burning banned;\n\nBULLET::::- 1971 - the Air District adopted emissions standards for lead;\n\nBULLET::::- 1971 - Napa, Solano, and Sonoma counties became members of the Air District;\n\nBULLET::::- 1972 - The Air District began making daily air quality broadcasts through the \"smog phone\";\n\nBULLET::::- 1972 - The board adopted the first odor regulation in the United States;\n", "• Central Coast\n\n• Desert and Eastern Sierra\n\n• Foothills & Mountains\n\n• North Coast & Wine Country\n\n• Southern California & Baja\n\n• Valley\n\n• Special Interest Chapter\n", "Section::::The California Fire Safe Council: initially an inclusive coalition.:The California Fire Safe Council: 1997 to 2001.\n", "Section::::The California Fire Safe Council, Inc. (CFSCI): an independent corporation.:Funding for the CFSCI.:Federal funding.\n", "Following a 6th Circuit Court of Appeals ruling in 2010 that vector control agencies are subject to the Clean Water Act and must obtain an NPDES permit to apply public health pesticides in or near waters of the U.S., the District began working with MVCAC, member districts, and the CA State Water Resources Control Board to develop a state permit and monitoring coalition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01648	If we breathe in oxygen (O2) and breathe out carbon dioxide (CO2) then what does the oxygen do? Does it just collect carbon then leave?	The oxygen in the air you breathe enters your blood from your lungs. Sugars and other nutrients in the food you eat enter your blood from your small intestine (located beneath and right after your stomach in the digestive tract). Your blood delivers food and oxygen to your cells that they need to create energy and live. This process of energy creation is called cellular respiration, and it creates CO2 and H2O. C6H12O6 (glucose, which is sugar in blood) + 6O2 (oxygen) - > 6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (dihydrogen monoxide, aka water) The CO2 and H2O reenter the bloodstream and when you exhale, they come out mixed into the air you breathe out. Evidence of water vapor being in your breath shows when you see it outside on a cold winter day. This is part of why it's important to drink water. You lose moisture from your body with every breath. Interestingly, the urge to breathe is not so much about your body lacking oxygen, but more immediately, your body senses your blood becoming too acidic from the CO2 your cells exude into your blood.	[ "Carbon dioxide is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism. This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates, the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians) or the gills (e.g., fish), from where it dissolves in the water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration.\n", "Section::::Biological role.:Human physiology.\n\nSection::::Biological role.:Human physiology.:Content.\n\nThe body produces approximately of carbon dioxide per day per person, containing of carbon. In humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through the venous system and is breathed out through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in the arteries. The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the volume. In humans, the blood carbon dioxide contents is shown in the adjacent table:\n\nSection::::Biological role.:Human physiology.:Transport in the blood.\n", "Ecosystem respiration\n\nEcosystem respiration is the sum of all respiration occurring by the living organisms in a specific ecosystem. \n\nIt is the operation in which the organisms within a specified ecosystem use the process of respiration to convert organic carbon to carbon dioxide. While the amount of respiration is varied upon the type of ecosystem and the community abundance, the mechanism occurs in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.\n", "Carbon is released to the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, organic respiration, wood burning, and volcanic eruptions. The uptake of carbon from the atmosphere occurs through carbon dissolution into the oceans, Photosynthesis, and the consequent storing of carbon in various forms such as peat bogs, oil accumulation, and formation of minerals such as coal and copper. It also happens when carbohydrates are changed into carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Carbon flux ratio.\n", "As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, with oxygen produced as a waste product.\n", "Carbon cycle re-balancing\n\nThe carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon: the biosphere, the earth, the air and water. Exchanges take place in several ways, including respiration, transpiration, combustion, and decomposition. The carbon balance, or carbon budget, is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs.\n", "Carbon is exchanged with varying speed with the terrestrial biosphere. It is absorbed in the form of carbon dioxide by autotrophs and converted into organic compounds. Carbon is also released from the biosphere into the atmosphere in the course of biological processes. Aerobic respiration converts organic carbon into carbon dioxide and a particular type of anaerobic respiration converts it into methane. After respiration, both carbon dioxide and methane are typically emitted into the atmosphere. Organic carbon is also released into the atmosphere during burning.\n", "An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free H and escape into space, leaving O in the atmosphere: \n\nSection::::Sources and sinks.:Biological consumption.\n\nThe main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Sources and sinks.:Abiotic consumption.\n\nThe lithosphere also consumes atmospheric free oxygen by chemical weathering and surface reactions. An example of surface weathering chemistry is formation of iron oxides (rust): \n", "Oxygen has a very low solubility in water, and is therefore carried in the blood loosely combined with hemoglobin. The oxygen is held on the hemoglobin by four ferrous iron-containing heme groups per hemoglobin molecule. When all the heme groups carry one O molecule each the blood is said to be “saturated” with oxygen, and no further increase in the partial pressure of oxygen will meaningfully increase the oxygen concentration of the blood. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO) in the plasma. However the conversion of dissolved CO into HCO (through the addition of water) is too slow for the rate at which the blood circulates through the tissues on the one hand, and through alveolar capillaries on the other. The reaction is therefore catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme inside the red blood cells. The reaction can go in both directions depending on the prevailing partial pressure of CO. A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried on the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecules as carbamino groups. The total concentration of carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO, and carbamino groups) in arterial blood (i.e. after it has equilibrated with the alveolar air) is about 26 mM (or 58 ml/100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml/100 ml blood).\n", "It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar partial pressure of carbon dioxide has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide “waste”. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body’s extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats\n", "It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar formula_3 has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide “waste”. In fact the total concentration of carbon dioxide in arterial blood is about 26 mM (or 58 ml per 100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml per 100 ml blood). This large concentration of carbon dioxide plays a pivotal role in the determination and maintenance of the pH of the extracellular fluids. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body’s extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats\n", "Section::::Atmospheric carbon dioxide and the carbon cycle.:Atmospheric carbon dioxide and photosynthesis.\n", "Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths of carbon in the environment form the carbon cycle. For example, photosynthetic plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or seawater) and build it into biomass, as in the Calvin cycle, a process of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; if bacteria do not consume it, dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal, which releases carbon when burned.\n", "Ecosystem respiration is typically measured in the natural environment, such as a forest or grassland field, rather than in the laboratory. Ecosystem respiration is the production portion of carbon dioxide in an ecosystem's carbon flux, while photosynthesis typically accounts for the majority of the ecosystem's carbon consumption.\n\nHow ecosystem respiration works and its importance:\n", "The fixed carbon that is either decomposed by bacteria on the way down or once on the sea floor then enters the final phase of the pump and is remineralized to be used again in primary production. The particles that escape these processes entirely are sequestered in the sediment and may remain there for millions of years. It is this sequestered carbon that is responsible for ultimately lowering atmospheric CO.\n\nSection::::Primary production.\n", "The combustion of all carbon-based fuels, such as methane (natural gas), petroleum distillates (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, propane), coal, wood and generic organic matter produces carbon dioxide and, except in the case of pure carbon, water. As an example, the chemical reaction between methane and oxygen:\n\nIt is produced by thermal decomposition of limestone, by heating (calcining) at about , in the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide, ), a compound that has many industrial uses:\n\nIron is reduced from its oxides with coke in a blast furnace, producing pig iron and carbon dioxide:\n", "Section::::Sources and sinks.:Biological production.\n\nThe main source of atmospheric free oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces sugars and free oxygen from carbon dioxide and water:\n\nPhotosynthesizing organisms include the plant life of the land areas as well as the phytoplankton of the oceans. The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus was discovered in 1986 and accounts for more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean.\n\nSection::::Sources and sinks.:Abiotic production.\n", "Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots. It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the atmosphere\n\nSection::::Deep carbon cycle.\n", "Most sources of emissions are natural, and are balanced to various degrees by natural sinks. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands and the action of forest fires results in the release of about 439 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year, while new growth entirely counteracts this effect, absorbing 450 gigatonnes per year. Although the initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by volcanic activity, modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 megatonnes of carbon dioxide each year. These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for photosynthesis and it is soluble in water forming carbonic acid. There is a large natural flux of into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted is removed by the biosphere and oceans. From pre-industrial era to 2010, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric prior to 1940, switching subsequently to a net sink. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric to emitted is known as the \"airborne fraction\" (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages and is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods. Estimated carbon in global terrestrial vegetation increased from approximately 740 billion tons in 1910 to 780 billion tons in 1990.\n", "Most carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere through respiration. When oxygen is present, aerobic respiration occurs, producing carbon dioxide. If oxygen is not present, e.g. as is the case in marshes or in animals' digestive tracts, anaerobic respiration can occur, which produces methane. About half of the gross primary production is respired by plants directly back into the atmosphere. Part of the net primary production, or the remaining carbon absorbed by the biosphere, is emitted back into the atmosphere through fires and heterotrophic respiration. The rest is converted into soil organic carbon, which is released more slowly, or \"inert\" dissolved carbon, which can remain in the biosphere for an unknown period of time.\n", "After POC is broken down, this particulate matter can be turned into other dissolved organic carbon, such as carbon dioxide, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate. As much as 30% of phytoplankton can be broken down into dissolved organic carbon. When this particulate organic carbon interacts with 350 nm ultraviolet light, dissolved organic carbon is formed, removing even more oxygen from the environment in the forms of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate. Dissolved inorganic carbon is made at a rate of 2.3-6.5 mg/(m^3)day.\n", "Section::::Background.:Typical values.\n", "Section::::Biological role.:Toxicity.:Ventilation.\n", "Atmospheric carbon dioxide plays an integral role in the Earth's carbon cycle whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by some natural processes such as photosynthesis and deposition of carbonates, to form limestones for example, and added back to the atmosphere by other natural processes such as respiration and the acid dissolution of carbonate deposits. There are two broad carbon cycles on Earth: the fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon cycle. The fast carbon cycle refers to movements of carbon between the environment and living things in the biosphere whereas the slow carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, rocks, and volcanism. Both carbon cycles are intrinsically interconnected and atmospheric gaseous carbon dioxide facilitates the carbon cycle.\n", "Respiration (physiology)\n\nIn physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04713	Why do surfaces (e.g. painted walls) change colour when wet - even with a clear substance such as water?	It all has to do with how light is reflected. Our eyes take in light that bounces off surfaces, like you catching a ball your friend threw at the wall. When a surface is wet, there’s a liquid layer on it. Light bends when it’s in a liquid. Ever notice how your straw looks like it’s cut in 1/2 in a glass of water? It’s because of how the water bends the light as it passes through. So when light hits a surface with let’s say water on it, it bends the light slightly more than the dry surface so when it reflects it’s a little bit different than the light around it, making it look different. (Please note I say bend as a general term to keep the explication more simplistic)	[ "Countershading, the use of different colors on upper and lower surfaces in graduating tones from a light belly to a darker back, is common in the sea and on land. It is sometimes called Thayer's law, after the American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer, who published a paper on the form in 1896 that explained that countershading paints out shadows to make solid objects appear flat, reversing the way that artists use paint to make flat paintings contain solid objects. Where the background is brighter than is possible even with white pigment, counter-illumination in marine animals, such as squid, can use light to match the background.\n", "With the exception of bare, polished metals, the appearance of a surface to the eye is not a good guide to emissivities near room temperature. Thus white paint absorbs very little visible light. However, at an infrared wavelength of 10x10 metres, paint absorbs light very well, and has a high emissivity. Similarly, pure water absorbs very little visible light, but water is nonetheless a strong infrared absorber and has a correspondingly high emissivity.\n\nSection::::Absorptivity.:Directional spectral emissivity.\n", "Section::::Color vision.\n\nWater attenuates light due to absorption which varies as a function of frequency. In other words, as light passes through a greater distance of water color is selectively absorbed by the water. Color absorption is also affected by turbidity of the water and dissolved material.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Colorimetry.\n\nColorimetry is a unique method since it has both qualitative and quantitative properties. Its qualitative analysis involves recording color changes to indicate a change has occurred. This can be a change in shading of the color or a change into a completely different color. The quantitative aspect involves sensory equipment that can measure the wavelength of colors. Changes in wavelengths can be precisely measured and help indicate changes.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "The sheen or gloss level of a paint is principally determined by the ratio of resinous, adhesive binder which solidifies after drying, and solid, powdery pigment. The more binder the coating contains, the more regular reflection will be made from its smooth surface; conversely, with less binder, grains of pigment become exposed to the surface, scattering the light and providing matte effect. To a lesser extent, gloss is also affected by other factors: refraction index of the pigment particles, viscosity and refraction index of the binder. \n", "Paints, inks and dyes that are organic are more susceptible to photodegradation than those that are not. Ceramics are almost universally colored with non-organic origin materials so as to allow the material to resist photodegradation even under the most relentless conditions, maintaining its color.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Pesticides and herbicides.\n", "Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a continuous phase, with the boundary between the phases called the \"interface\". Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally. If the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency (low-wavelength) light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the \"Tyndall effect\". If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths, and will appear more yellow. This phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil.\n", "Other properties of a color, such as its saturation or lightness, may be determined by the other substances that accompany pigments. Binders and fillers added to pure pigment chemicals also have their own reflection and absorption patterns, which can affect the final spectrum. For example, in pigment/binder mixtures, individual rays of light may not encounter pigment molecules and may be reflected unchanged. These stray rays of source light make the mixture appear to have a less saturated color. Pure pigment allows very little white light to escape, producing a highly saturated color, while a small quantity of pigment mixed with a lot of white binder will appear unsaturated and pale due to incident white light escaping unchanged.\n", "Typically, absorbance of a dissolved substance is measured using absorption spectroscopy. This involves shining a light through a solution and recording how much light and what wavelengths were transmitted onto a detector. Using this information, the wavelengths that were absorbed can be determined. First, measurements on a \"blank\" are taken using just the solvent for reference purposes. This is so that the absorbance of the solvent is known, and then any change in absorbance when measuring the whole solution is made by just the solute of interest. Then measurements of the solution are taken. The transmitted spectral radiant flux that makes it through the solution sample is measured and compared to the incident spectral radiant flux. As stated above, the spectral absorbance at a given wavelength is\n", "Color-changing paints can also be made by adding halochrome compounds or other organic pigments. One patent cites use of these indicators for wall coating applications for light colored paints. When the paint is wet it is pink in color but upon drying it regains its original white color. As cited in patent, this property of the paint enabled two or more coats to be applied on a wall properly and evenly. The previous coats having dried would be white whereas the new wet coat would be distinctly pink. Ashland Inc. introduced foundry refractory coatings with similar principle in 2005 for use in foundries.\n", "New surfaces are constantly being created as larger pigment particles get broken down into smaller subparticles. These newly formed surfaces consequently contribute to larger surface energies, whereby the resulting particles often become cemented together into aggregates. Because particles dispersed in liquid media are in constant thermal or Brownian motion, they exhibit a strong affinity for other pigment particles nearby as they move through the medium and collide. This natural attraction is largely attributed to the powerful short-range Van der Waals forces, as an effect of their surface energies.\n", "This effect is sometimes called \"wet look\", since wetting wood with water often displays the chatoyancy, albeit only until the wood dries. Certain finishes cause the wood grain to become more pronounced. Oil finishes, epoxy, and shellac can strongly bring out the \"wet look\" effect. When the refractive index of the finish nearly matches that of the wood, light scattering no longer occurs at the wood surface, adding the appearance of depth to the wood's figure.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- General\n\nBULLET::::- Webster, R., Jobbins, E. A. (Ed.). (1998). \"Gemmologist's compendium.\" St Edmundsbury Press Ltd, Bury St Edwards.\n", "The clip is of the professor talking about how water is an object always in motion so to capture it on canvas is a hard task. Guitarist Vadim Taver said in an interview with http://silentstagnation.de/ \"This was a good analogy to our music because it's hard to capture the energy, power, and emotion of music on recordings. Sometimes people pull it off, but overall it's not the same as seeing a band perform live, and that was the meaning behind the quote.\"\n", "[[Subtractive color]]ing uses dyes, inks, pigments, or filters to absorb some wavelengths of light and not others. The color that a surface displays comes from the parts of the visible spectrum that are not absorbed and therefore remain visible. Without pigments or dye, fabric fibers, paint base and paper are usually made of particles that scatter white light (all colors) well in all directions. When a pigment or ink is added, wavelengths are absorbed or \"subtracted\" from white light, so light of another color reaches the eye.\n", "Dissolved and particulate material in water can cause discoloration. Slight discoloration is measured in Hazen units (HU). Impurities can be deeply colored as well, for instance dissolved organic compounds called tannins can result in dark brown colors, or algae floating in the water (particles) can impart a green color.\n\nThe color of a water sample can be reported as:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apparent color\" is the color of the whole water sample, and consists of color from both dissolved and suspended components.\n\nBULLET::::- \"True color\" is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material.\n", "Sunlight acts as a bleach through a similar process. High energy photons of light, often in the violet or ultraviolet range, can disrupt the bonds in the chromophore, rendering the resulting substance colorless.\n\nSome detergents go one step further; they contain fluorescent chemicals which glow, making the fabric look literally whiter than white.\n\nSection::::In the natural world.\n\nSection::::In the natural world.:Astronomy.\n", "BULLET::::- Opaque objects that do not reflect specularly (which tend to have rough surfaces) have their color determined by which wavelengths of light they scatter strongly (with the light that is not scattered being absorbed). If objects scatter all wavelengths with roughly equal strength, they appear white. If they absorb all wavelengths, they appear black.\n", "Many techniques can be used to enhance wetting. Surface treatments, such as Corona treatment, plasma treatment and acid etching, can be used to increase the surface energy of the substrate. Additives can also be added to the liquid to decrease its surface energy. This technique is employed often in paint formulations to ensure that they will be evenly spread on a surface.\n\nSection::::The Kelvin equation.\n", "Although variations in CDOM are primarily the result of natural processes including changes in the amount and frequency of precipitation, human activities such as logging, agriculture, effluent discharge, and wetland drainage can affect CDOM levels in fresh water and estuarine systems.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "Recent advances in chemistry have produced modern water miscible oil paints that can be used and cleaned up with water. Small alterations in the molecular structure of the oil creates this water miscible property.\n\nSection::::Supports for oil painting.\n", "Section::::Theory.\n\nDichroic filters use the principle of thin-film interference, and produce colors in the same way as oil films on water. When light strikes an oil film at an angle, some of the light is reflected from the top surface of the oil, and some is reflected from the bottom surface where it is in contact with the water. Because the light reflecting from the bottom travels a slightly longer path, some light wavelengths are reinforced by this delay, while others tend to be canceled, producing the colors seen.\n", "Colour is determined by light-reflecting chemical particles, pigments, in the paint. These particles can have very different physical sizes, as shown in the diagram in figure 1.2. In this example, the black pigments are the small black dots; red pigments are larger spheres, while the yellow pigments are acicular. This combination of pigments produces the original brown colour. The upper diagram has had no weathering, and the surface is still smooth and undamaged. The lower diagram shows the painted surface after weathering has occurred. The surface has eroded with significant loss of the black and red pigments from the surface layer. The pitted surface scatters light, therefore reducing the gloss and creating the chalky affect. The larger acicular yellow pigments are more difficult to remove, resulting in a colour change towards a more yellowy appearance. Weather testing was paramount in discovering this mechanism. Pigment composition has recently been modified to help minimise this effect.\n", "Testing for color can be a quick and easy test which often reflects the amount of organic material in the water, although certain inorganic components like iron or manganese can also impart color.\n", "Section::::Color-changing paint.\n\nVarious technologies exist for making paints that change color. Thermochromic paints and coatings contain materials that change conformation when heat is applied or removed, and so they change color. Liquid crystals have been used in such paints, such as in the thermometer strips and tapes used in aquaria and novelty/promotional thermal cups and straws. These materials are used to make eyeglasses.\n", "Since the mid-19th century, the use of commercially produced pigments in portable tubes has facilitated an easily accessible variety of colors to be used for rapid and on-the-spot painting. Impressionists such as Claude Monet, post-Impressionists such as Vincent van Gogh, realists such as John Singer Sargent and Robert Henri and George Bellows, Expressionists such as Chaim Soutine, and the Abstract Expressionist Willem de Kooning have in different ways employed this technique, and it is still heavily used by both figurative and non-figurative fine artists.\n" ]	[ "Surfaces such as painted walls change color when wet." ]	[ "Surfaces such as painted walls do not change color when wet, but the liquid layer on a surface bends light making the surface look different. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Surfaces such as painted walls change color when wet.", "Surfaces such as painted walls change color when wet." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Surfaces such as painted walls do not change color when wet, but the liquid layer on a surface bends light making the surface look different. ", "Surfaces such as painted walls do not change color when wet, but the liquid layer on a surface bends light making the surface look different. " ]
2018-22933	Why do humans tend to open their mouth when they are surprised?	Human gestures are dominated by two functions: Reflex and social cues. The gasp is likely a reflex inherited from distant ancestors who out competed others by quickly breathing air as an automatic response to surprise. They were perhaps better able to survive a flood, or were better prepared to outrun a threat. Who knows? For whatever reason, we are descended from gaspers who gasped when surprised. But we are also born into a community of gaspers. We often want to tell others that our feeling is authentic surprise - which really can't happen if all we do is say, "I am surprised." Performing elements of our shared gasp reflex (dropping the jaw, opening eyes wide, inhaling, etc) is a way of telling others how you feel be cause both sender and receiver inherently understands what a gasp is.	[ "Spontaneous, involuntary surprise is often expressed for only a fraction of a second. It may be followed immediately by the emotion of fear, joy or confusion. The intensity of the surprise is associated with how much the jaw drops, but the mouth may not open at all in some cases. The raising of the eyebrows, at least momentarily, is the most distinctive and predictable sign of surprise.\n", "Despite the facial feedback hypothesis (that facial display is necessary in the experience of emotion or a major determinant of feelings), in the case of surprise, some research has shown a strong lack of connection between the facial display of surprise and the actual experience of surprise. This suggests that there are variations in the expression of surprise. It has been suggested that surprise is an envelope term for both the startle response and also disbelief. More recent research shows that rasing of the eyebrows does provide facial feedback to disbelief but not to the startle.\n", "The physiological response of surprise falls under the category of the startle response. The main function of surprise or the startle response is to interrupt an ongoing action and reorient attention to a new, possibly significant event. There is an automatic redirection of focus to the new stimuli and, for a brief moment, this causes tenseness in the muscles, especially the neck muscles. Studies show that this response happens extremely fast, with information (in this case a loud noise) reaching the pons within 3 to 8 ms and the full startle reflex occurring in less than two tenths of a second.\n", "An open mouth display by the Barbary macaque is used most commonly by juvenile macaques as a sign of playfulness.\n\nSection::::Social behaviour.:Alarm calls.\n", "Flehmen response\n\nThe flehmen response (), (from German \"flehmen\", to bare the upper teeth, and Upper Saxon German \"flemmen\", to look spiteful), (also called the flehmen position, flehmen reaction, flehming, or flehmening), is a behavior in which an animal curls back its upper lip exposing its front teeth, inhales with the nostrils usually closed, and then often holds this position for several seconds. It may be performed over a site or substance of particular interest to the animal, or may be performed with the neck stretched and the head held high in the air.\n", "The aforementioned expectations of verbal language are more closely associated to negative expectancies of surprise, but positive surprise can occur from verbal interaction as well. A positive violation of expectations that could result in a positive surprise may include a low credibility source making a persuasive argument that leads to the change of beliefs or emotions thus enhancing the speakers credibility. The move from a low credibility source to a high credibility source can elicit a positive surprise among individuals. The act of being persuaded by said speaker can also elicit a positive surprise, as an individual may have perceived the speaker as having too low of a credibility to elicit change and the change of beliefs or emotion then causes surprise.\n", "Section::::Non-verbal responses.\n\nSurprise is expressed in the face by the following features:\n\nBULLET::::- Eyebrows that are raised so they become curved and high.\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal wrinkles across the forehead.\n\nBULLET::::- Open eyelids: the upper lid is raised and the lower lid is drawn down, often exposing the white sclera above and below the iris.\n\nBULLET::::- Pupil dilation mydriasis or pupil constriction miosis\n\nBULLET::::- Dropped jaw so that the lips and teeth are parted, with no tension around the mouth.\n", "Surprise is intimately connected to the idea of acting in accordance with a set of rules. When the rules of reality generating events of daily life separate from the rule-of-thumb expectations, surprise is the outcome. Surprise represents the difference between expectations and reality, the gap between our assumptions and expectations about worldly events and the way that those events actually turn out. This gap can be deemed an important foundation on which new findings are based since surprises can make people aware of their own ignorance. The acknowledgement of ignorance, in turn, can mean a window to new knowledge.\n", "Non-verbal responses to surprise can also be affected by voice inflection, distance, time, environment, volume, rate, quality, pitch, speaking style, and even the level of eye contact made by an individual trying to cause a surprise. These non-verbal cues help to define whether the perceived surprise will have a positive or negative valence and to what degree the surprise will be induced by the individual.\n\nSection::::Verbal responses.\n", "Section::::Physiological responses.\n", "Various animals use their mouths in threat displays. They may gape widely, exhibit their teeth prominently or flash the startling colours of the mouth lining. This display allows each potential combatant an opportunity to assess the weapons of their opponent and lessens the likelihood of actual combat being necessary.\n\nA number of species of bird use a gaping, open beak in their fear and threat displays. Some augment the display by hissing or breathing heavily, while others clap their beaks.\n", "Linguistics may play a role in the formulation of surprise. The Language expectancy theory (LET) states that people develop norms and expectations concerning appropriate usage of a language in a given situation. When norms or expectations of verbal language are violated surprise may occur. The EVT model supports that expectations can be violated verbally and this violation may cause a surprise within the individual. Expectations of verbal language that may lead to surprise may include but are not limited to, expletives, shouts, screams, and gasps.\n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "\"Opened his mouth\" was a common Semitic expression at the time, well attested in literature from the period. In the New Testament it also appears and . Gundry feels that this is a reference to that mentions \"every word out of the mouth of God.\" Gundry thus feels that this turn of phrase is meant to imply that the Sermon are words spoken by God. Luke's Sermon on the Plain opens with Jesus \"lifting up his eyes\", and the two phrases might be related.\n", "A gasp is a kind of paralinguistic respiration in the form of a sudden and sharp inhalation of air through the mouth. A gasp may indicate difficulty breathing and a panicked effort to draw air into the lungs. Gasps also occur from an emotion of surprise, shock or disgust. Like a sigh, a yawn, or a moan, a gasp is often an automatic and unintentional act. Gasping is closely related to sighing, and the inhalation characterizing a gasp induced by shock or surprise may be released as a sigh if the event causing the initial emotional reaction is determined to be less shocking or surprising than the observer first believed.\n", "Surprise (emotion)\n\nSurprise () is a brief mental and physiological state, a startle response experienced by animals and humans as the result of an unexpected event. Surprise can have any valence; that is, it can be neutral/moderate, pleasant, unpleasant, positive, or negative. Surprise can occur in varying levels of intensity ranging from very-surprised, which may induce the fight-or-flight response, or little-surprise that elicits a less intense response to the stimuli.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "If the startle response is strongly elicited through surprise then it will bring on the fight-or-flight response, which is a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival that causes a release of adrenaline for a boost of energy as a means to escape or fight. This response generally has a negative valance in terms of surprise.\n", "Sighs are an expression of emotion, usually when the dog is lying down with its head on its paws. When the eyes are half-closed it signals pleasure and contentment. When the eyes are fully open it signals displeasure, something the dog expected has not happened, often associated with the dinner table and the food that the dog expected to share did not happen.\n\nSection::::Olfactory.\n", "The Surprise (painting)\n\nThe Surprise is a c.1718 oil on panel painting by Antoine Watteau, showing a man dressed as Mezzetino playing a guitar whilst a couple embrace and a small dog watches. \n", "BULLET::::- Since the 1990s in North America, a similar gesture is used in \"Talk to the hand\". By showing the palm of the hand, with fingers spread, and saying \"Talk to the hand... because the face ain't listenin is the equivalent of \"You're wasting your breath\" or \"Shut up\". Even before then, a common expression of displeasure was to \"throw\" one's hand.\n", "The narrator tells the audience that during their journey, they saw interesting specimen of wild life. An ostrich has put his head into a hole. Underground, the ostrich is actually sleeping on a pillow.\n\nMeanwhile, two lions are eating bones of their prey. The second lion gets a columba, and together, the two lions grab the ends of the bone. The lion says \"Make a wish\", and after breaking the bone, they continue eating.\n", "The focus on this part of the human anatomy has finally been followed by a much later observation testifying to our evolutionary past. The subsequent observation concerns an automatic ear-perking response seen, for example, in dogs when startled by a sudden noise. This response, though faint, fleeting and hardly discernible in humans nonetheless clearly manifests itself. This phenomenon is an automatic-response mechanism that activates even before a human becomes consciously aware that a startling, unexpected or unknown sound has been \"heard\".\n", "BULLET::::- Facial expression: Facial gestures play an important role in animal communication. Often a facial gesture is a signal of emotion. Dogs, for example, express anger through snarling and showing their teeth. In alarm their ears perk up, in fear the ears flatten while the dogs expose their teeth slightly and squint their eyes. Jeffrey Mogil studied the facial expressions of mice during increments of increasing pain; there were five recognizable facial expressions; orbital tightening, nose and cheek bulge, and changes in ear and whisker carriage.\n", "As individuals become more accustomed to particular types of surprise, over time the level of surprise will decrease in intensity. This does not necessarily mean that an individual, for instance, will not be surprised during the jump scene of a scary movie, it implies that the individual may expect the jump scene due to familiarity with scary movies, thus lowering the level of surprise. The EVT model helps to support this claim because as individuals become more accustomed to a situation or communication, it becomes less and less likely that the situation or communication will cause a violation of expectation, and without violating an expectation, surprise cannot occur.\n", "Premastication and mouth-to-mouth feeding in humans is postulated to have evolved from the regurgitation of food from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship feeding) and has been observed in numerous mammals and animals of other species. For instance, food begging behaviour observed in young wolves, wild dogs and certain gulls species, which involves the young approaching the beak or mouth of the adult with their own whereupon gaping their mouths or nuzzling, the adult would regurgitate portions of food to feed the young. However, in the aforementioned animals, this nuzzling behaviour and other types of mouth-to-mouth contact are also used for bonding, socialization, and courtship.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03220	How will an unprotected human body die in space?	Due to the low pressure, oxygen will move across your lungs from your blood into the vacuum. You will fall unconscious within a matter of seconds, and die due to the lack of oxygen, asphyxiation, within a few minutes.	[ "Astronauts in space have weakened immune systems, which means that in addition to increased vulnerability to new exposures, viruses already present in the body—which would normally be suppressed—become active. In space, T-cells do not reproduce properly, and the cells that do exist are less able to\n\nfight off infection. NASA research is measuring the change in the immune systems of its astronauts as well as performing experiments with T-cells in space.\n", "When doing extravehicular activities (EVA), it is important to be protected from the vacuum of space. Exposure to this harsh environment can cause death in a small amount of time. The main environmental factors of concern in space include but are not limited to the following (\"Main article: Space Exposure\"):\n\nBULLET::::- lack of oxygen\n\nBULLET::::- extreme pressure and temperature differences\n\nBULLET::::- higher radiation levels (\"Main article: Health Threat from Cosmic Rays)\"\n\nSection::::Challenges of locomotion in reduced gravity.:Effects on the human body.\n", "There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases. Some of the problems are a weakened immune system and the activation of dormant viruses in the body. Radiation can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.:Environmental hazards.:Medical issues.:Isolation.\n", "Examples of acute medical emergency possibilies for Mars missions:\n\nBULLET::::- Wounds, lacerations, and burns\n\nBULLET::::- Exposure to a toxin\n\nBULLET::::- Acute allergic reactions (anaphylaxis)\n\nBULLET::::- Acute radiation sickness\n\nBULLET::::- Dental\n\nBULLET::::- Eye (Ophthalmologic)\n\nBULLET::::- Psychiatric\n", "Risk estimates made from data provided by analog studies have certain limitations for long duration missions. Unique problems that are inherent to the space environment include the effects of radiation, exposure and physiological adaptation to low gravity. Cardiovascular events are of particular interest for long duration space missions and other harsh environments. To use United States Air Force (USAF) aviators as an example, even though they undergo a very rigorous health screening, the first manifestation of CAD (coronary artery disease) is a cardiac event. Even though the health assessment for an astronaut is more extensive than USAF aviators, data collected from USAF aviators are applicable to the astronaut corps and emphasizes the risk of occurrence of sudden death or heart attack in space despite thorough screening.\n", "Results for in-flight illness rates can be found in publications such as \"The Journal of Emergency Medicine, the \"Annals of Emergency Medicine\", and the \"Journal of Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine\". Information on these rates can also be obtained from NASA's cfm Longitudinal Study of Astronaut Health database at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. This study lists a few of the conditions that could occur and their probabilities of occurrence.\n\nSection::::Non-emergency medical conditions.\n", "BULLET::::1. plasma volume is reduced;\n\nBULLET::::2. left ventricular mass in decreased;\n\nBULLET::::3. the autonomic nervous system adapts to the microgravity environment.\n", "A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that \"Salmonella typhimurium\", a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.\n\nOn December 31, 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that manned spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.\n", "Most of the toxicological data on gas exposure is based on the 8-hour work period of the terrestrial worker and is therefore unsuitable for spacecraft work. New exposure times (astronautical hygiene data) have had to be established for space missions where exposure can be uninterrupted for up to 2 weeks or longer with no daily or weekend periods.\n\nExposure limits are based on:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Normal\" spacecraft operating conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- An \"emergency\" situation.\n", "On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\".\n\nIn March 2019, NASA reported that latent viruses in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.\n\nSection::::Effects of space-travel.:Increased infection risk.\n", "There is scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and cause both short and long-term damage to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. In particular, it causes 'chromosomal aberrations' in lymphocytes. As these cells are central to the immune system, any damage weakens the immune system, which means that in addition to increased vulnerability to new exposures, viruses already present in the body—which would normally be suppressed—become active. In space, T-cells (a form of lymphocyte) are less able to reproduce properly, and the T-cells that do reproduce are less able to fight off infection. Over time immunodeficiency results in the rapid spread of infection among crew members, especially in the confined areas of space flight systems.\n", "A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that \"Salmonella typhimurium\", a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\". More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.\n", "Section::::Microbial hazards.:Microbes and microgravity in space.\n", "Section::::Radiation hazards.\n\nSpace radiation consists of high energy particles such as protons, alpha and heavier particles originating from such sources as galactic cosmic rays, energetic solar particles from solar flares and trapped radiation belts. Space station crew exposures will be much higher than those on Earth and unshielded astronauts may experience serious health effects if unprotected. Galactic cosmic radiation is extremely penetrating and it may not be possible to build shields of sufficient depth to prevent or control exposure.\n\nSection::::Radiation hazards.:Trapped radiation.\n", "A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that \"Salmonella typhimurium\", a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\". More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.\n", "A case of coronary artery disease (CAD) has not been registered during any human space flight as of May 2014. However, due to the lack of public funding for larger space shuttles following the Columbia shuttle disaster in 2003, NASA has had to rely on the smaller Soyuz shuttles to send crews to space, which increased the waiting time for manned spaceflights and increased the average age of space crews since the mid-1990s. Since the risk of cardiovascular disease increases as people age, research on these diseases has become more important for space agencies -\n", "especially for long-term space missions. Other medical emergencies that have been observed in space include cases of urological and dental emergencies, as well as behavioural and psychiatric problems.\n\n/div\n\n/div\n\nIn a few cases, astronauts were brought back to Earth due to episodes of renal colic and arrhythmia, shortening their stays in space and possibly ending their missions.\n", "A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that \"Salmonella typhimurium\", a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\". More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.\n", "Section::::Physiological effects.:Space environments.\n", "The exposure of a human body to ionizing radiation has the same harmful effects whether the source of the radiation is a medical X-ray machine, a nuclear power plant or radiation in space. The degree of the harmful effect depends on the length of exposure and the radiation's energy density. The ever-present radiation belts extend down to the altitude of manned spacecraft such as the International Space Station (ISS) and the Space Shuttle, but the amount of exposure is within the acceptable lifetime exposure limit under normal conditions. During a major space weather event that includes an SEP burst, the flux can increase by orders of magnitude. Areas within ISS provide shielding that can keep the total dose within safe limits. For the Space Shuttle, such an event would have required immediate mission termination.\n", "Spacecraft, both manned and unmanned, must cope with the high radiation environment of outerspace. Radiation emitted by the Sun and other galactic sources, and trapped in radiation \"belts\" is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth. When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer.\n", "BULLET::::- Smell - The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.\n", "Radiation hazards may also come from man-made sources for example, medical investigations, radio-isotopic power generators or from small experiments as on Earth. Lunar and Martian missions may include either nuclear reactors for power or related nuclear propulsion systems. Astronautical hygienists will need to assess the risks from these other sources of radiation and take appropriate action to mitigate exposure.\n", "List of microorganisms tested in outer space\n\nThe survival of some microorganisms exposed to outer space has been studied using both simulated facilities and low Earth orbit exposures. Bacteria were some of the first organisms investigated, when in 1960 a Russian satellite carried \"Escherichia coli\", \"Staphylococcus\", and \"Enterobacter aerogenes\" into orbit. A large number of microorganisms have been selected for exposure experiments since, as listed in the table below.\n\nExperiments of the adaption of microbes in space have yielded unpredictable results. While sometimes the microorganism may weaken, they can also increase in their disease-causing potency.\n", "The Integrated Medical Model (IMM), a computer based simulator that quantifies the probability and consequences of medical risks, is currently being developed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Astronautical hygiene\n\nBULLET::::- Bioastronautics\n\nBULLET::::- Effect of spaceflight on the human body\n\nBULLET::::- Human analog missions\n\nBULLET::::- Illness and injuries during spaceflight\n\nBULLET::::- Space adaptation syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Space colonization\n\nBULLET::::- Space exposure\n\nBULLET::::- Space survival\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Scott Dulchavsky trains astronauts to diagnosis their injuries in space\n\nBULLET::::- Musculoskeletal injuries and minor trauma in space: incidence and injury mechanisms in U.S. astronauts\n\nBULLET::::- Human Research Facility Ultrasound on the International Space Station (Ultrasound)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00453	Why is the outcome different each time for games that drop balls onto pegs into different sections. For example plinko from The Price is Right or The Wall on NBC. If the ball is dropped from the same place, wouldn't it end up the same place as well?	To us it looks like it's from the same place, but just a slightly different angle or even a few millimeters of difference can change the outcome, as well as the velocity, which probably varies a lot each time as well	[ "In about 3.7% of games a Yahtzee is used as a Joker and scored on Full House, Small Straight or Large Straight. In most of these cases the Yahtzee box has a score of 50 and so the Yahtzee also counts as a Yahtzee bonus. In about a quarter of these cases the Yahtzee box has a score 0 and so there is no Yahtzee bonus.\n", "BULLET::::3. In an \"endless\" variant, the game starts with an empty field. The blocks or balls start falling down; but if they reach the top, new blocks stop falling, so they do not overflow—thus, the game never ends. The player can end the game at any time by waiting for blocks to reach the top, then performing a special action (for example, right-click instead of left-click).\n\nBULLET::::4. Some versions have player lives. If a player reaches a losing condition one time, the game does not end; instead, a life is lost. If all lives are lost, the game ends.\n", "In one variation, the game starts with no blocks on the field. Blocks fall down to the playing field, and must be removed before they reach the top. If they reach the top and overflow, the game is over. In some variations, such as \"Bubble Bang\", circles or balls are used instead of blocks—which alters the gameplay, as the balls form different shapes than square blocks.\n\nIn three-dimensional variants, the playing field is a cube (containing smaller cubes) instead of a rectangle, and the player has the ability to rotate the cube. \"Cubes\" for iPhone OS uses this approach.\n", "The player, who starts the game, takes all balls from any pit on his side, and starting with that pit places one ball in each pit anticlockwise. It is not allowed to jump over pit or to put by two or more balls in one pit. After the ninth pit from the first player's side follows the first pit of the competitor, etc. If the last ball falls into one of the competitor's pit, and the number of balls in this pit would be even, so the move is considered resulting and the player take all balls from this pit to his kazna. But if the last ball falls into one of his own pits, irrespectively of number of balls, they wouldn't be taken by anybody. If the move starts from the pit, where there is only one ball, so the ball is moving to the next pit, accordingly the previous pit becomes empty.\n", "BULLET::::- Danger Dunk - In the first round, one player must transport ten dice across the base of Skeleton Falls in under ten minutes using a net, while their opponent on a seat four metres high throws balls into another net on their back. If a ball lands in that net, they get a ten-second time penalty. Once the round is over the player swap roles. The player that does this faster wins. In the second round, one player from each team is hanging from a swing holding a large basket, while two other players have to throw balls into the basket. Every time a new batch of balls come from the waterfall, the players on the swings are raised higher. The team that gets the most balls into the basket wins.\n", "Now, notice that since the square has area 1, the probability that the dart will hit any particular subregion of the square equals the area of that subregion. For example, the probability that the dart will hit the right half of the square is 0.5, since the right half has area 0.5.\n", "The Girls went first due to the Boys advantage. Jeremy was above the Cascades, Lizzie & Khadie on the ropes, and Eleanor & Natty at the cannon. Lizzie & Khadie put Jeremy into place, but the girls' first shot was way too high, however Eleanor & Natty's second shot counted as they scored into the net and dropped it into the tub. Eleanor & Natty started to miss a lot of throws, wasting precious time. The Girls got their second ball in the net, but unfortunately it bounced off and out of the tub. However they got another one in the net, but again Jeremy threw the ball with to much force and bounced off again, meaning Jeremy hadn't learnt from her last mistake. The Girls got another ball in the net and Jeremy got it in the tub. Then the Girls got 3 more balls into the tub and gave the Girls a final score of 5.\n", "After thirty seconds of playing, a jellybean-like obstacle appears in the middle of the table which moves left and right. Different kinds of these obstacles cause varying effects on the trajectory of the balls; some deflect them so they start rolling diagonally (the players themselves can only roll them parallel to the sides of the table), whereas others simply have the ball bounce straight back.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "The amounts decreased to $500 if no balls splashed down and $2,500 if a yellow ball splashed down. The amount of the green ball remained the same.\n\nSection::::Format.:Mini-Games.:Saratoga.\n", "BULLET::::- In some games, a contestant could be penalized by having their progress cancelled out by any mistakes they made. One example of this was a game in Aztec Zone, which was designed so that contestants needed to get balls into a \"win\" basket, in order to secure the crystal, thus if any were missed, they landed in a \"lose\" basket and counter-weighed against any in the win basket.\n", "Some versions allow the player to rotate the playing field 90 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise, which causes one of two things to happen:\n\nBULLET::::1. The left and right sides become the bottom and the top, and the blocks fall to the new bottom. The orientation switches between portrait and landscape. \"NeoSameGame\" for iPhone OS uses this approach.\n\nBULLET::::2. The blocks fall to the left or right side, but the player must rotate the field back to portrait orientation (which is fixed). \"Bubblets Tilt\" for iPhone OS uses this approach.\n", "BULLET::::2. When the playing field is cleared, instead of ending the game, a new level appears—usually harder, with more block types or lower time limits, or both. The condition for winning may vary between levels. Instead of clearing the whole level, for example, a certain score or a certain number of removed blocks must be reached. When the needed score is reached, in most versions the player is allowed to clear the rest of the level. If the player cannot reach the needed score—or if the timer runs out—the game ends, and the player receives a final score.\n", "Now, suppose that this game is repeated two times. The two plays are independent, i.e, each day the players decide simultaneously whether to build a public good in that day, get a payoff of 1 if the good is built in that day, and pay their cost if they built in that day. The only connection between the games is that, by playing in the first day, the players may reveal some information about their costs, and this information might affect the play in the second day. \n", "In the common version of cancellation scoring, the total score for each team for the inning is totalled each round, and then the difference of the two scores is awarded to the team with the higher score. It is thus only possible for one team to score points each inning. For example, if one team lands two bags in the hole and one on the board for 7 points, and the other team lands one bag in the hole and two on the board for 5 points, 5 points from the round would cancel out, and the first team would thus score 2 points. Because only one team can score points in each frame, it is impossible for teams to reach or exceed 21 points in the same inning, and therefore ties are impossible.\n", "making sure that Player 2 has no information about whether the penny is heads up or tails up,\n\nexactly as in the original Matching Pennies game.\n\nSection::::Proper equilibria of extensive games.\n\nOne may apply the properness notion to extensive form games in two different ways, completely analogous to the \n\ntwo different ways trembling hand perfection\n\nis applied to extensive games. This leads to the notions of normal form proper equilibrium\n\nand extensive form proper equilibrium of an extensive form game. It was shown by van\n", "Section::::Comparison to Maker-Breaker games.\n\nIn some cases, the Waiter is much more powerful than the player with the same goal in the Maker-Breaker variant. For example, consider a variant of tic-tac-toe in which Maker wins by taking \"k\" squares in a row and Breaker wins by blocking all rows. \n", "In most versions, there are no time constraints during the game. However, some implementations gradually push the rows upward or drop blocks from above. Sometimes the player can control the number and timing of blocks that drop from above in certain ways. For example, on some implementations for the iOS, this can be done by shaking the device. The game ends if a timer runs out or if no more blocks can be removed. Some versions, including some versions for Windows Mobile, include both portrait and landscape orientations.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Gallery.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Gallery.:Variations.\n", "Thus, even though each game is a losing proposition if played alone, because the results of Game B are affected by Game A, the sequence in which the games are played can affect how often Game B earns you money, and subsequently the result is different from the case where either game is played by itself.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The bonus is made in 68% of games but in only 1% of games does the player get exactly 3-of-a-kind of each Upper Section category. In a further 5% of games the player gets at least 3-of-a-kind in each of these categories and 4-of-a-kind in one or more of them. In the remaining 62% of games, there is at least one category which scores a pair or less but the bonus is achieved by scoring one or more 4-of-a-kind in the Upper Section. It is possible to calculate the maximum average score with different rules. When the rules are changed so that there is no Upper Section bonus the average score drops from 254.59 to 237.84, a reduction of 16.75. This compares with an average bonus score of 23.84 and shows that changes to the strategy to improve the chance of getting the bonus are to the detriment of the other scores; the average score in the other boxes drops by 7.09.\n", "that the unique proper equilibrium of this game is the one where Player 1 hides the penny heads up with probability 1/2 and tails up with probability 1/2 (and Player 2 grabs the penny). \n\nThis unique proper equilibrium can be motivated \n\nintuitively as follows: Player 1 fully expects Player 2 to grab the penny.\n\nHowever, Player 1 still prepares for the unlikely event that Player 2 does not grab the\n\npenny and instead for some reason decides to make a guess. Player 1 prepares for this event by\n", "Examples where the game ends before the grid is completely filled:\n\nThe player with the most pieces on the board at the end of the game wins. An exception to this is that if a clock is employed then if one player defaults on time that player's opponent wins regardless of the board configuration, with varying methods to determine the official score where one is required.\n", "In games with infinite action spaces and imperfect information, non-singleton information sets are represented, if necessary, by inserting a dotted line connecting the (non-nodal) endpoints behind the arc described above or by dashing the arc itself. In the Stackelberg competition described above, if the second player had not observed the first player's move the game would no longer fit the Stackelberg model; it would be Cournot competition.\n\nSection::::Finite extensive-form games.:Incomplete information.\n", "In the first round Lizzie had the 10 second head start and started by putting the puzzle together at ground level. Then when Peter started he did the same thing, and after a minute or so the captains looked confused and didn’t look like they were getting anywhere. Then finally Peter started putting his puzzle on the board before Lizzie, but she caught back up fast because she had longer legs than him. Peter did very well but just not enough to beat Lizzie, so she won the advantage for team claw in round 2.\n", "BULLET::::- Player 1: \"I went to the shop and I bought an elephant's foot umbrella stand\".\n\nBULLET::::- Player 2: \"I went to the shop and I bought an elephant's foot umbrella stand and a large orange plate\".\n\nBULLET::::- Player 1, or the player who knows the rules, would then allow or refuse the new item.\n\nPlay then continues in this manner until everybody has worked out the logic.\n\nSection::::Game play.:Solution.\n", "The standard solution to the centipede game is determined by backward induction. According to this method, if Bob reaches his final decision, he will prefer to keep a larger share of a smaller pot to the smaller share of a larger pot, so he will end the game instead of expanding the pot. Alice knows that Bob will end the game on his last move, so she decides to end the game one step before then. However, Bob knows that Alice will end early, so he decides to end just before she does. This process repeats until Alice is confronted with her decision on the first round; knowing that Bob will end the game at the first opportunity, Alice ends the game on the first round, and they walk home with the smallest possible total payoff.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08098	How does a house way up on a hill getting running water	We have a well. It's water is moved to ground-level by an electric pump. My pump can move water upwards a certain number of feet (200?), so if I run all my garden hoses up the hills too far it will wear out the pump to compensate for the elevation change.	[ "As the hill was periodically drenched by torrential rains, a runoff system was a necessity. It began with channels in the flat surfaces, which were zigzag and contained catchment basins to control the water velocity. Probably the upper system was open. Manholes provided access to parts that were covered.\n\nSome links to photographs of parts of the water-collection-management system follow.\n\nBULLET::::- Runoff system. Sloped channels lead from a catchment basin.\n\nBULLET::::- Runoff system. Note the zig-zags and the catchment basin.\n\nSection::::Palace complex.:Ventilation.\n", "Water is raised at Mill Meece by lift pumps which deliver water to an underground tank. From there the water is lifted further by ram pumps. Both the lift and ram pumps are powered by two horizontal tandem compound Corliss valve engines using steam raised by three Lancashire boilers. The efficiency of steam-raising is increased by a Green's economiser.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "With few exceptions, each room contains a separate family; some consisting of mother, father, and eight children. The first two adjoining houses that we looked into, of six rooms each, contained forty-eight persons. To supply these with water, a stream runs for ten or twelve minutes each day, except Sunday, from a small tap at the back of one of the houses... The houses are, of course, ill-ventilated. The front room in the basement, wholly below the ground, dark and damp, is occupied, at a cost of 2s. a week for rent.\n", "Section::::Site Catchment Analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- 2006-8: 21,000 litre plastic water tank inserted into original brick lined underground well (c.1817) rear (south) of main house. An existing concrete water tank was relocated to collect rainwater from the stables block roof. Throughout the garden, tapes were fitted for both mains and tank water supply, with an electric pump fitted to the tank for extra pressure to accommodate mobile sprinklers.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 - marketed by Christies - did not sell\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 - on real estate market again\n\nSection::::Heritage listing.\n", "The land the partners cultivated was semi-arid former dry forest, not ideal for growing sugarcane, a crop that required much water. Samuel Alexander realized that rain was plentiful miles away in the rainforests on the windward slopes of Haleakalā mountain. Thus, he designed a long irrigation aqueduct that diverted water from that part of Haleakalā to their plantation. Work started on the aqueduct in 1876 and was completed two years later in 1878.\n", "There are two water capture and treatment systems.\n\nNon-drinking water:Rainfall on the fields is channeled to a sump from where it is pumped to a reservoir to the north of the buildings. This reservoir holds enough water for 250 days. The water is sand filtered and treated with chlorine before entering the homes.\n", "Section::::Scatter technique.\n", "Section::::Methods of groundwater banking.\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 Reservoir No. 2 is reconstructed, lined and covered.\n\nSection::::Heritage listing.\n", "In addition to long distances and elevation, the temperature can play a major factor. At the start in Badwater, temperatures can routinely be as high as degrees, but the temperature quickly drops at higher altitudes. Below freezing temperatures can be encountered near the Portal at night, making temperature swings of over degrees possible in a single day.\n", "Section::::Components.:Pumphouse Stage-1.\n\nThis pumphouse is attached to the Forebay Stage-1 and has vertical turbine pumps with an installed capacity of . Water is pumped from a reduced level of to the Main Distribution Chamber Stage-1 up to an elevation of via the Rising Mains Stage-1, which consist of one row of steel pipe and one row of steel pipe.\n\nSection::::Components.:Main Distribution Chamber (MDC) Stage-1.\n", "Under certain conditions, the height of the water table influences the water-balance components. For example, a rise of the water table towards the soil surface may lead to an increase of capillary rise, actual evaporation, and subsurface drainage, or a decrease of percolation losses. This, in turn, leads to a change of the water-balance, which again influences the height of the water table, etc. This chain of reactions is one of the reasons why Sahysmod has been developed into a computer program, in which the computations are made day by day to account for the chain of reactions with a sufficient degree of accuracy.\n", "BULLET::::- An abundant supply of water is obtained from an immense underground reservoir, which receives the roof water. A pump forces the water on to the premises, supplying the bathroom &c.; The outbuildings are very numerous and comprise gardener's house, barn, cow-houses, calf-pens, dairy, piggery with coppers, stock and drafting yards, complete ranges of stabling, including a number of well-finished spacious loose boxes for blood stock.'.\n\nBULLET::::- This house is the third built on the estate.\n\nBULLET::::- 1885Suttor sold Varroville to Sydney solicitor, Thomas Salter. Salter leased it to H. Pockley for dairying.\n\nBULLET::::- 1906Salter sold Varroville to Reginald Thomas.\n", "Farmers use a combination of surface water and groundwater for irrigation. During drought years there is less surface water being provided to farmers and they rely on pumping more groundwater. In California, there is a hierarchy of water entitlement in which those with water rights have precedence to receive and use surface water. Farmers without water rights may not always receive surface water during drought years. Farmers not receiving surface water may choose to rely on groundwater for irrigation. Drought years accelerate land subsidence in the Central Valley due to a collective effort of increased groundwater pumping without replenishing underground aquifers.\n", "The reservoir is fed almost exclusively from Angram reservoir, which in turn is fed predominantly from the flanks of Great Whernside.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Landmarks.:Conduit House.\n", "Section::::Geology and hydrology.\n", "There are sources in about 70 locations around the Hills, where residents regularly fill containers free of charge, including the St Ann's Well, which is housed in a building dating from 1815, in the town of Great Malvern. Major popular water sources are:\n\nBULLET::::- Beauchamp Fountain – Cowleigh Road\n\nBULLET::::- Enigma Fountain plus Malvhina water feature, Belle Vue Terrace – town centre\n\nBULLET::::- Evendine Spring – Jubilee Drive (west flank of the Hills)\n\nBULLET::::- Hayslad Spring – West Malvern Road\n\nBULLET::::- Holy Well – Malvern Wells\n\nBULLET::::- Jubilee Fountain – Malvern Wells\n\nBULLET::::- Morris Well, Wells Common – Lower Wyche\n", "The model calculates the ground water levels and the incoming and outgoing ground water flows between the polygons by a numerical solution of the well-known Boussinesq equation. The levels and flows influence each other mutually.\n\nThe ground water situation is further determined by the vertical groundwater recharge that is calculated from the agronomic water balance. These depend again on the levels of the ground water.\n\nWhen semi-confined aquifers are present, the resistance to vertical flow in the slowly permeable top-layer and the overpressure in the aquifer, if any, are taken into account.\n", "The highlands of Ethiopia may be considered a water tower region in East Africa. Sovereign control of upland water supply is likely to govern downstream politics for many years.\n\nSection::::Contamination from human activity.\n", "Typically, water is channeled from a high-level reservoir to a low-level reservoir, through turbine generators that generate electricity. This is done when the station is required to generate power. During low-demand periods, such as overnight, the generators are reversed to become pumps that move the water back up to the top reservoir.\n\nSection::::List of pumping stations.\n\nThere are countless thousands of pumping stations throughout the world. The following is a list of those described in this encyclopedia.\n\nSection::::List of pumping stations.:United Kingdom.\n", "The water table should not be confused with the water level in a deeper well. If a deeper aquifer has a lower permeable unit that confines the upward flow, then the water level in this aquifer may rise to a level that is greater or less than the elevation of the actual water table. The elevation of the water in this deeper well is dependent upon the pressure in the deeper aquifer and is referred to as the potentiometric surface, not the water table.\n\nSection::::Form.\n", "The ancient concept of the aqueduct took simple and eloquent advantage of maintaining elevation of water for as long and far a distance as possible. Thus, as water moves over great distances, it retains a larger component of its potential energy by spending small portions of this energy flowing down a slight gradation. A useful aqueduct system ultimately depends on a fresh water source existing at a higher elevation than the location where the water can be of use. Gravity does all the work. In all other instances, pumps are necessary.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16736	How were/are we able to decipher writing systems like hieroglyphics and cuneiform?	The Rosetta Stone. It's basically a rock that had 3 languages on it and was meant to give the same instructions to people that spoke different languages. > The top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian using hieroglyphic script and Demotic script, respectively, while the bottom is in Ancient Greek. As the decree has only minor differences between the three versions, the Rosetta Stone proved to be the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. [Source]( URL_0 ) So basically we got lucky. Using that as a basis for understanding hieroglyphics we could start decoding more words using logic and process of elimination when dealing with signs that didn't appear in the stone.	[ "\"It is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.\" \n", "Englishman Sir Thomas Herbert, in the 1638 edition of his travel book \"Some Yeares Travels into Africa & Asia the Great. … \", reported seeing at Persepolis carved on the wall \"a dozen lines of strange characters…consisting of figures, obelisk, triangular, and pyramidal\" and thought they resembled Greek. In the 1677 edition he reproduced some and thought they were 'legible and intelligible' and therefore decipherable. He also guessed, correctly, that they represented not letters or hieroglyphics but words and syllables, and were to be read from left to right. Herbert is rarely mentioned in standard histories of the decipherment of cuneiform.\n", "BULLET::::- Brigham Young University press-release on behalf of Brigham Young University archaeologist Stephen Houston and Yale University professor emeritus Michael Coe disputing the Justeson-Kaufman findings.\n\nBULLET::::- Diehl, Richard A. (2004) \"The Olmecs: America's First Civilization\", Thames & Hudson, London.\n\nBULLET::::- Houston, Stephen, and Michael Coe (2004) \"Has Isthmian Writing Been Deciphered?\", \"Mexicon\" XXV: 151-161.\n\nBULLET::::- Justeson, John S., and Terrence Kaufman (1993), \"A Decipherment of Epi-Olmec Hieroglyphic Writing\" in \"Science\", Vol. 259, 19 March 1993, pp. 1703–11.\n", "During the late 6th Dynasty, hieratic was sometimes incised into mud tablets with a stylus, similar to cuneiform. About five hundred of these tablets have been discovered in the governor's palace at Ayn Asil (Balat), and a single example was discovered from the site of Ayn al-Gazzarin, both in the Dakhla Oasis. At the time the tablets were made, Dakhla was located far from centers of papyrus production. These tablets record inventories, name lists, accounts, and approximately fifty letters. Of the letters, many are internal letters that were circulated within the palace and the local settlement, but others were sent from other villages in the oasis to the governor.\n", "BULLET::::- the Rosetta Stone Series, in Egyptian (using Hieroglyphic and Demotic scripts) and Ancient Greek; they allowed the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs (especially the last one)\n\nBULLET::::- the Raphia Decree (217 BCE; Memphis, Egypt)\n\nBULLET::::- the Decree of Canopus (238–237 BCE; Tanis, Egypt)\n\nBULLET::::- the Rosetta Stone decree (196 BCE; Egypt): the Rosetta Stone and the Nubayrah Stele\n\nBULLET::::- the Cippi of Melqart (2nd century BCE; Malta) in Phoenician and Ancient Greek; discovered in Malta in 1694, the key which allowed French scholar Abbé Barthelemy to decipher the Phoenician script\n", "In a few cases, a multilingual artifact has been necessary to facilitate decipherment, the Rosetta Stone being the classic example. Statistical techniques provide another pathway to decipherment, as does the analysis of modern languages derived from ancient languages in which undeciphered texts are written. Archaeological and historical information is helpful in verifying hypothesized decipherments.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nSection::::See also.:Deciphered scripts.\n\nBULLET::::- Cuneiform\n\nBULLET::::- Egyptian hieroglyphs\n\nBULLET::::- Kharoshthi\n\nBULLET::::- Linear B\n\nBULLET::::- Mayan\n\nBULLET::::- Staveless Runes\n\nBULLET::::- Cypriot Syllabary\n\nSection::::See also.:Undeciphered scripts.\n\nBULLET::::- Rongorongo\n\nBULLET::::- Indus script\n\nBULLET::::- Cretan hieroglyphs\n\nBULLET::::- Linear A\n\nBULLET::::- Byblos syllabary\n\nBULLET::::- Linear Elamite\n\nBULLET::::- Cypro-Minoan syllabary\n", "The study of hieroglyphs continued centuries later, when various modern scholars attempted to decipher the glyphs, notably Johannes Goropius Becanus in the 16th century, Athanasius Kircher in the 17th, and Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad and Thomas Young in the early 19th century, each making one important step toward the solution but failing to find it.\n", "Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\", and that it is \"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\". There are many instances of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations at the time of the invention of writing, and standard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.\n", "Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts\n\nThe scripts used to write the Egyptian language, including hieroglyphic and demotic, were gradually deciphered during the early 19th century. The most helpful clue was supplied by the discovery in 1799 of the Rosetta Stone, an inscription in three scripts. Building on work by several other scholars, notably Thomas Young, the breakthrough to decipherment was made by Jean-François Champollion.\n", "The difficulty in deciphering these systems can arise from a lack of known language descendants or from the languages being entirely isolated, from insufficient examples of text having been found and even (such as in the case of Vinča) from the question of whether the symbols actually constitute a writing system at all. Some researchers have claimed to be able to decipher certain writing systems, such as those of Epi-Olmec, Phaistos and Indus texts; but to date, these claims have not been widely accepted within the scientific community, or confirmed by independent researchers, for the writing systems listed here (unless otherwise specified).\n", "During the late 6th Dynasty, hieratic script was sometimes incised into clay tablets with a stylus, similar to cuneiform. About five hundred such tablets have been discovered in the governor's palace at Ayn Asil (Balat) in the Dakhla Oasis. At the time the tablets were made, Dakhla was located far from centers of papyrus production. These tablets record inventories, name-lists, accounts, and approximately fifty letters.\n\nSection::::History.:Islamic period.\n\nThe fortified Islamic town of Al Qasr was built at Dakhla Oasis in the 12th century probably on the remains of a Roman era settlement by the Ayyubid kings of Egypt.\n\nSection::::History.:After 1800.\n", "Young made the crucial breakthrough in 1814 when studying the Rosetta Stone. Guessing that hieroglyphs surrounded by a loop were of greater importance, such as representing a pharaoh's name, he was able to discover the phonetics of the corresponding hieroglyphs by comparing the three different scripts. After identifying many of the hieroglyphs' sound values, he set aside his work for reasons not fully understood.\n\nA significant breakthrough was made by Champollion in 1822, as reflected in his well-known \"Lettre à M. Dacier\":\n", "Section::::Ancient Near East.\n\nBULLET::::- Anatolian hieroglyphs\n\nBULLET::::- Cuneiform script\n\nBULLET::::- Hittite cuneiform\n\nBULLET::::- Egyptian hieroglyphs\n\nBULLET::::- Proto-Sinaitic script\n\nBULLET::::- South Arabian alphabet\n\nSection::::Aramaic palaeography.\n", "These letters, comprising cuneiform tablets written primarily in Akkadian – the regional language of diplomacy for this period – were first discovered around 1887 by local Egyptians who secretly dug most of them from the ruined city of Amarna, and sold them in the antiquities market. They had originally been stored in an ancient building that archaeologists have since called the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh. Once the location where they were found was determined, the ruins were explored for more. The first archaeologist who successfully recovered more tablets was Flinders Petrie, who in 1891 and 1892 uncovered 21 fragments. Émile Chassinat, then director of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology in Cairo, acquired two more tablets in 1903. Since Knudtzon's edition, some 24 more tablets, or fragments, have been found, either in Egypt, or identified in the collections of various museums.\n", "In the 15th century, the Venetian Giosafat Barbaro explored ancient ruins in the Middle East and came back with news of a very odd writing he had found carved on the stones in the temples of Shiraz and on many clay tablets.\n", "By 1915, with the Luwian language known from cuneiform, and a substantial quantity of Anatolian hieroglyphs transcribed and published, linguists started to make real progress in reading the script. In the 1930s, it was partially deciphered by Ignace Gelb, Piero Meriggi, Emil Forrer, and Bedřich Hrozný. Its language was confirmed as Luwian in 1973 by J.D. Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies and Günther Neumann, who corrected some previous errors about sign values, in particular emending the reading of symbols 376 and 377 from \"i, ī\" to \"zi, za\".\n\nSection::::Sign inventory.\n", "Section::::History.:Decipherment of cuneiform.\n\nOne of the largest obstacles scholars had to overcome during the early days of Assyriology was the decipherment of curious triangular markings on many of the artifacts and ruins found at Mesopotamian sites. These markings, which were termed \"cuneiform\" by Thomas Hyde in 1700, were long considered to be merely decorations and ornaments. It was not until late in the 18th century that they came to be considered some sort of writing.\n", "While enthusiasts still believe the mystery can be solved, scholarly attempts at decipherment are thought to be unlikely to succeed unless more examples of the signs turn up somewhere, as it is generally thought that there is not enough context available for meaningful analysis. Any decipherment without external confirmation, such as successful comparison to other inscriptions, is unlikely to be accepted as conclusive.\n\nSection::::Decipherment attempts.:Origin of the script.\n\nSection::::Decipherment attempts.:Origin of the script.:Cretan or foreign origin?\n", "Antonio de Gouvea, a professor of theology, noted in 1602 the strange writing he had had occasion to observe during his travels a year earlier in Persia which took in visits to ruins. In 1625, the Roman traveler Pietro Della Valle, who had sojourned in Mesopotamia between 1616 and 1621, brought to Europe copies of characters he had seen in Persepolis and inscribed bricks from Ur and the ruins of Babylon. The copies he made, the first that reached circulation within Europe, were not quite accurate but Della Valle understood that the writing had to be read from left to right, following the direction of wedges, but did not attempt to decipher the scripts.\n", "The ostraca were discovered by James Leslie Starkey in January–February, 1935 during the third campaign of the Wellcome excavations. They were published in 1938 by Harry Torczyner (name later changed to Naftali Herz Tur-Sinai) and have been much studied since then. Seventeen of them are currently located in the British Museum in London, a smaller number (including Letter 6) are on permanent display at the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem, Israel.\n\nSection::::Interpretation.\n", "Later attempts at deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs were made by Arab historians in medieval Egypt during the 9th and 10th centuries. By then, hieroglyphs had long been forgotten in Egypt, and were replaced by the Coptic and Arabic alphabets. Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya were among those who attempted to decipher hieroglyphs, and Ibn Wahshiyya recognized that some hieroglyphic signs had phonetic values.\n\nSection::::Early European attempts.\n", "Most of the forty or so inscriptions have been found among much more numerous hieratic and hieroglyphic inscriptions, scratched on rocks near and in the turquoise mines and along the roads leading to the temple.\n\nThe date of the inscriptions is mostly placed in the 17th or 16th century BC.\n\nFour inscriptions have been found in the temple, on two small human statues and on either side of a small stone sphinx. They are crudely done, suggesting that the workers who made them were illiterate apart from this script.\n", "The known tablets total 382, of which 358 have been published by the Norwegian Assyriologist Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon's in his work, \"Die El-Amarna-Tafeln\", which came out in two volumes (1907 and 1915) and remains the standard edition to this day. The texts of the remaining 24 complete or fragmentary tablets excavated since Knudtzon have also been made available. \n", "Most of what we have from the Babylonians was inscribed in cuneiform with a metal stylus on tablets of clay, called \"laterculae coctiles\" by Pliny the Elder; papyrus seems to have been also employed, but it has perished.\n", "The Sinai inscriptions are best known from carved graffiti and votive texts from a mountain in the Sinai called Serabit el-Khadim and its temple to the Egyptian goddess Hathor (\"). The mountain contained turquoise mines which were visited by repeated expeditions over 800 years. Many of the workers and officials were from the Nile Delta, and included large numbers of Canaanites (i.e. speakers of an early form of Northwest Semitic ancestral to the Canaanite languages of the Late Bronze Age) who had been allowed to settle the eastern Delta.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19423	Where do the eyelashes that end inside the eyes go?	Eyelashes don't grow in the eyeball itself - they occasionally curve around and touch the surface of the eye, which is extremely annoying, but they grow from above and below.	[ "The eyelash grows at the edges of the eyelid and protects the eye from dirt. The eyelash is to humans, camels, horses, ostriches etc., what whiskers are to cats; they are used to sense when dirt, dust, or any other potentially harmful object is too close to the eye. The eye reflexively closes as a result of this sensation.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n", "In humans, the eyelids are supplied with blood by two arches on each upper and lower lid. The arches are formed by anastomoses of the lateral palpebral arteries and medial palpebral arteries, branching off from the lacrimal artery and ophthalmic artery, respectively.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nThe human eyelid features a row of eyelashes along the eyelid margin, which serve to heighten the protection of the eye from dust and foreign debris.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nAny condition that affects the eyelid is called eyelid disorder. The most common eyelid disorders, their causes, symptoms and treatments are the following:\n", "Section::::Structure.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Layers.\n\nThe eyelid is made up of several layers; from superficial to deep, these are: skin, subcutaneous tissue, orbicularis oculi, orbital septum and tarsal plates, and palpebral conjunctiva. The meibomian glands lie within the eyelid and secrete the lipid part of the tear film.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Skin.\n", "The eyelashes of the human embryo develop from the ectoderm between the 22nd and 26th week of pregnancy. Natural eyelashes do not grow beyond a certain length, and fall off by themselves without any need for trimming. Eyelashes take about seven to eight weeks to grow back if pulled out, but constant pulling may lead to permanent damage. Their color may differ from that of the hair, although they tend to be dark on someone with dark hair and lighter on someone with light hair. Eyelash hair is not androgenic and is therefore not affected by puberty.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Glands.\n", "Ciliary processes\n\nThe ciliary processes are formed by the inward folding of the various layers of the choroid, i.e., the choroid proper and the lamina basalis, and are received between corresponding foldings of the suspensory ligament of the lens.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n\nThey are arranged in a circle, and form a sort of frill behind the iris, around the margin of the lens.\n", "The skin is similar to areas elsewhere, but is relatively thin and has more pigment cells. In diseased persons these may wander and cause a discoloration of the lids. It contains sweat glands and hairs, the latter becoming eyelashes as the border of the eyelid is met. The skin of the eyelid contains the greatest concentration of sebaceous glands found anywhere in the body.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n", "The corneal epithelium consists of several layers of cells. The cells of the deepest layer are columnar, known as basal cells. Then follow two or three layers of polyhedral cells, commonly known as wing cells. The majority of these are prickle cells, similar to those found in the stratum mucosum of the cuticle. Lastly, there are three or four layers of squamous cells, with flattened nuclei. The layers of the epithelium are constantly undergoing mitosis. Basal and wing cells migrate to the anterior of the cornea, while squamous cells age and slough off into the tear film.\n", "In many animals, including humans, eyelashes prevent fine particles from entering the eye. Fine particles can be bacteria, but also simple dust which can cause irritation of the eye, and lead to tears and subsequent blurred vision.\n\nIn many species, the eyes are inset in the portion of the skull known as the orbits or eyesockets. This placement of the eyes helps to protect them from injury. For some, the focal fields of the two eyes overlap, providing them with binocular vision. Although most animals have some degree of binocular vision the amount of overlap largely depends on behavioural requirements.\n", "The lens continues to grow after birth, with the new secondary fibers being added as outer layers. New lens fibers are generated from the equatorial cells of the lens epithelium, in a region referred to as the germinative zone. The lens epithelial cells elongate, lose contact with the capsule and epithelium, synthesize crystallin, and then finally lose their nuclei (enucleate) as they become mature lens fibers. From development through early adulthood, the addition of secondary lens fibers results in the lens growing more ellipsoid in shape; after about age 20, however, the lens grows rounder with time and the iris is very important for this development. \n", "The eyelids are made up of three layers of tissue: a thin layer of skin, which is covered in hair, a layer of muscles which allow the lid to open and close, and the palpebral conjunctiva, which lies against the eyeball. The opening between the two lids forms the palpebral tissue. The upper eyelid is larger and can move more than the lower lid. Unlike humans, horses also have a third eyelid (nictitating membrane) to protect the cornea. It lies on the inside corner of the eye, and closes diagonally over it.\n", "Moll's gland\n\nGlands of Moll, also known as \"ciliary glands\", are modified apocrine sweat glands that are found on the margin of the eyelid. They are next to the base of the eyelashes, and anterior to the Meibomian glands within the distal eyelid margin. These glands are relatively large and tubular-shaped. The glands of Moll are named after Dutch oculist Jacob Anton Moll (1832–1914).\n\nGlands of Moll empty into the adjacent lashes. Glands of Moll and Zeis secrete sebum that keeps lashes supple.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Removal and storage.\n\nScleral lenses are removed using the fingers, or a small lens removal plunger. Lenses are then cleaned and sanitized before reinsertion. Scleral lenses cannot be worn while sleeping, so many wearers sanitize their lenses overnight. Unlike regular contact lenses, many sclerals can be stored dry when unused for longer periods of time.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The lens is split into regions depending on the age of the lens fibers of a particular layer. Moving outwards from the central, oldest layer, the lens is split into an embryonic nucleus, the fetal nucleus, the adult nucleus, and the outer cortex. New lens fibers, generated from the lens epithelium, are added to the outer cortex. Mature lens fibers have no organelles or nuclei.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Development.\n", "Section::::Top False Eyelashes and Adhesive Brands, 2018.:Semi-permanent lashes.\n", "The cells of the lens epithelium also serve as the progenitors for new lens fibers. It constantly lays down fibers in the embryo, fetus, infant, and adult, and continues to lay down fibers for lifelong growth.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Microanatomy.:Lens fibers.\n", "Eyelash\n\nAn eyelash or simply lash is one of the hairs that grows at the edge of the eyelid. It grows in three layers on the edge of the eye lids. Eyelashes protect the eye from debris, dust and small particles and perform some of the same functions as whiskers do on a cat or a mouse in the sense that they are sensitive to being touched, thus providing a warning that an object (such as an insect) is near the eye (which then closes reflexively). \n", "In 1968 at the feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a \"Freedom Trash Can.\" These included false eyelashes, which were among items the protestors called \"instruments of female torture\" and accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity.\n\nIn 2008, Aesthetic Korea Co., Ltd. began to manufacture products as semi-permanent eyelashes became popular in Korea. \n\nToday, the manufacturing methods of all extension eyelashes have been propagated from this company. \n", "Another noted inventor of eyelash extensions is Maksymilian Faktorowicz, a Polish beauty guru and businessman, who founded the company Max Factor.\n\nIn 1916, while making his film \"Intolerance,\" director D.W. Griffith wanted actress Seena Owen to have lashes \"that brushed her cheeks, to make her eyes shine larger than life.\" The false eyelashes which were made from human hair was specifically woven piece by piece by a local wig maker.\n", "If the entire eye is enucleated during the original recovery, then the cornea and part of the sclera are removed and placed in a container with preservation medium, and the sclera is cleaned and then preserved in alcohol. The corneas are visually examined and evaluated underneath a slit-lamp, and the number of endothelial cells are counted underneath a specular microscope.\n\nSection::::Regulations.\n", "The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece unit, composed of the anterior segment and the posterior segment. The anterior segment is made up of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is transparent and more curved, and is linked to the larger posterior segment, composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white shell called the sclera. The cornea is typically about 11.5 mm (0.3 in) in diameter, and 1/2 mm (500 μm) in thickness near its center. The posterior chamber constitutes the remaining five-sixths; its diameter is typically about 24 mm. The cornea and sclera are connected by an area termed the limbus. The iris is the pigmented circular structure concentrically surrounding the center of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be black. The size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator and sphincter muscles.\n", "BULLET::::- Entropion (eyelid folding inward) is a common condition in dogs, especially the Chow Chow, Shar Pei, St. Bernard, and Cocker Spaniel. Upper lid entropion involves the eyelashes rubbing on the eye, but the lower lid usually has no eyelashes, so hair rubs on the eye. Surgical correction is used in more severe cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Distichia (including ectopic cilia) is an eyelash that arises from an abnormal spot on the eyelid. Distichiae usually cause no symptoms because the lashes are soft, but they can irritate the eye and cause tearing, squinting, inflammation, and corneal ulcers.\n", "Corneal nerves of the subepithelial layer terminate near the superficial epithelial layer of the cornea in a logarithmic spiral pattern. The density of epithelial nerves decreases with age, especially after the seventh decade.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:Refraction.\n", "BULLET::::- Iris\n\nBULLET::::- Ciliary body\n\nBULLET::::- Choroid\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nThe prime functions of the uveal tract as a unit are:\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition and gas exchange: uveal vessels directly perfuse the ciliary body and iris, to support their metabolic needs, and indirectly supply diffusible nutrients to the outer retina, sclera, and lens, which lack any intrinsic blood supply. (The cornea has no adjacent blood vessels and is oxygenated by direct gas exchange with the environment.)\n", "The lens is metabolically active and requires nourishment in order to maintain its growth and transparency. Compared to other tissues in the eye, however, the lens has considerably lower energy demands.\n\nBy nine weeks into human development, the lens is surrounded and nourished by a net of vessels, the tunica vasculosa lentis, which is derived from the hyaloid artery. Beginning in the fourth month of development, the hyaloid artery and its related vasculature begin to atrophy and completely disappear by birth. In the postnatal eye, Cloquet's canal marks the former location of the hyaloid artery.\n", "The cornea is a transparent structure that is part of the outer layer of the eye. It refracts light and protects the contents of the eye. The cornea is about one-half to one millimeter thick in the dog and cat. The trigeminal nerve supplies the cornea via the long ciliary nerves. There are pain receptors in the outer layers and pressure receptors deeper.\n" ]	[ "Eyelashes can extend inside of eyeballs." ]	[ "Eyelashes do not grow inside of eyeballs, they curve around the surface of the eye." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Eyelashes can extend inside of eyeballs." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Eyelashes do not grow inside of eyeballs, they curve around the surface of the eye." ]
2018-09534	How does the process of a court case going to the supreme court work?	Imagine that you and a classmate have an argument . You try to determine a way to solve it on your own, but you cannot come to an agreement. So you go to a teacher at the school. They side with your classmate. You can either accept that decision, or go to the principal and try to get the teacher overruled. You decide to go to the principal, and they decide that you were right. Now your classmate has a decision, he can accept the principal’s decision go to the superintendent. This escalation process continues until: 1 – Both you and your classmate accept the decision 2 – Someone with final authority makes the decision 3 – Someone with higher authority won’t agree to even hear you out (e.g., the superintendent says they are too busy to handle a dispute between two students, so you are stuck with the principal’s decision). In this example, the path was: Teacher > Principal > Superintendent For our court system, there are actually multiple paths to get to the supreme court. Here are a couple examples 1 - District Courts > US Court of Appeals > Supreme Court of the United States 2 - Local Court > State Appeals Court > State Supreme Court > US Court of Appeals > Supreme Court of the United States	[ "Section::::Stages of process.:Conclusive opening order.\n\nAfter the judge has reviewed the initial petition and the answer, the judge and parties meet to reduce the focus of the litigation to the issues in contention. If the review produces the realization that there are no disputed facts and that the issue of contention is a matter of law, he may offer summary judgment before the trial. If not, the conclusive opening order verifies that the issue of contention is deserving of an answer based upon the merits of the case, and defines what issues will be brought before the court.\n", "Generally, when a case has successfully overcome the hurdles of standing, Case or Controversy and State Action, it will be heard by a trial court. The non-governmental party may raise claims or defenses relating to alleged constitutional violation(s) by the government. If the non-governmental party loses, the constitutional issue may form part of the appeal. Eventually, a petition for certiorari may be sent to the Supreme Court. If the Supreme Court grants certiorari and accepts the case, it will receive written briefs from each side (and any amici curiae or friends of the court—usually interested third parties with some expertise to bear on the subject) and schedule oral arguments. The Justices will closely question both parties. When the Court renders its decision, it will generally do so in a single majority opinion and one or more dissenting opinions. Each opinion sets forth the facts, prior decisions, and legal reasoning behind the position taken. The majority opinion constitutes binding precedent on all lower courts; when faced with very similar facts, they are bound to apply the same reasoning or face reversal of their decision by a higher court.\n", "Before oral arguments, the parties to a case file legal briefs outlining their arguments. An \"amicus curiae\" may also submit a brief in support of a particular outcome in the case if the Court grants it permission. Formal rules govern every aspect of these briefs; Chief Justice William Rehnquist described the rules thus:\n\nSection::::Hearing cases.:Oral arguments.\n", "The number of original jurisdiction cases heard by the court is small; generally only one or two such cases are heard per term. Because the nine-member Supreme Court is not well-suited to conducting pretrial proceedings or trials, original jurisdiction cases accepted by the Court are typically referred to a well-qualified lawyer or lower-court judge to serve as special master, conduct the proceedings, and report recommendations to the Court. The Court then considers whether to accept the special master's report or whether to sustain any exceptions filed to the report.\n", "BULLET::::- By appeal from certain decisions of United States district courts in certain cases involving redistricting of congressional or state legislative districts, or when specifically authorized in a particular statute.\n\nBULLET::::- By a certified question or proposition of law from one of the United States Courts of Appeals, meaning that the Court of Appeals requests the Supreme Court to instruct it on how to decide the case. This procedure was once common but is now rarely invoked; the last certificate accepted for review was in 1981.\n", "BULLET::::- By petition for writ of certiorari with respect to a decision of one of the territorial or state courts, after all state appeals have been exhausted, where an issue of federal constitutional or statutory law is in question. The writ is usually issued to a state supreme court (including high courts of the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa), but is occasionally issued to a state's intermediate appellate court for cases where the state supreme court denied certiorari or review and thereby refused to hear the appeal.\n", "Once a judgment has been issued, the judge or judges determine whether the parties involved agree with the ruling. If one party disagrees with the judgment, that party has a set number of days to request a written appeal. An appellate body will then review the judgment in the absence of the parties. If the appellate body agrees with the lower court's decision, it will stamp \"final and enforceable\" on the judgment without providing any reasons and will return the judgment to the trial court. If the appellate body disagrees with the lower court's decision, it may either send the case back to the trial court for reconsideration or, less commonly, may call the parties to present further arguments and write its own judgment based on the information presented.\n", "The current procedure is that a party in a case may apply to the Supreme Court to review a ruling of the circuit court. This is called petitioning for a writ of certiorari, and the Supreme Court may choose, in its sole discretion, to review any lower court ruling. In extremely rare cases, the Supreme Court may grant the writ of certiorari before the judgment is rendered by the court of appeals, thereby reviewing the lower court's ruling directly. Certiorari before judgment was granted in the Watergate scandal-related case, \"United States v. Nixon\", and in the 2005 decision involving the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, \"United States v. Booker\".\n", "Occasionally, the Court may give judgment from the bench, either dismissing or allowing the appeal on the spot. The Court may give short reasons explaining its decision at that time, or it may announce the outcome of the case, with reasons to follow.\n", "Section::::Forming opinions.:Announcement of opinions.\n\nThroughout the term, but mostly during the last months of the term—May, June, and, if necessary, July—the Court announces its opinions. The decision of the Court is subsequently published, first as a slip opinion, and subsequently in the United States Reports. In recent years, opinions have been available on the Supreme Court's website and other legal websites on the morning they are announced. Since recording devices have been banned inside the courtroom, the fastest way for decisions of landmark cases to reach the press is through the Running of the Interns.\n", "In nearly all of the cases heard by the Supreme Court, the Court exercises the \"appellate jurisdiction\" granted it by Article III of the Constitution. This authority permits the Court to review—and affirm or overturn—decisions made by lower courts and tribunals. Procedures for bringing cases before the Supreme Court have changed significantly over time. Today, cases are brought before the Supreme Court by one of several methods, of which the first two account for the overwhelming majority of cases decided:\n", "In theory, each Justice's clerks write a brief for the Justice outlining the questions presented, and offering a recommendation as to whether \"certiorari\" should be granted; in practice, most Justices (all of the current court, except Justices Alito and Gorsuch) have their clerks participate in the cert pool.\n", "Section::::Rules and Process.:Oral arguments and decisions.\n\nWhen the cert petitions are granted by the Supreme Court, the case is then set for the oral arguments, issuing orders to advocates of concerning parties in the case of importance. If the parties, despite the opportunity granted by the\n", "The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. The procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States are governed by the U.S. Constitution, various federal statutes, and the Court's own internal rules. Since 1869, the Court has consisted of one chief justice and eight associate justices. Justices are nominated by the president, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the U.S. Senate, appointed to the Court by the president. Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed from office.\n", "BULLET::::- By petition for certiorari before judgment, which permits the Court to expedite a case pending before a United States court of appeals by accepting the case for review before the appellate court has decided it. However, Supreme Court Rule 11 provides that a case may be taken by the Court before judgment in a lower court \"only upon a showing that the case is of such imperative public importance as to justify deviation from normal appellate practice and to require immediate determination in this Court.\"\n", "The appeals process is the request for a formal change of a decision made by a court of law. The litigant who files the appeal is known as the \"appellant.\" A successful appeal must demonstrate to a higher court that the trial court made a decision affected by legal error. The appellate procedure in the United States takes place in appellate court, and that court normally makes its judgment based only on the record of the original case. The appellant generally submits a document of legal arguments called a \"brief,\" a written attempt to persuade the judges of appellate court that the decision of the trial court should be reversed. If selected for an \"oral argument,\" appellants may present a short spoken argument to the court. No additional pieces of evidence or witnesses are considered.\n", "Section::::Initial Hearing and Procedure.\n", "BULLET::::- By petition for a writ of certiorari, filed by a party to a case that has been decided by one of the United States courts of appeals or by the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces.\n", "Proceedings before the Court are divided into written and oral phases.\n\nSection::::Purpose and functions.:Adjudicatory function.:Written phase.\n\nIn the written phase, the case application is filed, indicating the facts of the case, the plaintiffs, the evidence and witnesses the applicant plans to present at trial, and the claims for redress and costs. If the application is ruled admissible by the Court's secretary, notice thereof is served on the judges, the state or the Commission (depending on who lodged the application), the victims or their next-of-kin, the other member states, and OAS headquarters.\n", "When the court grants review, and in cases involving mandatory review, the parties are notified of the briefing requirements under the court's rules. In most cases, oral argument is scheduled following submission of briefs, but the court decides a number of cases without oral argument. The court notifies the parties and counsel of the oral argument date, and the oral argument schedule is posted on the court's website. In a typical case, each counsel is given 30 minutes to present argument, on behalf of their client, to the court. Unlike most civilian criminal jurisdictions in the United States, the military does not require that a defendant prove an inability to pay in order to receive defense counsel at government expense.\n", "Section::::Process.:Supreme Court bar.\n", "Customs vary widely as to whether oral argument is optional or mandatory once briefing in writing is complete. Some courts issue tentative rulings (after which the loser may demand oral argument) while others do not. Depending upon the type of motion and the jurisdiction, the court may simply issue an oral decision from the bench (possibly accompanied by a request to the winner to draft an order for its signature reducing the salient points to writing), take the matter under submission and draft a lengthy written decision and order, or simply fill out a standard court form with check boxes for different outcomes. The court may serve all parties directly with its decision or may serve only the winner and order the winner to serve everyone else in the case.\n", "The votes of four Justices at conference (see Rule of four) will suffice to grant \"certiorari\" and place the case on the court's calendar. If the Supreme Court grants \"certiorari\" (or the certified question or other extraordinary writ), then a briefing schedule is arranged for the parties to submit their briefs in favor of or against a particular form of relief. During this time, an individual or group having an interest in a case but not a party to the case may submit a motion to appear before the court as \"amicus curiae\" (\"friend of the court\"). Except for certain specific categories (such as lawyers for state and local governments) or where all parties to the case consent, it is in the Court's discretion whether such motions are granted.\n", "The Court's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of \"United States Reports\", the official series of books in which the final version of the Court's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of \"U.S. Reports\" is issued. The individual volumes of \"U.S. Reports\" are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports (or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations) to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily.\n", "Each case on appeal is decided by a panel of three judges. Cases are decided through a review of the record of the inferior court or tribunal, as informed by the briefs submitted by the parties and by oral argument (if requested by either party). New evidence is not permitted to be introduced on appeal.\n\nSection::::Seventh District Court of Appeals Building.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06806	Why can't music damage the dopamine system in brain like drugs do?	In theory it could, but the sheer number of receptors being triggered etc is just massively different	[ "That aside, even humans that have managed to study the Hymmnos language and its origins in profundity are capable of using Song Magic, but since they wouldn't be able to receive the support of the Song Servers for it, their songs would display an extremely weak amount of power. However, there is an exception to this, as in one of the sidestory Drama CDs, the character that appeared in the first game, Spica Neal, managed to craft a Song Magic that rivaled in power that of the Reyvateils through an item called the \"Carillon Organito\" that was made by a little girl that resembled Krusche Elendia. However, given this was done without the support of a Song Server, it ended leaving her extremely tired.\n", "In 2009, Mercedes \"Meche\" Vega returns to Mexico City to attend the funeral of her DJ father. While there she reminisces about her life in the city in 1988 when she was fifteen and how she accidentally discovered, along with her best friends Sebastian and Daniela, that she could perform spells by listening to songs.\n", "In 2011 Music Saves Lives and Smorgasbord Productions created the first full-length animated public service announcement. This PSA animation featured the band 3oh!3 and the animated cast from \"Supa Pirate Booty Hunt\" and adult style cartoon featuring a booty loving pirate and his side kick Daniel the Turtle. The PSA animation entered the Burbank International Film Festival and won 7 film festival awards.\n\nIn January 2012, rapper Coolio represented Music Saves Lives in the Food Network reality series \"\".\n", "A more theoretical critique of this coping strategy is that the use of music in stress coping is largely a short-term coping response and therefore lacks long-term sustainability. These critics argue that while music may be effective in lowering perceived stress levels of patients, it is not necessarily making a difference on the actual cause of the stress response. Because the root cause of the stress is not affected, it is possible that the stress response may return shortly after therapy is ended. Those who hold this position advocate instead for a more problem-focused coping strategy that directly deals with the stressors affecting the patient.\n", "In the book \"[[A Clockwork Orange (novel)\|A Clockwork Orange]]\" by [[Anthony Burgess]] and the subsequent [[A Clockwork Orange (film)\|film]] based upon it, a rebellious teenager is subjected to brutal experimental brain-washing techniques that cause him to feel physical pain if he has similar violent thoughts to those that sent him to jail in the first place; as an accidental side-effect, he has the same response if he hears [[Beethoven's Ninth Symphony]]. Later, a man tortures him by locking him in a room where the symphony is played loudly.\n", "Damage to the amygdala has selective emotional impairments on musical recognition. Gosselin, Peretz, Johnsen and Adolphs (2007) studied S.M., a patient with bilateral damage of the amygdala with the rest of the temporal lobe undamaged and found that S.M. was impaired in recognition of scary and sad music. S.M.'s perception of happy music was normal, as was her ability to use cues such as tempo to distinguish between happy and sad music. It appears that damage specific to the amygdala can selectively impair recognition of scary music.\n\nSection::::Impairment.:Selective deficit in music reading.\n", "Devon's younger sister, Joyce Taylor, plays the tape and enjoys the sound so much she plays it at a rave. When Devon finds her at the rave, everyone there seems to be entranced by the music. All are also infected with skin deformities. All the teens are quarantined at a hospital, but when they are separated from the music on the tape, they all experience severe pain and withdrawal symptoms. When the tape is reversed, using Joyce as a test subject, she goes flatline and only is resuscitated when the music plays as normal.\n", "\"A former adviser to Hillary Clinton hired a Mariachi band to play outside of the White House in an effort to disrupt President Trump's sleep on Wednesday night.\"\n\nSection::::Instances of use.:[[Iraq]].\n\nAccording to [[Amnesty International]]:\n", "\"\"I wasn't selling the disc in the stores, so I let listeners tape it off the radio for free,\" explains Oswald, who paid for the production and manufacture of the CD out of his own pocket. He receives no royalties or financial compensation for airplay. Brian Robertson, president of CRIA says, ``What this demonstrates is the vulnerability of the recording industry to new technology...All we see is just another example of theft.\"\"\n\n\"Oswald received notice from CRIA's lawyers demanding that he cease distributing Plunderphonic as of Xmas eve '89. \"They insisted I quit playing Santa Claus,\" Oswald observes.\"\n", "Section::::Impairment.:Music agnosia.\n", "A 2008 study by Koelsch, Sallat and Friederici found that language impairment may also affect the ability to process music. Children with specific language impairments, or SLIs were not as proficient at matching tones to one another or at keeping tempo with a simple metronome as children with no language disabilities. This highlights the fact that neurological disorders that effect language may also affect musical processing ability.\n", "While it is clear that exposure to Mozart does not raise IQ, studies of the effects of music have explored as diverse areas as its links to seizure onset or research in animals suggesting that even exposure in-utero in rats improves their maze learning The original claim continues to influence public life. For instance a German sewage treatment plant plays Mozart music to break down the waste faster, reports the UK \"Guardian\". Anton Stucki, chief operator of the Treuenbrietzen plant was quoted as saying, \"We think the secret is in the vibrations of the music, which penetrate everything—including the water, the sewage and the cells.\"\n", "Section::::Impairment.\n\nSection::::Impairment.:Focal hand dystonia.\n", "Noise as high volume is common for musicians from classical orchestras to rock groups as they are exposed to high decibel ranges. Although some rock musicians experience noise-induced hearing loss from their music, it is still debated as to whether classical musicians are exposed to enough high-intensity sound to cause hearing impairments. Music-induced hearing loss is still a controversial topic for hearing researchers. While some studies have shown that the risk for hearing loss increases as music exposure increases, other studies found little to no correlation between the two.\n", "Music in psychological operations\n\nMusic can be used as a tool of psychological warfare. The term \"music torture\" is sometimes used to describe the practice. While it is acknowledged by United States interrogation experts to cause discomfort, it has also been characterized as having no \"long-term effects\".\n", "On 9 December 2008 the \"[[Associated Press]]\" reported that various musicians were coordinating their objections to the use of their music as a technique for softening up captives through an initiative called Zero dB.\n", "Some mirror neurons are activated both by the observation of goal-directed actions, and by the associated sounds produced during the action. This suggests that the auditory modality can access the motor system. While these auditory–motor interactions have mainly been studied for speech processes, and have focused on Broca's area and the vPMC, as of 2011, experiments have begun to shed light on how these interactions are needed for musical performance. Results point to a broader involvement of the dPMC and other motor areas.\n\nSection::::Music and language.\n", "Don't Stop the Music\n\nDon't Stop the Music may refer to:\n\nSection::::Albums.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\" (Play album) (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\" (Robyn album) (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\", a 2000 album by Kojo Antwi\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\", a 1977 album by Brecker Brothers\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\", a 1988 album by Del McCoury\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\", a 1976 album by Supermax\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\", a 2007 EP by Kava Kava\n\nSection::::Songs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Stop the Music\" (George Jones song) (1957)\n", "The medial prefrontal cortex – one of the last areas affected by Alzheimer’s disease – is the region activated by music.\n\nSection::::Music pattern recognition.:Cognitive mechanisms.\n", "By contrast, the background music that cannot be heard by the characters in the movie is termed \"non-diegetic\" or \"extradiegetic\". An example of this is in \"Rocky\", where Bill Conti's \"Gonna Fly Now\" plays non-diegetically as Rocky makes his way through his training regimen finishing on the top steps of the Philadelphia Museum of Art with his hands raised in the air.\n", "Several of the empirical studies carried out to demonstrate the correlation between listening to music and the reduction in the human stress response have been criticized for relying too heavily on a small sample size. Another criticism of these studies is that they have been carried out in response to no stressor in particular. These critics claim that because no specific stressor is identified in many of these studies, it is somewhat difficult to identify whether the stress response was lessened by music or by some other means.\n", "Specific musical impairments may result from brain damage leaving other musical abilities intact. Cappelletti, Waley-Cohen, Butterworth and Kopelman (2000) studied a single case study of patient P.K.C., a professional musician who sustained damage to the left posterior temporal lobe as well as a small right occipitotemporal lesion. After sustaining damage to these regions, P.K.C. was selectively impaired in the areas of reading, writing and understanding musical notation but maintained other musical skills. The ability to read aloud letters, words, numbers and symbols (including musical ones) was retained. However, P.K.C. was unable to read aloud musical notes on the staff regardless of whether the task involved naming with the conventional letter or by singing or playing. Yet despite this specific deficit, P.K.C. retained the ability to remember and play familiar and new melodies.\n", "According to Evers and Ellgers, some other major psychiatric disorders that contribute to musical hallucinations include schizophrenia and depression. Some patients who have schizophrenia experience musical hallucinations due to their ongoing psychosis, but there are some cases that do so without psychosis. There are also a very small percentage of musical hallucination cases due to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).\n\nSection::::Causes.:Focal brain lesions.\n", "Key areas of the brain are used in both music processing and language processing, such as Brocas area that is devoted to language production and comprehension. Patients with lesions, or damage, in the Brocas area often exhibit poor grammar, slow speech production and poor sentence comprehension. The inferior frontal gyrus, is a gyrus of the frontal lobe that is involved in timing events and reading comprehension, particularly for the comprehension of verbs. The Wernickes area is located on the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus and is important for understanding vocabulary and written language.\n", "Music to Ease Your Disease\n\nMusic to Ease Your Disease is an album by jazz pianist Horace Silver, his fifth and final release on the Silverto label, featuring performances by Silver with Clark Terry, Junior Cook, Ray Drummond, and Billy Hart, with vocals by Andy Bey.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n" ]	[ "Music can not damage dopamine systems in brains. ", "Music cannot damage dopamine system." ]	[ "Music could damage dopamine systems but the number of receptors triggered is different. ", "In theory it could damage the dopamine system." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Music can not damage dopamine systems in brains. ", "Music cannot damage dopamine system." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Music could damage dopamine systems but the number of receptors triggered is different. ", "In theory it could damage the dopamine system." ]
2018-09483	What would happen if the world stopped procreating for let’s say 25 years?	Young people are incredibly essential to economic growth for one, most developed nations already have an ageing population in which aged care is a significant burden which new particpants in the workforce pay for, it goes without saying that there would be a work shortage and young people institutions such as schools... just realised it it ELI5. In short society will struggle.	[ "BULLET::::- According to the UN Population Bureau, life expectancy in 2200 will be around 100 years for developed countries and the world population will be about 11 billion. However, the UN has warned that these projections could be invalidated by any change and progress in future life extension technology and discoveries, as well as changes in future birthrates.\n\nSection::::Climate change.\n\nBULLET::::- By 2100, 12% (about 1,250) of the bird species existing at the beginning of the twenty-first century are expected to be extinct or threatened with extinction.\n", "Some observers believe that the advent of a much older planet, courtesy of below-replacement fertility in Europe, North America, China and much of the rest of Asia and Latin America, will produce a 'geriatric peace'. Others are concerned that population aging will bankrupt the welfare state and handicap western liberal democracies' ability to project power abroad to defend their interests. A more cautious climate could also herald slower economic growth, less entrepreneurship and reduced productivity in mature democracies. \n", "Fertility and reproduction have been frequent sites for examination of concerns about the impact of the environment and reproduction on the future of humanity or civilization. For example, \"The Children of Men\" by P.D. James is just one of many works which have considered the implications of global infertility; \"Make Room! Make Room!\" by Harry Harrison is one of many works which have examined the converse, the implications of massive human population surges. Numerous other works, such as \"Implosion\", \"The First Century after Beatrice\", \"Venus Plus X\" and \"More Than Human\" by Theodore Sturgeon examine the future of humanity as it evolves, or particular breeding programs.\n", "The Universe may be spatially infinite; however, the accessible Universe is bounded by the cosmological event horizon of around 16 billion light years. Some physicists believe it plausible that nearest alien civilization may well be located more than 16 billion light years away; in this best-case expansion scenario, the human race could eventually, by colonizing a significant fraction of the accessible Universe, increase the accessible biosphere by perhaps 32 orders of magnitude. The twentieth century saw a partial \"demographic transition\" to lower birthrates associated with wealthier societies; however, in the very long run, intergenerational fertility correlations (whether due to natural selection or due to cultural transmission of large-family norms from parents to children) are predicted to result in an increase in fertility over time, in the absence of either mandated birth control or periodic Malthusian catastrophes.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2017, CSER convened policy-makers and academics to identify challenges for the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC). A key issue identified was that the rapid rate of progress in relevant sciences and technologies has made it very difficult for governance bodies including the BWC to keep pace .\n", "BULLET::::- One possible alternative future for the tabletop role-playing game \"Mutants & Masterminds\" is set in Freedom City in 2525.\n\nSection::::Population of Earth.\n\nPhysicist Stephen Hawking, at a White House lecture in 1999, remarked that if there is no space colonization, population expansion continued unabated and the people of the Earth continued to use power at the rate they did then, then by the year 2600, people would be standing shoulder to shoulder and the Earth would glow red hot.\n", "2050\n\nSection::::Predicted and scheduled events.\n\nBULLET::::- In July 2008, the G7 agreed to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by half in 2050.\n\nBULLET::::- In November 2006, Achim Steiner, executive director of the United Nations Environment Program, “warned of a global collapse of all species being fished, if fishing continues at its current pace.”\n\nBULLET::::- In March 2006, Professor Gerry Gilmore predicted that ground-based astronomy would become impossible by this year because of pollution from aircraft exhaust trails and climate change.\n", "China will become the biggest economy; picking up slack from the sagging American economy. Economy prosperity will continue in Brazil, Russia, India, and China and the N-11 countries.\n", "The Urbmon population is supported by the conversion of all of the Earth's habitable land area not taken up by Urbmons to agriculture. The theoretical limit of the population supported by this arrangement is estimated to be 200 billion. The farmers live a very different lifestyle, with strict birth control. Farmers trade their produce for technology and the two societies rarely have direct contact; even their languages are mutually unintelligible.\n", "Sometime in a dystopian future, World War III with Afghanistan breaks out. An incurable biological weapon called the \"Y-bomb\", which targets the male Y-chromosome, is used and results in the eventual deaths of 97% of the world's men. Feeling that they are better off without men, the planet's women decide to outlaw men because they were too violent. \n", "Love and Sex\n\nLove and Sex may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Love & Sex\", 2000 American film written and directed by Valerie Breiman\n\nBULLET::::- \"Love & Sex\" (album), 2014 album by Plan B\n\nBULLET::::- \"Love & Sex, Pt. 2\", a 2014 single by Joe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Love and Sex with Robots\", a book by David Levy, about the future development of robots that will have sex with humans, claiming this practice will be routine by 2050\n", "On Earth, the inescapable result is the Great Patriotic Wars, the long-delayed Third World War that begins and ends with massive nuclear exchanges. Much of Earth is devastated; civilization collapses and much of the surface is rendered temporarily uninhabitable.\n\nSection::::History.:Empire of Man.\n", "Current estimates expect the world's total fertility rate to fall below replacement levels by 2050,\n\nthough population momentum continues to increase global population for several generations beyond that. The development of the world population is linked with concerns of overpopulation, sustainability and exceeding Earth's carrying capacity.\n", "2025 – In just fifteen years the predictions of the ecologist’s grim fate have come to light. The earth is now stripped and naked, what little structure in society remains starts to crumble.\n\n2030 – Lawlessness prevails and the fall of civilized society occurs. The global climate shifts have started to wreak havoc across the world.\n\n2040 – Disease and lack of technology place the remaining global population back into the Dark Ages. The earth has started to cleanse itself and people are dying in huge numbers.\n", "Section::::Synopsis.:Chapter 2: The Problem of the Birth Supply.\n", "Energy efficiency will continue to increase. Energy demand is expected to rise, but not indefinitely. CO emissions from energy consumption will peak in 2030. The average global temperature will rise by more than two degrees, causing serious problems.\n\nBULLET::::- Forecast on nutrition and ecological footprint\n", "1. Fertility rates must level off to the replacement rate (the net reproduction rate should be 1). If the fertility rate remains higher than the replacement rate, the population would continue to grow.\n\n2. Mortality rate must stop declining, that is, it must remain constant.\n\n3. Lastly, the age structure must adjust to the new rates of fertility and mortality. This last step takes the longest to complete.\n\nSection::::Implications of Population Momentum.\n\nPopulation momentum has implications for population policy for a number of reasons.\n", "In undeveloped countries on the other hand, families desire children for their labour and as caregivers for their parents in old age. Fertility rates are also higher due to the lack of access to contraceptives, stricter adherence to traditional religious beliefs, generally lower levels of female education, and lower rates of female employment in industry. The total fertility rate for the world has been declining very rapidly since the 1990s. Some forecasters like Sanjeev Sanyal argue that, adjusted for gender imbalances, the effective global fertility will fall below replacement rate in the 2020s. This would stabilize world population by 2050. This differs from projections by the United Nations who estimate that some growth will continue even in 2100. If the global TFR falls as much as it did from year 1995 to 2000, by 0.25 points, in 2015 to 2020, then that would result in global TFR being 2.11 by year 2020 (it was 2.36 in 2010–2015 period). 2.11 is the exact global replacement rate of humanity. However, if it falls as much as it did from 1975 to 1980, by 0.61 points (it was 4.45 TFR in 1975 and 3.84 TFR by 1980), then the global TFR would be low at 1.75 children per woman, well below replacement level, by year 2020.\n", "Speaking of the future himself, Hobsbawm largely confines himself to predicting continued turmoil: \"The world of the third millennium will therefore almost certainly continue to be one of violent politics and violent political changes. The only thing uncertain about them is where they will lead,\" and expressing the view that \"If humanity is to have a recognizable future, it cannot be by prolonging the past or the present.\" \n\nIn one of his few more concrete predictions, he writes that \"Social distribution and not growth would dominate the politics of the new millennium.\"\n\nSection::::Failure of communism.\n", "The \"Dynamics of Growth in a Finite World\" provides several different scenarios. The \"reference run\" is the one that \"represent the most likely behavior mode of the system if the process of industrialization in the future proceeds in a way very similar to its progress in the past, and if technologies and value changes that have already been institutionalized continue to evolve.\" In this scenario, in 2000, the world population reaches six billion, and then goes on to peak at seven billion in 2030. After that population declines because of an increased death rate. In 2015, both industrial output per capita and food per capita peak at US$375 per person (1970s dollars) and 500 vegetable-equivalent kilograms/person. Persistent pollution peaks in the year 2035 at 11 times 1970s levels.\n", "Rich western countries are now siphoning up the planet’s resources and destroying its ecosystems at an unprecedented rate. We want to build highways across the Serengeti to get more rare earth minerals for our cellphones. We grab all the fish from the sea, wreck the coral reefs and put carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. We have triggered a major extinction event ... A world population of around a billion would have an overall pro-life effect. This could be supported for many millennia and sustain many more human lives in the long term compared with our current uncontrolled growth and prospect of sudden collapse ... If everyone consumed resources at the US level – which is what the world aspires to – you will need another four or five Earths. We are wrecking our planet’s life support systems.\n", "Some countries have sub-replacement fertility (that is, below 2.1–2.2 children per woman). Replacement fertility is generally slightly higher than 2 (the level which replaces the two parents) both because boys are born more often than girls (about 1.05–1.1 to 1) and to compensate for deaths prior to full reproduction. Many European and East Asian countries now have higher death rates than birth rates. Population aging and population decline may eventually occur, assuming that the fertility rate does not change and sustained mass immigration does not occur.\n", "In the year 2030, a scientist creates Longevity, a drug which prevents death but does not halt the aging process. People continue to have children although there are no longer any deaths, and this quickly leads to over population. As a result, in the year 2065, the Declaration is introduced. This is a document which must be signed before an individual is allowed to take Longevity, and in doing so they agree not to have any children. There are exceptions to this. For example, wealthy politicians may take the drug and still have children.\n", "\"The Future is Wild\" was a speculative documentary hypothetising how life could evolve over the course of millions of years:\n\nBULLET::::- 5,000,000: the world is in an ice age. The Mediterranean Sea will be a vast salt plain and the Amazon rainforest will be a grassland. Creatures of this land include huge killer birds, thin-legged pigs, sticky-frilled lizards and birds that act like whales. Humans, by this time, have either gone extinct or left the planet.\n", "... even with the most optimistic set of assumptions -- the ending of deforestation, a halving of emissions associated with food production, global emissions peaking in 2020 and then falling by 3 per cent a year for a few decades -- we have no chance of preventing emissions rising well above a number of critical tipping points that will spark uncontrollable climate change. The Earth's climate would enter a chaotic era lasting thousands of years before natural processes eventually establish some sort of equilibrium. Whether human beings would still be a force on the planet, or even survive, is a moot point. One thing seems certain: there will be far fewer of us. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11749	who are the high risk people for whom Truvada is marketed? If it isn't for all people, who is considered high risk?	Being high risk means you're in a group where your behaviors or partners put you at a significantly higher risk of being exposed to & contracting HIV than the general public. I'm not exactly sure what the exact numbers they use to draw the line, but here's a few groups that are generally included: * People who have partners that are HIV-positive, even if you're using protection * People who have lots of sex partners and aren't always 100% with using condoms * IV drug users * Sex workers I'm not sure if "men who have sex with men" are still considered high-risk or not. The Truvada website sidesteps that by saying "a sexual network where HIV is more common". [Here's the Truvada website]( URL_0 ) - they also seem to mention "people in prison" as being a high risk group (makes sense since 10-20% of prisoners get raped at some point).	[ "In Australia, the country's Therapeutic Goods Administration approved the use of Truvada as PrEP in May 2016, allowing Australian providers to legally prescribe the medication. In February 2018, Australia's Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee recommended including Truvada as PrEP on the country's Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), slashing the cost of access to the drug from $10,000 to under $500 a year. The drug begins being listed on the PBS from 1 April 2018.\n\nSection::::Access and adoption.:Availability and pricing.\n", "In Canada access and cost vary by province. As of October 2018 British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador cover the drug through provincial pharmacare plans or drug assistance programs. First Nations, Canadian Armed Forces, and refugees all have access to PrEP covered through federal drug programs. Together this means that more than 93% of Canadians have access to low or no-cost generic PrEP. Generic PrEP costs about $250/month in Canada without insurance while brand name Truvada costs about $1000. Truvada is covered by provincial drug benefit formularies in all provinces for treatment of HIV, however Manitoba, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nunavut, Yukon, and the Northwest Territories have not approved it for coverage if used for prevention.\n", "Section::::Access and adoption.\n\nSection::::Access and adoption.:Approval for use.\n\nTruvada was previously only approved by the US Food and Drug Administration to treat HIV in those already infected. In 2012, the FDA approved the drug for use as PrEP, based on growing evidence that the drug was safe and effective at preventing HIV in populations at increased risk of infection.\n\nIn 2012, the World Health Organization issued guidelines for PrEP and made similar recommendations for its use among men and transgender women who have sex with men. The WHO noted that \"international scientific consensus is emerging\n", "The International Partnership for Microbicides issued a statement by founder Zeda Rosenberg saying that \"The hard work and dedication of the iPrEx team and trial participants has led to a second successful proof-of-concept this year for an ARV-based HIV-prevention product. We must not falter at this important time in history when science shows us that, with sufficient resolve, we can begin to control and potentially reverse the HIV epidemic.\"\n\nSection::::Response to results.:FDA approval of Truvada for PrEP.\n", "As of 2018, the most-widely approved form of \"PrEP\" combines two drugs (tenofovir and emtricitabine) in one pill. That drug combination is sold under the brand name Truvada by Gilead Sciences. It is also sold in generic formulations worldwide. Other drugs are also being studied for use as PrEP. \n", "BULLET::::- Bone mineral density and fat distribution\n\nBULLET::::- Impact on hepatitis infection\n\nIt is hoped that participants’ knowledge that Truvada PrEP is safe and effective for HIV infection, and that no placebo is used in the study, will lead to increased use of the study drug and increased protection against HIV infection among in iPrEx OLE participants.\n\niPrEx OLE started enrollment on 13 June 2011 at the San Francisco Department of Public Health in California, USA and closed enrollment in July 2012 at Investigaciones Medicas en Salud in Lima, Peru.\n", "For many of us living with HIV, that’s what the FDA’s approval of Truvada for use as PrEP means—hope. Hope that one day we can let our guard down, be less than perfectly vigilant and love without fear.\n\nOn HIV transmission:\n\nMy greatest fear is that I am going to give you HIV. In fact, I am just as afraid of passing along my virus as you are of contracting it. And that is true for most of the HIV-positive guys I know.\n\nSection::::Acting career.\n", "On 27 August 2012, the US Food and Drug Administration approved the use of Truvada as PrEP for sexually active adults, based on the results of two clinical trials: iPrEx and PartnersPrEP.\n\nSection::::iPrEx OLE.\n\niPrEx OLE (OLE stands for Open Label Extension) is a continuation of the iPrEx study designed to provide additional information about the safety of PrEP and the behavior of people taking PrEP over a longer term, including information on:\n\nBULLET::::- Long-term efficacy\n\nBULLET::::- Long-term safety\n\nBULLET::::- Pill taking and adherence\n\nBULLET::::- Any changes in participants’ sexual behavior\n\nBULLET::::- Drug resistance\n", "Section::::Response to results.:Popular media.\n\nOn the day of announcement of iPrEx study results, the President of the United States, Barack Obama, welcomed the outcomes of the study. The U.S. news magazine \"Time\" called the iPrEx results the most significant medical breakthrough of 2010.\n\nSection::::Response to results.:CDC interim guidance.\n\nIn January 2011, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issued interim guidance for the provision of PrEP to prevent sexual acquisition of HIV among men who have sex with men. \n\nBULLET::::- Truvada is the only PrEP to have been tested\n\nBULLET::::- PrEP is only for the HIV-negative\n", "BULLET::::- HPTN 084 is a Phase III study comparing the efficacy and safety of injectable cabotegravir (CAB) to Truvada® for prevention of HIV acquisition in women in Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland, Uganda and Zimbabwe.\n\nBULLET::::- HPTN 083 is a Phase IIb/III study comparing the efficacy and safety of injectable cabotegravir (CAB) to Truvada® for prevention of HIV acquisition in cisgender MSM and transgender women who have sex with men in Argentina, Brazil, Peru, South Africa, Thailand, the United States and Vietnam.\n", "BULLET::::- HPTN 077 is a Phase IIa study helping determine whether injectable cabotegravir could be used for PrEP in people at greater risk of acquiring HIV.\n\nBULLET::::- HPTN 076 is a Phase II study designed to find out if a new form of the drug rilpivirine is safe and acceptable for use as HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP).\n\nBULLET::::- HPTN 073 is a Phase IV demonstration study see if Black men who have sex with men (BMSM) are willing to use Truvada®, a daily pill for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP).\n", "The development of new vaccines intended to be offered at lower cost than the current globally approved vaccines is ongoing. Rotavac, manufactured by India-based Bharat Biotech and currently licensed only in India, plans to make the vaccine available for US$1 per dose for public markets. Vaccines from Serum Institute of India, Pvt., Ltd. and Sanofi affiliate Shantha Biotechnics are currently in Phase III clinical trials.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Temporary suspension.\n", "TroVax\n\nTroVax is a cancer vaccine that was developed by Oxford BioMedica. No cancer vaccines have been proven to cure cancer or extend life yet, TroVax has been studied in a number of trials for colon cancer.\n\nTroVax uses a tumor-associated antigen, 5T4, with a pox virus vector. 5T4 is found in a wide range of solid cancers and its presence is correlated with poor prognosis.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nAll solid tumors where the 5T4 tumor antigen is present. Clinical development is ongoing in renal cell carcinoma, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, and prostate cancer, and is planned in breast cancer.\n\nSection::::Research.:Technical design.\n", "Trevena's developed TRV027 for acute heart failure, targets the angiotensin receptor utilizing beta-arrestin bias, an approach that has shown numerous beneficial cardiovascular and renal actions in preclinical species. Trevena completed Phase I clinical trials in 2010. Phase 2 clinical trials on TRV027 began in the spring of 2011. In May 2016, Trevena announced that the TRV027 phase II trial failed to meet its primary endpoints and they were no longer developing the drug.\n\nSection::::Pipeline.:TRV250.\n", "Valneva SE\n\nValneva SE is a biotech company developing and commercializing vaccines for infectious diseases with major unmet needs. Valneva was founded in 2013 through the merger of Intercell and Vivalis SA.\n\nIt has been listed on the Vienna Stock Exchange and Euronext since May 28, 2013.\n\nMarketed vaccines generated by Valneva include Ixiaro, a vaccine against Japanese encephalitis (approved in Europe, America and Australia) and Dukoral, a vaccine against cholera (approved in Europe, America and Australia)\n", "Etravirine is licensed in the United States, Canada, Israel, Russia, Australia and the European Union, and is under regulatory review in Switzerland.\n\nSection::::Indications and dosage.\n\nEtravirine, in combination with other anti-retrovirals, is indicated for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection in antiretroviral treatment-experienced adult patients, who have evidence of viral replication and HIV-1 strains resistant to a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) and other antiretroviral agents. \n", "Of the 2,499 participants, 1,251 were randomly assigned to Truvada and 1,248 were assigned to take the placebo tablet (sugar pill). There were 36 HIV infections among the participants who were offered Truvada and 64 among those offered placebo, meaning that Truvada PrEP provided 44% additional protection against HIV in this group. This efficacy analysis (a modified intention-to-treat analysis) includes those study participants who received active study drug but who did not take it regularly enough for the drug to have any protective effect.\n", "Rotavirus vaccines are licensed in over 100 countries, and more than 80 countries have introduced routine rotavirus vaccination, almost half with the support of Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance. To make rotavirus vaccines available, accessible, and affordable in all countries—particularly low- and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia where the majority of rotavirus deaths occur, PATH (formerly Program for Appropriate Technology in Health), the WHO, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Gavi have partnered with research institutions and governments to generate and disseminate evidence, lower prices, and accelerate introduction.\n\nThe vaccine may prevent type 1 diabetes.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "factors on RSV hospitalization rates, the mortality of children hospitalized\n\nwith RSV infection, the effect of prophylaxis on wheezing, and\n\npalivizumab-resistant RSV isolates. This policy statement updates and\n\nreplaces the recommendations found in the 2012 Red Book. Pediatrics\n\n2014;134:415–420\n", "Owen and Craddock launched a website in October 2015, I Want Prep Now, so that others would have the opportunity to buy PrEP. Through their site, customers could purchase a generic version of the drug Truvada for a tenth of the cost—around US$67 per month. At the time, only one clinic in the UK was able to legally distribute the drug, costing $700 for a month's supply.\n", "Darunavir\n\nDarunavir (DRV), sold under the brand name Prezista among others, is an antiretroviral medication used to treat and prevent HIV/AIDS. It is generally recommended for use with other antiretrovirals. It is often used with low doses of ritonavir or cobicistat to increase darunavir levels. It may be used for prevention after a needlestick injury or other potential exposure. It is taken by mouth once to twice a day.\n", "It was initially approved in Europe in 2007 for schizophrenia, the extended release form and use for schizoaffective disorder were approved in Europe in 2010, and extension to use in adolescents older than 15 years old was approved in 2014.\n\nSection::::Brand names.\n\nOn May 18, 2015, a new formulation of paliperidone palmitate was approved by the FDA under the brand name Invega Trinza. A similar 3 -monthly injection of prolonged release suspension was approved in 2016 by the European Medicines Agency originally under the brand name Paliperidone Janssen, later renamed to Trevicta.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Invega Official website\n", "HPTN 083\n\nHPTN 083 is a 2016 clinical trial which compares cabotegravir injections with oral use of Emtricitabine/tenofovir as pre-exposure prophylaxis (\"prep\") for prevention of HIV/AIDS.\n\nThe study seeks to test injectable prep as a way to address the problem that many people find it challenging to comply with prep which requires daily pill-taking.\n\nHPTN 083 is the first large scale phase III clinical trial of cabotegravir.\n\nIn February 2016 researchers presented the results of the ECLAIR study. That study examined cabotegravir and found no serious safety concerns.\n", "Troikaa Pharmaceuticals\n\nTroikaa Pharmaceuticals Ltd. is an Indian multinational pharmaceutical company headquartered in Ahmedabad, Gujarat in India.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nTroikaa Pharmaceuticals limited was established in 1983 in Ahmedabad, Gujarat by Rajni V. Patel, one of the few pharmacy graduatesof the first batch of L. M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad in 1950. Ketan R. Patel is the current Chairman & Managing Director of the company. Milan R. Patel is Joint Managing Director of the company.\n\nSection::::Litigation.\n", "The cost of rotavirus vaccination varies depending on country, from a low of approximately US$0.50 in GAVI-eligible countries up to a high of US$185–$226 in the United States. Wholesale cost for GAVI has fallen by 67 percent between 2006 and 2011 to US$2.13–3.56 per dose, as part of an offer made by a pharmaceutical company to the GAVI Alliance. However, the vaccine is still more expensive than most other childhood vaccines included in the WHO's Expanded Programme on Immunization.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02177	Why is it that the body expels excess fluid by urination instead of storing it for future use like food?	Urination isn't the process of expelling excess fluids, exactly. It is the process that the body uses to get rid of waste (called nitrogenous waste) that builds up in blood as a result of normal cellular functions. The kidneys filter out this waste and use whatever amount of water the body can spare as a mechanism to remove the waste from our system. If you are very hydrated your urine will be lighter in color because there is more water per unit waste. If you are dehydrated, there will be less water per unit waste. So your body couldn't survive if it just stored that fluid instead of using it to get rid of waste. Technically, your body is making very good use of that water by expelling it. Source: I teach college level physiology.	[ "A constant supply is needed to replenish the fluids lost through normal physiological activities, such as respiration, sweating and urination. Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake.\n\nIn the normal resting state, input of water through ingested fluids is approximately 1200 ml/day, from ingested foods 1000 ml/day and from aerobic respiration 300 ml/day, totaling 2500 ml/day.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Input.:Regulation of input.\n", "Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However, when plasma blood volume is low and ADH is released the aquaporins that are opened are also permeable to urea. This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla, creating a hyperosmotic solution that \"attracts\" water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not.\n", "Section::::Systems.:Urinary system.:Kidneys.\n\nThe kidney's primary function is the elimination of waste from the bloodstream by production of urine. They perform several homeostatic functions such as:-\n\nBULLET::::1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid\n\nBULLET::::2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid\n\nBULLET::::3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.\n\nBULLET::::4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.\n", "Section::::Nitrogen wastes.:Ureotelism.\n\nThe excretion of urea is called ureotelism. Land animals, mainly amphibians and mammals, convert ammonia into urea, a process which occurs in the liver and kidney. These animals are called ureotelic. Urea is a less toxic compound than ammonia; two nitrogen atoms are eliminated through it and less water is needed for its excretion. It requires 0.05 L of water to excrete 1 g of nitrogen, approximately only 10% of that required in ammonotelic organisms.\n\nSection::::Nitrogen wastes.:Uricotelism.\n", "Uricotelism is the excretion of excess nitrogen in the form of uric acid. Uricotelic animals include insects, birds and most reptiles. Though requiring more metabolic energy to make than urea, uric acid's low toxicity and low solubility in water allow it to be concentrated into small volume of pasty white suspension, compared to the liquid urine of mammals. \n\nSection::::Water and gases.\n", "The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism into the urine. The microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It processes the blood supplied to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of those processes is the production of urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate countercurrent multiplication mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive countercurrent exchange by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.\n", "Section::::Protein.\n\nProtein attracts water and plays an important role in water balance. In cases of severe protein deficiency, the blood may not contain enough protein to attract water from the tissue spaces back into the capillaries. This is why starvation often shows an enlarged abdomen. The abdomen is swollen with edema or water retention caused by the lack of protein in their diet.\n", "Urea allows the kidneys to create hyperosmotic urine (urine that has more ions in it - is \"more concentrated\" - than that same person's blood plasma). Preventing the loss of water in this manner is important if the person's body must save water in order to maintain a suitable blood pressure or (more likely) in order to maintain a suitable concentration of sodium ions in the blood plasma.\n\nAbout 40% of the urea filtered is normally found in the final urine, since there is more reabsorption than secretion along the nephron.\n", "The cause of DDS is currently not well understood. There are two theories to explain it; the first theory postulates that urea transport from the brain cells is slowed in chronic renal failure, leading to a large urea concentration gradient, which results in reverse osmosis. The second theory postulates that organic compounds are increased in uremia to protect the brain and result in injury by, like in the first theory, reverse osmosis. More recent studies on rats noted that brain concentrations of organic osmolytes were not increased relative to baseline after rapid dialysis. Cerebral edema was thus attributed to osmotic effects related to a high urea gradient between plasma and brain.\n", "The cycling of and excretion of urea by the kidneys is a vital part of mammalian metabolism. Besides its role as carrier of waste nitrogen, urea also plays a role in the countercurrent exchange system of the nephrons, that allows for re-absorption of water and critical ions from the excreted urine. Urea is reabsorbed in the inner medullary collecting ducts of the nephrons, thus raising the osmolarity in the medullary interstitium surrounding the thin descending limb of the loop of Henle, which makes the water reabsorb.\n", "The two main types of dialysis, hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis, remove wastes and excess water from the blood in different ways. Hemodialysis removes wastes and water by circulating blood outside the body through an external filter, called a dialyzer, that contains a semipermeable membrane. The blood flows in one direction and the dialysate flows in the opposite. The counter-current flow of the blood and dialysate maximizes the concentration gradient of solutes between the blood and dialysate, which helps to remove more urea and creatinine from the blood. The concentrations of solutes normally found in the urine (for example potassium, phosphorus and urea) are undesirably high in the blood, but low or absent in the dialysis solution, and constant replacement of the dialysate ensures that the concentration of undesired solutes is kept low on this side of the membrane. The dialysis solution has levels of minerals like potassium and calcium that are similar to their natural concentration in healthy blood. For another solute, bicarbonate, dialysis solution level is set at a slightly higher level than in normal blood, to encourage diffusion of bicarbonate into the blood, to act as a pH buffer to neutralize the metabolic acidosis that is often present in these patients. The levels of the components of dialysate are typically prescribed by a nephrologist according to the needs of the individual patient.\n", "Blood plasma has a good many proteins in it and they exert an inward directed force called the colloid osmotic pressure on the water in hypotonic solutions across a membrane, i.e., in the Bowman's capsule. Because plasma proteins are virtually incapable of escaping the glomerular capillaries, this oncotic pressure is defined, simply, by the ideal gas law:\n\nWhere: \n\nBULLET::::- R is the universal gas constant\n\nBULLET::::- T is the temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- And, c is concentration in mol/L of plasma \"proteins\" (remember the solutes can freely diffuse through the glomerular capsule).\n", "In some cases, reabsorption is indirect. For example, bicarbonate (HCO) does not have a transporter, so its reabsorption involves a series of reactions in the tubule lumen and tubular epithelium. It begins with the active secretion of a hydrogen ion (H) into the tubule fluid via a Na/H exchanger:\n\nBULLET::::- In the lumen\n\nBULLET::::- The H combines with HCO to form carbonic acid (HCO)\n\nBULLET::::- Luminal carbonic anhydrase enzymatically converts HCO into HO and CO\n\nBULLET::::- CO freely diffuses into the cell\n\nBULLET::::- In the epithelial cell\n", "Shift: The movement of fluid through the tubules causes the hyperosmotic fluid to move further down the loop. Repeating many cycles causes fluid to be near isosmolar at the top of Henle's loop and very concentrated at the bottom of the loop. Animals with a need for very concentrated urine (such as desert animals) have very long loops of Henle to create a very large osmotic gradient. Animals that have abundant water on the other hand (such as beavers) have very short loops.\n", "The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore, it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids.\n", "Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called a glomerulus and is collected in the Bowman's capsule, which filters the blood from its contents—primarily food and wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients it needs, while the wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then secreted out of the body via the urinary bladder.\n\nSection::::Clinical signifiance.\n\nSection::::Clinical signifiance.:Kidney Stones.\n", "In peritoneal dialysis, wastes and water are removed from the blood inside the body using the peritoneum as a natural semipermeable membrane. Wastes and excess water move from the blood, across the peritoneal membrane and into a special dialysis solution, called dialysate, in the abdominal cavity.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThere are three primary and two secondary types of dialysis: hemodialysis (primary), peritoneal dialysis (primary), hemofiltration (primary), hemodiafiltration (secondary) and intestinal dialysis (secondary).\n\nSection::::Types.:Hemodialysis.\n", "The extracellular fluid is constantly \"stirred\" by the circulatory system, which ensures that the watery environment which bathes the body’s cells is virtually identical throughout the body. This means that nutrients can be secreted into the ECF in one place (e.g. the gut, liver, or fat cells) and will, within about a minute, be evenly distributed throughout the body. Hormones are similarly rapidly and evenly spread to every cell in the body, regardless of where they are secreted into the blood. Oxygen taken up by the lungs from the alveolar air is also evenly distributed at the correct partial pressure to all the cells of the body. Waste products are also uniformly spread to the whole of the ECF, and are removed from this general circulation at specific points (or organs), once again ensuring that there is generally no localized accumulation of unwanted compounds or excesses of otherwise essential substances (e.g. sodium ions, or any of the other constituents of the ECF). The only significant exception to this general principle is the plasma in the veins, where the concentrations of dissolved substances in individual veins differs, to varying degrees, from those in the rest of the ECF. However this plasma is confined within the waterproof walls of the venous tubes, and therefore does not affect the interstitial fluid in which the body's cell live. When the blood from all the veins in body mixes in the heart and lungs, the differing compositions cancel out (e.g. acidic blood from active muscles is neutralized by the alkaline blood homeostatically produced by the kidneys). From the left atrium onward, to every organ in the body, the normal, homeostatically regulated values of all of the ECF's components are therefore restored.\n", "Hypo-osmolality results in very low plasma ADH levels. This results in the inhibition of water reabsorption from the kidney tubules, causing high volumes of very dilute urine to be excreted, thus getting rid of the excess water in the body.\n\nUrinary water loss, when the body water homeostat is intact, is a \"compensatory\" water loss, \"correcting\" any water excess in the body. However, since the kidneys cannot generate water, the thirst reflex is the all-important second effector mechanism of the body water homeostat, \"correcting\" any water deficit in the body.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Blood pH.\n", "BULLET::::5. allow for the recovery of urine, which can be reused as fertilizer.\n\nSection::::Design considerations.:Principle.\n", "Terrestrial birds like the Corvus corax produce urine that is osmoltically more concentrated then its blood plasma. This is likely due to the fact that water is not as abundant in raven habitat.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.:Cells and mechanisms of osmoregulation.:Regulating water loss.\n", "Section::::Formation of urine.:Reabsorption.\n\nTubular reabsorption is the process by which solutes and water are removed from the tubular fluid and transported into the blood. It is called \"reabsorption\" (and not \"absorption\") both because these substances have already been absorbed once (particularly in the intestines) and because the body is reclaiming them from a postglomerular fluid stream that is well on its way to becoming urine (that is, they will soon be lost to the urine unless they are reclaimed).\n", "Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles.\n", "BULLET::::2. Increasing permeability of the inner medullary portion of the collecting duct to urea by regulating the cell surface expression of urea transporters, which facilitates its reabsorption into the medullary interstitium as it travels down the concentration gradient created by removing water from the connecting tubule, cortical collecting duct, and outer medullary collecting duct.\n\nBULLET::::3. Acute increase of sodium absorption across the ascending loop of Henle. This adds to the countercurrent multiplication which aids in proper water reabsorption later in the distal tubule and collecting duct.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Function.:Central nervous system.\n\nVasopressin released within the brain may have several actions:\n" ]	[ "Body should store urine to be used later." ]	[ "Urine is not useable later, it is just waste product that the body is expelling. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Body should store urine to be used later." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Urine is not useable later, it is just waste product that the body is expelling. " ]
2018-02139	Why can't college players accept contributions but politicians can?	Because the governing body over college athletics made a rule against accepting contributions, and the politicians (who are a self governing body) haven’t. Our political system has grown considerably since its inception. Obama was the first “billion dollar campaign”. There weren’t initially rules against it, and in the “winner takes all” system of American politics the guy who won playing the existing game, has no incentive to change the rules.	[ "There have been other cases where the controversy has been in regards to athletes’ rights to their public likeness. In the recent O’Bannon v. NCAA case, the allegation is in regards to student-athletes having an income level of zero for the use of their public likeness; the allegation is that the NCAA is in violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act due to the restriction of payment to student-athletes for their public likeness. In the Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. case, it is argued that student-athletes have a right to endorsements and other commercial promotional opportunities due to their status as public figures. It is stated within this case that public figures by definition are those with “pervasive fame or notoriety”, which many claim student-athletes to possess.\n", "Section::::Background.:Referendum.\n", "In a 2014 court case brought by a few Northwestern University football players against the NCAA, argued that the players should be able to unionize and bargain collectively. The court ruled in the players favor. The court's decision only applied to those football players at Northwestern on a scholarship. Required football practice and playing had reduced the time students could use to pursue their studies. Former player Kain Colter argued that athletic departments should decrease the maximum number of hours a player must participate in a sport to remain part of the team and retain a\n", "Section::::Claimed disadvantages.\n\nBoth collegiate and olympic athletes are considered amateur athletes. Unlike olympic athletes, NCAA student-athletes do not have a right to receive payment for their public likeness. It is due to the NCAA's definition of amateurism that collegiate athletes do not have this right. An example of this can be seen in the case of Jeremy Bloom v. NCAA. Jeremy Bloom was an olympic skier who had opportunities to receive endorsement deals for his skiing ability, but could not do so if he wished to be eligible to participate as an amateur collegiate athlete.\n", "In the winter of 2014 Cain Kolter, then two year starting quarterback for the Northwestern University football team, held a meeting with Head Coach Pat Fitzgerald to express concerns about how the NCAA rules and regulations put college athletes at a disadvantage in life. He spoke to Fitz about his concerns for healthcare after college athletes were done playing their sport and also for athletes being unfairly exploited. He partnered with Ramogi Huma, who played linebacker for UCLA in the late 1990s, to bring his case to the National Labor Relations Board.\n", "Section::::NFL presidency.:Ban on use of college players.\n", "Doug Walker, the school's associate athletic director for media relations, said \"Decisions about medical disqualifications for student-athletes are made by medical professionals and adhere to the parameters outlined by the NCAA…and the Southeastern Conference.\"\n", "Because of their demanding schedules, most athletes have no time to make any additional money, making it difficult to help support needy family members. In 2010 ESPN published an article about Ohio State football players that had been sanctioned by the NCAA for accepting free tattoos and selling memorabilia they had earned. However, there are many that argue that student athletes selling of personal and earned memorabilia is their right, with gray-areas where which the NCAA has a hard time justifying their punishments.\n\nSection::::Debate over paying athletes.:Professional pay.:Court cases.\n", "Paying college athletes would present several legal issues for the NCAA and its member institutions. If paid, the athletes would lose their amateur status and become university employees. As employees, these athletes would be entitled the National Labor Relations Act to form or join labor organizations and collectively bargain. Advocacy groups for college players could certify as a union given the revenue involved in college athletics.\" Collegiate sports is not a career or profession, paying college athletes would present issues under Title IX, which requires that institutions accepting federal funds offer equal opportunities to men and women.\"\n", "Section::::Debate over paying athletes.:Licensing of likenesses.\n", "In June 2014, the Big Ten Conference school presidents endorsed a proposal for four-year guaranteed scholarships that covered the full cost of attendance, although it had not yet moved to implement this proposal. This followed a policy statement by the school presidents of the Pac-12 Conference that stopped just short of endorsing the same.\n", "Section::::Subsequent developments.\n", "Section::::Career.:Nebraska Legislature.:1986 NCAA student athletes as state employees.\n", "Section::::Background.:Revision of the law.\n", "\"The NCAA also is setting up a $17 million Student-Athlete Opportunity Fund that has no financial-need restrictions. It's to be used for \"educational and developmental opportunities.\" [Nebraska Proposal, 2009]. This debate has caused certain elite colleges to take caution asking athletes to sign forms that prevent them from suing the college. The signed forms gives the college full imagery benefits, allowing them to use their names to sell team T-shirts and jerseys. Insurance wise - a plan proposed by William E. Kirwan, Ohio State University President, would insure athletes against injuries and mishaps during workouts, practices and games.\n", "In order to ensure that the rules are not circumvented, stringent rules restrict gift-giving during the recruitment process as well as during and even after a collegiate athlete's career; college athletes also cannot endorse products, which some may consider a violation of free speech rights.\n", "Tope does care for his players, and college coaches know that the AAU coach is often the main person who can sway a recruit's decision. Gabe York's single mother praises the influence that Tope has had on her son, who sleeps at Tope's house for part of the summer. When Gabe complains about his playing time on the Arizona Wildcats, Tope takes responsibility for helping him find a new college team if necessary. His former players say that he is involved in his players' college decisions and families.\n", "A student-athlete will lose their ability to participate in NCAA sporting events if they are discovered to be receiving payment through commercial advertisement, promotion, or endorsement.\n\nSection::::Background.:Official Amateurism Regulations: NCAA Bylaw 12.:12.5.2.2.\n\nThe names and pictures of student-athletes are to be made both aware and requested for use before they are utilized by a student-athlete or institution. It is the responsibility of both the student-athlete and the institution that this requirement is followed.\n\nSection::::Claimed benefits.\n", "For teams in the second-tier Division I FCS, scholarships are limited to an amount equal to 63 full scholarships. However, FCS schools are allowed to award partial scholarships, as long as the total number of \"counters\" (NCAA terminology for a person who counts against limits on players receiving financial aid for that sport) is no greater than 85. Effective with the 2017–18 recruiting cycle, FCS teams are free to award financial aid to any number of new players in a given year, as long as the overall team limits are met; previously, the annual limit on \"counters\" had been 30. \n", "Such scholarships have been characterized as salaries paid to the persons selected in order to induce them to perform for the hiring school. (The characterization of the salary as a \"scholarship\" is deemed necessary because, generally, at most American colleges, participation as a member of the school's athletic teams is a privilege accorded exclusively to enrolled students, and team members are, in theory, amateurs.)\n", "In response, State Representative Dave Karmol of Toledo introduced a bill that would have prohibited OHSAA from considering a student's state of residence in determining eligibility. Karmol said that Toledo-area schools, both public and private, supported the measure, but the bill did not advance.\n", "Another prohibition from the rules of amateurism that both student-athletes and coaches are impacted by is their inability to negotiate for compensation beyond the cost of tuition. In the Southeastern Conference, multiple football programs had come up with a stipend plan that would have been used to create more incentive for better-quality players to attend their university. Due to the rules of amateurism, this plan was not able to be carried out. The plan is claimed to have potentially produced more quality teams to better compete, thus stimulating increased fan satisfaction.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Some schools or leagues permitted by the NCAA to award athletic scholarships nevertheless prohibit them among their students. An example is the Ivy League, which is part of Division I FCS. The three service academies that participate in Division I FBS football (Army, Navy, and Air Force) are effectively exempt from NCAA scholarship limits because all students at those schools, whether or not they are varsity athletes, receive full scholarships from the service branch that operates the academy.\n", "The NCPA has successfully sponsored state laws such as The Student-Athletes Bill of Rights in California. The law requires colleges to pay for their athletes' sports-related medical expenses, prohibits them from taking scholarships away from athletes permanently injured in their sport, and requires them to extend scholarships up to one year for former players whose teams have low graduation rates. A version of this California law was introduced in Congress in November 2013. Huma has also served as a consultant in athletes' rights lawsuits including White v. NCAA, O'Bannon v. NCAA, and Jenkins v. NCAA.\n", "During the early 1840s, student-athletes contributed actively to all phases of administration and control. Student athletes were involved in the sporting process, made athletic procedures and regulations for universities and also played an important role in determining which sporting events would and would not happen on universities. Today, the kind of involvement on the part of the athlete is virtually unheard of, with the only remnants of student participation in athlete administration being programs in which student governments have some control over the distribution of free allocations to athletics. Furthermore, this movement today focuses on the role of intercollegiate sports in the United States rather than the contributions of the student athlete.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04332	Why does food taste different warm than it does cold?	Most flavors you taste are detected with your nose. You can taste 5 flavors with your tongue, but smell about 1 trillion odors/chemicals. When you heat up your food the odiferous chemicals in the food gain energy and evaporate, allowing you to be able to smell them easier. Thus making the food taste different.	[ "Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Starchiness.\n", "Section::::Appearance of warmed-over flavor.\n", "As Newton's law of cooling states, the rate of cooling of an object - whether by conduction, convection, or radiation - is approximately proportional to the temperature difference Δ\"T\". Frozen food will warm up faster in a warm room than in a cold room. Note that the rate of cooling experienced on a cold day can be increased by the added convection effect of the wind. This is referred to as wind chill. For example, a wind chill of -20 °C means that heat is being lost at the same rate as if the temperature were -20 °C without wind.\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "Visual, olfactive, “sapictive” (the perception of tastes), trigeminal (hot, cool), mechanical, all contribute to the perception of \"taste\". Of these, transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) vanilloid receptors are responsible for the perception of heat from some molecules such as capsaicin, and a CMR1 receptor is responsible for the perception of cold from molecules such as menthol, eucalyptol, and icilin.\n\nSection::::Tissue distribution.\n", "BULLET::::2. experience, such as prior exposure to taste-odor mixtures\n\nBULLET::::3. internal state\n\nBULLET::::4. cognitive context, such as information about brand\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Description.\n\nTemperature modality excites or elicits a symptom through cold or hot temperature. Different mammalian species have different temperature modality.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Perception.\n", "Surface chemistry of cooking\n\nIn cooking several factors, including materials, techniques, and temperature, can influence the surface chemistry of the chemical reactions and interactions that create food. All of these factors depend on the chemical properties of the surfaces of the materials used. The material properties of cookware, such as hydrophobicity, surface roughness, and conductivity can impact the taste of a dish dramatically. The technique of food preparation alters food in fundamentally different ways, which produce unique textures and flavors. The temperature of food preparation must be considered when choosing the correct ingredients.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.\n", "Section::::Forms of alliesthesia.\n\nBULLET::::- \"thermal\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of the thermic perception (heat and cold), which contributes fundamentally to homeostatic thermoregulation. It is an aspect of thermal comfort.\n\nBULLET::::- \"olfactory\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of olfaction (sense of smell)\n\nBULLET::::- \"gustatory\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of taste - see primary tastes (sweet, salty, bitter, acid, umami and \"calcium)\"\n\nBULLET::::- olfacto-gustatory alliesthesia or alimentary alliesthesia: alliesthesia of tastes/flavors pertaining to food intake\n\nBULLET::::- \"visual\"/optic alliesthesia: alliesthesia of vision\n\nBULLET::::- \"auditory\" alliesthesia: alliesthesia of the sense of hearing\n\nEach of these forms of alliesthesia exists in two opposite tendencies:\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n", "Warm and cold receptors play a part in sensing innocuous environmental temperature. Temperatures likely to damage an organism are sensed by sub-categories of nociceptors that may respond to noxious cold, noxious heat or more than one noxious stimulus modality (i.e., they are polymodal). The nerve endings of sensory neurons that respond preferentially to cooling are found in moderate density in the skin but also occur in relatively high spatial density in the cornea, tongue, bladder, and facial skin. The speculation is that lingual cold receptors deliver information that modulates the sense of taste; i.e. some foods taste good when cold, while others do not.\n", "Section::::Physical properties of wine.:Alcohol.\n\nAlcohol is the primary factor in dictating a wine's weight and body. Typically the higher the alcohol level, the more weight the wine has. An increase in alcohol content will increase the perception of density and texture. In food and wine pairing, salt and spicy heat will accentuate the alcohol and the perception of \"heat\" or hotness in the mouth. Conversely, the alcohol can also magnify the heat of spicy food making a highly alcoholic wine paired with a very spicy dish one that will generate a lot of heat for the taster.\n\nSection::::Other pairing principles.\n", "Thermoception\n\nThermoception or thermoreception is the sense by which an organism perceives temperature, or more accurately, temperature differences inferred from heat flux. The details of how temperature receptors work are still being investigated. Ciliopathy is associated with decreased ability to sense heat, thus cilia may aid in the process. Transient receptor potential channels (TRP channels) are believed to play a role in many species in sensation of hot, cold, and pain. Vertebrates have at least two types of sensor: those that detect heat and those that detect cold.\n", "BULLET::::4. Owing to the \"circumstances, conditions or dispositions,\" the same objects appear different. The same temperature, as established by instrument, feels very different after an extended period of cold winter weather (it feels warm) than after mild weather in the autumn (it feels cold). Time appears slow when young and fast as aging proceeds. Honey tastes sweet to most but bitter to someone with jaundice. A person with influenza will feel cold and shiver even though she is hot with a fever.\n", "Flavor\n\nFlavor (American English) or flavour (British English; see spelling differences) is the sensory impression of food or other substances, and is determined primarily by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The \"trigeminal senses\", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall gestalt of flavor perception. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants which affect these senses.\n", "Section::::Research.:Genotypic and phenotypic adaptation in humans.:PTC taste perception.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Viewers.\n", "Warmed-over flavor is an unpleasant characteristic usually associated with meat which has been cooked and then refrigerated. The deterioration of meat flavor is most noticeable upon reheating. As cooking and subsequent refrigeration is the case with most convenience foods containing meat, it is a significant challenge to the processed food industry. The flavor is variously described as \"rancid,\" \"stale,\" and like \"cardboard,\" and even compared to \"damp dog hair.\" Warmed-over flavor is caused by the oxidative decomposition of lipids (fatty substances) in the meat into chemicals (short-chain aldehydes or ketones) which have an unpleasant taste or odor. This decomposition process begins after cooking or processing and is aided by the release of naturally occurring iron in the meat.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Energy expenditure increases when ambient temperature is above or below the thermal neutral zone (the range of ambient temperature in which energy expenditure is not required for homeothermy). \n", "When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.\n", "Section::::Food safety.:Mechanisms.:Low-Temperature Process.\n\nLow-temperature processing also plays an essential role in food processing and storage. During this process, microorganisms and enzymes are subjected to low temperatures. Unlike heating, chilling does not destroy the enzymes and microorganisms but simply reduces their activity, which is effective as long as the temperature is maintained. As the temperature is raised, activity will rise again accordingly. It follows that, unlike heating, the effect of preservation by cold is not permanent; hence the importance of maintaining the \"cold chain\" throughout the shelf life of the food product. (Chapter 16 pg, 396) \n", "The Heredity of Taste\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "\"heat, in the earth as well as in the air, can come regularly only from the rays of the sun.\n\nI dare say, however, that I was lucky enough to imitate it a little in regards to some small fruits: I succeeded in making some ripen five or six weeks early, for instance, strawberries at the end of March, early vegetables and peas in April, figs in June, asparagus and lettuces in December, January …\"\n", "Section::::Physical properties of wine.:Sweetness.\n", "It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television rays that are not related to temperature. Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. People are constantly radiating their body heat, but at different rates. From these values, the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer, which explains the “chill” we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01811	How does someone freeze to death? What exactly happens inside the body to be fatal?	Life depends on a number of biochemical reactions that occur in each and every cell in your body. All chemical reactions (and this includes those upon which life depends) are affected by temperature. In general, decreasing temperature tends to slow chemical reactions (particularly exothermic chemical reactions, which describes most of the chemical reactions upon which life depends). Dropping the temperature of the body affects virtually every organ system. It causes the heart to slow (because, in part, the chemical reactions in heart muscles required to cause heart contraction are slowed by lower temperature). It causes blood to reduce its capacity to carry oxygen. It causes basic energy-producing chemical reactions in every cell (cellular respiration) to slow, and to produce less energy molecules (i.e. ATP, etc) required for basic cellular function. It causes nerve conduction to slow and slows down neurotrasmitter release. In short, through a number of mechanisms at the cellular and organ level, it causes cellular activity to slow, and, eventually, to be unable to maintain the intracellular environment required for life. Cells die, organ systems fail, which causes more cell death, until the body is in a catch-22 of death and becomes irrecoverable.	[ "BULLET::::- John Smith, a 14-year-old boy who survived 15 minutes under ice in a frozen lake before paramedics arrived to pull him onto dry land and saved him.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mitsutaka Uchikoshi, a Japanese man who survived the cold for 24 days in 2006 without food or water when he fell into a state similar to hibernation\n\nBULLET::::- Paulie Hynek, who, at age two, survived several hours of hypothermia-induced cardiac arrest and whose body temperature reached\n\nBULLET::::- Erika Nordby, a toddler who in 2001 was revived after two hours without apparent heartbeat with a body temperature of about\n\nSection::::Basic principles.:Human hibernation.\n", "BULLET::::- 31 °C (87.8 °F) – Comatose, very rarely conscious. No or slight reflexes. Very shallow breathing and slow heart rate. Possibility of serious heart rhythm problems.\n\nBULLET::::- 28 °C (82.4 °F) – Severe heart rhythm disturbances are likely and breathing may stop at any time. Patient may appear to be dead.\n\nBULLET::::- 24–26 °C (75.2–78.8 °F) or less – Death usually occurs due to irregular heart beat or respiratory arrest; however, some patients have been known to survive with body temperatures as low as .\n\nSection::::Historical understanding.\n", "BULLET::::- or more – Almost certainly death will occur; however, people have been known to survive up to .\n\nBULLET::::- – Normally death, or there may be serious brain damage, continuous convulsions and shock. Cardio-respiratory collapse will likely occur.\n\nBULLET::::- – Subject may turn pale or remain flushed and red. They may become comatose, be in severe delirium, vomiting, and convulsions can occur. Blood pressure may be high or low and heart rate will be very fast.\n", "Some examples of people that have returned from this apparent interruption of life lasting over half an hour, two hours, eight hours or more while adhering to these specific conditions for oxygen and temperature have been reported and analysed in depth, but these cases are not considered scientifically valid. The brain begins to die after five minutes without oxygen; nervous tissues die intermediately when a \"somatic death\" occurs while muscles die over one to two hours following this last condition.\n", "Signs of death or strong indications that a warm-blooded animal is no longer alive are:\n\nBULLET::::- Respiratory arrest (no breathing)\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiac arrest (no pulse)\n\nBULLET::::- Brain death (no neuronal activity)\n\nBULLET::::- , paleness which happens in the 15–120 minutes after death\n\nBULLET::::- , the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature\n\nBULLET::::- , the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin \"rigor\") and difficult to move or manipulate\n\nBULLET::::- , a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body\n\nBULLET::::- Putrefaction, the beginning signs of decomposition\n", "BULLET::::- 34 °C (93.2 °F) – Severe shivering, loss of movement of fingers, blueness and confusion. Some behavioural changes may take place.\n\nBULLET::::- 33 °C (91.4 °F) – Moderate to severe confusion, sleepiness, depressed reflexes, progressive loss of shivering, slow heart beat, shallow breathing. Shivering may stop. Subject may be unresponsive to certain stimuli.\n\nBULLET::::- 32 °C (89.6 °F) – (Medical emergency) – Hallucinations, delirium, complete confusion, extreme sleepiness that is progressively becoming comatose. Shivering is absent (subject may even think they are hot). Reflex may be absent or very slight.\n", "At the onset of clinical death, consciousness is lost within several seconds. Measurable brain activity stops within 20 to 40 seconds. Irregular gasping may occur during this early time period, and is sometimes mistaken by rescuers as a sign that CPR is not necessary. During clinical death, all tissues and organs in the body steadily accumulate a type of injury called ischemic injury.\n\nSection::::Limits of reversal.\n", "Reduced body temperature, or therapeutic hypothermia, during clinical death slows the rate of injury accumulation, and extends the time period during which clinical death can be survived. The decrease in the rate of injury can be approximated by the Q rule, which states that the rate of biochemical reactions decreases by a factor of two for every 10 °C reduction in temperature. As a result, humans can sometimes survive periods of clinical death exceeding one hour at temperatures below 20 °C. The prognosis is improved if clinical death is caused by hypothermia rather than occurring prior to it; in 1999, 29-year-old Swedish woman Anna Bågenholm spent 80 minutes trapped in ice and survived with a near full recovery from a 13.7 °C core body temperature. It is said in emergency medicine that \"nobody is dead until they are warm and dead.\" In animal studies, up to three hours of clinical death can be survived at temperatures near 0 °C.\n", "BULLET::::- Unnamed White Female - Aged sixty-five to eighty. Mother of \"Phyllis Crowder.\" She was decapitated low on the cervical spine, arms and legs severed. She had been dismembered by cutting straight through the strong bones of the humerus and femur. Probably hit in the head that resulted in a basilar skull fracture. It was later discovered she was infected with a smallpox-like virus, before being killed, and she was just a copycat killing to the five unidentified victims in Dublin, Ireland and the four unidentified victims in Virginia.\n", "The laboratory of Mark Roth at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and institutes such as Suspended Animation, Inc are trying to implement suspended animation as a medical procedure which involves the therapeutic induction to a complete and temporary systemic ischemia, directed to obtain a state of tolerance for the protection-preservation of the entire organism, this during a circulatory collapse \"only by a limited period of one hour\". The purpose to avoid a serious injury, risk of brain damage or death, until the patient reaches specialized attention.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Brain death\n\nBULLET::::- Coma\n\nBULLET::::- Cryptobiosis\n\nBULLET::::- Immortality\n", "Certain surgeries for cerebral aneurysms or aortic arch defects require that blood circulation be stopped while repairs are performed. This deliberate temporary induction of clinical death is called circulatory arrest. It is typically performed by lowering body temperature to between 18 °C and 20 °C (64 and 68 °F) and stopping the heart and lungs. This state is called deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. At such low temperatures most patients can tolerate the clinically dead state for up to 30 minutes without incurring significant brain injury.\n\nLonger durations are possible at lower temperatures, but the usefulness of longer procedures has not been established yet.\n", "The Norwegian Medical Association classifies what other jurisdictions might call \"undetermined\" as \"unnatural\":\n\nBULLET::::- Sudden and unexpected death of an unknown cause\n\nBULLET::::- Deaths in prison or while in civilian or military detention\n\nSection::::Legal implications.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "It is usually recommended not to declare a person dead until their body is warmed to a near normal body temperature of greater than , since extreme hypothermia can suppress heart and brain function. Exceptions include if there is an obvious fatal injuries or the chest is frozen so that it cannot be compressed. If a person was buried in an avalanche for more than 35 minutes and is found with a mouth packed full of snow without a pulse, stopping early may also be reasonable. This is also the case if a person's blood potassium is greater than 12 mmol/l.\n", "Section::::Death.:Autopsy.\n", "A low core body temperature, defined clinically as a temperature of less than 35 degrees Celsius (95 degrees Fahrenheit). The patient is re-warmed either by using a cardiac bypass or by irrigation of the body cavities (such as thorax, peritoneum, bladder) with warm fluids; or warmed IV fluids. CPR only is given until the core body temperature reached 30 degrees Celsius, as defibrillation is ineffective at lower temperatures. Patients have been known to be successfully resuscitated after periods of hours in hypothermia and cardiac arrest, and this has given rise to the often-quoted medical truism, \"You're not dead until you're warm and dead.\"\n", "In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room. In science fiction scenarios where such technology is readily available, real death is distinguished from reversible death.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::- Later, the skin becomes black and mummified. The amount of permanent damage can take one month or more to determine. Autoamputation can occur after two months.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Practicing cosmetic surgery on cadaver heads\n\nBULLET::::- Body snatching and the early years of human dissection\n\nBULLET::::- The nature of decomposition\n\nBULLET::::- Cadavers for use as crash test dummies\n\nBULLET::::- Using cadavers to analyze a crash site\n\nBULLET::::- Army tests on cadavers\n\nBULLET::::- Crucifixion experiments\n\nBULLET::::- Beating heart cadavers, the soul, and being buried alive\n\nBULLET::::- Decapitation and human head transplant\n\nBULLET::::- Cannibalism in the name of medicine\n\nBULLET::::- New alternatives to burial and cremation\n\nBULLET::::- The author's views on her own remains\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Roach's website\n", "BULLET::::- Turtle Freeze - Both arms are bent in front of the chest with the elbows stabbing into either the abs or surrounding area. All the weight is placed onto the hands and the rest of the body is suspended above the ground. See float.\n\nBULLET::::- Birthday Elbow- a freeze on the elbow wherein the bboy's head rests on his hand, the body is horizontal, facing the ground.\n\nBULLET::::- Flag-standing on one hand while facing the side and punched the other hand forward\n", "Frozen pelvis is sometimes classified into one of several patterns:\n\nBULLET::::- Centrifugal\n\nBULLET::::- Centripetal\n\nBULLET::::- Left-frozen\n\nBULLET::::- Complete\n\nSection::::Outcomes.\n\nIf undiagnosed and untreated, complications can include bowel obstruction, several kinds of hydronephrosis and other damage to the urinary tract, and damage to pelvic nerves. \n", "Quinn wakes up on an exam table at Ft. Preston Army Base. The shocked coroner explains that he arrived in a body-bag and had been pronounced DOA. Suddenly feeling a pain in his right arm, Quinn grabs a scalpel and cuts it open. Gushing out of the wound is green blood and a strange scorpion, which he crushes. The incision then rapidly heals, and Quinn finds that he now possesses superhuman strength. He also begins feeling intense hunger that can only be dulled by ingesting raw, red meat.\n", "BULLET::::- Died: Judith Graham Pool, 56, American physician who developed the cryoprecipitate, a blood clotting agent for treatment of hemophilia.\n\nSection::::July 14, 1975 (Monday).\n", "\"Mechanism of death\" is sometimes used to refer to the proximate cause of death, which might differ than the cause that is used to classify the manner of death. For example, the proximate cause or mechanism of death might be brain ischemia (lack of blood flow to the brain), caused by a malignant neoplasm (cancer), in turn caused by a dose of ionizing radiation administered by a person with intent to kill or injure, leading to certification of the manner of death as \"homicide\".\n", "BULLET::::1. formation of ice crystals within cells thereby disrupting membranes, and interrupting cellular metabolism among other processes;\n\nBULLET::::2. coagulation of blood thereby interrupting bloodflow to the tissue in turn causing ischemia and cell death; and\n\nBULLET::::3. induction of apoptosis, the so-called programmed cell death cascade.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03439	What happens to a digital file when it's deleted	Your computer keeps a registry of the location of the data for that file. On a traditional Hard Disk Drive, that means the coordinates on the actual, physical, rotating disk (think track number on a CD - or record if you're old enough). On a Solid State Drive, it's a little more complicated with virtual locations and whatnot, but the idea is the same. Your data is stored at a location, and the registry knows where that location is. It's kind of like how the post office knows where your house is without keeping your entire house in the post office. When you write data to your drive, that location is protected so it can't be overwritten, because the registry tells the drive that the location is being used. When you delete a file, the entry in the registry is deleted. That's it. The post office forgets your address. The data remains there until that location is used for new data, at which point it is overwritten and "deleted". On an HDD, that means the metal disk is remagnetized (or demagnetized) at that location, switching the old combination of 1s and 0s to the new data. On an SDD, that means the NAND gates, which hold 1 or 0, are reset and again, changed to the new data. On HDDs, the process of changing the magnetization of the disk is not perfect. Remnants of the old pattern can be pulled up, which is what law enforcement agencies do when they go through disks to pull up deleted files.	[ "When a file is deleted, the meta-information about this file (filename, date/time, size, location of the first data block/cluster, etc.) is lost; e.g., in an ext3/ext4 filesystem, the names of deleted files are still present, but the location of the first data block is removed. This means the data is still present on the filesystem, but only until some or all of it is overwritten by new file data.\n", "When data is deleted from storage devices, the references to the data are removed from the directory structure. The space can then be used, or overwritten, with data from other files or computer functions. The deleted data itself is not immediately removed from the physical drive and often exists as a number of disconnected fragments. This data, so long as it is not overwritten, can be recovered.\n", "The workings of undeletion depend on the file system on which the deleted file was stored. Some file systems, such as HFS, cannot provide an undeletion feature because no information about the deleted file is retained (except by additional software, which is not usually present). Some file systems, however, do not erase all traces of a deleted file, including FAT file systems:\n\nSection::::Mechanics.:FAT file systems.\n", "On most media types, including standard magnetic hard disks, once data has been securely deleted it can never be recovered.\n\nOnce evidence is recovered the information is analysed to reconstruct events or actions and to reach conclusions, work that can often be performed by less specialized staff. Digital investigators, particularly in criminal investigations, have to ensure that conclusions are based upon data and their own expert knowledge. In the US, for example, Federal Rules of Evidence state that a qualified expert may testify “in the form of an opinion or otherwise” so long as:\n\nSection::::Reporting.\n", "Various types of techniques are used to recover evidence, usually involving some form of keyword searching within the acquired image file, either to identify matches to relevant phrases or to filter out known file types. Certain files (such as graphic images) have a specific set of bytes which identify the start and end of a file. If identified, a deleted file can be reconstructed. Many forensic tools use hash signatures to identify notable files or to exclude known (benign) files; acquired data is hashed and compared to pre-compiled lists such as the \"Reference Data Set\" (RDS) from the National Software Reference Library\n", "In a similar way, file data can be updated or even removed. Removal is, however, only virtual: the removed content does not appear any more in the directory shown to the user, but it is still physically present on the disc. It can therefore be recovered, and it takes up space (such that the CD will become full even though appearing to still have unused space).\n\nSection::::Multiple session overview.:Support.\n", "In a third scenario, files have been accidentally \"deleted\" from a storage medium by the users. Typically, the contents of deleted files are not removed immediately from the physical drive; instead, references to them in the directory structure are removed, and thereafter space the deleted data occupy is made available for later data overwriting. In the mind of end users, deleted files cannot be discoverable through a standard file manager, but the deleted data still technically exists on the physical drive. In the meantime, the original file contents remain, often in a number of disconnected fragments, and may be recoverable if not overwritten by other data files.\n", "Discarded computers, disk drives and media are also a potential source of plaintexts. Most operating systems do not actually erase anything—they simply mark the disk space occupied by a deleted file as 'available for use', and remove its entry from the file system directory. The information in a file deleted in this way remains fully present until overwritten at some later time when the operating system reuses the disk space. With even low-end computers commonly sold with many gigabytes of disk space and rising monthly, this 'later time' may be months later, or never. Even overwriting the portion of a disk surface occupied by a deleted file is insufficient in many cases. Peter Gutmann of the University of Auckland wrote a celebrated 1996 paper on the recovery of overwritten information from magnetic disks; areal storage densities have gotten much higher since then, so this sort of recovery is likely to be more difficult than it was when Gutmann wrote. \n", "Below are several digital images illustrating data degradation, all consist of 326,272 bits. The original photo is displayed on the left. In the next image to the right, a single bit was changed from 0 to 1. In the next two images, two and three bits were flipped. On Linux systems, the binary difference between files can be revealed using command (e.g. ).\n\nSection::::In RAM.\n", "When a file is \"deleted\" using a FAT file system, the directory entry remains almost unchanged except for the first character of the file name, preserving most of the \"deleted\" file's name, along with its time stamp, file length and — most importantly — its physical location on the disk. The list of disk clusters occupied by the file will, however, be erased from the \"File Allocation Table\", marking those sectors available for use by other files created or modified thereafter. In case of FAT32, it is additionally erased field responsible for upper 16 bits of file start cluster value.\n", "NTFS stores file information as a set of fixed-size records (typically, 1KB) within the so-called Master File Table (MFT). File name and file allocation information are encapsulated into these records, providing complete information about each specific file. When the system deletes a file, the entry in the Master File Table is released to be either unlinked or reused, but it still remains on disk.\n\nUntil the MFT entry is reused or overwritten, the file can be easily recovered: data recovery software can find the \"lost\" MFT entry and derive full information about the lost file from it.\n", "If one of the links is removed with the POSIX unlink function (for example, with the UNIX codice_8 command), then the data are still accessible through any other link that remains. If all of the links are removed and no process has the file open, then the space occupied by the data is freed, allowing it to be reused in the future. This semantic allows for deleting open files without affecting the process that uses them. This technique is commonly used to ensure that temporary files are deleted automatically on program termination, including the case of abnormal termination.\n", "A process called undeleting allows the recreation of links to data that are no longer associated with a name. However, this process is not available on all systems and is often not reliable. When a file is deleted, it is added to a free space map for re-use. If a portion of the deleted file space is claimed by new data, undeletion will be unsuccessful, because some or all of the previous data will have been overwritten, and may result in cross-linking with the new data and leading to filesystem corruption. Additionally, deleted files on solid state drives may be erased at any time by the storage device for reclamation as free space.\n", "During the analysis an investigator usually recovers evidence material using a number of different methodologies (and tools), often beginning with recovery of deleted material. Examiners use specialist tools (EnCase, ILOOKIX, FTK, etc.) to aid with viewing and recovering data. The type of data recovered varies depending on the investigation, but examples include email, chat logs, images, internet history or documents. The data can be recovered from accessible disk space, deleted (unallocated) space or from within operating system cache files.\n", "All converted files are available and writable in the default subvolume of the Btrfs. A sparse file holding all of the references to the original ext2/3/4 filesystem is created in a separate subvolume, which is mountable on its own as a read-only disk image, allowing both original and converted file systems to be accessed at the same time. Deleting this sparse file frees up the space and makes the conversion permanent.\n", "\"Off-line storage\" is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.\n", "Even when an explicit deleted file retention facility is not provided or when the user does not use it, operating systems do not actually remove the contents of a file when it is deleted unless they are aware that explicit erasure commands are required, like on a solid-state drive. (In such cases, the operating system will issue the Serial ATA TRIM command or the SCSI UNMAP command to let the drive know to no longer maintain the deleted data.) Instead, they simply remove the file's entry from the file system directory, because this requires less work and is therefore faster, and the contents of the file—the actual data—remain on the storage medium. The data will remain there until the operating system reuses the space for new data. In some systems, enough filesystem metadata are also left behind to enable easy undeletion by commonly available utility software. Even when undelete has become impossible, the data, until it has been overwritten, can be read by software that reads disk sectors directly. Computer forensics often employs such software.\n", "Undeletion\n\nUndeletion is a feature for restoring computer files which have been removed from a file system by file deletion. Deleted data can be recovered on many file systems, but not all file systems provide an undeletion feature. Recovering data without an undeletion facility is usually called data recovery, rather than undeletion. Although undeletion can help prevent users from accidentally losing data, it can also pose a computer security risk, since users may not be aware that deleted files remain accessible.\n\nSection::::Support.\n", "Whenever a member is deleted, the space it occupied is unusable for storing other data. Likewise, if a member is re-written, it is stored in a new spot at the back of the PDS and leaves wasted “dead” space in the middle. The only way to recover “dead” space is to perform frequent file compression. Compression, which is done using the IEBCOPY utility, \n", "Data recovery is often performed by specialized commercial services that have developed often proprietary methods to recover data from physically damaged media. Service costs at data recovery labs are usually dependent on type of damage and type of storage medium, as well as the required security or cleanroom procedures.\n\nFile system corruption can frequently be repaired by the user or the system administrator. For example, a deleted file is typically not immediately overwritten on disk, but more often simply has its entry deleted from the file system index. In such a case, the deletion can be easily reversed.\n", "If certain requirements are met, Missouri law allows a person to have an arrest record expunged, which the law of Missouri defines as the process of legally destroying, obliterating or striking out records or information in files, computers and other depositories relating to criminal charges. Records expunged under this provision still may be opened to law enforcement if the person is charged with a subsequent offense or if any of the requirements of expungement no longer are met.\n", "Using a copy-on-write technique known as \"nothing in life is free\", NILFS records all data in a continuous log-like format that is only appended to, never overwritten, an approach that is designed to reduce seek times, as well as minimize the kind of data loss that occurs after a crash with conventional file systems. For example, data loss occurs on ext3 file systems when the system crashes during a write operation. When the system reboots, the journal notes that the write did not complete, and any partial data writes are lost.\n", "When a file with a clear archive bit is moved from one place on a file system to another, the archive bit reverts to being set.\n\nTypically on a computer system that has never been backed up in a manner that clears archive bits, all files on that computer will have their archive bits set, as there are few applications that make use of archive bits without the user's request.\n\nAs the archive bit is a file attribute and not part of the file itself; the contents of the file remain unchanged when the status of the archive bit changes.\n", "When a file is deleted, only the entry in the file system metadata is removed, while the actual data is still on the disk. After a format and even a repartitioning it might be that most of raw data is untouched and can be recovered using file carving.\n\nSection::::Carving schemes.\n\nSection::::Carving schemes.:Bifragment gap carving.\n", "Sometimes, data present in the physical drives (Internal/External Hard disk, Pen Drive, etc.) gets lost, deleted and formatted due to circumstances like virus attack, accidental deletion or accidental use of SHIFT+DELETE. In these cases, data recovery software are used to recover/restore the data files.\n\nSection::::Logical damage.:Logical bad sector.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11985	Why are marking animals able to stop urinating mid-stream while humans are not?	Humans absolutely can stop urinating mid stream. As a matter of fact, that is the top recommended practice for women after giving birth, as the pelvic floor muscles have been weakened. Obgyn will tell women to practice stopping their urine mid stream to get those muscles toned back up, and to do kegals throughout the day.	[ "Within the Felidae, male felids can urinate backwards by curving the tip of the glans penis backward. Urine marking by felids is also known as \"spray-urinating\" or \"spray-marking\".\n\nTo identify their territories, male tigers mark trees by spraying urine and anal gland secretions, as well as marking trails with scat. Males show a grimacing face, called the Flehmen response, when identifying a female's reproductive condition by sniffing their urine markings.\n", "Raised-leg urination is the most significant form of scent marking in wolves, and is most frequent around the breeding season. Wolves urine-mark more frequently when they detect the scent of other wolves, or other canid species. Leg-lifting is more common in male wolves than female wolves, although dominant females also use the raised-leg posture. Other types of urine-marking in wolves are FLU (flexed-leg urination), STU (standing urination), and SQU (squatting urination). Breeding pairs of wolves will sometimes urinate on the same spot: this is known as \"double-marking\". Double-marking is practiced by both coyotes and wolves., and also by foxes.\n", "Most other mammals studied, including the pig, cow, cat, dog, bushbaby, macaque, chimpanzee and orangutan, have a single Mup gene. Some, however, have an expanded number: horses have three Mup genes, and gray mouse lemurs have at least two. Insects, fish, amphibia, birds and marsupials appear to have disrupted synteny at the chromosomal position of the Mup gene cluster, suggesting the gene family may be specific to placental mammals. Humans are the only placental mammals found not to have any active Mup genes; instead, they have a single Mup pseudogene containing a mutation that causes missplicing, rendering it dysfunctional.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Red foxes use their urine to mark their territories. A male fox raises one hind leg and his urine is sprayed forward in front of him, whereas a female fox squats down so that the urine is sprayed in the ground between the hind legs. Urine is also used to mark empty cache sites, as reminders not to waste time investigating them. Red foxes use to urinate, depending on where they are leaving a scent mark.\n", "Domestic dogs mark their territories by urinating on vertical surfaces (usually at nose level), sometimes marking over the urine of other dogs. When one dog marks over another dog's urine, this is known as \"counter-marking\" or \"overmarking\". Male dogs urine-mark more frequently than female dogs, typically beginning after the onset of sexual maturity. Male dogs, as well as wolves, sometimes lift a leg and attempt to urinate even when their bladders are empty – this is known as a \"raised-leg display\", \"shadow-urination\", or \"pseudo-urination\". They typically mark their territory due to the presence of new stimuli or social triggers in a dog's environment, as well as out of anxiety. Marking behavior is present in both male and female dogs, and is especially pronounced in male dogs that have not been neutered.\n", "Stallions sometimes exhibit the Flehmen response by smelling the urine of a mare in heat. A stallion sometimes scent marks his urination spots to make his position as herd stallion clear. A male horse's penis is protected by a sheath when it is not in use for urination.\n", "Section::::Behavior and life history.:Communication.\n\nSection::::Behavior and life history.:Communication.:Olfactory.\n\nRodents use scent marking in many social contexts including inter- and intra-species communication, the marking of trails and the establishment of territories. Their urine provides genetic information about individuals including the species, the sex and individual identity, and metabolic information on dominance, reproductive status and health. Compounds derived from the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are bound to several urinary proteins. The odor of a predator depresses scent-marking behavior.\n", "In stallions, the retractor penis muscle contracts to retract the stallion's penis into the sheath and relaxes to allow the penis to extend from the sheath.\n\nThe penis sheath of a male axis deer is elongated and urine-stained. When rubbing trees with their horns, these stags sometimes move the penis back and forth rapidly inside its sheath. Male bison and fallow deer have tufts of fur at the end of their penis sheaths.\n\nIn rodents, the length of the prepuce is related to urine marking behavior.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Horse sheath cleaning\n", "The flehmen response is not limited to intra-species communication. Goats have been tested for their flehmen response to urine from 20 different species, including several non-mammalian species. This study suggests there is a common element in the urine of all animals, an interspecific pheromone, which elicits flehmen behavior. Specifically, chemical pheromone levels of a modified form of androgen, a sex hormone, were associated with the response in goats.\n\nSection::::Mammals exhibiting.\n\nA wide range of mammals exhibit flehmen including both predatory and non-predatory species.\n", "As in most other canids, male bush dogs lift their hind legs when urinating. However, female bush dogs use a kind of handstand posture, which is less common in other canids. When male bush dogs urinate, they create a spray instead of a stream.\n", "Territorial scent marking may involve behaviours specific to this activity. When a wolf marks its territory, it lifts a hind leg and urinates on a scent post (usually an elevated position like a tree, rock, or bush). This raised leg urination is different from normal urination, which is done while squatting. This posture is exclusive to alpha wolves of either sex, although the alpha male does this most often. The alpha female usually urinates on a scent post that her breeding partner has just urinated on, although during the mating season, the female may first urinate on the ground. All other females in the pack, and also young wolves and low-ranking male wolves, urinate while squatting. Males and female ring-tailed lemurs (\"Lemur catta\") scent-mark both vertical and horizontal surfaces at the overlaps in their home ranges using their anogenital scent glands. To do this, they perform a handstand to mark vertical surfaces, grasping the highest point with their feet while applying the scent.\n", "A male Patagonian mara, a type of rodent, will stand on his hind legs and urinate on a female's rump, to which the female may respond by spraying a jet of urine backwards into the face of the male. The male's urination is meant to repel other males from his partner while the female's urination is a rejection of any approaching male when she is not receptive. Both anal digging and urination are more frequent during the breeding season and are more commonly done by males.\n", "Unlike other deer species, chital do not spray urine on their bodies. Instead, male chital mark their territory by dripping urine in scrapes, and then pawing them.\n\nSambar stags will wallow and dig their antlers in urine soaked soil and then rub against tree trunks. A stag will also mark himself by spraying urine directly in the face with a highly mobile penis, which is often erect during rutting activities. Similar urine-spraying behavior is common in other deer species, and is known as \"automarking\".\n", "Throughout the year white-tailed deer will rub-urinate, a process during which a deer squats while urinating so that urine will run down the insides of the deer's legs, over the tarsal glands, and onto the hair covering these glands. Bucks rub-urinate more frequently during the breeding season.\n\nSection::::Ungulates.:Deer.:Elk.\n", "Most vertebrates have some form of duct to transfer the sperm from the testes to the urethra. In cartilaginous fish and amphibians, sperm is carried through the archinephric duct, which also partially helps to transport urine from the kidneys. In teleosts, there is a distinct sperm duct, separate from the ureters, and often called the vas deferens, although probably not truly homologous with that in humans. The vas deferens loops over the ureter in marsupials, but not in placental mammals.\n", "Urine spraying is a variable behaviour. It may consist of simply dribbling a few drops of urine, or, large rhythmic discharges from an erect penis. A stream may be aimed at the mane on the neck, or, a fine mist might be sprayed against the stomach. The bull usually rub/palpates during this process. The urine can be voided almost at right angles to the erect penis. When a large volume of urine is sprayed, it usually takes place at a wallow. When urine spraying, the bull lowers his head towards the ground. In this position, his mane becomes soaked as he sprays urine forwards, between his legs. Once the wallow has been created, the male elk lowers himself into the area, rolls on his side and rub his mane on the soaked area of the wallow. He rubs the side of his face, his chest, stomach, legs, and flanks, which all become caked with mud. During wallowing, the elk's penis may remain erect and he may continue to spray urine.\n", "BULLET::::- Relief from biting insects - tamaraw (\"Bubalus mindorensis\"), American bison, tapirs (\"Tapirus bairdii\"), warthog, elephants\n\nBULLET::::- Play in young animals - American bison\n\nBULLET::::- Skin maintenance (preventing dehydration) - hippopotamus (\"Hippopotamus amphibius\")\n\nBULLET::::- Camouflage - warthog\n\nBULLET::::- Scent-marking - Some animals urinate in a wallow before entering and rolling in it, presumably as a form of scent-marking behaviour\n\nSection::::Domestic pigs.\n", "Initial post-operative complications include wound infection and excessive pain or bleeding. These can be controlled commonly with appropriate prescription medications or ice packs if the animal will tolerate them. A more concerning, though not common, complication is stricture, or narrowing, of the surgery site. The formation of a stricture will require additional procedures to either try and salvage the initial surgery site or create a new urethral opening (or stoma) under the floor of the pelvis (subpelvic urethrostomy) or immediately in front of the pubic bone (prepubic urethrostomy).\n", "Section::::Other animals.:Mammals.\n\nAll mammals have a urinary bladder. This structure begins as an embryonic cloaca. In the vast majority, this eventually becomes differentiated into a dorsal part connected to the intestine and a ventral part which becomes associated with the urinogenital passage and urinary bladder. The only mammals in which this does not take place are the platypus and the spiny anteater both of which retain the cloaca into adulthood.\n", "Pheromonal suppression of subordinate male and female reproduction is implicated as the mechanism by which dominant breeding pairs suppress the reproduction of non-breeders in communally and cooperatively breeding species, especially in the absence of stress as an explanation. Wolves (\"Canis lupus\"), coyotes (\"Canis latrons\") and hunting dogs \"(Lycaon pictus\") live in packs with a dominant breeding pair that does most of the territorial urine scent marking in the group. During the breeding season the dominant male urinates over the dominant female's urine, possibly to hide the female's reproductive status from other males. Pheromones in urine are implicated as a possible mechanism to shut down the subordinate's reproductive cycle. Only the dominant pair mate and have young, producing one litter per year. Subordinate females either do not exhibit estrous hormonal changes or they occur irregularly. Occasionally a subordinate animal leaves the pack and forms a new mating pair when it then exhibits of the territorial urine marking and mating behavior that was suppressed when living in the presence of the dominant breeding pair.\n", "Hyenas do not raise their legs as canids do when urinating, as urination serves no territorial function for them. Instead, hyenas mark their territories using their anal glands, a trait found also in viverrids and mustelids, but not canids and felids. Unlike other female mammals, female spotted hyenas urinate, copulate, and give birth through an organ called the pseudo-penis.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Duration.\n\nResearch looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size. Smaller species including rodents and bats cannot produce jets and instead urinate with a series of drops.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Quantity.\n", "In lungfish and tetrapods, the renal portal vein is joined by a vein traveling upwards from the abdominal vein, which can bring venous blood from the hind limbs and ventral body wall into the renal portal system, or alternatively, enable blood from the tail and groin to pass into the hepatic portal system, already served by blood from the gut, via the hepatic portal vein, and from the hind legs and ventral body wall, via the abdominal vein. In fishes and salamanders, the renal portal vein branches and enters a capillary network very similar to the ones in the nephric portal system. In frogs and amniotes, metarterioles appear, with capillary networks connected to them, and sphincter muscles around the entrances to the capillaries. In birds, the system is very complex, with sphincters around the metarterioles themselves. In fishes and salamanders, due to the lack of metarterioles, all the blood passes through the capillaries. However, in frogs and amniotes, most of the blood usually passes through the metarterioles instead, although it can still be diverted through the capillary networks if need be. The system is completely abandoned in mammals, with the result that all the blood from the tail (if present), groin, pelvic area, and hind legs is forced to pass directly into the posterior vena cava, and the only blood passing out of the kidney through the renal vein is that that entered it through the renal artery. The subcardinals become the part of the posterior vena cava between the hepatic vein and the renal veins, and other portions become the internal gonadal (spermatic or ovarian) veins, and the suprarenal veins. The posterior cardinal veins become the veins of the pelvis, tail, and hind legs, and the part of the azygos vein that is closest to the heart.\n", "Lions use urine to mark their territories. They often scrape the ground while urinating, and the urine often flows in short spurts, instead of flowing continuously. They often urinate on vegetation, or on tree trunks at least one meter high. Male lions spray 1–20 jets of urine at an angle of 20–30 degrees upward, at a range of up to 4 meters behind them.\n", "During the breeding season, female wolves secrete substances from the vagina, which communicate the females' reproductive state, and can be detected by males from long distances. Urine marking is the best-studied means of olfactory communication in wolves. Its exact function is debated, though most researchers agree that its primary purpose is to establish boundaries. Wolves urine mark more frequently and vigorously in unfamiliar areas, or areas of intrusion, where the scent of other wolves or canids is present. So-called raised leg urination (RLU) is more common in male wolves than in females, and may serve the purpose of maximizing the possibility of detection by conspecifics, as well as reflect the height of the marking wolf. Only dominant wolves typically use RLU, with subordinate males continuing to use the juvenile standing posture throughout adulthood. RLU is considered to be one of the most important forms of scent communication in the wolf, making up 60–80% of all scent marks observed.\n" ]	[ "Humans cannot stop urinating in med-stream like animals can.", "Humans can not stop urinating mid-stream." ]	[ "Humans absolutely can stop urinating mid-stream.", "Humans can stop urinating mid-stream. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans cannot stop urinating in med-stream like animals can.", "Humans can not stop urinating mid-stream." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans absolutely can stop urinating mid-stream.", "Humans can stop urinating mid-stream. " ]
2018-20785	Why does metal make a ringing sound when hit. How do the vibrations translate into sound?	Metal bends when you hit it, then jiggles as it straightens out - imagine slapping a ruler, or flicking a small spring. A more solid piece of metal does it much more quickly, several hundreds or thousand times per second. As it bends and jiggles, its movement moves the air around it. In a ruler, these ripples in the air are far too weak and too slow to form audible sound; but in a piece of metal, they're much sharper and faster, producing a wave of air pressure which we experience as sound.	[ "An excellent example of this was demonstrated with the bells of Westminster Abbey at the Funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997.\n", "BULLET::::- Copper, brass and leaden mallets are typically used on machinery to apply force to parts with a reduced risk of damaging them, and to avoid sparks. As these metals are softer than steel, the mallet is deformed by any excessive force, rather than any steel object it is hitting.\n", "Many alloys contain zinc, including brass. Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium. Although neither zinc nor zirconium are ferromagnetic, their alloy exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.\n\nA bar of zinc generates a characteristic sound when bent, similar to tin cry.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Occurrence.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Piezoelectric transducer\": This consists of a piece of piezoelectric ceramic, such as barium titanate, with two metal electrodes plated on its surface. The alternating voltage from the control unit applied to the electrodes causes the piezoelectric element to bend back and forth slightly, causing it to vibrate.\n", "BULLET::::- Tubular bells or chimes\n\n111.24 Percussion vessels.\n\nBULLET::::- Boungu\n\nBULLET::::- Chuk\n\nBULLET::::- Cymbals\n\nBULLET::::- Crash cymbal\n\nBULLET::::- Hank drum\n\nBULLET::::- Hi-hat cymbal\n\nBULLET::::- Hang\n\nBULLET::::- Kagul or tagutok\n\nBULLET::::- Ride cymbal\n\nBULLET::::- Slit drums:\n\nBULLET::::- Slit gong\n\nBULLET::::- Splash cymbal\n\nBULLET::::- Steelpan or steel drum\n\nBULLET::::- Udu (also an aerophone)\n\nBULLET::::- Wood block\n\n111.241 Gongs - The vibration is strongest near the vertex.\n\n111.241.1 Individual gongs.\n\nBULLET::::- Babendil\n\n111.241.2 Sets of gongs.\n\nBULLET::::- Agung or agong\n\nBULLET::::- Bock-a-da-bock\n\nBULLET::::- Gandingan\n\nBULLET::::- Kulintang or kolintang\n\n111.242 Bells - The vibration is weakest near the vertex.\n\nBULLET::::- Bell tree\n", "The vibrating assembly is a moving element driven either by hydraulics or more commonly, electromagnets. In the electromagnetic version, the heart of this assembly is a tuned spring-mass system powered by electrical coils acting on oppositely charged lamination stacks. The frequency of the electrical charges is matched to the mechanical frequency of the system. Although the amplitude can be adjusted on the machine the frequency can only be changed by changing the mass of the vibrating assembly. The moving portion of the tooling is affixed to the vibrating assembly.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Lifting table.\n", "When a bell is struck, the energy imparted causes vibration of the bell in a complex manner and a series of tones known as partials or harmonics are generated. \n", "BULLET::::- Clapper – the metal (usually cast iron) rod/hammer hung from a pivot below the \"crown\" of the bell, that strikes the \"soundbow\" of the bell when the bell stops moving.\n\nBULLET::::- Clocking – causing a bell to sound while down by pulling a hammer against it (as a clock would) or by pulling the \"clapper\" against the side of the bell.\n\nBULLET::::- Closed leads (also called cartwheeling) – handstroke changes follow backstroke changes with no handstroke gap (unlike open leads)\n", "This \"relict stress\" theory implies that the ringing rock boulders act much like a guitar string. When a guitar string is limp it does not resonate, but a plucked string will provide a range of sounds depending on the level of applied tension. Likewise, a ringing rock boulder will only emit a dull thud if the boulder is de-stressed; however, boulders will resonate at various frequencies depending on the level of residual stress.\n", "Consider a metal ball hitting a metal bar. At the moment of impact, a pressure wave spreads through the material of both bodies (1). The wave is transient (quickly damps out). When the wave front hits the shock pulse transducer, it will cause a dampened oscillation of the transducer's reference mass. The peak amplitude is a function of the impact velocity (v).\n\nDuring the next phase of the collision, both bodies start to vibrate (2). The frequency of this vibration is a function of the mass and the shape of the colliding bodies.\n\nSection::::Processing shock pulse signals.\n", "121.2 Guimbardes and jaw harps - The lamella is mounted in a rod- or plaque-shaped frame and depends on the player's mouth cavity for resonance.\n\nBULLET::::- Đàn môi\n\nBULLET::::- Jew's harp\n\nBULLET::::- Kouxian\n\nBULLET::::- Morsing\n\n121.21 Idioglot guimbardes - The lamella is of one substance with the frame of the instrument.\n\n121.22 Heteroglot guimbardes - The lamella is attached to the frame.\n\n121.221 Individual heteroglot guimbardes.\n\n121.222 Sets of heteroglot guimbardes.\n\nSection::::List of lamellophones.:In the form of a comb (122).\n\nThe lamellae are tied to a board or cut out from a board like the teeth of a comb.\n", "Although the sound is often described as metallic, it is most likely due to a combination of the density of the rock and a high degree of internal stress. The sound can be duplicated on a small scale by tapping the handle of a ceramic coffee cup.\n", "Section::::Mechanical.\n", "BULLET::::- Tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic resonances of musical instruments and the human vocal tract\n\nBULLET::::- Shattering of a crystal wineglass when exposed to a musical tone of the right pitch (its resonant frequency)\n\nBULLET::::- Friction idiophones, such as making a glass object (glass, bottle, vase) vibrate by rubbing around its rim with a fingertip\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios and TVs that allow radio frequencies to be selectively received\n\nBULLET::::- Creation of coherent light by optical resonance in a laser cavity\n", "BULLET::::- Rotating plate with drilled holes and air blown through them – difference in sound between symmetrically drilled ones (music) and asymmetrically drilled ones (noise).\n\nBULLET::::- Vibrating a meter stick at different frequencies when different lengths stick out past a table.\n\nBULLET::::- Varying frequencies rubbing a thumbnail across the milled edge of a coin, when tearing various pieces of cloth, using different files on wood, or riffling a deck of cards.\n\nBULLET::::- Human hearing range (16 Hz to 16 kHz)\n\nBULLET::::- Nodes in vibrating bars and tuning forks.\n\nBULLET::::- Notched stick with a spinning propeller.\n", "BULLET::::- Turing an orchestra – why they don’t use a piano.\n\nBULLET::::- Episode 33. Vibrating Bars and Strings\n\nBULLET::::- Bar mounted on a resonating chamber, mounted at 2 important places.\n\nBULLET::::- Second, \"identical\" bar, beats between two bars that are 1 Hz out of tune.\n\nBULLET::::- Beats between two tuning forks, one with rubber bands around the end of a prong to reduce its frequency.\n\nBULLET::::- Vibrations of a metal bar, shown on screen with a long pipe.\n\nBULLET::::- If you grasp a vibrating bar at the nodes it will keep vibrating, anywhere else it will stop.\n", "At the start of the process, an actuator is moved to a part. This stage is called \"downstroke.\" Ultrasonic energy can be applied during this phase depending on the size of a horn used. The larger the horn the harder it is to vibrate. Therefore, application of ultrasonic energy during the down stroke becomes necessary (\"pre-triggering\"). In other cases, the vibration is applied after the horn came in contact with the part and some pressure has been created. The force is then continues to increase linearly until some predefined value.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Handbells\n\nBULLET::::- Bells\n\nBULLET::::- Bellfounding\n\nBULLET::::- Campanology\n\nBULLET::::- Central Council of Church Bell Ringers\n\nBULLET::::- Change ringing\n\nBULLET::::- Veronese bellringing art\n\nBULLET::::- Loudspeakers in mosques\n\nBULLET::::- Russian Orthodox bell ringing\n\nBULLET::::- Bolognese bell ringing art\n\nBULLET::::- Ring of bells\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Animation of English Full-circle church bell ringing\n\nBULLET::::- Video of English full circle-ringing, 8 bells half muffled and one bell tolling\n\nBULLET::::- Video of English full circle-ringing, 8 bells ringing \"open\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sound of Bells - An Investigation into their tuning\n", "111.242.1 Individual bells\n\n111.242.11 Resting bells whose opening faces upward. \n\nBULLET::::- Cowbell\n\n111.242.12 Hanging bells suspended from the apex.\n\n111.242.121 Hanging bells without internal strikers.\n\n111.242.122 Hanging bells with internal strikers.\n\nBULLET::::- Bell\n\n111.242.2 Sets of bells or chimes.\n\n111.242.11 Sets of resting bells whose opening faces upward.\n\n111.242.12 Sets of hanging bells suspended from the apex.\n\n111.242.121 Sets of hanging bells without internal strikers.\n\n111.242.122 Sets of hanging bells with internal strikers.\n\nSection::::Indirectly struck (112).\n", "BULLET::::- Clapper - the metal (usually cast iron) rod/hammer hung from a pivot below the \"crown\" of the bell, that strikes the \"soundbow\" of the bell when the bell stops moving.\n\nBULLET::::- Clocking - causing a bell to sound while down by pulling a hammer against it (as a clock would) or by pulling the \"clapper\" against the side of the bell.\n\nBULLET::::- Handstroke - the stroke when the sally is gripped.\n\nBULLET::::- Sally - the woollen bulge woven into the rope. It is both an indicator and a help with gripping. From the Latin \"salire\", to leap.\n", "All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of the same basic elements:\n\nBULLET::::- A press, usually with a pneumatic or electric drive, to assemble two parts under pressure\n\nBULLET::::- A nest or anvil or fixture where the parts are placed and allowing the high frequency vibration to be directed to the interfaces\n\nBULLET::::- An ultrasonic stack composed of a converter or piezoelectric transducer, an optional booster and a sonotrode (US: Horn). All three elements of the stack are specifically tuned to resonate at the same exact ultrasonic frequency (Typically 15, 20, 30, 35 or 40 kHz)\n", "Metallophone\n\nA metallophone is any musical instrument in which the sound-producing body is a piece of metal (other than a metal string), consisting of tuned metal bars, tubes, rods, bowls, or plates. Most frequently the metal body is struck to produce sound, usually with a mallet, but may also be activated by friction, keyboard action, or other means.\n", "BULLET::::- IA Solids not susceptibles of tension (equivalent to a big part of Hornbostel & Sachs idiophones);\n\nBULLET::::- IB Flexible solids (equivalent to mainly linguaphones);\n\nBULLET::::- IC Tensionable solids (equivalent to both membranophones and chordophones);\n\nBULLET::::- II: instruments that make sound from vibrating air (aerophones).\n\nSection::::List of lamellophones.\n\nSection::::List of lamellophones.:In the form of a frame (121).\n\nThe lamellae vibrate within a frame or hoop\n\n121.1 Clack idiophones or Cricri - The lamella is carved in the surface of a fruit shell, which serves as resonator.\n", "BULLET::::- Load cells; A load cell deforms if a certain load in the form of a pressure or a strain is imposed on it. This deformation is then detected by a strain gauge through which a low voltage direct current is flowing. The change in voltage is detected and made visible on a control panel. A bellows is mounted over the gauge to protect it from outside influences.\n", "The book was also released in a hardcover edition in the United Kingdom by Allison & Busby in 2004, and has been translated into Finnish, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Japanese, Czech, Serbian, and Croatian editions.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nGreg Burk, writing for the \"LA Weekly\" in 2003, dubbed Sound of the Beast: “The first book to chart the vector of not just metal’s origins, but the myriad mutations through which it continues to infect the planet.”\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02242	Why does molten aluminum react to dry ice?	The hot aluminum melts a bit of the dry ice, which turns to carbon dioxide gas, making bubbles in the liquid aluminum.	[ "Diffusion processes caused by electromigration can be divided into grain boundary diffusion, bulk diffusion and surface diffusion. In general, grain boundary diffusion is the major electromigration process in aluminum wires, whereas surface diffusion is dominant in copper interconnects.\n\nSection::::Failure mechanisms.:Thermal effects.\n", "Aluminum oxynitride is not specifically mentioned in it, but transparent aluminum was a popular phrase after appearing in the 1986 film \"\".\n\nAluminum oxynitride is mentioned and described in the Jack Reacher novel, \"Personal\" by Lee Child, and mentioned by Jimmy Fallon as the material used to create the gyrosphere vehicles' outer protective bubble in the 2015 film \"Jurassic World\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminium nitride AlN\n\nBULLET::::- Corundum AlO\n\nBULLET::::- Transparent ceramics\n\nSection::::Patents.\n\nBULLET::::- Process for producing polycrystalline cubic aluminum oxynitride JW McCauley , 1980\n", "The purpose of the alonizing process is to improve the base metal’s heat and corrosion resistance by providing a protective diffusion layer of aluminum alloyed with the base metal at the surface. This layer remains effective at all temperatures up to the melting point of the base metal. Since the layer created is an alloy with the base metal, the layer cannot be removed without a machining process.\n\nThe protective diffusion layer provides the following corrosion protection properties:\n\nBULLET::::- Sulfidation Resistance – protection from hydrogen sulfide, hyposulfurous, and sulfurous acid attack\n\nBULLET::::- Oxidation Resistance – aluminum oxide forms stable coating\n", "Section::::Synthesis.\n\nReagent used C6H6 @ 78℃ , 2d\n\n[AlCp]4 + [CuMes]5 → [Cu43Al12](Cp)12\n", "BULLET::::2. Pieces are cleaned chemically/mechanically and blocked to minimize oxidation losses when melted. (The surface of aluminium readily oxidizes back into aluminium oxide when exposed to oxygen.)\n\nBULLET::::3. Blocks are loaded into the furnace and heated to 750 °C ± 100 °C to produce molten aluminium.\n", "Though corrosion protection properties are gained, the chemicals and gases that typically corrode aluminum are not resisted. Therefore, alonized materials should not be used where condensation from gas will occur due to low enough temperature.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Section::::Principle.\n\nAluminium is produced by electrolytic reduction of aluminium oxide dissolved in molten cryolite.\n\nAt the same time the carbon electrode is oxidised, initially to carbon monoxide\n\nAlthough the formation of carbon monoxide (CO) is thermodynamically favoured at the reaction temperature, the presence of considerable overvoltage (difference between reversible and polarization potentials) changes the thermodynamic equilibrium and a mixture of CO and is produced.Thus the idealised overall reactions may be written as\n\nBy increasing the current density up to 1 A/cm, the proportion of increases and carbon consumption decreases.\n", "Water-jacket melters function more like a large, commercial double boiler in that they keep substances evenly heated but they generally only heat up to 212°F, since that is when the water would evaporate. They can be made of aluminum, but are generally made of stainless steel. Unlike direct-heat melters, water-jacket melters can be almost unlimited in size, with 153 gallons being common and up to the larger 1000-gallon melters and more.\n", "Charles Martin Hall was a graduate of Oberlin College in Ohio who had discovered in February 1886 an electrolytic process for aluminum extraction. His patent application in July collided with Paul Héroult's application for the same idea, \"electrolysis of alumina in cryolite\" and for which Héroult had received the patent in France in April. Hall proved his February date and was awarded the patent in the U.S. Hall made a licensing agreement and worked with the Cowles at the facility in Lockport with the hopes of moving his ideas from the laboratory into production.\n", "BULLET::::- Poor machinability\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmetic defect in apparent surfaces\n\nSection::::Inclusion types.\n\nSection::::Inclusion types.:Oxide films.\n\nIn contact with ambient air, liquid aluminium reacts with the oxygen and form an oxide film layer (gamma-AlO). This layer becomes thicker with time. When molten aluminium is disturbed, this oxide film gets mixed inside the melt.\n\nSection::::Inclusion types.:Aluminium carbide.\n\nIn primary aluminium production, aluminium carbides (AlC) originates from the reduction of alumina where carbon anodes and cathodes are in contact with the mix. Later in the process, any carbon tools in contact with the liquid aluminium can react and create carbides.\n\nSection::::Inclusion types.:Magnesium oxides.\n", "Chromate conversion coating converts the surface aluminium to an aluminium chromate coating in the range of in thickness. Aluminium chromate conversion coatings are amorphous in structure with a gel-like composition hydrated with water. Chromate conversion is a common way of passivating not only aluminium, but also zinc, cadmium, copper, silver, magnesium, and tin alloys.\n", "BULLET::::- Super cooling is major problem in solid–liquid transition\n\nBULLET::::- Nucleating agents are needed and they often become inoperative after repeated cycling\n\nSection::::Characteristics and classification.:Inorganic Eutectics.\n\nc-inorganic, inorganic-inorganic compounds\n\nBULLET::::- Advantages\n\nBULLET::::- Some inorganic eutectics have sharp melting point similar to pure substance.\n\nBULLET::::- Volumetric storage density is slightly above organic compounds.\n\nBULLET::::- Extra water principle can be used to avoid phase change degradation, involving dissolving the anhydrous salt during melting to result in a thickening of the liquid material so that it melts to a gel form; however, this can cause huge reduction in latent heat.\n\nBULLET::::- Disadvantages\n", "One issue is that the top of the can is made from a blend of aluminum and magnesium to increase its strength. When the can is melted for recycling, the mixture is unsuitable for either the top or the bottom/side. Instead of mixing recycled metal with more aluminum (to soften it) or magnesium (to harden it), a new approach uses annealing to produce an alloy that works for both.\n", "BULLET::::- Better product protection – the smooth, round crystals do not damage product, unlike other forms of sharp, jagged ice (flake, block, shell, etc.).\n\nBULLET::::- Even cooling – unlike other irregular shaped ice which mostly conducts heat through the air, the round shape of the slurry crystals enables them to flow freely around the entire product, filling all air pockets to uniformly maintain direct contact and the desired low temperature.\n\nSection::::Slurry ice generators.\n", "Section::::Chemical explanation.\n\nAmmonia is a weak alkali that reacts reversibly with water and alters the pH of the solution into base condition.\n\nNH + HO NH + OH\n\nOn the other hand, if sodium hydroxide is added to adjust the pH of the solution to alkali, the color change develops faster than the ammonia as it is a highly reactive compound.\n\n2NaOH + CO NaCO + HO\n", "Section::::Types.:Dry-ice blasting.\n\nIn this type of blasting, air and dry ice are used. Surface contaminants are dislodged by the force of frozen carbon dioxide particles hitting at high velocity, and by slight shrinkage due to freezing which disrupts adhesion bonds. The dry ice sublimates, leaving no residue to clean up other than the removed material. Dry ice is a relatively soft material, so is less destructive to the underlying material than sandblasting.\n\nSection::::Types.:Bristle blasting.\n", "BULLET::::- Phase-change materials (PCM): Naturally sticky materials, used in place of thermal greases. Its application is similar to solid pads. After achieving a melting point of - 55-60 degrees, it changes to a half liquid status and fills all gaps between the heat source and the heat sink.\n", "Section::::Water-based electrolyte capacitors.:Water-driven corrosion: aluminum hydroxide.\n\nAttempt at a pictorial representation of the formation of aluminum hydroxidein a pore of a roughened electrolytic capacitor anode foil\n\nIt is known that the \"normal\" course of building a stable aluminum oxide layer by the transformation of aluminum, through the intermediate step of aluminum hydroxide, can be interrupted by an excessively alkaline or basic electrolyte. For example, alkaline disruption of the chemistry of this reaction results instead in the following reaction:\n", "BULLET::::1. The method for selective oxidation of aluminium on the surface of the molten Ga-AI in a humid atmosphere at a temperature of 20 to 70 °C (Method of IPCE RAS)\n\nBULLET::::2. The liquid metal technology of synthesis of nanostructural aerogel AlOOH from molten Ga-Bi and Al-Al (Institute of RF IPPE named after A. I. Leipunsky, Obninsk city).\n\nBULLET::::3. Growing fiber nano oxide of aluminium on the surface of the aluminum melt (a Method of industrial synthesis, developed and patented by the ANF Technology).\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "SiC–SiC composites have a relatively high thermal conductivity and can operate at very high temperatures due to their inherently high creep and oxidation resistance. Residual porosity and stoichiometry of the material can vary its thermal conductivity, with increasing porosity leading to lower thermal conductivity and presence of Si–O–C phase also leading to lower thermal conductivity. In general, a typical well processed SiC–SiC composite can achieve a thermal conductivity of around 30 W/m-K at 1000 Celsius.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Chemical.\n", "The process for the creation of Stabilized Aluminum Foam and can be broken down into these 4 rudimentary steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. Melting\n\nBULLET::::2. Air Injection\n\nBULLET::::3. Casting\n\nBULLET::::4. Solidification\n", "The process is simple, but the science is, as of 2005, not well understood. The most common process involves the mixing of a silica solution with a filler powder. For example, if we were making a component out of alumina, aluminium oxide, then we would still use a silica sol, but alumina filler powder. The relative amounts used differ, normally between 3 and 4 times more filler than sol is added by weight.\n", "BULLET::::- aluminium monoiodide (AlI)\n\nThese compounds are only thermodynamically stable at high temperatures and low pressures in the singlet ground state. However, decomposition can be prevented by making disproportionation kinetically unfavorable. Under cold temperatures (below 77 K), disproportionation is slow enough that the AlCl solid can be kept for long periods of time.\n\nSection::::Monohalides.:Synthesis.\n", "Twenty-three years after being awarded best paper for \"Compliant Bonding\" as mentioned above, Coucoulas\n\nwas again awarded Outstanding Paper at the 43rd Electronic Components and Technology Conference in 1993 (which he presented and co-authored with his collaborative colleagues).It was titled,\"AlO Bonding: A Method of Joining Oxide Optical Components to Aluminum Coated Substrates.\" He also was awarded a U.S. patent for inventing AlO Bonding.\n\nSection::::Engineering research.:Microstructure of Solid Carbon Dioxide (\"Dry Ice\").\n", "While the pressure melting hypothesis may have been put to rest, the debate between premelting and friction as the dominate mechanism still rages on.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Wetting\n\nBULLET::::- Surface freezing\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Surface melting, Israel Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Pattern of Snowflakes, Hokkaido University\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Rosenberg: \"Why is Ice Slippery?\"; Physics Today, December 2005 (press release; journal article at DOI: 10.1063/1.4936299 requires subscription)\n\nBULLET::::- Kenneth Chang: \"Explaining Ice: The Answers Are Slippery\"; The New York Times, February 21, 2006 (requires subscription)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08861	How do mountains (ex: Rocky Mountains) form with no plate boundary?	1. Take a piece of cloth and lay it flat on a table or bed. 2. Put your hands a foot or two apart on the fabric. 3. Push your hands together. That raises mountains up, then erosion shapes them. ETA: there are always plate boundaries in play, but the mountains are not necessarily near the boundaries. Also, the type of rock involved has a lot to do with how the plate crumples	[ "Section::::Types of mountains.:Fold mountains.\n\nWhen plates collide or undergo subduction (that is – ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros mountains.\n\nSection::::Types of mountains.:Block mountains.\n", "Section::::Forces that drive the rock cycle.:Plate tectonics.:Accelerated erosion.\n\nThe high mountain ranges produced by continental collisions are immediately subjected to the forces of erosion. Erosion wears down the mountains and massive piles of sediment are developed in adjacent ocean margins, shallow seas, and as continental deposits. As these sediment piles are buried deeper they become lithified into sedimentary rock. The metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks of the mountains become the new piles of sediments in the adjoining basins and eventually become sedimentary rock.\n\nSection::::Forces that drive the rock cycle.:Plate tectonics.:An evolving process.\n", "An orogeny is underway when mountains begin to grow in the collision zone. There are other modes of mountain formation and orogeny but certainly continental collision is one of the most important. Rainfall and snowfall increase on the mountains as these rise, perhaps at a rate of a few millimeters per year (at a growth rate of 1 mm/year, a 5,000 m tall mountain can form in 5 million years, a time period that is less than 10% of the life of a typical collision zone). River systems form, and glaciers may grow on the highest peaks. Erosion accelerates as the mountains rise, and great volumes of sediment are shed into the rivers, which carry sediment away from the mountains to be deposited in sedimentary basins in the surrounding lowlands. Crustal rocks are thrust faulted over the sediments and the mountain belt broadens as it rises in height. A crustal root also develops, as required by isostasy; mountains can be high if underlain by thicker crust. Crustal thickening may happen as a result of crustal shortening or when one crust overthrusts the other. Thickening is accompanied by heating, so the crust becomes weaker as it thickens. The lower crust begins to flow and collapse under the growing mountain mass, forming rifts near the crest of the mountain range. The lower crust may partially melt, forming anatectic granites which then rise into the overlying units, forming granite intrusions. Crustal thickening provides one of two negative feedbacks on mountain growth in collision zones, the other being erosion. The popular notion that erosion is responsible for destroying mountains is only half correct - viscous flow of weak lower mantle also reduces relief with time, especially once the collision is complete and the two continents are completely sutured. Convergence between the continents continues because the crust is still being pulled down by oceanic lithosphere sinking in the subduction zone to either side of the collision as well as beneath the impinging continent. \n", "The processes of orogeny can take tens of millions of years and build mountains from plains or from the seabed. The topographic height of orogenic mountains is related to the principle of isostasy, that is, a balance of the downward gravitational force upon an upthrust mountain range (composed of light, continental crust material) and the buoyant upward forces exerted by the dense underlying mantle.\n", "Section::::Types of mountains.:Uplifted passive margins.\n\nUnlike orogenic mountains there is no widely accepted geophysical model that explains elevated passive continental margins such as the Scandinavian Mountains, Eastern Greenland, the Brazilian Highlands or Australia's Great Dividing Range.\n\nDifferent elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same mechanism of uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field stresses in Earth's lithosphere. According to this view elevated passived margins can be likened to giant anticlinal lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust transition zone (as are all passive margins).\n\nSection::::Types of mountains.:Residual mountains.\n", "Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a plane where rocks have moved past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range Province of Western North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.\n", "Mountain formation\n\nMountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates). Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building. The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the geological structures found on it.\n\nThe understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called \"tectonic geomorphology\", and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called \"neotectonics\".\n", "An example of this is the Sierra Nevada Range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.\n\nAnother good example is the Rila - Rhodope mountain Massif in Bulgaria, Southeast Europe, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain - a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.\n", "Although the fold mountains, chain mountains and nappe belts around the world were formed at different times in the earth's history, all during their initial mountain building phases, they are nevertheless morphologically similar. Harder rock forms continuous arêtes or ridges that follow the strike of the beds and folds. The mountain chains or ridges therefore run approximately parallel to one another. They are only interrupted by short, usually narrow, transverse valleys, which often form water gaps. During the course of earth history, erosion by water, ice and wind carried away the highest points of the mountain crests and carved out individual summits or summit chains. Between them, notches were formed that, depending on altitude and rock-type, form knife-edged cols or gentler mountain passes and saddles.\n", "Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys. Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types.\n\nSection::::Major ranges.\n", "The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to the east. This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift. The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight.\n", "At the same time, the growing weight of the mountain belt can cause isostatic subsidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain belt. The basin type resulting from this subsidence is called a back-arc basin and is usually filled by shallow marine deposits and molasse.\n\nSection::::Sedimentary basins.:Influence of astronomical cycles.\n", "Mount Rundle on the Trans-Canada Highway between Banff and Canmore provides a classic example of a mountain cut in dipping-layered rocks. Millions of years ago a collision caused an orogeny, forcing horizontal layers of an ancient ocean crust to be thrust up at an angle of 50–60°. That left Rundle with one sweeping, tree-lined smooth face, and one sharp, steep face where the edge of the uplifted layers are exposed.\n\nSection::::History of the concept.\n", "Mountain ranges are known to take many millions of years to erode to the degree they effectively cease to exist. Scholars Pitman and Golovchenko estimate that it takes probably more than 450 million years to erode a mountain mass similar to the Himalaya into an almost-flat peneplain if there are no major sea-level changes. Erosion of mountains massifs can create a pattern of equally high summits called summit accordance. It has been argued that extension during post-orogenic collapse is a more effective mechanism of lowering the height of orogenic mountains than erosion.\n", "An orogeny produces an \"orogen\", but a (mountain) range-\"foreland basin\" system is only produced on passive plate margins. The \"foreland basin\" forms ahead of the orogen due mainly to loading and resulting flexure of the lithosphere by the developing mountain belt. A typical foreland basin is subdivided into a wedge-top basin above the active orogenic wedge, the foredeep immediately beyond the active front, a forebulge high of flexural origin and a back-bulge area beyond, although not all of these are present in all foreland-basin systems. The basin migrates with the orogenic front and early deposited foreland basin sediments become progressively involved in folding and thrusting. Sediments deposited in the foreland basin are mainly derived from the erosion of the actively uplifting rocks of the mountain range, although some sediments derive from the foreland. The fill of many such basins shows a change in time from deepwater marine (\"flysch\"-style) through shallow water to continental (\"molasse\"-style) sediments.\n", "Farther south, the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States is a geological puzzle. Mountain building is normally focused between inland from a subduction zone boundary. Geologists continue to gather evidence to explain the rise of the Rockies so much farther inland; the answer most likely lies with the unusual subduction of the Farallon plate, or possibly due to the subduction of an oceanic plateau.\n", "Clarence Dutton, an early pioneering geologist, described the basin and range topography of parallel mountains and valleys as \"army of caterpillars marching toward Mexico.\"\n\nSection::::Types of faulting.\n\nSection::::Types of faulting.:Symmetrical faulting: horst and graben.\n", "BULLET::::- The Olympic Mountains located in Washington State. The mountains began to form about 35 million years ago when the Juan de Fuca Plate collided with and was forced under (subducted) the North American Plate.\n", "Section::::Geology.:Block mountains.\n", "From the late 18th century until its replacement by plate tectonics in the 1960s geosyncline theory was used to explain much mountain-building.\n\nSection::::Types of mountains.\n\nThere are four main types of mountains: volcanic, fold,residual, and block. A more detailed classification useful on a local scale predates plate tectonics and adds to these categories.\n\nSection::::Types of mountains.:Volcanic mountains.\n", "The tectonic development of collapsed mountain belts is heavily debated. Some argue that delamination causes a second uplift along with crustal thickening, heating and volcanism. Others argue that delamination causes collapse and thinning of the crust. Some researchers postulate that the Sierra Nevada, Basin and Range Province and Colorado Plateau in the western USA exemplify this.\n\nSection::::Geologic examples.\n", "The Klamath Mountains tell a similar story to the Sierra Nevada in that they are the product of multiple different accretionary events of island arc terranes. The current proposed model for the formation of the Klamath mountains involves multiple stages. The first stage of the formation of the Klamath mountains was arc magmatism on the western coast of North America which resulted in the formation of the Western Hayfork Terrane. Once the Western Hayfork Terrane was formed (and had subsequently stopped forming) the region was intruded by mafic dikes attributed to some form of extension at approximately 160 Ma. Once extension ceased in the area, compression began again, resulting in the closure of a very small back arc basin produced by the extension and accreted the ophiolite sequences seen in the Klamath Mountains from the Nevadan Orogeny time (Josephine Ophiolite at 155 Ma). Continued convergence in the Klamath Mountains region would eventually lead to the emplacement of dikes and sills within the Josephine Ophiolite at approximately 153 Ma. The youngest of the accretionary ophiolite sequence in the Klamath Mountains appears to be the Josephine Ophoilite, which is dated to be about 155 to 150 Ma in age using both argon-argon (Ar-Ar) and lead-uranium (Pb-U) methods. Rather than being thrust on top of North America, the Josephine Ophiolite was accreted through a different process that involved being thrust underneath of North America and then eventually being exhumed at the surface. In the Klamath Mountains it has also been observed that there is two other plutons of rock that were accreted during the Nevadan Orogeny, the Abrams and Salmon mica schists of the Stuart Fork Formation. Using the potassium-argon (K-Ar) method of isotopic dating on phyllite, the age of metamorphism in the Stuart Fork Formation was determined to be about 148 Ma. The metamorphism related to the phyllite in the Stuart Fork Formation is from the older Abrams and Salmon mica schists being thrust ontop of the Stuart Fork rocks during the end of the Nevadan Orogeny.\n", "Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the earth's crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause earthquakes.\n", "The current Rocky Mountains arose in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to pushing a rug on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.\n", "The rocky cores of the mountain ranges are, in most places, formed of pieces of continental crust that are over one billion years old. In the south, an older mountain range was formed 300 million years ago, then eroded away. The rocks of that older range were reformed into the Rocky Mountains.\n" ]	[ "Mountains form without plate boundary. ", "Some mountains like the Rocky Mountains formed without a plate boundary." ]	[ "Mountains are not always near the plate boundaries, but boundaries are always in play. ", "Plate boundaries are always involved in mountain formation but the mountains don't always have to be near the boundaries." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mountains form without plate boundary. ", "Some mountains like the Rocky Mountains formed without a plate boundary." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mountains are not always near the plate boundaries, but boundaries are always in play. ", "Plate boundaries are always involved in mountain formation but the mountains don't always have to be near the boundaries." ]
2018-03667	Why do people get acne when they have stress?	Med student here, there are multipke theories: Stress messes up your hormones which cause your skins to secrete more oils making acne more likely to happen. Stress reduces your inmune system, which makes it easier for bacteria to live in your skin.	[ "Stress has effects on the immune system, which may explain why some cases directly correlate with stress. It is often stated that in studies of sufferers who are students, ulceration is exacerbated during examination periods and lessened during periods of vacation. Alternatively, it has been suggested that oral parafunctional activities such as lip or cheek chewing become more pronounced during periods of stress, and hence the mucosa is subjected to more minor trauma.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Stress.\n\nFew high-quality studies have been performed which demonstrate that stress causes or worsens acne. While the connection between acne and stress has been debated, some research indicates that increased severity is associated with high stress levels in certain contexts such as hormonal changes seen in premenstrual syndrome.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Environmental factors.\n\nMechanical obstruction of skin follicles with helmets or chinstraps can worsen pre-existing acne.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medications.\n\nSeveral medications can worsen pre-existing acne, with examples being lithium, hydantoin, isoniazid, glucocorticoids, iodides, bromides, and testosterone.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "It has been demonstrated that prolonged psychological stress could be linked with increased risk of infection via viral respiratory infection. Studies, in animals, indicate that psychological stress raises glucocorticoid levels and eventually, an increase in susceptibility to streptococcal skin infections.\n", "Stress ulceration is a single or multiple fundic mucosal ulcers that causes upper gastrointestinal bleeding, and develops during the severe physiologic stress of serious illness. It can also cause mucosal erosions and superficial hemorrhages in patients who are critically ill, or in those who are under extreme physiologic stress, causing blood loss that can require blood transfusion. \n\nOrdinary peptic ulcers are found commonly in the “gastric antrum and the duodenum” whereas stress ulcers are found commonly in “fundic mucosa and can be located anywhere within the stomach and proximal duodenum”.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Critical incident stress management\n", "This physiological stress response involves high levels of sympathetic nervous system activation, often referred to as the \"fight or flight\" response. The response involves pupil dilation, release of endorphins, increased heart and respiration rates, cessation of digestive processes, secretion of adrenaline, arteriole dilation, and constriction of veins. This high level of arousal is often unnecessary to adequately cope with micro-stressors and daily hassles; yet, this is the response pattern seen in humans, which often leads to health issues commonly associated with high levels of stress.\n\nSection::::Physiological impacts of stress.:Quality of sleep.\n", "Stress can cause high levels of the following hormones: norepinephrine, leptin, NPY, nitrite, ACTH and adrenomedullin. Elevated levels of adenosine, adrenaline, cortisol and dopamine in the blood can produce fatigue, depression, behavior changes, heart disease, weight problems, diabetes, and skin diseases. It also decreases the immune response, which can lead to heartburn and stomach ulcers.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Inflammation.\n\nInflammation is an immune response that is critical to fighting infections and repairing injured tissue. Although acute inflammation is adaptive, chronic inflammatory activity can contribute to adverse health outcomes, such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, depression, diabetes, and some cancers.\n", "The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses, such as general trouble with the digestive system (e.g. occult bleeding, melena, constipation/obstipation), diabetes, or even cardiovascular problems (angina pectoris), along with clinical depression and other mental illnesses.\n\nSection::::History in research.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Stress.\n\nStress due to serious health problems such as those requiring treatment in an intensive care unit is well described as a cause of peptic ulcers, which are also known as stress ulcers.\n\nWhile chronic life stress was once believed to be the main cause of ulcers, this is no longer the case. It is, however, still occasionally believed to play a role. This may be due to the well documented effects of stress on gastric physiology, increasing the risk in those with other causes such as \"H. pylori\" or NSAID use.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Diet.\n", "Experiments show that when healthy human individuals are exposed to acute laboratory stressors, they show an adaptive enhancement of some markers of natural immunity but a general suppression of functions of specific immunity. By comparison, when healthy human individuals are exposed to real-life chronic stress, this stress is associated with a biphasic immune response where partial suppression of cellular and humoral function coincides with low-grade, nonspecific inflammation.\n", "As stress has a physical effect on the body, some individuals may not distinguish this from other more serious illnesses.\n\nIf the symptom is unambiguous (e.g. a breast lump), individuals are motivated to seek care regardless if they are under stress.\n\nHowever, if the symptom is ambiguous (e.g. headache), they will not seek care attributing the symptom to stress if the stressor's onset is recent which began in the previous 3 weeks, and will seek care if the onset is not recent.\n", "Section::::Behavioural responses.:Sexual behaviours.\n", "Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in response to stress which can disrupt sleep.\n\nSection::::Physiological impacts of stress.:Health effects.\n", "Stress ulcer is suspected when there is upper gastrointestinal bleeding in the appropriate clinical setting, for example, when there is upper gastrointestinal bleeding in elderly patients in a surgical intensive care unit (ICU) with heart and lung disease, or when there is upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients in a medical ICU who require respirators.\n\nStress ulcer can be diagnosed after the initial management of gastrointestinal bleeding, the diagnosis can be confirmed by upper GI endoscopy.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "BULLET::::3. The stage of exhaustion. The body is completely drained of the hormones and resources it was depending on to manage the stressor. The person now begins to exhibit behaviors such as anxiety, irritability, avoidance of responsibilities and relationships, self-destructive behavior, and poor judgment. If someone is experiencing these symptoms they have a much greater chance of lashing out, damaging relationships, or avoiding social interaction at all.\n", "Acne\n\nAcne, also known as acne vulgaris, is a long-term skin disease that occurs when hair follicles are clogged with dead skin cells and oil from the skin. It is characterized by blackheads or whiteheads, pimples, oily skin, and possible scarring. It primarily affects areas of the skin with a relatively high number of oil glands, including the face, upper part of the chest, and back. The resulting appearance can lead to anxiety, reduced self-esteem and, in extreme cases, depression or thoughts of suicide.\n", "Section::::Behavioural responses.:Change in social behaviours.\n", "Section::::Causes of stress.:Types of stressors.:Daily hassles/microstressors.\n\nThis category includes daily annoyances and minor hassles. Examples include: making decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes conflicts with other people. Daily stressors, however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful. For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, nevertheless, a seasoned politician most likely will not.\n", "Section::::Management.:Alternative medicine.\n", "Stress and emotional brain networks foster eating behaviors that may lead to obesity. The neural networks underlying the complex interactions among stressors, body, brain and food intake are now better understood. Stressors, by activating a neural stress-response network, bias cognition toward increased emotional activity and degraded executive function. This causes formed habits to be used rather than a cognitive appraisal of responses. Stress also induces secretion of both glucocorticoids, which increases motivation for food, and insulin, which promotes food intake and obesity. Pleasurable feeding then reduces activity in the stress-response network, reinforcing the feeding habit.\n", "Weight loss in overweight women reduced stress incontinence, in women with a Body Mass Index (BMI) over 25 and at least 10 episodes of urinary incontinence per week. With exercise and restricted diet they had a 70% or greater reduction in overall incontinence episodes.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Behavioral changes.:Exercises.\n", "Chronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit based learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial working memory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergic systems. Stress may also increase reward associated with food, leading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits. Stress may contribute to various psychosomatic disorders, such as fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, depression, and functional somatic syndromes.\n\nSection::::Psychological concepts.\n\nSection::::Psychological concepts.:Eustress.\n", "The relationship between this area and a risk of cavernous sinus thrombosis was described as early as 1852. In 1937, a study found that 61% of the cases of cavernous sinus thrombosis were the result of furuncles on the upper part of the face. While the disorder has become extremely uncommon with the development of antibiotics, it still carries a very small chance to develop a high risk of death and needs to be treated aggressively with antibiotics and blood thinners.\n\nSection::::Infection of cavernous sinus.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "Worry system is activated from exposure of a potential triggering event, traumatic experience or vulnerability, this brings worrisome thoughts and feelings which bring about physical stress reactions and response to avoid worrisome behavior, to ensure allostasis. But under the crisis this activity feeds back into the first worrisome thoughts and feelings which generates and strengthens the vicious worry cycle. Relaxation, risk assessment, worry exposure and behavior prevention have been proven effective in curbing the excessive worry, a chief feature of generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive behavioral techniques hasn't branched out enough to address the problem holistically but therapy can control or diminish worry.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06364	What makes a substance greasy or sticky on a molecular level?	Now with Illustrations! Credit to u/pupuren, thanks again! [So Great]( URL_0 ) When thinking about things being sticky or slick it’s useful to think of the molecules as tiny little robots with magnetic grabber arms. Some materials have lots of arms and connect to each other well. Some materials have very few arms and don’t have a strong connection. Some materials have the wrong kind of connectors for each other and don’t have a connection at all, in fact they push each other apart. Sticky things like tape, glue, snot and honey are all made up of little parts, molecules, that have a lot of grabber arms. They are also really good at getting into all the little nooks and crannies of what it’s trying to stick to. Slick or oily things like grease, lubricants and ice don’t grab on to other things as well as sticky things because they have fewer arms and don’t do a good job of making contact with the other surface. This is why pressing on things helps to make them stick better. You are forcing more of the two things to touch, getting into all the little bits of the surface. You also add energy by pressing which can cause things like forcing more grabber arms to activate. Since this blew up a bit, here’s some more info. Thanks for the feedback and info. The tiny little robots (molecules) don’t only use their magnetic grabber arms to hold on to other materials, they also try to hold on to each other. Some robots have better arms for this than others and do a really good job of staying together, this is really important for things like tape and glue. If the robots can grab the other surface but can’t hang on to each other then it won’t help us to stick two things together, it will just get sticky stuff on two things. Another thing that happens is changes in the settings of the robot. Given some time or energy (like heating things up or pressing them) some types of robots will grip harder to other things or to itself by locking into place and not wanting to move or flex any more. We see this as hardening or setting in glue. A note on ice... Water is an unusual molecule, its little tiny robots do a lot of things differently than most robots. One of these things is friction, where we know that ice is slick but are still figuring out exactly why it is. It looks like it’s the very top layer of machines switch back and forth between ice and water, so stuff flows over the water and the water flows over the ice. It’s like if the first row of robots just rolled along the top of the other robots, grabbing on while moving a little. Remember that all of this is happening with robots so tiny that comparing them to us is like comparing an ant to a mountain. Bumps and scrapes we can see in something can make it feel less slick, but that’s the shape of the item, not the molecular interaction, so we call that traction. (Edit: minor clean up) (Edit 2 - added more info) (Edit 3 - fixed an “it’s” to “its” because even though it’s possessive that’s not how this word’s apostrophe works because it’s a contraction. English is dumb.) (Edit 4 - Added illustration form u/pupuren)	[ "Section::::Polymers.\n\nMany engineering polymers are hygroscopic, including nylon, ABS, polycarbonate, cellulose, and poly(methyl methacrylate).\n\nOther polymers, such as polyethylene and polystyrene, do not normally absorb much moisture, but are able to carry significant moisture on their surface when exposed to liquid water.\n\nType-6 nylon can absorb up to 9.5% of its weight in moisture.\n\nSection::::Applications in baking.\n", "Under prolonged heat, the triglycerides in the oil begin to break down. This means the glycerol molecules and the fatty acid chains begin to break apart. As this occurs the oil becomes more polar. As the oil becomes more polar, the Van der Waals interactions between the glycerol and the hydrocarbons begin to increase. In this case, the dipole on glycerol induces a dipole in the hydrocarbon chain. The strength of the dipole induced dipole interactions can be modeled with a combination of Debye, Keesom and London interactions through addition.\n\nDebye:\n\nKeesom:\n\nLondon:\n", "Many materials which we encounter during the day are dispersed media. For example, milk consists of oil drops dispersed in water, fog contains tiny water drops dispersed in air, shaving cream contains bubbles dispersed in a liquid, sand consists of solid grains in air and a kitchen sponge of bubbles dispersed in a solid.\n", "Section::::Variations in double-stranded molecules.:Overhangs and sticky ends.\n\nNon-blunt ends are created by various \"overhangs\". An overhang is a stretch of unpaired nucleotides in the end of a DNA molecule. These unpaired nucleotides can be in either strand, creating either 3' or 5' overhangs. These overhangs are in most cases palindromic.\n", "Following are examples of the application of the concept in the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).\n", "Section::::Physical properties.:Water, ice, and vapor.:Miscibility and condensation.\n\nWater is miscible with many liquids, including ethanol in all proportions. Water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. This can be predicted by comparing the polarity. Water being a relatively polar compound will tend to be miscible with liquids of high polarity such as ethanol and acetone, whereas compounds with low polarity will tend to be immiscible and poorly soluble such as with hydrocarbons.\n", "Once across the interface, the tails and loops form whatever bonds are favorable. In the case of polymer-on-polymer surfaces, this means more van der Waals forces. While these may be brittle, they are quite strong when a large network of these bonds is formed. The outermost layer of each surface plays a crucial role in the adhesive properties of such interfaces, as even a tiny amount of interdigitation – as little as one or two tails of 1.25 angstrom length – can increase the van der Waals bonds by an order of magnitude.\n\nSection::::Strength.\n", "Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic (\"water-fearing\"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic (\"water-loving\") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol).\n", "BULLET::::- Adhesion – is the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). The forces that cause adhesion and cohesion can be divided into several types. The intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion, dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion. In addition to the cumulative magnitudes of these intermolecular forces, there are also certain emergent mechanical effects.\n", "Adhesive materials fill the voids or pores of the surfaces and hold surfaces together by interlocking. Other interlocking phenomena are observed on different length scales. Sewing is an example of two materials forming a large scale mechanical bond, velcro forms one on a medium scale, and some textile adhesives (glue) form one at a small scale.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Chemical.\n", "A basic understanding of the terminology of cleavage energy, surface energy, and surface tension is very helpful for understanding the physical state and the events that happen at a given surface, but as discussed below, the theory of these variables also yields some interesting effects that concern the practicality of adhesive surfaces in relation to their surroundings.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n\nThere is no single theory covering adhesion, and particular mechanisms are specific to particular material scenarios.\n\nFive mechanisms of adhesion have been proposed to explain why one material sticks to another:\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Mechanical.\n", "Surface rheology can be characterized by the oscillating drop method or shear surface rheometers such as double-cone, double-ring or magnetic rod shear surface rheometer.\n\nSection::::Characterization of interfaces and surfactant layers.:Detergents in biochemistry and biotechnology.\n", "When cleaning equipment it is near impossible to remove all the loose molecules. It is almost certain that traces of the chemical used to clean the equipment will remain on its surfaces, forming a microscopically thin layer.\n", "Another factor determining the strength of an adhesive contact is its shape. Adhesive contacts of complex shape begin to detach at the \"edges\" of the contact area. The process of destruction of adhesive contacts can be seen in the film.\n\nSection::::Other effects.\n\nIn concert with the primary surface forces described above, there are several circumstantial effects in play. While the forces themselves each contribute to the magnitude of the adhesion between the surfaces, the following play a crucial role in the overall strength and reliability of an adhesive device.\n\nSection::::Other effects.:Stringing.\n", "The type of mechanism and the amplitude of surface attraction varies between different materials but are amplified by an increase in the density of \"surface energy\". Most solids will adhere on contact to some extent. However, oxidation films, lubricants and contaminants naturally occurring generally suppress adhesion, and spontaneous exothermic chemical reactions between surfaces generally produce a substance with low energy status in the absorbed species.\n", "The effect is also apparent in experiments where a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamp is made with small periodic post structures. The surface with the posts is placed face down on a smooth surface, such that the surface area in between each post is elevated above the smooth surface, like a roof supported by columns. Because of these attractive dispersive forces between the PDMS and the smooth substrate, the elevated surface – or “roof” – collapses down onto the substrate without any external force aside from the van der Waals attraction. Simple smooth polymer surfaces – without any microstructures – are commonly used for these dispersive adhesive properties. Decals and stickers that adhere to glass without using any chemical adhesives are fairly common as toys and decorations and useful as removable labels because they do not rapidly lose their adhesive properties, as do sticky tapes that use adhesive chemical compounds.\n", "are visualized as forming \"cages\" which surround and enclose single molecules. These cages can be occupied or unoccupied, and\n\nstronger molecular attraction corresponds to stronger cages.\n\nDue to random thermal motion, a molecule \"hops\" between cages at a rate which varies inversely with the strength of molecular attractions. In equilibrium these \"hops\" are not biased in any direction.\n\nOn the other hand, in order for two adjacent layers to move relative to each other, the \"hops\" must be biased in the direction\n", "Different types of material can be stained by different substances, and stain resistance is an important characteristic in modern textile engineering.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n\nThe primary method of stain formation is surface stains, where the staining substance is spilled out onto the surface or material and is trapped in the fibers, pores, indentations, or other capillary structures on the surface. The material that is trapped coats the underlying material, and the stain reflects back light according to its own color. Applying paint, spilled food, and wood stains are of this nature.\n", "The term \"frayed\" is used because the incorrectly matched nucleotides tend to avoid bonding, thus appearing similar to the strands in a fraying piece of rope.\n\nAlthough non-complementary sequences are also possible in the middle of double stranded DNA, mismatched regions away from the ends are not referred to as \"frayed\".\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n\nRonald W. Davis first discovered sticky ends as the product of the action of EcoRI, the restriction endonuclease.\n\nSection::::Strength.\n", "Section::::Networked island-able microgrids.\n", "Another theory for the mechanism of craze propagation in amorphous polymers is proposed by Kramer. According to his theory, the formation of internal surfaces in polymers is facilitated by polymeric surface tension that is determined by both secondary interactions and the contribution of load-bearing chains that must undergo fracture or slippage to form a surface. This theory provides and explanation for the decrease in the stress needed to propagate the craze in the presence of surface-active reagents such as detergents and high temperature.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of ESC.:ESC mechanism in polyethylene.\n", "Section::::Mechanical properties.:Surfaces.\n", "Most liquids and aqueous solutions are highly transparent. For example, water, cooking oil, rubbing alcohol, air, and natural gas are all clear. Absence of structural defects (voids, cracks, etc.) and molecular structure of most liquids are chiefly responsible for their excellent optical transmission. The ability of liquids to \"heal\" internal defects via viscous flow is one of the reasons why some fibrous materials (e.g., paper or fabric) increase their apparent transparency when wetted. The liquid fills up numerous voids making the material more structurally homogeneous.\n", "Another related and counter-intuitive example of entropic force is protein folding, which is a spontaneous process and where hydrophobic effect also plays a role. Structures of water-soluble proteins typically have a core in which hydrophobic side chains are buried from water, which stabilizes the folded state. Charged and polar side chains are situated on the solvent-exposed surface where they interact with surrounding water molecules. Minimizing the number of hydrophobic side chains exposed to water is the principal driving force behind the folding process,\n\nSection::::Examples.:Colloids.\n", "When preparing a surface for adhesive bonding, all oil and grease contamination must be removed in order to form a strong bond. Although the surface may appear to be clean, it is important to still use the degreasing process. Prior to performing the degreasing process, the compatibility of the solvent used and the adherend must be considered to prevent irreversible damage of the surface or part.\n\nSection::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Degreasing.:Vapor degreasing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00680	If one-way encryption can't be reversed or decrypted, how come the same encryption works the same at all times with the same input?	I assume you are talking about a Hash. A hash cannot be reversed to the original message because the process (which technically isn't encryption) literally destroys information. Since all possible messages (infinite possible input set) maps to a output set of a given, set size (finite possible output set) then information has to be destroyed (and sort of collision inevitable).	[ "Two systems S and T are said to be indistinguishable if there exists no algorithm D, connected to either S or T, able to decide whether it is connected to S or T.\n", "The first one-way encryptions were likely developed by James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, and Malcolm Williamson at the UK intelligence agency GCHQ during the 1960s and 1970s and were published independently by Diffie and Hellman in 1976 (History of cryptography). Common modern one-way encryption algorithms, including MD5 (message digest) and SHA-512 (secure hash algorithm) are similar to the first such algorithms in that they also contain no mechanism to disclose the original data. The output of these modern one-way encryptions offer high privacy but are not homomorphic, meaning that the results of the one-way encryptions do not allow high order math operations (such as match). For example, we cannot use two SHA-512 sums to compare the closeness of two encrypted documents. This limitation makes it impossible for these one-way encryptions to be used to support classifying models in machine learning—or nearly anything else.\n", "In order for the encryption function and decryption function to be suitable for the \"three-pass protocol\" they must have the property that for any message \"m\", any encryption key \"e\" with corresponding decryption key \"d\" and any independent encryption key \"k\", \"D(d,E(k,E(e,m))) = E(k,m)\". In other words, it must be possible to remove the first encryption with the key \"e\" even though a second encryption with the key \"k\" has been performed. This will always be possible with a commutative encryption. A commutative encryption is an encryption that is order-independent, i.e. it satisfies \"E(a,E(b,m))=E(b,E(a,m))\" for all encryption keys \"a\" and \"b\" and all messages \"m\". Commutative encryptions satisfy \"D(d,E(k,E(e,m))) = D(d,E(e,E(k,m))) = E(k,m)\".\n", "There are no actively developed implementations of first-generation schemes. There are several open-source implementations of second- and third-generation fully homomorphic encryption schemes. Second-generation FHE implementations typically operate in the leveled FHE mode (though bootstrapping is still available in some libraries) and support efficient SIMD-like packing of data; they are typically used to compute on encrypted integers or real/complex numbers. Third-generation FHE implementations often bootstrap after each Boolean gate operation but have limited support for packing and efficient arithmetic computations; they are typically used to compute Boolean circuits over encrypted bits. The choice of using a second-generation vs. third-generation scheme depends on the input data types and the desired computation.\n", "The simplest way to achieve both diffusion and confusion is to use a substitution-permutation network. In these systems, the plaintext and the key often have a very similar role in producing the output, hence the same mechanism ensures both diffusion and confusion.\n\nSection::::Applied to encryption.\n\nDesigning an encryption method uses both of the principles of confusion and diffusion.\n", "Section::::Fully Homomorphic Encryption.\n\nA cryptosystem that supports on ciphertexts is known as fully homomorphic encryption (FHE). Such a scheme enables the construction of programs for any desirable functionality, which can be run on encrypted inputs to produce an encryption of the result. Since such a program need never decrypt its inputs, it can be run by an untrusted party without revealing its inputs and internal state.\n\nFully homomorphic cryptosystems have great practical implications in the outsourcing of private computations, for instance, in the context of cloud computing.\n\nSection::::Fully Homomorphic Encryption.:Implementations.\n", "Notice that all of the operations involving the sender's private keys \"s\" and \"t\" are performed by the sender, and all of the operations involving the receiver's private keys \"r\" and \"q\" are performed by the receiver, so that neither party needs to know the other party's keys.\n\nSection::::Shamir three-pass protocol.\n", "3-Way is designed to be very efficient in a wide range of platforms from 8-bit processors to specialized hardware, and has some elegant mathematical features which enable nearly all the decryption to be done in exactly the same circuits as did the encryption. \n\n3-Way, just as its counterpart BaseKing, is vulnerable to related key cryptanalysis. John Kelsey, Bruce Schneier, and David Wagner showed how it can be broken with one related key query and about formula_1 chosen plaintexts.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- SCAN's entry for 3-Way\n\nBULLET::::- Chapter 7 of Daemen's thesis (gzipped Postscript)\n", "There exist no bijections for even sized inputs/outputs with 2-uniformity. They exist in odd fields (such as GF(2)) using either cubing or inversion (there are other exponents that can be used as well). For instance S(x) = x in any odd binary field is immune to differential and linear cryptanalysis. This is in part why the MISTY designs use 7- and 9-bit functions in the 16-bit non-linear function. What these functions gain in immunity to differential and linear attacks they lose to algebraic attacks. That is, they are possible to describe and solve via a SAT solver. This is in part why AES (for instance) has an affine mapping after the inversion.\n", "The attack relies primarily on the fact that a given input/output difference pattern only occurs for certain values of inputs. Usually the attack is applied in essence to the non-linear components as if they were a solid component (usually they are in fact look-up tables or \"S-boxes\"). Observing the desired output difference (between two chosen or known plaintext inputs) \"suggests\" possible key values.\n", "It follows the approach: Encrypt-then-MAC. In order for the receiver to verify that the ciphertext has not been tampered with, the digest is computed before the ciphertext is decrypted.\n\nSecond layer of encryption:\n\nOptionally it is still possible, therefore to encrypt the capsule of the first layer in addition with an AES-256, - comparable to a commonly shared, 32-character long symmetric password. Hybrid Encryption is then added to multiple encryption.\n\nThird layer of the encryption:\n\nThen, this capsule is transmitted via a secure SSL/TLS connection to the communication partner\n", "Section::::Security.\n\nA necessary condition for a three-pass algorithm to be secure is that an attacker cannot determine any information about the message \"m\" from the three transmitted messages \"E(s,m)\", \"E(r,E(s,m))\" and \"E(r,m)\".\n", "Deniable encryption allows the sender of an encrypted message to deny sending that message. This requires a trusted third party. A possible scenario works like this:\n\nBULLET::::1. Bob suspects his wife Alice is engaged in adultery. That being the case, Alice wants to communicate with her secret lover Carl. She creates two keys, one intended to be kept secret, the other intended to be sacrificed. She passes the secret key (or both) to Carl.\n", "This is the case when the first layer is a program P that always adds the same string S of characters at the beginning (or end) of all ciphertexts (commonly known as a magic number). When found in a file, the string S allows an operating system to know that the program P has to be launched in order to decrypt the file. This string should be removed before adding a second layer.\n", "If one is considering malicious adversaries, further mechanisms to ensure correct behavior of both parties need to be provided. By construction it is easy to show security for the sender, as all the receiver can do is to evaluate a garbled circuit that would fail to reach the circuit-output wires if he deviated from the instructions. The situation is very different on the sender's side. For example, he may send an incorrect garbled circuit that computes a function revealing the receiver's input. This would mean that privacy no longer holds, but since the circuit is garbled the receiver would not be able to detect this.\n", "But, in some cases it is easier because a single implementation of a block cipher can be used for both block cipher and a hash function. It can also save code space in very tiny embedded systems like for instance smart cards or nodes in cars or other machines.\n", "It is not sufficient to make a function \"lossy\" (not one-to-one) to have a one-way function. In particular, the function that outputs the string of \"n\" zeros on any input of length \"n\" is \"not\" a one-way function because it is easy to come up with an input that will result in the same output. More precisely: For such a function that simply outputs a string of zeroes, an algorithm \"F\" that just outputs any string of length \"n\" on input \"f\"(\"x\") will \"find\" a proper preimage of the output, even if it is not the input which was originally used to find the output string.\n", "Many of the advances in these second-generation cryptosystems were also ported to the cryptosystem over the integers.\n\nAnother distinguishing feature of second-generation schemes is that they are efficient enough for many applications even without invoking bootstrapping, instead operating in the leveled FHE mode.\n\nSection::::History.:Third-Generation FHE.\n\nIn 2013, Craig Gentry, Amit Sahai, and Brent Waters (GSW) proposed a new technique for building FHE schemes that avoids an expensive \"relinearization\" step in homomorphic multiplication.\n", "It was not clear at all whether public key cryptosystems can withstand the chosen ciphertext attack until the initial breakthrough work of Moni Naor and Moti Yung in 1990, which suggested a mode of dual encryption with integrity proof (now known as the \"Naor-Yung\" encryption paradigm). This work made understanding of the notion of security against chosen ciphertext attack much clearer than before and open the research direction of constructing systems with various protections against variants of the attack. \n", "Several variants of the two main methods exist. For example, in partial Chase combining only a subset of the bits in the original transmission are re-transmitted. In partial incremental redundancy, the systematic bits are always included so that each re-transmission is self-decodable.\n", "In order to establish an encrypted channel using the Dynamic Encryption principle the sender and receiver first negotiates a key and then the sender picks a cipher from a large pool of ciphers and sends that together with the encrypted message.\n\nIt is possible to construct a dynamic encryption system, from known ciphers (such as AES, DES, etc.), such that all encryption algorithms generated from this system are at least as secure as the static underlying cipher.\n\nSection::::Details.\n", "Integrity protection mechanisms such as MACs and digital signatures must be applied to the ciphertext when it is first created, typically on the same device used to compose the message, to protect a message end-to-end along its full transmission path; otherwise, any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it. Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has correct keys and has not been tampered with. If an endpoint device has been configured to trust a root certificate that an attacker controls, for example, then the attacker can both inspect and tamper with encrypted data by performing a man-in-the-middle attack anywhere along the message's path. The common practice of TLS interception by network operators represents a controlled and institutionally sanctioned form of such an attack, but countries have also attempted to employ such attacks as a form of control and censorship.\n", "This is achieved by the fact that all information necessary to forge messages is appended to the encrypted messages – if an adversary is able to create digitally authentic messages in a conversation (see hash-based message authentication code (HMAC)), he is also able to forge messages in the conversation. This is used in conjunction with perfect forward secrecy to assure that the compromise of encryption keys of individual messages does not compromise additional conversations or messages.\n\nSection::::Software.\n\nBULLET::::- OpenPuff, freeware semi-open-source steganography for MS Windows.\n\nBULLET::::- EDS, a mobile encryption app available on Android, includes plausible-deniability encryption.\n", "Furthermore, it is possible to construct codes which surpass known bounds for worst-case codes—specifically, unique decoding with a formula_21 error rate. This can be done by concatenating timestamped digital signatures onto messages. A computationally bounded channel cannot forge a signature; and while it may have valid past signatures, the receiver can use list decoding and select a message only if its signature has the correct timestamp.\n", "BULLET::::- If the same clear text message is sent to \"e\" or more recipients in an encrypted way, and the receivers share the same exponent \"e\", but different \"p\", \"q\", and therefore \"n\", then it is easy to decrypt the original clear text message via the Chinese remainder theorem. Johan Håstad noticed that this attack is possible even if the cleartexts are not equal, but the attacker knows a linear relation between them. This attack was later improved by Don Coppersmith.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07974	How do people recolour photos? How do they know what colours things were?	Recoloring old photos is usually done in a series of masks in photoshop. Basically mask the area of the photo off, then brush in the color. Brushes in photoshop can be used in a normal mode (like painting on top), or color mode (adding color hues to existing lines. As for the colors used, most of it is guess work, or the artist taking some liberties. Sometimes things like military uniforms are well known what hue they should have been, and some internet research can help that. Here's a thread from imgur that is a good example of a basic colorizing process. URL_0	[ "In 1981, photography professor and historian Joseph Boudreau compounded the archaic chemistry and replicated the techniques described by Hill in \"A Treatise on Heliochromy\". Boudreau was able to create Hillotypes that distinctly and verifiably showed muted reproductions of many of the colors in the test subjects photographed, including red, green, blue, yellow, magenta and orange; these colors were all produced by the action of light alone, without the application of dyes or pigments.\n", "In some cases it may be necessary to contact a professional conservator. In the United States, the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC) provides a Find a Conservator tool that helps identify local conservation services. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the Conservation Register provides a similar tool that searches by specialization, business, and surname. To locate other conservation services internationally, Conservation OnLine (CoOL) Resources for Conservation Professionals provides a tool that searches by country.\n\nSection::::Preservation and storage.:Colouring materials.\n", "Kodak introduced color film and transparencies in 1935. The first process was called Kodachrome. Ektachrome, introduced in the late 1940s, became equally popular. There are now a variety of color processes that use different materials; most consist of dyes (cyan, magenta, and yellow, each of which have different absorption peaks) suspended in a gelatin layer.\n\nSection::::Overview of Photographs and Photographic Processes.:Photograph Stability.\n", "BULLET::::- Vintage B&W photographs hand color tinted to create new vibrant images of an era gone past. My Vintage Photos features images of Movie & Cultural Celebrities, Native American Indians, Civil War & Military, Famous Places & Landmarks, US Presidents & Political Figures, Scientists and Heroes & Outlaws of the American Old West.\n", "Monochrome images which have been \"colorized\" by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are \"colored photographs\", not \"color photographs\". Their colors are not dependent on the actual colors of the objects photographed and may be inaccurate.\n", "Section::::Preservation and storage.:Auxiliary materials.\n", "Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned.\n", "Desmet method\n\nThe Desmet Method (also known as Desmetcolor) is a method for restoring the colours of early silent films, which had originally been subjected to the processes of either:\n\nBULLET::::- Film tinting – a process that suffuses the entire image a single colour\n\nBULLET::::- Toning – a process that colours only the dark parts of the image\n\nBULLET::::- A combination of the two\n\nIt was developed by Noël Desmet, a film archivist and restorer working for the \"Cinémathèque Royale de Belgique\" in Brussels, Belgium.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "A copy was discovered in Italy in 2008, and on August 5, 2013, the George Eastman House museum of film and photography in the U.S. announced that it had completed a long process of restoration together with \"Cinemazero\", the National Film Preservation Foundation, and laboratory experts in the U.S. and the Netherlands. Cinema Arts, a Pennsylvania film laboratory, performed most of the preservation work. \"The next step was to begin the actual photo-chemical preservation\", said Tony Delgrosso, Head of Preservation at George Eastman House. \"For that we turned to a lab called Cinema Arts who are world famous for the quality of their black-and-white photo-chemical preservation and restoration.\"\n", "After moving to California in the late 1950s, Dorr taught courses and gave lectures on his Color Key Program until his death in 1979. The color company Devoe Reynolds developed paint chips using their Key 1 & Key 2 color matching system from Robert Dorr..\n\nSection::::Early history (1850s–early 1970s).:Caygill.\n", "The most commonly used method of obtaining color information in digital photography is the use of a Bayer filter, invented by Bryce Bayer of Eastman Kodak in 1976. In this approach, a sensor that is sensitive to multiple wavelengths of light is placed behind a color filter. Traditionally, each pixel, or \"sensel\", is thereby assigned an additional light response curve beyond its inherent differential response to different wavelengths - typically the filters applied respond to red, blue and green, the latter being used twice as often based on an argument that the human eye is more sensitive to variation in green than any other color. Thus, the color image produced would preserve color in a way resembling human perception, and not appear unduly deteriorated in any particular color range.\n", "Before the 1960s, early coloured films were almost without exception preserved on black and white film and the colours, if recorded at all, only noted in writing. These actions have cost many subsequent restorations dearly. However, there are a number of different methods for restoring early coloured films today, each of which nonetheless comes with its own inherent strengths and weaknesses.\n", "BULLET::::- Film colorization\n\nBULLET::::- Film tinting\n\nBULLET::::- Handschiegl colour process\n\nBULLET::::- Photochrom(e)\n\nBULLET::::- Photograph conservation\n\nBULLET::::- Photo manipulation\n\nBULLET::::- Preservation (library and archival science)\n\nBULLET::::- Selective colour\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Baldwin, G. (1991). \"Looking at photographs: A guide to technical terms\". Malibu, Calif: J. Paul Getty Museum in association with British Museum Press, p. 7, 35, 55, 58, 74, 80-82.\n\nBULLET::::- Jones, B. E. (1974). \"Encyclopedia of photography: With a new picture portfolio\". New York: Arno Press, p. 132-134.\n\nBULLET::::- Lavédrine, B. (2009). \"Photographs of the past: Process and preservation\". Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute.\n", "BULLET::::- The first public demonstration of color movies, in the United States, took place at the meeting room of the New York Electrical Society. Charles Urban and George Smith had previously demonstrated their Kinemacolor process in London, and began their presentation with a film of \"a series of bowls and vases of flowers, the bouquets being revolved so as to be seen on all sides\".\n\nBULLET::::- Salvador Calvero became the new Prime Minister of Peru.\n\nSection::::October 29, 1910 (Saturday).\n", "Hand-coloured photographs sometimes include the combined use of dyes, water-colours, oils, and other pigments to create varying effects on the printed image. Regardless of which medium is used, the main tools to apply colour are the brush and fingertip. Often the dabbing finger is covered to ensure that no fingerprints are left on the image.\n\nSection::::Preservation and storage.\n", "BULLET::::- TNT (TV channel)\n\nBULLET::::- Turner Classic Movies / History\n\nBULLET::::- 2D to 3D conversion—many of the issues involved in colorization, such as object edge identification/recognition, are also encountered in 3-D conversion\n\nBULLET::::- Colour recovery recovery of color from black and white recordings\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Anthony Slide, \"Nitrate Won't Wait: A History of Film Preservation in the United States\" (pg 9, August 1, 2000),\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Hand coloring on Timeline of Historical Film Colors with many written resources and many photographs of hand colored prints.\n\nBULLET::::- Video (09:03) - notable historical still images - now colorized.\n", "Bernice Kentner, who had worked as a licensed cosmetologist since 1950, began holding lectures on color analysis in the early 1970s, and in 1978 published \"Color Me a Season\", which went through several printings in the early 1980s.\n", "Section::::History.:Color.\n\nColor photography was explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not \"fix\" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light.\n", "A chemical analysis of Hill's plates by researchers affiliated with the National Museum of American History, conducted in 2007, found that pigments had indeed been used to enhance the colors in some Hillotypes, but that this accounted for only some of the photographs' color. They found that reds and blues had for the most part been genuinely (if crudely) reproduced photographically, but that other colors had been fraudulently added. Getty Conservation Institute senior scientist Dusan Stulik, who performed the analysis with colleague Art Kaplan, concluded that “[a]fter pressure mounted to produce additional colors ... Hill began adding additional pigments to his color plates by hand, doctoring them to look more multi-hued than the originals.\" \n", "Though a wide range of film preference still exists among photographers today, color has, with time, gained a much larger following as well as a higher level of respect in the field of photography as a whole.\n\nSection::::Preservation issues.\n\nExperimentation with creating photographs that mirrored the colors of real life began in the 1840s. Each process may require different methods of preservation.\n", "The first film colorization methods were hand done by individuals. For example, at least 4% of George Méliès's output, including some prints of \"A Trip to the Moon\" from 1902 and other major films such as \"The Kingdom of the Fairies\", \"The Impossible Voyage\", and \"The Barber of Seville\" were individually hand-colored by Elisabeth Thuillier's coloring lab in Paris. Thuillier, a former colorist of glass and celluloid products, directed a studio of two hundred people painting directly on film stock with brushes, in the colors she chose and specified; each worker was assigned a different color in assembly line style, with more than twenty separate colors often used for a single film. Thuillier's lab produced about sixty hand-colored copies of \"A Trip to the Moon\", but only one copy is known to exist. The first full-length feature film made by a hand-colored process was \"The Miracle\" of 1912.\n", "Another hand-colour photographer, Luis Márquez (1899–1978), was the official photographer for and art adviser of the Mexican Pavilion at the 1939-40 World’s Fair. In 1937 he presented Texas Governor James V. Allred a collection of hand-coloured photographs. The National Autonomous University of Mexico in Mexico City has an extensive Luis Márquez photographic archive, as does the University of Houston in Texas.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2017, \"Algorithmia\" released a free, online colorization service. Although sample limited, the service uses neural nets with artificial intelligence which is trained on colorized images that are fed to deep generative adversarial networks along with automatically generated grayscale.\n\nSection::::Uses of colorization.\n\nSection::::Uses of colorization.:Partial colorization.\n\nThe earliest form of colorization introduced limited color into a black-and-white film using dyes, as a visual effect. The earliest Edison films, most notably the \"Annabelle Serpentine Dance\" series, were also the earliest examples of colorization, done by painting aniline dyes onto the emulsion.\n", "BULLET::::- Studio Art Centers International, Florence (SACI)\n\nBULLET::::- Royal College of Art/Victoria and Albert Museum\n\nBULLET::::- The International master Program in Conservation of Antique Photographs and Paper Heritage held at the EICAP Faculty of Applied arts-Helwan University\n\nIn addition, Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) works internationally to advance conservation practice in the visual arts.\n\nThe United States, in particular, has many training or degree programs for photograph conservators offered by graduate schools and organizations such as: \n\nBULLET::::- Conservation Center for Art and Historic Artifacts (CCAHA)\n\nBULLET::::- Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC)\n\nBULLET::::- George Eastman House\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo State College\n", "Both film and television restoration and colorization is produced by the company Legend Films. Their patented automated process was used to colorize around 100 films between 2003 and 2009. Shirley Temple, Jane Russell, Terry Moore and Ray Harryhausen have worked with the company to colorize either their own films or their personal favorites. Two movies that Legend Films are noted for is the colorization of the exploitation film \"Reefer Madness\", for which certain color schemes were used to create a psychedelic effect in its viewers, and \"Plan 9 from Outer Space\". Recently (2007), Legend Films colorized \"It's a Wonderful Life\" for Paramount Pictures (whose subsidiary, Republic Pictures, had regained control of the copyright in the 1990s) and \"Holiday Inn\" in 2008 for rights holder Universal Pictures.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03556	How do movies hide cameras in scenes shot in front of mirrors?	Hi! Visual effects artist here. Often times when cameras are visible in scenes (which happens more often than you’d think because big budget movies use multi-camera set ups) we remove them the same way people remove blemishes on the skin when editing photos, except for every frame of that scene. There is a multitude of ways to achieve this, usually we just recreate what is behind the camera by digitally painting it in, sometimes frame by frame. This is indeed as painful as it sounds. There is a whole department in visual effects houses dedicated to cleaning up scenes before putting CGI in (more often than not we don’t use CGI for these jobs to save money, we just paint as you would inside photoshop and track it in so it moves with the camera in the scene). We do everything from painting out wires for stunts, removing cameras from the set, removing people that don’t belong in the shot, cleaning up bad green screen to removing markers placed for tracking. This work can take anywhere from 2-4 months for a 3-10 second shot depending on what needs to be removed. This is oftentimes why in lower budget tv shows you see really poorly done VFX. Just finished work on BladeRunner 2049 & am now working on Deadpool 2! It’s really awesome to see people show interest in this kinda stuff. Cheers mate! Hope that all makes sense!	[ "Principal photography for \"A Dark Reflection\" initially lasted 40 days. It was filmed in Techniscope format using Fuji 35mm film by Director of Photography Nicholas Eriksson.\n\nAll of the filming was done on location in England apart from a week of filming in Jordan, Loraine deciding not to use a soundstage. Further filming was carried out in Spring 2014 in Horsham.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "The film was shot on digital in public studios (where the public could visit and attend the film shoots) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, France and the Centre PHI in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- Haunted bedroom (1:11:56)In front of the curtains in the girls' bedroom as the house is evacuated. The ghost is briefly visible as the cameraman turns, but is gone again when he whips the camera back round for a second look.\n\nBULLET::::- Under the stairs (1:17:12)Inside the cupboard under the stairs, a fraction of a second before the mirror leaps off the wall and knocks soundman Mike Aiton unconscious.\n", "In the same movie, Schüfftan used a variation of this process so that the miniature set (or drawing) was shown on the reflective part of the mirror and the actors were filmed through the transparent part.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Kiefer Sutherland as Ben Carson\n\nBULLET::::- Paula Patton as Amy Carson\n\nBULLET::::- Amy Smart as Angie Carson\n\nBULLET::::- Cameron Boyce as Michael \"Mikey\" Carson\n\nBULLET::::- Erica Gluck as Daisy Carson\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Beth Peil as Anna Esseker\n\nBULLET::::- John Shrapnel as Lorenzo Sapelli\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Flemyng as Det. Larry Byrne\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Ahern as Dr. Morris\n\nBULLET::::- Julian Glover as Robert Esseker\n\nBULLET::::- Josh Cole as Gary Lewis\n\nBULLET::::- Ezra Buzzington as Terrence Berry\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nThe movie was filmed mostly in the Academy of Sciences building in Bucharest.\n\nSection::::Music.\n", "A security guard runs through a subway station until he enters a room he cannot escape and starts begging his reflection in a mirror for his life. His reflection uses a shard to slice into its own throat; the wound reflects upon the real security guard's body, killing him.\n\nBen Carson (Kiefer Sutherland), a suspended police detective, begins his first day as a night security guard at the Mayflower, a luxury department store that was gutted by a fire and shuttered five years prior. The building still contains numerous mirrors from the store.\n", "BULLET::::- Frank Welker also provides the vocal effects of the giant puppets.\n\nSection::::Casting.\n", "The concept has also been used in comics. In \"\", Batman is seen chasing the Joker through an amusement park and into a hall of mirrors. It was used to create suspense as Joker could not clearly decipher what was real and what was just an image.\n\nSection::::References in fiction.:Film.\n\nIn Charlie Chaplin's 1928 movie The Circus, Charlie Chaplin is chased into a mirror maze by a thief and the police. Charlie Chaplin Official Youtube Movie Clip: Charlie Chaplin - The Mirror Maze (The Circus)\n", "The night before principal photography began in Montreal, Ray screened \"All the President's Men\" for the cast and crew. He shot both halves of the film differently – in the first half, he used hand-held cameras in the scenes that took place in the offices of \"The New Republic\", but when the \"Forbes\" editors begin to question Glass, the camerawork was more stable.\n", "Khalfoun said, \"It was a real marriage between Maxime's camera work and Elijah. You see Frank throughout the movie sporadically and Elijah was there to make sure the camera moved the right way and the lines were delivered correctly. It was important he be there. It was the first time I had seen an actor work so closely and technically with the camera to guide it through where he would be or actually do.\" Khalfoun employed angles and mirrors to conceal the cameras while filming reflections.\n\nSection::::Production.:Post-production.\n", "The design of the witches' lair was inspired by the Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versaille, France, but with black instead of white and silver instead of gold.\n\nFilming was finished by 13 July 2006.\n\nSection::::Production.:VFX.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Fine art.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Fine art.:Paintings.\n\nPainters depicting someone gazing into a mirror often also show the person's reflection. This is a kind of abstraction—in most cases the angle of view is such that the person's reflection should not be visible. Similarly, in movies and still photography an actor or actress is often shown ostensibly looking at him- or herself in the mirror, and yet the reflection faces the camera. In reality, the actor or actress sees only the camera and its operator in this case, not their own reflection.\n", "Principal photography for \"Mirror Wars: Reflection One\" took place in Russia, with location shooting in Moscow and Crimea, Ukraine. Other photography took place in Los Angeles and London. Filming also involved several locations with military personnel, equipment and facilities provided. \n", "Section::::Production.:Visual effects and costuming.\n", "When such mirrors are used for one-way observation, the viewing room is kept dark by a darkened curtain or a double door vestibule. These observation rooms have been used in:\n\nBULLET::::- Execution chambers\n\nBULLET::::- Experimental psychology research\n\nBULLET::::- Interrogation rooms\n\nBULLET::::- Market research\n\nBULLET::::- Reality television, as in the series \"Big Brother\", which makes extensive use of one-way mirrors throughout its set to allow cameramen in special black hallways to use movable cameras to film contestants without being seen.\n\nBULLET::::- Security observation decks in public areas\n", "\"A Haunting in Salem\" was shot in Native 3D using the Alterna GV-4 beam splitter rig and 2 Red One cameras. Shot in 12 days, the production managed up to 28 set ups per day. Shannon Benna was stereographer and is credited as \"Hollywoods'd First Female Feature Stereographer\" for her work on this film.\n\nSection::::Critical response.\n", "BULLET::::- Helen Eastman — Georgina Sutcliffe\n\nBULLET::::- Natasha Stevens — Rita Ramnani\n\nBULLET::::- Maggie Jaspar — Marina Sirtis\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Tyrell — Mark Dymond\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Jaspar — Nicholas Day (actor)\n\nBULLET::::- David Morris — Stephen Tompkinson\n\nBULLET::::- Isabelle Morris — Leah Bracknell\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Robertson — Paul Antony-Barber\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Morgan — Rupert Holliday-Evans\n\nBULLET::::- Molly Adamson — Romina Hytten\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nPre-production of the film started in January 2013 with filming commencing in June 2013 in West Sussex, England.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Poltergeist III\" features mirrors that do not reflect reality and which can be used as portals to the afterlife.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oculus\" is a horror film about a haunted mirror that causes people to hallucinate and commit acts of violence.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The 10th Kingdom\" miniseries requires the characters to use a magic mirror to travel between New York City (the 10th Kingdom) and the Nine Kingdoms of fairy tale.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Literature.\n\nMirrors play a powerful role in cultural literature.\n", "Section::::In film and television.\n\nSome interior sequences in \"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\" and \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" were filmed at Lacock, including the cloister walk where Harry discovers the Mirror of Erised and when he comes out from Professor Lockhart's room after serving detention and hears the basilisk. Scenes from \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\" and \"\" were also shot here.\n", "Section::::Production.:Design.\n", "Filming was carried out at a wide selection of locations in West Sussex and East Sussex such as Shoreham Airport, Gatwick Airport, Bluebell Railway, South Lodge Hotel, Fontwell Park Racecourse, Holy Innocents Church, Southwater, Horsham, Sedgwick Park and at NATS Holdings in Whiteley.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- J. R. R. Tolkien, author of \"The Lord of the Rings\", remarked that the building resembled Sauron's temple to Morgoth on Númenor. It is also mentioned in \"The Notion Club Papers\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dorothy Sayers' 1936 mystery novel \"Gaudy Night\" is set in Oxford, and one of the most important concluding conversations between Lord Peter Wimsey and Harriet Vane takes place on the balustraded circular rooftop of the Radcliffe Camera. (Chapter XXIII, \"Gaudy Night\")\n\nBULLET::::- Elizabeth Kostova's novel \"The Historian\" includes a very intense scene set in the interior of the Radcliffe Camera.\n", "\"The use of mirrors makes it sensitive to dust and fast accelerations. The mirror needs to be big enough to accommodate wide angles. It requires accurate mirror placement toward the cameras; otherwise keystone artifacts will affect the images.\" \n", "Mirrors (film)\n\nMirrors is a 2008 supernatural horror film directed by Alexandre Aja, starring Kiefer Sutherland, Paula Patton, and Amy Smart. The film was first titled \"Into the Mirror\", but the name was later changed to \"Mirrors\". Filming began on May 1, 2007, and it was released in American theaters on August 15, 2008.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01104	Why is a small amount of inflation considered good for the economy?	You want some inflation to discourage currency hoarding and lower the effective cost of borrowing. If your money is never losing value, why risk investing it? Put in in your Scrooge McDuck vault. But if it's losing 2% a year, now you better get moving. For your average person 2% a year isn't a big deal, but for institutions that deal in billions that equates to a vast sum down the toilet if they don't keep their money pile moving. Inflation helps keep the cash flow going in a modern economy. Now for your average person, you don't have much in savings but you probably do have a mortgage. A thirty year mortgage. Over thirty years, inflation puts a real dent in the effective cost of the mortgage, and makes it cheaper for you to borrow money long term. Your payments don't change, but they're worth less every year.	[ "An explicit numerical inflation target increases a central bank's accountability, and thus it is less likely that the central bank falls prey to the time-inconsistency trap. This accountability is especially significant because even countries with weak institutions can build public support for an independent central bank. Institutional commitment can also insulate the bank from political pressure to undertake an overly expansionary monetary policy.\n\nAn econometric analysis found that although inflation targeting results in higher economic growth, it does not necessarily guarantee stability based on their study of 36 emerging economies from 1979 to 2009.\n\nSection::::Debate.:Shortcomings.\n", "In the end, built-in inflation involves a vicious circle of both subjective and objective elements, so that inflation encourages inflation to persist. It means that the standard methods of fighting inflation using monetary policy or fiscal policy to induce a recession are extremely expensive, i.e. they can cause large rises in unemployment and large falls in real gross domestic product. This suggests that alternative methods such as wage and price controls (incomes policies) may also be needed in the fight against inflation.\n", "However, targeting the money supply growth rate is considered a weak policy, because it is not stably related to the real output growth, As a result, a higher output growth rate will result in a too low level of inflation. A low output growth rate will result in inflation that would be higher than the desired level.\n", "BULLET::::- Inflation creates a redistribution of income between debtor and creditor. Specifically, inflation sacrifices the interests of creditors to benefit the debtor. For example, A borrows 10,000 dollars from B and agrees to return it after one year. Assuming inflation occurs in the year and the price doubles, the amount A returned to B can only purchase half of the original purchase of products and services, which is to say, inflation causes B to lose half of their actual income. In order to reflect the impact of inflation on the borrower's actual income, the real interest rate is generally used instead of the nominal interest rate. The actual interest rate is equal to the nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate. Assuming the bank deposit rate is 5% and the inflation rate is 10%, At this point, the actual rate of return on deposits is -5% - (5% - 10% = -5%)\n", "Today, most economists favor a low and steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Generally, these monetary authorities are the central banks that control monetary policy through the setting of interest rates, through open market operations, and through the setting of banking reserve requirements.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "As a result, market interest rates are generally held around the Reserve Bank's OCR level. The practical result, over time, is that when market interest rates increase, people are inclined to spend less on goods and services. This is because their savings get a higher rate of interest and there is an incentive to save; and conversely, people with mortgages and other loans may experience higher interest payments.\n", "Banks (or governments) relying heavily on seigniorage and fractional reserve sources of revenue may find them counterproductive. Rational expectations of inflation take into account a bank's seigniorage strategy, and inflationary expectations can maintain high inflation. Instead of accruing seigniorage from fiat money and credit, most governments opt to raise revenue primarily through formal taxation and other means\n\nSection::::Seigniorage as a tax.:Benefit to governments.\n\nIn his self-published book, \"Inflation Tax: The Plan To Deal With The Debts\", Pete Comley suggests a number of ways governments benefit (directly or indirectly) from inflation:\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased debt burden (if inflation is unexpected)\n", "Transparency is another key benefit of inflation targeting. Central banks in developed countries that have successfully implemented inflation targeting tend to \"maintain regular channels of communication with the public\". For example, the Bank of England pioneered the \"Inflation Report\" in 1993, which outlines the bank's \"views about the past and future performance of inflation and monetary policy\". Although it was not an inflation-targeting country until January 2012, up until then, the United States' \"Statement on Longer-Run Goals and Monetary Policy Strategy\" enumerated the benefits of clear communication—it \"facilitates well-informed decisionmaking by households and businesses, reduces economic and financial uncertainty, increases the effectiveness of monetary policy, and enhances transparency and accountability, which are essential in a democratic society\".\n", "The built-in inflation originates from either persistent demand-pull or large cost-push (supply-shock) inflation in the past. It then becomes a \"normal\" aspect of the economy, via inflationary expectations and the price/wage spiral.\n", "BULLET::::- In reality, people who rely on government relief to maintain their lives are more vulnerable to inflation, because the adjustment of payment transfer by governments is relatively slow. Furthermore, the salaried class and civil servants are more vulnerable to such shocks. Those who earn incomes that change with inflation will benefit from inflation. For example, workers in an expanding industry, who have strong union support, have wage contracts with provisions for wages to increase with a rise in living expenses or the possibility of substantial wage increases in new contracts.\n", "This is a reason offered in support of free banking, a gold or silver standard, or (at a minimum) the reduction of political control of central banks, which could then ensure currency stability by controlling monetary expansion (limiting inflation). Hard-money advocates argue that central banks have failed to attain a stable currency. Since the US Federal Reserve was formed in 1913, the US dollar has fallen to barely one-twentieth of its former value due to the bank's inflationary policies. Economists counter that deflation is difficult to control once it sets in, and its effects are more damaging than modest, consistent inflation.\n", "Here, given the long-run output growth rate, the only determinant of the inflation rate is the growth rate of the money supply. In this case inflation in the long run is a purely monetary phenomenon; a monetary policy which targets the money supply can stabilize the economy and ensure a non-variable inflation rate.\n", "Inflation, in an economy that is growing, is caused by more money being introduced into circulation by the central bank. If the amount of tender remains constant, a currency \"grows or falls\" at the rate of the reserves that back it. The global prevalence of fractional reserve banking has caused most currencies to decline in value consistently. In a non-fractional (fully backed) reserve system, the growth of a currency is equal to the growth (or decline) of the assets backing it, fees are charged in an upfront manner, and money is worth by what it is backed.\n", "Most mainstream economists favor a low, steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation may reduce the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduce the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities.\n\nSection::::Measurement of economic variables.:Unemployment rate.\n", "Although efforts in reducing the collection lag can help, controlling the inflation is the recommended policy. A decrease in inflation will lead to an increase in tax revenue. For example, in 1991, Argentina introduced the convertibility plan that tied the peso to the dollar, abruptly reducing the rate of inflation. The great deceleration in the rate of inflation led to a large increase in real tax revenue. Some countries such as Brazil and Chile went as far as indexing the tax liability for the rate of inflation so as to reduce or neutralize the impact of the tax collection lag on tax revenue.\n", "BULLET::::- Mundell–Tobin effect: The Nobel laureate Robert Mundell noted that moderate inflation would induce savers to substitute lending for some money holding as a means to finance future spending. That substitution would cause market clearing real interest rates to fall. The lower real rate of interest would induce more borrowing to finance investment. In a similar vein, Nobel laureate James Tobin noted that such inflation would cause businesses to substitute investment in physical capital (plant, equipment, and inventories) for money balances in their asset portfolios. That substitution would mean choosing the making of investments with lower rates of real return. (The rates of return are lower because the investments with higher rates of return were already being made before.) The two related effects are known as the Mundell–Tobin effect. Unless the economy is already overinvesting according to models of economic growth theory, that extra investment resulting from the effect would be seen as positive.\n", "The Czech National Bank (CNB) is an example of an inflation targeting central bank in a small open economy with a recent history of economic transition and real convergence to its Western European peers. Since 2010 the CNB uses 2 percent with a +/- 1pp range around it as the inflation target. The CNB places a lot of emphasis on transparency and communication; indeed, a recent study of more than 100 central banks found the CNB to be among the four most transparent ones.\n", "One of the Fed's main roles is to maintain price stability, which means that the Fed's ability to keep a low inflation rate is a long-term measure of their success. Although the Fed is not required to maintain inflation within a specific range, their long run target for the growth of the PCE price index is between 1.5 and 2 percent. There has been debate among policy makers as to whether the Federal Reserve should have a specific inflation targeting policy.\n\nSection::::Measurement of economic variables.:Personal consumption expenditures price index.:Inflation and the economy.\n", "Traditional theories suggest that inflationary bias will exist when monetary and fiscal policy is discretionary rather than rule based. Others have suggested that the inflationary bias exists even when policy makers do not have the goal of a lower than natural rate of employment, and their policies are based on rules.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Former Chairman Alan Greenspan, as well as other former FOMC members such as Alan Blinder, typically agreed with the benefits of inflation targeting, but were reluctant to accept the loss of freedom involved; Bernanke, however, was a well-known advocate.\n\nSection::::Theoretical questions.\n", "Higher interest rates reduce the economy’s money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply. Therefore, when a person pays back a loan and no other loans are made to replace it, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the federal funds rate exceeded 15 percent, the quantity of Federal Reserve dollars fell 8.1 percent, from US$8.6 trillion down to $7.9 trillion.\n", "BULLET::::- Increased personal-tax revenue\n\nBULLET::::- Extra revenue from savings-account-interest taxes\n\nBULLET::::- Increased revenue from business taxation\n\nBULLET::::- Relatively lower public expenditure\n\nBULLET::::- Taxing non-voters (foreigners, for example)\n\nBULLET::::- Reduces the burden of other debtors, such as mortgage-holders and banks (if inflation is unexpected)\n\nBULLET::::- Making GDP appear higher\n\nAccording to Comley, inflation has been used by governments since 1945 as a tool to manage debt.\n\nSection::::Contemporary use.\n", "Section::::History.:Emerging markets.\n\nIn 2000, Frederic S. Mishkin concluded that \"although inflation targeting is not a panacea and may not be appropriate for many emerging market countries, it can be a highly useful monetary policy strategy in a number of them\".\n\nSection::::History.:Emerging markets.:Chile.\n\nIn Chile, a 20% inflation rate pushed the Central Bank of Chile to announce at the end of 1990 an inflation objective for the annual inflation rate for the year ending in December 1991. However, Chile was not regarded as a fully-fledged inflation targeter until 1999.\n\nSection::::History.:Emerging markets.:Czech Republic.\n", "Section::::Arguments.\n\nHistorically, in Europe, the main function of the central bank is to maintain low inflation. In the USA the focus is on both inflation and unemployment. These goals are sometimes in conflict (according to Phillips curve). A central bank may attempt to do this by artificially influencing the demand for goods by increasing or decreasing the nation's money supply (relative to trend), which lowers or raises interest rates, which stimulates or restrains spending on goods and services.\n", "While an increase in the purchasing power of one's money benefits some, it amplifies the sting of debt for others: after a period of deflation, the payments to service a debt represent a larger amount of purchasing power than they did when the debt was first incurred. Consequently, deflation can be thought of as an effective increase in a loan's interest rate. If, as during the Great Depression in the United States, deflation averages 10% per year, even an interest-free loan is unattractive as it must be repaid with money worth 10% more each year.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05020	If neutrinos don't interact with anything, how can we detect them?	It's not that they DON'T interact, it's that they RARELY interact. Trillions of neutrinos are passing through your body, and maybe two might touch an atom in your body in your lifetime. Neutrino observatories don't really care where they're built since the Earth is pretty much transparent to neutrino radiation. First you build a giant chamber filled with many many tons of heavy water (it's an easy, stable, transparent liquid with density greater than regular water) and cover every inch of the insides with hypersensitive light sensors. Then you sit and wait, and hope that occasionally, maybe, every once and a while one of the sensors will pick up a faint flicker of a neutrino passing through the water and turning a neutron in the water into a proton. It's not much but its a start. Star Trek makes it seem like neutrons are as easy to see as heat.	[ "Despite how common they are, neutrinos are extremely \"difficult to detect\" due to their low mass and lack of electric charge. Unlike other particles, neutrinos only interact via gravity and the neutral current (involving the exchange of a Z boson) or charged current (involving the exchange of a W boson) weak interactions. As they have only a \"smidgen of rest mass\" according to the laws of physics, perhaps less than a \"millionth as much as an electron,\" the gravitational force caused by neutrinos has proven too weak to detect, leaving the weak interaction as the main method for detection: \n", "In neutrino astronomy, astronomers use heavily shielded underground facilities such as SAGE, GALLEX, and Kamioka II/III for the detection of neutrinos. The vast majority of the neutrinos streaming through the Earth originate from the Sun, but 24 neutrinos were also detected from supernova 1987A. Cosmic rays, which consist of very high energy particles (atomic nuclei) that can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth's atmosphere, result in a cascade of secondary particles which can be detected by current observatories. Some future neutrino detectors may also be sensitive to the particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere.\n", "Another type of indirect WIMP signal could come from the Sun. Halo WIMPs may, as they pass through the Sun, interact with solar protons, helium nuclei as well as heavier elements. If a WIMP loses enough energy in such an interaction to fall below the local escape velocity, it would not have enough energy to escape the gravitational pull of the Sun and would remain gravitationally bound. As more and more WIMPs thermalize inside the Sun, they begin to annihilate with each other, forming a variety of particles, including high-energy neutrinos. These neutrinos may then travel to the Earth to be detected in one of the many neutrino telescopes, such as the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan. The number of neutrino events detected per day at these detectors depends on the properties of the WIMP, as well as on the mass of the Higgs boson. Similar experiments are underway to detect neutrinos from WIMP annihilations within the Earth and from within the galactic center.\n", "Section::::Experimental results and impact.\n\nOn 18 June 2001, the first scientific results of SNO were published, bringing the first clear evidence that neutrinos oscillate (i.e. that they can transmute into one another), as they travel in the sun. This oscillation in turn implies that neutrinos have non-zero masses. The total flux of all neutrino flavours measured by SNO agrees well with the theoretical prediction. Further measurements carried out by SNO have since confirmed and improved the precision of the original result.\n", "Neutrinos are omnipresent in nature such that every second, tens of billions of them \"pass through every square centimetre of our bodies without us ever noticing.\" Many were created during the big bang and others are generated by nuclear reactions inside stars, planets, and other interstellar processes. Some may also originate from events in the universe such as \"colliding black holes, gamma ray bursts from exploding stars, and/or violent events at the cores of distant galaxies,\" according to speculation by scientists. \n", "Since neutrinos interact only very rarely with matter, the enormous flux of solar neutrinos racing through the Earth is sufficient to produce only 1 interaction for 10 target atoms, and each interaction produces only a few photons or one transmuted atom. The observation of neutrino interactions requires a large detector mass, along with a sensitive amplification system.\n", "Section::::Detection techniques.:Coherent Recoil Detector.\n\nAt low energies, a neutrino can scatter from the entire nucleus of an atom, rather than the individual nucleons, in a process known as \"Coherent Neutral Current Neutrino-Nucleus Elastic Scattering\". This effect has been used to make an extremely small neutrino detector. Unlike most other detection methods, coherent scattering does not depend on the flavor of the neutrino.\n\nSection::::Background suppression.\n\nMost neutrino experiments must address the flux of cosmic rays that bombard the Earth's surface.\n", "Neutrino astronomy\n\nNeutrino astronomy is the branch of astronomy that observes astronomical objects with neutrino detectors in special observatories. Neutrinos are created as a result of certain types of radioactive decay, or nuclear reactions such as those that take place in the Sun, in nuclear reactors, or when cosmic rays hit atoms. Due to their weak interactions with matter, neutrinos offer a unique opportunity to observe processes that are inaccessible to optical telescopes.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A neutrino detector is a physics apparatus which is designed to study neutrinos. Because neutrinos only weakly interact with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground, to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation. The field of neutrino astronomy is still very much in its infancy – the only confirmed extraterrestrial sources so far as of 2018 are the Sun and the supernova 1987A in the nearby Large Magellenic Cloud. Another likely source (3 standard deviations ) is the blazar TXS 0506+056 about 3.7 billion light years away. Neutrino observatories will \"give astronomers fresh eyes with which to study the universe.\"\n", "Atmospheric neutrinos result from the interaction of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the Earth's atmosphere, creating showers of particles, many of which are unstable and produce neutrinos when they decay. A collaboration of particle physicists from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (India), Osaka City University (Japan) and Durham University (UK) recorded the first cosmic ray neutrino interaction in an underground laboratory in Kolar Gold Fields in India in 1965.\n\nSection::::Sources.:Solar.\n\nSolar neutrinos originate from the nuclear fusion powering the Sun and other stars.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nThere are several active research areas involving the neutrino. Some are concerned with testing predictions of neutrino behavior. Other research is focused on measurement of unknown properties of neutrinos; there is special interest in experiments that determine their masses and rates of CP violation, which cannot be predicted from current theory.\n\nSection::::Research.:Detectors near artificial neutrino sources.\n", "Neutrino speeds \"consistent\" with the speed of light are expected given the limited accuracy of experiments to date. Neutrinos have small but nonzero mass, and so special relativity predicts that they must propagate at speeds slower than light. Nonetheless, known neutrino production processes impart energies far higher than the neutrino mass scale, and so almost all neutrinos are ultrarelativistic, propagating at speeds very close to that of light.\n\nSection::::Detection.\n", "Neutrinos from the CNO cycle of solar energy generation – i.e., the CNO-neutrinos – are also expected to provide observable events below 1 MeV. They have not yet been observed due to experimental noise (background). Ultra-pure scintillator detectors have the potential to probe the flux predicted by the SSM. This detection could be possible already in Borexino; the next scientific occasions will be in SNO+ and, on the longer term, in LENA and JUNO, three detectors that will be larger but will use the same principles of Borexino.\n\nSection::::Neutrino detection.:Future experiments.\n", "BULLET::::- In a charged current interaction, a high-energy neutrino transforms into its partner lepton (electron, muon, or tau). However, if the neutrino does not have sufficient energy to create its heavier partner's mass, the charged current interaction is unavailable to it. Neutrinos from the sun and from nuclear reactors have enough energy to create electrons. Most accelerator-based neutrino beams can also create muons, and a few can create taus. A detector which can distinguish among these leptons can reveal the flavor of the incident neutrino in a charged current interaction. Because the interaction involves the exchange of a charged boson, the target particle also changes character (e.g., neutron → proton).\n", "BULLET::::- In a neutral current interaction, the neutrino enters and then leaves the detector after having transferred some of its energy and momentum to a target particle. If the target particle is charged and sufficiently light (e.g. an electron), it may be accelerated to a relativistic speed and consequently emit Cherenkov radiation, which can be observed directly. All three neutrino flavors can participate regardless of the neutrino energy. However, no neutrino flavor information is left behind.\n", "Neutrinos are elementary particles first detected in the 1950s, long after their theoretical prediction by theorist Wolfgang Pauli. Neutrinos (or anti-neutrinos) are created during certain nuclear reactions, where protons are transformed into neutrons and vice versa. Neutrinos do not interact with matter via either the electromagnetic, the strong nuclear, or gravitational forces, since they are electrically neutral leptons and their rest mass is very small. They interact with the nucleons (neutrons and protons) only via weak nuclear interactions. Since they do not interact with matter via the electromagnetic or gravitational forces, it is extremely difficult to detect them. Since their mass is very small (less than 14 eV) they travel with speeds that are very close to the speed of light in vacuum.\n", "where formula_3 is the mass of the detector (with e.g. Super Kamiokande having a mass of 50 kton) and formula_4 is the distance to the supernova. Hence in practice it will only be possible to detect neutrino bursts from supernovae within or nearby the Milky Way (our own galaxy). In addition to the detection of neutrinos from individual supernovae, it should also be possible to detect the diffuse supernova neutrino background, which originates from all supernovae in the Universe.\n\nSection::::Sources.:Supernova remnants.\n", "The main approach of the JUNO Detector in measuring neutrino oscillations is the observation of electron-antineutrinos () coming from two future nuclear power plants at approximately 53 km distance. Since the expected rate of neutrinos reaching the detector is known from processes in the power plants, the absence of a certain neutrino flavor can give an indication of transition processes.\n\nAlthough not the primary goal, the detector is sensitive to atmospheric neutrinos, geoneutrinos and neutrinos from supernovae as well.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Expected Sensitivity.\n", "Section::::Neutrino detection.:hep neutrinos.\n\nThe highest energy neutrinos have not yet been observed due to their small flux compared to the boron-8 neutrinos, so thus far only limits have been placed on the flux. No experiment yet has had enough sensitivity to observe the flux predicted by the SSM.\n\nSection::::Neutrino detection.:CNO cycle.\n", "Section::::Detector description.:Neutral current interaction.\n", "Section::::Research.:Tests of neutrino oscillation.\n\nOn 19 July 2013, the results from the T2K experiment presented at the European Physical Society Conference on High Energy Physics in Stockholm, Sweden, confirmed neutrino oscillation theory.\n\nSection::::Research.:Gravitational effects.\n\nDespite their tiny masses, neutrinos are so numerous that their gravitational force can influence other matter in the universe.\n", "Section::::Detection techniques.:Cherenkov detectors.\n", "BULLET::::- September 2017 (announced July 2018): On September 22, the extremely-high-energy (about 290 TeV) neutrino event IceCube-170922A was recorded by the IceCube Collaboration, which sent out an alert with coordinates for the possible source. The detection of gamma rays above 100 MeV by the Fermi-LAT Collaboration and between 100 GeV and 400 GeV by the MAGIC Collaboration from the blazar TXS 0506+056 (reported September 28 and October 4, respectively) was deemed positionally consistent with the neutrino signal. The signals can be explained by ultra-high-energy protons accelerated in blazar jets, producing neutral pions (decaying into gamma rays) and charged pions (decaying into neutrinos). This is the first time that a neutrino detector has been used to locate an object in space and a source of cosmic rays has been identified.\n", "BULLET::::- \"I ♥ Neutrinos: You Cant See Them but They are Everywhere (70mm Film Frames of Neutrino Movements - shot in 15 ft Bubble Chamber at Fermilab, Experiment 564 near Chicago - dunked in liquid nitrogen, neutrino movements events with invisible ink and decoder markers and highlighters, inked up by Monica Kogler and Jwest, filmstrip from Janet Conrad, MIT Professor of Physics)\", 2011\n", "Neutrinos are created by various radioactive decays, including in beta decay of atomic nuclei or hadrons, nuclear reactions such as those that take place in the core of a star or artificially in nuclear reactors, nuclear bombs or particle accelerators, during a supernova, in the spin-down of a neutron star, or when accelerated particle beams or cosmic rays strike atoms. The majority of neutrinos in the vicinity of the Earth are from nuclear reactions in the Sun. In the vicinity of the Earth, about 65 billion () solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of the Sun.\n" ]	[ "Neutrinos do not interact with anything.", "Neutrinos don't interact with anything. " ]	[ "Neutrinos do interact with things just very rarely. ", "It's not that neutrinos don't interact with anything, they just rarely interact with anything." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Neutrinos do not interact with anything.", "Neutrinos don't interact with anything. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Neutrinos do interact with things just very rarely. ", "It's not that neutrinos don't interact with anything, they just rarely interact with anything." ]
2018-03034	How do we as humans with no air filters, have no problem with dusty air while most air conditioners get dirty?	Snot, boogers, nose hair, ear hair, earwax, tears, ect all defenses against things from getting inside of us.	[ "A large fraction of the bacteria found in indoor air and dust are shed from humans. Among the most important bacteria known to occur in indoor air are Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae.\n\nSection::::Common pollutants.:Asbestos fibers.\n", "Although, from a global perspective, harmful indoor air pollution is caused by cooking and heating with solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves, especially in poorly ventilated rooms, indoor air pollutants may also come from heating and cooling equipment, electronic appliances, cleaning products, air fresheners, insecticides, and construction materials.\n", "IAQ is part of indoor environmental quality (IEQ), which includes IAQ as well as other physical and psychological aspects of life indoors (e.g., lighting, visual quality, acoustics, and thermal comfort).\n\nIndoor air pollution in developing nations is a major health hazard. A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass (e.g. wood, charcoal, dung, or crop residue) for heating and cooking. The resulting exposure to high levels of particulate matter resulted in between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths in 2000.\n\nSection::::Common pollutants.\n\nSection::::Common pollutants.:Second-hand smoke.\n", "Section::::Common pollutants.:Other bacteria.\n\nThere are many bacteria of health significance found in indoor air and on indoor surfaces. The role of microbes in the indoor environment is increasingly studied using modern gene-based analysis of environmental samples. Currently efforts are under way to link microbial ecologists and indoor air scientists to forge new methods for analysis and to better interpret the results.\n\n\"There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the human flora as there are human cells in the body, with large numbers of bacteria on the skin and as gut flora.\"\n", "There has been a significant amount of research on the role that microbes play in various odors in the built environment. For example, Diekmann et al. examined the connection between volatile organic emissions in automobile air conditioning units. They reported that the types of microbes found were correlated to the bad odors found. Park and Kim examined which microbes found in an automobile air conditioner could produce bad smelling volatile compounds and identified candidate taxa producing some such compounds.\n\nSection::::Methods Used.\n", "Buildings constantly evolve as a result of the changes in the environment around them as well as the occupants, materials, and activities within them. The various surfaces and the air inside a building are constantly interacting, and this interaction results in changes in each. For example, we may see a window as changing slightly over time as it becomes dirty, then is cleaned, accumulates dirt again, is cleaned again, and so on through its life. In fact, the “dirt” we see may be evolving as a result of the interactions among the moisture, chemicals, and biological materials found there.\n", "Mechanical, or forced, ventilation is provided by an air handler (AHU) and used to control indoor air quality. Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or replacement with outside air. However, in humid climates more energy is required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air.\n", "A two-year study conducted by UC Davis and funded by CARB, focused on households with asthmatic children finds that the use of high-efficiency filtration improves indoor air quality. Installation of IQAir stand-alone air cleaners and high-efficiency filters in central air conditioning systems, were shown to improve indoor air quality across all particle size fractions, with the greatest improvement in the smaller size fractions. The study also found that while participants did not report reduced asthma symptoms, they did have fewer visits to doctor's offices and hospitals for asthma care and slept better if they also kept their bedroom door closed.\n", "Air pollution levels near major highways and urban arterials are in violation of U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards where millions of Americans live or work. Even the interior of a building does not really protect inhabitants from adverse exterior air quality, since the exterior air is the intake supply, and it is well known that indoor air quality is typically worse than exterior air.\n", "Risk of allergy and asthma. The risk of allergy and asthma is correlated to differences in the built environment microbiome. Some experimental tests (e.g., in mice) have suggested that these correlations may actually be causal (i.e., the differences in the microbiomes may actually lead to differences in risk of allergy or asthma). Review papers on this topic include Casas et al. 2016 and Fujimura and Lynch 2015. Studies of dust in various homes has shown that the microbiome found in the dust is correlated to the risk of children in those homes developing allergy, asthma, or phenotypes connected to these ailments. The impact of the microbiome of the built environment on the risk of allergy and asthma and other inflammatory or immune conditions is a possible mechanism underlying what is known as the hygiene hypothesis.\n", "Plants also appear to reduce airborne microbes and molds, and to increase humidity. However, the increased humidity can itself lead to increased levels of mold and even VOCs.\n", "Pathogen transmission. Many pathogens are transmitted in the built environment and may also reside in the built environment for some period of time. Good examples include influenza, Norovirus, Legionella, and MRSA. The study of the transmission and survival of these pathogens is a component of studies of microbiomes of the built environment.\n\nIndoor Air Quality \n\nThe study of Indoor air quality and the health impact of such air quality is linked at least in part to microbes in the built environment since they can impact directly or indirectly indoor air quality.\n", "Buildings are designed or intended to respond actively to some of these changes in and around them with heating, cooling, ventilating, air cleaning or illuminating systems. We clean, sanitize, and maintain surfaces to enhance their appearance, performance, or longevity. In other cases, such changes subtly or even dramatically alter buildings in ways that may be important to their own integrity or their impact on building occupants through the evolution of the physical, chemical, and biological processes that define them at any time. We may find it useful to combine the tools of the physical sciences with those of the biological sciences and, especially, some of the approaches used by scientists studying ecosystems, in order to gain an enhanced understanding of the environments in which we spend the majority of our time, our buildings.\n", "The use of air filters can trap some of the air pollutants. The Department of Energy's Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy section suggests that \"[Air] Filtration should have a Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) of 13 as determined by ASHRAE 52.2-1999.\" Air filters are used to reduce the amount of dust that reaches the wet coils. Dust can serve as food to grow molds on the wet coils and ducts and can reduce the efficiency of the coils.\n", "Section::::Building ecology.\n", "In the early ’90s, Frank Hammes, Klaus' oldest son, joined the family business. After promoting an after-market cabin air filter the company had developed for Mercedes-Benz automobiles, Frank Hammes turned his attention to portable room air cleaners. Dissatisfied with existing products, he set out to build a line of portable air purifiers with medical grade air cleaning performance. Frank Hammes and a small team of Swiss and German engineers worked for four years on the project. In the spring of 1998, IQAir shipped its first HealthPro air purifier from its Swiss factory. IQAir air purifiers were initially available only in Europe and Asia, but became available in the United States in 2000. In 2001, Klaus Hammes' second son, Jens Hammes, joined the business and helped the expansion of IQAir in Asia and the Middle East.\n", "IAQ can be affected by gases (including carbon monoxide, radon, volatile organic compounds), particulates, microbial contaminants (mold, bacteria), or any mass or energy stressor that can induce adverse health conditions. Source control, filtration and the use of ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in most buildings. Residential units can further improve indoor air quality by routine cleaning of carpets and area rugs.\n\nDetermination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples, monitoring human exposure to pollutants, collection of samples on building surfaces, and computer modelling of air flow inside buildings.\n", "A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (HCO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.\n", "Because an air conditioner moves heat between the indoor coil and the outdoor coil, both must be kept clean. This means that, in addition to replacing the air filter at the evaporator coil, it is also necessary to regularly clean the condenser coil. Failure to keep the condenser clean will eventually result in harm to the compressor, because the condenser coil is responsible for discharging both the indoor heat (as picked up by the evaporator) and the heat generated by the electric motor driving the compressor.\n\nSection::::Energy efficiency.\n", "Organic chemicals are widely used as ingredients in household products. Paints, varnishes, and wax all contain organic solvents, as do many cleaning, disinfecting, cosmetic, degreasing, and hobby products. Fuels are made up of organic chemicals. All of these products can release organic compounds during usage, and, to some degree, when they are stored. Testing emissions from building materials used indoors has become increasingly common for floor coverings, paints, and many other important indoor building materials and finishes.\n", "A balanced or neutral airflow is the most efficient, although a slightly positive airflow can result in less dust build up if filtered properly\n\nSection::::Methodologies.:Heat pipes.\n", "Considering that North Americans spend a large proportion of their lives indoors, it’s clear why this is a key issue in designing healthy spaces. Additionally, air quality is not a stand-alone problem; rather, every other component of the home can affect air quality. Air quality can be compromised by off-gassing from cabinetry, countertops, flooring, wall coverings or fabrics; by cooking by-products released into the air, and by mold caused by excess moisture or poor ventilation.\n", "Section::::Effect of indoor plants.\n", "Outdoor air used for ventilation may have sufficient ozone to react with common indoor pollutants as well as skin oils and other common indoor air chemicals or surfaces. Particular concern is warranted when using \"green\" cleaning products based on citrus or terpene extracts, because these chemicals react very quickly with ozone to form toxic and irritating chemicals as well as fine and ultrafine particles. Ventilation with outdoor air containing elevated ozone concentrations may complicate remediation attempts.\n", "Section::::Common pollutants.:Particulates.\n\nAtmospheric particulate matter, also known as particulates, can be found indoors and can affect the health of occupants. Authorities have established standards for the maximum concentration of particulates to ensure indoor air quality.\n\nSection::::Prompt cognitive deficits.\n" ]	[ "Humans have no air filters.", "If air conditioners get filled with dust all the time, then humans lungs should also get filled with dust." ]	[ "Human snot, nose hair, ear hair, etc are a sort of filter for the air. ", "Humans have mechanisms such as snot, boogers, tears and earwax to remove dust from inside of us." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans have no air filters.", "If air conditioners get filled with dust all the time, then humans lungs should also get filled with dust." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Human snot, nose hair, ear hair, etc are a sort of filter for the air. ", "Humans have mechanisms such as snot, boogers, tears and earwax to remove dust from inside of us." ]
2018-02560	How can certain characters cause a bug on iPhones?	I’ve never heard of this personally, but to keep it super simple, some of these bugs happen because of communications protocol. Since the computer talks in 1s and 0s, there are certain bit patterns (combinations of 1s and 0s) that tell the computer to do certain things. Every character has its own bit pattern. You can look up an ASCII table to see these. When you type characters, it’s sending a bit pattern to whatever hardware interface it’s trying to interact with. If programmed incorrectly, your keyboard stream could still be active while the command is not. So if you were to use the character ‘0’ for example which has a bit pattern of (0011 0000) and for some reason the command for typing isn’t active, you could be sending some command to the hardware. If the exit command had the same bit pattern as ‘0’, typing this character during a certain software sequence could cause it to send a command that isn’t the ‘hey, the user is typing’ command and break the software/firmware requiring the whole thing to restart.	[ "BULLET::::- In May 2015, iPhone users discovered a bug where sending a certain sequence of characters and Unicode symbols as a text to another iPhone user would crash the receiving iPhone's SpringBoard interface, and may also crash the entire phone, induce a factory reset, or disrupt the device's connectivity to a significant degree, preventing it from functioning normally. The bug persisted for weeks, gained substantial notoriety and saw a number of individuals using the bug to play pranks on other iOS users, before Apple eventually patched it on June 30, 2015 with iOS 8.4.\n\nSection::::Military.\n", "A bug was discovered in May 2015 where users pasted a certain set of characters and Unicode in a set order, causing the SpringBoard to crash and relaunch, which displays a black or white screen and white or black Apple logo (depending on the user's device) that looks identical to the boot screen. The phenomenon was later narrowed down to it only happening when the message was shown via the notification drop-down or the lock screen; it can be fixed by disabling this. If the message is unread and the victim opens the iMessage app or any other app that received the message it can crash the iOS device again. Further problems can include the device resetting to its factory settings, the device no longer receiving text messages or calls and the device frequently losing Internet connection.br\n", "Alternative characters with accents (for example, letters from the alphabets of other languages) and emoji can be typed from the keyboard by pressing the letter for two seconds and selecting the alternative character from the popup. The 3.0 update brought support for cut, copy, or pasting text, as well as landscape keyboards in more applications. On iPhone 4S and above, Siri allows dictation.\n\nSince iOS 8, third party keyboards, distributed through the App Store, are allowed. Previously, they were only available on jailbroken iPhones.\n\nSection::::Software.:Email and text messages.\n", "The following are instances of censorship and information control imposed by Apple in App Stores other than the United States App Store. Many were imposed due to pressure from foreign governments and were put into effect to comply with laws.\n\nSection::::Censorship by country.:China.\n\nAs early as 2017, Apple restricted the emoji of the flag of Taiwan on devices used in China. \n\nIn 2018, Apple's restrictions on sending the word \"Taiwan\" or sending an emoji representing the flag of Taiwan on iDevices using a Chinese country code or language settings caused the devices to crash.\n", "On February 12, 2018 a bug in the iOS operating system was reported that caused iOS devices to crash if a particular Telugu character was displayed. The character is a combination of the characters \"జ\", \"్\", \"ఞ\", \"ా\" and The Zero-Width Non-Joiner character which looks combined like this \"జ్ఞా\". An incorrect handling of the Zero-Width Non-Joiner separator while combining the characters seems to be the cause of the Telugu bug. Apple confirmed a fix for iOS 11.3 and macOS 10.13.4.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Telugu Braille\n\nBULLET::::- Kannada script\n\nBULLET::::- Sinhala script\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In September 2015, infected programs were published for public download on the App Store. The malicious code had been embedded into Chinese legitimate software through a modified version of Xcode (see XcodeGhost). Some of the bigger applications that had the code were \"Angry Birds 2\", CamCard, TinyDeal.com, among others. Apple confirmed the attack and stated to be working with the developers to make sure they were using the proper version of Xcode to rebuild the apps.\n", "In November 2017, users reported a bug in the default iOS keyboard, in which pressing \"I\" resulted in the system rendering the text as \"!\" or \"A\" along with an incomprehensible symbol featuring a question mark in a box. The symbol is known as Variation Selector 16 for its intended purpose of merging two characters into an emoji. Apple acknowledged the issue in a support document, advising users to set up a Text Replacement feature in their device's keyboard settings as a temporary workaround. The company confirmed to \"The Wall Street Journal\" that devices using older iOS 11 versions, as opposed to just the latest 11.1 version at the time of the publication, were affected by the issue, and an Apple spokesperson announced that \"A fix will be released very soon\". iOS 11.1.1 was released on November 9, 2017, fixing the issue.\n", "The code was:\n\neffective. Power لُلُصّبُلُلصّبُررً ॣ ॣh ॣ ॣ 冗\n\nThe \"effective.\" section was not required for the bug to work. The bug affected iPhones, the Apple Watch and iPod Touch, Mac computers and iPads.\n\nWith the release of iOS 8.4 on 30 June 2015, the \"effective. Power\" bug has been fixed.\n\nSection::::Bugs.:12:15 AM bug.\n", "Security firm Palo Alto Networks surmised that because network speeds were slower in China, developers in the country looked for local copies of the Apple Xcode development environment, and encountered altered versions that had been posted on domestic web sites. This opened the door for the malware to be inserted into high profile apps used on iOS devices.\n", "iOS is using the class UITextChecker, an object used to check a string (usually the text of a document) for misspelled words, commonly known as Apple's autocorrection. UITextChecker spell-checks are using a lexicon for a given language. It can be told to ignore specific words when spell-checking a particular document and it can learn new words, which adds those words to the lexicon.\n\nSection::::Mobile devices.:Historical development.:Text entry performance.:Word suggestions.\n", "At the end of the month, another keyboard autocorrection bug was reported, this time replacing the word \"It\" with \"I.T\". \"MacRumors\" suggested users set up the Text Replacement feature the same way they did for the earlier autocorrection issue, though its report notes that \"some users insist this solution does not solve the problem\". It was fixed with the release of iOS 11.2.\n\nSection::::Problems.:December 2 crashes.\n", "\"Forbes\" published several articles focusing on problems in iOS 8 regarding Wi-Fi and battery, Bluetooth, and calendar.\n\nSection::::Problems.:\"Effective power\" text message crash.\n\nIn May 2015, news outlets reported on a bug where receiving a text message with a specific combination of symbols and Arabic characters, caused the Messages application to crash and the iPhone to reboot.\n\nThe bug, named \"effective power\", could potentially continuously reboot a device if the message was visible on the lock screen.\n\nThe flaw was exploited for the purpose of trolling, by intentionally causing others' phones to crash.\n", "The best solution in this case is to use a whitelist of accepted language parameters. If a strong method of input validation such as a whitelist cannot be used, then rely upon input filtering or validation of the passed-in path to make sure it does not contain unintended characters and character patterns. However, this may require anticipating all possible problematic character combinations. A safer solution is to use a predefined Switch/Case statement to determine which file to include rather than use a URL or form parameter to dynamically generate the path.\n\nSection::::Programming languages.:JavaServer Pages (JSP).\n", "Section::::Problems.:Keyboard autocorrect bugs.\n", "For ASCII-compatible character encodings the consequence of choosing incorrectly is that characters outside the printable ASCII range (32 to 126) usually appear incorrectly. This presents few problems for English-speaking users, but other languages regularly—in some cases, always—require characters outside that range. In CJK environments where there are several different multi-byte encodings in use, auto-detection is also often employed. Finally, browsers usually permit the user to override \"incorrect\" charset label manually as well.\n", "Another error is \"Your Apple ID has been disabled\" without disclosure of a reason. The cause of this error is as yet unknown and resetting one's password does not clear it. It has been reported as occurring on both iPhone and iPod Touch devices as well as in iTunes. One can get this issue resolved by contacting iTunes Store support at www.apple.com/support/.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Multiple Apple IDs.\n", "Shortly after the release of IOS 11 a bug was discovered that would cause the SpringBoard to crash and relaunch, which displays a black or white screen and white or black Apple logo (depending on the user's device) that looks identical to the boot screen. This happens due to an issue with the 'CoreText component. Viewing the character on devices running IOS 11 – IOS 11.3 causes a denial of service due to memory corruption.\n\nThe character was:జ్ఞ‌ా Apple later patched this bug with the release of IOS 11.2.6.\n\nSection::::Application loading.\n", "BULLET::::7. The third button on the game connector was not supported, as ITT used the I/O address of this input (0xC063) to read the extra RAM.\n\nBULLET::::8. The bug in the ONERR GOTO routine in the Apple II that required users to BLOAD a patch, was resolved in the ITT 2020.\n\nBULLET::::9. Some users reported a Bug in the XDRAW routine, causing strange shapes to appear under certain circumstances.\n\nBULLET::::10. The DOS ITT supplied with the 2020 was Apple DOS 3.2. However a catalog listing showed Basic programs as type 'P' (for PALSoft) rather than type 'A' (for Applesoft)\n\nSection::::Consequences.\n", "In March 2010, Goatse Security discovered an integer overflow vulnerability within Apple's web browser, Safari, and posted an exploit on Encyclopedia Dramatica. They found out that a person could access a blocked port by adding 65,536 to the port number. This vulnerability was also found in Arora, iCab, OmniWeb, and Stainless. Although Apple fixed the glitch for desktop versions of Safari in March, the company left the glitch unfixed in mobile versions of the browser. Goatse Security claimed that a hacker could exploit the mobile Safari flaw in order to gain access and cause harm to the Apple iPad.\n", "Until 2000s, most Japanese emails were in ISO-2022-JP (\"JIS encoding\") and web pages in Shift-JIS and mobile phones in Japan usually used some form of Extended Unix Code. If a program fails to determine the encoding scheme employed, it can cause and thus unreadable text on computers.\n", "Because ioctl is now supported on other devices than terminals, some systems display a different message such as \"Inappropriate ioctl for device\" instead.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "In \"The Sims 2\", most text is only distinguishable at very close zooms. On book covers, newspapers and \"Nightlife's\" \"Sims Must Wash Hands\" sign, the lettering is all nonsense characters that bear about as much resemblance to Latin characters as they do to Cyrillic. Almost no actual characters from any known alphabet are used. When Sims are writing novels or term papers, dingbats from the Wingdings font appear as text on the screen. The notebooks used for homework contain writing composed of random lines.\n", "In October 2017, users reported on Reddit that quickly typing in an equation in the built-in iOS calculator app gives incorrect answers, most notably making the query \"1+2+3\" result in \"24\" rather than \"6\". Analysts have blamed an animation lag caused during the redesign of the app in iOS 11. The problem can be worked around by typing the numbers slowly, or by downloading alternative calculator apps from the App Store that do not have this problem. With a large amount of bug reports filed, Apple employee Chris Espinosa indicated on Twitter that the company was aware of the issue. iOS 11.2 fixed the issue.\n", "Software can use a fixed encoding selection, or it can select from a palette of encodings by defaulting, checking the computer's nation and language settings, reading a declaration in the text, analyzing the text, asking the user, letting the user select or override, and/or defaulting to last selection. When text is transferred between computers that use different operating systems, software, and encodings, applying the wrong encoding can be commonplace.\n", "The Unicode character set contains many strongly homoglyphic characters. These present security risks in a variety of situations (addressed in UTR#36) and have recently been called to particular attention in regard to internationalized domain names. One might deliberately spoof a domain name by replacing one character with its homoglyph, thus creating a second domain name, not readily distinguishable from the first, that can be exploited in phishing (\"see main article IDN homograph attack\"). In many fonts the Greek letter 'Α', the Cyrillic letter 'А' and the Latin letter 'A' are visually identical, as are the Latin letter 'a' and the Cyrillic letter 'а' (the same can be applied to the Latin letters \"aBeHKopcTxy\" and the Cyrillic letters \"аВеНКорсТху\"). A domain name can be spoofed simply by substituting one of these forms for another in a separately registered name. There are also many examples of near-homoglyphs within the same script such as 'í' (with an acute accent) and 'i', É (E-acute) and Ė (E dot above) and È (E-grave), Í (with an acute accent) and ĺ (Lowercase L with acute). When discussing this specific security issue, any two sequences of similar characters may be assessed in terms of its potential to be taken as a 'homoglyph pair', or if the sequences clearly appear to be words, as 'pseudo-homographs' (noting again that these terms may themselves cause confusion in other contexts). In the Chinese language, many simplified Chinese characters are homoglyphs of the corresponding traditional Chinese characters.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23654	why do many smaller animals have larger strenght to body mass ratio compared to bigger animals?	Square cube law. If you double the size of a muscle or bone it's strength grows by 2^2 = 4, but it's mass grows by 2^3 = 8. Triple it you get 9 times the strength but 27 times the mass.	[ "More recently, it has been proposed that an accurate prediction of the energy cost of running at a given speed can be made from the time available to generate force to support body weight. This theory suggests that smaller animals must take shorter, quicker steps to travel a given distance than larger animals. As a result, they have shorter foot ground contact times and less time to produce force on the ground. Due to this decreased amount of time to produce force, smaller animals must rely more heavily on metabolically costly fast muscle fibers to produce force to run at a given speed. Conversely, larger animals take slower and longer steps, contributing to an increase in the amount of time the foot is in contact with the ground during running. This longer contact time allows larger animals a greater amount of time to produce force. As a result, larger animals do not recruit as many metabolically costly fast muscle fibers in order to run a given speed. All of these factors result in a greater COT in smaller animals in comparison to larger animals. \n", "Many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves; this applies as much to small predators such as ants and shrews as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the cougar and lion. \n\nSection::::Specialization.:Diet and behaviour.\n", "If an animal were isometrically scaled up by a considerable amount, its relative muscular strength would be severely reduced, since the cross section of its muscles would increase by the \"square\" of the scaling factor while its mass would increase by the \"cube\" of the scaling factor. As a result of this, cardiovascular and respiratory functions would be severely burdened.\n", "An external skeleton can be quite heavy in relation to the overall mass of an animal, so on land, organisms that have an exoskeleton are mostly relatively small. Somewhat larger aquatic animals can support an exoskeleton because weight is less of a consideration underwater. The southern giant clam, a species of extremely large saltwater clam in the Pacific Ocean, has a shell that is massive in both size and weight. \"Syrinx aruanus\" is a species of sea snail with a very large shell.\n\nSection::::Types of skeletons.:Endoskeleton.\n", "It is important to take under consideration that metabolic benefits of elastic structures are probably most apparent for larger animals, rather than small organisms such as insects. This results from a simple fact, that larger animals can exert much higher forces on their tendons and ligaments during movement, compared to small animals.\n\nSection::::Elastic mechanisms for power attenuation.\n", "Researchers have found that the pulling strength of the \"Archegozetes longisetosus\" equals about 1,180 times its own weight, five times more than might be expected for an animal of this size. As this study was the first to measure the claw forces of mites, other species could well have stronger pulling forces.\n", "Several reasons for this trend are possible, one of which is that neural cells have a relative constant size. Some brain functions, like the brain pathway responsible for a basic task like drawing breath, are basically similar in a mouse and an elephant. Thus, the same amount of brain matter can govern breathing in a large or a small body. While not all control functions are independent of body size, some are, and hence large animals need comparatively less brain than small animals. This phenomenon can be described by an equation: C\" = \"E\"/\"S, where E and S are brain and body weights respectively, and C is called the cephalization factor. To determine the value of this factor, the brain- and body-weights of various mammals were plotted against each other, and the curve of \"E\" = \"C\"\"S\" chosen as the best fit to that data.\n", "At one level, it is possible that the clade's increased vulnerability to extinction, as its members become larger, means that no taxon survives long enough for individuals to reach huge sizes. There are probably also physically imposed limits to the size of some organisms; for instance, insects must be small enough for oxygen to diffuse to all parts of their bodies, flying birds must be light enough to fly, and the length of giraffes' necks may be limited by the blood pressure it is possible for their hearts to generate. Finally, there may be a competitive element, in that changes in size are necessarily accompanied by changes in ecological niche. For example, terrestrial carnivores over 21 kg almost always prey on organisms larger, not smaller, than themselves. If such a niche is already occupied, competitive pressure may oppose the directional selection. The three Canidae clades show a trend towards larger size before becoming extinct.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Thermoregulation.:Metabolism.\n\nCommon ostriches are able to attain their necessary energetic requirements via the oxidation of absorbed nutrients. Much of the metabolic rate in animals is dependent upon their allometry, the relationship between body size to shape, anatomy, physiology and behavior of an animal. Hence, it is plausible to state that metabolic rate in animals with larger masses is greater than animals with a smaller mass.\n", "Across a broad range of species, allometric relations are not necessarily linear on a log-log scale. For example, the maximal running speeds of mammals show a complicated relationship with body mass, and the fastest sprinters are of intermediate body size.\n\nSection::::Physiological scaling.:Allometric muscle characteristics.\n", "Among herbivores, large size confers advantages in coping with both competitors and predators, so a reduction or absence of either would facilitate dwarfing; competition appears to be the more important factor.\n\nAmong carnivores, the main factor is thought to be the size and availability of prey resources, and competition is believed to be less important. In tiger snakes, insular dwarfism occurs on islands where available prey is restricted to smaller sizes than are normally taken by mainland snakes. Since prey size preference in snakes is generally proportional to body size, small snakes may be better adapted to take small prey.\n", "Scaling also has an effect on the performance of organisms in fluid. This is extremely important for marine mammals and other marine organisms that rely on atmospheric oxygen to survive and carry out respiration. This can affect how fast an organism can propel itself efficiently and more importantly how long it can dive, or how long and how deep an organism can stay underwater. Heart mass and lung volume are important in determining how scaling can affect metabolic function and efficiency. Aquatic mammals, like other mammals, have the same size heart proportional to their bodies.\n", "The muscle characteristics of animals are similar in a wide range of animal sizes, though muscle sizes and shapes can and often do vary depending on environmental constraints placed on them. The muscle tissue itself maintains its contractile characteristics and does not vary depending on the size of the animal. Physiological scaling in muscles affects the number of muscle fibers and their intrinsic speed to determine the maximum power and efficiency of movement in a given animal. The speed of muscle recruitment varies roughly in inverse proportion to the cube root of the animal’s weight (compare the intrinsic frequency of the sparrow’s flight muscle to that of a stork).\n", "Section::::Ultimate mechanisms.:Phylogeny.\n\nSimilar magnitudes of body weight dimorphism have been observed in all species within several taxonomic groups such as callitrichids, hylobatids, \"Cercopithecus\", and \"Macaca\". Such correlation between phylogenetic relatedness and sexual dimorphism across different groups reflects similarities in their behaviors and ecological conditions, but not in independent adaptations. This idea is referred to as “phylogenetic niche conservatism.\"\n\nSection::::Ultimate mechanisms.:Terrestriality.\n", "Over the years, many factors have been examined in order to explain variation in running energy expenditure across species. Some of these factors were examined well over a century ago when Zuntz discovered in 1897 that the energetic cost of animals of similar mass to run a given distance was independent of limb number. In other words, there is no difference in the energetic cost to run a given distance as a quadruped or as a biped provided the animals are similar in body weight. Since Zuntz, a large amount of evidence has suggested that the COT decreases in direct proportion to body weight, with larger animals exhibiting a lower COT than smaller animals. \n", "Section::::Validity.\n\nCope recognised that clades of Cenozoic mammals appeared to originate as small individuals, and that body mass increased through a clade's history. Discussing the case of canid evolution in North America, Blaire Van Valkenburgh of UCLA and coworkers state:\n", "For both herbivores and carnivores, island size, the degree of island isolation and the size of the ancestral continental species appear not to be of major direct importance to the degree of dwarfing. However, when considering only the body masses of recent top herbivores and carnivores, and including data from both continental and island land masses, the body masses of the largest species in a land mass were found to scale to the size of the land mass, with slopes of about 0.5 log(body mass/kg) per log(land area/km). There were separate regression lines for endothermic top predators, ectothermic top predators, endothermic top herbivores and (on the basis of limited data) ectothermic top herbivores, such that food intake was 7 to 24-fold higher for top herbivores than for top predators, and about the same for endotherms and ectotherms of the same trophic level (this leads to ectotherms being 5 to 16 times heavier than corresponding endotherms).\n", "Sexual dimorphism may also influence differences in parental investment during times of food scarcity. For example, in the blue-footed booby, the female chicks grow faster than the males, resulting in booby parents producing the smaller sex, the males, during times of food shortage. This then results in the maximization of parental lifetime reproductive success. In Black-tailed Godwits \"Limosa limosa limosa\" females are also the larger sex, and the growth rates of female chicks are more susceptible to limited environmental conditions.\n", "Section::::Scale dependence of the pattern.\n", "However, the buoyancy of water negates to some extent the effects of gravity. Therefore, sea creatures can grow to very large sizes without the same musculoskeletal structures that would be required of similarly sized land creatures, and it is no coincidence that the largest animals to ever exist on earth are aquatic animals.\n\nThe metabolic rate of animals scales with a mathematical principle named quarter-power scaling according to the metabolic theory of ecology.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Mass and heat transfer.\n", "As muskellunge grow longer they increase in weight, but the relationship between length and weight is not linear. The relationship between them can be expressed by a power-law equation:\n\nThe exponent b is close to 3.0 for all species, and c is a constant for each species. For muskellunge, b = 3.325, higher than for many common species, and c = 0.000089 pounds/inch³.\n", "Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (i.e. large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals); the relationship is not, however, linear. Small mammals such as mice may have a brain/body ratio similar to humans, while elephants have a comparatively lower brain/body ratio.\n", "A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators, when adjusted for their body mass, found that for placental mammals the bite force at the canines (in Newtons/kilogram of body weight) was greatest in the extinct dire wolf (163), followed among the modern canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: the African hunting dog (142), the gray wolf (136), the dhole (112), and the dingo (108). The bite force at the carnassials showed a similar trend to the canines. A predator's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits.\n", "Section::::Anatomical superlatives.:Neurons.\n", "Henneman's size principle\n\nHenneman’s size principle states that under load, motor units are recruited from smallest to largest. In practice, this means that slow-twitch, low-force, fatigue-resistant muscle fibers are activated before fast-twitch, high-force, less fatigue-resistant muscle fibers. It was proposed by .\n\nSection::::Benefits of the Size Principle.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00366	Why are polar bears and grizzly bears considered different species if they can interbreed and produce fertile offspring?	It's very difficult to group living, evolving organisms into discrete categories. Polar bears diverged from the rest of the Ursus genus very recently, therefore they are still genetically similar enough to other bears to produce fertile offspring. Taxonomy is also based on physical appearance. Since polar bears are quite distinct from other species of bears in terms of their physical appearance and geographical habitat, the decision was made to consider them a separate species. Doves and pigeons are another example. There are 310 species of birds within the Columbiformes order (which encompasses all pigeon and dove families), many of which are capable of breeding with other species and producing fertile offspring. Their classification as separate species lies mainly in their physical differences. The long and the short of it is that taxonomy is a human construct, and not everything fits nice and neatly between the lines all of the time. Tl;dr: while this typically isn't the case, there is no hard, taxonomic rule stating that members of different species cannot produce fertile offspring. A better way of thinking about it would be: "if two populations are unable to interbreed, they cannot be considered the same species". This doesn't necessarily preclude two species from being able to interbreed.	[ "\"Kodiak\" or \"Kodiak brown\" is a term now applied to brown bears found in coastal regions of North America. In the far north these bears feed on salmon and often attain especially large size. \"Alaskan brown\" is sometimes used for Alaskan bears, but the main distinction is how far the bear is found from the coast. Grizzly bear is the term used for the brown bear of the North American interior.\n", "Such studies have not been limited to polar bears and brown bears, and it now appears that gene flow between species has been widespread during the evolution of the living species of bears.\n\nSection::::Naming.\n\nSince the 2006 discovery placed the hybrid into the spotlight, the media have referred to this animal with several portmanteau names, such as \"pizzly bear\", \"grolar bear\", and \"polizzly\", but there is no consensus on the use of any one of these terms. Canadian wildlife officials have suggested calling the hybrid \"nanulak\", taken from the Inuit names for polar bear \"(nanuk)\" and grizzly bear \"(aklak)\".\n", "The grizzly bear is now regarded by most taxonomists as a variety of brown bear, \"Ursus arctos horribilis\".\n\nBULLET::::- Clinton Hart Merriam, taxonomist of grizzly bears, described an animal killed in 1864 at Rendezvous Lake, Barren Grounds, Canada as \"buffy whitish\" with a golden brown muzzle. This is considered to be a natural hybrid between a grizzly bear and polar bear.\n", "Until recently, all right whales of the genus \"Eubalaena\" were considered a single species—\"E. glacialis\". In 2000, genetic studies of right whales from the different ocean basins led scientists to conclude that the populations in the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere constitute three distinct species. Further genetic analysis in 2005 using mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA has supported the conclusion that the three populations should be treated as separate species, and the separation has been adopted for management purposes by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service and the International Whaling Commission.\n", "By one convention, the name of the sire comes first in such combinations: the offspring of a male polar bear and a female grizzly would be the suggested \"nanulak\" or a \"pizzly bear\", while the offspring of a male grizzly and a female polar bear would be a \"grolar bear\" or possibly an \"aknuk\". If the remains of MacFarlane's 1864 specimenwhich was validly described according to ICZN ruleswere traced and confirmed to be such a hybrid by ancient DNA techniques, the scientific name \"Ursus × inopinatus\" would be available for these animals.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "It is hard to know whether these events are a harbinger of the breakdown of a species barrier, or just an unusual anecdote, since all confirmed cases to date trace to the unusual mate choice of a single polar bear.\n\nSection::::Occurrences in the wild.:The Arviat bear.\n", "Section::::Range expansion of brown bears as a possible contributing factor.\n", "Possible wild-bred polar bear-grizzly bear hybrids have been reported and shot in the past, but DNA tests were not available to verify the bears' ancestry.\n\nGenetic analysis has revealed multiple instances of introgressive hybridization between bear species, including introgression of polar bear DNA into brown bears during the Pleistocene (\"grizzly bear\" is a local common name for \"Ursus arctos\" whereas \"brown bear\" is used internationally and in science to refer to the species as a whole).\n\nSection::::Occurrences in the wild.\n", "Manning had erroneously categorized the Dolphin and Union Caribou as Peary caribou and the species was originally listed by COSEWIC until 2004. By more recent studies had clearly shown that Dolphin and Union Caribou are genetically distinct from both Peary and barren-ground caribou.\n\nSection::::Population.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1943, Clara Helgason described a bear shot by hunters during her childhood. This was a large, off-white bear with hair all over his paws. The presence of hair on the bottom of the feet suggests it was not an unusually colored Kodiak brown bear, but a natural hybrid with a polar bear.\n\nBULLET::::- In a 1970 National Geographic article Elizabeth C. Reed mentions being foster mother to 4 hybrid bear cubs from the National Zoological Park in Washington, where her husband was director.\n\nSection::::Brown bear/polar bear hybrids.:Grizzly bear/polar bear hybrids.\n", "Section::::Nomenclature.\n\nA 1953 researcher stated, \"The specific status of North American brown bears (or grizzly bears) is one of the most complex problems of mammalian taxonomy. The difficulty stems directly from the work of Merriam (1918), who concluded that there are 86 forms of grizzlies (and brown bears) in North America.\"\n", "Grizzly–polar bear hybrid\n\nA grizzly–polar bear hybrid (also named grolar bear or pizzly bear or nanulak) is a rare ursid hybrid that has occurred both in captivity and in the wild. In 2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a unique-looking bear that had been shot near Sachs Harbour, Northwest Territories on Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic. The number of confirmed hybrids has since risen to eight, all of them descending from the same female polar bear. \n", "With several suspected sightings and eight confirmed cases, theories of how such hybrids might naturally occur have become more than hypothetical. Although these sister species often occupy adjacent regions, direct contact has not been the norm because polar bears hunt, breed and sometimes even make maternity dens on sea ice, where brown bears have an overwhelmingly terrestrial lifestyle.\n\nIt has been suggested that the yellowish-white MacFarlane's bear, known from a single specimen collected in 1864, may have been a grizzly-polar hybrid.\n\nSection::::Occurrences in the wild.:2006 discovery.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1936, a male polar bear accidentally got into an enclosure with a female Kodiak (Alaskan brown) bear at the U.S. National Zoo, resulting in three hybrid offspring. The hybrid offspring were fertile and able to breed successfully with each other, indicating that the two species of bear are closely related. The Kodiak is also considered by many to be a variant or subspecies of the basic Arctic brown bear.\n", "In 1982, another team of Soviet researchers independently described another new species, \"Orcinus glacialis\", based on 906 whale catches that took place between 1979–1980. Due to the lack of holotype specimens and poor descriptions, the possibility of additional species of \"Orcinus\" has received little attention and a lack of support from the scientific community.\n\nSection::::Ecotypes.\n\nBased on the Soviet research, four ecotypes of killer whales have currently been established in regards to size and physical characteristics: A, B, C, and D.\n\nSection::::Ecotypes.:Ecotype A.\n", "On April 16, 2006, a polar bear of unusual appearance was shot by a sports hunter on Banks Island in the Northwest Territories. DNA testing released May 11, 2006, proved the kill was a grizzly/polar bear hybrid. This is thought to be the first recorded case of interbreeding in the wild. The bear was proven to have a polar mother and a grizzly father. The DNA testing also spared the hunter the C$1000 fine for killing a grizzly bear, as well as the risk of being imprisoned for up to a year. The hunter had bought a license to hunt polar bears; he did not have a license to hunt grizzly at that time.\n", "There were twenty subspecies in 1985, and more than twice that now included in the Global Names Index:\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. acalanatha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. aino\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. augustus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. aungsani\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. cedermarki\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. dominus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. erlaensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. evansi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. gigas\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. haveli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. hoshinoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. imperator\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. imperatrix\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. imposantus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. indra\" - disputed validity\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. interjungens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. intermedius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. irmae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. i. jiyetiani\"\n", "Within the \"Gulo gulo\" species, a clear separation occurs between two subspecies: the Old World form \"Gulo gulo gulo\" and the New World form \"G. g. luscus\". Some authors had described as many as four additional North American subspecies, including ones limited to Vancouver Island (\"G. g. vancouverensis\") and the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska (\"G. g. katschemakensis\"). However, the most currently accepted taxonomy recognizes either the two continental subspecies or \"G. gulo\" as a single Holarctic taxon.\n", "On 8 April 2010, David Kuptana, an Inuvialuit hunter from the community of Ulukhaktok on Victoria Island shot what he thought was a polar bear. After inspecting the bear and having its DNA tested, it was discovered that the bear's mother was a grizzly-polar hybrid and the father was a grizzly bear. The bear possesses physical characteristics intermediate between grizzlies and polar bears, such as brown fur on its paws, long claws, and a grizzly-like head.\n", "BULLET::::- DNA studies indicate that some brown bears are more closely related to polar bears than they are to other brown bears. All the \"Ursinae\" species (i.e., all bears except the giant panda and the spectacled bear) appear able to crossbreed.\n\nSection::::Brown bear/polar bear hybrids.:Kodiak bear/polar bear hybrids.\n", "BULLET::::- Eastern South American cougar Nelson and Goldman, 1931:br includes the previous subspecies and synonyms \"acrocodia\", \"borbensis\", \"capricornensis\", \"concolor\", \"greeni\", and \"nigra\"\n\nBULLET::::- North American cougar Kerr, 1792:br includes the previous subspecies and synonyms \"arundivaga\", \"aztecus\", \"browni\", \"californica\", \"floridana\", \"hippolestes\", \"improcera\", \"kaibabensis\", \"mayensis\", \"missoulensis\", \"olympus\", \"oregonensis\", \"schorgeri\", \"stanleyana\", \"vancouverensis\", and \"youngi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern South American cougar Linnaeus, 1771:br includes the previous subspecies and synonyms \"bangsi\", \"incarum\", \"osgoodi\", \"soasoaranna, sussuarana\", \"soderstromii\", \"suçuaçuara\", and \"wavula\"\n\nBULLET::::- Southern South American cougar Molina, 1782:br includes the previous subspecies and synonyms \"araucanus\", \"concolor\", \"patagonica\", \"pearsoni\", and \"puma\" (Trouessart, 1904)\n", "Polar bears were designated \"Not at Risk\" in April 1986 and uplisted to \"Special Concern\" in April 1991. This status was re-evaluated and confirmed in April 1999, November 2002, and April 2008. Polar bears continue to be listed as a species of special concern in Canada because of their sensitivity to overharvest and because of an expected range contraction caused by loss of Arctic sea ice.\n", "Based on Banfield's often-cited \"A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer\" (1961), \"R. t. caboti\" (the Labrador caribou), \"R. t. osborni\" (Osborn's caribou—from British Columbia) and \"R. t. terraenovae\" (the Newfoundland caribou) were considered invalid and included in \"R. t. caribou\".\n\nSome recent authorities have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct. In their book entitled \"Mammal Species of the World\", American zoologist Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn Reeder agree with Valerius Geist, specialist on large North American mammals, that this range actually includes several subspecies.\n", "In 1961 in Banfield's often-cited \"A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer\" (1961), \"R. t. caboti\" (Labrador caribou) and \"R. t. terraenovae\" (Newfoundland caribou) were considered invalid and included in \"R. t. caribou\".\n", "North American grizzlies were taxonomically grouped as a species apart from other bear species until DNA testing revealed that they should properly be grouped in the same species as the other brown bears. Grizzlies living in California had been classified by Merriam into many subspecies, but the only genetically anomalous grouping in North America is the ABC Islands bears.\n\nSection::::History and extinction.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01970	How can water do work as it freezes?	Some of the heat being given up as it freezes becomes that energy. Some heat leaves the system without making the water colder, but by making it frozen.	[ "Section::::How water freezes.\n", "Freezing water is a central issue for climate, geology and life. On earth, ice and snow cover 10% of the land and up to 50% of the Northern Hemisphere in winter. Polar ice caps reflect up to 90% of the sun's incoming radiation. The science of freezing water depends on multiple factors, including how water droplets freeze, how much water is in the atmosphere, if water is in a liquid or crystal state, at what temperature it freezes, and whether it crystallizes from within or from the surface.\n", "Water also differs from most liquids in that it becomes less dense as it freezes. The maximum density of water in its liquid form (at 1 atm) is ; that occurs at . The density of ice is . Thus, water expands 9% in volume as it freezes, which accounts for the fact that ice floats on liquid water.\n\nThe details of the exact chemical nature of liquid water are not well understood; some theories suggest that the unusual behaviour of water is due to the existence of 2 liquid states.\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.:Taste and odor.\n", "Section::::Melting point of ice at various pressures.\n\nData obtained from \"CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics\" 44th ed., p. 2390\n\nSection::::Water with dissolved NaCl.\n\nNote: ρ is density, \"n\" is refractive index at 589 nm, and η is viscosity, all at 20 °C; \"T\" is the equilibrium temperature between two phases: ice/liquid solution for \"T\" 0–0.1 °C and NaCl/liquid solution for \"T\" above 0.1 °C.\n\nSection::::Additional data translated from German \"Wasser (Stoffdaten)\" page.\n", "Water will freeze at different temperatures depending upon the type of ice nuclei present. Ice nuclei cause water to freeze at higher temperatures than it would spontaneously. For pure water to freeze spontaneously, called homogeneous nucleation, cloud temperatures would have to be . Here are some examples of ice nuclei:\n\nSection::::Ice multiplication.\n", "BULLET::::- The most common crystallisation process on Earth is the formation of ice. Liquid water does not freeze at 0° C unless there is ice already present, cooling significantly below 0° C is required to nucleate ice and so for the water to freeze. For example, small droplets of very pure water can remain liquid down to below -30° C although ice is the stable state below 0° C.\n", "Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at a standard pressure of 1 atm, water is a liquid between . Increasing the pressure slightly lowers the melting point, which is about at 600 atm and at 2100 atm. This effect is relevant, for example, to ice skating, to the buried lakes of Antarctica, and to the movement of glaciers. (At pressures higher than 2100 atm the melting point rapidly increases again, and ice takes several exotic forms that do not exist at lower pressures.)\n", "The freezing of small water droplets to ice is an important process, particularly in the formation and dynamics of clouds. Water (at atmospheric pressure) does not freeze at 0° C, but rather at temperatures that tend to decrease as the volume of the water decreases and as the water impurity increases. Thus small droplets of water, as found in clouds, may remain liquid far below 0° C.\n", "There are phenomena like supercooling, in which the water is cooled below its freezing point, but the water remains liquid, if there are too few defects to seed crystallization. One can therefore observe a delay until the water adjusts to the new, below-freezing temperature. Supercooled liquid water must become ice at minus 48 C (minus 55 F) not just because of the extreme cold, but because the molecular structure of water changes physically to form tetrahedron shapes, with each water molecule loosely bonded to four others. This suggests the structural change from liquid to \"intermediate ice\". The crystallization of ice from supercooled water is generally initiated by a process called nucleation. Because of the speed and size of nucleation, which occurs within nanoseconds and nanometers.\n", "If a microscopic droplet of water is cooled very fast, it forms what is called a glass (low-density amorphous ice) in which all the tetrahedrons of water molecules are not lined up, but amorphous. The change in structure of water controls the rate at which ice forms. Depending on its temperature and pressure, water ice has 16 different crystalline forms in which water molecules cling to each other with hydrogen bonds. When water is cooled, its structure becomes closer to the structure of ice, which is why the density goes down, and this should be reflected in an increased crystallization rate showing these crystalline forms.\n", "Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at \"higher\" temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: For some pressures higher than , water freezes at a temperature \"below\" 0 °C, as shown in the phase diagram below. The melting of ice under high pressures is thought to contribute to the movement of glaciers.\n", "After the freeze-drying process is complete, the vacuum is usually broken with an inert gas, such as nitrogen, before the material is sealed.\n\nAt the end of the operation, the final residual water content in the product is extremely low, around 1% to 4%.\n\nSection::::Applications of freeze drying.\n", "Section::::Expansion.\n\nSome substances, such as water and bismuth, expand when frozen.\n\nSection::::Freezing of living organisms.\n", "Water normally freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C or 32 °F), but it can be \"supercooled\" at standard pressure down to its crystal homogeneous nucleation at almost 224.8 K (−48.3 °C/−55 °F). The process of supercooling requires that water be pure and free of nucleation sites, which can be achieved by processes like reverse osmosis or chemical demineralization, but the cooling itself does not require any specialised technique. If water is cooled at a rate on the order of 10 K/s, the crystal nucleation can be avoided and water becomes a glass—that is, an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid. Its glass transition temperature is much colder and harder to determine, but studies estimate it at about 136 K (−137 °C/−215 °F).\n", "Most liquids freeze by crystallization, formation of crystalline solid from the uniform liquid. This is a first-order thermodynamic phase transition, which means that as long as solid and liquid coexist, the temperature of the whole system remains very nearly equal to the melting point due to slow removal of heat when in contact with air, which is a poor heat conductor. Because of the latent heat of fusion, the freezing is greatly slowed down and the temperature will not drop anymore once the freezing starts but will continue dropping once it finishes. Crystallization consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation is the step wherein the molecules start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer scale, arranging in a defined and periodic manner that defines the crystal structure. The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size.\n", "Pure water is supercooled in a chiller to −2°C and released through a nozzle into a storage tank. On release it undergoes a phase transition forming small ice particles within 2.5% ice fraction. In the storage tank it is separated by the difference in density between ice and water. The cold water is supercooled and released again increasing the ice fraction in the storage tank.\n\nHowever a small crystal in the supercooled water or a nucleation cell on the surface may act as a seed for ice crystals and block the generator.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold chain\n\nBULLET::::- Fishing industry\n", "Flash freezing refers to the process whereby objects are frozen in just a few hours by subjecting them to cryogenic temperatures, or through direct contact with liquid nitrogen at .\n\nWhen water is supercooled to temperatures below , it must freeze.\n", "When liquid water is cooled, its temperature falls steadily until it drops just below the line of freezing point at 0 °C. The temperature then remains constant at the freezing point while the water crystallizes. Once the water is completely frozen, its temperature continues to fall.\n", "Section::::Exothermicity.\n\nFreezing is almost always an exothermic process, meaning that as liquid changes into solid, heat and pressure are released. This is often seen as counter-intuitive, since the temperature of the material does not rise during freezing, except if the liquid were supercooled. But this can be understood since heat must be continually removed from the freezing liquid or the freezing process will stop. The energy released upon freezing is a latent heat, and is known as the enthalpy of fusion and is exactly the same as the energy required to melt the same amount of the solid.\n", "The compressed ice was then transported to the University of Rochester where it was blasted by a pulse of laser light. The reaction created conditions like those inside of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune by heating up the ice thousands of degrees under a pressure a million times greater than the earth's atmosphere in only ten to 20 billionths of a second. The experiment concluded that the current in the conductive water was indeed carried by ions rather than electrons and thus pointed to the water being superionic. More recent experiments from the same LLNL/Rochester team used x-ray crystallography on laser-shocked water droplets to determine that the oxygen ions enter a face-centered-cubic phase, which was dubbed ice XVIII and reported in the journal \"Nature\" in May 2019.\n", "During the final stage of freezing, an ice drop develops a pointy tip, which is not observed for most other liquids, arises because water expands as it freezes. Once the liquid is completely frozen, the sharp tip of the drop attracts water vapor in the air, much like a sharp metal lightning rod attracts electrical charges. The water vapor collects on the tip and a tree of small ice crystals starts to grow. An opposite effect has been shown to preferentially extract water molecules from the sharp edge of potato wedges in the oven.\n", "The surface tension can be defined in terms of force or energy. The surface tension of a liquid is the ratio of the change in the energy of the liquid, and the change in the surface area of the liquid (that led to the change in energy). It can be defined as formula_20. This work W is interpreted as the potential energy.\n", "An example of experimental data on the freezing of small water droplets is shown at the right. The plot shows the fraction of a large set of water droplets, that are still liquid water, i.e., have not yet frozen, as a function of temperature. Note that the highest temperature at which any of the droplets freezes is close to -19° C, while the last droplet to freeze does so at almost -35° C.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Examples of the nucleation of fluids (gases and liquids).\n", "When ice melts, it absorbs as much energy as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C. During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C. While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the \"heat of fusion\".\n", "Section::::Ice Generation.\n\nThere are two different approaches to ice particles generation. \n\nBULLET::::- The ice particles can be prepared beforehand using an ice particle generator, stored in a reservoir and then fed to the conventional entrainment based jetting head.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19870	How do they built skyscrapers on top of a river?	They will literally either dig down to the bedrock (much of where you see the huge skyscrapers in New York that’s what they did. New York’s bedrock is exposed on the surface in some places so it’s not that difficult of a task actually) or they will drive pilings or sink a foundation to the bedrock. Extensive surveys are done beforehand so they know were the bedrock is planning isn’t that hard but it’s more expensive than say just building somewhere else where you don’t have to do that.	[ "References to this practice can be found in Greek folk culture in a poem about \"Arta's bridge\". According to the poem, the wife of the chief builder was sacrificed to establish a good foundation for a bridge that was of grave importance to the secluded city of Arta. The actual bridge was constructed in 1602. A similar legend appears in the Romanian folk poem \"Meșterul Manole\", about the building of the church in the earliest Wallachian capital city.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bay Bridge Troll\n\nBULLET::::- Cornerstone\n\nBULLET::::- Foundation deposit\n\nBULLET::::- Ship naming and launching\n\nBULLET::::- Time capsule\n\nBULLET::::- Topping out\n", "BULLET::::- Was a member of the design team for Cascades of 4 dams on Andes Ranges in Peru, South America\n\nBULLET::::- Conducted experiments to determine physical characteristics and structural stability of soils of different textures used in dams under different load conditions – setting standards and engineering guides\n\nBULLET::::- Presented over 10 papers at workshops on dam structures and their stability.\n", "BULLET::::- Palace of Versailles, Paris, (France). Restoration of the roof over the Ambassador's Staircase in the residence of the French monarchy and World Heritage Site by UNESCO\n\nBULLET::::- La Pepa Bridge, Bay of Cádiz (Spain). Construction of several deck sections in the world’s second tallest bridge.\n\nBULLET::::- Harborside, Jersey City (New Jersey). Construction work in the tallest residential buildings in New Jersey.\n\nBULLET::::- Empire Outlets, New York City (New York). Formwork and shoring systems for the shopping area, hotel, and parking structure to be opening in Staten Island in 2018.\n", "BULLET::::- The Colorado River Aqueduct (1935)\n\nBULLET::::- The main San Francisco Public Library Building at the San Francisco Civic Center\n\nBULLET::::- The exhibit buildings and the Tower of The Sun at the Golden Gate International Exposition on Treasure Island (1939)\n\nBULLET::::- The early San Francisco Chronicle Buildings (1889 & 1907)\n\nBULLET::::- Wheeler Hall and Doe Library at the UC Berkeley Campus (1916 & 1917)\n\nBULLET::::- The buildings of the Stanford University Campus\n\nBULLET::::- The Fairmont Hotel (1905)\n\nBULLET::::- The Flood Building (1907)\n\nBULLET::::- The State Capitol building in Sacramento (1907)\n\nBULLET::::- The Saint Francis Hotel (1907)\n", "BULLET::::- \"On the Waterfront\" (1954 film), directed by Elia Kazan and starring Marlon Brando\n\nBULLET::::- \"Waterfront\" (1955 TV series), a 1955 television series starring Preston Foster\n\nBULLET::::- \"Waterfront\" (miniseries), a 1984 Australian miniseries\n\nBULLET::::- Waterfront Film Festival, Saugatuck, Michigan\n\nSection::::Places.\n\nBULLET::::- Quad Cities Waterfront Convention Center, located in Bettendorf, Iowa, USA\n\nBULLET::::- Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, a historic harbour in Cape Town, South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Dubai Waterfront, a massive offshore community being built in Dubai, United Arab Emirates\n\nBULLET::::- The Waterfront, Hong Kong, a private housing estate\n\nBULLET::::- The Waterfront, an open-air shopping center in Homestead, Pennsylvania, just outside Pittsburgh\n", "BULLET::::- Tower Sky, a fictional 448m, 108-story high twin tower complex in Seoul, South Korea, in the 2012 disaster film \"The Tower\". As stated in the film, tower A was called \"Riverview\", and tower B was called \"Cityview\", with over 5700 residents, it was South Korea's biggest residential complex. In the film, the owner of the complex decided to hold a Christmas party and had 10 helicopters circling above the building, despite the warnings of the owner's employees. On the Christmas Eve, one of the helicopters crashed into tower A. The crash also damaged the structure of the bridge connecting the twin tower, making the characters unable to escape to tower B.\n", "BULLET::::- Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge, China - Production of 33 tunnel elements for the underwater tunnel\n\nBULLET::::- Absolute World, Canada - Two high-rise buildings which are 153 m and 178 m high\n\nBULLET::::- Atatürk Olympic Stadium, İstanbul\n\nBULLET::::- Cuatro Torres Highrise, Madrid, Spain – PERI ACS self-climbing formwork for highest skyscrapers in Spain\n\nBULLET::::- Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge, Charleston, USA - Two 175 m high piers at a distance of 472 m from each other\n\nBULLET::::- Parts of the new Glasgow Harbour\n\nBULLET::::- 7 World Trade Center, New York, USA\n\nBULLET::::- Casa da Música, Porto, Portugal\n", "BULLET::::- Some aspects of the design of flexible bridging including \"Whale\" floating roadways\n\nBULLET::::- River Thames – removable flood barriers (1972)\n\nBULLET::::- The Design and Construction of Bombay Marine Oil Terminal \n\nBULLET::::- A High Capacity Container Terminal – Berth 39 Tilbury Docks\n\nBULLET::::- Design and Construction of Muara Deep Water Port\n\nBULLET::::- The River Hull Tidal Surge Barrier\n\nBULLET::::- Design and Construction of the Dock Entrance at Bhavnagar Port, Gujarat State, India\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- The Times – Allan Beckett Obituary\n\nBULLET::::- The Telegraph – Allan Beckett Obituary\n", "In addition to providing designs for the amusement industry, Schilke and Hansen have worked with the Oceana Energy Company on the design and patent of water turbines to harness power from rivers and ocean tides.\n\nSection::::Projects.\n\nBULLET::::- As an employee of Arrow Dynamics:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Road Runner Express\" at Six Flags Fiesta Texas\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tennessee Tornado\" at Dollywood\n\nBULLET::::- \"X\" at Six Flags Magic Mountain\n\nBULLET::::- As an employee/consultant of S&S Arrow/S&S Worldwide:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Timberhawk: Ride of Prey\" at Wild Waves Theme Park\n\nBULLET::::- \"Falken\" at Fårup sommerland\n\nBULLET::::- \"Avalanche\" at Timber Falls Adventure Park\n", "BULLET::::- Chrysler Building (New York City 1930) - lair of the winged serpent Quetzalcoatl in \"Q\" (1982), prominently featured in \"The Caveman's Valentine\", accidentally destroyed by U.S. military forces in \"Godzilla\" (1998); destroyed by a meteorite in \"Armageddon\" (1998); flown through by the Silver Surfer in \"\" (2007).\n", "In 2008, Point created \"Buttress Runnels\" for the Olympic Oval in Richmond, B.C.. The runnels move water from the roof of the building away from the site. The runnels include cast images of the life of the Fraser River, including fish, sand, herons. Herons are the symbol of the City of Richmond and figure prominently in stories and histories of the Musqueam people.\n", "BULLET::::- the landmark house \"Edgewater\" in Mill Valley in Marin County, California, built in 2003 by Lehman Brothers of New York\n\nBULLET::::- the conversion of the 1894 Del Monte Cannery Building in Santa Rosa, California into the 6th Street Playhouse in 2005\n\nBULLET::::- \"Park Lane Village Square\", a $100 million residential/commercial mixed-use project in Santa Rosa, completed in 2009\n\nBULLET::::- the Cloverdale Performing Arts Center for the city of Cloverdale, California in 2010\n\nBULLET::::- facility designer for the Safari West Wildlife Animal Preserve in Sonoma County, California since 2011\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Austin Kent (1854–1912), leading architect in Buffalo, New York, and three-time president of the American Institute of Architects. He perished aboard the RMS \"Titanic\" when the ship struck an iceberg and sank on April 15, 1912.\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Davis Jameson, engineer who taught at MIT. He subsequently went to China and became Chief Consulting Engineer and Architect to the Imperial Chinese Government (1895–1918). He planned important hydraulics projects and witnessed the Boxer Rebellion\n", "BULLET::::- 1290 Avenue of the Americas Lobby – New York, New York, Spring 2013\n\nBULLET::::- 1330 Avenue of the Americas Plaza & Pre-built Offices – New York, New York, Fall 2012\n\nBULLET::::- The Town School Windmill Installation – New York, Fall 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 400 Park Avenue Window Replacement – New York, New York, Winter 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 1177 Avenue of the Americas Lobby – New York, New York, Spring 2013\n\nBULLET::::- 527 Madison Avenue Lobby – New York, New York, Winter 2012\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Grand Central Tower Plaza – New York, New York, Spring 2013\n", "BULLET::::- San Juan Capistrano Library, San Juan Capistrano, California, 1982\n\nBULLET::::- Riverbend Music Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1984\n\nBULLET::::- Aventine Mixed Use Development, La Jolla, California, 1985\n\nBULLET::::- Crown American Building, Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1986\n\nBULLET::::- Team Disney headquarters building, Burbank, California, 1986\n\nBULLET::::- Graves Residence (\"The Warehouse\"), Princeton, New Jersey, 1986\n\nBULLET::::- Shiseido Health Club, Tokyo, Japan, 1986\n\nBULLET::::- Clos Pegase Winery, Calistoga, California, 1987\n\nBULLET::::- Bryan Hall, University Of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, 1987\n\nBULLET::::- Dolphin Resort, Walt Disney World, Orlando, Florida, 1987\n\nBULLET::::- Swan Resort, Walt Disney World, Orlando, Florida, 1987\n\nBULLET::::- Metropolis master plan, Los Angeles, California, 1988\n", "Many of the larger ROR projects have been designed to a scale and generating capacity rivaling some traditional hydro dams. For example, the Beauharnois Hydroelectric Generating Station in Quebec is rated at 1,853 MW. Some run of the river projects are downstream of other dams and reservoirs. The run of the river project didn't build the reservoir, but does take advantage of the water supplied by it. An example would be the 1995 1,436 MW La Grande-1 generating station. Previous upstream dams and reservoirs are part of the 1980s James Bay Project.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "BULLET::::- William Cole Paper Mill, Putney, Vermont (, rebuilt on site of Cole's previous mill), Joseph Wallace's first job, supervised by A. B. Tower\n\nBULLET::::- Fletcher Paper Company, Alpena, Michigan (1898)\n\nBULLET::::- James River Falls and Paper Mills, Richmond, Virginia (1899)\n\nBULLET::::- Oxford Paper Mills, Rumford, Maine (), A. B. Tower; Tower & Wallace\n\nBULLET::::- Ste. Marie Pulp & Paper Co, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, (1900) A. B. Tower; Tower & Wallace\n\nBULLET::::- Rising Paper Mill, Housatonic, Massachusetts (, expansion/reorganization)\n\nBULLET::::- Nekonegan Paper Mill, Old Town, Maine\n\nSection::::Selected works.:Civic and commercial projects.\n\nBULLET::::- Hinsdale Municipal Waterworks, Hinsdale, Massachusetts (1889)\n", "BULLET::::- 1985: Applied Power increases global presence with 10 plants on 5 continents\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: APW Electronics spins off from Applied Power; Enerpac business becomes part of Actuant Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: Enerpac system raises Golden Gate Bridge\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Athens Olympic Stadium's suspended arched roof constructed with Enerpac supports\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Millau Viaduct bridge in France is supported with Enerpac hydraulic lifting systems\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Enerpac:\n\nBULLET::::- -Lifts and moves the 74-year-old Shanghai Concert Hall\n\nBULLET::::- -Places roof on the \"Bird’s Nest\" or the Beijing National Stadium where the 2008 Olympics were located.\n", "Section::::Construction of the navigation.\n", "BULLET::::- The song \"Ode to Billie Joe\", which became a hit for Bobbie Gentry (1967)\n\nBULLET::::- The Divine Comedy's \"Painting the Forth Bridge\", the title being a colloquial term for an unending task, a reference to the Forth Bridge\n\nBULLET::::- The Pogues' \"Misty Morning, Albert Bridge\": Albert Bridge is a bridge across the Thames river\n\nBULLET::::- MC Frontalot's song \"Floating Bridge\" is literally about different types of bridges.\n\nBULLET::::- Andy Partridge (of XTC) and Harold Budd – \"Tenochtitlan's Numberless Bridges\": Tenochtitlan was an Aztec island city with many waterways, canals, and bridges\n", "Cofferdams, made of timber, were built on shore, ballasted, and floated out into the channel. These were then sunk in the locations where the bridge piers were to be built and sections were added to the tops until the dams reached from the surface to the bottom of the channel, resting on the floor of the strait. The dams were heavily ballasted around their outer walls, then pumped dry so excavation of the overburden could begin. Once bedrock was reached a flat area was quarried out and long anchor bolts were sunk into the rock below.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nThe \"L\" shaped site area is 3,329 m with 27 m frontage to Marine Parade and 40 m to Spenser Street. Overall building dimensions of 46 x 13 x 44 m high.\n", "In the 1980s, Dan Goodwin, aka SpiderDan, aka Skyscraperman, in advocacy for high-rise firefighting and rescue, scaled many of the world's tallest buildings and structures including the Sears Tower, the John Hancock Center, the North Tower of the World Trade Center, the Parque Central Complex in Caracas, Venezuela, and the CN Tower in Toronto, Canada. In 2010, Goodwin, now a stage four cancer survivor, scaled San Francisco, California's sixty-storey Millennium Tower to call attention to the fire department's inability to conduct rescue operations in the upper floors of skyscrapers.\n", "A 40-story residential building 'Trätoppen' has been proposed by architect Anders Berensson to be built in Stockholm, Sweden. Trätoppen would be the tallest building in Stockholm, though there are no immediate plans to begin construction. The tallest currently-planned wooden skyscraper is the 70-story W350 Project in Tokyo, to be built by the Japanese wood products company Sumitomo Forestry Co. to celebrate its 350th anniversary in 2041. An 80-story wooden skyscraper, the River Beech Tower, has been proposed by a team including architects Perkins + Will and the University of Cambridge. The River Beech Tower, on the banks of the Chicago River in Chicago, Illinois, would be 348 feet shorter than the W350 Project despite having 10 more stories.\n", "Section::::Construction of the navigation.:Operation.\n" ]	[ "Skyscrapers can be built on top of rivers." ]	[ "Skyscrapers have to be built on the bedrock under rivers." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Skyscrapers can be built on top of rivers.", "Skyscrapers can be built on top of rivers." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Skyscrapers have to be built on the bedrock under rivers.", "Skyscrapers have to be built on the bedrock under rivers." ]
2018-01906	Why has only about 5% of the ocean been discovered? What makes it so difficult and how has technology not been developed to uncover more?	The pressure will squish all but the most sturdy vehicles. These super-sturdy vehicles move very slowly, so the very small number of them have been sent to the most "interesting" places. The rest, alas, isn't interesting (or profitable) enough, so far.	[ "Mesopelagic activity was first investigated by use of sonar because the return bounces off of plankton and fish in the water. However, there are many challenges with acoustic survey methods and previous research has estimated errors in measured amounts of biomass of up to three orders of magnitude. This is due to inaccurate incorporation of depth, species size distribution, and acoustic properties of the species. Norway's Institute of Marine Research has launched a research vessel named Dr. Fridtjof Nansen to investigate mesopelagic activity using sonar with their focus being on the sustainability of fishing operations. To overcome the challenges faced with acoustic sampling, WHOI is developing remote operated vehicles (ROVs) and robots (Deep-See, Mesobot, and Snowclops) that are capable of studying this zone more precisely in a dedicated effort called the Ocean Twilight Zone project that launched in August 2018.\n", "There is a dearth of knowledge about the mesopelagic zone so researchers have begun to develop new technology to explore and sample this area. The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), NASA, and the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research are all working on projects to gain a better understanding of this zone in the ocean and its influence on the global carbon cycle. Traditional sampling methods like nets have proved to be inadequate because they scare off creatures due to the pressure wave formed by the towed net and the light produced by the bioluminescent species caught in the net. \n", "Section::::First Funding Period.:Resources and Risks.\n\nThe research area \"Resources and Risks\" (B) focused in turn on different resources, their mining and recovery potential but also their sustainable utilization and possible occurring risks. It was divided into six research teams, that focused mostly but not exclusively on economic research ranging from topics such as fishery and the common pool problem to molecular interdependencies within marine organisms for medical research to resource deposits and their safe exploitation and even to submarine hazard research regarding earthquakes and tsunamis.\n\nSection::::Second Funding Period.\n", "Section::::History.:Age of Discovery.\n", "Half the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans over 3,000 metres deep, making them the biggest ecosystem on the planet. Nevertheless, due to the limitations of the technology available until just recently, the oceans remain something of a mystery. Indeed, it is often said that we know more about the Moon or Mars than Earth’s oceans.\n", "The Malaspina Circumnavigation Expedition was a Spanish-led scientific quest in 2011 to gain a better understanding of the state of the ocean and the diversity in the deep oceans. The data collected, particularly through sonar observations showed that the biomass estimation in the mesopelagic was lower than previously thought.\n\nSection::::Research and Exploration.:Deep-See.\n", "Team Atlantis Productions plan to open the eyes of the public to archaeological mysteries off the coast of San Diego through their show, “La Jolla’s Sunken City.” Michael Arbuthnot, the Writer/Producer of the show, paired with Director/Editor David Faires, to take underwater cinematography to new depths.\n", "To develop a long-term field programme to locate potential vent and seep sites and continue research on whalefalls and OMZ sites. The field programme aims to explain the main gaps in our knowledge of the diversity, abundance and distribution of chemosynthetic species globally. A limited number of target areas have been selected where specific scientific questions relevant to biogeographical issues will be answered.\n", "The research programme Census of Marine Life seriously addresses this situation and challenges marine biologists to utilize the most advanced technology to achieve true new information in areas of the ocean that were poorly studied previously. The project MAR-ECO, an element of the Census of Marine Life, rises to the challenge and investigates the diverse animal life along the vast underwater mountain chains of the open ocean.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Collaboration with Christensen.\n", "The structure and vision of HMAP highlights the power of an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the long term development of life in the ocean. Historical research reveals what we can know about the history of ocean exploitation and changing coastal communities. Ecological and historical analysis offers insight into the changes in human and natural systems over historical time. It also reveals what we do not yet know and, in some cases, cannot know about these changes. Only the interdisciplinary combination of expertise can fully develop the scope of what is known, unknown and unknowable about the environmental history of the oceans.\n", "In 2014, The Ocean Agency started recording the 3rd Global Coral Bleaching Event, which became the subject of the Netflix Original Documentary \"Chasing Coral\". The documentary premiered at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival and was released on Netflix in July 2017.\n", "Section::::Scientific scope.\n\nThe scientific scope of IODP is laid out in the program's science plan, \"Illuminating Earth's Past, Present, and Future\". The science plan covers a 10-year period of operations and consists of a list of scientific challenges that are organized into four themes called Climate and Ocean Change, Biosphere Frontiers, Earth Connections, and Earth in Motion. The science plan was developed by the international scientific community to identify the highest priority science for the program.\n\nSection::::IODP funding and operations.\n", "Section::::Style.\n", "Section::::Historical context.\n", "2) Scale solutions within and beyond The Ocean Project network \n\n- Develop and expand partner network, sharing successes and catalyzing more effective approaches, ensuring these efforts add maximum value to local, regional, national, and global conservation movements\n\nSection::::Activities.\n\nThe Ocean Project seeks to complement and build upon the work of existing institutions and organizations and has three primary initiatives:\n\nPriority Initiatives:\n\n1) Collaborative Conservation Campaigns\n", "Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water and a small amount of the bottom, mainly in shallow areas. Almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The British Royal Navy's efforts to chart all of the world's coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep, although little more was known. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the polar regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans.\n", "The ocean plays an important role in the global climate, holds dangers, but simultaneously provides opportunities not just in the form of exploitable resources but also in many different fields of research. With that in mind the scientists in the cluster \"The Future Ocean\" have one common goal: to reassess the opportunities and risks of global change for the ocean and to allow a sustainable management of its resources based on these insights.\n\nSection::::First Funding Period.\n", "In the 1960s and 1970s, ecological research into the life of the ocean was undertaken at institutions set up specifically to study marine biology. Notable was the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in America, which established a model for other marine laboratories subsequently set up around the world. Their findings of unexpectedly high species diversity in places thought to be inhabitable stimulated much theorizing by population ecologists on how high diversification could be maintained in such a food-poor and seemingly hostile environment.\n\nSection::::Modern studies.:Exploration technology.\n", "The serious study of oceans began in the early to mid-20th century. As a field of natural science, it is relatively young but stand-alone programs offer specializations in the subject. Though some controversies remain as to the categorization of the field under earth sciences, interdisciplinary sciences or as a separate field in its own right, most modern workers in the field agree that it has matured to a state that it has its own paradigms and practices. As such a big family of related studies spanning every aspect of the oceans is now classified under this field.\n\nSection::::Interdisciplinary studies.\n", "Section::::Exploration.\n\nThe study of seamounts has been stymied for a long time by the lack of technology. Although seamounts have been sampled as far back as the 19th century, their depth and position meant that the technology to explore and sample seamounts in sufficient detail did not exist until the last few decades. Even with the right technology available, only a scant 1% of the total number have been explored, and sampling and information remains biased towards the top . New species are observed or collected and valuable information is obtained on almost every submersible dive at seamounts.\n", "However, the voyage to the ocean bottom is still a challenging experience. Scientists are working to find ways to study this extreme environment from the shipboard. With more sophisticated use of fiber optics, satellites, and remote-control robots, scientists one day may explore the deep sea from a computer screen on the deck rather than out of a porthole.\n\nSection::::Milestones of deep sea exploration.\n\nThe extreme conditions in the deep sea require elaborate methods and technologies, which has been the main reason why its exploration has a comparatively short history.\n", "Saline water covers approximately and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately 71% of Earth's surface and 90% of the Earth's biosphere. The ocean contains 97% of Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored. The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers (320 million cu mi) with an average depth of nearly .\n", "Section::::Historical context.:Minor historical influences.\n", "BULLET::::1. Enhanced knowledge of emerging ocean science issues\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23362	when water boils, its bubbles are round, but when it freezes, its crystals are 6-sided. Why isn’t frozen water round or boiling water hexagonally shaped? Aren’t H2O molecules the same in either state?	Bubbles are round because gaseous pressure is equally distributed outward. Ice crystals are shaped in such a way because of the bent molecular shape and the hydrogen forces that come together in a regular pattern. The water molecules are much slower and aren't bouncing all over the place. Gaseous H2O is much higher energy and further apart so that the regular pattern of ice doesn't come into effect.	[ "Section::::Solution.\n\nThe solution is given for small values of \"z\" \"z\" by\n\nwhere\n\nFor large \"z\" \"z\" the solution (in the phase where most occupied sites have type 1) is given by \n", "Tetradecahedra having at least one irregular face:\n\nBULLET::::- Heptagonal dipyramid (14 triangles) (see Dipyramid)\n\nBULLET::::- Heptagonal trapezohedron (14 kites) (see Trapezohedron)\n\nBULLET::::- Tridecagonal pyramid (13 triangles, 1 regular tridecagon) (see Pyramid (geometry))\n\nBULLET::::- Dissected regular icosahedron (the vertex figure of the grand antiprism) (12 equilateral triangles and 2 trapezoids)\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagonal truncated trapezohedron: (12 pentagons, 2 hexagons)Includes an optimal space-filling shape in foams (see Weaire–Phelan structure) and in the crystal structure of Clathrate hydrate (see illustration, next to label 56)\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagonal bifrustum (12 trapezoids, 2 hexagons)\n", "Section::::Regular and Laves tilings.\n\nThe 3 regular and 8 semiregular Lave tilings are shown, with yellow triangles, red quadrilaterals, cyan pentagons, and green hexagons.\n\nSection::::Regular and Laves tilings.:Insets of Dual Planigons into Higher Degree Vertices.\n\nBULLET::::- A degree-six vertex can be replaced by a center regular hexagon and six edges emanating thereof;\n\nBULLET::::- A degree-twelve vertex can be replaced by six deltoids (a center deltoidal hexagon) and twelve edges emanating thereof;\n", "Another common method of creating a polygonal mesh is by connecting together various primitives, which are predefined polygonal meshes created by the modeling environment. Common primitives include:\n\nBULLET::::- Cubes\n\nBULLET::::- Pyramids\n\nBULLET::::- Cylinders\n\nBULLET::::- 2D primitives, such as squares, triangles, and disks\n\nBULLET::::- Specialized or esoteric primitives, such as the Utah Teapot or Suzanne, Blender's monkey mascot.\n\nBULLET::::- Spheres - Spheres are commonly represented in one of two ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Icospheres are icosahedrons which possess a sufficient number of triangles to resemble a sphere.\n", "BULLET::::- analyzes a 1510 sketch by Dürer of the same solid, from which he confirms Schreiber's hypothesis that the shape has a circumsphere but with rhombus angles of approximately 79.5°.\n", "There are 257 topologically distinct \"convex\" octahedra, excluding mirror images. More specifically there are 2, 11, 42, 74, 76, 38, 14 for octahedra with 6 to 12 vertices respectively. (Two polyhedra are \"topologically distinct\" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)\n\nSome better known irregular octahedra include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagonal prism: Two faces are parallel regular hexagons; six squares link corresponding pairs of hexagon edges.\n", "BULLET::::- Dodecagram – {12/5}\n\n\"m\" and \"n\" must be coprime, or the figure will degenerate.\n\nThe degenerate regular stars of up to 12 sides are:\n\nBULLET::::- Tetragon – {4/2}\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagons – {6/2}, {6/3}\n\nBULLET::::- Octagons – {8/2}, {8/4}\n\nBULLET::::- Enneagon – {9/3}\n\nBULLET::::- Decagons – {10/2}, {10/4}, and {10/5}\n\nBULLET::::- Dodecagons – {12/2}, {12/3}, {12/4}, and {12/6}\n\nDepending on the precise derivation of the Schläfli symbol, opinions differ as to the nature of the degenerate figure. For example, {6/2} may be treated in either of two ways:\n", "Deeper truncations of the regular dodecagon and dodecagrams can produce isogonal (vertex-transitive) intermediate star polygon forms with equal spaced vertices and two edge lengths. A truncated hexagon is a dodecagon, t{6}={12}. A quasitruncated hexagon, inverted as {6/5}, is a dodecagram: t{6/5}={12/5}.\n\nSection::::Examples in use.\n\nIn block capitals, the letters E, H and X (and I in a slab serif font) have dodecagonal outlines. A cross is a dodecagon, as is the logo for the Chevrolet automobile division.\n", "Common ice crystals are symmetrical and have a hexagonal pattern.\n\nSection::::Geometry.:Square crystals.\n\nSquare ice crystals form at room temperature when squeezed between two layers of graphene. The material is a new crystalline phase of ice, joining 17 others. The research derived from the earlier discovery that water vapor and liquid water could pass through laminated sheets of graphene oxide, unlike smaller molecules such as helium. The effect is thought to be driven by the van der Waals force, which may involve more than 10,000 atmospheres of pressure.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Snow\n\nBULLET::::- Snowflake\n\nBULLET::::- Ice spike\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond dust\n", "One such regular tetrahedron has a volume of of that of the cube. The remaining space consists of four equal irregular tetrahedra with a volume of of that of the cube, each.\n\nThe rectified cube is the cuboctahedron. If smaller corners are cut off we get a polyhedron with six octagonal faces and eight triangular ones. In particular we can get regular octagons (truncated cube). The rhombicuboctahedron is obtained by cutting off both corners and edges to the correct amount.\n", "The simplest liquid crystalline phase that is formed by spherical micelles is the 'micellar cubic', denoted by the symbol I. This is a highly viscous, optically isotropic phase in which the micelles are arranged on a cubic lattice. At higher amphiphile concentrations the micelles fuse to form cylindrical aggregates of indefinite length, and these cylinders are arranged on a long-ranged hexagonal lattice. This lyotropic liquid crystalline phase is known as the 'hexagonal phase', or more specifically the 'normal topology' hexagonal phase and is generally denoted by the symbol H.\n", "BULLET::::- UV spheres are composed of quads, and resemble the grid seen on some globes - quads are larger near the \"equator\" of the sphere and smaller near the \"poles,\" eventually terminating in a single vertex.\n", "Ice approximates hexagonal symmetry in most of its atmospheric manifestations of a crystal lattice as snow. Temperature and vapor pressure determine the growth of the hexagonal crystal lattice in different forms that include columnar growth in the axis perpendicular to the hexagonal plane to form snow crystals. Ukichiro Nakaya developed a crystal morphology diagram, relating crystal shape to the temperature and moisture conditions under which they formed. Magono and Lee devised a classification of freshly formed snow crystals that includes 80 distinct shapes. They are summarized in the following principal snow crystal categories (with symbol):\n", "When projected onto a sphere (see right), it can be seen that the edges make up the edges of an octahedron and cube arranged in their dual positions. It can also be seen that the threefold corners and the fourfold corners can be made to have the same distance to the center. In that case the resulting icositetrahedron will no longer have a rhombicuboctahedron for a dual, since for the rhombicuboctahedron the centers of its squares and its triangles are at different distances from the center.\n", "At the scale of living cells, foam patterns are common; radiolarians, sponge spicules, silicoflagellate exoskeletons and the calcite skeleton of a sea urchin, \"Cidaris rugosa\", all resemble mineral casts of Plateau foam boundaries. The skeleton of the Radiolarian, \"Aulonia hexagona\", a beautiful marine form drawn by Ernst Haeckel, looks as if it is a sphere composed wholly of hexagons, but this is mathematically impossible. The Euler characteristic states that for any convex polyhedron, the number of faces plus the number of vertices (corners) equals the number of edges plus two. A result of this formula is that any closed polyhedron of hexagons has to include exactly 12 pentagons, like a soccer ball, Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome, or fullerene molecule. This can be visualised by noting that a mesh of hexagons is flat like a sheet of chicken wire, but each pentagon that is added forces the mesh to bend (there are fewer corners, so the mesh is pulled in).\n", "Section::::Trigonal pyramidal geometry in ammonia.\n", "There are 2 regular complex apeirogons, sharing the vertices of the hexagonal tiling. Regular complex apeirogons have vertices and edges, where edges can contain 2 or more vertices. Regular apeirogons \"p\"{\"q\"}\"r\" are constrained by: 1/\"p\" + 2/\"q\" + 1/\"r\" = 1. Edges have \"p\" vertices, and vertex figures are \"r\"-gonal.\n\nThe first is made of 2-edges, three around every vertex, second has hexagonal edges, three around every vertex. A third complex apeirogon, sharing the same vertices, is quasiregular, which alternates 2-edges and 6-edges.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagonal lattice\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb\n\nBULLET::::- Tilings of regular polygons\n", "Hexagonal layered polymeric nitrogen (HLP-N) is the third form of polymeric nitrogen found stable under pressure and was experimentally synthesized at 244 GPa and 3300 K. It adopts a tetragonal unit cell (\"P\"4\"bc\") in which the single-bonded nitrogen atoms form two layers of interconnected N hexagons. It was found to be metastable down to at least 66 GPa.\n\nSection::::Crystal structure.:Linear N.\n", "The runcitruncated 5-cell or prismatorhombated pentachoron is composed of 60 vertices, 150 edges, 120 faces, and 30 cells. The cells are: 5 truncated tetrahedra, 10 hexagonal prisms, 10 triangular prisms, and 5 cuboctahedra. Each vertex is surrounded by five cells: one truncated tetrahedron, two hexagonal prisms, one triangular prism, and one cuboctahedron; the vertex figure is a rectangular pyramid.\n\nSection::::Runcitruncated 5-cell.:Alternative names.\n\nBULLET::::- Runcitruncated pentachoron\n\nBULLET::::- Runcitruncated 4-simplex\n\nBULLET::::- Diprismatodispentachoron\n\nBULLET::::- Prismatorhombated pentachoron (Acronym: prip) (Jonathan Bowers)\n\nSection::::Runcitruncated 5-cell.:Coordinates.\n\nThe Cartesian coordinates of an origin-centered runcitruncated 5-cell having edge length 2 are:\n", "It could also be seen as a \"folded tetrahedron\" also seeing pairs of end triangles as a folded rhombus. It would have 8 vertices, 10 edges, and 4 faces.\n\nSection::::Cartesian coordinates.\n\nThe Cartesian coordinates of the 8 vertices of an \"elongated octahedron\", elongated in the x-axis, with edge length 2 are:\n\nThe 2 extra vertices of the deltahedral variation are: \n\nSection::::Related polyhedra and honeycombs.\n\nIn the special case, where the trapezoid faces are squares or rectangles, the pairs of triangles becoming coplanar and the polyhedron's geometry is more specifically a right rhombic prism.\n", "The height \"h\" of an {\"n\"/\"d\"}-cupola or cuploid is given by the formula\n\nformula_1. In particular, \"h\" = 0 at the limits of \"n\"/\"d\" = 6 and \"n\"/\"d\" = 6/5, and \"h\" is maximized at \"n\"/\"d\" = 2 (the triangular prism, where the triangles are upright).\n", "An anticupola can't be constructed with all regular faces, although some can be made regular. If the top \"n\"-gon and triangles are regular, the base 2\"n\"-gon can not be planar and regular. In such a case, \"n\"=6 generates a regular hexagon and surrounding equilateral triangles of a snub hexagonal tiling, which can be closed into a zero volume polygon with the base a symmetric 12-gon shaped like a larger hexagon, having adjacent pairs of colinear edges.\n\nTwo anticupola can be augmented together on their base as a bianticupola.\n\nSection::::Hypercupolae.\n", "There are 2 regular complex apeirogons, sharing the vertices of the trihexagonal tiling. Regular complex apeirogons have vertices and edges, where edges can contain 2 or more vertices. Regular apeirogons \"p\"{\"q\"}\"r\" are constrained by: 1/\"p\" + 2/\"q\" + 1/\"r\" = 1. Edges have \"p\" vertices arranged like a regular polygon, and vertex figures are \"r\"-gonal.\n\nThe first is made of triangular edges, two around every vertex, second has hexagonal edges, two around every vertex.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Percolation threshold\n\nBULLET::::- Star of David\n\nBULLET::::- Trihexagonal prismatic honeycomb\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclotruncated simplectic honeycomb\n\nBULLET::::- List of uniform tilings\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Star cupolae exist for all bases {\"n\"/\"d\"} where / < / < 6 and \"d\" is odd. At the limits the cupolae collapse into plane figures: beyond the limits the triangles and squares can no longer span the distance between the two polygons. When \"d\" is even, the bottom base {2\"n\"/\"d\"} becomes degenerate: we can form a \"cuploid\" or \"semicupola\" by withdrawing this degenerate face and instead letting the triangles and squares connect to each other here. In particular, the tetrahemihexahedron may be seen as a {3/2}-cuploid. The cupolae are all orientable, while the cuploids are all nonorientable. When \"n\"/\"d\" 2 in a cuploid, the triangles and squares do not cover the entire base, and a small membrane is left in the base that simply covers empty space. Hence the {5/2} and {7/2} cuploids pictured above have membranes (not filled in), while the {5/4} and {7/4} cuploids pictured above do not.\n", "BULLET::::- Heptagonal pyramid: One face is a heptagon (usually regular), and the remaining seven faces are triangles (usually isosceles). It is not possible for all triangular faces to be equilateral.\n\nBULLET::::- Truncated tetrahedron: The four faces from the tetrahedron are truncated to become regular hexagons, and there are four more equilateral triangle faces where each tetrahedron vertex was truncated.\n\nBULLET::::- Tetragonal trapezohedron: The eight faces are congruent kites.\n\nSection::::Octahedra in the physical world.\n\nSection::::Octahedra in the physical world.:Octahedra in nature.\n\nBULLET::::- Natural crystals of diamond, alum or fluorite are commonly octahedral, as the space-filling tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb.\n" ]	[ "H2O molecules are the same in both frozen boiling water states." ]	[ "H2O molecules move much more slowly in cold water than in hot water." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "H2O molecules are the same in both frozen boiling water states.", "H2O molecules are the same in both frozen boiling water states." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "H2O molecules move much more slowly in cold water than in hot water.", "H2O molecules move much more slowly in cold water than in hot water." ]
2018-02674	How can sulfur hexafluoride stay in someone’s lungs, but co2 doesn’t even though they are both more dense than air?	I hope another commenter corrects if I'm mistaken, but I would think that Sulfur hexafluoride CAN stay in your lungs, but doesn't automatically stay there like it's stuck. It takes more effort to get it out because it's very heavy, but I've seen videos of people inhaling it so clearly they're able to get it out too, maybe with some extra effort. It's also way heavier than CO2. Sulphur hexafluoride is gonna be Sulphur and six Flourines. I'm too lazy to look up the weight of that but it is a hell of a lot heavier than a carbon and two oxygens.	[ "Section::::Physiological effects and precautions.\n\nLike xenon, sulfur hexafluoride is a non-toxic gas, yet by displacing oxygen in the lungs, it also carries the risk of asphyxia if too much is inhaled. Being more dense than air, if a substantial quantity of gas is released it will settle in low-lying areas and present a significant risk of asphyxiation if the area is entered. This is particularly relevant to its use as an insulator in electrical equipment where workers may be in trenches or pits below equipment containing .\n", "BULLET::::- For entertainment purposes, when breathed, causes the voice to become significantly deeper, due to its density being so much higher than air, as seen in this video, here. This is related to the more well-known effect of breathing low-density helium, which causes someone's voice to become much higher. Both of these effects should only be attempted with caution as these gases displace oxygen that the lungs are attempting to extract from the air. Sulfur hexafluoride is also mildly anesthetic.\n", "BULLET::::- For science demonstrations / magic as \"invisible water\" since a light foil boat can be floated in a tank, as will an air filled balloon\n\nSection::::Greenhouse gas.\n", "When catalysed by chlorine atoms and oxidised by nitrogen oxides the end product is HCOF which can decompose further to HF and CO.\n\nThe halflife in air is between 140 and 180 days.\n\nWhen inhaled by rats, 1,2-difluoroethane is converted to fluoroacetate using cytochrome P450 and then to fluorocitrate both toxic. 100 parts per million in the atmosphere was sufficient to poison rats in 30 minutes and to kill them in four hours. 1,2-Difluoroethane is likely to be similarly toxic to humans.\n\nSection::::Control.\n", "It was shown that in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension due to congenital heart diseases the level of homocysteine is higher and the level of endogenous sulfur dioxide is lower than in normal control children. Moreover, these biochemical parameters strongly correlated to the severity of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Authors considered homocysteine to be one of useful biochemical markers of disease severity and sulfur dioxide metabolism to be one of potential therapeutic targets in those patients.\n", "This requires certain physical properties such as respiratory gas solubility, density, viscosity, vapor pressure, and lipid solubility which some, but not all, perfluorochemicals (perfluorocarbon) have. Thus, it is critical to choose the appropriate PFC for a specific biomedical application, such as liquid ventilation, drug delivery or blood substitutes. The physical properties of PFC liquids vary substantially; however, the one common property is their high solubility for respiratory gases. In fact, these liquids carry more oxygen and carbon dioxide than blood.\n", "It was shown that in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension due to congenital heart diseases the level of homocysteine is higher and the level of endogenous sulfur dioxide is lower than in normal control children. Moreover, these biochemical parameters strongly correlated to the severity of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Authors considered homocysteine to be one of useful biochemical markers of disease severity and sulfur dioxide metabolism to be one of potential therapeutic targets in those patients.\n", "The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO) in healthy alveoli is known. It is equal to its concentration in arterial blood since CO rapidly equilibrates across the alveolar–capillary membrane. The quantity of CO exhaled from the healthy alveoli will be diluted by the air in the conducting airways and by air from alveoli that are poorly perfused. This dilution factor can be calculated once the CO in the exhaled breath is determined (either by electronically monitoring the exhaled breath or by collecting the exhaled breath in a gas impermeant bag (a Douglas bag) and then measuring the mixed gas in the collection bag). Algebraically, this dilution factor will give us the physiological dead space as calculated by the Bohr equation:\n", "Section::::Derivation.\n\nWhen a sample of blood is exposed to air, either in the alveoli of the lung or in an \"in vitro\" laboratory experiment, carbon dioxide in the air rapidly enters into equilibrium with carbon dioxide derivatives and other species in the aqueous solution. Figure 1 illustrates the most important equilibrium reactions of carbon dioxide in blood relating to acid-base physiology:\n", "Perfluoroalkanes do not bioaccumulate; those used in medical procedures are rapidly excreted from the body, primarily via expiration with the rate of excretion as a function of the vapour pressure; the half-life for octafluoropropane is less than 2 minutes, compared to about a week for perfluorodecalin.\n\nLow-boiling perfluoroalkanes are potent greenhouse gases, in part due to their very long atmospheric lifetime, and their use is covered by the Kyoto Protocol.\n", "Even though the surface tension can be greatly reduced by pulmonary surfactant, this effect will depend on the surfactant's concentration on the interface. The interface concentration has a saturation limit, which depends on temperature and mixture composition. Because during ventilation there is a variation of the lung surface area, the surfactant's interface concentration is not usually at the level of saturation. The surface increases during inspiration, which consequently opens space for new surfactant molecules to be recruited to the interface. Meanwhile, at the expiration the surface area decreases, the layer of surfactant is squeezed, bringing the surfactant molecules closer to each other and further decreasing the surface tension.\n", "Oxygen has a very low solubility in water, and is therefore carried in the blood loosely combined with hemoglobin. The oxygen is held on the hemoglobin by four ferrous iron-containing heme groups per hemoglobin molecule. When all the heme groups carry one O molecule each the blood is said to be “saturated” with oxygen, and no further increase in the partial pressure of oxygen will meaningfully increase the oxygen concentration of the blood. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO) in the plasma. However the conversion of dissolved CO into HCO (through the addition of water) is too slow for the rate at which the blood circulates through the tissues on the one hand, and through alveolar capillaries on the other. The reaction is therefore catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme inside the red blood cells. The reaction can go in both directions depending on the prevailing partial pressure of CO. A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried on the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecules as carbamino groups. The total concentration of carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO, and carbamino groups) in arterial blood (i.e. after it has equilibrated with the alveolar air) is about 26 mM (or 58 ml/100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml/100 ml blood).\n", "At the surface one quarter of the volume of an exhaled breath is discharged. As the ambient pressure increases with depth, the volume of the inner counterlumg is reduced and the reduced discharge both provides an oxygen addition more closely matched to usage, and saves a considerable amount of gas.\n", "The CO then reduces the NO into molecular nitrogen:\n\nHot tertiary air is then added to oxidize the remaining CO.\n\nSection::::Cement kiln emissions.:Sulfur dioxide (SO).\n", "BULLET::::- Acrolein\n\nBULLET::::- Diphenylcyanoarsine\n\nPhosgene is the most dangerous commonly used pulmonary agent (although disulfur decafluoride and perfluoroisobutene are both even more dangerous, with respectively 4 and 10 times the lethality of phosgene, neither is widely used). It is a colorless gas under ordinary conditions. It has a vapor density 3.4 times greater than that of air, allowing it to remain low in the air for long periods of times. Phosgene leads to massive pulmonary edema, which reaches maximum symptoms in 12 hours after exposure, followed by death within 24 to 48 hours.\n", "Sulfur hexafluoride has an anesthetic potency slightly lower than nitrous oxide.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Selenium hexafluoride\n\nBULLET::::- Tellurium hexafluoride\n\nBULLET::::- Hypervalent molecule\n\nBULLET::::- Process for Measuring the Degradation of Sulfur Hexafluoride in High-voltage Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Halocarbon—another group of major greenhouse gases\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. \"Inorganic Chemistry\" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. .\n\nBULLET::::- SF Reduction Partnership for Electric Power Systems\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Fluoride and compounds fact sheet— National Pollutant Inventory\n\nBULLET::::- High GWP Gases and Climate Change from the U.S. EPA website\n\nBULLET::::- International Conference on SF and the Environment (related archive)\n", "As with all gases, the density of affects the resonance frequencies of the vocal tract, thus changing drastically the vocal sound qualities, or timbre, of those who inhale it. It does not affect the vibrations of the vocal folds. The density of sulfur hexafluoride is relatively high at room temperature and pressure due to the gas's large molar mass. Unlike helium, which has a molar mass of about 4 grams/mol and gives the voice a childish and a \"chipmunk like\" quality, has a molar mass of about 146 g/mol, and the speed of sound through the gas is about 134 m/s at room temperature, giving the voice a \"demonic\" quality when is inhaled. For comparison, the molar mass of air, which is about 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen, is approximately 30 g/mol which leads to a speed of sound of 343 m/s.\n", "SP molecules contribute to increase the surfactant interface adsorption kinetics, when the concentration is below the saturation level. They also make weak bonds with the surfactant molecules at the interface and hold them longer there when the interface is compressed. Therefore, during ventilation, surface tension is usually lower than at equilibrium. Therefore, the surface tension varies according to the volume of air in the lungs, which protects them from atelectasis at low volumes and tissue damage at high volume levels.\n\nSection::::Production and degradation.\n", "If PFC liquid is not maintained in the lung, PLV can not effectively protect the lung from biophysical forces associated with the gas ventilator.\n\nNew application modes for PFC have been developed.\n", "Mixtures with air of the gas 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane are not flammable at atmospheric pressure and temperatures up to 100 °C (212 °F). However, mixtures with high concentrations of air at elevated pressure and/or temperature can be ignited. Contact of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane with flames or hot surfaces in excess of 250 °C (482 °F) may cause vapor decomposition and the emission of toxic gases including hydrogen fluoride and carbonyl fluoride. 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane itself has an of 1,500 g/m in rats, making it relatively non-toxic, apart from the dangers inherent to inhalant abuse. Its gaseous form is denser than air and will displace air in the lungs. This can result in asphyxiation if excessively inhaled. This is what contributes to most deaths by inhalant abuse.\n", "Sulfur hexafluoride was the tracer gas used in the first roadway air dispersion model calibration; this research program was sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and conducted in Sunnyvale, California on U.S. Highway 101. Gaseous is used as a tracer gas in short-term experiments of ventilation efficiency in buildings and indoor enclosures, and for determining infiltration rates. Two major factors recommend its use: its concentration can be measured with satisfactory accuracy at very low concentrations, and the Earth's atmosphere has a negligible concentration of .\n", "Metabolism rapidly generates a large quantity of volatile acid (HCO) and nonvolatile acid. The metabolism of fats and carbohydrates leads to the formation of a large amount of CO. The CO combines with HO to form carbonic acid (HCO). The lungs normally excrete the volatile fraction through ventilation, and acid accumulation does not occur. A significant alteration in ventilation that affects elimination of CO can cause a respiratory acid-base disorder. The \"Pa\"CO is maintained within a range of 35–45 mm Hg in normal states.\n", "As of 1994, limited information existed on the acute toxicity of carbonyl sulfide in humans and in animals. High concentrations (1000 ppm) can cause sudden collapse, convulsions, and death from respiratory paralysis. Occasional fatalities have been reported, practically without local irritation or olfactory warning. In tests with rats, 50% animals died when exposed to of COS for 90 minutes, or at for 9 minutes. Limited studies with laboratory animals also suggest that continued inhalation of low concentrations (~50 ppm for up to 12 weeks) does not affect the lungs or the heart.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"hypoxic\" mixes, strictly, contain less than 21% oxygen, although often a boundary of 16% is used, and are designed only to be breathed at depth as a \"bottom gas\" where the higher pressure increases the partial pressure of oxygen to a safe level. Trimix, Heliox and Heliair are gas blends commonly used for hypoxic mixes and are used in professional and technical diving as deep breathing gases.\n", "However, this equation is confusing as it reflects primarily the Bohr effect. The significance of this equation lies in realizing that oxygenation of Hb promotes dissociation of H from Hb, which shifts the bicarbonate buffer equilibrium towards CO formation; therefore, CO is released from RBCs.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nIn patients with lung disease, lungs may not be able to increase alveolar ventilation in the face of increased amounts of dissolved CO.\n" ]	[ "If sulfur hexafluoride stays in the lungs, C02 should as well due to it being more dense than sulfur hexafluoride." ]	[ "While hexafluoride is known to get caught in the lungs, it doesn't stay indefinitely, it just takes a little more effort to remove." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If sulfur hexafluoride stays in the lungs, C02 should as well due to it being more dense than sulfur hexafluoride.", "If sulfur hexafluoride stays in the lungs, C02 should as well due to it being more dense than sulfur hexafluoride." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "While hexafluoride is known to get caught in the lungs, it doesn't stay indefinitely, it just takes a little more effort to remove.", "While hexafluoride is known to get caught in the lungs, it doesn't stay indefinitely, it just takes a little more effort to remove." ]
2018-09521	If the Tienanmen executions really happened, how come the only footage we have is of tanks avoiding tank man, and not the mass murderings of the students?	Personal camcorders were still pretty rare in 1989 in the United States. In China, a personally owned (ie not government or government controlled media) camcorder was rare in the extreme. The regime cracked down EXTREMELY hard on anyone known to possess a video recording device both during and after the event. It's hard for many of the the current generations to envision such an environment now especially since there are literally cameras every 10 feet in Tienanmen square currently. Also, make no mistake, Tank Man was never seen again and died in a prison camp. If you so much as draw a picture of anything small standing in front of / blocking the path anything large now, you will receive attention you do not want.	[ "\"Let me recount some instances occurring in the last two days. Last night the house of one of the Chinese staff members of the university was broken into and two of the women, his relatives, were raped. Two girls, about 16, were raped to death in one of the refugee camps. In the University Middle School where there are 8,000 people the Japs came in ten times last night, over the wall, stole food, clothing, and raped until they were satisfied. They bayoneted one little boy of eight who have [sic] five bayonet wounds including one that penetrated his stomach, a portion of omentum was outside the abdomen. I think he will live.\" \n", "Let me recount some instances occurring in the last two days. Last night the house of one of the Chinese staff members of the university was broken into and two of the women, his relatives, were raped. Two girls, about 16, were raped to death in one of the refugee camps. In the University Middle School where there are 8,000 people the Japs came in ten times last night, over the wall, stole food, clothing, and raped until they were satisfied. They bayoneted one little boy of eight who [had] five bayonet wounds including one that penetrated his stomach, a portion of omentum was outside the abdomen. I think he will live. \n", "In the book, which centres around a \"detailed reconstruction of the Tiananmen Square massacre on June 3 and 4, 1989,\" the author examines the confusion of, and mistakes made by, the Chinese authorities, as well as the role of the \"Tank Man\", the student who famously stood his ground in front of a column of four approaching army tanks.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Although the National Defense University does not have its own website, according to the concluding film credits, the specific individuals responsible for the film were the National Defense University's Political Commissar Liu Yazhou, and its president Wang Xibin. \"As such, the film appears to offer a remarkably straightforward glimpse into the Cold War mind-set of the Chinese military leadership, as well as the deep suspicions of the United States festering inside one of the most influential institutions in the Chinese political system,\" wrote the New York Times.\n", "In a \"FRONTLINE\" segment, four students from Peking University are seemingly unable to identify the context of the infamous Tank Man photo from the 1989 unrest sparked by Peking University students, though possibly, the students were feigning ignorance so as not to upset the party official who was monitoring the interview with clipboard in hand. The segment implied that the subject is not addressed in Chinese schools.\n", "As a key witness during the investigation in the late-May, the Chief Intelligence Officer of 158 Division, Lieutenant Colonel Lai Xu (徐萊), mysteriously disappeared after a supervision task over night patrol and checkpoints, same to another non-commissioned officer at post within a week. Their bodies were never found.\n", "Several organizers and student activist remain missing, including Yue Xin and Zhang Shangye.\n\nSection::::Reactions.\n\nInternational human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have condemned the Chinese government's response to the Jasic protesters and has called for the release of all detainees involved in the demonstrations.\n", "Reported arrest and casualty figures differ greatly. Selth states that about 2,900 people were arrested but does not mention any fatalities. Maung cites students' accounts that the army killed so many students that \"the blood of the dead students flowed in a river on campus and when it congealed, it was taken in bags and pockets by the people\". Robert Taylor, in contrast, claims that \"no-one was killed and few injured\".\n", "It was reported at the time that Duan Qirui personally went to the square where the massacre took place and knelt at the site in front of the dead bodies of the protesters.\n", "After reading the 2003 Korean translation of \"The Bridge at No Gun Ri\", a book by Charles J. Hanley, Sang-Hun Choe and Martha Mendoza, Associated Press journalists who confirmed the massacre, executive producer Lee Eun of Myung Films was determined to tell the story on the screen. Additional background came from \"Do You Know Our Sorrow?\", a 1994 Korean-language book by Chung Eun-yong, whose two children were killed at No Gun Ri.\n", "Chen had long served as a lecturer for the faculty of computer science at the university. While HUT was not well known when Chen first enrolled, by 2011, HUT had become the second most highly ranked university in Anhui province, next only to the University of Science and Technology of China, and joined the list of the Project 211 \"elite universities\". Chen spent his entire career at HUT, with the exception of a short stint in 2010 on secondment to Southeast University in Nanjing.\n", "Section::::Synopsis.\n\nChen Guang, a military photographer at the time of the 1989 student protests, tells of the events leading up to the aftermath. A Chinese soldier, he was tasked with capturing the crackdown. Lim uses soldiers’ recollections to show the events from their perspective, including Chen’s memory of the ground floor of the Great Hall of the People \"turned into a makeshift hospital\" and his conflicting feelings when he saw it.\n", "There is no reliable information about the identity or fate of the man; the story of what happened to the tank crew is also unknown. At least one witness has stated that \"Tank Man\" was not the only person who had opposed the tanks during the protest. Shao Jiang, who was a student leader, said: \"I witnessed a lot of the people standing up, blocking the tanks.\" Tank Man is unique in that he is the only one who was photographed and recorded on video.\n\nSection::::Incident.\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n\n\"The Gate of Heavenly Peace\" sparked controversy before it had even been completed. The film was part of a growing debate over the history of 1989; according to an article that appeared in \"The New York Times\" on April 30, 1995, “a central question for many in the student movement, and for some historians, is whether moderation gave way to extremism during those six weeks and whether the more radical student leaders spurned opportunities to declare victory by ending the demonstrations and preserving, perhaps, the reformist trend that was still a prominent feature of the Chinese leadership.\"\n", "In the Battle of Zaoyi where NRA forces was one-sidedly slaughtered by advancing IJA, Yao Shangwu was dragged away from Zhang Zizhong, and the latter was killed. He was buried in full honors for his effort. He returned home, to find his village ravaged by Japanese Army's assault, massacring all except a mute villager, and his wife and baby killed. He was found by Liang Shan and her unit, when they go to the village. He joined the unit afterwards.\n", "\"Three days after his death, a military official told Ms. Chen and her husband, Yan Tao Chen, that investigators had not yet determined whether the shot to the head was self-inflicted or fired by someone else.\n\nBut the official also revealed, the Chens said, that Private Chen had been subjected to physical abuse and ethnic slurs by superiors, who one night dragged him out of bed and across the floor when he failed to turn off a water heater after showering.\" The military did not provide much information to the parents while they were conducting their investigation.\n", "Wong witnessed the Tank Man incident and discredits the Wang Weilin identity claim. In 1994, she learned from a Chinese journalist that Xinhua failed to find the man, who Xinhua wanted to use as an example of China's restraint during the crackdown. Wong argues that the other forgotten hero of the Tank Man incident was the driver of the lead tank, who did in fact \"exercise extraordinary restraint\".\n", "Brigade Commander Zhong was sentenced to 1 year and 10 months for abetting murder; Battalion Commander Major Liu was sentenced to 1 year and 10 months for being an accomplice to murder; WPN and 3rd Company commanders, Captain Li and Captain Zhang, both were sentenced to 1 year and 8 months for murder - but all the sentences were commuted with a probation period of 3 years, therefore none of the convicted field commanders was required to spend a day in jail until later under heavy pressure from the international society and media. Their later regular retirement and pension plans were not affected.\n", "BULLET::::- Simon Chesterman, Nd 1991, Chinese Language Exchange Program — Dean and law professor at the National University of Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- Liu Liqun, BA 1972, German Studies — researcher at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, director of China Institute for European Studies, director and secretary of China Institute for German Studies\n\nBULLET::::- Liu Yueqin, BA 1974-1978, Arabic Studies — researcher at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences\n", "The Chinese government has made few statements about the incident or the people involved. In a 1990 interview with Barbara Walters, then-CPC General Secretary Jiang Zemin was asked what became of the man. Jiang first stated (through an interpreter), \"I can't confirm whether this young man you mentioned was arrested or not,\" and then replied in English, \"I think never killed\". The government also argued that the incident evidenced the \"humanity\" of the country's military.\n", "In addition to the photography, video footage of the scene was recorded and transmitted across the globe. Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) cameraman Willie Phua, CNN cameraman Jonathan Schaer and NBC cameraman Tony Wasserman appear to be the only television cameramen who captured the scene. ABC correspondents Max Uechtritz and Peter Cave were the journalists reporting from the balcony.\n\nAfter seeing Chinese tanks crush vehicles and people on June 3, many journalists and photographers believed the protests had already reached their peak, causing many to leave the area before the \"tank man\" incident occurred.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "With all the intellectuals gone, and the revolution still going on, most schools were closed for at least four years. When Leys tried to visit the universities, he was not granted access to the lectures or teaching material they were using. In secondary schools, students were made to do farm work and were not getting the necessary education. By destroying the history of China, the Maoist government has moved to an age of totalitarian dictatorship and made the younger generation have a loss of culture.\n", "The film also targets Chinese intellectuals and scholars, including Mao Yushi, a liberal economist who has been awarded the Milton Friedman Prize for Advancing Liberty, He Weifang, a well-known professor of law at Peking University, and Xia Yeliang, a former college professor who was forced into exile.\n\nSection::::U.S.-led Conspiracy.:The CIA's 'Ten Commandments'.\n", "It has been suggested that the \"Unknown Rebel\", if still alive, never made himself known as he is unaware of his international recognition due to Chinese media suppression of events relating to government protest.\n\nAt and after the events in the square, the PSB treated members of the international press roughly, confiscating and destroying all the film they could find, and forced the signing of confessions to offences such as photography during martial law, punishable by long imprisonment.\n\nSection::::Photographic versions.\n", "BULLET::::- Yan Mingfu：Chairman Mao Zedong's translator, former Minister of CPC Central Committee United Front Work Department, former Vice Chairman of the CPC Central Committee, former Vice Minister of Civil Affairs, the former president of China Charity Federation\n\nBULLET::::- Zhang Jinshu：Chairman Mao Zedong's Translator\n\nBULLET::::- Zhang Lian：Former Ambassador in Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Guan Hengguang：First Ambassador to Uzbekistan, former the Ambassador in Lithuania\n\nBULLET::::- Li Fenglin：Former Ambassador in Russia\n\nBULLET::::- Pan Zhanlin：Former Chinese Ambassador to Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, Yugoslavia and Israel, now the Tenth CPPCC National Committee\n\nBULLET::::- Wang Ganghua：Former ambassador in Ecuador\n\nBULLET::::- Zhang Dake：Former ambassador in Yugoslavia\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02066	How does an unborn fetus/baby breathe while in the womb?	They don't. They live off the oxygen they receive from their mothers through the umbilical cord. While in the womb, their lungs are full of amniotic fluid. In the period leading up to their birth, they begin to practice breathing by taking in and pushing out this fluid.	[ "At birth, the baby's lungs are filled with fluid secreted by the lungs and are not inflated. After birth the infant's central nervous system reacts to the sudden change in temperature and environment. This triggers the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery. Before birth, the lungs are filled with fetal lung fluid. After the first breath, the fluid is quickly absorbed into the body or exhaled. The resistance in the lung's blood vessels decreases giving an increased surface area for gas exchange, and the lungs begin to breathe spontaneously. This accompanies other changes which result in an increased amount of blood entering the lung tissues.\n", "Section::::Respiratory.\n", "Pregnancy tends to increase ventilation (lowering plasma carbon dioxide tension below normal values). This is due to increased progesterone levels and results in enhanced gas exchange in the placenta.\n\nSection::::Control of respiratory rhythm.:Feedback control.\n\nReceptors play important roles in the regulation of respiration and include the central and peripheral chemoreceptors, and pulmonary stretch receptors, a type of mechanoreceptor.\n\nBULLET::::- Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system, located on the ventrolateral medullary surface, are sensitive to the pH of their environment.\n", "In humans, the fetal stage commences at the beginning of the ninth week, fertilisation age or eleventh week gestational age. At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is typically about in length from crown-rump, and weighs about 8 grams. The head makes up nearly half of the size of the fetus. Breathing-like movements of the fetus are necessary for the stimulation of lung development, rather than for obtaining oxygen. The heart, hands, feet, brain and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation. The genitalia of the fetus starts to form and placenta becomes fully functional during week 9.\n", "The circulatory system of the mother is not directly connected to that of the fetus, so the placenta functions as the respiratory center for the fetus as well as a site of filtration for plasma nutrients and wastes. Water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and inorganic salts freely diffuse across the placenta along with oxygen. The uterine arteries carry blood to the placenta, and the blood permeates the sponge-like material there. Oxygen then diffuses from the placenta to the chorionic villus, an alveolus-like structure, where it is then carried to the umbilical vein.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Before birth.\n", "In embryonic development, the lungs begin to develop as an outpouching of the foregut, a tube which goes on to form the upper part of the digestive system. When the lungs are formed the fetus is held in the fluid-filled amniotic sac and so they do not function to breathe. Blood is also diverted from the lungs through the ductus arteriosus. At birth however, air begins to pass through the lungs, and the diversionary duct closes, so that the lungs can begin to respire. The lungs only fully develop in early childhood.\n\nSection::::Structure of the human lungs.\n", "Section::::Development.:After birth.\n", "In addition to differences in circulation, the developing fetus also employs a different type of oxygen transport molecule in its hemoglobin from that when it is born and breathing its own oxygen. Fetal hemoglobin enhances the fetus' ability to draw oxygen from the placenta. Its oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve is shifted to the left, meaning that it is able to absorb oxygen at lower concentrations than adult hemoglobin. This enables fetal hemoglobin to absorb oxygen from adult hemoglobin in the placenta, where the oxygen pressure is lower than at the lungs. Until around six months' old, the human infant's hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha and two gamma chains (2α2γ). The gamma chains are gradually replaced by beta chains until the molecule becomes hemoglobin A with its two alpha and two beta chains (2α2β).\n", "With the first breath after birth, the system changes suddenly. Pulmonary resistance is reduced dramatically, prompting more blood to move into the pulmonary arteries from the right atrium and ventricle of the heart and less to flow through the \"foramen ovale\" into the left atrium. The blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, producing an increase in pressure that pushes the \"septum primum\" against the \"septum secundum\", closing the \"foramen ovale\" and completing the separation of the newborn's circulatory system into the standard left and right sides. Thereafter, the \"foramen ovale\" is known as the \"fossa ovalis\".\n", "Section::::Reproductive system.:Placental mammals.:Male placental mammals.:Birth.\n\nOnce the fetus is sufficiently developing, chemical signals start the process of birth, which begins with contractions of the uterus and the dilation of the cervix. The fetus then descends to the cervix, where it is pushed out into the vagina, and eventually out of the female. The newborn, which is called an infant in humans, should typically begin respiration on its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta is passed as well.\n\nSection::::Reproductive system.:Monotremes.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nThe core concept behind fetal circulation is that fetal hemoglobin (HbF) has a higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin, which allows a diffusion of oxygen from the mother's circulatory system to the fetus.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Blood pressure.\n\nIt is the fetal heart and not the mother's heart that builds up the fetal blood pressure to drive its blood through the fetal circulation.\n\nIntracardiac pressure remains identical between the right and left ventricles of the human fetus.\n", "Enormous changes take place in the newborn's circulation to enable breathing in air. In the uterus, the unborn baby is dependent on circulation of blood through the placenta for sustenance including gaseous exchange and the unborn baby's blood bypasses the lungs by flowing through the foramen ovale, which is a hole in the septum dividing the right atrium and left atrium. After birth the umbilical cord is clamped and cut, the baby starts to breathe air, and blood from the right ventricle starts to flow to the lungs for gaseous exchange and oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium, which is pumped into the left ventricle, and then pumped into the main arterial system. As result of these changes, the blood pressure in the left atrium exceeds the pressure in the right atrium, and this pressure difference forces the foramen ovale to close separating the left and right sides of the heart. The umbilical vein, umbilical arteries, ductus venosus and ductus arteriosus are not needed for life in air and in time these vessels become ligaments (embryonic remnants).\n", "At birth, when the infant breathes for the first time, there is a decrease in the resistance in the pulmonary vasculature, which causes the pressure in the left atrium to increase relative to the pressure in the right atrium. This leads to the closure of the foramen ovale, which is then referred to as the fossa ovalis. Additionally, the increase in the concentration of oxygen in the blood leads to a decrease in prostaglandins, causing closure of the ductus arteriosus. These closures prevent blood from bypassing pulmonary circulation, and therefore allow the neonate's blood to become oxygenated in the newly operational lungs.\n", "Swallowed amniotic fluid (in later stages of development) creates urine and contributes to the formation of meconium. Amniotic fluid protects the developing baby by cushioning against blows to the mother's abdomen, allowing for easier fetal movement and promoting muscular/skeletal development. Amniotic fluid swallowed by the fetus helps in the formation of the gastrointestinal tract. Contrary to popular belief, amniotic fluid has not been conclusively shown to be inhaled and exhaled by the fetus. In fact, studies from the 1970s show that in a healthy fetus, there is no inward flow of amniotic fluid into the airway. Instead, lung development occurs as a result of the production of fetal lung fluid which expands the lungs. It also prevents the fetus from mechanical jerks and shocks. The fetus, which develops within a fluid-filled amniotic sac, relies on the placenta for respiratory gas exchange rather than the lungs. While not involved in fetal oxygenation, nevertheless have an important role in lung growth and in development of respiratory muscles and neural regulation. FBM are regulated differently in many respects than postnatal respiration, which results from the unique intrauterine environment...At birth, the transition to continuous postnatal respiration involves a fall in temperature, gaseous distention of the lungs, activation of the Hering-Breuer reflexes, and functional connectivity of afferent O2 chemoreceptor activity with respiratory motoneurons and arousal centers. \n", "and their appearance around the seventh month marks the point at which limited respiration would be possible, and the premature baby could survive.\n\nSection::::Development.:Vitamin A deficiency.\n", "The fluid is absorbed through the fetal tissue and skin. After the 15th-25th week of pregnancy when the keratinization of an embryo's skin occurs, the fluid is primarily absorbed by the fetal gut.\n\nSection::::Development.:Contents.\n\nAt first, amniotic fluid is mainly water with electrolytes, but by about the 12-14th week the liquid also contains proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and phospholipids, and urea, all of which aid in the growth of the fetus.\n\nSection::::Development.:Volume.\n", "For fetuses at high risk for developing coarctation, a novel experimental treatment approach is being investigated, wherein the mother inhales 45% oxygen three times a day (3 x 3–4 hours) beyond 34 weeks of gestation. The oxygen is transferred via the placenta to the fetus and results in dilatation of the fetal lung vessels. As a consequence, the flow of blood through the fetal circulatory system increases, including that through the underdeveloped arch. In suitable fetuses, marked increases in aortic arch dimensions have been observed over treatment periods of about two to three weeks.\n", "Section::::Process.:Birth.\n\nOnce the fetus is sufficiently developed, chemical signals begin the process of birth, which begins with the fetus being pushed out of the birthing canal. The newborn, which is called an infant in humans, should typically begin respiration on its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta eventually falls off on its own. The person assisting the birth may also sever the umbilical cord.\n\nSection::::Process.:Parental care.\n", "Section::::Changes in neonatal care.:Respiratory care.\n", "Physiology: Upon birth, the newborn's lungs become the center for gas exchange. There are a variety of factors that influence newborn respiratory functions; these factors include chemical, mechanical, thermal, and sensory. Respirations begin when fetal aortic and carotid chemoreceptors are stimulated by the varying concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide. During vaginal birth, the newborn's chest is compressed by the birth canal. Upon delivery, negative pressure allows air into the lungs. The first cries of the infant allow for alveoli expansion and absorption of fetal lung fluid. Temperature changes and other sensory stimulation contributes to respiratory function as well. \n", "The amniotic fluid allows the free movements of the fetus during the later stages of pregnancy, and also protects it by diminishing the risk of injury from without. It contains less than two percent solids, consisting of urea and other extractives, inorganic salts, a small amount of protein, and frequently a trace of sugar. That some of the liquor amnii is swallowed by the fetus is proved by the fact that epidermal debris and hairs have been found among the contents of the fetal alimentary canal.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "A fetus receives oxygen not from its lungs, but from the mother's oxygen-rich blood via the placenta. Oxygenated blood from the placenta travels through the umbilical cord to the right atrium of the fetal heart. As the fetal lungs are non-functional at this time, the blood bypasses them through two cardiac shunts. The first is the foramen ovale which shunts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium. The second is the ductus arteriosus which shunts blood from the pulmonary artery (which, after birth, carries blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs) to the descending aorta.\n", "The reproductive system consists of the gonads and the internal and external sex organs. The reproductive system produces gametes in each sex, a mechanism for their combination, and in the female a nurturing environment for the first 9 months of development of the infant.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Systems.:Respiratory system.\n", "BULLET::::- The cochleae are now developed, though the myelin sheaths in neural portion of the auditory system will continue to develop until 18 months after birth.\n\nBULLET::::- The respiratory system, while immature, has developed to the point where gas exchange is possible.\n\nSection::::Changes by weeks of gestation.:Changes by weeks of gestation.:Week 31.\n\nGestational age: 30 weeks old.\n\nEmbryonic age: Week nr 29. 28 weeks old.\n\nBULLET::::- The fetus reaches a length of about .\n\nBULLET::::- The fetus weighs about .\n\nBULLET::::- The amount of body fat rapidly increases.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhythmic breathing movements occur, but lungs are not fully mature.\n", "The volume of amniotic fluid increases with the growth of fetus. From the 10th to the 20th week it increases from 25ml to 400ml approximately. Approximately in the 10th-11th week the breathing and swallowing of the fetus slightly decrease the amount of fluid, but neither urination nor swallowing contributes significantly to fluid quantity changes, until the 25th week, when keratinization of skin is complete. Then the relationship between fluid and fetal growth stops. It reaches a plateau of 800ml by the 28-week gestational age. The amount of fluid declines to roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks. There is about 500 cc to1L of amniotic fluid at birth.\n" ]	[ "Unborn fetus needs to breathe." ]	[ "They do not breathe they get oxygen from the umbilical cord. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Unborn fetus needs to breathe." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They do not breathe they get oxygen from the umbilical cord. " ]
2018-15356	Why can the sound volume of commercials on internet TV be double the actual show's volume?	The commercials are allowed to be as loud as the shows. That means if the show has a gunshot, or an explosion, or a big dramatic music swell, then the commercial is allowed to be as loud as that. Thing is, the loudest sound in the show lasts for a few seconds at most, whereas the volume in the commercial is as high as that for the whole 30 seconds.	[ "Most television commercials are heavily compressed (typically to a dynamic range of no more than 3 dB) to achieve near-maximum perceived loudness while staying within permissible limits. This causes a problem that TV viewers often notice: when a station switches from minimally compressed program material to a heavily compressed commercial, the volume sometimes seems to increase dramatically. Peak loudness might be the same—meeting the letter of the law—but high compression puts much more of the audio in the commercial at close to the maximum allowable, making the commercial seem much louder.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Over-usage.\n", "The subject of controlling loudness in television broadcasts has garnered considerable publicity since the FCC moved to implement enforcement of the Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation or CALM Act on December 13, 2012. While consumer complaints about overly loud television commercials are almost as old as the medium itself, the CALM Act began as legislation was first sponsored by Representative Anna Eshoo, a Democratic congresswoman in California, in 2008. The law was passed in 2010 and went into full effect in 2011 and 2012.\n", "But loudness jumps are not limited to inter-channel differences; they also exist between programme material within the same channel. Loudness differences are a frequent source of audience complaints, especially TV commercials and promos that seem too loud. Complicating this is that many broadcasters use (quasi-)peak meters and peak-levelling. Unfortunately the peak level reading does not correlate well with the perceived loudness. It basically should only be used to prevent overmodulation.\n", "Farley also has a number of advertising credits, including Lloyds TSB, Lynx, Gordon’s Gin and Galaxy. For his efforts, in 2013 he was nominated for the “Best Original Composition in Cinema in advertising” and the following year he was a winner at the Music and Sound awards for “Best Original Composition in TV Advertising” and “Best Original Composition in Cinema Advertising” as well as receiving a nomination for the “Best Sync - re-recording”.\n", "On May 27, 2011, the FCC released a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM), Media Bureau (MB) Docket 11-93, to implement the CALM Act. Twelve parties filed comments, which are now available in the FCC's Electronic Comment Filing System (ECFS).\n\nThe FCC adopted its rules on December 13, 2011, and they took effect on December 13, 2012. Television viewers are asked to report loud commercials that violate this bill to the FCC.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- FCC's Loud Commercials Page\n\nBULLET::::- ATSC Recommended Practice A/85 – Techniques for Establishing and Maintaining Audio Loudness for Digital Television\n", "In response to consumer complaints about loud commercials, in December 2010, the Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act or the CALM Act was signed into federal law. It directs the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to prescribe a regulation limiting the volume of television advertisements transmitted by a television broadcast station, cable operator, or other multichannel video programming distributor. The act requires the FCC to prescribe regulations consistent with ATSC A/85, and its successors. The FCC has not yet issued rules to implement the act.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Dolby Laboratories All About Audio Metadata\n\nBULLET::::- A/53: ATSC Digital Television Standard\n", "No specific penalties are given; those are to be set by the FCC in its regulations. A TV broadcaster or distributor is \"in compliance\" if it installs and uses suitable equipment and software. Unlike some FCC regulations, cable system operators are subject to the rule in addition to broadcast stations.\n\nAfter issuing regulations, the FCC began enforcing those regulations on December 13, 2012, after a one-year grace period.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "As was alluded to above, the use of compressors to boost perceived volume is a favorite trick of broadcasters who want their station to sound \"louder\" at the same volume than comparable stations on the dial. The effect is to make the more heavily compressed station \"jump out\" at the listener at a given volume setting.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "As with DivoCodec, false .avi are easily spotted because of the duration of the file, usually lying at 10–12 seconds, of which one can conclude that there is no chance that that file may be a film/TV series, despite the size of the file. This is not always the case however, as many distributors have recently begun falsifying the file meta data to display normal durations and file sizes.\n\nSection::::Clones.:x3 player.\n", "BULLET::::- Veritas Ultrasound HD – Instead of a tiny monitor, the ultrasound is displayed on a widescreen HD television. It even has options to display a football helmet on the fetus (for dads-to-be missing a Sunday football because they're accompanying the wife to see the ultrasound).\n\nBULLET::::- Verizon 4G LTE — Customer Fred Armisen is left confused by salesperson Bill Hader's bizarre explanations of how Verizon's high-speed data service will work on a very wide variety of smart devices.\n\nSection::::W.\n", "Section::::70mm Split Surround.\n\nEncoding Map\n\nDecoding Map\n", "BULLET::::- FMLP2 2W FM exciter with optional limiter/stereo encoder\n\nBULLET::::- FM10 10W FM exciter with optional limiter/stereo encoder\n\nBULLET::::- FM25 17W FM exciter with optional limiter/stereo encoder\n\nBULLET::::- FM30 30W FM exciter with optional limiter/stereo encoder\n\nBULLET::::- TX400 Radio link transmitter with optional limiter/stereo encoder\n\nBULLET::::- RX400 Radio link receiver (Mk1 and Mk2 versions)\n\nBULLET::::- PA125 125W FM amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- PA250 250W FM amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- TAConn RS232 remote control for RDS TA flag switching\n\nBULLET::::- MicLim Microphone limiter based on the MaXiM limiter\n", "It is generally acknowledged that speech to text is possible, though recently Thomas Wilde, the new CEO of Everyzing, acknowledged that Everyzing works 70% of the time when there is music, ambient noise or more than one person speaking. If newscast style speaking (one person, speaking clearly, no ambient noise) is available, that can rise to 93%. (From the Web Video Summit, San Jose, CA, June 27, 2007).\n", "The bill was the United States Senate companion to proposed legislation in the House of Representatives by Representative Anna Eshoo (D-Calif), a member of the Energy and Commerce Committee. She wrote the bill after a loud commercial interrupted a family dinner. After asking her brother-in-law to turn down the volume, he allegedly said, \"Well, you’re the congresswoman. Why don’t you do something about it?\". According to Eshoo, no one turned her down when she looked for supporters to the bill, and it passed the Communications Subcommittee. The technical requirements for measuring loudness were taken entirely from a formerly voluntary \"recommended practice\" issued by the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) on November 4, 2009. Eshoo told the \"Wall Street Journal\" that legislation to mitigate the volume of commercials on TV was among the most popular pieces of legislation she has sponsored in her 18 years in Congress.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Section::::Background.:Second Circuit appeal.\n", "Television advertising, once seen as the mainstay of media advertising, is facing numerous challenges from alternative media, especially interactive and social media. Technological innovations, especially the advent of ad blocking and zapping, has eroded TV's immediacy and relevance for some audiences.\n\nSection::::Types of advertising media.:Radio advertising.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Prior to adjourning for the midterm recess, the United States Senate unanimously passed the bill on September 30, 2010. Before it was signed into law in December, minor differences between the two versions had to be worked out when Congress returned to Washington after the November 2 election. The reconciled bill was signed into law by President Barack Obama on December 15, 2010, as Public Law 111-311.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act\n\nThe Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act (/) (CALM Act) requires the U.S. Federal Communications Commission to bar the audio of TV commercials from being broadcast louder than the TV program material they accompany by requiring all \"multichannel video programming\" distributors to implement the \"Techniques for Establishing and Maintaining Audio Loudness for Digital Television\" issued by the international industry group Advanced Television Systems Committee. The final bill was passed on September 29, 2010.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n" ]	[ "The sound volume of commercials on Internet TV is is double the show's actual volume.", "Commercials volumes can be double the shows volume. " ]	[ "The volume of commercials on Internet TV seems much louder than the show because companies are allowed to to make commercials as loud as the loudest sound in the show, no matter how shortlived that loud sound is.", "Commercial volume can only be as loud as the loudest volume of the show." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The sound volume of commercials on Internet TV is is double the show's actual volume.", "Commercials volumes can be double the shows volume. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The volume of commercials on Internet TV seems much louder than the show because companies are allowed to to make commercials as loud as the loudest sound in the show, no matter how shortlived that loud sound is.", "Commercial volume can only be as loud as the loudest volume of the show." ]
2018-15733	why phones (and othet stuff) havr an expandable memory *up to" a certain amount.	SD cards may look the same, but actually use different "languages" to enable higher speeds and larger capacities. The dashcam is compatible with SDHC cards (SD high capacity) which go up to 32GB. Larger cards are SDXC (SD eXtended capacity) which again, is the same physical size/appearance but technically a different type of memory card. The phone is either newer or more expensive, which allowed SDXC capability to be included in it.	[ "The device is split into two main areas. At the beginning of the device is the metadata section, which consists of a root block, and a generic array of blocks that can be allocated to store metadata. The rest of the device is another contiguous generic array of blocks that can be allocated to store data. The metadata section usually uses a few percent of the device, depending on the size of the device.\n", "All of the above functions are supported by the OMA DM specification, and a device may optionally implement all or a subset of these features. Since OMA DM specification is aimed at mobile devices, it is designed with sensitivity to the following:\n\nBULLET::::- small footprint devices, where memory and storage space may be limited\n\nBULLET::::- constraint on bandwidth of communication, such as in wireless connectivity\n\nBULLET::::- tight security, as the devices are vulnerable to software attacks; authentication and challenges are made part of the specifications\n\nSection::::Technical description.\n", "BULLET::::- To remain competitive, original equipment manufacturers frequently change mobile phone form factors, operating system file structures, data storage, services, peripherals, and even pin connectors and cables. As a result, forensic examiners must use a different forensic process compared to computer forensics.\n\nBULLET::::- Storage capacity continues to grow thanks to demand for more powerful \"mini computer\" type devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Not only the types of data but also the way mobile devices are used constantly evolve.\n\nBULLET::::- Hibernation behaviour in which processes are suspended when the device is powered off or idle but at the same time, remaining active.\n", "These limits arise from the combination of the 6845 and the design of the external memory connected to it, not from the 6845 alone. The number of unique addresses that the 6845 can address is limited (to 512*1024), but the amount of memory that the 6845 can address is theoretically unlimited, because the 6845 imposes no limit on the size of each memory location that it addresses.\n", "Research has also been carried out on the use of data reduction in wearable (wireless) devices for health monitoring and diagnosis applications. For example, in the context of epilepsy diagnosis, data reduction has been used to increase the battery lifetime of a wearable EEG device by selecting, and only transmitting, EEG data that is relevant for diagnosis and discarding background activity.\n\nSection::::Best practices.\n\nThese are common techniques used in data reduction.\n\nBULLET::::- Order by some aspect of size.\n\nBULLET::::- Table diagonalization, whereby rows and columns of tables are re-arranged to make patterns easier to see (refer to the diagram).\n", "BULLET::::2. \"The phone keeps track of the 'Network connection time,' which is 'the elapsed time from the moment [the user] connect[s] to [the] service provider's network to the moment [the user] end[s] the call by pressing [the end key].'\" The court used this as evidence that the phone performs logical and arithmetic operations when placing calls.\n\nBULLET::::3. \"The phone stores sets of characters that are available to a user when typing a message.\" The court used this as evidence that the phone performs storage functions.\n", "In electronic terms, using bits (binary digits), this means that even if we have \"n\" one-bit adders at our disposal, we still have to allow a time proportional to \"n\" to allow a possible carry to propagate from one end of the number to the other. Until we have done this, \n\nBULLET::::1. We do not know the result of the addition.\n\nBULLET::::2. We do not know whether the result of the addition is larger or smaller than a given number (for instance, we do not know whether it is positive or negative).\n", "Telecommunications service providers have responded to the increasing use of these devices and applications with new business practices, selling their services to customers on the basis of monthly data volumes. Consequently, they no longer need to store information surrounding individual communications to accurately bill customers. Some providers only retain the details of the amount of data sent for their billing purposes.\n", "The phenomenon of chunking as a memory mechanism is easily observed in the way individuals group numbers, and information, in the day-to-day life. For example, when recalling a number such as 12101946, if numbers are grouped as 12, 10 and 1946, a mnemonic is created for this number as a day, month and year. It would be stored as December 10th, 1946 instead of a string of numbers. Similarly, another illustration of the limited capacity of working memory as suggested by George Miller can be seen from the following example: While recalling a mobile phone number such as 9849523450, we might break this into 98 495 234 50. Thus, instead of remembering 10 separate digits that is beyond the \"seven plus-or-minus two\" memory span, we are remembering four groups of numbers.\n", "In July 2017, Google described a new security effort called \"peer grouping\", in which apps performing similar functionalities, such as calculator apps, are grouped together and attributes compared. If one app stands out, such as requesting more device permissions than others in the same group, Google's systems automatically flag the app and security engineers take a closer inspection. Peer grouping is based on app descriptions, metadata, and statistics such as download count.\n\nSection::::Application security.:Security issues.\n", "Desktop computers that use tower cases can easily swap parts such as hard drives, memory, and graphics cards. Among early mobile devices, the Handspring Visor PDA had a Springboard Expansion Slot which could give it the capabilities such as a phone, GPS, a modem, or a camera - but only one at a time. The Israeli startup Modu created a phone and screen core that could be added to various cases that gave the device features such as a keyboard or camera; the company failed and sold its patents to Google in 2011.\n", "BULLET::::1. With internal storage, the contents of the smaller object are stored inside the larger object.\n\nBULLET::::2. With external storage, the smaller objects are allocated in their own location, and the larger object only stores references to them.\n", "The \"device tree\" is the inverse of the chunk tree, and has \"device extent items\" which provide a reverse mapping from byte-ranges of block devices back to logical chunks by storing the device number in the left hand 64-bits and physical offset in the right-hand 64 bits of they key. \n\nThese two trees together allow Btrfs to grow, shrink and even change RAID levels without unmounting because they make it possible to efficiently locate the chunks affected by shrink/move operations and then relocate their contents on-the-fly.\n", "The Court of Appeals acknowledged that the language of 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(1) is \"exceedingly broad\", and that a \"basic cellular phone might not easily fit within the colloquial definition of computer.\" However, the court stated that it was bound \"not by the common understanding of that word, but by the specific--if broad--definition set forth in § 1030(e)(1).\" The court left the potential for correcting the statute as a matter for the United States Sentencing Commission or for Congress to address.\n", "Section::::Models of capacity limits.\n\nSection::::Models of capacity limits.:Slot models.\n", "Strictly speaking, many so-called mobile devices are not mobile. It is the host that is mobile, i.e., a mobile human host carries a non-mobile smartphone device. An example of a true mobile computing device, where the device itself is mobile, is a robot. Another example is an autonomous vehicle. There are three basic ways mobile devices can be physically bound to mobile hosts: accompanied, surface-mounted or embedded into the fabric of a host, e.g., an embedded controller embedded in a host device. Accompanied refers to an object being loosely bound and accompanying a mobile host, e.g., a smartphone can be carried in a bag or pocket but can easily be misplaced. Hence, mobile hosts with embedded devices such as an autonomous vehicle can appear larger than pocket-sized.\n", "BULLET::::- Without knowing the extent of an array, it is not possible to unallocate that memory when it is no longer needed. Thus, without dope vectors, something must store that length somewhere else. For example, asking a particular OS to allocate space for a 3200-byte array, might cause it to allocate 3204 bytes at some location M; it would then store the size in the first 4 bytes, and tell the requesting program the allocated space starts at M+4 (so that the caller will not treat the extra 4 bytes as part of the array proper). This extra data is not considered a dope vector, but achieves some of the same goals.\n", "As stated earlier, the most common size of mobile computing device is pocket-sized that can be hand-held, but other sizes for mobile devices exist, too. Mark Weiser, known as the father of ubiquitous computing, computing everywhere, referred to device sizes that are tab-sized, pad and board sized, where \"tabs\" are defined as accompanied or wearable centimetre-sized devices, e.g. smartphones, and \"pads\" are defined as hand-held decimetre-sized devices, e.g., laptops. If one changes the form of the mobile devices in terms of being non-planar, one can also have skin devices and tiny dust-sized devices. \"Dust\" refers to miniaturised devices without direct HCI interfaces, e.g., micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), ranging from nanometres through micrometers to millimetres. See also Smart dust. \"Skin\": fabrics based upon light emitting and conductive polymers and organic computer devices. These can be formed into more flexible non-planar display surfaces and products such as clothes and curtains, see OLED display. Also see smart device.\n", "BULLET::::- Smartphone: a device that combines a full-featured mobile phone with handheld computer functions as well as GPS (global positioning system). Example: iPhone, BlackBerry\n\nSection::::Electronic external memory aids.:The Google effect.\n", "If the phone does not recognize a word it then stores the word as an optional choice. When the memory space is filled the phone deletes the oldest word to make space for the new word.\n\nSection::::Comparison with T9.\n", "Device name length in MME is restricted to 31 characters so long device names may appear only partially.\n\nSection::::Multimedia Extensions (MME).:Issues.\n", "Analog signals are continuously variable, both in the number of possible values of the signal \"at\" a given time, as well as in the number of points in the signal \"in\" a given period of time. However, digital signals are discrete in both of those respects – generally a finite sequence of integers – therefore a digitization can, in practical terms, only ever be an approximation of the signal it represents.\n\nDigitization occurs in two parts:\n", "In general the person and his or her doctor must apply for access to the investigational product, the company has to choose to cooperate, and the medicines regulatory agency needs to agree that the risks and possible benefits of the drug or device are understood well enough to determine if putting the person at risk has sufficient potential benefit. In some countries the government will pay for the drug or device, but in many countries the person must pay for the drug or device, as well as medical services necessary to receive it.\n", "Section::::The concept.:Buffered population growth.\n", "In response to the argument that a cell phone has a much larger storage capacity than any item that Diaz could have carried on his person, the Court asserted that there was no evidence that Diaz's phone had a significant storage capacity. Even if it did have a large storage capacity, the Court reasoned, the size of an item shouldn't be relevant in the sense that it would make it increasingly difficult for law enforcement to uphold the law when such distinctions in container size could be made.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "All memory expansion is the same kind of data" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Memory expansion cards can use different computer languages that allow some of them to hold more data" ]
2018-02901	The Price is Right did NOT give away 215,000 possible dollars today, so who gets to keep it?	There are a few possibilities here: 1) The production company is fronting the cash, and just keeps it when nobody wins. Shows with wealthy backers and relatively small proze pools do this. 2) The production company is using some form of sweepstakes insurance, paying a regular premium and the small prizes themselves and treating the occasional major prize giveaways as unexpected insurance losses. Car dealers and businesses running goofy promos do this a lot. 3) The production company doesn't have the cash on hand, and the prize is actually an annuity they're paying over many years or a greatly reduced lump sum. Many lotteries do this. I don't know specifically what The Price is Right does, but it will be some mix of the above options.	[ "Decades of Dollars was drawn Monday and Thursday nights. DoD winners had a choice of 30 annual payments of $250,000 each (minus withholdings) or a lump sum of $4,000,000.\n\nEach Decades of Dollars game cost $2; players chose 6 numbers from 1 through 47.\n\nDoD prize structure:\n\nBULLET::::- Match 2 of 6: free DoD play or $2; see below°\n\nBULLET::::- Match 3 of 6: $10 cash\n\nBULLET::::- Match 4 of 6: $100 cash\n\nBULLET::::- Match 5 of 6: $10,000 cash\n\nBULLET::::- Match 6 of 6: $250,000 per year in 30 installments or $4,000,000 cash\n", "The Green Hornet Mustang was later owned by Barrett-Jackson Chairman and CEO Craig Jackson, and went on sale at Barrett-Jackson 2013 Scottsdale auction, but the sales failed when the high bid of $1.8 million was lower than the consigner's reserve price. In Nerve Center episode 'Barrett-Jackson Collector Car Auction', it was revealed the reserve price was $2.5 million.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "From the time the round was introduced until the series ended, the $50,000 Winner's Big Money Game was played twice. The first player to reach it was Rani White in May 1988, who won the $50,000 prize. Five months later, in October 1988, the $50,000 level was reached by Phil Cambry. However, he was unsuccessful in his attempt to win the prize.\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n", "Five lots were physical representations of famous code or algorithms, including a signed, handwritten copy of the original Hello, World! C program by its creator Brian Kernighan on dot-matrix printer paper, a printed copy of 5,000 lines of Assembly code comprising the earliest known version of Turtle Graphics, signed by its creator Hal Abelson, a necktie containing the six-line qrpff algorithm capable of decrypting content on a commercially produced DVD video disc, and a pair of drawings representing OKCupid’s original Compatibility Calculation algorithm, signed by the company founders. The qrpff lot sold for $2,500.\n", "However, Concierge eventually failed at selling Jordan’s house. Two days after the auction failed in December 2013, Jordan put his home back on the conventional real estate market, asking for $16 million (55 percent of his original $29 million asking price).\n\nIn 2012, Concierge Auctions signed NASCAR driver Joe Nemechek to sell his 139-acre horse ranch in North Carolina. The deal originally had the property go to auction with no minimum.\n", "£700,000 – What does an arctophile collect? (Answer: teddy bears) – won by Mary Swain, studio player, Series 2\n\n£1,000,000 – What was the maiden name of the former first lady Jacqueline Kennedy? (Answer: Bouvier) – won by Karen Shand, phone winner, Series 3\n\nSection::::Cancellation.\n", "If the couple successfully completed the bonus round in their first attempt, they were offered $5,000 and a choice to retire as undefeated champions or to return the next day and face another couple on the following show. If the couple chose to return and then completed the bonus round a second time, the offer increased to $10,000.\n", "BULLET::::- Block D – Amid some controversy, no licenses were sold in Block D because the reserve price was not met. The FCC had set the reserve price on the spectrum at $1.3 billion, but the highest bidder (Qualcomm) only bid $472 million. This piece of spectrum remains unsold and has not been scheduled for another auction.\n\nBULLET::::- Block E – EchoStar spent $711 million to purchase 168 of the 176 available Block E licenses. This block, made up of unpaired spectrum, will likely be used to stream television shows. Qualcomm also bought 5 licenses.\n", "The only way the game ended (besides the captain saying \"I'll stop\") was if a red or green ball splashed down. If a red ball splashed down, either by itself or with other colored balls (including the green one), the team would lose half their winnings. If the green ball splashed down without either red ball, the team's total was bumped to $50,000 on the Special, or $75,000 on the series proper (The maximum payment was $50,000 or $75,000).\n", "His family partner was his wife Casey, the girls basketball coach at Hempstead High School. Their spins did not go well for the first three rounds netting only $1,000. In the Final Spins round they fared better, accumulating $4.05 million. Ultimately they finished with $736,000 as Casey accepted the final Walk Away offer.\n\nSection::::Episodes.:Episode 5: \"Villarreal Family\".\n", "The 5/43 + 1/43 version never produced a top prize-winning ticket; the first winner under the current matrix was sold in South Carolina for the November 19, 2015 drawing. The winner, who claimed the prize anonymously under SCEL rules, was the first winner to choose cash in lieu of the annuity for the game's \"top prize\", as all previous top prize winners are receiving their winnings under the game's pre-2013 rules.\n\nSection::::Odds and prizes.\n\nA player wins a prize according to the following chart (effective January 27, 2015):\n", "On 13 April 2015, three teams from the sixth season of \"My Kitchen Rules\" (Jac and Shaz, Will and Steve, Ash and Camilla) appeared on the show with the money going to the charity of their choice. Ash and Camilla played the final round, winning $12,000 for their charity, having given away $3,000 of their safe money to Jac and Shaz who failed to pick up any safe money.\n", "Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.\n\nDue to the blackout in Episode 2, the whole cast lost $500,000, lowering the total money at the end to $500,000 instead of $1,000,000.\n\nIn Episode 9, the cast decided to take the trade offer instead of finding out if Derrick and Tyranny were a perfect match, which increased the total money at stake to $650,000\n", "BULLET::::- August 16: Florence, Kentucky\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: (none)\n\nBULLET::::- 2014:\n\nBULLET::::- October Atlanta, Georgia\n\nAll \"Decades of Dollars\" top-prize winners chose the cash option.\n\nDecades of Dollars drawings were conducted by the Georgia Lottery at WSB-TV in Atlanta (which hosts Mega Millions drawings); the ball sets and drawing machines moved to Virginia.\n", "The cash awards for the matched products were revealed and the team split the total amount won. The cash awards hidden beside the seven products included one each of $10,000, $3,000, and $2,000, and two each of $1,000 and $200.\n\nSection::::Inactive games.:P.:Poker Game.\n", "In 1995, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital received an anonymous letter postmarked in Dallas, Texas, containing a $1 million winning McDonald's Monopoly game piece. McDonald's officials came to the hospital, accompanied by a representative from the accounting firm Arthur Andersen, who examined the card under a jeweler's eyepiece, handled it with plastic gloves, and verified it as a winner. Although game rules prohibited the transfer of prizes, McDonald's waived the rule and made the annual $50,000 annuity payments for the full 20-year period through 2014, even after learning that the piece was sent by an individual involved in an embezzlement scheme intended to defraud McDonald's.\n", "As far as a front game score, a close second may belong to a man named Ian, who in 1985 won a game with a score of $170. Virginia Noel, who won a game in 1983 with a score of $155 while not letting her opponents answer any questions during Fast Money may hold third. (Ultimately, David Poltorak's record would be beaten in 1994 by Dean Sole on the New Zealand version of \"Sale of the Century\", his single-game score on 14 November 1994 being $201.)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lucky Seven\" - On a playing aired January 4, 2019, in commemoration with \"The Bold & the Beautiful\" 's 8000th episode, the player is given an extra dollar at the beginning of the game, and was still required to save at least $1 to win the game, meaning that the player can win up to $7 (up from $6) for a perfect play.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Master Key\" – During Big Money Week, cash values of $5,000, $15,000, and $30,000 were associated with the three locks instead of prizes, allowing a potential maximum of $50,000 for finding the Master Key.\n", "In November 2011, a notebook containing a checklist Lovell used to calculate a trajectory to get the damaged spacecraft, Apollo 13, back to Earth, and handwritten calculations by Lovell, was auctioned off by Heritage Auctions for $388,375. NASA made an email inquiry asking Heritage if Lovell had clear title to the notebook, stating that NASA had \"nothing to indicate\" the agency had ever transferred ownership of the checklist to Lovell. In January 2012, Heritage stated that the sale had been placed on hold after NASA launched an investigation into whether it was the astronaut's property to sell.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "There were nine S-series transactions, into which the RTC contributed more than 1,100 loans having a total book value of approximately $1 billion and a DIV of $466 million. The RTC purchase money loans, aggregating $284 million for the nine S-transactions, were all paid off within 22 months of the respective transaction closing dates (on average, the purchase money loans were retired in 16 months).\n\nSection::::Equity partnership.:Land Fund.\n", "Williams pawned his Super Bowl ring for $2,600 at the Gold & Silver Pawn Shop that is now featured on the TV series \"Pawn Stars\" and never picked it back up. Williams was offered $15,000 to sell the ring but declined. It is listed for sale at the pawn shop for $100,000.\n", "The premise for the episode, \"uncirculated new U.S. $100 bills\", is based on a true story. \"Years ago we heard the Treasury Department would be putting them out in 2011 and, when that didn’t happen, we researched their fate and thought it would make an interesting story if our NCIS team came across a hundred-dollar note before it was supposed to go public\".\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "In 2011 CBRE Group reported that they had purchased a 2006 $42.5 million mortgage in default on the Smith Tower. The loan was taken out by current owner Walton Street. When CBRE stepped in, the building was 70 percent vacant, its rent income was not covering its operating expenses, and its value was assessed by the county to be less than half of its 2006 mortgage. Smith Tower was sold to CBRE at a public foreclosure auction on March 23, 2012.\n", "For the first few episodes on which it was played, the orange player was worth only $1. It quickly became $1,000.\n", "In June 2006, the Oklahoma Lottery had its first jackpot winner when an Oklahoman won $101 million in Powerball. The Powerball drawing of June 27, 2007 produced Oklahoma's second winning jackpot ticket for the game, and the largest to date: $105.8 million (annuitized). It was bought in the Sequoyah County town of Roland. Muldrow residents Don and Joyce Harvey (a married couple that at the time were respectively 64 and 50 years old) claimed the prize on June 29, 2007; they chose the cash option, and received approximately $33.7 million after withholdings. \n" ]	[ "Someone keeps the cash that wasn't given away on The Price is Right." ]	[ "The money wasn't actually sitting somewhere waiting to be disbursed, it is an insurance policy or something similar that gets paid out when someone wins. In the event that nobody wins the policy is just not used." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Someone keeps the cash that wasn't given away on The Price is Right." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The money wasn't actually sitting somewhere waiting to be disbursed, it is an insurance policy or something similar that gets paid out when someone wins. In the event that nobody wins the policy is just not used." ]
2018-02253	How can the U.S. be trillions and trillions in debt and still function normally? Why at this point would increasing or decreasing it by another trillion even matter?	It's not the debt that so much matters but how fast we can pay it off. Once we hit a certain percentage on our Gross Debt to GDP ratio, (Somewhere around 110%), Our economy will most likely collapse. Something like Greece's economic collapse but much, much worse. It would affect the entire world since our economy matters a lot more than Greece's. (Sorry Greece.) Hopefully the 4% and growing GDP increase rate will help combat this, and if it continues to grow, we might even be able to reverse some of the debt.	[ "Section::::Valuation and measurement.\n\nSection::::Valuation and measurement.:Public and government accounts.\n\nAs of December 31, 2018, debt held by the public was $16.1 trillion and intragovernmental holdings were $5.87 trillion, for a total of $21.97 trillion. Debt held by the public was approximately 77% of GDP in 2017, ranked 43rd highest out of 207 countries. The Congressional Budget Office forecast in April 2018 that the ratio will rise to nearly 100% by 2028, perhaps higher if current policies are extended beyond their scheduled expiration date.\n", "Large budget deficits over the next 30 years are projected to drive federal debt held by the public to unprecedented levels—from 78 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2019 to 144 percent by 2049. That projection incorporates CBO’s central estimates of various factors, such as productivity growth and interest rates on federal debt. CBO’s analysis indicates that even if values for those factors differed from the agency’s projections, debt several decades from now would probably be much higher than it is today.\n\nFurthermore, under alternative scenarios:\n", "If lawmakers changed current laws to maintain certain major policies now in place—most significantly, if they prevented a cut in discretionary spending in 2020 and an increase in individual income taxes in 2026—then debt held by the public would increase even more, reaching 219 percent of GDP by 2049. By contrast, if Social Security benefits were limited to the amounts payable from revenues received by the Social Security trust funds, debt in 2049 would reach 106 percent of GDP, still well above its current level.\n", "As of June 2019, federal debt held by the public was $16.17 trillion and intragovernmental holdings were $5.86 trillion, for a total national debt of $22.03 trillion. At the end of 2018, debt held by the public was approximately 76.4% of GDP, and approximately 39% of the debt held by the public was owned by foreigners. The United States has the largest external debt in the world. In 2017, the US debt-to-GDP ratio was ranked 43rd highest out of 207 countries. The Congressional Budget Office forecast in April 2018 that debt held by the public will rise to nearly 100% of GDP by 2028, perhaps higher if current policies are extended beyond their scheduled expiration date.\n", "In 1946, the total US debt-to-GDP ratio was 150%, with two-thirds of that held by the federal government. Since 1946, the federal government's debt-to-GDP ratio has since fallen by nearly half, to 54.8% of GDP in 2009. The debt-to-GDP ratio of the financial sector, by contrast, has increased from 1.35% in 1946 to 109.5% of GDP in 2009. The ratio for households has risen nearly as much, from 15.84% of GDP to 95.4% of GDP.\n", "BULLET::::- Debt held by the public is expected to rise from 78% of GDP ($16 trillion) at the end of 2018 to 96% GDP ($29 trillion) by 2028. That would be the highest level since the end of World War Two.\n", "In the late 1940s through the early 1970s, the US and UK both reduced their debt burden by about 30% to 40% of GDP per decade by taking advantage of negative real interest rates, but there is no guarantee that government debt rates will continue to stay so low. In January 2012, the U.S. Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association unanimously recommended that government debt be allowed to auction even lower, at negative absolute interest rates.\n\nSection::::Currency and central bank.\n", "BULLET::::- Debt as a percentage of GDP: Debt held by the public ranged between 23% GDP and 50% GDP during the 1971–2007 period, then rose significantly in the wake of the financial crisis and recession, ending FY2014 at about 75% GDP. As of September 30, 2014 debt held by the public was approximately $12.8 trillion. Intra-governmental debt, such as the Social Security trust fund, was at $5.0 trillion, giving a combined public debt or national debt of $17.8 trillion or about 105% GDP. The debt-to-GDP ratio is projected to continue rising if the U.S. continues current policies.\n", "Historically, the US public debt as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The ratio of debt to GDP may decrease as a result of a government surplus or due to growth of GDP and inflation. For example, debt held by the public as a share of GDP peaked just after World War II (113% of GDP in 1945), but then fell over the following 35 years. In recent decades, aging demographics and rising healthcare costs have led to concern about the long-term sustainability of the federal government's fiscal policies. The aggregate, gross amount that Treasury can borrow is limited by the United States debt ceiling.\n", "BULLET::::- Higher debt levels imply higher interest payments, which create costs for future taxpayers (e.g., higher taxes, lower government benefits, higher inflation, or increased risk of fiscal crisis).\n\nBULLET::::- To the extent the borrowed funds are invested today to improve the long-term productivity of the economy and its workers, such as via useful infrastructure projects or education, future generations may benefit.\n", "In April 2011, International Monetary Fund said that, \"The US lacks a \"credibility strategy\" to stabilise its mounting public debt, posing a small but significant risk of a new global economic crisis.\n\nSection::::Debt.:Financial sector.\n\nIn 1946, the US financial sector owed $3 billion of debt, or 1.35% of GDP. By 2009 this had increased to $15.6 trillion, or 109.5% of GDP.\n", "BULLET::::2. The health, robustness, and sustainability of the American economy is directly tied to the production of raw materials and the price at which those raw materials first enter into commercial channels. When raw materials enter trade channels at prices in balance with the prices of labor and capital, the economy operates on an earned-income basis with no buildup of public and private debt. Conversely, when raw materials enter trade channels at less-than-parity prices with labor and capital, the economy lacks sufficient earned dollars to operate on a debt-free basis; therefore, public and private debt accumulates.\n", "Most debt owed by the US financial sector is in the form of federal government sponsored enterprise (GSE) issues and agency-backed securities. This refers to securities guaranteed and mediated by federal agencies and GSEs such as Ginnie Mae, Fannie Mae, and Freddie Mac, among others. This group also includes the mortgage pools that are used as collateral in collateralized mortgage obligations. The proportion of financial sector debt owed in the form of GSE and federally related mortgage pools has remained relatively constant – $863 million or 47% of total financial sector debt in 1946 was in such instruments; this has increased to 57% of financial sector debt in 2009, although this now represents over $8 trillion.\n", "Commenting on fiscal sustainability, former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke stated in April 2010 that \"Neither experience nor economic theory clearly indicates the threshold at which government debt begins to endanger prosperity and economic stability. But given the significant costs and risks associated with a rapidly rising federal debt, our nation should soon put in place a credible plan for reducing deficits to sustainable levels over time.\"\n\nSection::::Risks and debates.:Interest and debt service costs.\n", "Economist Paul Krugman disputes the existence of a solid debt threshold or danger level, arguing that low growth causes high debt rather than the other way around. He also points out that in Europe, Japan, and the US this has been the case. In the US the only period of debt over 90% of GDP was after World War II \"when real GDP was falling.\"\n\nFed Chair Ben Bernanke stated in April 2010:\n", "BULLET::::- 2003: 110.5% of households’ gross disposable income\n\nNon-financial corporations\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: 110.5% of GDP\n\nGovernment\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: 141.3% of GDP\n\nSection::::Levels.:United States.\n\nDollar amounts are debt owed by each sector (amounts borrowed by each sector)\n\nCredit market debt\n\nBULLET::::- 2008/Q1: $49.6 trillion (349% of GDP)\n\nHousehold sector\n\nBULLET::::- 2008/Q1: $13,959.9 billion (99% of GDP) (% of \"households’ gross disposable income\")\n\nDomestic Financial sectors\n\nBULLET::::- 2008/Q1: $15.9 trillion (112% of GDP)\n\nNonfinancial corporate business\n\nBULLET::::- 2008/Q1: $6.474 trillion (46% of GDP \"Non-financial corporations\")\n\nNonfarm noncorporate business\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: $2.241 trillion\n\nFarm business\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: $208 billion\n\nGovernment\n", "The CBO reported several types of risk factors related to rising debt levels in a July 2010 publication:\n\nBULLET::::- A growing portion of savings would go towards purchases of government debt, rather than investments in productive capital goods such as factories and computers, leading to lower output and incomes than would otherwise occur;\n\nBULLET::::- If higher marginal tax rates were used to pay rising interest costs, savings would be reduced and work would be discouraged;\n\nBULLET::::- Rising interest costs would force reductions in government programs;\n", "A significant number of economists and analysts dismiss any and all concerns over foreign holdings of United States government debt denominated in U.S. dollars, including China's holdings.\n\nSection::::Risks and debates.:Sustainability.\n\nAccording to the Government Accountability Office (GAO), the United States is on a \"fiscally unsustainable\" path because of projected future increases in Medicare and Social Security spending.\n", "Over the 2013-2022 period, the budget essentially freezes defense and non-defense discretionary spending in dollar terms, such that these categories shrink relative to a growing economy, from 8.7% GDP to 5.9% GDP. Mandatory spending (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid, Social Security, and other safety net programs) remain around 14% GDP. Net interest rises from 1.5% GDP to 3.3% GDP. Revenues rise steadily during the period from 17.8% GDP to 20.1% GDP, averaging 19.2% GDP. Debt held by the public rises from $12.6 trillion to $18.7 trillion, but remains flat around 77% GDP during the period.\n", "Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining negative real interest rates on government debt. Such low rates, outpaced by the inflation rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, pensions, or bond, money market, and balanced mutual funds are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk. Lawrence Summers, Matthew Yglesias and other economists state that at such low rates, government debt borrowing saves taxpayer money, and improves creditworthiness. In the late 1940s through the early 1970s, the US and UK both reduced their debt burden by about 30% to 40% of GDP per decade by taking advantage of negative real interest rates, but there is no guarantee that government debt rates will continue to stay so low. In January, 2012, the U.S. Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association unanimously recommended that government debt be allowed to auction even lower, at negative absolute interest rates.\n", "Economist Amir Sufi at the University of Chicago argued in July 2011 that a high level of household debt was holding back the U.S. economy. Households focused on paying down private debt are not able to consume at historical levels. He advocates mortgage write-downs and other debt-related solutions to re-invigorate the economy when household debt levels are exceptionally high. Several European countries also had high household debt levels relative to historical averages leading up to the European sovereign-debt crisis. Recent research also supports the view that excessive household leverage has contributed to the weakness in consumption.\n", "BULLET::::- CBO estimated under an alternative scenario (in which policies in place as of April 2018 are maintained beyond scheduled initiation or expiration) that deficits would be considerably higher, rising by $13.7 trillion over the 2018–2027 period, an increase of $3.6 trillion over the June 2017 baseline forecast. Maintaining current policies for example would include extending the individual Trump tax cuts past their scheduled expiration in 2025, among other changes.\n\nBULLET::::- The debt increase of $1.6 trillion represents approximately $12,700 per household (assuming 126.2 million households in 2017), while the $3.6 trillion represents $28,500 per household.\n\nSection::::Forecasting.:CBO long-term outlook.\n", "Over the long-term, the CBO projects that interest expense and mandatory spending categories (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security) will continue to grow relative to GDP, while discretionary categories (e.g., Defense and other Cabinet Departments) continue to fall relative to GDP. Debt is projected to continue rising relative to GDP under the above two scenarios, although the CBO did also offer other scenarios that involved austerity measures that would bring the debt to GDP ratio down.\n\nSection::::Risks and debates.\n\nSection::::Risks and debates.:CBO risk factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Debt held by the public is expected to rise from 78% of GDP ($16 trillion) at the end of 2018 to 96% GDP ($29 trillion) by 2028. That would be the highest level since the end of World War Two.\n", "According to Paul Krugman, \"America actually earns more from its assets abroad than it pays to foreign investors.\" Nonetheless, the country's net international investment position represents a debt of more than $9 trillion.\n\nSection::::Forecasting.\n\nSection::::Forecasting.:CBO ten-year outlook 2018–2028.\n\nThe CBO estimated the impact of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act and separate spending legislation over the 2018–2028 period in their annual \"Budget & Economic Outlook\", released in April 2018:\n" ]	[ "US cannot function with massive amounts of debt." ]	[ "US can function as long as we can keep up with paying it off so the debt does not climb to a certain amount higher than the GDP." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "US cannot function with massive amounts of debt." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "US can function as long as we can keep up with paying it off so the debt does not climb to a certain amount higher than the GDP." ]
2018-06123	Why do hot drinks taste “hotter” after eating a spice like ginger or pepper?	I'm not sure if 6-Shogaol, Zingerone, and Gingerone, the compounds in ginger responsible for the feeling of heat, work in the same was as capsaicin, but I do know how the latter works and will go off the assumption they do but to a lesser degree. How it works is by lowering the temperature threshold for the heat sensing nerves in your mouth to fire. What this means is that lower temperatures than normal will "trick" the nerves into telling your brain that you are experiencing a hot temperature. When we eat foods with capsaicin in them, whats actually happening is the heat of our own mouths is making us think that our mouth is burning! If normal body temperature is enough to make your brain think "Oh crap, whatever is in my mouth is super hot", imagine what it does for substances were actually hot in the first place.	[ "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "Section::::Former members.\n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "Section::::Activity of chemical constituents.\n\nThe main biologically active chemical component isolated from the leaves of \"P. colorata\" is polygodial. The chewed horopito leaf has a characteristically sharp, hot peppery taste. This is primarily due to polygodial which causes pungency on the tongue in concentrations as low as 0.1 µg.\n", "Hot toddy (disambiguation)\n\nHot toddy is a mixed drink, usually including alcohol, that is served hot.\n\nHot toddy may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hot Toddy\", a song by Ralph Flanagan & Herb Hendler\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hot Toddy\", a 1974 song by Nino Ferrer\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hot Tottie\", a song by Usher\n\nBULLET::::- Toddy coffee or cold brew coffee, the process of steeping coffee grounds in room temperature water for an extended period\n\nBULLET::::- Palm wine or Toddy, an alcoholic beverage created from palm tree sap\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hotty Toddy\", an Ole Miss Rebels football cheer\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors. Some such plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers, piperine from black pepper, gingerol from ginger root and allyl isothiocyanate from horseradish. The piquant (\"hot\" or \"spicy\") sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world—especially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates, such as Ethiopian, Peruvian, Hungarian, Indian, Korean, Indonesian, Lao, Malaysian, Mexican, New Mexican, Singaporean, Southwest Chinese (including Szechuan cuisine), Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\n", "Visual, olfactive, “sapictive” (the perception of tastes), trigeminal (hot, cool), mechanical, all contribute to the perception of \"taste\". Of these, transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) vanilloid receptors are responsible for the perception of heat from some molecules such as capsaicin, and a CMR1 receptor is responsible for the perception of cold from molecules such as menthol, eucalyptol, and icilin.\n\nSection::::Tissue distribution.\n", "In a recent study, 3-\"trans\"-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid was found to be the substance that compelled spicebush swallowtails to lay their eggs on members of Lauraceae. However, 3-\"trans\"-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid is a component of the extract from sassafras plants but not from spicebush, redbay or camphor tree, the other top three host plants of spicebush swallowtails. This substance is not necessarily itself the stimulant but instead activates another as yet unknown compound that thus compels the spicebush swallowtail to lay eggs. Thus, this substance may hold the link for why some spicebush swallowtails prefer to lay eggs on sassafras rather than spicebush. In addition, 3-\"trans\"-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid is a member of a family of acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, which are present in oviposition stimulants for some members of all five families of swallowtail butterflies. Hydroxycinnamic acids are also present in the extracts from host plants for two other species within the genus \"Papilio\": the black swallowtail butterfly, \"P. polyxenes\", and \"P. protenor\". Thus, hydroxycinnamic acids may help explain why many types of swallowtails choose to oviposit on the plants that they choose.\n", "The amount of capsaicin in the fruit is highly variable and dependent on genetics and environment, giving almost all types of \"Capsicum\" varied amounts of perceived heat. The most recognizable \"Capsicum\" without capsaicin is the bell pepper, a cultivar of \"Capsicum annuum\", which has a zero rating on the Scoville scale. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to a recessive gene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently, the \"hot\" taste usually associated with the rest of the \"Capsicum\" family. There are also other peppers without capsaicin, mostly within the \"Capsicum annuum\" species, such as the cultivars Giant Marconi, Yummy Sweets, Jimmy Nardello, and Italian Frying peppers (also known as the Cubanelle).\n", "Capsinoid chemicals provide the distinctive tastes in \"C. annuum\" variants. In particular, capsaicin creates a burning sensation (\"hotness\"), which in extreme cases can last for several hours after ingestion. A measurement called the Scoville scale has been created to describe the hotness of peppers and other foods.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Traditional medicine.\n\nHot peppers are used in traditional medicine as well as food in Africa. English botanist John Lindley described \"C. annuum\" in his 1838 \"Flora Medica\" thus:\n\nIn Ayurveda, \"C. annuum\" is classified as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Guna\" (properties) – \"ruksha\" (dry), \"laghu\" (light) and \"tikshna\" (sharp)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasa\" (taste) – \"katu\" (pungent)\n", "It is also used in the French recipe of mulled wine, called \"vin chaud\" (hot wine). If allowed to steep in coffee, it deepens and enriches the flavor. The pods can be used in this manner multiple times by the pot-full or cup, as the ease of extraction of the taste components increases with the permeation of hot water.\n\nSection::::Use.:Drug precursor.\n", "BULLET::::- Rubber-like – This odour descriptor is characteristic of the smell of hot tyres, rubber bands and rubber stoppers. It is not considered a negative attribute but has a characteristic strong note highly recognisable in some coffees.\n\nBULLET::::- Spicy – This aroma descriptor is typical of the odour of sweet spices such as cloves, cinnamon and allspice. Tasters are cautioned not to use this term to describe the aroma of savoury spices such as pepper, oregano and Indian spices.\n", "Once the hot water has been added, the mate is ready for drinking, and it may be refilled many times before becoming \"lavado\" (washed out) and losing its flavor. When this occurs, the mound of \"yerba\" can be pushed from one side of the gourd to the other, allowing water to be added along its opposite side; this revives the mate for additional refillings and is called \"\"reformar o/el mate\"\" (reforming the mate).\n\nSection::::Etiquette.\n", "It is very common in southernmost parts of Brazil to use red wine instead of cachaça, the primary ingredient of Quentão, since this region is the largest wine producer in Brazil.\n\nAs the name suggests, it's meant to be served hot - ideally to be served outside on social gatherings on cold nights, near a fireplace. The ginger also adds to the sensation of warmth in the drink. The gingery flavor should be very distinctive, high notes of cloves must be present also. Nutmeg is an optional ingredient, used in some recipes.\n\nSection::::Leite de Onça (Jaguar Milk).\n", "BULLET::::- Chinese style sauces such as black bean and chili.\n\nSection::::Heat.\n\nThe heat, or burning sensation, experienced when consuming hot sauce is caused by capsaicin and related capsaicinoids. The burning sensation is not \"real\" in the sense of damage being wrought on tissues. The mechanism of action is instead a chemical interaction with the neurological system.\n", "The amount of capsaicin in hot peppers varies significantly among varieties, and is measured in Scoville heat units (SHU). The world's current hottest known pepper as rated in SHU is the 'Carolina Reaper,' which had been measured at over 2,200,000 SHU.\n\nSection::::Species and varieties.:Species list.\n\nSources:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum annuum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum baccatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum campylopodium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum cardenasii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum ceratocalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum chacoense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum chinense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum coccineum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum cornutum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum dimorphum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum dusenii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum eximium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum flexuosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum friburgense\" Bianch. & Barboza\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum frutescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum galapagoense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Capsicum geminifolium\"\n", "BULLET::::- Jalapeño - These sauces include green and red jalapeño chilis, and chipotle (ripened and smoked). Green jalapeño and chipotle are usually the mildest sauces available. Red jalapeño sauce is generally hotter.\n\nBULLET::::- Naga Bhut Jolokia - The pepper is also known as Bhut Jolokia, ghost pepper, ghost chili pepper, red naga chilli, and ghost chilli. In 2007, Guinness World Records certified that the Ghost Pepper (Bhut Jolokia) was the world's hottest chili pepper, 400 times hotter than Tabasco sauce; however, in 2011 it has since been superseded by the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion.\n", "A hot toddy is a mixture of a spirit (usually whisky), hot water, and honey (or, in some recipes, sugar). In Canada, maple syrup may be used. Additional ingredients such as cloves, a lemon slice or cinnamon (in stick or ground form) are often also added. \n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "BULLET::::- Paracress (\"Acmella oleracea\") (Brazil)\n\nBULLET::::- Parsley (\"Petroselinum crispum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pepper, black, white, and green (\"Piper nigrum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pepper, Brazilian, or pink pepper (\"Schinus terebinthifolius\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pepper, Dorrigo (\"Tasmannia stipitata\") (Australia)\n\nBULLET::::- Pepper, long (\"Piper longum\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pepper, mountain, Cornish pepper leaf (\"Tasmannia lanceolata\")\n\nBULLET::::- Peppermint (\"Mentha piperata\")\n\nBULLET::::- Peppermint gum leaf (\"Eucalyptus dives\")\n\nBULLET::::- Perilla\n\nBULLET::::- \"Deulkkae (\"Perilla frutescens\" seeds)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kkaennip (\"Perilla frutescens\" leaves)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shiso\" (\"Perilla frutescens\" var. \"crispa\" leaves)\n\nBULLET::::- Peruvian pepper (\"Schinus molle\")\n\nBULLET::::- Poppy seed (\"Papaver somniferum\")\n\nSection::::Q.\n\nBULLET::::- Quassia (\"Quassia amara\"), bitter spice in aperitifs and some beers and fortified wines\n\nSection::::R.\n", "It is anecdotally said that hot peppers help people in the tropics “cool off.” This theory is consistent with the peripheral vasodilatory effect of capsaicin that has been shown to lower skin temperature in humans exposed to a hot environment. Capsaicin feels hot in the mouth because it activates sensory receptors on the tongue otherwise used to detect thermal heat. This receptor is called Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). TRPV1 receptors are also located in the gut and in other organs. Stimulation of TRPV1 receptors is known to bring about activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Capsaicin has been shown to increase fat burning in humans and animals through stimulation of the SNS.\n", "List of hot drinks\n\nThis list of hot drinks comprises hot drinks that are typically served hot. Drinks are liquids specifically prepared for human consumption.\n\nSection::::Hot drinks.\n\nSection::::Hot drinks.:India.\n\nThere are many hot beverages that originated from India that has gained popularity in many countries. For example, Chai (also known as Masala Chai), Chai from India is a spiced milk tea that has become very popular throughout the world. Coffee also became a popular hot beverage in India, especially filtered coffee.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee culture\n\nBULLET::::- Coffeehouse\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee service\n\nBULLET::::- Drinking\n\nBULLET::::- International Coffee Day\n\nBULLET::::- Tea culture\n", "BULLET::::- - Denotes chart position of 1994 \"World Carnival Mix '94\" version.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Movies, Sing-along and television.\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: \"Blame It on Rio\" ‒ with Michael Caine\n\nBULLET::::- 1988: \"Casual Sex?\" ‒ American movie soundtrack\n\nBULLET::::- 1990s: Toyota television commercials ‒ song lyrics changed from \"feeling hot hot hot\" to \"Toyota's hot hot hot\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1991-1993: \"Topa Tudo Por Dinheiro\" ‒ Brazilian television series\n\nBULLET::::- 1991-1994: \"Programa Silvio Santos\" ‒ Brazilian television series\n\nBULLET::::- 1994: \"Children's Mega Singalong Party\" (songs) - Hot Hot Hot (Children's Mega Singalong Party version On VHS: Prism Leisure Video)\n", "The word \"toddy\" comes from the toddy drink in India, produced by fermenting the sap of palm trees. Its earliest known use to mean \"a beverage made of alcoholic liquor with hot water, sugar, and spices\" is from 1786. However, a few other sources credit Robert Bentley Todd for his prescription of a hot drink of brandy, canella (white cinnamon), sugar syrup, and water.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nA cold toddy is made with rye whiskey, oranges, lemons, cinnamon sticks, ginger, Earl Grey tea, cloves, honey, and orange or regular bitters. It is served with ice and stirred until it is very cold.\n", "BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04727	Increased hesrt rate from heavy excercise builds muscle in the heart and decreases resting HR, leads to more blood being moved per pump, and overall increases hesrt health, why does is increased heart rate from caffine or other stimulants deteriorate heart health?	Because stimulatants can cause prolonged and intense strain on your heart. Imagine your heart beating as fast as when you are running but for 24hrs straight on meth. That much strain isn't good for your heart.	[ "Calcium ion levels have a great impact on heart rate and contractility: increased calcium levels cause an increase in both. High levels of calcium ions result in hypercalcemia and excessive levels can induce cardiac arrest. Drugs known as calcium channel blockers slow HR by binding to these channels and blocking or slowing the inward movement of calcium ions.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Factors influencing heart rate.:Caffeine and nicotine.\n", "O'Keefe has published papers on the CV impact of both coffee and alcohol showing evidence that supports moderate consumption of either or both substances can be potentially heart healthy. Habitual light to moderate alcohol intake (up to 1 drink per day for women and 1 or 2 drinks per day for men) is associated with decreased risks for total mortality, coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, congestive heart failure, and stroke. However, higher levels of alcohol consumption are associated with increased CV risk. Coffee consumption may reduce the risk of CV death, type 2 diabetes mellitus, suicide and Parkinson's disease.\n", "Endothelial dysfunction results in reduced compliance (increased arterial stiffness), especially in the smaller arteries. This is characteristic of patients with hypertension. However, it may be seen in normotensive patients (with normal blood pressure) before the appearance of clinical hypertension. Reduced arterial compliance is also seen in patients with diabetes and also in smokers. It is actually a part of a vicious cycle that further elevates blood pressure, aggravates atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), and leads to increased cardiovascular risk. Arterial compliance can be measured by several techniques. Most of them are invasive and are not clinically appropriate. Pulse contour analysis is a non-invasive method that allows easy measurement of arterial elasticity to identify patients at risk for cardiovascular events.\n", "The terms elastance and compliance are of particular significance in cardiovascular physiology and respiratory physiology. In compliance, an increase in volume occurs in a vessel when the pressure in that vessel is increased. The tendency of the arteries and veins to stretch in response to pressure has a large effect on perfusion and blood pressure. This physically means that blood vessels with a higher compliance deform easier than lower compliance blood vessels under the same pressure and volume conditions. \n\nVenous compliance is approximately 30 times larger than arterial compliance. \n", "Section::::Adverse effects.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Physical.\n\nCaffeine can increase blood pressure and cause vasoconstriction. Coffee and caffeine can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. Caffeine in low doses may cause weak bronchodilation for up to four hours in asthmatics. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss.\n", "BULLET::::- Aldosterone antagonist\n\nBULLET::::- Spironolactone This medication acts by inhibiting binding to mineralocorticoid receptors. This has shown positive feedback in tackling both cardiovascular and activation of the main feature of stress-related disorders. Aldosterone antagonists are usually a form of combined treatment with other cardiac medications, but it appears to induce favorable sympathovagal balance. Some side effects of Spironolactone are hyperkalemia, erectile dysfunction, lower testosterone levels, and menstrual irregularities, all of which lead to an increase in noncompliance with the medication.\n\nBULLET::::- Adrenoreceptor agonist\n", "Diltiazem has negative inotropic, chronotropic, and dromotropic effects. This means diltiazem causes a decrease in heart muscle contractility – how strong the beat is, lowering of heart rate – due to slowing of the sinoatrial node, and a slowing of conduction through the atrioventricular node – increasing the time needed for each beat. Each of these effects results in reduced oxygen consumption by the heart, reducing angina, typically unstable angina, symptoms. These effects also reduce blood pressure by causing less blood to be pumped out.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Similarly, in healthy individuals the response of the diastolic pressure to 'dynamic' exercise (e.g. walking, running or jogging) of moderate intensity is to remain constant or to fall slightly (due to the improved blood flow), but in some individuals a rise of 10 mmHg or greater is found.\n", "Baroreceptor firing has an inhibitory effect on sympathetic outflow. The sympathetic neurons fire at different rates which determines the release of norepinephrine onto cardiovascular targets. Norepinephrine constricts blood vessels to increase blood pressure. When baroreceptors are stretched (due to an increased blood pressure) their firing rate increases which in turn decreases the sympathetic outflow resulting in reduced norepinephrine and thus blood pressure. When the blood pressure is low, baroreceptor firing is reduced and this in turn results in augmented sympathetic outflow and increased norepinephrine release on the heart and blood vessels, increasing blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Effect on heart rate variability.\n", "The substance can inhibit the resorption of other drugs, as well as fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and folate, from the gut. Resulting lower blood levels can be clinically problematic with immunosuppressant and antiepileptic drugs.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n\nAdverse effects include gastrointestinal problems such as constipation, as well as vitamin and calcium deficiency. Vitamin K deficiency sometimes causes gastrointestinal bleeding.\n\nSection::::Chemistry and mechanism of action.\n", "The decrease in blood pressure shows a combination of short- and long-lasting effects. The early, acute onset took five minutes, and the effect could last for 120 minutes or longer. In addition, calciseptine had only a small effect on the heart rhythm, changing it only slightly. Furthermore, it can also relax the trachea rings in the lungs. These effects can be explained by the relaxing activity of calciseptine on various smooth muscle cells. The inhibitory effect of calciseptine results in a decreased or total disappearance of electric activity in these cells. The total inhibitory effect depends on the tissue: the cardiovascular system is the most vulnerable, while neuronal cells are less vulnerable and skeletal muscle cells are completely resistant. This difference in tissue sensitivity is probably caused by slight differences in the L-type calcium channels in these tissues. These effects can occur at low subjected amounts of 0.1 till 1 µM calciseptine. \n", "Caffeine improves muscular strength and power, and may enhance muscular endurance. Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests. Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise is associated with reduced perceived exertion. While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced. This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue. Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials, an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise.\n\nSection::::Use.:Specific populations.\n\nSection::::Use.:Specific populations.:Adults.\n", "Ictal epileptic discharges can effect changes in cardiac rhythm. An increase in heart rhythm is common during seizures. This type of epileptic seizure is known as ictal tachycardia, in which the subject's heart rate increase of more than 10 beats per minute of above the baseline. In comparison, ictal bradycardia causes epileptic discharges that disrupt the normal cardiac rhythm in a negative fashion. Slowing the heart beat down by more than 10 beats per minute below the average baseline. \n", "Aerobic condition is usually achieved through cardiovascular exercise such as running, swimming, aerobics, etc. A stronger heart does not pump more blood by beating faster but by beating more efficiently. Trained endurance athletes can have resting heart rates as low as the reported 28 beats per minute in people such as Miguel Indurain or 32 beats per minute of Lance Armstrong, both of whom were professional cyclists at the highest level.\n\nSection::::Cardiovascular conditioning.\n\nAerobic conditioning trains the heart to be more effective at pumping blood around the body, it does this in a multitude of ways:\n", "Specific aspects of therapeutics should be avoided in HFpEF to prevent the deterioration of the condition. Considerations that are generalizable to heart failure include avoidance of a fast heart rate, elevations in blood pressure, development of ischemia, and atrial fibrillation. More specific to HFpEF include avoidance of preload reduction. As patients display normal ejection fraction but reduced cardiac output they are especially sensitive to changes in preloading and may rapidly display signs of output failure. This means administration of diuretics and vasodilators must be monitored carefully.\n", "The acute effects of cannabis use in humans include a dose-dependent increase in heart rate, typically accompanied by a mild increase in blood pressure while lying down and postural hypotension - a drop in blood pressure when standing up. These effects may vary depending on the relative concentration of the many different cannabinoids that can affect the cardiovascular function, such as cannabigerol. Smoking cannabis decreases exercise tolerance. Cardiovascular effects may not lead to serious health issues for the majority of young, healthy users; on the contrary, heart attack, that is myocardial infarction, stroke, and other adverse cardiovascular events, have occurred in association with its use. Cannabis use by people with cardiovascular disease poses a health risk because it can lead to increased cardiac work, increased catecholamine levels, and impaired blood oxygen carrying capacity due to the production of carboxyhemoglobin.\n", "Effective lifestyle modification may lower blood pressure as much as an individual antihypertensive medication. Combinations of two or more lifestyle modifications can achieve even better results. There is considerable evidence that reducing dietary salt intake lowers blood pressure, but whether this translates into a reduction in mortality and cardiovascular disease remains uncertain. Estimated sodium intake ≥6g/day and <3g/day are both associated with high risk of death or major cardiovascular disease, but the association between high sodium intake and adverse outcomes is only observed in people with hypertension. Consequently, in the absence of results from randomized controlled trials, the wisdom of reducing levels of dietary salt intake below 3g/day has been questioned. ESC guidelines mention periodontitis is associated with poor cardiovascular health status.\n", "Recent work suggests that a high pulse pressure is an important risk factor for heart disease. A meta-analysis in 2000, which combined the results of several studies of 8,000 elderly patients in all, found that a 10 mm Hg increase in pulse pressure increased the risk of major cardiovascular complications and mortality by nearly 20%. Heightened pulse pressure is also a risk factor for the development of atrial fibrillation. The authors of the meta-analysis suggest that this helps to explain the apparent increase in risk sometimes associated with low diastolic pressure, and warn that some medications for high blood pressure may actually increase the pulse pressure and the risk of heart disease.\n", "Caffeine and nicotine are both stimulants of the nervous system and of the cardiac centres causing an increased heart rate. Caffeine works by increasing the rates of depolarization at the SA node, whereas nicotine stimulates the activity of the sympathetic neurons that deliver impulses to the heart. Both stimulants are legal and unregulated, and nicotine is very addictive.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Factors influencing heart rate.:Effects of stress.\n", "Section::::Interactions.:Tobacco.\n\nSmoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Birth control.\n\nBirth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Medications.\n\nCaffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for headaches. Caffeine was determined to increase the potency of some over-the-counter analgesic medications by 40%.\n\nThe pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of methylxanthines like caffeine.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n", "Reduction of blood volume by ANP can result in secondary effects such as reduction of extracellular fluid (ECF) volume (edema), improved cardiac ejection fraction with resultant improved organ perfusion, decreased blood pressure, and increased serum potassium. These effects may be blunted or negated by various counter-regulatory mechanisms operating concurrently on each of these secondary effects.\n", "Caffeine is capable of increasing work capacity while individuals perform strenuous tasks. In one study, caffeine provoked a greater maximum heart rate while a strenuous task was being performed compared to a placebo. This tendency is likely due to caffeine's ability to increase sympathetic nerve outflow. Furthermore, this study found that recovery after intense exercise was slower when caffeine was consumed prior to exercise. This finding is indicative of caffeine's tendency to inhibit parasympathetic activity in non-habitual consumers. The caffeine-stimulated increase in nerve activity is likely to evoke other physiological effects as the body attempts to maintain homeostasis.\n", "This was a successful Phase I clinical study that propagated Phase II and III studies. Results have not been released.\n\nSection::::Medical Applications.:Cardiac Repolarisation and Conduction.\n\nIn 2013, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries initiated another Phase I clinical study into “the effect of Custirsen treatment on cardiac conduction and repolarisation in healthy subjects.” The treatment group received 640mg of Custirsen intravenously against the control group which received a placebo treatment and a positive control group which received a single oral dose of 400mg Moxifloxacin. The positive control was used as a comparison of assay sensitivity.\n", "Emotions are intimately linked to heart health, which is linked to physical and mental health. In general, good mental and physical health are correlated with positive emotions and high heart rate variability (HRV) modulated by mostly high frequencies. High HRV has been correlated with increased executive functioning skills such as memory and reaction time. Biofeedback that increased HRV and shifted power toward HF (high-frequencies) has been shown to lower blood pressure On the other hand, LF (low-frequency) power in the heart is associated with sympathetic vagal activity, which is known to increase the risk of heart attack.\n", "Section::::Interpretation.:Accelerations.\n\nThe NICHD nomenclature defines an acceleration as a visually apparent abrupt increase in fetal heart rate. An abrupt increase is defined as an increase from the onset of acceleration to the peak in less than or equal to 30 seconds. To be called an acceleration, the peak must be greater than or equal to 15 bpm, and the acceleration must last greater than or equal to 15 seconds from the onset to return to baseline.\n\nA \"prolonged acceleration\" is greater than or equal to 2 minutes but less than 10 minutes in duration. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04655	How do people who make less than 10,000 dollars a year able to get a 6,000 dollar (or more) tax return?	there are tax deductions and there are tax credits. You can deduct till your blue in the face, but that wont get you below 0% tax rate. credits on the other hand are a form of govt assistance, children/dependents are probably the biggest, there are also some education credits that students can qualify for. these are effectively cash payments that can put your tax obligation below zero.	[ "Section::::Federal returns.:Amended return.\n", "In the United States, taxpayers may file an amended return with the Internal Revenue Service to correct errors reported on a previous income tax return. Typically a taxpayer does not need to file an amended return if he or she has math errors as the IRS will make the necessary corrections. For individuals, amended returns are filed using Form 1040X, Amended U.S. Individual Income Tax Return. In some cases taxpayers may use Form 1045, for example, to carry back a Net Operating Loss to a prior tax period. Form 1045 is generally processed much faster than Form 1040X.\n", "Candidates for the Registered Tax Return Preparer Test can use their online PTIN accounts at www.irs.gov/ptin to link to Prometric's online scheduling system. They can select from among 260 test locations, a date and time. A $116 non-refundable fee must be paid electronically when scheduling the appointment. The test can be taken at any time of the year except April 1-April 15, an annual black-out period. After scheduling a date, candidates will receive a confirmation email from Prometric. Candidates who are late or absent forfeit their $116 fee.\n", "A tax return provides information so that the taxation authority can check on the taxpayer's calculations, or can determine the amount of tax owed if the taxpayer is not required to calculate that amount. In contrast, an information return is a declaration by some person, such as a third party, providing economic information about one or more potential taxpayers.\n", "The first certificates for Registered Tax Return Preparers were issued in March 2012.\n\nSection::::Registered Tax Return Preparer requirements.:Exemptions from the Tax Return Preparer Requirements.\n", "Preparer Tax Identification Number\n\nThe Preparer Tax Identification Number (PTIN) is an identification number that all paid tax return preparers must use on U.S. federal tax returns or claims for refund submitted to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Anyone who, for compensation, prepares all or substantially all of any federal tax return or claim for refund must obtain a PTIN issued by the IRS.\n\nSection::::PTIN history.\n", "Section::::Registered Tax Return Preparer requirements.\n", "Section::::History of Registered Tax Return Preparers.\n", "Section::::RTRP Test scoring.\n\nA perfect score on the test is 500. A score 350 or more is required for passing. Candidates will be told at the test centers whether they passed or failed the test. Only those candidates who fail the test will be given their test scores so they can understand their areas of weakness.\n\nSection::::Scheduling the RTRP Test.\n", "Form 5330, Return of Excise Taxes Related to Employee Benefit Plans;\n\nEmployment (payroll) taxes\n\nForm 940, Employer's Annual Federal Unemployment (FUTA) Tax Return;\n\nForm 941, Employer's Quarterly Federal Tax Return;\n\nIncome taxes\n\nForm 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return;\n\nForm 1040A, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return;\n\nForm 1040EZ, Income Tax Return for Single and Joint Filers with No Dependents;\n\nForm 1041, U.S. Income Tax Return for Estates and Trusts (for 1993 and prior years, this was known as \"U.S. Fiduciary Income Tax Return\");\n", "Tax return (United States)\n\nTax returns in the United States are reports filed with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) or with the state or local tax collection agency (California Franchise Tax Board, for example) containing information used to calculate income tax or other taxes. Tax returns are generally prepared using forms prescribed by the IRS or other applicable taxing authority.\n\nSection::::Federal returns.\n", "In some countries, the tax agency provides a prefilled return to streamline the process, but the United States has failed to adopt these technologies as of 2015 after lobbying by tax preparation companies like Intuit. A similar reform was unsuccessfully attempted in California, after a pilot known as ReadyReturn.\n\nSection::::List of common forms.\n\nExamples of common Federal tax returns (and, where noted, information returns) include:\n\nTransfer taxes\n\nForm 706, U.S. Estate Tax Return;\n\nForm 709, U.S. Gift (and Generation-Skipping Transfer) Tax Return;\n\nStatutory excise taxes\n\nForm 720, Quarterly Federal Excise Tax Return;\n\nForm 2290, Heavy Vehicle Use Tax Return;\n", "According to some estimates, about three percent of taxpayers do not file tax returns at all. In the case of U.S. federal income taxes, civil penalties for willful failure to timely file returns and willful failure to timely pay taxes are based on the amount of tax due; thus, if no tax is owed, no penalties are due. The civil penalty for willful failure to timely file a return is generally equal to 5.0% of the amount of tax \"required to be shown on the return per month, up to a maximum of 25%.\n", "Filers both with and without qualifying children must have lived in the 50 states and/or District of Columbia of the United States for more than half the tax year (six months and one day). Puerto Rico, American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands, and other U.S. territories do not count in this regard. However, a person on extended military duty is considered to have met this requirement for the period of the duty served.\n", "As of 2012, the CTC was worth approximately $600 in annual tax saving. it could be retroactively filed for 10 years which can result in an overall tax savings of approximately $5,000. The CTC erodes dollar-for-dollar if the dependent's income exceeds $13,986 and becomes completely if it tops the $17,745 threshold. The tax payer cannot claim both the caregiver tax credit and the amount for an infirm dependent 18 or over.\n", "Suppose an investor purchases a $1,200,000 apartment complex with a $300,000 down payment. Each month, the cash flow from rentals, less expenses, is $5,000. Over the course of a year, the before-tax income would be $5,000 × 12 = $60,000, so the NOI (Net Operating Income)-on-cash return would be\n", "Many Americans find the process of filling out the tax forms more onerous than paying the taxes themselves. Many companies offer free and paid options for reducing the tedious labor involved in preparing one's tax return.\n\nA taxpayer who finds a mistake on a previously filed individual income tax return can file corrections with Form 1040X.\n\nSection::::Deadline.\n", "For purposes of the registration requirement, the IRS had defined a \"tax return preparer\" as \"an individual who, for compensation, prepares all or substantially all of a federal tax return or claim for refund.\" Beginning in mid-2011, tax return preparers (other than CPAs, attorneys, and enrolled agents and a few others) had generally been required to take and pass a competency test to become a registered tax return preparer.\n", "Subject areas may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Preliminary work and collection of taxpayer data\n\nBULLET::::- Treatment of income and assets\n\nBULLET::::- Deductions and credits\n\nBULLET::::- Other taxes\n\nBULLET::::- Completion of the filing process\n\nBULLET::::- Practices and procedures\n\nBULLET::::- Ethics\n\nSection::::Universities and associations establish classes.\n", "Registered Tax Return Preparer\n\nA Registered Tax Return Preparer is a new category of federal tax return preparers created by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS).\n", "This is the most common reason behind back tax emergence. In this case the person that failed to pay taxes by the deadline is not only obligated to pay the original tax, but in addition will be charged a \"failure to pay\" penalty.\n\nBULLET::::- Failing to report all income\n", "A tax return is defined as “a return, declaration, statement, refund claim, or other document required to be made or filed in connection with state or federal income taxes or state bank and corporation franchise taxes.”\n\nThe Tax Preparers Act requires anyone (excluding attorneys, certified public accountants and enrolled agents) who prepares or assists with preparing federal and state tax returns for a fee to register with CTEC. All CTEC Registered Tax Preparers (CRTPs) must complete tax education courses each year and maintain a $5,000 surety bond to protect clients against fraud.\n", "On January 1, 2011, the Return Preparer Office launched the IRS Return Preparer Initiative. The purpose of the initiative was to improve taxpayer compliance and service by setting professional standards for and providing support to the tax preparation industry. During the first phase of the initiative, anyone who for compensation prepared or helped prepare any federal tax return or claim for refund was required to register with the IRS by obtaining a Preparer Tax Identification Number (PTIN). Other requirements for some tax preparers eventually included needing to pass the IRS Registered Tax Return Preparer Test and annually completing continuing education courses on federal tax law and ethics. Participants who successfully completed all requirements were given a new title: Registered Tax Return Preparer.\n", "In recent years, the number and percentage of Americans who pay no federal income tax has increased. According to a 2007 report by the Statistics of Income division of the Internal Revenue Service, in 2006 the Internal Revenue Service received 134,372,678 individual income tax returns, of which 90,593,081 (67.42%) showed that they paid or owed federal income tax for 2005. That is, 32.58% of those Americans who filed income tax returns did not owe any federal income tax at all for 2005. This percentage increased substantially in 2008, and for 2009 was 47%.\n", "After the Return Preparer Review was announced in January 2010, the IRS instituted the Return Preparer Initiative that required all professional tax return preparers to register with the IRS and to obtain a Preparer Tax Identification Number (PTIN). It also required a previously unregulated category of preparers, then known as unenrolled preparers, to pass a one-time competency test, and to take 15 hours of continuing education credits annually. Those who passed the test and a tax compliance check would be given a new credential: Registered Tax Return Preparer. The test was launched in November 2010. Preparers who have PTINs and need to test will have until December 31, 2013 to pass it, but the IRS has urged candidates to take it as soon as possible. Starting January 1, 2014, only Registered Tax Return Preparers, Certified Public Accountants, attorney and Enrolled Agents will be authorized to prepare and sign federal individual tax returns for compensation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13039	Why is it that poison ivy can be spread by scratching but you don't get it on your finger tips?	Tolerance, thickness, etc. Your hands are really sensetive, it helps us use them better, but they're also very tough, because we use them so much. So you can get poison ivy on your fingertips, but the poison isn't strong enough to damage you through the strong skin on your fingers, but then you spread it to other, more sensetive and weaker areas of your skin	[ "A well-known example of a hapten is urushiol, which is the toxin found in poison ivy. When absorbed through the skin from a poison ivy plant, urushiol undergoes oxidation in the skin cells to generate the actual hapten, a reactive quinone-type molecule, which then reacts with skin proteins to form hapten adducts. Usually, the first exposure causes only sensitization, in which there is a proliferation of effector T-cells. After a subsequent, second exposure, the proliferated T-cells can become activated, generating an immune reaction that produces typical blisters of a poison ivy exposure.\n", "Tinea manuum is commonly caused by \"T. rubrum\" and is characterized by unilateral infections of the palm of the hand.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Groin.\n\nAlong with \"E. floccosum\", \"T. rubrum\" is the most common cause of this disease, also known as 'jock itch.' Infections cause reddish brown lesions mainly on the upper thighs and trunk, that are border by raised edge.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Nail.\n", "When the fungus has spread to pets, it can subsequently spread to the hands and fingers of people who pet them. If a pet frequently gnaws upon itself, it might not be fleas it is reacting to, it may be the insatiable itch of tinea.\n", "Some individuals may experience an allergic response to the fungus called an id reaction in which blisters or vesicles can appear in areas such as the hands, chest, and arms. Treatment of the underlying infection typically results in the disappearance of the id reaction.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Atlantic poison oak can be found growing in forests, thickets, and dry, sandy fields.\n\nSection::::Contact dermatitis.\n\nAll parts of this plant contain urushiol, which can cause severe dermatitis in sensitive individuals. The risk of exposure may be reduced by learning to recognize and avoid this species and wearing clothing that covers the legs and arms. Contaminated clothing should be laundered before subsequent handling or use.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nEffects of poison oak are similar to those of poison ivy. It first causes severe itching, evolves into inflammation, non-colored bumps, and then blistering when scratched.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Poison ivy\n\nBULLET::::- Poison sumac\n", "Section::::In other media.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Television.:Live-action.\n", "COPD often occurs along with a number of other conditions, due in part to shared risk factors. These conditions include ischemic heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, muscle wasting, osteoporosis, lung cancer, anxiety disorder, sexual dysfunction, and depression. In those with severe disease, a feeling of always being tired is common. Fingernail clubbing is not specific to COPD and should prompt investigations for an underlying lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Exacerbation.\n", "Scratching infected areas may also spread the fungus to the fingers and under the fingernails. If not washed away soon enough, it can infect the fingers and fingernails, growing in the skin and in the nails (not just underneath). After scratching, it can be spread to wherever the person touches, including other parts of the body and to one's environment. Scratching also causes infected skin scales to fall off into one's environment, leading to further possible spread.\n", "At one point, Batman travels to Seattle to ascertain information on Pamela Isley's life before she became Poison Ivy. Here, Batman states that both of Pamela's parents are dead. When and why they died has been left undetermined.\n", "The ease with which the fungus spreads to other areas of the body (on one's fingers) poses another complication. When the fungus is spread to other parts of the body, it can easily be spread back to the feet after the feet have been treated. And because the condition is called something else in each place it takes hold (e.g., tinea corporis (ringworm) or tinea cruris (jock itch), persons infected may not be aware it is the same disease.\n", "Section::::Host response.\n", "In most cases of tinea manuum, only one hand is involved. Frequently both feet are involved concurrently, thus the saying \"one hand, two feet\".\n\nSection::::Types of infections.:Onychomycosis, tinea unguium, or ringworm of the nail.\n\nSee Onychomycosis\n\nSection::::Types of infections.:Tinea incognito.\n\nRingworm infections modified by corticosteroids, systemic or topical, prescribed for some pre-existing pathology or given mistakenly for the treatment of misdiagnosed tinea.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n\nIn order for dermatophytoses to occur, the fungus must directly contact the skin. Likelihood of infection is increased if the skin integrity is compromised, as in minor breaks.\n", "Section::::Other versions.:\"Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\".\n\nIvy appears as one of the mutated Arkham inmates in the \"Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\" crossover. She was mutated into a humanoid mutant praying mantis.\n\nSection::::Other versions.:\"Injustice: Gods Among Us\"/\"Injustice 2\".\n", "The active components of urushiol have been determined to be unsaturated congeners of 3-heptadecylcatechol with up to three double bonds in an unbranched C17 side chain. In poison ivy, these components are unique in that they contain a -CH2CH2- group in an unbranched alkyl side chain.\n\nSection::::Description.:Toxin qualities.:Reactions.\n\n\"Toxicodendron diversilobum\" skin contact first causes itching; then evolves into dermatitis with inflammation, colorless bumps, severe itching, and blistering. In the dormant deciduous seasons the plant can be difficult to recognize, however contact with leafless branches and twigs also causes allergic reactions.\n", "The character's origin, in this new DC universe, was presented in a special issue of \"Detective Comics\" (#23.1), during the \"Villains Month\" event in September 2013.\n", "In \"Detective Comics\" #797-799, the Riddler seeks shelter from Poison Ivy only to be humiliated. Riddler and Poison Ivy then face off in a physical duel, which Ivy wins easily.\n", "In the United Kingdom the plant is often found growing near stinging nettles and the underside of the dock leaf, squeezed to extract a little juice, can be rubbed on the skin to counteract the itching caused by brushing against a nettle plant. \n\nSection::::Usage.:History.\n\nIn George Eliot's \"Adam Bede\", set in the early 19th century, broad dock leaves were used to wrap farmhouse butter.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Host plant.\n", "In \"Batman '66\" (which is based on the 1960s TV series), Poison Ivy appears. In this continuity, Pamela Isley had botanist parents who started their own nursery called Isley Nursery and worked at a university. After her father Dr. Isley died from a toxic tropical plant, Pamela blamed the university that her father worked for as they did not bother to find an antidote for him. Upon moving back to the south with her mother, Pamela improved in her botany and became immune to the toxin that killed her father. With her new powers, she became Poison Ivy and committed crimes with her plants. Batman and Robin came across her while investigating Louie the Lilac's apparent demise.\n", "BULLET::::- Virginia creeper (\"Parthenocissus quinquefolia\") vines can look like poison ivy. The younger leaves can consist of three leaflets, but have a few more serrations along the leaf edge, and the leaf surface is somewhat wrinkled. However, most Virginia creeper leaves have five leaflets. Virginia creeper and poison ivy very often grow together, even on the same tree. Even those who do not get an allergic reaction to poison ivy may be allergic to the oxalate crystals in Virginia creeper sap.\n", "In late 2005, \"S. dorsalis\" was reported as a significant pest on Palm Beach County ornamental roses, and reports from other counties on the Knock Out cultivar of rose and pepper rapidly followed thereafter. By January 2007, the thrips had been found in more than thirty counties from Alachua to Monroe, and has been detected in southern Georgia. It has been spotted several times on retail roses in south Texas, and anecdotal evidence suggests that the expansion into Texas counties is probably underreported. Models of climatological and host potential suggest that this thrips has the potential to expand its range to cover much of the southeast, the gulf coast region, and the western seaboard.\n", "In \"The War of Jokes and Riddles\" story arc of \"Batman\", Poison Ivy has allied herself with the Riddler in his war against the Joker. In the arc, when the Riddler was trying to convince her to join his side, she is seen stopping Carmine Falcone's men—who are sent to kill the Riddler—by capturing them in vines.\n", "Section::::Impact on humans.\n\n Rashes resulting from the bite of \"P. herfsi\" were first documented in Europe in 1936. The first documented outbreak in the US is thought to have occurred in 1994 in Kansas City, Kansas. The closely related straw itch mite (\"Pyemotes tritici\"), was initially suspected, but no specimens of this species were found. The reports indicated that the bites occurred on people after being outdoors in or near wooded areas. Based on this information, a search was initiated and resulted in the discovery of \"Pyemotes herfsi\" preying on midge larvae in leaf galls on pin oak trees.\n", "Allergenic Urushiol are present in the sap of the tree and in small concentrations of the fruit peel and can trigger contact dermatitis (allergic rash) in sensitized individuals. This reaction is more likely to occur in people who have been exposed to other plants from the \"Anacardiaceae\" family, such as poison oak and poison ivy, which are widespread in the United States. In Florida growth is relegated to near-tropical areas of the state, and the tree is killed or greatly harmed by cold winter temperatures from Palm Beach County northward.\n", "More commonly occurs in men than women. Tinea cruris may be exacerbated by sweat and tight clothing (hence the term \"jock itch\"). Frequently, the feet are also involved. The theory is that the feet get infected first from contact with the ground. The fungus spores are carried to the groin from scratching from putting on underclothing or pants. The infection frequently extends from the groin to the perianal skin and gluteal cleft.\n", "\"S. perseae\" persists across seasons on avocado in lesions. The pathogen generates acervuli as the asexual fruiting body that erupt from these lesions, present on either fruit or leaves, as small cream or olive-colored masses of clustered conidiophores and spores. During cool, moist weather, conidia may be formed on infected leaves, twigs and fruit. They are carried to infection courts by wind, rain and insects. In Mexico, most spores are produced in the winter prior to active growth, while most lesions were found 6 months later after the fruit set and foliage flush. \"S. perseae\" is a pathogen of young tissue. The leaves become resistant one month after emergence and the avocado fruit becomes resistant once it is half-grown. \"S. perseae\" is most severe when its host tissue is at a susceptible growth stage and the humidity level remains above 80%. Injuries caused by thrips (insect) create entry wounds for \"S. perseae\" and greatly exacerbate scab development.\n" ]	[ "You cannot get poison ivy on your fingers." ]	[ "You do get poison ivy there, however the skin is tougher than other skin so you don't notice it there. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You cannot get poison ivy on your fingers.", "You cannot get poison ivy on your fingers." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "You do get poison ivy there, however the skin is tougher than other skin so you don't notice it there. ", "You do get poison ivy there, however the skin is tougher than other skin so you don't notice it there. " ]
2018-06397	What is a karat/carat, when talking about gold or diamond?	They are different things. In diamonds, a carat is a measure of weight. (1 carat = 200 mg) Since it's not an official metric unit, it is used in the US. In gold, karat is a measure of purity, or as the trade calls it "fineness". It states what fraction of the mass of the metal is gold atoms, so a 4 unit object of 18 karat gold has 18/24^ths of its mass in the form of 3 units of gold atoms. This works regardless of the units: grams, ounces, ...	[ "\"Karat\" is a variant of \"carat\". First attested in English in the mid-15th century, the word \"carat\" came from Middle French , in turn derived either from Italian or Medieval Latin . These were borrowed into Medieval Europe from the Arabic meaning \"fruit of the carob tree\", also \"weight of 4 grains\", () and was a unit of mass though it was probably not used to measure gold in classical times. The Arabic term ultimately originates from the Greek () meaning carob seed (literally \"small horn\") (diminutive of κέρας – \"keras\", \"horn\").\n", "In terms of diamonds, a paragon is a flawless stone of at least 100 carats (20 g).\n\nThe ANSI X.12 EDI standard abbreviation for the carat is CD.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nFirst attested in English in the mid-15th century, the word \"carat\" comes from Italian \"carato\", which comes from Arabic \"qīrāṭ\" قيراط, in turn borrowed from Greek \"kerátion\" κεράτιον 'carob seed', a diminutive of \"keras\" 'horn'. It was a unit of weight,\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Carat (mass)\n\nThe carat (ct) (not to be confused with the unit of purity of gold alloys), is a unit of mass equal to and is used for measuring gemstones and pearls.\n\nThe current definition, sometimes known as the metric carat, was adopted in 1907 at the Fourth General Conference on Weights and Measures, and soon afterwards in many countries around the world. The carat is divisible into one hundred \"points\" of two milligrams each. Other subdivisions, and slightly different mass values, have been used in the past in different locations.\n", "There were also two varieties of \"refiners' carats\" once used in the United Kingdom — the pound carat and the ounce carat. The pound troy was divisible into 24 \"pound carats\" of 240 grains troy each; the pound carat was divisible into four \"pound grains\" of 60 grains troy each; and the pound grain was divisible into four \"pound quarters\" of 15 grains troy each. Likewise, the ounce troy was divisible into 24 \"ounce carats\" of 20 grains troy each; the ounce carat was divisible into four \"ounce grains\" of 5 grains troy each; and the ounce grain was divisible into four \"ounce quarters\" of grains troy each.\n", "Section::::Historical definitions.\n\nSection::::Historical definitions.:UK Board of Trade.\n\nIn the United Kingdom the original Board of Trade carat was exactly grains (~3.170 grains = ~205 mg); in 1888, the Board of Trade carat was changed to exactly grains (~3.168 grains = ~205 mg). Despite its being a non-metric unit, a number of metric countries have used this unit for its limited range of application.\n\nThe Board of Trade carat was divisible into four \"diamond grains\", but measurements were typically made in multiples of carat.\n\nSection::::Historical definitions.:Refiners' carats.\n", "The karat (US spelling, symbol K or kt) or carat (UK spelling, symbol C or ct) is a fractional measure of purity for gold alloys, in parts fine per 24 parts whole. The karat system is a standard adopted by US federal law.\n\nSection::::Karat.:Measure.\n\n24-karat gold is pure (while 100% purity is unattainable, this designation is permitted in commerce for 99.95% purity), 18-karat gold is 18 parts gold, 6 parts another metal (forming an alloy with 75% gold), 12-karat gold is 12 parts gold (12 parts another metal), and so forth.\n", "Carob seeds have been used throughout history to measure jewelry, because it was believed that there was little variance in their mass distribution. However, this was a factual inaccuracy, as their mass varies about as much as seeds of other species.\n\nIn the past, each country had its own carat. It was often used for weighing gold. Beginning in the 1570s, it was used to measure weights of diamonds.\n\nSection::::History.:Standardization.\n", "BULLET::::- marcasite : مرقشيثا\"marqashīthā\", iron sulfide. Occurs in Arabic in a 9th-century minerals book, and was used by Al-Razi (died c. 930) and Ibn Sina (died 1037) and Al-Biruni (died 1048), among others. The word's earliest known records in the European languages are in Arabic-to-Latin translations dated late 12th century. In modern English, marcasite is defined scientifically as orthorhombic iron sulfide, but marcasite jewelry is jewelry made from isometric iron sulfide.\n", "\"Total carat weight\" (t.c.w.) is a phrase used to describe the total mass of diamonds or other gemstone in a piece of jewelry, when more than one gemstone is used. Diamond solitaire earrings, for example, are usually quoted in t.c.w. when placed for sale, indicating the mass of the diamonds in both earrings and not each individual diamond. T.c.w. is also widely used for diamond necklaces, bracelets and other similar jewelry pieces.\n\nSection::::Gemological characteristics.:Clarity.\n", "Section::::Historical definitions.:Greco-Roman.\n\nThe \"solidus\" was also a Roman weight unit. There is literary evidence that the weight of 72 coins of the type called \"solidus\" was exactly 1 Roman pound, and that the weight of 1 \"solidus\" was 24 \"siliquae\". The weight of a Roman pound is generally believed to have been 327.45 g or possibly up to 5 g less. Therefore, the metric equivalent of 1 \"siliqua\" was approximately 189 mg. The Greeks had a similar unit of the same value.\n", "In 309 CE, Roman Emperor Constantine I began to mint a new gold coin \"solidus\" that was of a \"libra\" (Roman pound) of gold equal to a mass of 24 \"siliquae\", where each siliqua (or carat) was of a libra. This is believed to be the origin of the value of the karat.\n\nSection::::Verifying fineness.\n", "Carat\n\nCarat, karat, karet or karot may refer to:\n\nSection::::Jewelry making.\n\nBULLET::::- Carat (mass), a unit of mass for gemstones, equal to 0.2 gram\n\nBULLET::::- Karat or carat, a unit for measuring the fineness or purity of gold\n\nSection::::Aviation.\n\nBULLET::::- AMS-Flight Carat, a motorized sailplane\n\nBULLET::::- Karat (airline), an airline in Russia\n\nBULLET::::- SDB Karat, a Russian ultralight trike design\n\nSection::::Entertainment.\n\nBULLET::::- Karat (band), a rock band from East Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Carat (board game)\n\nBULLET::::- Carat, the name for fans of K-pop group Seventeen\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carat\", a single by Japanese pop singer Sifow\n\nSection::::People.\n", "The \"carat weight\" measures the mass of a diamond. One carat is defined as 200 milligrams (about 0.007 ounces avoirdupois). The \"point\" unit—equal to one one-hundredth of a carat (0.01 carat, or 2 mg)—is commonly used for diamonds of less than one carat. All else being equal, the price per carat increases with carat weight, since larger diamonds are both rarer and more desirable for use as gemstones.\n", "The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats (621.35 g).\n\nNow popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.\n\nSection::::Materials and methods.:Other gemstones.\n\nMany precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are:\n", "In the wholesale trade of gem diamonds, carat is often used in denominating lots of diamonds for sale. For example, a buyer may place an order for of , D–F, VS2-SI1, excellent cut diamonds, indicating a wish to purchase 200 diamonds ( total mass) of those approximate characteristics. Because of this, diamond prices (particularly among wholesalers and other industry professionals) are often quoted per carat, rather than per stone.\n", "Section::::Critical response.\n", "Eight Carat was a black or brown mare bred in Britain. She was sired by the Eclipse Stakes winner Pieces of Eight out of Klairessa. Klairessa had little success as a racehorse, but was a sister to both the King's Stand Stakes winner D'Urberville and the mare Lora who produced the 1000 Guineas winner On the House. In addition to Eight Carat, Klairessa also produced a colt by General Assembly named Knesset, who won the Ballyogan Stakes in 1988 and Habibti, the British champion sprinter and Horse of the Year in 1983.\n\nSection::::Racing career.\n", "An 'international carat' of 205 milligrams was proposed in 1871 by the Syndical Chamber of Jewellers, etc., in Paris, and accepted in 1877 by the Syndical Chamber of Diamond Merchants in Paris. A metric carat of 200 milligrams – exactly one-fifth of a gram – had often been suggested, and was finally proposed by the International Committee of Weights and Measures, and accepted at the fourth sexennial General Conference of the Metric Convention held in Paris in October 1907. It was soon made compulsory by law in France, but uptake of the new carat was slower in England, where its use was allowed by the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1897.\n", "However, due to a legal dispute with the elder Dreilich's widow, who claimed ownership of the name \"Karat\" because her husband had registered it as a trademark in 1998, the band stopped using it, and in January, 2006 adopted the name K...!. After a protracted legal process, in June 2007 the Berlin courts ruled that the name Karat should belong to the members of the band. The name K...! was retired, and the band returned to calling itself Karat.\n", "BULLET::::- carat (gold purity), carat (mass) : قيراط \"qīrāt\", a small unit of weight, defined as one-twentyfourth (/) of the weight of a certain coin namely the medieval Arabic gold dinar, and alternatively defined by reference to a weight of (e.g.) 3 barley seeds. In medieval Arabic the word was also used with the meaning of / of the money value of a gold dinar coin. In the Western languages the word was adopted as a measurement term for the proportion of gold in a gold alloy, especially in a gold coin, beginning in Italy in the mid-13th century, occurring soon after some city-states of Italy started new issues of pure gold coins. \n", "Karat (band)\n\nKarat (Ger. for \"carat\") is a German rock band, founded in 1975 in East Berlin, then part of the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany. Karat also gained a strong following in West Germany when its 1982 album \"Der blaue Planet\" (\"The Blue Planet\") was one of the year's top sellers in both East and West Germany, making Karat one of the more prominent bands in German-language rock music.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Single.\n", "BULLET::::- La Brillante (1986 by Sir Tristram): dam of Philidor, Listed winner.\n\nBULLET::::- Nine Carat (1989 by Sir Tristram): dam of Court of Jewels, Listed winner.\n\nSection::::Breeding record.:Sons as sires.\n", "Commonly encountered in daily life is the avoirdupois ounce, an Imperial weight in countries still using British weights and measures or United States customary units. The avoirdupois ounce is lighter than the troy ounce; one avoirdupois ounce equals 28.349523125 grams.\n", "Section::::Current use.:Gemstones.\n\nGemstones and pearls are sold in metric carats.\n\nSection::::Current use.:Manufacturing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Karat and carat are interchangeable." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Carat is a measure of weight for diamonds, while karat is a measure of purity for gold." ]
2018-16797	How can we observe light moving away from us as red spectrum and toward us as blue? How can we observe light moving away from us at all?	It is not light moving away from us, it is light emitted from a source that is moving away from us. The light definitely has to be moving towards, otherwise, as you note, we could not see it at all.	[ "BULLET::::- The Andromeda Galaxy is moving toward our own Milky Way galaxy within the Local Group; thus, when observed from Earth, its light is undergoing a blueshift.\n\nBULLET::::- Components of a binary star system will be blueshifted when moving towards Earth\n\nBULLET::::- When observing spiral galaxies, the side spinning toward us will have a slight blueshift \"relative to\" the side spinning away from us (see Tully–Fisher relation).\n\nBULLET::::- Blazars are known to propel relativistic jets toward us, emitting synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung that appears blueshifted.\n", "The motion of stellar objects can be determined by looking at their spectrum. Because of the Doppler effect, objects moving towards us are blueshifted, and objects moving away are redshifted. The wavelength of redshifted light is longer, appearing redder than the source. Conversely, the wavelength of blueshifted light is shorter, appearing bluer than the source light:\n", "BULLET::::- Nearby stars such as Barnard's Star are moving toward us, resulting in a very small blueshift.\n\nBULLET::::- Doppler blueshift of distant objects with a high \"z\" can be subtracted from the much larger cosmological redshift to determine relative motion in the expanding universe.\n\nSection::::Gravitational blueshift.\n\nUnlike the \"relative\" Doppler blueshift, caused by movement of a source towards the observer and thus dependent on the received angle of the photon, gravitational blueshift is \"absolute\" and does not depend on the received angle of the photon:\n", "BULLET::::- In the non-relativistic case, the light ahead of the observer is blueshifted to a wavelength of 300 nm in the medium ultraviolet, while light behind the observer is redshifted to 5200 nm in the intermediate infrared. Because of the aberration of light, objects formerly at right angles to the observer appear shifted forwards by 42°.\n", "The use of the Doppler effect for light in astronomy depends on our knowledge that the spectra of stars are not homogeneous. They exhibit absorption lines at well defined frequencies that are correlated with the energies required to excite electrons in various elements from one level to another. The Doppler effect is recognizable in the fact that the absorption lines are not always at the frequencies that are obtained from the spectrum of a stationary light source. Since blue light has a higher frequency than red light, the spectral lines of an approaching astronomical light source exhibit a blueshift and those of a receding astronomical light source exhibit a redshift.\n", "Given that, in the case where the inertially moving source and receiver are geometrically at their nearest approach to each other, the receiver observes a blueshift, whereas in the case where the receiver \"sees\" the source as being at its closest point, the receiver observes a redshift, there obviously must exist a point where blueshift changes to a redshift. In Fig. 2, the signal travels perpendicularly to the receiver path and is blueshifted. In Fig. 3, the signal travels perpendicularly to the source path and is redshifted.\n", "BULLET::::- In the relativistic case, the light ahead of the observer is blueshifted to a wavelength of 137 nm in the far ultraviolet, while light behind the observer is redshifted to 2400 nm in the short wavelength infrared. Because of the relativistic aberration of light, objects formerly at right angles to the observer appear shifted forwards by 63°.\n", "Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The Milky Way is moving at with respect to the photons of the CMB, toward 10.5 right ascension, −24° declination (J2000 epoch, near the center of Hydra). This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue-shifted in the direction of the motion and red-shifted in the opposite direction.\n\nSection::::Etymology and mythology.\n", "BULLET::::- Fig. 2b. It is much easier if, instead, we analyze the scenario from the frame of the source. An observer situated at the source knows, from the problem statement, that the receiver is at its closest point to him. That means that the receiver has no longitudinal component of motion to complicate the analysis. (i.e. dr/dt = 0 where r is the distance between receiver and source) Since the receiver's clocks are time-dilated relative to the source, the light that the receiver receives is blue-shifted by a factor of gamma. In other words,\n", "BULLET::::- Fig. 2a. If we analyze the scenario in the frame of the receiver, we find that the analysis is more complicated than it should be. The apparent position of a celestial object is displaced from its true position (or geometric position) because of the object's motion during the time it takes its light to reach an observer. The source would be time-dilated relative to the receiver, but the redshift implied by this time dilation would be offset by a blueshift due to the longitudinal component of the relative motion between the receiver and the apparent position of the source.\n", "The stars are very far away from us, so we only observe their one characteristic feature, their light. When this light is passed through a prism, it gives rise to a spectrum. Every star has its own spectrum and since each element has its own unique spectra, we can know a star's composition. We use thermal spectra of the stars to know their temperature. In 1920, when scientists were examining spectra of different stars, they found that some of the characteristic lines of the star spectrum was shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. The implications of this phenomenon was given by the Doppler effect, and it was clear that some stars were moving away from us. \n", "The changes in slope in the synchrotron spectrum are parameterized with a \"spectral index\". The spectral index, α, over a given frequency range is simply the slope on a diagram of formula_3 vs. formula_4. (Of course for α to have real meaning the spectrum must be very nearly a straight line across the range in question.)\n\nSection::::A simple jet model.:Beaming equation.\n\nIn the simple jet model of a single homogeneous sphere the observed luminosity is related to the intrinisic luminosity as\n\nwhere\n", "Of course, the observed frequency of the transmission is also the frequency of the transmitter (a reduction in frequency; \"red-shifted\"). This is called the relativistic Doppler effect. The frequency of clock-ticks (or of wavefronts) which one sees from a source with rest frequency \"f\" is\n\nwhen the source is moving directly away. This is \"f\" = \"f\" for \"v\"/\"c\" = 0.8.\n", "A common way to study such sources is to use narrow-band imaging, but this technique can only survey a very narrow redshift range at a time – set by the width of the filter. In addition this method is not as sensitive as direct spectroscopic studies because the width of the filter is wider than the typical width of an emission line.\n", "In the literature, most reports of transverse Doppler shift analyze the effect in terms of the receiver pointed at direct right angles to the path of the source, thus \"seeing\" the source as being at its closest point and observing a redshift.\n\nSection::::Derivation.:Transverse Doppler effect.:Point of null frequency shift.\n", "It differs from TDOA in that the FDOA observation points must be in relative motion with respect to each other and the emitter. This relative motion results in different doppler shifts observations of the emitter at each location in general. The relative motion can be achieved by using airborne observations in aircraft, for example. The emitter location can then be estimated with knowledge of the observation points' location and vector velocities and the observed relative doppler shifts between pairs of locations.\n", "BULLET::::- In both cases, the monochromatic stars ahead of and behind the observer are Doppler-shifted towards invisible wavelengths. If, however, the observer had eyes that could see into the ultraviolet and infrared, he would see the stars ahead of him as brighter and more closely clustered together than the stars behind, but the stars would be far brighter and far more concentrated in the relativistic case.\n", "is measured, even though the object is not moving away from the observer. Even when the source is moving towards the observer, if there is a transverse component to the motion then there is some speed at which the dilation just cancels the expected blueshift and at higher speed the approaching source will be redshifted.\n\nSection::::Redshift formulae.:Expansion of space.\n", "With an observer stationary relative to the medium, if a moving source is emitting waves with an actual frequency formula_2 (in this case, the wavelength is changed, the transmission velocity of the wave keeps constant formula_23 note that the \"transmission velocity\" of the wave does not depend on the \"velocity of the source\"), then the observer detects waves with a frequency formula_1 given by\n", "In nearby objects (within our Milky Way galaxy) observed redshifts are almost always related to the line-of-sight velocities associated with the objects being observed. Observations of such redshifts and blueshifts have enabled astronomers to measure velocities and parametrize the masses of the orbiting stars in spectroscopic binaries, a method first employed in 1868 by British astronomer William Huggins. Similarly, small redshifts and blueshifts detected in the spectroscopic measurements of individual stars are one way astronomers have been able to diagnose and measure the presence and characteristics of planetary systems around other stars and have even made very detailed differential measurements of redshifts during planetary transits to determine precise orbital parameters. Finely detailed measurements of redshifts are used in helioseismology to determine the precise movements of the photosphere of the Sun. Redshifts have also been used to make the first measurements of the rotation rates of planets, velocities of interstellar clouds, the rotation of galaxies, and the dynamics of accretion onto neutron stars and black holes which exhibit both Doppler and gravitational redshifts. Additionally, the temperatures of various emitting and absorbing objects can be obtained by measuring Doppler broadening – effectively redshifts and blueshifts over a single emission or absorption line. By measuring the broadening and shifts of the 21-centimeter hydrogen line in different directions, astronomers have been able to measure the recessional velocities of interstellar gas, which in turn reveals the rotation curve of our Milky Way. Similar measurements have been performed on other galaxies, such as Andromeda. As a diagnostic tool, redshift measurements are one of the most important spectroscopic measurements made in astronomy.\n", "Section::::Theory.\n", "The region of the spectrum where a particular observed electromagnetic radiation falls, is reference frame-dependent (due to the Doppler shift for light), so EM radiation that one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum. For example, consider the cosmic microwave background. It was produced, when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state. These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos.\n", "Suppose one wavefront arrives at the receiver. The next wavefront is then at a distance formula_3 away from the receiver (where formula_4 is the wavelength, formula_5 is the frequency of the waves that the source emits, and formula_6 is the speed of light).\n", "Real stars are not monochromatic, but emit a range of wavelengths approximating a black body distribution. It is not necessarily true that stars ahead of the observer would show a bluer color. This is because the whole spectral energy distribution is shifted. At the same time that visible light is blueshifted into invisible ultraviolet wavelengths, infrared light is blueshifted into the visible range. Precisely what changes in the colors one sees depends on the physiology of the human eye and on the spectral characteristics of the light sources being observed.\n\nSection::::Doppler effect on intensity.\n", "You will need a known light source with known irradiance at a given standoff distance. The incoming light source will be chopped at a certain frequency, and then each wavelength will be integrated over a given time constant over a given number of frames.\n\nIn detail, we compute the bandwidth formula_3 directly from the integration time constant formula_19.\n\nformula_20\n\nNext, an average signal and rms noise needs to be measured from a set of formula_21 frames. This is done either directly by the instrument, or done as post-processing.\n\nformula_22\n\nformula_23\n" ]	[ "We can observe light moving away from us." ]	[ "We cannot observe light moving away from us but light emitted from a source that is moving away from us. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We can observe light moving away from us." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We cannot observe light moving away from us but light emitted from a source that is moving away from us. " ]
2018-11576	How does the countersteering and gyroscopic force works on a motorcycle?	The gyroscopic force tends to keep the bike upright. I used to have a youtube video link where a dude welded the handle bars on a motorcycle straight. They then had a stunt man literally jump up and down on one foot peg to try to lean the bike into a turn at speed. There was basically no turning action. If you turn the handle bars on a motorcycle, the gyroscopic forces lean the bike to the high side (away from the turn). At this point, a rider that doesn't understand countersteering has an instinctual reaction to slow, and rely on balance to correct the issue. They usually end up making it around corners and obstacles without dying because of how inate human balance is. The correct way to turn a motorcycle at speed, is to "turn" the handle bars away from the direction of the turn, allow the bike to lean to its highside to the correct angle for the turn and then adjust the handle bars to maintain the turn. This is exactly the opposite way from turning a four wheeled car. Basically the gyroscopic forces want the bike to remain upright. A change of direction will cause a lean in the opposite direction. So in order to turn, you have to adjust the center of gravity of you and the bike by leaning (via counter-steering). The gyroscopic force should fall in line with the center of gravity change and allow you navigate the corner. Source: I'm a decent rider, but not a great physicist. edit: Not the link i had originally but pretty solid: URL_1 edit2: A visual of the forces at work without the science or messy bits: URL_0	[ "Some sidecars allow the motorcycle to lean independent of the sidecar, and in some cases, the sidecar even leans in parallel with the motorcycle. These vehicles must be countersteered the same way as a solo motorcycle. The three wheel Piaggio MP3 uses mechanical linkages to lean the two front wheels in parallel with the rear frame, and so that it is countersteered in the same manner as a two-wheeled motorcycle.\n", "Another contribution of gyroscopic effects is a roll moment generated by the front wheel during countersteering. For example, steering left causes a moment to the right. The moment is small compared to the moment generated by the out-tracking front wheel, but begins as soon as the rider applies torque to the handlebars and so can be helpful in motorcycle racing. For more detail, see the section countersteering, below, and the countersteering article.\n\nSection::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Self-stability.\n", "For a sample motorcycle moving at 22 m/s (50 mph) that has a front wheel with a moment of inertia of 0.6 kgm, turning the front wheel one degree in half a second generates a roll moment of 3.5 Nm. In comparison, the lateral force on the front tire as it tracks out from under the motorcycle reaches a maximum of 50 N. This, acting on the 0.6 m (2 ft) height of the center of mass, generates a roll moment of 30 Nm.\n", "BULLET::::- The combined center of mass of the bike and rider is only lowered and not moved out, but if the front of the bike is free to swivel about its steering axis, the lean to the right will cause it to steer to the right by some combination of gyroscopic precession, ground reaction forces, gravitational force on an off-axis center of mass or simply the inertia of an off-axis center of mass depending on the exact geometry and mass distribution of the particular bike and the amount of torque and the speed at which it is applied.\n", "Three wheeled motorcycles without the ability to lean have no need to be countersteered, and an initial steer torque in one direction does not automatically result in a turn in the other direction. This includes sidecar rigs where the car is rigidly mounted on the bike. The three wheeled BRP Can-Am Spyder Roadster uses two front wheels which do not lean, and so it steers like a car.\n", "In the early 1970s, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL, later Calspan Corporation in Buffalo, NY USA) was sponsored by the Schwinn Bicycle Company and others to study and simulate bicycle and motorcycle dynamics. Portions of this work have now been released to the public and scans of over 30 detailed reports have been posted at this TU Delft Bicycle Dynamics site.\n\nSince the 1990s, Cossalter, et al., have been researching motorcycle dynamics at the University of Padova. Their research, both experimental and numerical, has covered weave, wobble, chatter, simulators, vehicle modelling, tire modelling, handling, and minimum lap time maneuvering.\n", "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Steering mechanism mass distribution.\n", "It can also be seen however that this simple 2-dimensional model, essentially an inverted pendulum on a turntable, predicts that the steady-state turn is unstable. If the bike is displaced slightly downwards from its equilibrium lean angle, the torque of gravity increases, that of centrifugal force decreases and the displacement gets amplified. A more-sophisticated model that allows a wheel to steer, adjust the path, and counter the torque of gravity, is necessary to capture the self-stability observed in real bikes.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_26 is the steer angle of the front assembly relative to the rear assembly and\n\nBULLET::::- formula_27 and formula_28 are the moments (torques) applied at the rear assembly and the steering axis, respectively. For the analysis of an uncontrolled bike, both are taken to be zero.\n\nThese can be represented in matrix form as \n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- formula_30 is the symmetrical mass matrix which contains terms that include only the mass and geometry of the bike,\n", "While the moment from gyroscopic forces is only 12% of this, it can play a significant part because it begins to act as soon as the rider applies the torque, instead of building up more slowly as the wheel out-tracks. This can be especially helpful in motorcycle racing.\n\nSection::::Bicycles.\n", "Section::::Lateral dynamics.\n\nOf the two, lateral dynamics has proven to be the more complicated, requiring three-dimensional, multibody dynamic analysis with at least two generalized coordinates to analyze. At a minimum, two coupled, second-order differential equations are required to capture the principal motions. Exact solutions are not possible, and numerical methods must be used instead. Competing theories of how bikes balance can still be found in print and online. On the other hand, as shown in later sections, much longitudinal dynamic analysis can be accomplished simply with planar kinetics and just one coordinate.\n\nSection::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.\n", "A bike is a nonholonomic system because its outcome is path-dependent. In order to know its exact configuration, especially location, it is necessary to know not only the configuration of its parts, but also their histories: how they have moved over time. This complicates mathematical analysis. Finally, in the language of control theory, a bike exhibits non-minimum phase behavior. It turns in the direction opposite of how it is initially steered, as described above in the section on countersteering\n\nSection::::Lateral dynamics.:Lateral motion theory.:Degrees of freedom.\n", "With a sufficiently light bike (especially a bicycle), the rider can initiate a lean and turn without using the handlebars by shifting body weight, called counter lean by some authors.\n\nDocumented physical experimentation shows that on heavy bikes (many motorcycles) shifting body weight is less effective at initiating leans.\n\nThe following is done when countersteering using weight shifting to turn left:\n\nBULLET::::- The rider applies a momentary torque, either at the seat via the legs or in the torso that causes the bike itself to lean to the right.\n", "where formula_47 is the coefficient of friction, formula_48 is the total mass of the bike and rider, and formula_34 is the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, if\n\nwhich occurs if the center of mass is anywhere above or in front of a line extending back from the front wheel contact patch and inclined at the angle\n\nabove the horizontal, then the normal force of the rear wheel will be zero (at which point the equation no longer applies) and the bike will begin to flip or loop forward over the front wheel.\n", "BULLET::::- This countersteering to the right causes the ground contact to move to the right of the center of mass, as the bike moves forward, thus generating a leftward lean. Finally the front end steers to the left and the bike enters the left turn.\n\nThe amount of leftward steering necessary to balance the leftward lean appropriate for the forward speed and radius of the turn is controlled by the torque generated by the rider, again either at the seat or in the torso.\n", "Similarly, powerful motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel to lift the front wheel off the ground in a maneuver called a wheelie. A line similar to the one described above to analyze braking performance can be drawn from the rear wheel contact patch to predict if a wheelie is possible given the available friction, the center of mass location, and sufficient power. This can also happen on bicycles, although there is much less power available, if the center of mass is back or up far enough or the rider lurches back when applying power to the pedals.\n", "Section::::Front suspension.:Telescopic forks.:Brake dive.\n\nApplying the brakes of a moving motorcycle increases the load borne by the front wheel and decrease the load borne by the rear wheel due to a phenomenon called load transfer. For a detailed explanation and a sample calculation, see the braking section of the Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics article.\n", "Even when staying relatively motionless, a rider can balance a bike by the same principle. While performing a track stand, the rider can keep the line between the two contact patches under the combined center of mass by steering the front wheel to one side or the other and then moving forward and backward slightly to move the front contact patch from side to side as necessary. Forward motion can be generated simply by pedaling. Backwards motion can be generated the same way on a fixed-gear bicycle. Otherwise, the rider can take advantage of an opportune slope of the pavement or lurch the upper body backwards while the brakes are momentarily engaged.\n", "Steering may be supplied by a rider or, under certain circumstances, by the bike itself. This self-stability is generated by a combination of several effects that depend on the geometry, mass distribution, and forward speed of the bike. Tires, suspension, steering damping, and frame flex can also influence it, especially in motorcycles.\n", "BULLET::::- Because the forces in the contact patch are at ground level, this pulls the wheels \"out from under\" the bike to the right and causes it to lean to the left.\n\nBULLET::::- The rider, or in most cases the inherent stability of the bike, provides the steering torque necessary to rotate the front wheel back to the left and in the direction of the desired turn.\n\nBULLET::::- The bike begins a turn to the left.\n", "While countersteering is usually initiated by applying torque directly to the handlebars, on lighter vehicles such as bicycles, it can also be accomplished by shifting the rider’s weight. If the rider leans to the right relative to the bike, the bike leans to the left to conserve angular momentum, and the combined center of mass remains nearly in the same vertical plane. This leftward lean of the bike, called counter lean by some authors, will cause it to steer to the left and initiate a right-hand turn as if the rider had countersteered to the left by applying a torque directly to the handlebars. This technique may be complicated by additional factors such as headset friction and stiff control cables.\n", "where \"v\" is the forward speed, \"r\" is the radius of the turn and \"g\" is the acceleration of gravity. This is in the idealized case. A slight increase in the lean angle may be required on motorcycles to compensate for the width of modern tires at the same forward speed and turn radius.\n", "In this idealized and linearized model, there are many geometric parameters (wheelbase, head angle, mass of each body, wheel radius, etc.), but only four significant variables: lean angle, lean rate, steer angle, and steer rate. These equations have been verified by comparison with multiple numeric models derived completely independently.\n", "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Trail.\n", "It has been shown that the couple created by gravity and the ground reaction forces is necessary for a bicycle to turn at all. On a custom built bicycle with spring-loaded outriggers that exactly cancel this couple, so that the bicycle and rider may assume any lean angle when traveling in a straight line, riders find it impossible to make a turn. As soon as the wheels deviate from a straight path, the bicycle and rider begin to lean in the opposite direction, and the only way to right them is to steer back onto the straight path.\n\nSection::::Lateral dynamics.:Turning.:Countersteering.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00080	Why Do Bubbles Form on Bottom of Cups with Water?	Cold water can hold more dissolved gasses than warm water. As the water warms up, gas bubbles form. The bubbles form along the glass because that's where it's warmest.	[ "BULLET::::- In order to remove any large bubbles from the surface, some baristas tap the jug on a bench before pouring\n\nBULLET::::- Occasionally a barista may use less-than-full pressure from the steam wand, if they are steaming a very small amount of milk (variable pressure is usually only a feature on professional machines)\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.\n", "The secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup can be seen by sprinkling heavy particles such as sugar, sand, rice or tea leaves into the water and then setting the water in circular motion by stirring with a hand or spoon. The boundary layer spirals inward and sweeps the heavier solids into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. With water circulating in a bowl or cup, the primary flow is purely circular and might be expected to fling heavy particles outward to the perimeter. Instead, heavy particles can be seen to congregate in the center as a result of the secondary flow along the floor.\n", "Bubble (physics)\n\nA bubble is a globule of one substance in another, usually gas in a liquid. \n\nDue to the Marangoni effect, bubbles may remain intact when they reach the surface of the immersive substance.\n\nSection::::Common examples.\n\nBubbles are seen in many places in everyday life, for example:\n\nBULLET::::- As spontaneous nucleation of supersaturated carbon dioxide in soft drinks\n\nBULLET::::- As water vapor in boiling water\n\nBULLET::::- As air mixed into agitated water, such as below a waterfall\n\nBULLET::::- As sea foam\n\nBULLET::::- As a soap bubble\n\nBULLET::::- As given off in chemical reactions, e.g., baking soda + vinegar\n", "BULLET::::- Some champagne stirrers operate by providing many nucleation sites via high surface-area and sharp corners, speeding the release of bubbles and removing carbonation from the wine.\n\nBULLET::::- The Diet Coke and Mentos eruption offers another example. The surface of Mentos candy provides nucleation sites for the formation of carbon-dioxide bubbles from carbonated soda.\n\nBULLET::::- Both the bubble chamber and the cloud chamber rely on nucleation, of bubbles and droplets, respectively.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Examples of the nucleation of crystals.\n", "If the container contains particles of different sizes, the downward-moving region at the sides is often narrower than the largest particles. Thus, larger particles tend to become sorted to the top of such a mixture. This is one possible explanation of the Brazil nut effect.\n\nSection::::Convection mechanisms.:Solid-state convection in ice.\n\nIce convection on Pluto is believed to occur in a soft mixture of nitrogen ice and carbon monoxide ice. It has also been proposed for Europa, and other bodies in the outer solar system.\n\nSection::::Convection mechanisms.:Thermomagnetic convection.\n", "For free pouring, the cup is either kept level or tilted in one direction. As the milk is poured straight into the cup, the foam begins to surface on one side (due to the tilt). The barista then moves the pitcher from side to side as they level the cup, or simply wiggle the spout back and forth, and finishes by making a quick strike through the previously poured pattern. This \"strike\" creates the stem portion of the flower design, and bends the poured zig-zag into a flower shape.\n", "The above explanation only holds for bubbles of one medium submerged in another medium (e.g. bubbles of gas in a soft drink); the volume of a membrane bubble (e.g. soap bubble) will not distort light very much, and one can only see a membrane bubble due to thin-film diffraction and reflection.\n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.:Applications.\n\nNucleation can be intentionally induced, for example to create a bubblegram in a solid.\n\nIn medical ultrasound imaging, small encapsulated bubbles called contrast agent are used to enhance the contrast.\n", "When using a steam wand, the volume and type of foam is controlled by the barista during the steaming process, and loosely follows these steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. Air is introduced from the steam wand by immersing only the tip of the wand in the milk. This process is sometimes known as \"frothing\", \"stretching\", or \"surfing\", and usually lasts less than 10 seconds. After the creation of small bubbles, the milk is covered with a soft foam phase which separates from the liquid and floats on top of the milk.\n", "BULLET::::- As a gas trapped in glass during its manufacture\n\nBULLET::::- An air bubble in a solution of fluorescein and water (or alcohol) is the essential part of a spirit level\n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.\n\nBubbles form, and coalesce, into globular shapes, because those shapes are at a lower energy state. For the physics and chemistry behind it, see nucleation.\n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.:Appearance.\n", "The cup consists of a line carved into the interior of the cup, and a small vertical pipe in the center of the cup that leads to the bottom. The height of this pipe is the same as the line carved into the interior of the cup. The cup may be filled to the line without any fluid passing into the pipe in the center of the cup. However, when the amount of fluid exceeds this fill line, fluid will overflow into the pipe in the center of the cup. Due to the drag that molecules exert on one another, the cup will be emptied.\n", "Section::::Types of pattern.:Bubbles, foam.\n\nA soap bubble forms a sphere, a surface with minimal area — the smallest possible surface area for the volume enclosed. Two bubbles together form a more complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one.\n", "Pariser's idea of the filter bubble was popularized after the TED talk he gave in May 2011, in which he gives examples of how filter bubbles work and where they can be seen. In a test seeking to demonstrate the filter bubble effect, Pariser asked several friends to search for the word \"Egypt\" on Google and send him the results. Comparing two of the friends' first pages of results, while there was overlap between them on topics like news and travel, one friend's results prominently included links to information on the then-ongoing Egyptian revolution of 2011, while the other friend's first page of results did not include such links.\n", "Mixtures of low boiling point and high boiling point solvents were shown to suppress the coffee ring effect, changing the shape of a deposited solute from a ring-like to a dot-like shape.\n\nControl of the substrate temperature was shown to be an effective way to suppress the coffee ring formed by droplets of water-based solution. On a heated hydrophilic or hydrophobic substrate, a thinner ring with an inner deposit forms, which is attributed to Marangoni convection.\n", "Coffee ring effect\n\nIn physics, a \"coffee ring\" is a pattern left by a puddle of particle-laden liquid after it evaporates. The phenomenon is named for the characteristic ring-like deposit along the perimeter of a spill of coffee. It is also commonly seen after spilling red wine. The mechanism behind the formation of these and similar rings is known as the coffee ring effect or in some instances, the coffee stain effect, or simply ring stain.\n\nSection::::Flow mechanism.\n", "Section::::Chemical and physical properties.:Sound.\n\nWhen using a steam wand, a slight but audible hissing sound occurs when the air enters the milk, mainly due to microscopic cavitation. A louder screaming sound may be heard if the steam orifice becomes blocked or the machine cannot pump enough air.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- CoffeeGeek - \"The Milk Frothing Guide\"\n\nBULLET::::- Home Barista - \"Barista Technique: Frothing Milk\"\n\nBULLET::::- Difford's Guide - \"The science of milk in coffee\"\n\nBULLET::::- Kruss Scientific - \"Foamability of different milk types, and stability and structure of the foam produced\"\n", "In an oil or gas field, hydrocarbons migrate into rocks and can be trapped if there is a permeability barrier to prevent upward escape. Gas and oil are lighter than water, so they will form a bubble at the high end of the \"trap\" formed by the impermeable barriers. A simple physical model of this would be a coffee cup held upside down underwater with an air bubble occupying the highest portion of the cup's interior. The base of the bubble is the water contact.\n", "There is a pressure gradient from the perimeter of the bowl or cup toward the center. This pressure gradient provides the centripetal force necessary for the circular motion of each parcel of water. The pressure gradient also accounts for a \"secondary flow\" of the boundary layer in the water flowing across the floor of the bowl or cup. The slower speed of the water in the boundary layer is unable to balance the pressure gradient. The boundary layer spirals inward toward the axis of circulation of the water. On reaching the center the secondary flow is then upward toward the surface, progressively mixing with the primary flow. Near the surface there may also be a slow secondary flow outward toward the perimeter.\n", "BULLET::::2. The second stage involves mixing the incorporated air throughout the milk (\"mixing\" or \"texturing\"), which is achieved by immersing the steam wand more deeply (typically 20–30 mm). This creates a turbulent vortex or \"whirlpool\" in the vessel. This step is necessary to integrate the foam which naturally separates from the liquid phase. During this stage, the milk is also heated to about , at which point the steaming is finished.\n", "Section::::Later developments.\n", "BULLET::::- Bubbles of carbon dioxide \"nucleate\" shortly after the pressure is released from a container of carbonated liquid.\n", "Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:\n\nBULLET::::- Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n", "In order for cavitation inception to occur, the cavitation \"bubbles\" generally need a surface on which they can nucleate. This surface can be provided by the sides of a container, by impurities in the liquid, or by small undissolved microbubbles within the liquid. It is generally accepted that hydrophobic surfaces stabilize small bubbles. These pre-existing bubbles start to grow unbounded when they are exposed to a pressure below the threshold pressure, termed Blake's threshold.\n", "Section::::Reactions and studies.:Platform studies.\n", "When water in a circular bowl or cup is moving in circular motion the water displays free-vortex flow – the water at the center of the bowl or cup spins at relatively high speed, and the water at the perimeter spins more slowly. The water is a little deeper at the perimeter and a little more shallow at the center, and the surface of the water is not flat but displays the characteristic depression toward the axis of the spinning fluid. At any elevation within the water the pressure is a little greater near the perimeter of the bowl or cup where the water is a little deeper, than near the center. The water pressure is a little greater where the water speed is a little slower, and the pressure is a little less where the speed is faster, and this is consistent with Bernoulli's principle.\n", "Section::::Mixed phase models (dissolved and bubble phases).:Varying Permeability Model.:Bubble nucleation.\n\nGas bubbles with a radius greater than 1 micron should float to the surface of a standing liquid, whereas smaller ones should dissolve rapidly due to surface tension. The Tiny Bubble Group has been able to resolve this apparent paradox by developing and experimentally verifying a new model for stable gas nuclei.\n" ]	[ "Bubble form on bottom of cups of water." ]	[ "Bubbles form on the glass itself so it can also form on the sides. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bubble form on bottom of cups of water." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bubbles form on the glass itself so it can also form on the sides. " ]
2018-23740	are crustaceans bugs? And why or why not?	No, they are crustaceans. Insects and crustaceans are both Arthropods, but so are 80% of the animals on Earth. Still they are very different creatures. Crustaceans are similar to insects in the same way that cats are similar to humans.	[ "Section::::Classification.\n\nThe name \"crustacean\" dates from the earliest works to describe the animals, including those of Pierre Belon and Guillaume Rondelet, but the name was not used by some later authors, including Carl Linnaeus, who included crustaceans among the \"Aptera\" in his '. The earliest nomenclaturally valid work to use the name \"Crustacea\" was Morten Thrane Brünnich's ' in 1772, although he also included chelicerates in the group.\n", "Most crustaceans are free-living aquatic animals, but some are terrestrial (e.g. woodlice), some are parasitic (e.g. Rhizocephala, fish lice, tongue worms) and some are sessile (e.g. barnacles). The group has an extensive fossil record, reaching back to the Cambrian, and includes living fossils such as \"Triops cancriformis\", which has existed apparently unchanged since the Triassic period. More than 7.9 million tons of crustaceans per year are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption, the majority of it being shrimp and prawns. Krill and copepods are not as widely fished, but may be the animals with the greatest biomass on the planet, and form a vital part of the food chain. The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology (alternatively, \"malacostracology\", \"crustaceology\" or \"crustalogy\"), and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist.\n", "Campylaspis\n\nCampylaspis is a genus of crustaceans in the order Cumacea. Species of \"Campylaspis\" have a \"bulky\" carapace, which makes up more than 40% of the animal's length, as well as distinctive features of the mouthparts. There are currently 170 recognised described species:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis aculeata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis aegypta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis affinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis africana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis akabensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis akymata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis alba\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis alisae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis alveolata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis amblyoda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis anae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis angelae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis angularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis antarctica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis antipai\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis aperta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis apheles\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis arcuata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Campylaspis aspera\"\n", "Section::::Life cycle.:Larvae.\n", "Section::::Phylogeny and evolution.\n\nThe evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear.\n\nAlthough traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes—possibly on the basis of convergent adaptations to terrestrialisation—evidence has emerged favoring closer evolutionary ties with crustaceans. In the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea.\n\nInsects form a single clade, closely related to crustaceans and myriapods.\n", "Crustacean\n\nCrustaceans (Crustacea ) form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, prawns, krill, woodlice, and barnacles.\n\nThe crustacean group is usually treated as a class under subphylum Mandibulata and because of recent molecular studies it is now well accepted that the crustacean group is paraphyletic, and comprises all animals in the Pancrustacea clade other than hexapods. Some crustaceans are more closely related to insects and other hexapods than they are to certain other crustaceans.\n", "Most crustaceans are free-living aquatic animals, but some are terrestrial (e.g. woodlice), some are parasitic (e.g. fish lice, tongue worms) and some are sessile (e.g. barnacles). The group has an extensive fossil record, reaching back to the Cambrian, and includes living fossils such as \"Triops cancriformis\", which has existed apparently unchanged since the Triassic period. More than 10 million tons of crustaceans are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption, the majority of it being shrimp and prawns. Krill and copepods are not as widely fished, but may be the animals with the greatest biomass on the planet, and form a vital part of the food chain. The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology (alternatively, malacostracology, crustaceology or crustalogy), and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist.\n", "Section::::Affinities.:Crustaceans.\n", "Cirolanidae\n\nThe Cirolanidae are a family of isopod crustaceans, including these genera:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aatolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Annina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antrolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphantolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arubolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atarbolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bahalana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baharilana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bathylana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bathynomus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Booralana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calyptolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cartetolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceratolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cirolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cirolanides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Colopisthus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Conilera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Conilorpheus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Creaseriella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dodecalana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dolicholana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eurydice\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eurylana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Excirolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exumalana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Faucheria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gnatholana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hansenolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haptolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kagalana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kensleylana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Limicolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Marocolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Metacirolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mexilana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Natatolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neocirolana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odysseylana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oncilorpheus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orphelana\"\n\nBULLET::::- † \"Palaega\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parabathynomus\"\n", "The majority of crustaceans are aquatic, living in either marine or freshwater environments, but a few groups have adapted to life on land, such as terrestrial crabs, terrestrial hermit crabs, and woodlice. Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land. The majority of crustaceans are also motile, moving about independently, although a few taxonomic units are parasitic and live attached to their hosts (including sea lice, fish lice, whale lice, tongue worms, and \"Cymothoa exigua\", all of which may be referred to as \"crustacean lice\"), and adult barnacles live a sessile life – they are attached headfirst to the substrate and cannot move independently. Some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species. Krill are the bottom layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities. Some crustaceans are significant invasive species, such as the Chinese mitten crab, \"Eriocheir sinensis\", and the Asian shore crab, \"Hemigrapsus sanguineus\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Elasmopus rapax\" Costa, 1853\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hamimaera hamigera\" (Haswell, 1879)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jerbarnia mecochira\" Croker, 1971\n\nBULLET::::- \"Linguimaera boecki\" (Haswell, 1879)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maera grossimana\" (Montagu, 1808)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maera hirondellei\" Chevreux, 1900\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maera inaequipes\" (Costa, 1857)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maera vagans\" K.H. Barnard, 1940 – nomen dubium\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mallacoota subcarinata\" (Haswell, 1879)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Othomaera komma\" (Griffiths, 1975)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Othomaera lobata\" (Griffiths, 1976)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Othomaera thrixa\" (Griffiths, 1975)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parelasmopus suluensis\" (Dana, 1853)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Quadrimaera pacifica\" (Schellenberg, 1938)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Quadrimaera serrata\" (Schellenberg, 1938)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Quadrivisio aviceps\" (K.H. Barnard, 1940)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Zygomaera emarginata\" Griffiths, 1975\n", "The exact relationships of the Crustacea to other taxa are not completely settled . Studies based on morphology led to the Pancrustacea hypothesis, in which Crustacea and Hexapoda (insects and allies) are sister groups. More recent studies using DNA sequences suggest that Crustacea is paraphyletic, with the hexapods nested within a larger Pancrustacea clade.\n\nAlthough the classification of crustaceans has been quite variable, the system used by Martin and Davis largely supersedes earlier works. Mystacocarida and Branchiura, here treated as part of Maxillopoda, are sometimes treated as their own classes. Six classes are usually recognised:\n\nSection::::Fossil record.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Paridotea reticulata\" Barnard, 1914 – Reticulate kelp louse\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paridotea rubra\" Barnard, 1914 – Red weed-louse\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paridotea ungulata\" (Pallas, 1772) – Green weed-louse\n\nBULLET::::- \"Synidotea hirtipes\" (Milne Edwards, 1840)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Synidotea setifer\" Barnard, 1914\n\nBULLET::::- \"Synidotea variegata\" Collinge, 1917\n\nSection::::Class Malacostraca, subclass Eumalacostraca temp break.:Suborder Cymothoida.\n\nSection::::Class Malacostraca, subclass Eumalacostraca temp break.:Suborder Cymothoida.:Superfamily Anthuroidea, family Anthuridae.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Amakusanthura africana\" (Barnard, 1914)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apanthura sandalensis\" Stebbing, 1900\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cyathura estuaria\" Barnard, 1914\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haliophasma austroafricanum\" Kensley, 1982\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haliophasma coronicauda\" Barnard, 1925\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haliophasma foveolata\" Barnard, 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haliophasma hermani\" Barnard, 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haliophasma macrurum\" (Barnard, 1914)\n", "Many crustacean larvae were not immediately recognised as larvae when they were discovered, and were described as new genera and species. The names of these genera have become generalised to cover specific larval stages across wide groups of crustaceans, such as \"zoea\" and \"nauplius\". Other terms described forms which are only found in particular groups, such as the \"glaucothoe\" of hermit crabs, or the \"phyllosoma\" of slipper lobsters and spiny lobsters.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Astacilla longipes\" (Barnard, 1920)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Astacilla longispina\" (Kensley, 1978)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Astacilla mediterranea\" Koehler, 1911\n\nBULLET::::- \"Astacilla pustulata\" (Barnard, 1920)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Astacilla tranquilla\" (Kensley, 1975)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arcturina hexagonalis\" Barnard, 1925\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arcturina scutula\" Kensley, 1975\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arcturina triangularis\" Barnard, 1957\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arcturinoides sexpes\" Kensley, 1977\n\nBULLET::::- \"Idarcturus platysoma\" Barnard, 1914\n\nBULLET::::- \"Microarcturus oudops\" (Barnard 1914a)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Microarcturus similis\" (Barnard 1925b)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neastacilla bacillus\" (Barnard, 1920)\n\nSection::::Class Malacostraca, subclass Eumalacostraca temp break.:Superorder Peracarida, order Isopoda, suborder Valvifera.:Family Holidoteidae.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Austroarcturus africanus\" Kensley, 1975\n\nBULLET::::- \"Austroarcturus dayi\" (Kensley, 1977)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Austroarcturus foveolatus\" Kensley, 1975\n\nBULLET::::- \"Austroarcturus laevis\" (Kensley, 1975)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Diastylis hexaceros\" Zimmer, 1908\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptostylis attenuatus\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptostylis gilli\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptostylis faurei\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptostylis macruroides\" Stebbing, 1912\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makrokylindrus (Adiastylis) acanthodes\" (Stebbing, 1912)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makrokylindrus (Adiastylis) aculeatus\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makrokylindrus (Adiastylis) bicornis\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makrokylindrus (Adiastylis) spinifer\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makrokylindrus (Makrokylindrus) deinotelson\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makrokylindrus (Makrokylindrus) fragilis\" Stebbing, 1912\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makrokylindrus (Makrokylindrus) mundus\" Day, 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vemakylindrus stebbingi\" Day, 1980\n\nSection::::Class Malacostraca, subclass Eumalacostraca temp break.:Superorder Eucarida, order Decapoda, suborder Dendrobranchiata.\n\nSection::::Class Malacostraca, subclass Eumalacostraca temp break.:Superorder Eucarida, order Decapoda, suborder Dendrobranchiata.:Superfamily Penaeoidea, family Aristeidae.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cerataspis\" spp.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Paracilicaea clavus\" Barnard, 1955\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paracilicaea mossambica\" Barnard, 1914\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paracilicaea teretron\" Barnard, 1955\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parasphaeroma prominens\" Stebbing, 1902\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parisocladus perforatus\" (H. Milne Edwards, 1840) – spike-back isopod\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parisocladus stimpsoni\" (Heller, 1861)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pseudosphaeroma barnardi\" Monod, 1931\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphaeramene microtylotos\" Barnard, 1955\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphaeramene polytylotos\" Barnard, 1914 – Button isopod\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphaeroma annandalei\" Stebbing 1911\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphaeroma serratum\" (Fabricius, 1787)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphaeroma terebrans\" Bate, 1866\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphaeroma walkeri\" Stebbing, 1905\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stathmos coronatus\" Barnard, 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Zuzara furcifer\" Barnard, 1920\n\nSection::::Class Malacostraca, subclass Eumalacostraca temp break.:Suborder Asellota.\n\nSection::::Class Malacostraca, subclass Eumalacostraca temp break.:Suborder Asellota.:Superfamily Janiroidea, family Dendrotionidae.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma antikraussi\" Barnard, 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma brevitelson\" Barnard, 1914\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma estuarium\" Barnard, 1951\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma hylecoetes\" Barnard, 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma kraussi\" Tattersall, 1913\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma laeviusculum\" (Heller, 1868)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma pallidum\" Barnard, 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma planum\" Barnard, 1914\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma porrectum\" Barnard, 1914\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma truncatitelson\" Barnard, 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exosphaeroma varicolor\" Barnard, 1914 – Variegated spherical isopod\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ischyromene australis\" (Richardson, 1906)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ischyromene bicolor\" (Barnard, 1914)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ischyromene macrocephala\" (Krauss, 1843)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ischyromene ovalis\" (Barnard, 1914)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ischyromene scabricula\" (Heller, 1868)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Isocladus mimetes\" Barnard, 1955\n\nBULLET::::- \"Isocladus otion\" Barnard, 1955\n\nBULLET::::- \"Isocladus tristense\" (Leach, 1818)\n", "Section::::Life cycle.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Mating system.\n\nThe majority of crustaceans have separate sexes, and reproduce sexually. A small number are hermaphrodites, including barnacles, remipedes, and Cephalocarida. Some may even change sex during the course of their life. Parthenogenesis is also widespread among crustaceans, where viable eggs are produced by a female without needing fertilisation by a male. This occurs in many branchiopods, some ostracods, some isopods, and certain \"higher\" crustaceans, such as the \"Marmorkrebs\" crayfish.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Eggs.\n", "Nebalia\n\nNebalia is a large genus of small crustaceans containing more than half of the species in the order Leptostraca, with over thirty species:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia abyssicola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia antarctica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia biarticulata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia bipes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia borealis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia brucei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia cannoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia capensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia clausi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia dahli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia daytoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia falklandensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia geoffroyi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia gerkenae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia herbstii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia hessleri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia ilheoensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia kensleyi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia kocatasi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia lagartensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia longicornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia marerubri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia melanophthalma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia mortoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nebalia neocaledoniensis\"\n", "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to observe the difference between larval crustaceans and the adults when he watched the eggs of \"Cyclops\" hatching in 1699. Despite this, and other observations over the following decades, there was controversy among scientists about whether or not metamorphosis occurred in crustaceans, with conflicting observations presented, based on different species, some of which went through a metamorphosis, and some of which did not. This controversy persisted until the 1840s, and the first descriptions of a complete series of larval forms were not published until the 1870s (Sidney Irving Smith on the American lobster in 1873; Georg Ossian Sars on the European lobster in 1875, and Walter Faxon on the shrimp \"Palaemonetes vulgaris\" in 1879).\n", "Multicrustacea\n\nThe clade Multicrustacea constitutes the largest superclass of crustaceans, containing approximately four-fifths of all described crustacean species, including crabs, lobsters, shrimps, woodlice, prawns, krill, barnacles, crayfish, copepods, amphipods and others. The largest branch of multicrustacea is the class Malacostraca (see below).\n\nSection::::Classification.\n\nAccording to World Register of Marine Species 1 :\n\nBULLET::::- Class Hexanauplia\n\nBULLET::::- Subclass Copepoda - Copepods\n\nBULLET::::- Infra-class Neocopepoda\n\nBULLET::::- Super-order Gymnoplea\n\nBULLET::::- Order Calanoida\n\nBULLET::::- Super-order Podoplea\n\nBULLET::::- Order Cyclopoida\n\nBULLET::::- Order Gelyelloida\n\nBULLET::::- Order Harpacticoida\n\nBULLET::::- Order Misophrioida\n\nBULLET::::- Order Monstrilloida\n\nBULLET::::- Order Mormonilloida\n\nBULLET::::- Order Poecilostomatoida\n\nBULLET::::- Order Siphonostomatoida\n\nBULLET::::- Infra-class Progymnoplea\n", "Laevicardium\n\nLaevicardium, common name \"egg cockles\", is a genus of saltwater clams or cockles, marine bivalve molluscs in the family Cardiidae, the cockles. They are unusual among the cockles in that they have smooth, rounded, \"egg-like\" valves.\n\nSection::::Species.\n\nThere are 33 species in \"Laevicardium\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium attenuatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium biradiatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium brasilianum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium castaneum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium clarionense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium compressum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium crassum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium decorticatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium elatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium etheringtoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium gorgasi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium laevigatum\" — egg cockle\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium leptorimum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium lobulatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium lyratum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laevicardium mortoni\" — Morton's egg cockle\n", "Section::::Larvae of crustacean groups.:Malacostraca.:Decapoda.\n", "BULLET::::- Rayed trough clam, \"Mactra stultorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cut trough clam, \"Spisula subtruncata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Surf clam, \"Spisula solida\"\n\nBULLET::::- Otter clam, \"Lutraria lutraria\"\n\nBULLET::::- Otter clam, \"Lutraria angustior\"\n\nBULLET::::- Piddock, \"Pholas dactylus\"\n\nBULLET::::- European flat oyster, \"Ostrea edulis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Flat oyster, \"Ostrea lamellosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- Great scallop, \"Pecten maximus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Queen scallop, \"Aequipecten opercularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Scallop, \"Aequipecten heliacus\"\n\nSection::::Animals.:Arthropods.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Arthropods.:Crustaceans.\n\nBULLET::::- Sea slater, \"Ligia oceanica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Barnacles\n\nBULLET::::- Acorn barnacle, \"Semibalanus balanoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- Copepods\n\nBULLET::::- Tidepool Copepod, \"Tigriopus brevicornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Crabs\n\nBULLET::::- Broad-clawed porcelain crab, \"Porcellana platycheles\"\n\nBULLET::::- Edible crab, \"Cancer pagurus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Shore crab, \"Carcinus maenas\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10631	are moods , emotions and feelings different things?if yes, what's the difference?	In psychology, moods are general emotional states that persist for a longer period of time. They're less intense than feelings or emotions, and they tend not to be caused by any particular event. When you talk about "being a positive person" or "being a bit of a downer", you're talking about your general mood. Feelings are the instantaneous, intense, and very specific emotional states. You could say "I'm so proud of this thing I've just done", or "I'm feeling quite lusty because of that thing you just did". An easy way to remember this one is that we can also feel other physical sensations, but only when they're currently happening; "I'm feeling hungry". Emotions are the middle ground between moods and feelings. This is where the more general feelings reside and where we might find people saying stuff like; "I love you", or "I've been so angry today".	[ "POMS - long form\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In the case of outward directedness moods might be directed at either the world as a whole, a changing series of objects in the world, or unbound emotion properties projected by people onto things in the world. In the case of inward directedness moods are directed at the overall state of a person's body. In the case of hybrid directedness moods are directed at some combination of inward and outward things.\n\nSection::::Representational theories of mind.:Further objections.\n", "POMS - short form\n", "Section::::Theories of emotion.\n\nMood is the state or quality of feeling at a particular time. When attempting to discover the biological factors that influence mood, it is difficult to find scientific proofs. The psychological study of the mind is built on theories. However, much has been discovered in the study of the brain. The following are a few theories and areas of study of the mind used to further our knowledge of the mind.\n\nSection::::Theories of emotion.:Somatic theories.\n\nSee also Somatic theories\n", "Mood (psychology)\n\nIn psychology, a mood is an emotional state. In contrast to emotions, feelings, or affects, moods are less specific, less intense and less likely to be provoked or instantiated by a particular stimulus or event. Moods are typically described as having either a positive or negative valence. In other words, people usually talk about being in a good mood or a bad mood.\n", "Mood also differs from temperament or personality traits which are even longer-lasting. Nevertheless, personality traits such as optimism and neuroticism predispose certain types of moods. Long term disturbances of mood such as clinical depression and bipolar disorder are considered mood disorders. Mood is an internal, subjective state but it often can be inferred from posture and other behaviors. \"We can be sent into a mood by an unexpected event, from the happiness of seeing an old friend to the anger of discovering betrayal by a partner. We may also just fall into a mood.\"\n", "The second edition of the Profile of mood states scale is known as the POMS-short form. POMS measures six different dimensions of mood swings over a period of time. These include: Tension or Anxiety, Anger or Hostility, Vigor or Activity, Fatigue or Inertia, Depression or Dejection, Confusion or Bewilderment. The short version of POMS was introduced in 1983 by S. Shacham, this version reduced the number of questions down to 37 from the original long-form's 65. The short form still covers all aspects and accurately exhibits the mood states of those who took this form. The short form is considered to be a great alternative to the long form if a briefer measure of psychological distress is needed.\n", "Section::::Moods vs emotions.\n", "In response to this objection a proponent of representationalism might reject the undirected nonintentionality of moods, and attempt to identify some intentional content they might plausibly be thought to possess. The proponent of representationalism might also reject the narrow conception of intentionality as being directed at a particular thing, arguing instead for a broader kind of intentionality.\n\nThere are three alternative kinds of directedness/intentionality one might posit for moods. \n\nBULLET::::- Outward directedness: What it is like to be in mood M is to have a certain kind of outwardly focused representational content.\n", "Negative mood\n\nLike positive moods, negative moods have important implications for human mental and physical wellbeing. Moods are basic psychological states that can occur as a reaction to an event or can surface for no apparent external cause. Since there is no intentional object that causes the negative mood, it has no specific start and stop date. It can last for hours, days, weeks, or longer. Negative moods can manipulate how individuals interpret and translate the world around them, and can also direct their behavior.\n", "Mood swings can happen any time at any place, varying from the microscopic to the wild oscillations of manic depression, so that a continuum can be traced from normal struggles around self-esteem, through cyclothymia, up to a depressive disease. However most people's mood swings remain in the mild to moderate range of emotional ups and downs.\n", "Section::::Emotion functions.:Interpersonal functions.\n", "BULLET::::- Love\n\nBULLET::::- M\n\nBULLET::::- \"Malu\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Man\"\n\nBULLET::::- Matutolypea\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mehameha\"\n\nBULLET::::- Melancholy\n\nBULLET::::- Miffed, a bit\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mono no aware\"\n\nBULLET::::- Morbid curiosity\n\nBULLET::::- \"Miffed\"\n\nBULLET::::- N\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nakhes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nginyiwarrarringu\n\nBULLET::::- Nostalgia\n\nBULLET::::- O\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oime\"\n\nBULLET::::- Overwhelmed, feeling\n\nBULLET::::- P\n\nBULLET::::- Panic\n\nBULLET::::- Paranoia\n\nBULLET::::- Perversity\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peur des espaces\"\n\nBULLET::::- Philoprogenitiveness\n\nBULLET::::- Pique, a fit of\n\nBULLET::::- Pity\n\nBULLET::::- Postal, going\n\nBULLET::::- Pride\n\nBULLET::::- Pronoia\n\nBULLET::::- R\n\nBULLET::::- Rage\n\nBULLET::::- Regret\n\nBULLET::::- Relief\n\nBULLET::::- Reluctance\n\nBULLET::::- Remorse\n\nBULLET::::- Reproachfulness\n\nBULLET::::- Resentment\n\nBULLET::::- Ringxiety\n\nBULLET::::- Rivalry\n\nBULLET::::- Road rage\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ruinenlust\"\n\nBULLET::::- S\n\nBULLET::::- Sadness\n", "Mood\n\nMood may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Mood (psychology), a relatively long lasting emotional state\n\nBULLET::::- Grammatical mood, one of a set of morphologically distinctive forms that are used to signal modality\n\nBULLET::::- Mood (literature), the affective setting of a piece of literature\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Mood (born 1958), a Norwegian general\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- The Mood, a British pop band from 1981 to 1984\n\nBULLET::::- Mood (band), hip hop artists\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moods\" (Barbara Mandrell album), 1978\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moods\" (Mal Waldron album), 1978\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moods\" (Neil Diamond album), 1972\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moods\" (The Three Sounds album), 1960\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moods\" (Monday Michiru album), 2003\n", "Mood is described using the patient's own words, and can also be described in summary terms such as neutral, euthymic, dysphoric, euphoric, angry, anxious or apathetic. Alexithymic individuals may be unable to describe their subjective mood state. An individual who is unable to experience any pleasure may be suffering from anhedonia.\n", "“Emotions normally are associated with specific events or occurrences and are intense enough to disrupt thought processes.”. Moods on the other hand, are more “generalized feelings or states that are not typically identified with a particular stimulus and not sufficiently intense to interrupt ongoing thought processes”. There can be many consequences for allowing negative emotions to affect your general attitude or mood at work. “Emotions and emotion management are a prominent feature of organizational life. It is crucial “to create a publicly observable and desirable emotional display as a part of a job role.” \n", "Section::::Factors which affect mood.:Alcohol.\n\nResearch indicates that alcohol and energy drinks are associated with mood changes. \n\nSection::::Mood disorders.\n\nDepression, chronic stress, bipolar disorder, etc. are considered mood disorders. It has been suggested that such disorders result from chemical imbalances in the brain's neurotransmitters, however some research challenges this hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Social mood.\n\nThe idea of social mood as a \"collectively shared state of mind\" (Nofsinger 2005; Olson 2006) is attributed to Robert Prechter and his socionomics. The notion is used primarily in the field of economics (investments).\n", "Section::::Difference from tone.\n", "BULLET::::- Basorexia\n\nBULLET::::- Befuddlement\n\nBULLET::::- Bewilderment\n\nBULLET::::- Boredom\n\nBULLET::::- Brabant\n\nBULLET::::- Broodiness\n\nBULLET::::- C\n\nBULLET::::- Calm\n\nBULLET::::- Carefree\n\nBULLET::::- Cheerfulness\n\nBULLET::::- Cheesed (off)\n\nBULLET::::- Claustrophobia\n\nBULLET::::- Collywobbles, the\n\nBULLET::::- Comfort\n\nBULLET::::- Compassion\n\nBULLET::::- Compersion\n\nBULLET::::- Confidence\n\nBULLET::::- Contempt\n\nBULLET::::- Contentment\n\nBULLET::::- Courage\n\nBULLET::::- Curiosity\n\nBULLET::::- Cyberchondria\n\nBULLET::::- D\n\nBULLET::::- Delight\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dépaysement\"\n\nBULLET::::- Desire\n\nBULLET::::- Despair\n\nBULLET::::- Disappear, the desire to\n\nBULLET::::- Disappointment\n\nBULLET::::- Disgruntlement\n\nBULLET::::- Disgust\n\nBULLET::::- Dismay\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dolce far niente\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dread\n\nBULLET::::- E\n\nBULLET::::- Ecstasy\n\nBULLET::::- Embarrassment\n\nBULLET::::- Empathy\n\nBULLET::::- Envy\n\nBULLET::::- Euphoria\n\nBULLET::::- Exasperation\n\nBULLET::::- Excitement\n\nBULLET::::- F\n\nBULLET::::- Fear\n\nBULLET::::- Feeling good (about yourself)\n", "Irrealis moods are the set of grammatical moods that indicate that something is not actually the case or a certain situation or action is not known to have happened. They are any verb or sentence mood that is not a realis mood. They may be part of expressions of necessity, possibility, requirement, wish or desire, fear, or as part of counterfactual reasonings, etc.\n", "Even if one can identify some possible intentional content for moods we might still question whether that content is able to sufficiently capture the phenomenal character of the mood states they are a part of. Amy Kind contends that in the case of all the previously mentioned kinds of directedness (outward, inward, and hybrid) the intentional content supplied to the mood state is not capable of sufficiently capturing the phenomenal aspects of the mood states. In the case of inward directedness, the phenomenology of the mood does not seem tied to the state of one's body, and even if one's mood is reflected by the overall state of one's body that person will not necessarily be aware of it, demonstrating the insufficiency of the intentional content to adequately capture the phenomenal aspects of the mood. In the case of outward directedness, the phenomenology of the mood and its intentional content do not seem to share the corresponding relation they should given that the phenomenal character is supposed to reduce to the intentional content. Hybrid directedness, if it can even get off the ground, faces the same objection.\n", "A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as a main symptom. The mood disorders are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include major depressive disorder (MDD; commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and dysthymia, a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet the severity of a major depressive episode. Another mood disorder, bipolar disorder, features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, cognition and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression. When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as a seasonal affective disorder.\n", "Internal events occur in the human mind. These occurrences of cognition are visible only to the person who experiences them. External events are physical occurrences experienced in a human's environment, such as receiving a gift or encountering a friend. External events affect the mood of an individual depending on how he or she perceives the action. Some evidence suggests that internal events, such as imagination and reasoning, are less likely than external events to be remembered after a mood shift. Eich and Metcalfe conducted several experiments on this subject. Each experiment was composed of an encoding session and a retrieval session. Subjects were asked to describe their current mood, and then listened to classical music chosen to instigate either happiness or sadness. As they listened to the music, subjects again expressed how they were feeling to keep their minds working.\n", "BULLET::::- Formal feeling, a\n\nBULLET::::- Fraud, feeling like a\n\nBULLET::::- Frustration\n\nBULLET::::- G\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gezelligheid\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gladsomeness\n\nBULLET::::- Glee\n\nBULLET::::- Gratitude\n\nBULLET::::- \"Greng jai\"\n\nBULLET::::- Grief\n\nBULLET::::- Guilt\n\nBULLET::::- H\n\nBULLET::::- \"Han\"\n\nBULLET::::- Happiness\n\nBULLET::::- Hatred\n\nBULLET::::- Heebie-Jeebies, the\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hiraeth\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hoard, the urge to\n\nBULLET::::- Homefulness\n\nBULLET::::- Homesickness\n\nBULLET::::- Hopefulness\n\nBULLET::::- Huff, in a\n\nBULLET::::- Humble, feeling\n\nBULLET::::- Humiliation\n\nBULLET::::- Hunger\n\nBULLET::::- Hwyl\n\nBULLET::::- I\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ijirashi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ilinx\"\n\nBULLET::::- Impatience\n\nBULLET::::- Indignation\n\nBULLET::::- Inhabitiveness\n\nBULLET::::- Insulted, feeling\n\nBULLET::::- Irritation\n\nBULLET::::- J\n\nBULLET::::- Jealousy\n\nBULLET::::- Joy\n\nBULLET::::- K\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kaukokaipuu\"\n\nBULLET::::- L\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liget\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Litost\"\n\nBULLET::::- Loneliness\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05033	Why does toothpaste stick to the sink so well but easily falls off my toothbrush?	When you first put it on your toothbrush, you are putting on slow, and there isn't enough force to push it down. When it hits the sink, it most likely happened because it dropped out of the tube from a height of a foot or so. That means that it hits with a good bit of force, and that forces squishes it into the porcelain surface. If you were to gentle squeeze it directly on the sink, you'd find that you could gently pick it up from there. Think about a human gently laying on a bed of nails versus a human landing on a solid concrete surface from a high fall. In the first case, the cohesive forces of the body are able to hold it together because not a lot of force is being applied and even though every individual every is small, it is spread out a lot. In the second, the cohesive forces are overcome instantly by an impact, and it doesn't matter if the surface is relatively smooth.	[ "The action of such brushes is mostly from the sides, not the tip, contact with which releases material held by capillary action.\n\nBULLET::::- Paintbrush (house decoration)\n\nBULLET::::- Paintbrush (fine art)\n\nBULLET::::- Wall-paper brush\n\nBULLET::::- Shoe-polish brush (polish applicator)\n\nBULLET::::- Makeup brush\n\nBULLET::::- Mascara brush\n\nBULLET::::- Nail-polish brush\n\nBULLET::::- Finger-print forensic brush\n\nBULLET::::- Pastry brush\n\nBULLET::::- Ink brush\n\nBULLET::::- Shaving brush\n\nBULLET::::- Gilding brush\n\nSection::::By function.:Combing.\n", "Depending on application, conveying medium and tube material, the following methods of tube cleaning are available:\n\nSection::::Lost tubes.\n", "Tooth brushing is the most common cause of dental abrasion, which is found to develop along the gingival margin, due to vigorous brushing in this area. The type of toothbrush, the technique used and the force applied when brushing can influence the occurrence and severity of resulting abrasion. Further, brushing for extended periods of time (exceeding 2-3 min) in some cases, when combined with medium/hard bristled toothbrushes can cause abrasive lesions.\n", "When cleaning equipment it is near impossible to remove all the loose molecules. It is almost certain that traces of the chemical used to clean the equipment will remain on its surfaces, forming a microscopically thin layer.\n", "BULLET::::- Wetshaving also has exfoliating properties: first, the action of moving a shaving brush vigorously across the face washes the face and removes dead skin at the same time. After applying the lather with a brush, the use of a double-edged safety razor or straight razor removes dead skin simply because the razor is dragged much more closely across the skin, and removes dead skin more effectively than a cartridge or electric razor.\n\nSection::::Types.:With hair removal.:Dermaplaning.\n", "Commonly, toothbrushes are made of plastic. Such brushes constitute a source of pollution. In order to reduce the environmental impact, some manufacturers have switched to using biodegradable materials and/or use replaceable heads. In order to avoid plastic altogether, alternative toothbrushes on offer consist of wooden handles (often bamboo) and bristles of bamboo viscose or pig bristles.\n\nSection::::Adversity of toothbrushes.\n\nTeeth can be damaged by several factors including poor oral hygiene, but also by wrong oral hygiene. Especially for sensitive teeth, damage to dentin and gums can be prevented by several measures including a correct brushing technique.\n", "Toothbrushes are offered with varying textures of bristles, and come in many different forms and sizes. Most dentists recommend using a toothbrush labelled \"soft\", since firmer bristled toothbrushes can damage tooth enamel and irritate gums as indicated by the American Dental Association. Toothbrushes are often made from synthetic fibers, although natural toothbrushes are also known in many parts of the world. Those with dentures may also brush their teeth with traditional tooth brushes, specially made denture brushes or denture cleaners.\n\nSection::::Toothpaste.\n", "Tooth brushing\n\nTooth brushing is the act of scrubbing teeth with a toothbrush equipped with toothpaste. Interdental cleaning (with floss or an interdental brush) can be useful with tooth brushing, and together these two activities are the primary means of cleaning teeth, one of the main aspects of oral hygiene.\n", "BULLET::::4. Malibu Timmy – Timmy and his friends go to the beach, but there is just one problem: Timmy cannot swim, and neither can Waxie! Timmy then imagines himself as a lifeguard where his friends are competing in a surfing competition against Goon Doggy.\n\nBULLET::::5. Lost My Brush – The Cavity Goon and Miss Sweety plan to get rid of Brushbrush and Timmy by capturing Brushbrush as bait so that they can capture Timmy and hand him over to the Tooth Fairy.\n", "If the cause of abrasion is due to habitual behaviours, the discontinuation and change of habit is critical in the prevention of further tooth loss. The correct brushing technique is pivotal and involves a gentle scrub technique with small horizontal movements with an extra-soft/soft bristle brush. Excessive lateral force can be corrected by holding the toothbrush in a pen grasp or by using the non-dominant hand to brush. If abrasion is the result of an ill-fitting dental appliance, this should be corrected or replaced by a dental practitioner and should not be attempted in a home setting.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chemical.\n", "The front and backs of teeth should be brushed with the toothbrush at a 45 degree angle towards the gum line, moving the brush in a back and forth rolling motion that makes contact with the gum line and tooth. To brush the backs of the front teeth the brush should be held vertically to the tooth and moved in an up and down motion. The chewing surfaces of the teeth are brushed with a forward and back motion, with the toothbrush pointing straight at the tooth.\n\nSection::::Toothbrushing guidelines.:Timing.\n", "There are a number of common oral hygiene misconceptions. It is not correct to rinse the mouth with water after brushing. It is also not recommended to brush immediately after drinking acidic substances, including sparkling water. It is also recommended to floss once a day, with a different piece of floss at each flossing session. The Effectiveness of Tooth Mousse is in debate. Visits to a dentist for a checkup every year at least are recommended.\n\nSection::::Culinary (food) hygiene.\n", "Section::::Mechanical process.\n\nA mechanical tube cleaning system is a cleaning body that is moved through the tube in order to remove deposits from the tube wall. In the most simple case it is a matter of a brush that is moved in the tube by means of a rod or a flexible spring (device). In large-scale technology and industrial sector, however, several processes have developed which necessitate a more detailed definition.\n\nSection::::Mechanical process.:Off-line process.\n", "Section::::Thermal process.\n", "The newest developments in this field are ultrasonic toothbrushes, which use ultrasonic waves to clean the teeth. In order for a toothbrush to be considered \"ultrasonic\" it has to emit a wave at a minimum frequency of 20,000 Hz or 2,400,000 movements per minute. Typically, ultrasonic toothbrushes approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) operate at a frequency of 1.6 MHz, which translates to 192,000,000 movements per minute.\n", "BULLET::::- Ultrasonic, indicates a brush action where the bristles vibrate at ultrasonic frequencies ( 20 kHz).\n\nBULLET::::- Ionic, indicates a brush that aims to impart an electrical charge to the tooth surface with the intent of disrupting the attachment of dental plaque.\n\nFor some vibrating toothbrush designs, a brushing technique similar to that used with a manual toothbrush is recommended, whereas with brushes with a spinning head the recommended cleaning technique is to simply move the brush slowly from tooth to tooth.\n", "Chemical tube cleaning is understood to be the use of cleaning liquids or chemicals for removing layers and deposits. A typical example is the deliming of a coffee maker where scale is removed by means of acetic acid or citric acid. Depending on the field of application and tube material, special cleaning liquids may be used which also require a multi-stage treatment:\n\nBULLET::::- chemical activation\n\nBULLET::::- cleaning\n\nBULLET::::- rinsing\n", "Section::::Mechanical process.:On-line process.\n", "Different toothbrush types are more inclined to cause abrasion, such as those with medium or hard bristles. The bristles combined with forceful brushing techniques applied can roughen the tooth surface and cause abrasion as well as aggravating the gums. Repetitive irritation to the gingival margin can eventually cause recession of the gums. When the gums recede, the root surface is exposed which is more susceptible to abrasion.\n\nComparatively, electric toothbrushes have less abrasive tendencies.\n", "Passive cleaning bodies may be a matter of brushes or special constructions like scrapers or so-called \"pigs\", for instance, which are conveyed through the tubes by means of pressurized air, water, or other media. In most cases, cleaning is implemented through the oversize of the cleaning bodies compared to the tube inner diameter. The types range from brushes with bristles of plastic or steel to scrapers (with smaller tube diameters) and more expensive designs with spraying nozzles for pipelines. This method is applied for tube and pipe diameters from around 5 mm to several metres. Also belonging to this field is the cleaning of obstructed soil pipes of domestic sewage systems that is done by means of a rotating, flexible shaft.\n", "Ultrasonic toothbrushes emit vibrations that are very high in frequency but low in amplitude. These vibrations break up bacterial chains that make up dental plaque and remove their methods of attachment to the tooth surface up to 5 mm below the gum line.\n", "BULLET::::- Unwaxed floss: Unbound nylon filaments that spread across the tooth. Plaque and debris get trapped for easy removal.\n\nBULLET::::- Waxed floss: less susceptible to tearing or shredding when used between tight contacts or areas with overhanging restorations.\n\nBULLET::::- Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon): Slides easily through tight contacts and does not fray.\n\nThe type of floss used is a personal preference; however, without proper technique it may not be effective.\n\nThe correct technique to ensure maximum plaque removal is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::1. Floss length: 15–25 cm wrapped around middle fingers.\n", "Modern electric toothbrushes run on low voltage, 12v or less. A few units use a step-down transformer to power the brush, but most use a battery, usually but not always rechargeable and non-replaceable, fitted inside the handle, which is hermetically sealed to prevent water damage. While early NiCd battery toothbrushes used metal tabs to connect with the charging base, some toothbrushes use inductive charging.\n\nSection::::Environmental concerns.\n", "Harder tooth brushes reduce plaque more efficiently but are more stressful to teeth and gum; using a medium to soft tooth brush for a longer cleaning time was rated to be the best compromise between cleaning result and gum and tooth health.\n\nA study by University College London found that advice on brushing technique and frequency given by 10 national dental associations, toothpaste and toothbrush companies, and in dental textbooks was inconsistent.\n\nSection::::Hygiene and care.\n", "BULLET::::8. An Eye for a Tooth – Sidney Cyclops cannot be the greatest paper boy in the world if he cannot see. So Timmy, Brushbrush, and Bubbles help Sidney to see in order for him to be the greatest paper boy in the world.\n\nBULLET::::9. Rainy Day Adventure – During a rainy day, Timmy imagines that he is Captain Good Guy, and Brushbrush is his first mate where they work to save Sunny the Sun from pirate versions of Cavity Goon and Miss Sweetie.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07767	In 1918, a $100 bill was worth about $1700 in today's dollars. What was the point of having such a large denomination bill?	Wire transfers did exist in 1918, but in the pre-digital age a lot of money transferring and record keeping was still done physically. For internal transfers, banks used bills as high as [$100,000]( URL_0 ) since physically moving a stack of giant bills down the street was often so much faster than trying to verify the integrity of wire transfers through old timey telegraph systems.	[ "Large-denomination currency (i.e., banknotes with a face value of $500 or higher) had been used in the United States since the late 18th century. The first $500 note was issued by the Province of North Carolina, authorized by legislation dated May 10, 1780. Virginia quickly followed suit and authorized the printing of $500 and $1,000 notes on October 16, 1780 and $2,000 notes on May 7, 1781. High-denomination treasury notes were issued, for example during the War of 1812 ($1,000 notes authorized by an act dated June 30, 1812). During the American Civil War Confederate currency included $500 and $1,000 notes. During the federal banknote issuing period (1861 to present), the earliest high-denomination notes included three-year Interest-bearing notes of $500, $1,000, and $5,000, authorized by Congress on July 17, 1861. In total, 11 different types of U.S. currency were issued in high-denomination notes across nearly 20 different series dates.\n", "BULLET::::- 1864: Compound Interest Treasury Notes, with a face design similar to the 1863 Interest Bearing Note, were issued that grew in face value 6% compounded semi-annually. It is unknown if the note could actually be spent for $10 plus interest.\n", "BULLET::::- 1929: Under the \"Series of 1928\", all U.S. currency was changed to its current size and began to carry a standardized design. All variations of the $100 bill would carry the same portrait of Benjamin Franklin, same border design on the obverse, and the same reverse with a vignette of Independence Hall. The $100 bill was issued as a Federal Reserve Note with a green seal and serial numbers and as a Gold Certificate with a golden seal and serial numbers.\n", "Currently printed denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by organized crime; it was the latter usage that prompted President Richard Nixon to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $100,000 were all produced at one time; see large denomination bills in U.S. currency for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collectors' items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.\n", "BULLET::::- 1914: The first $50 Federal Reserve Note was issued with a portrait of Ulysses Grant on the obverse and an allegorical figure of Panama between a merchant and battle ship on the reverse.\n", "BULLET::::- 1863: The first $100 Gold Certificates were issued with a bald eagle to the left and large green 100 in the middle of the obverse. The reverse was distinctly printed in orange instead of green like all other U.S. federal government issued notes of the time.\n\nBULLET::::- 1864: Compound Interest Treasury Notes were issued that were intended to circulate for three years and paid 6% interest compounded semi-annually. The obverse is similar to the 1863 one-year Interest Bearing Note.\n", "The Seven-Thirties were issued in denominations of $50, $100, $500, $1,000, and $5,000. The notes are similar in design to the Legal Tender notes of the Civil War era. Today these notes are collectors' items like U.S. paper money, though no more than two or three dozen surviving examples are known.\n\nSection::::Demand Notes of 1861.\n", "BULLET::::- 1918: Federal Reserve Bank Notes (\"not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes\") were issued by the Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis. The obverse was similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve Notes, except for large wording in the middle of the bill and a portrait with no border on the left side of the bill. The note was an obligation of the St. Louis Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed there.\n\nSection::::Small size note history.\n\n\"(6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm)\"\n", "Compound interest treasury notes were emissions of the United States Treasury Department authorized in 1863 and 1864 with aspects of both paper money and debt. They were issued in denominations of $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1000. While they were legal tender at face value, they were redeemable after three years with six percent annual interest compounded semi-annually.\n", "Although they are still legal tender in the United States, high-denomination bills were last printed on December 27, 1945, and officially discontinued on July 14, 1969, by the Federal Reserve System, due to 'lack of use'. The $5,000 and $10,000 effectively disappeared well before then.\n", "Large-sized Federal Reserve Bank Notes were issued in 1918. Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a borderless portrait of Thomas Jefferson to left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a World War I battleship.\n", "BULLET::::- 1933: As an emergency response to the Great Depression, additional money was pumped into the American economy through Federal Reserve Bank Notes issued under \"Series of 1929\". This was the only small-sized $100 bill that had a slightly different border design on the obverse. The serial numbers and seal on it were brown.\n\nBULLET::::- 1934: The \"redeemable in gold\" clause was removed from Federal Reserve Notes due to the U.S. withdrawing from the gold standard.\n", "BULLET::::- 1918: The only large-sized, Federal Reserve Note-like $1 bill was issued as a Federal Reserve Bank Note (not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes). Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at that corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a borderless portrait of George Washington to the left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a bald eagle in flight clutching an American flag.\n", "Originally, the banknote was simply a promise to the bearer that they could redeem it for its value in specie, but in 1833 the second in a series of Bank Charter Acts established that banknotes would be considered as legal tender during peacetime.\n", "A five-shilling piece was called a Crown. \n\nA ten-shilling note was sometimes known as \"half a bar\". It was first printed in 1914 by the Treasury during World War One to conserve silver. These early Treasury notes (especially the 1st and 2nd Series from 1914 to 1917) were nicknamed \"Bradburys\", from the prominent stylized signature of Sir John Bradbury, Permanent Secretary to the Treasury (1913-1919). \n", "BULLET::::- 1915: Federal Reserve Bank Notes (not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes) were issued by 5 Federal Reserve Banks. The obverse was similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve Notes, except for large wording in the middle of the bill and a portrait with no border on the left side of the bill. Each note was an obligation of the issuing bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank.\n\nBULLET::::- 1918: The 1915 Federal Reserve Bank Note was re-issued under series 1918 by 11 Federal Reserve banks.\n", "BULLET::::- 1890: One hundred dollar Treasury or \"Coin Notes\" were issued for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The note featured a portrait of Admiral David G. Farragut. The note was also nicknamed a \"watermelon note\" because of the watermelon-shaped 0's in the large numeral 100 on the reverse; the large numeral 100 was surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note.\n", "On small-sized United States Notes, the U.S. Treasury Seal and the serial numbers are printed in red (contrasting with Federal Reserve Notes, where they usually appear in green). By the time the small-size format was adopted, the Federal Reserve System was already existing and there was limited need for United States Notes. They were mainly issued in $2 and $5 denominations in the Series years of 1928, 1953, and 1963. There was a limited issue of $1 notes in the Series of 1928, and an issue of $100 notes in the Series year of 1966, mainly to satisfy legacy legal requirements of maintaining the mandated quantity in circulation. The BEP also printed but did not issue $10 notes in the 1928 Series. An example was displayed at the 1933 Worlds Fair in Chicago. \n", "Plate capacity on power presses increased from four to eight notes per sheet in 1918 in order to meet greatly expanded production requirements related to World War I. \n", "BULLET::::- there has only been one five hundred-dollar note issued by the Bank of Canada, in the 1935 series. The five hundred-dollar denomination was a hold-over from the Dominion notes formerly issued by the Minister of Finance, and has not been repeated. Almost all of the 1935 five hundred-dollar notes have been withdrawn.\n", "BULLET::::- 1929: Under the Series of 1928, all small-sized notes carried a standardized design. All $5 bills would feature a portrait of Lincoln, the same border design on the obverse, and the Lincoln Memorial on the reverse. The $5 bill was issued as a United States Note with a red seal and serial numbers and as a Federal Reserve Note with a green seal and serial numbers.\n", "In 1928, sizing of the bills was standardized (involving a 25% reduction in their current sizes, compared to the older, larger notes nicknamed \"horse blankets\"). Modern U.S. currency, regardless of denomination, is 2.61 inches (66.3 mm) wide, 6.14 inches (156 mm) long, and 0.0043 inches (0.109 mm) thick. A single bill weighs about fifteen and a half grains (one gram) and costs approximately 4.2 cents for the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to produce.\n\nMicroprinting and security threads were introduced in the 1991 currency series.\n\nAnother series started in 1996 with the $100 note, adding the following changes:\n", "BULLET::::- 1934: Special $100 Gold Certificates were issued for non-public, Federal Reserve bank-to-bank transactions. These notes featured a reverse printed in orange instead of green like all other small-sized notes. The wording on the obverse was also changed to .\n\nBULLET::::- 1950: Many minor aspects on the obverse of the $100 Federal Reserve Note were changed. Most noticeably, the treasury seal, gray numeral '100', and the Federal Reserve Seal were now smaller with small \"spikes\" added around the Federal Reserve seal.\n", "BULLET::::- 1915: Federal Reserve Bank Notes (not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes) were issued by 4 individual Federal Reserve banks. The obverse was similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve notes except for large wording in the middle of the bill and a portrait with no border on the left side of the bill. Each note was an obligation of the issuing bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank.\n\nBULLET::::- 1918: The 1915 Federal Reserve Bank Note was re-issued under series of 1918 by 4 Federal Reserve banks.\n", "National Bank Notes, unlike the other banknotes of the United States, were not directly issued by banks controlled by the United States government but were issued by banks chartered to do so by the government. The banks' charter expired after 20 years and they had to renew it if they wanted to continue to issue National Bank Notes. They were all uniform in look except for the name of the bank and were issued as three series, known as the three charter periods. The first one were notes issued from 1869-1882, the second one from 1882-1902, and the third one from 1902-1922. In 1929 the notes were resurrected as an emergency issue due to the Great Depression in small size. They were discontinued in 1933. The denominations issued were $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. The $1, $2, $500 and $1,000 notes were only issued in large size during the First Charter Period. The $1 and $2 notes are common from most banks (there are exceptions). The $500 note is extremely rare; there are only three known examples, of which one is held privately, and the $1,000 note is unknown to exist.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07314	If I cook meats like prosciutto, the ham gets signifantly more salty. Is there any salt that's physically being added or cooked into the meat?	I believe it's because the moisture is cooking out of the meat, resulting in a higher concentration of salt.	[ "The salt content in dry-cured ham varies throughout a piece of meat, with gradients determinable through sampling and testing or non-invasively through CT scanning.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Wet-cured.\n\nWet-cured hams are brined, which involves the immersion of the meat in a brine, sometimes with other ingredients such as sugar also added for flavour. Meat is typically kept in the brine for around 3 to 14 days. Wet curing also has the effect of increasing volume and weight of the finished product, by about 4%.\n", "The salting stage is one of the most important in the entire preparation process for Iberian acorn-fed ham. The aim of this technique is twofold: to introduce salt into the muscle mass of the hams, and to slowly dehydrate the hams themselves. The salting process lies in the extent to which the salt acts. This salting action depends on the amount of salt applied as well as the capacity of the meat to assimilate it and allow the process of osmosis to take place, that is to say, the introduction of salt and the removal of juices. Both sea salt and fossil salt can be used to carry out the salting process. \n", "Salt inhibits the growth of microorganisms by drawing water out of microbial cells through osmosis. Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required to kill most species of unwanted bacteria. Smoking, often used in the process of curing meat, adds chemicals to the surface of meat that reduce the concentration of salt required.\n", "Salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. Removal of water and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. In addition, salt causes the soluble proteins to come to the surface of the meat that was used to make the sausages. These proteins coagulate when the sausage is heated, helping to hold the sausage together.\n\nSection::::Chemical actions.:Sugar.\n", "Prosciutto is sometimes cured with nitrites (either sodium or potassium), which are generally used in other hams to produce the desired rosy color and unique flavor, but only sea salt is used in Protected Designation of Origin hams.\n\nSuch rosy pigmentation is produced by a direct chemical reaction of nitric oxide with myoglobin to form nitrosomyoglobin, followed by concentration of the pigments due to drying. Bacteria convert the added nitrite or nitrate to nitric oxide.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "Some chefs recommend using pancetta as a substitute; ham is also suggested.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Salting (food)\n\nSalting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. It is related to pickling in general and more specifically to brining (preparing food with brine, that is, salty water) and is one form of curing. It is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and two historically significant salt-cured foods are salted fish (usually dried and salted cod or salted herring) and salt-cured meat (such as bacon). Vegetables such as runner beans and cabbage are also often preserved in this manner.\n", "BULLET::::- Salt is the most frequently used additive in meat processing. It imparts flavor but also inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps emulsifying finely processed products, such as sausages. Ready-to-eat meat products normally contain about 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt. Salt water or similar substances may also be injected into poultry meat to improve the taste and increase the weight, in a process called plumping.\n", "Section::::Production process for Joselito ham.:Salting.\n", "Salt pork\n\nSalt pork is salt-cured pork. It is usually prepared from pork belly, or, more rarely, fatback. Salt pork typically resembles uncut slab bacon, but is fattier, being made from the lowest part of the belly, saltier, as the cure is stronger and performed for longer, and never smoked. \n", "In Germany there is a dish with the same name, \"Salzkartoffeln\". However, far less salt is used compared to Syracuse Salt Potatoes; also, the potatoes often are peeled prior to cooking. So, despite the direct literal translation, \"Boiled Potatoes\" would be a more practical interpretation. \"Salzkartoffeln\" is a popular side dish in many German meals. The name \"Salzkartoffeln\" is used to distinguish peeled potatoes boiled in slightly salted water from unpeeled ones, usually boiled without any salt. The latter is called \"Pellkartoffeln\" and is eaten with butter or quark cheese.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Canarian wrinkly potatoes\n", "Salt in the name is a misnomer; the bread is not leavened by salt nor does it taste salty. One explanation for the name of the bread is that the starter was kept warm in a bed of heated salt. Another possible origin of the name is the use of salt to inhibit yeast growth and provide an environment more conducive for the microbes to grow, enhancing the distinct flavors which predominate over the more typical yeast flavors.\n", "BULLET::::2. Salting: Salting is done at a temperature between , since lower temperatures reduce salt penetration and hinder bacterial growth. Salt is repeatedly rubbed onto the meat and allowed to absorb over the span of many days, using a specialized method and mnemonic which indicates the order and the important areas of the ham to salt. The salting process is repeated 5–7 times, with an average time of 1 month. Only plain salt is used, though some producers also include sodium nitrate in the salting process.\n", "According to a recipe, the cooking water contains salt in a ratio of one cup of salt to six cups of water, giving the dish its name, unique flavor, and texture. After cooking, salt potatoes are served with melted butter.\n\nThe resulting potatoes are creamy, as the starch in the potatoes cooks more completely due to the higher boiling temperature of the extra-salty water. The salty skin stands up particularly well to both herbed and plain melted butter.\n\nSection::::Salt potatoes in Germany.\n", "Section::::Production process for Joselito ham.:Settling and post-salting.\n", "Compared to a sourdough starter, salt-rising bread starter requires a shorter incubation period of 6–16 hours and a higher incubation temperature, ranging from . Salt-rising bread is denser, with a closer grain, than yeast-leavened bread, and has a distinctive taste and odor. The pungent odor of the fermenting starter has been described as similar to \"very ripe cheese\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites (either sodium nitrite or potassium nitrate), which are added along with the salt. Nitrates are used because they prevent bacterial growth and, in a reaction with the meat's myoglobin, give the product a desirable dark red color. The amount and mixture of salt and nitrites used have an effect on the shrinkage of the meat. Because of the toxicity of nitrite (the lethal dose of nitrite for humans is about 22 mg per kg body weight), some areas specify a maximum allowable content of nitrite in the final product. Under certain conditions, especially during cooking, nitrites in meat can react with degradation products of amino acids, forming nitrosamines, which are known carcinogens.\n", "Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the curative agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams, although this is comparatively rare. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed draining all the blood. Specific herbs and spices may be used to add flavour during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry. It is then hung to air for another period of time.\n", "Salo is often chopped into small pieces and fried to render fat for cooking, while the remaining cracklings ( in Ukrainian, in Russian, in Lithuanian, in Polish, in Romanian, in Estonian, töpörtyű in Hungarian) are used as condiments for fried potatoes or varenyky or spread on bread as a snack. \n", "Also called Pink curing salt #2. It contains 6.25% sodium nitrite, 4% sodium nitrate, and 89.75% table salt. The sodium nitrate found in Prague powder #2 gradually breaks down over time into sodium nitrite, and by that time a dry cured sausage is ready to be eaten, no sodium nitrate should be left. For this reason it is recommended for meats that require long (weeks to months) cures, like hard salami and country ham.\n\nSection::::Types.:Saltpetre.\n", "Brining can also be achieved by covering the meat in dry coarse salt and left to rest for several hours. The salt draws moisture from the interior of the meat to the surface, where it mixes with the salt and is then reabsorbed with the salt essentially brining the meat in its own juices. The salt rub is then rinsed off and discarded before cooking.\n\nFood scientists have two theories about the brining effect, but which one is correct is still under debate.\n", "The second curing salt blend is called \"prague powder II\" or \"insta-cure #2\". Also colored pink to differentiate it from table salt, it contains 6.25% sodium nitrite, 4% sodium nitrate, and 89.75% table salt.. This mixture is used for dry sausages that require a longer drying period which requires the presence of nitrate.\n\nSection::::Salt-cured and brined products.:Seasoning and flavoring agents.\n", "At times beef steak is fried in this manner - by preheating the frying-pan and salt and the placing steak on it on one side for a minute and then on the other side for two minutes depending on the thickness and how well one wants it.\n\nSection::::Hot sand frying.\n", "Salt-cured meat\n\nSalt-cured meat or salted meat is meat or fish preserved or cured with salt. Salting, either with dry salt or brine, was a common method of preserving meat until the middle of the 20th century, becoming less popular after the advent of refrigeration. It was frequently called \"junk\" or \"salt horse\".\n", "Korean brining salt, with a larger grain size and lower sodium content compared to common kitchen salt, is used for the initial salting of napa cabbages. Being minimally processed, it serves to help developing flavors in fermented foods. Per water, around of salt is used. Half of the salt is dissolved in water before putting the cabbages in, and the other half is sprinkled in between the layers of napa cabbages that were washed, trimmed, and halved or quartered lengthwise. The cabbages are salted in the brine for several hours, turned over, then salted for more hours. After that, salted cabbages are washed thoroughly under running water and drained.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16654	what is the difference between Bison and Bufflo?	Bison is the North American wild bovine species. Buffalo are various other species of wild bovine in other parts of the world.	[ "A 2003 study of mitochondrial DNA indicated four distinct maternal lineages in subtribe Bovina:\n\nBULLET::::1. Taurine cattle and zebu\n\nBULLET::::2. European bison (wisent)\n\nBULLET::::3. American bison and yak\n\nBULLET::::4. Banteng, gaur, and gayal\n", "BULLET::::- Bucknell Bison, the NCAA Division I athletic teams of Bucknell University\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Bison and Lady Bison, the NCAA Division I teams of Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia\n\nBULLET::::- North Dakota State Bison, the NCAA Division I teams of North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota\n\nBULLET::::- Bison Sports Arena\n\nBULLET::::- Bisons, the teams of Gallaudet University, District of * Howard Bison and Lady Bison, the NCAA Division I teams of Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia\n\nBULLET::::- Bisons, the Division II teams of Harding University, Arkansas\n", "Section::::In other media.:Animation.:\"Street Fighter\" (UDON comics).\n", "Section::::In other media.:Animation.:\"Street Fighter\" (US cartoon).\n", "On average, it is slightly lighter in body mass and yet taller at the shoulder than the plains bison (\"Bison bison bison\"). Compared to the American species, the wisent has shorter hair on the neck, head, and forequarters, but longer tail and horns.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::In other media.:Live action.:\"Street Fighter: Resurrection\".\n\nSilvio Simac portrayed Bison in \"\" appearing in the final episode observing Ryu, Ken, Laura and Nash through a battered Decapre's eyes while sitting down on his throne behind a massive spherical object before burning a chess piece with his Psycho Power and proclaiming that he shall let them come.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Live action.:\"Street Fighter: World Warrior\".\n\nM. Bison is set to appear in \"Street Fighter: World Warrior\" as the primary villain.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Live action.:\"Power Rangers: Legacy Wars (Live Action short)\".\n", "Alternatively, genome sequencing completed on the Pleistocene woodland bison (\"B. schoetensaki\"), and published in 2017, posit that genetic similarities between the Pleistocene woodland bison and the wisent suggest that \"B. schoetensaki\" was the ancestor of the European wisent.\n\nSection::::Differences from American bison.\n", "Section::::In other media.:Animation.:\"Street Fighter II V\".\n", "A 2003 study of mitochondrial DNA indicated four distinct maternal lineages in tribe Bovini:\n\nBULLET::::1. Taurine cattle and zebu\n\nBULLET::::2. Wisent\n\nBULLET::::3. American bison and yak and\n\nBULLET::::4. Banteng, gaur, and gayal\n\nHowever, Y chromosome analysis associated wisent and American bison. An earlier study using amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting showed a close association of wisent with American bison, and probably with the yak, but noted that the interbreeding of Bovini species made determining relationships problematic.\n", "Bison and Shadaloo feature more prominently in the \"Alpha\" series of games. New Shadaloo henchmen are introduced, including the Dolls, a group of female fighters who are programmed to serve Bison. Cammy was bred as a member of this group, but eventually broke from the group and fled to England. The character Birdie joins Shadaloo during his ending sequence in the first \"Street Fighter Alpha\" game, but turns against Bison and leaves in \"Alpha 2\".\n", "Section::::Habitat and behavior.\n", "Section::::Range and population.\n", "BULLET::::- Bison appears in \"Capcom Fighting Jam\" (2004), which features an assortment of characters from each individual series published by Capcom. In the game, Bison is part of the \"Street Fighter II\" roster.\n\nBULLET::::- Bison also appears in the Japanese action/tactical RPG hybrid \"Namco × Capcom\" and \"Project X Zone 2\".\n\nBULLET::::- Bison is also a playable character in \"Street Fighter X Tekken\", with Juri as his official tag partner.\n\nSection::::Appearances.:Other games.:Alternate versions.\n", "In the \"Watchmen\" sequel \"Doomsday Clock\", Black Bison is among the villains that attend the underground meeting held by Riddler to talk about the Superman Theory. When Moonbow and Typhoon are stated to be creations of the government and Black Bison is near them, Black Bison states that he was not mentioned as having been created by the government.\n\nSection::::B.:Black Bison.:Alternate versions of Black Bison.\n\nBlack Bison appears in \"\"'s prequel comic series.\n\nSection::::B.:Black Bison.:Black Bison in other media.\n", "The \"B. latifrons\" species was replaced by the smaller \"Bison antiquus\". \"B. antiquus\" appeared in the North American fossil record approximately 250,000 years ago. \"B. antiquus\", in turn, evolved into \"B. occidentalis\", then into the yet smaller \"B. bison\"—the modern American bison—some 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. Some researchers consider \"B. occidentalis\" to be a subspecies of \"B. antiquus\".\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Differences from European bison.\n", "In the \"Street Fighter: The Movie\" home video game, a super-powered version of Bison serves as the final boss of the Movie Battle mode, but his only advantage is his super combo gauge being constantly full.\n\nSection::::In other media.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Live action.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Live action.:\"Street Fighter\".\n", "Section::::Evolution.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "A 1997 study found lower protein polymorphism in \"Antilope\" in comparison with \"Antidorcas\", \"Eudorcas\", and \"Gazella\". This was attributed to a history of rapid evolution of an autapomorphic phenotype of \"Antilope\". This might have been aided by a particularly strong selection of a few dominant males due to their lekking behaviour.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "In the Japanese dub of the film, he is still called \"M. Bison\" as opposed to \"Vega\", his name in the original Japanese versions of the series.\n", "BULLET::::- Family: Bovidae (cattle, antelope, sheep, goats)\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Alcelaphinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Alcelaphus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hartebeest, \"Alcelaphus buselaphus\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Damaliscus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Topi, \"Damaliscus lunatus\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Antilopinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Gazella\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dorcas gazelle, \"Gazella dorcas\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Red-fronted gazelle, \"Gazella rufifrons\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Ourebia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Oribi, \"Ourebia ourebi\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Bovinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Syncerus\"\n\nBULLET::::- African buffalo, \"Syncerus caffer\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Tragelaphus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bongo, \"Tragelaphus eurycerus\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Bushbuck, \"Tragelaphus scriptus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Cephalophinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Cephalophus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bay duiker, \"Cephalophus dorsalis\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Maxwell's duiker, \"Cephalophus maxwellii\" LR/nt\n", "BULLET::::- Miracle Moon (female, born April 30, 1997), calf of Big Momma (brown). Miracle Moon (the first white of this line) has been DNA tested, and is shown to be 100% buffalo, or bison.\n\nBULLET::::- Rainbow Spirit (female, born June 8, 2000, calf of Miracle Moon)\n\nBULLET::::- Mandela Peace Pilgrim (female, born July 18, 2001, calf of Miracle Moon)\n\nBULLET::::- Arizona Spirit (male, born July 1, 2002, calf of Miracle Moon)\n\nBULLET::::- Sunrise Spirit (female, born May 22, 2004, calf of Mandela Peace Pilgrim)\n\nBULLET::::- Spirit Thunder (male, born May 27, 2004, calf of Rainbow Spirit)\n", "BULLET::::- Jeremy Guthrie\n\nBULLET::::- Franklin Gutiérrez\n\nBULLET::::- Matt Harvey\n\nBULLET::::- Travis Hafner\n\nBULLET::::- Roberto Hernández\n\nBULLET::::- Maicer Izturis\n\nBULLET::::- Ty Kelly\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Kouzmanoff\n\nBULLET::::- Aaron Laffey\n\nBULLET::::- Cliff Lee\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Ludwick\n\nBULLET::::- Al Martin\n\nBULLET::::- Víctor Martínez\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Manto\n\nBULLET::::- Darnell McDonald\n\nBULLET::::- John McDonald\n\nBULLET::::- Orlando Merced\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Mujica\n\nBULLET::::- Magglio Ordóñez\n\nBULLET::::- Jhonny Peralta\n\nBULLET::::- Rafael Pérez\n\nBULLET::::- Brandon Phillips\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Prince\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Ramirez\n\nBULLET::::- Manny Ramirez\n\nBULLET::::- Rick Reed\n\nBULLET::::- Saul Rogovin\n\nBULLET::::- Josh Satin\n\nBULLET::::- Richie Sexson\n\nBULLET::::- Marco Scutaro\n\nBULLET::::- Kelly Shoppach\n\nBULLET::::- Grady Sizemore\n", "Duke Ridgley was a fan of Zane Grey's novel, \"The Thundering Herd,\" and the silent movie that came out not long after the book was released in 1925. Bison had indeed roamed the Ohio Valley near Huntington, WV at one time.\n\nWhile the student newspaper suggested \"Judges\" to honor the college's namesake, Chief Justice John Marshall, and the evening newspaper, The Huntington Advertiser, wanted \"Boogiecats\" or \"Boogercats\" to replace the name, \"Big Green.\" It was a cat found in Scotland called a Boogie Cat, or mountain lion in the U.S. \n", "Section::::Appearances.:Other games.\n\nBULLET::::- Bison appears in \"\", a 1995 video game adaptation of the 1994 film. The game looks similar to early \"Mortal Kombat\" games, due to each character being represented by digitized sprites of the film's actors. Bison's portrayer, Raúl Juliá, had intended to participate in the project, but bowed out due to health problems. Consequently, Bison's fight animations were performed by Australian stuntman Darko Tuscan. Film clips of Juliá as Bison are included within the game's cutscenes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08576	Is there a benefit to fingers of individual length, rather than a thumb and four of equal length?	It lets us make a perfect fist. It also helps, as you guessed, with grabbing some kinds of objects. URL_0	[ "Some physicians still believe that it is better to fill the gap left by the trapeziectomy. They assume that filling the gap with a part of a tendon is preferable in terms of function, stability and position of the thumb. They are afraid that leaving a gap might result in complications such as shortening or subluxation of the thumb.\n", "Multiple types of the connection between the flexor pollicis longus and the flexor digitorum profundus were described: \n\nBULLET::::- A tendinous connection between the flexor digitorum profundus of the index to the flexor pollicis longus\n\nBULLET::::- A muscle with a bifurcated (split into two) tendon for the thumb and index finger\n\nBULLET::::- A common muscle with five tendons for the thumb and the long fingers\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The carpal bones function as a unit to provide a bony superstructure for the hand. They allow movements of the wrist from side to side (medial to lateral) as well as up and down (anterior to posterior). Dr. H. A. Harris wrote in The British Medical Journal in 1944 that \"the strength of construction of the hand in a man is concentrated in the radius, thumb, and index and middle fingers.\" Therefore, the capitate is larger to support the strength and stress that the middle finger undergoes.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "A rare anatomical variation affects 1 in 500 humans, in which the individual has more than the usual number of digits; this is known as polydactyly. A human may also be born without one or more fingers or underdevelopment of some fingers such as symbrachydactyly. Extra fingers can be functional. One individual with seven fingers not only used them but claimed that they \"gave him some advantages in playing the piano\".\n", "Although surgeons try to obtain a stable thumb of appropriate size, instability of the IP and MCP joint may occur, as well as a size mismatch. Thumbs are defined as unacceptable if IP joint deviation exceeds 15 degrees, MCP joint deviation exceeds 30 degrees, and thumb size is inappropriate based on the examiner’s assessment. Also, thumb size one-third greater or less than the contralateral thumb is defined as unacceptable.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Radial polydactyly.:On-top plasty procedure.\n\nNo surgical outcomes studies exist for evaluating the function of the thumbs after an on-top plasty reconstruction.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Central polydactyly.\n", "In robotics, almost all robotic hands have a long and strong opposable thumb. Like human hands, the thumb of a robotic hand also plays a key role in gripping an object. One inspiring approach of robotic grip planning is to mimic human thumb placement.\n\nThe function of the thumb declines physiologically with aging. This can be demonstrated by assessing the motor sequencing of the thumb.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n", "The relative length of the digit varies during motion of the IP joints. The length of the palmar aspect decreases during flexion while the dorsal aspect increases by about 24 mm. The useful range of motion of the PIP joint is 30–70°, increasing from the index finger to the little finger. During maximum flexion the base of the middle phalanx is firmly pressed into the retrocondylar recess of the proximal phalanx, which provides maximum stability to the joint. The stability of the PIP joint is dependent of the tendons passing around it.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Research has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone, and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length and risk for development of alcohol dependence or video game addiction.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Etymology.\n", "Beneficial exercise will be any that strengthens the interosseous muscles and lumbricals. By exercising individual fingers and thumb in adduction and abduction motion in pronation position, interosseous muscles will gain strength. Exercises to strengthen lumbricals, strengthen flexion in the metacarpophalangeal joint, and extension in the interphalangeal joints are beneficial. Repetitive motion of pronation and supination are also effective exercises for rehabilitation. Exercising pronation and supination with a handle or screwdriver attachment will help stimulate the nerves. A lateral pinch and recurring grip can also be applied for supination and pronation.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- Lucille Clifton, an African-American poet and civil rights advocate\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Chambers, purported author of \"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation\", and his brother William: six digits each limb\n\nBULLET::::- Kamani Hubbard, a boy born with a rare case of polydactyly, with 12 fingers and 12 toes all fully functional\n\nBULLET::::- Varalakshmi V, a girl from Bangalore with eight fingers in each hand and about four to five extra toes in each foot\n\nBULLET::::- David Laksono, a Chinese-Indonesian professional interior designer and fashion model – born with a supernumerary thumb on his left hand\n", "One way to prevent this injury from occurring is to be informed and educated about the risks involved in hurting your wrist and hand. If patients do suffer from median nerve palsy, occupational therapy or wearing a splint can help reduce the pain and further damage. Wearing a dynamic splint, which pulls the thumb into opposition, will help prevent an excess in deformity. This splint can also assist in function and help the fingers flex towards the thumb. Stretching and the use of C-splints can also assist in prevention of further damage and deformity. These two methods can help in the degree of movement the thumb can have. While it is impossible to prevent trauma to your arms and wrist, patients can reduce the amount of compression by maintaining proper form during repetitive activities. Furthermore, strengthening and increasing flexibility reduces the risk of nerve compression.\n", "Section::::Drawbacks.\n", "BULLET::::4. Microsoft might also pair this device with Xbox Kinect, to achieve greater level of interaction with gaming consoles.\n\nMicrosoft Demonstrated usability of digits in a video.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nFeatures of Digits look promising, but some gesture tech researchers believe that people would prefer sensing technology embedded into the device, instead of wearing it on the wrist.\n", "In extreme cases, amputation of fingers may be needed for severe or recurrent cases or after surgical complications.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.:Limited fasciectomy.\n\nLimited/selective fasciectomy removes the pathological tissue, and is a common approach. Low-quality evidence suggests that fasciectomy may be more effective for people with advanced Dupuytren's contractures.\n", "Carpal tunnel syndrome may be treated surgically; although this is usually done after all non-surgical methods of treatment have been exhausted. Non-surgical treatment methods include anti-inflammatory drugs. Additionally, the wrist may also be immobilized in order to prevent further use and inflammation. When surgery is needed, the flexor retinaculum is either completely severed or lengthened. When surgery is done to divide the flexor retinaculum, by far the more common procedure, scar tissue will eventually fill the gap left by surgery. The intent is that this will lengthen the flexor retinaculum enough to accommodate inflamed or damaged tendons and reduce the effects of compression on the median nerve. In a 2004 double blind-study, researchers concluded that there was no perceivable benefit gained from lengthening the flexor retinaculum during surgery and so division of the ligament remains the preferred method of surgery.\n", "The anterior interosseous nerve (a branch of the median nerve) and the anterior interosseous artery and vein pass downward on the front of the interosseous membrane between the flexor pollicis longus and flexor digitorum profundus.\n\nInjuries to tendons are particularly difficult to recover from due to the limited blood supply they receive.\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Actions.\n\nThe flexor pollicis longus is a flexor of the phalanges of the thumb; when the thumb is fixed, it assists in flexing the wrist.\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Innervation.\n\nThe flexor pollicis longus is supplied by the anterior interosseous(C8-T1) branch of the median nerve (C5-T1).\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Variations.\n", "The name of this muscle is Latin for the 'short flexor of the little finger'. Note that \"brevis\" is usually included to differentiate it from a \"longus\" muscle of the same name. The flexor digiti minimi longus, however, is not found in the typical human, but instead is a rare anatomical variation.\n\nSection::::References.\n\n1. \n\n2. Anatomy & Physiology The Unity of Form and Function. Seventh Edition. McGraw Hill. \n", "Preventive therapy is recommended to preserve the function of the fingers. This may include physical exercise, stretching, proper bodily function and myofascial release (massage, foam roller). Exercises are focused on the forearm muscles, such as the extensor carpi ulnaris; extensor digitorum to antagonize the flexion of the fingers.\n\nMassaging the forearm muscles also alleviates the tightness that occurs with muscles exertion. Stretching allows the muscles more flexibility, decreasing interference with the innervations of the ulnar nerve to the fingers.\n", "Slips may connect with flexor digitorum superficialis muscle, flexor digitorum profundus muscle (resulting in the Linburg-Comstock syndrome), or the pronator teres muscle. An additional tendon to the index finger is sometimes found.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary variation.\n", "Variations to the fifth extensor compartment, which the extensor digiti minimi runs through, may cause tenosynovitis and can limit the use of the extensor digiti minimi.\n\nExtensor digiti minimi can also be bifurcated, which means split, at many different points in the muscle.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n\nThe extensor digiti minimi is a two joint muscle. It acts as an extensor in both joints. It extends the wrist, which means it moves the back of the hand toward the back of the forearm. It also extends the little finger, which means it straightens the little finger from a fist.\n", "A \"conventional grip,\" used on non-customized house balls and some custom-drilled balls, involves insertion of fingers to the second knuckle. A \"fingertip grip,\" involving insertion of fingers only to the first knuckle, enables greater revolution rates and resultant hook potential. A \"thumbless grip,\" often used by so-called \"two-handed\" bowlers, maximizes ball rotational speed (\"rev rate\").\n\nSection::::Ball delivery.:Delivery style categories.\n\nThree widely recognized categories are \"stroker, cranker\" and \"tweener\".\n", "BULLET::::- Water hands are seeable by the long, sometimes oval-shaped palm, with long, flexible, conical fingers. The length of the palm from wrist to the bottom of the fingers is usually less than the width across the widest part of the palm, and usually equal to the length of the fingers.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire hands are characterized by a square or rectangular palm, flushed or pink skin, and shorter fingers. The length of the palm from wrist to the bottom of the fingers is usually greater than the length of the fingers.\n", "One of the earlier significant contributors to the study of hand grips was orthopedic primatologist and paleoanthropologist John Napier, who proposed organizing the movements of the hand by their anatomical basis as opposed to work done earlier that had only used arbitrary classification. Most of this early work on hand grips had a pragmatic basis as it was intended to narrowly define compensable injuries to the hand, which required an understanding of the anatomical basis of hand movement. Napier proposed two primary prehensile grips: the \"precision grip\" and the \"power grip\". The precision and power grip are defined by the position of the thumb and fingers where:\n", "In addition, the central group of intrinsic hand muscles give important contributions to human dexterity. The palmar and dorsal interossei adduct and abduct at the MCP joints and are important in pinching. The lumbricals, attached to the tendons of the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) and extensor digitorum communis (FDC), flex the MCP joints while extending the IP joints and allow a smooth transfer of forces between these two muscles while extending and flexing the fingers.\n\nBULLET::::- Muscles: of the hand\n\nSection::::Structure.:Neurovascular system.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Neurovascular system.:Innervation.\n", "Functionalities of juncturae tendinum include coordinating, force distributing, maintaining the space between the common extensor tendons during the extension of different fingers, and stabilizing the metacarpophalangeal joint. Juncturae tendinum also acts as a compensatory slip for the little finger when the tendon of the extensor digitorum comunis to the little finger is absent. However, the presence of juncturae tendinum may make it more difficult to extend each finger independently.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03448	How do chess games between some of the best in the world very often end up in a draw?	Chess is slightly biased toward white, given even skill levels. All other factors are identical, it's just that white gets to move first and thereby set the tone for the match. Due to this inequality, white players tend to play for a win (+1), and black players tend to play for a draw (+0.5). Black often plays defensively, while white tries to break that defense (at the very highest levels of play). Right now, that's the Ruy Lopez variation. This means that the first 11 or so moves are pre-planned and already locked in. If a game isn't won within 30 moves or so, it'll likely be a draw (at the highest levels), which means white has ~20 moves to win. Black's job is easier; all he has to do is trade pieces until the board is relatively cleared, making white's job much harder. White has to reposition and restrategize and constantly look for very slim edges. What this ends up meaning is that black is typically successful, because he has a much easier task. It's very difficult to beat a person who is around your own skill level, is playing defensively, and actively aiming to sabotage the game in order to achieve a draw. He isn't trying to win, he's just trying to not lose.	[ "BULLET::::- If these two games were drawn, the opponents played two blitz-games (5 minutes plus 3 second increment).\n\nBULLET::::- If the score was still tied after pair of blitz games, a single armageddon game (white must win, black only needs to draw) would be played. White had 5 minutes, black had 4 minutes, and both players had three-second increments beginning with move 61. Eventually, two Armageddon game were played in round 1 and round 3.\n", "In top-level correspondence chess, the draw rate is much higher than in the over-the-board chess: of 1512 games played in the World Championship finals and the Candidates' sections between 2010 and 2013, 82.3% ended in a draw.\n\nIn computer chess, the draw rate among top programs is typically between 50 and 60 percent.\n\nSection::::Drawing combinations.\n\nYuri Averbakh gives these combinations for the weaker side to draw:\n\nBULLET::::- perpetual check\n\nBULLET::::- stalemate\n\nBULLET::::- blockade\n\nBULLET::::- perpetual pursuit\n\nBULLET::::- fortress\n\nBULLET::::- drawing balance of forces\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "If there is a draw in a quarterfinal or a semifinal match of a tournament, a tiebreaker round is played instead.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Chess.\n\nThere are various ways a game of chess can end in a draw: stalemate, agreement between the players, the fifty-move rule, threefold repetition, or neither player having sufficient material to checkmate. At top-level play, roughly half of games end in a draw.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Cricket.\n\nCricket distinguishes between a \"tie\" and a \"draw\", which are two possible results of a game:\n", "Draw (chess)\n\nIn chess, a draw is the result of a game ending in a tie. Usually, in tournaments a draw is worth a half point to each player, while a win is worth one point to the victor and none to the loser.\n", "Article 5 of the 2018 FIDE Laws of Chess gives the basic ways a game may end in a draw; more complicated ways are detailed in Article 9: .\n\nBULLET::::- Stalemate – if the player on turn has no legal move but is not in check, this is stalemate and the game is automatically a draw.\n", "Section::::In the endgame.\n", "Due to the high percentage of draws and the small granularity of the scoring system which is entirely based on the final results, it is relatively common for players to have the same score as the tournament finishes. Although it is often not an issue, as the tied players often split the prize equally, in case of necessary (for trophy, qualifications to other tournaments, etc), there are a few ways to achieve tiebreak, such as (listed in no particular order here):\n\nBULLET::::- Sonneborn–Berger score\n\nBULLET::::- Rating performance\n\nBULLET::::- Number of wins, number of black wins, etc.\n", "Another example is the eighth game of the 1981 World Chess Championship match between Anatoly Karpov and Viktor Korchnoi.\n\nBlack forces a draw by \n\nBULLET::::- 80... Nf7!\n\nBULLET::::- 81. h7 Ng5!\n\nBULLET::::- 82. Ne7+ Kb7\n\nBULLET::::- 83. Nxg6 Nxh7\n\nBULLET::::- 84. Nxh7 draw\n\nSection::::Troitsky line.\n", "BULLET::::- If the blitz matches had failed to produce a winner, one sudden death \"Armageddon\" game: White receives 5 minutes and Black receives 4 minutes. Both players receive an increment of 3 seconds starting from move 61. The player who wins the drawing of lots may choose the colour. In case of a draw, the player with the black pieces is declared the winner.\n\nSection::::Championship match.:Prize fund.\n", "If the score is tied after the classical games, rapid and, if necessary, blitz tie breaks are played the next day. Two games are played with time control of 25 minutes per game plus 10 seconds increment. In the case of a tie, they are followed by two games with time control of 10 minutes per game plus 10 seconds increment. If the score is still tied, two blitz games follow (5 minutes plus 3 seconds increment). Finally, a sudden death game is played. The player who wins the drawing of lots may choose the colour. White has 5 minutes per game and Black has 4 minutes, with an increment of 2 seconds per move starting from move 61. White needs a win to advance to the next round.\n", "BULLET::::- If the score is tied after a pair of blitz games, an armageddon game (in which a draw counts as a win for Black) is played. White has 5 minutes and Black has 4 minutes, with an increment of 3 seconds/move starting from move 61.\n\nSection::::Candidates qualification.\n\nThe tournament qualified two players for the 2018 Candidates Tournament.\n", "BULLET::::- Mutual agreement – a player may offer a draw to his opponent at any stage of a game. If the opponent accepts, the game is a draw.\n", "If the score at the end of a match was tied, tie-break games would be played. First, two games at a time control of 25 minutes for the whole game plus 10 seconds increment per move. If the score was still tied, another two games would be played at a time control of 5 minutes with a 10-second increment per move. If the score was still tied after these four extra games, a single game of Armageddon Chess would be played where White had 6 minutes and Black had 5, with no increment; White must win the game whereas Black only needed to draw.\n", "For the most part, a draw occurs when it appears that neither side will win. Draws are codified by various rules of chess including stalemate (when the player to move is not in check but has no legal move), threefold repetition (when the same position occurs three times with the same player to move), and the fifty-move rule (when the last fifty successive moves made by both players contain no or pawn move). Under the standard FIDE rules, a draw also occurs \"in dead position\", when no sequence of legal moves can lead to checkmate, most commonly when neither player has sufficient to checkmate the opponent.\n", "If a match is tied after the regular games, tie breaks will be played the next day. The format for the tie breaks is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Two rapid games (25 minutes plus 10 seconds increment).\n\nBULLET::::- If the score is tied after two rapid games, further two rapid games (10 minutes plus 10 seconds increment) are played.\n\nBULLET::::- If the score is tied after four rapid games, the opponents play two blitz games (five minutes plus three seconds increment).\n", "Check, checkmate, and draws follow the same conditions as in classical chess. However, it is not permitted to give perpetual check in EuroShogi. \n\nBULLET::::1. Repetition: If the same position occurs three times with the same player to move, then the game is a draw. (Recall, however, the prohibition against giving perpetual check.)\n\nBULLET::::2. Impasse: The game might reach an impasse if kings are advanced into their respective promotion zones and neither player has any hope of mating the other; or, if there is no chance of gaining any further material.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Crazyhouse\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBibliography\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- If the score was tied after two rapid games, two rapid games (10 minutes plus 10 seconds increment) were to be played.\n\nBULLET::::- If the score was tied after four rapid games, the opponents were to play two blitz games (five minutes plus three seconds increment).\n\nBULLET::::- If the score was tied after a pair of blitz games, an armageddon game (in which a draw counts as a win for Black) was played. White would have five minutes and Black would have four minutes, and both players would have a three seconds per move increment beginning with move 61.\n", "The match was organised in a best-of-12-games format. The time control for the games was 100 minutes for the first 40 moves, an additional 50 minutes added after the 40th move, and then an additional 15 minutes added after the 60th move, plus an additional 30 seconds per move starting from move 1. Players were not permitted to agree to a draw before Black's 30th move. \n\nThe tie-breaking method consisted of the following schedule of faster games played on the final day in the following order, as necessary:\n", "BULLET::::3. If the score is tied after ten blitz games, a single sudden-death \"Armageddon game\" will determine the champion. The winner of a drawing of lots gets to choose the colour to play, with White given 5 minutes and Black 4 minutes. Beginning with move 61, a three-second increment will be added following each move. If the game is drawn then the player with the Black pieces is declared champion.\n", "In the event of a tie after the regular games, the following tie breaks were used, in order:\n\nBULLET::::1. Two tie break games at a time limit of 25 minutes plus 10 second increment per move;\n\nBULLET::::2. Two tie break games at a time limit of 10 minutes plus 10 second increment per move;\n\nBULLET::::3. Two tie break games at a time limit of 5 minutes plus 3 second increment per move;\n", "Section::::Gameplay.:End of the game.:Draws.\n\nThe game ends in a draw if any of these conditions occur:\n\nBULLET::::- The game is automatically a draw if the player to move is not in check and has no legal move. This situation is called a stalemate. An example of such a position is shown in the adjacent diagram.\n\nBULLET::::- The game is immediately drawn when there is no possibility of checkmate for either side with any series of legal moves. This draw is often due to \"insufficient material\", including the endgames\n\nBULLET::::- king against king;\n\nBULLET::::- king against king and bishop;\n", "2. If the players are tied, they keep playing pairs of blitz games until ties are broken, or after a number of times (usually 1 or 2 pairs, although it could be up to 5 pairs).\n\n3. If the players are still tied, a single deciding game (Armageddon) will be used, with Black receiving draw odds (draw count as a win) in exchange for White having time advantage (typically 5 vs 4 minutes).\n\nSection::::Relaying moves and broadcasting.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Draw by agreement\": Draws are most commonly reached by mutual agreement between the players. The correct procedure is to verbally offer the draw, make a move, then start the opponent's clock. Traditionally, players have been allowed to agree to a draw at any point in the game, occasionally even without playing a move; in recent years efforts have been made to discourage short draws, for example by forbidding draw offers before move thirty.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stalemate\": The player whose turn it is to move has no legal move and is not in check.\n", "BULLET::::- best-of-2 games at a time limit of 25 minutes, + 10 second per move increment from move 1.\n\nBULLET::::- best-of-2 games at a time limit of 10 minutes, + 10 second per move increment from move 1.\n\nBULLET::::- best-of-2 games at a time limit of 5 minutes, + 3 second per move increment from move 1.\n\nBULLET::::- a single armageddon chess game: white receives 5 minutes + 2 second per move increment from move 61; black receives 4 minutes + 2 second per move increment from move 61; black wins the match in the case of a draw.\n", "The challenger was determined in the 2014 Candidates Tournament, an eight-player double round-robin tournament that took place in Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia, from 13 March to 31 March 2014. The participants, in order of rules announced by FIDE, were:\n\nThe tournament had a prize fund of €420,000. Prize money was shared between players tied on points; tiebreaks were not used to allocate it. The prizes for each place were as follows:\n\nSection::::Candidates Tournament.:Results.\n\nIn the event of a tie, the following tie-break methods were used, in order of precedence:\n\nBULLET::::1. Head-to-head scores between the tied players;\n\nBULLET::::2. Highest number of wins;\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02097	Why/How does steaming foam make it spring back up and restore it's shape?	Honestly never heard of steaming foam cushions to restore them but it probably works by heating the tiny air pockets inside the foam. Gases increase in volume and/or pressure as their temperature increases, so as long as the air bubbles inside the foam are relatively air tight the air will push outwards and cause the foam to expand.	[ "A whipping aid such as modified soy protein can help to account for the decreased foaming ability of dehydrated or frozen egg whites. Modified soy protein is a soy protein in a solution which is then acidified using hydrochloric acid. Pepsin or another enzyme is then added to enhance the protein foaming abilities. Once the enzyme activity has ceased, the solution is heated to deactivate the enzyme and more hydrochloric acid is added if a pH adjustment is required.\n", "Using a whisk on certain liquids, notably cream or egg whites, can also create foams through mechanical action. This is the method employed in the making of sponge cakes, where an egg protein matrix produced by vigorous whipping provides almost all the structure of the finished product.\n", "Foamcore does not adhere well to some glues, such as superglue, and certain types of paint. The foam tends to melt away and dissolve. Some glue works well in casual settings, however, the water in the glue can warp the fibers in the outer layers. Best results are typically obtained from higher-end spray adhesives. A hot glue gun can be used as a substitute, although the high viscosity of hot glues can affect finished projects in the form of board warping, bubbles, or other unsightly blemishes.\n", "Section::::Processing methods.:Space-holder technique.\n", "First, a pattern is made from polystyrene foam, which can be done by many different ways. For small volume runs the pattern can be hand cut or machined from a solid block of foam; if the geometry is simple enough it can even be cut using a hot-wire foam cutter. If the volume is large, then the pattern can be mass-produced by a process similar to injection molding. Pre-expanded beads of polystyrene are injected into a preheated aluminum mold at low pressure. Steam is then applied to the polystyrene which causes it to expand more to fill the die. The final pattern is approximately 97.5% air and 2.5% polystyrene. Pre-made pouring basins, runners, and risers can be hot glued to the pattern to finish it.\n", "For the Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solution—so the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.\n", "The basic requirements for formation of foam are an abundance of gas, water, a surfactant, and energy. The steam wand of an espresso machine supplies energy, in the form of heat, and gas, in the form of steam. The other two components, water and surfactants, are naturally occurring ingredients of milk. Varying the balance of these factors affects the size of bubbles, the foam dissipation rate, and the volume of foam.\n", "A recent method of creating aluminum oxide foams has also been developed. This technique involves heating crystals with the metal and forming compounds until a solution is created. At this point, polymer chains form and grow, causing the entire mixture to separate into a solvent and polymer. As the mixture begins to boil, air bubbles are trapped in solution and locked in to place as the material is heated and polymer is burned off.\n\nSection::::Use.\n\nSection::::Use.:Insulation.\n", "While being supported by the vacuum, the mold and foam mass temperature is reduced to −20 °F (−28 °C) and frozen in place. Because the resultant foam matrix is open, carbon dioxide can be pushed through the structure, thereby forming carbonic acid that moves the pH from above 10 to 7. The reduction in alkalinity triggers the foam to gel in place and hold its shape.\n\nSection::::Process.:Vulcanization.\n", "Section::::Processing methods.:Superplastic expansion.\n", "While the above are both based on the use of a sacrificial template, there are also direct foaming methods that can be used. These methods involve pumping air into a suspended ceramic before setting and sintering. This is difficult because wet foams are thermodynamically unstable and can end up with very large pores after setting.\n", "Unlike many foam-in-place polyurethane foams, it is nonflammable and non-toxic. As it is water-based, it offgasses water vapour while curing, requiring ventilation and in some cases a dehumidifier. It cures more slowly than organic foams. However, it does not offgas volatile organic compounds as many organic foams do. Like cement, it is water-soluble until cured, but after curing it is water-resistant, but water-permeable.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "The base resin used in a complex formula, is an ethylene based polyolefin elastomer (like polyethylene and EVA). Foam manufactured with these resins has many physical benefits. Unlike a sponge, foams from this process are closed-cell, meaning it's waterproof and resists mold, mildew and bacteria from entering the material.\n\nIt is also cross-linked, which means that the cells are connected in a way that makes the foam strong and durable with high tear and tensile strength.\n", "When protein concentrations are increased to their maximum value the foaming powers and foam formation are generally increased. Often to compare foaming properties of various proteins, the foaming power at a specific protein concentration is determined.\n\nA protein will always have certain stresses that it must overcome, such as gravitational and mechanical; it is the protein's ability to stabilize foam against these stresses that determines the foam's stability. The foam's stability is usually expressed as the time required for 50% of the liquid to drain from foam (a 50% reduction in foam volume).\n", "Foam hydrodynamics as well as many of the variables that affect the success of foaming have limited understanding. This complicates using mathematical calculations to predict protein recovery by foaming. However some trends have been determined; high recovery rates have been linked to high concentrations of protein in the initial solution, high gas flow rates, and high feed flow rates. Enrichment is also known to increase when foaming is performed using shallow pools. Using pools with low heights allows for only a small amount of protein to adsorb from the solution to the surface of the bubbles in the foam resulting in lower surface viscosity. This leads to coalescence of the unstable foam higher up in the column causing an increase in the bubble size and an increase in the reflux of the protein in the foam. However, an increased velocity of the gas being pumped into the system has been shown to lead to a decrease in the enrichment ratio. Since these calculations are difficult to predict, bench and then pilot scale experiments are often performed in order to determine if foaming is a viable technique for extraction on an industrial scale.\n", "Section::::Creating culinary foam.\n\nTo form a stable foam and emulsion, a surfactant, such as lecithin, monoglycerides or proteins, must be present to reduce the interfacial tension between the air-oil phase and the aqueous phase. If the surfactants are at equal concentrations at the interface, proteins are generally less effective than small surfactants, such as lecithin or monoglycerides, at decreasing the interfacial tension. Of course, this is not true of heated soybean or whey protein, which readily forms copious foam.\n", "This is a different material from the extruded polystyrene used for Styrofoam house insulation. The polystyrene foam used for craft applications, which can be identified by its roughness and by the fact that it \"crunches\" when cut, is moderately soluble in many organic solvents, cyanoacrylate, and the propellants and solvents of spray paint, and is not specifically identified as expanded or extruded. Another tradename for expanded polystyrene is thermacol, originated by BASF.\n\nSection::::Varieties.\n\nThe different varieties of foam takeout containers may include:\n", "The mold temperature can then be incrementally raised to the vulcanization temperature of 230 °F (115 °C) for a measured amount of time. At this point, the foam form can be de-molded and sent to a washing step. Typical molding cycles are 60 minutes. After washing, the foam form is introduced into the vulcanizer stage to complete the cross-linking process. The final step is the drying process where residual moisture is driven off.\n", "Section::::Defoaming.\n", "The presence of oil (a hydrophobic agent) can significantly accelerate the collapsing process localized reduction in the foam elasticity, resulting in the creation of a lighter foam with average bubble diameter larger than 4 mm. This is the reason it is not possible to make a good frappé in many countries, unless one can find spray-dried coffee (which is actually generally less expensive than freeze-dried instant coffee). The utilization of a hand mixer makes possible the creation of finer bubbles which increases the time that the foam can last. The best frappé coffees are often held to be those with the smallest bubbles and a thickness of about 1.5 inches to 2 inches (30 mm to 50 mm) of foam.\n", "Direct injection expanded foam molding\n\nDirect injection expanded foam molding (also known as \"injection molded foam\") is a foam manufacturing process that creates soft foam products direct from compound into a final product. This process eliminates the steps required for die-cutting and compression molding, as it manufactures the foam and the product simultaneously.\n", "Section::::Processing methods.:Expansion of pressurized bubbles.\n", "Section::::Background.:Bacterial cell extraction.\n\nSeparation of cells is typically done using centrifugation, however foam separation has also been used as a more energy efficient technique. This method has been used on many species of bacteria cells such as \"Hansenula polymorph\", \"Saccharomyces carlsbergensis\", \"Bacillus polymyxa\", \"Escherichia coli\", and \"Bacillus subtilis\", being most effective on cells that have hydrophobic surfaces.\n\nSection::::Background.:Current and Future Directions.\n", "Section::::Processing methods.:Space-holder technique.:Powder selection.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01265	How did we turn wolves into chihuahuas?	There's no agreed upon date for when chihuahuas became a breed as we know them today, but there's quite a bit of evidence that they were around for at least several centuries prior to European contact. How we created them is the same way as how we domesticated any plant or animal; by selective breeding. Over thousands of years, successive generations of early domesticated dogs with features found desirable were bread together.	[ "Cases of accidental breeding of wolfdogs are known (though this is very rare), where a domestic dog female in oestrus strays and is mated by a male wild wolf.\n", "Altered males:\n", "While humans may have intentionally domesticated wolves into dogs, an alternate hypothesis is that wolves effectively domesticated themselves by establishing a mutually beneficial relationship with prehistoric humans. They scavenged on the remains of the prey animals left by the prehistoric people at the human settlements or the kill sites. Those wolves that were less anxious and aggressive thrived, continued to follow the prehistoric humans, and colonized the human-dominated environments, generation after generation. Gradually, the first primitive dogs emerged from this group.\n\nSection::::In animals.:Primates.\n", "Section::::Dog domestication.:Post-domestication gene flow.:Dog-Wolf admixture.\n\nThere is evidence of admixture between dog and regional wolf populations, except on the Tibetan Plateau and in the New World wolves. This admixture has occurred throughout history and as dogs expanded across the landscape. There are some dog populations that show recent admixture with wolves.\n", "Section::::Dog domestication.:Post-domestication gene flow.:Taimyr wolf admixture.\n\nIn May 2015, a study compared the ancestry of the Taimyr-1 wolf lineage to that of dogs and gray wolves.\n", "Smaller skulls on tame animals have been noticed in other species. Noticing that a dog's skull looks like that of a juvenile wolf, British primatologist Richard Wrangham goes on to say that \"this leads to the thought that species can self-domesticate.\" However, the evolutionary biologist Abbey Drake has found that \"dogs are not paedomorphic wolves.\"\n\nOther characteristics that are associated with juvenility such as barking and meowing (sounds used by wolf cubs and kittens of large felines, respectively, to communicate with their parents), increased playfulness and reduced aggression, may also be seen in tame animals.\n\nSection::::In animals.:Cats.\n", "Section::::History.:North American gray wolf-domestic dog admixture.\n\nIn the United States, over 100,000 wolf-dogs exist. In first-generation wolfdogs, gray wolves are most often crossed with wolf-like dogs (such as German Shepherd Dogs, Siberian Huskies, and Alaskan Malamutes) for an appearance most appealing to owners desiring an exotic pet.\n\nSection::::Documented breeding.\n", "Several hunters of the USFWS kept wolf pups as pets, with the best results occurring when they were caught just after their eyes began opening. In contrast, pups taken at 3–4 weeks of age proved unmanageable, with only one in 11 of such pups becoming tame, despite one month of eight hours per day of socialization with people. However, John James Audubon recorded an instance of a wolf being trained to hunt deer in Kentucky, and Henry Wharton Shoemaker published a similar account of settlers in western and central Pennsylvania using wolves as hunting dogs. Buffon wrote in his \"Natural History\" of tamed wolves in Persia being trained to perform dances and tricks.\n", "In Europe, unintentional mating of dogs and wild wolves have been confirmed in some populations through genetic testing. As the survival of some Continental European wolf packs is severely threatened, scientists fear that the creation of wolfdog populations in the wild is a threat to the continued existence of European wolf populations. However, extensive admixture between wolf and dog is not supported by morphological evidence, and analyses of mtDNA sequences have revealed that such mating are rare. In 1997, during the Mexican Wolf Arizona Reintroduction, controversy arose when a captive pack at Carlsbad designated for release was found to be largely composed of wolfdogs by Roy McBride, who had captured many wolves for the recovery programme in the 1970s. Though staff initially argued that the animals' odd appearance was due to captivity and diet, it was later decided to euthanise them.\n", "Admixture between domestic dogs and other subspecies of gray wolves are the most common wolfdogs since dogs and gray wolves are considered the same species, are genetically very close and have shared vast portions of their ranges for millennia. Such admixture in the wild have been detected in many populations scattered throughout Europe and North America, usually occurring in areas where wolf populations have declined from human impacts and persecutions. At the same time, wolfdogs are also often bred in captivity for various purposes. Admixture of dogs and two other North American wolf species have also occurred historically in the wild, although it is often difficult for biologists to discriminate the dog genes in the eastern timber and red wolves from the gray wolf genes also present in these wolf species due to their historical overlaps with North American gray wolves as well as with coyotes, both of which have introgressed into the eastern timber and red wolf gene pools. At the same time, because many isolated populations of the three wolf species in North America have also mixed with coyotes in the wild, it has been speculated by some biologists that some of the coywolf hybrids in the northeastern third of the continent may also have both coydogs and wolfdogs in their gene pool. Hybrids between dogs and Ethiopian wolves discovered in the Ethiopian Highlands likely originated from past interactions between free-roaming feral dogs and Ethiopian wolves living in isolated areas.\n", "Section::::By region.:Americas.:Ancient Mexico.\n\nIn the time of the Aztec Empire in what is now central Mexico, Mexican Hairless Dogs were bred, for among other purposes, their meat. Hernán Cortés reported when he arrived in Tenochtitlan in 1519, \"small gelded dogs which they breed for eating\" were among the goods sold in the city markets. These dogs, \"Xoloitzcuintles\", were often depicted in pre-Columbian Mexican pottery. The breed was almost extinct in the 1940s, but the British Military Attaché in Mexico City, Norman Wright, developed a thriving breed from some of the dogs he found in remote villages.\n\nSection::::By region.:Americas.:United States.\n", "Section::::Divergence from wolves.:Time of genetic divergence.:Timespan.\n", "Section::::Divergence from wolves.:Time of genetic divergence.\n", "Canine reproduction\n\nCanine reproduction is the process of sexual reproduction in domestic dogs, wolves, foxes and other canine species.\n\nSection::::Canine sexual anatomy and development.\n\nSection::::Canine sexual anatomy and development.:General.\n", "In more recent times some male Italian wolves originated from dog ancestry, which indicates that female wolves will breed with male dogs in the wild. Ten percent of dogs in the Caucasus Mountains, including livestock guardian dogs, are first generation hybrids. Although mating between golden jackals and wolves has never been observed, evidence of jackal-wolf hybridization was discovered through mitochondrial DNA analysis of jackals living in the Caucasus Mountains and in Bulgaria.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Section::::Divergence from wolves.:Place of genetic divergence.:Two origins.\n", "Section::::Divergence from wolves.:Morphological divergence.\n", "The sustained admixture between different dog and wolf populations across the Old and New Worlds over at least the last 10,000 years has blurred the genetic signatures and confounded efforts of researchers at pinpointing the origins of dogs. None of the modern wolf populations are related to the Pleistocene wolves that were first domesticated, and the extinction of the wolves that were the direct ancestors of dogs has muddied efforts to pinpoint the time and place of dog domestication.\n\nSection::::Positive selection.\n", "The Russian domesticated red fox is a form of the wild red fox (\"Vulpes vulpes\") which has been domesticated to an extent, under laboratory conditions. They are the result of an experiment which was designed to demonstrate the power of selective breeding to transform species, as described by Charles Darwin in \"On the Origin of Species\". The experiment was purposely designed to replicate the process that had produced dogs from wolves, by recording the changes in foxes, when in each generation only the most tame foxes were allowed to breed. In short order, the descendant foxes became tamer and more dog-like in their behavior.\n", "Section::::Divergence from wolves.\n", "Section::::Divergence from wolves.:Place of genetic divergence.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n\nThe origin of the domestic dog includes the dog's evolutionary divergence from the wolf, its domestication, and its development into dog types and dog breeds. The dog is a member of the genus \"Canis\", which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and was the first species and the only large carnivore to have been domesticated. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa, as modern wolves are not closely related to the population of wolves that was first domesticated.\n", "The experiment was initiated by scientists who were interested in the topic of domestication and the process by which wolves became domesticated dogs. They saw some retention of juvenile traits by adult dogs, both morphological ones, such as skulls that were unusually broad for their length, and behavioral ones, such as whining, barking, and submission.\n", "The physical characteristics of an animal created by breeding a wolf to a dog are not predictable, similar to that of mixed-breed dogs. Genetic research shows that wolf and dog populations initially diverged approximately 14,000 years ago and have interbred only occasionally since, accounting for the dissimilarity between dogs and wolves in behavior and appearance. In many cases the resulting adult wolfdog may be larger than either of its parents due to the genetic phenomenon of heterosis (commonly known as \"hybrid vigor\"). Breeding experiments in Germany with Poodles and wolves, and later on with the resulting wolfdogs showed unrestricted fertility, mating via free choice and no significant problems of communication (even after a few generations). The offspring of poodles with either coyotes and jackals however all showed a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems, and an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbreeding between the hybrids. The researchers therefore concluded that domestic dogs and wolves are the same species.\n", "Section::::Dog domestication.:Dog and human convergent evolution.:Human adoption of some wolf behaviors.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03644	Why does Easter change dates every year?	Because it follows the moon and equinox (which aren't what our calendar is based on any more). Easter Sunday is the first Sunday following the first full moon after the Spring Equinox (which was later fixed to March 21st). Since full moons can occur on different dates every year, the following Sunday can also occur on different dates every year. To further complicate matters, the Orthodox church uses a different calendar (that doesn't reflect a Pope's changes to better match the actual year length, so their Easter often falls on a different date (occasionally considerably after the Western church's Easter).	[ "In other words, Easter falls from one to seven days after the paschal full moon, so that if the paschal full moon is on Sunday, Easter is the following Sunday. Thus the earliest possible date of Easter is March 22, while the latest possible date is April 25.\n\nSection::::Paschal full moon.:Earliest Easter.\n\nIn 1818, as a paschal full moon fell on Saturday March 21 (the ecclesiastical fixed date for the Equinox), Easter was the following day—Sunday March 22—the earliest date possible. It will not fall on this date again until 2285, a span of 467 years.\n\nSection::::Paschal full moon.:Latest Easter.\n", "Despite using calendars that are apart by 13 days, Easter 2014 fell on the same date. According to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, the first Paschal Full Moon after the Spring Equinox (March 20) fell on Monday, April 14, 2014. The following Sunday, April 20, was, therefore, Easter Day.\n", "Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84-year cycle. From the 5th century onward this cycle set its equinox to 25 March and fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the 14th to the 20th of the lunar month inclusive. This 84-year cycle was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since 1582, when the Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar while the Eastern Orthodox and most Oriental Orthodox Churches retained the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again differed.\n", "BULLET::::- on a Sunday (according to the First Council of Nicaea in 325),\n\nBULLET::::- after the Northward equinox (around 20 March in the Gregorian calendar), that is in Northern Hemisphere spring,\n\nBULLET::::- after the nominal \"Paschal\" full moon.\n\nThere is less agreement whether Easter also should occur:\n\nBULLET::::- so that Annunciation – usually celebrated 25 March, 9 months before Christmas – does not fall on any day from the Sunday before Easter to the Sunday after,\n\nBULLET::::- on or after the 14th day of the lunar month of Nisan,\n", "In 1943 Easter fell on Sunday, April 25. The last ecclesiastical full moon preceding the Paschal did not occur until Saturday, March 20; prior to March 21, the fixed date to which the vernal equinox is assigned for the purposes of the computus, meaning the Paschal full moon did not happen until Sunday, April 18. Consequently, Easter was the following Sunday (April 25). Easter will not fall as late again until 2038—a span of 95 years. The second latest date for Easter, April 24, occurred in 2011. The last time this occurred was in 1859 and will not happen again until 2095—spans of 152 and 84 years. However between 5121 and 6482, Easter will be no later than April 24.\n", "In 1818 the Paschal Full Moon fell on Saturday, March 21 (the equinox). Therefore, the following day, March 22, was Easter. It will not fall as early again until 2285, a span of 467 years. The next earliest Easter between 1818 and 2285 (March 23) occurred in 1845, 1856, 1913 and 2008, and will occur again in 2160—an 11, 57, 95 and 152-year gap, respectively. Easter last occurred on March 24 in 1940 and will not occur on that day until 2391, a 451-year gap.\n\nSection::::Earliest Easter.:Orthodox (Julian).\n", "BULLET::::- Its date varies from year to year. It can fall on up to 35 different days in March and April of the respective calendar. While many Christians do not consider this to be a problem, it can cause frequent difficulties of co-ordination with civil calendars, for example academic terms. Many countries have public holidays around Easter weekend or tied to the date of Easter but spread from February to June, such as Shrove Tuesday or Ascension and Pentecost.\n", "Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, or, in other words, the Sunday after the paschal lunar month's 14th day. The 14th of the paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon, although the 14th of the lunar month may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days. Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls on a date from 8 March to 5 April inclusive, the paschal full moon (the 14th of that lunar month) must fall on a date from 21 March to 18 April inclusive.\n", "The Gregorian calculation of Easter was based on a method devised by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio) for adjusting the epacts of the Moon, and has been adopted by almost all Western Christians and by Western countries which celebrate national holidays at Easter. For the British Empire and colonies, a determination of the date of Easter Sunday using Golden Numbers and Sunday letters was defined by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 with its Annexe. This was designed to match exactly the Gregorian calculation.\n\nSection::::Date.:Controversies over the date.\n", "It has been proposed that the first problem could be resolved by making Easter occur on a date fixed relative to the western Gregorian calendar every year, or alternatively on a Sunday within a fixed range of seven or eight dates. While tying Easter to one fixed date would serve to underline the belief that it commemorates an actual historical event, without an accompanying calendar reform that changes the pattern of the days of the week (itself a subject of religious controversy) or adopted a leap week, it would also break the tradition of Easter always being on a Sunday, established since the 2nd century and by now deeply embedded in the liturgical practice and theological understanding of almost all Christian denominations. \n", "Reform of the date of Easter\n\nA reform of the date of Easter has been proposed several times because the current system for determining the date of Easter is seen as presenting two significant problems:\n", "In Hungary, Kenya, the United Kingdom (except Scotland), Australia, South Africa, Germany, Serbia, Switzerland and New Zealand, Easter has two public holidays, Good Friday and Easter Monday, making a four-day weekend. The moveable date of Easter sometimes brings it into conflict with other, fixed, public holidays.\n", "Easter and the holidays that are related to it are \"moveable feasts\" which do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars which follow only the cycle of the Sun; rather, its date is offset from the date of Passover and is therefore calculated based on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. It has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March. Even if calculated on the basis of the more accurate Gregorian calendar, the date of that full moon sometimes differs from that of the astronomical first full moon after the March equinox.\n", "In applying the ecclesiastical rules, Christian churches use 21 March as the starting point in determining the date of Easter, from which they find the next full moon, etc. The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches continue to use the Julian calendar. Their starting point in determining the date of Orthodox Easter is also 21 March but according to the Julian reckoning, which in the current century corresponds to 3 April in the Gregorian calendar.\n", "The Greek island of Syros, whose population is divided almost equally between Catholics and Orthodox, is one of the few places where the two Churches share a common date for Easter, with the Catholics accepting the Orthodox date—a practice helping considerably in maintaining good relations between the two communities.\n\nSection::::Date.:Reform of the date.\n", "Because this Victorian cycle differed from the Alexandrian cycle in the dates of some of the Paschal Full Moons, and because it tried to respect the Roman custom of fixing Easter to the Sunday in the week of the 16th to the 22nd of the lunar month (rather than the 15th to the 21st as at Alexandria), by providing alternative \"Latin\" and \"Greek\" dates in some years, occasional differences in the date of Easter as fixed by Alexandrian rules continued. The Alexandrian rules were adopted in the West following the tables of Dionysius Exiguus in 525. From this time, therefore, all discrepancies between Alexandria and Rome as to the correct date for Easter cease, as both churches were using identical tables.\n", "Among the Oriental Orthodox some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter as for other fixed and moveable feasts is the same as in the Western church.\n\nSection::::Date.:Computations.\n", "This 84-year cycle (called the \"latercus\") gave way to the Alexandrian computus in stages. The Alexandrian computus may have been adopted in parts of the south of Ireland in the first half of the 7th century. Among the northern English, the use of the Alexandrian computus over the Brittano-Irish cycle was decided at the Synod of Whitby in 664. The Alexandrian computus was finally adopted by the Irish colonies in northern Britain in the early 8th century.\n\nSection::::Modern calls for a reform of the date of Easter.\n", "Both calendars (Gregorian and Julian) calculate Easter as falling on dates between March 22 and April 25 on their calendars. However, because of the 13-day difference, any member of an Orthodox church would observe that the Western Easter falls between March 10 and April 12 on the Julian calendar. Conversely, any member of a Western church would observe that Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8 on the Gregorian calendar.\n\nBeginning March 14, 2100 (February 29, 2100, in the Julian Calendar), the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars will increase to 14 days.\n\nSection::::Public holidays.\n", "According to the Orthodox (Julian) calendar (which is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar), the Spring Equinox also falls on March 21. However, in the Gregorian Calendar, this is April 3. The first Orthodox Full Moon after the Equinox falls on (Julian) Tuesday, April 2, 2014 (Gregorian April 15). The following Sunday, (Julian) April 7, is, therefore, Easter Day (Gregorian April 20).\n\nSection::::Range of dates for Western and Orthodox Easter.\n", "BULLET::::- Many Eastern churches calculate the date of Easter using the Julian calendar, whereas some Eastern churches use the Revised Julian calendar and all Western churches and civil authorities have adopted the Gregorian reforms for all calendrical purposes. Hence in most years, Easter is celebrated on a later date in the East than in the West.\n\nThere have been controversies about the \"correct\" date of Easter since antiquity, leading to schisms and excommunications or even executions due to heresy, but most Christian churches today agree on certain points. Easter should therefore be celebrated:\n", "BULLET::::- In Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland in 2008, Saint Patrick's Day (Monday 17 March) fell six days before Easter (Sunday 23 March), creating a three-day week (Tuesday 18 – Thursday 20 March). This will next happen in 2035, when Saint Patrick's Day falls on Saturday, so the public holiday is moved forward to the following Monday 19 March, again six days before Easter.\n", "List of dates for Easter\n\nThis is a list of dates for Easter. The Easter dates also affect when Ash Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Feast of the Ascension and Pentecost occur. Easter may occur on different dates in the Gregorian Calendar and the Julian Calendar. The accompanying table provides both sets of dates, for recent decades and forthcoming years — see the computus article for more details on the calculation.\n\nSection::::Earliest Easter.\n\nSection::::Earliest Easter.:Western (Gregorian).\n", "Section::::Latest Easter.:Orthodox (Julian).\n\nThe latest dates for Orthodox Easter between 1875 and 2099 are May 8, 1983, and May 8, 2078 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to April 25 in the Julian Calendar. Orthodox Easter has never fallen on Gregorian May 7 yet; it will happen in 2051 unless these churches change to another calendar.\n\nSection::::Western and Orthodox Easter on the same date.\n", "The Pepuzites, a 5th-century sect, celebrated Easter on the Sunday following April 6 (in the Julian calendar). This is equivalent to the Sunday closest to April 9. The April 6 date was apparently arrived at because it was equivalent to the 14th of the month of Artemisios in an earlier calendar used in the area, hence, the 14th of the first month of spring.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05344	Why does Poland Spring cost the same in Maine as it does in far reaching places like Arizona?	Take a look at the price of chocolate in Hershey, PA. No difference. It has nothing to do with costs. It has to do with the price that the market will bear.	[ "The eco-costs have been calculated for the situation in the European Union. It is expected that the situation in some states in the USA, like California and Pennsylvania, give similar results. It might be argued that the eco-costs are also an indication of the marginal prevention costs for other parts of the globe, under the condition of a level playing field for production companies.\n\nSection::::Eco-costs 2017.\n", "In 2013, 28 workers on a strawberry farm in Nea Manolada (Manolada) were shot and wounded for demanding six months of unpaid wages. Approximately 200 workers were owed nearly 150,000 Euros, according to seasonal worker Liton Khan. In the words of Khan at the time, \"We want our money, and we want justice. In the summer we slave away in greenhouses at temperatures up to sixty degrees Celsius.\"\n", "According to NUS consulting water tariffs in Germany (without sanitation) were the highest of 16 mainly OECD countries at the equivalent of US$2.25 per cubic meter, about on par with tariffs in Denmark.\n", "Section::::Regional and historical studies.:Germany.\n", "However, for commercial tariffs the picture is somewhat different. According to another study by NUS consulting the average water tariff (without sanitation) in France for a consumption of 10,000 cubic meters pere year was the equivalent of US$ 1.58, the 5th most expensive out of the 14 countries considered in the study. In the 14 mainly OECD countries tariffs excluding VAT varied between US$ 0.66 per cubic meter in the United States and the equivalent of US$ 2.25 per cubic meter in Denmark.\n", "In the windy great plains expanse of the central United States new-construction wind power costs in 2017 are compellingly below costs of continued use of existing coal burning plants. Wind power can be contracted via a power purchase agreement at two cents per kilowatt hour while the operating costs for power generation in existing coal-burning plants remain above three cents.\n\nBULLET::::- Current offshore wind\n", "Prices for water sold by tanker trucks in bulk, which is common in cities of some developing countries for households without access to piped water supply, are set in the market. Prices for trucked water vary between about US$1 and US$6 per cubic meter.\n\nSection::::Utility tariffs.\n\nPrices for piped water supply provided by utilities, be they publicly or privately managed, are determined administratively (see water tariffs). They vary from US$ 0.01 to almost US$ 8 per cubic meter (including sewer tariffs).\n\nPortland 2.17 gallons cost $0.01 \n\nSection::::Irrigation.\n", "Section::::Financial aspects.:Tariffs.\n", "Water tariffs that are charged by utilities to treat and supply water to residential and commercial users have to be clearly distinguished from the pricing of water resources.\n\nSee:Water tariffs in Chile\n\nSection::::Water resource base.\n\nSection::::Water resource base.:Surface and groundwater resources.\n", "The process of adjusting water tariffs differs greatly from one location to another. In many large countries (China, France, Germany, India, Mexico, South Africa and the United States) the process of price adjustment takes place at the municipal level. Rules for price adjustments vary greatly. In the case of public service provision, tariffs are typically adjusted through a decision by the municipal council after a request by the municipal utility. Some countries, such as Germany, stipulate by law that all the financial costs of service provision must be recovered through tariff revenues. Other countries define cost recovery as a long-term objective, such as in Mexico. In the case of private service providers tariff adjustment rules are often laid out in concession or lease contracts, often providing for indexation to inflation.\n", "A country's natural resource endowment, as well as their regulations in place greatly influence tariffs from the supply side. The supply side of the electricity supply is most influenced by fuel prices, and CO allowance prices. The EU carbon prices have doubled since 2017, making it a significant driving factor of price.\n\nSection::::Electricity price forecasting.:Driving factors.:Weather.\n", "Comparison of annual water and sanitation bills per capita in four EU countries\n\nSource: Metropolitan Consulting Group: Vergleich europäischer Wasser- und Abwasserpreise, 2006 \n\nConcerning sanitation, unequalized tariffs are by far the highest in Germany at 111 euro per year. Equalized costs net of subsidies are, however, highest in England and Wales with 138 euro, followed by France (122 euro), Germany (119 euro) and Italy (85 euro).\n\nSection::::Tariffs and cost recovery.:Metering.\n", "BULLET::::- Diesel fuel tax for farmers going from €6 per 1,000 liters to €200/1,000 liters from October 1, 2015, and to €330 by October 1, 2016.\n\nBULLET::::- Farmers’ income tax to be paid in advance would rise from 27.5 percent to 55 percent.\n\nBULLET::::- Income tax for farmers is set to rise from 13 to 20 percent for 2016 and to 26 percent for 2017.\n", "Equalized costs net of subsidies and taking into account differences in service quality show a different picture: England and Wales have the highest tariffs, followed by France and Germany. Tariffs in Italy remain the lowest, even taking subsidies and differences in service quality into account.\n\nComparison of annual water and sanitation bills \"per capita\" in four EU countries taking into account subsidies and differences in service quality\n\nSection::::Financial aspects.:Costs and affordability.\n\nIn the year 2005 \n\nBULLET::::- 46% of water and sanitation tariffs were linked to water treatment and distribution;\n\nBULLET::::- 37% were linked to wastewater collection and treatment;\n", "BULLET::::- No charge to German public finances. The remuneration payments are not considered public subsidies since they are not derived from taxation but rather through an EEG surcharge on electricity consumers. In 2015, the aggregate EEG surcharge totalled €21.8billion and the EEG surcharge itself was 6.17¢/kWh. The EEG surcharge can be substantially reduced for electricity-intensive industries under the 'special equalization scheme' (\"Besonderen Ausgleichsregelung\") (introduced in a 2003 amendment).\n", "Homeowners with grid connected micro-generation systems are charged a €9.45 per billing cycle \"low-usage surcharge\" for importing less than 2kWh per day or being a net exporter of energy in a billing period.\n\nSection::::By country.:Israel.\n", "For example, in 2012, Hawaii residents had the highest average residential electricity rate in the United States (37.34¢/kWh), while Louisiana residents had the lowest average residential electricity costs (8.37¢/kWh). Even in the contiguous United States, the gap is significant with New York residents having the highest average residential electricity rates in the lower 48 U.S. states (17.62¢/kWh).\n\nSection::::Price comparison across countries.:Global comparison.\n\n Denotes countries with government subsidized electricity tariffs.\n\nThe U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) also publishes an incomplete list of international energy prices, while the International Energy Agency (IEA) provides a thorough, quarterly review.\n\nSection::::Price comparison across countries.:Eurostat.\n", "All users, except for the tourism industry, are subject to paying the above variable tariffs. The price of drinking water for the tourism industry is 1.315 DT/m regardless of consumption.\n\nThe fixed part of the tariff depends on the diameter of the water meter. \n\nAll drinking water tariffs are subject to an 18% value added tax.\n", "Climate change will also affect how the state purchases electricity. During the summer months, Washington sells electricity to states such as California and Arizona because prices for their states is high in these seasons. During the winter months, Washington purchases electricity from these states because of the state's need for increased heating and lighting. Therefore, increased temperatures in the summer months will alter the selling of electricity to these states and cause the state to money loss.\n\nSection::::Municipal water supply.\n", "Section::::Changes in water use in response to tariff increases.\n\nThe responsiveness of demand to a change in price is measured by the price elasticity of demand, which is defined as the percentage change in demand divided by the percentage change in price. The price elasticity of drinking water demand by urban households is typically low. In European countries it ranges between -0.1 and -0.25, i.e. the demand for water decreases by 0.1% to 0.25% for every 1% increase in tariffs. In Australia and the United States price elasticity is somewhat higher in the range of -0.1 and -0.4.\n", "BULLET::::- €5,548,000 (previously €5,225,000) for public sector and utility works contracts, as well as for contracts that are more than 50% state-subsidised and involve civil engineering activities or hospital, sports, recreation or education facility construction (Directive 2004/17/EC article 16(b), Directive 2004/18/EC article 7(c), article 8(a)); the equivalent in the UK is £4,551,413\n\nBULLET::::- €5,548,000 (previously €5,225,000) for public works and services concession contracts; the equivalent in the UK is £4,551,413\n", "BULLET::::- In the Netherlands, 'shadow prices' have been developed in 2004 by TNO/MEP on basis of a local prevention curve: it are the costs of the most expensive prevention measure required by the Dutch government for each midpoint. It is obvious that such costs are relevant for the local companies, but such a shadow price system doesn't have any meaning outside the Netherlands, since it is not based on the no-effect-level\n", "Section::::Price comparison across countries.\n\nThe table below shows a simple comparison of electricity tariffs in industrialized countries and territories around the world, expressed in US dollars. The comparison does not take into account factors including fluctuating international exchange rates, a country's purchasing power, government taxes and subsidies on electricity or retail discounts that are often available in deregulated electricity markets.\n", "First, if permits are auctioned, a cap or tax will each collect $30 × 4 billion = $120 billion/year. So that is sometimes said to be the cost of the policy. Second, if the permits are given away or the tax is refunded, then it may appear that there is no cost at all. In fact, the two situations are not so different, because carbon revenues do not vanish, so they are not a cost. Revenues only become a cost if they are entirely wasted. But that would not be the fault of pricing carbon.\n", "BULLET::::- €443,000 (previously €387,000) for utility supply and service contracts, including service design contests (Directive 2004/17/EC article 16(a), article 61); the equivalent in the UK is £363,424\n\nBULLET::::- €80,000 (no change) for small lots within a project above the services threshold, allowing no more than 20% of the value of the project to be excluded from procurement in accordance with the directive; the equivalent in the UK is £65,630\n\nBULLET::::- €750,000 (no change) for light touch regime contracts (also known as Annex XIV contracts); the equivalent in the UK is £615,278\n" ]	[ "Poland Spring costs the same due to location." ]	[ "Poland Spring does not cost the same due to location, the cost varies based off of the market each area can handle." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Poland Spring costs the same due to location." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Poland Spring does not cost the same due to location, the cost varies based off of the market each area can handle." ]
2018-01042	Why do “B” (and worse) movies get made if they’re highly unlikely to be successful?	Because they are likely to be successful. A movie is successful if it earns more money than it cost to make. A movie that few people saw might earn $20 million. If it was an unpromoted indie film that cost $5 million to make, it is a big success If it was a summer blockbuster, it is a historic bomb.	[ "On the other hand, recent industry trends suggest the reemergence of something that looks very like the traditional A-B split in major studio production, though with fewer \"programmers\" bridging the gap. According to a 2006 report by industry analyst Alfonso Marone, \"The average budget for a Hollywood movie is currently around $60m, rising to $100m when the cost of marketing for domestic launch (USA only) is factored into the equation. However, we are now witnessing a polarisation of film budgets into two tiers: large productions ($120–150m) and niche features ($5–20m). The rationale is that the likelihood of success is maximised by coupling ultra-large budget and highly marketable features (e.g., \"\"), with multiple low-cost bets (e.g., \"Little Miss Sunshine\"). Fewer $30–70m releases are expected.\"\n", "A few down-market independent productions were more ambitious: \"White Zombie\" (1932), directed by Victor Halperin and starring Béla Lugosi, is now regarded as the archetypal zombie movie, though it was poorly received at the time. It was picked up by United Artists for distribution after it lost deals with Columbia and the small Educational Pictures. On occasion, a low-end movie would get separated from the pack. Reviewing the 77-minute Universal crime melodrama \"Rio\" (1939), the \"New York Times\" declared that director \"John Brahm's impact on the Class B picture is producing one of the strangest sound effects in recent cinema history. It is that of an unmistakable B buzzing like an A.\"\n", "Cinematic exhibition of the B movie, defined as a relatively low-cost genre film, has declined substantially from the early 1980s to the present. Spurred by the historic success of several big-budget movies with B-style themes beginning in the mid-1970s, the major Hollywood studios moved progressively into the production of A-grade films in genres that had long been low-budget territory. With the majors also adopting exploitation-derived methods of booking and marketing, B movies began to be squeezed out of the commercial arena. The advent of digital cinema in the new millennium appeared to open up new opportunities for the distribution of inexpensive genre movies.\n", "\"Little Miss Sunshine\" was produced by Fox Searchlight, the major studio's pseudo-indie subsidiary, for $8 million. With its quirky, \"indie\"-style comedy, the film hardly meets any conventional definition of a B movie beyond its relatively small budget, but the sorts of movies embraced by the term have shifted drastically before. Classic film noir's combination of visual beauty and verbal wit, for instance, was hardly common coin in exploitation-era B filmmaking. Further expanding the field, Fox launched a new subsidiary in 2006, Fox Atomic, to concentrate on teen-oriented genre films (horror in particular, at first, then increasingly comedy, as well). The genre focus was similar to that of Sony's Screen Gems division and the Weinsteins' Dimension Films, but the economic model was deliberately low-rent, at least by major studio standards. According to a \"Variety\" report, \"Fox Atomic is staying at or below the $10 million mark for many of its movies. It's also encouraging filmmakers to shoot digitally—a cheaper process that results in a grittier, teen-friendly look. And forget about stars. Of Atomic's nine announced films, not one has a big-name.\" In sum, this was an updated version of a Golden Age big studio B unit targeting a market very similar to the one Samuel Z. Arkoff and James H. Nicholson's AIP helped define in the 1950s. Despite its low budgets and consequently low benchmarks for profitability, Fox Atomic's output was seen as unsuccessful by its parent company, which shut it down in 2009.\n", "Studios supplement these movies with independent productions, made with small budgets and often independently of the studio corporation. Movies made in this manner typically emphasize high professional quality in terms of acting, directing, screenwriting, and other elements associated with production, and also upon creativity and innovation. These movies usually rely upon critical praise or niche marketing to garner an audience. Because of an independent film's low budget, a successful independent film can have a high profit-to-cost ratio while a failure will incur minimal losses, allowing for studios to sponsor dozens of such productions in addition to their high-stakes releases.\n", "Most of the B-movie production houses founded during the exploitation era collapsed or were subsumed by larger companies as the field's financial situation changed in the early 1980s. Even a comparatively cheap, efficiently made genre picture intended for theatrical release began to cost millions of dollars, as the major movie studios steadily moved into the production of expensive genre movies, raising audience expectations for spectacular action sequences and realistic special effects. Intimations of the trend were evident as early as \"Airport\" (1969) and especially in the mega-schlock of \"The Poseidon Adventure\" (1972), \"Earthquake\" (1973), and \"The Towering Inferno\" (1974). Their disaster plots and dialogue were B-grade at best; from an industry perspective, however, these were pictures firmly rooted in the tradition of star-stuffed extravaganzas like \"The Ten Commandments\" (1956) and \"Around the World in Eighty Days\" (1956). \"The Exorcist\" (1973) and, though not effects-driven, George Lucas's \"American Graffiti\" (1973) were the first serious steps in Hollywood's transformation into an industry built around high-budget B-themed movies. But the tidal shift in the majors' focus owed largely to the enormous success of three films: Steven Spielberg's creature feature \"Jaws\" (1975) and Lucas's space opera \"Star Wars\" (1977) had each, in turn, become the highest-grossing film in motion picture history. \"Superman\", released in December 1978, had proved that a studio could spend $55 million on a movie about a children's comic book character and make a very handsome profit. Not an all-time record-breaker like \"Jaws\" and \"Star Wars\", it was merely the biggest box-office hit of 1979. Blockbuster fantasy spectacles like the original, 1933 \"King Kong\" had once been exceptional; in the new Hollywood, increasingly under the sway of multi-industrial conglomerates, they would rule. \n", "Latter-day B movies still sometimes inspire multiple sequels, but series are less common. As the average running time of top-of-the-line films increased, so did that of B pictures. In its current usage, the term has somewhat contradictory connotations: it may signal an opinion that a certain movie is (a) a genre film with minimal artistic ambitions or (b) a lively, energetic film uninhibited by the constraints imposed on more expensive projects and unburdened by the conventions of putatively \"serious\" independent film. The term is also now used loosely to refer to some higher-budget, mainstream films with exploitation-style content, usually in genres traditionally associated with the B movie.\n", "BULLET::::- Uncertainty of value. The demand for a good (market success) is hard to predict. For example, with movies, even if a film's plot, themes and selection of actors has been extensively tested using focus groups and polls, and even if the movie uses popular A-list actors, this film may still be a box office bomb (e.g., \"Gigli\", a 2003 American romantic comedy starring Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez). On the other hand, a low-budget film by an unknown director and an unknown cast, such as \"The Blair Witch Project\" can surprise the industry by being a major hit. This uncertainty is a characteristic of an experience good such as films, TV shows, musical theatre shows and music concerts.\n", "Series films are often unquestioningly consigned to the B-movie category, but even here there is ambiguity, as scholar James Naremore describes:\n", "On the other hand, recent industry trends suggest the reemergence of something like the traditional A-B split in major studio production, though with fewer \"programmers\" bridging the gap. According to a 2006 report by industry analyst Alfonso Marone, \"The average budget for a Hollywood movie is currently around $, rising to $ when the cost of marketing for domestic launch (USA only) is factored into the equation. However, we are now witnessing a polarisation of film budgets into two tiers: large productions ($120–) and niche features ($5–20m). ... Fewer $30– releases are expected.\" Fox launched a new subsidiary in 2006, Fox Atomic, to concentrate on teen-oriented genre films. The economic model was deliberately low-rent, at least by major studio standards. According to a \"Variety\" report, \"Fox Atomic is staying at or below the mark for many of its movies. It's also encouraging filmmakers to shoot digitally—a cheaper process that results in a grittier, teen-friendly look. And forget about stars. Of Atomic's nine announced films, not one has a big name\". The newfangled B movie division was shut down in 2009.\n", "With a rising popularity of online crowdfunding more and more films are getting financed directly by their consumers this way.\n\nThe crowdfunding platforms Kickstarter and IndieGoGo have their own categories dedicated to films. \n\nCrowdfunding films gives the consumer a voice in what films are being produced, allow for riskier, more socially relevant, more innovative, less profit-oriented independent films with smaller and marginal target audiences that can't be found in mainstream cinema and lower the entry-barrier to new filmmakers.\n\nCrowdfunded films include \"Iron Sky\", \"Kung Fury\", \"Veronica Mars\", \"Code 8\", \"\", \"Manthan\" and \"Anomalisa\".\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "This was also Cherry Pie’s break from cinematic hybernation after the film Isda (2014, Adolfo Alix Jr.) because “I didn’t find anything interesting until I got the script from Paolo. I said this was what I’ve been waiting for. I said that if I’d do another indie, I want it to be memorable, significant and relevant.”\n", "Most Indiewood films are first shown at film festivals with the hopes of further distribution by being picked up (or purchased) by a larger film company or distributor. \n\nSimultaneously, many Hollywood films do not make it past the focus groups and subsequent distribution because the scripts are often ruined by being over-thought and \"over-written\" by the executive committees & focus groups. Hollywood films are usually made for the lowest common denominator audience while Indiewood films are able to be released with a more singular vision of the film director (ideally).\n", "The films are often made for far less money than Hollywood films, and each aspect of the filmmaking process has to undergo less scrutiny by committees. Additionally, with the in Indiewood approach the filmmaker can take as long as they need in the in post-production phase of their film - whereas in Hollywood they are contracted to finish the film in a specific period of time (usually 10 weeks). In Hollywood, the film then goes on to show in focus group screenings on the studio lot. In Indiewood, the filmmakers can determine the next steps of the film.\n", "By the turn of the millennium, the average production cost of an American feature had already spent three years above the mark. In 2005, the top ten movies at the U.S. box office included three adaptations of children's fantasy novels, one extending and another initiating a series (\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" and \"\", respectively), a child-targeted cartoon (\"Madagascar\"), a comic book adaptation (\"Batman Begins\"), a sci-fi series installment (\"\"), a sci-fi remake (\"War of the Worlds\"), and a \"King Kong\" remake. It was a slow year for Corman: he produced just one movie, which had no American theatrical release, true of most of the pictures he had been involved in over the preceding decade. As big-budget Hollywood movies further usurped traditional low-rent genres, the ongoing viability of the familiar brand of B movie was in grave doubt. \"New York Times\" critic A. O. Scott warned of the impending \"extinction\" of \"the cheesy, campy, guilty pleasures\" of the B picture.\n", "At the same time as exhibition venues for B films vanished, the independent film movement was burgeoning; among the results were various crossovers between the low-budget genre movie and the \"sophisticated\" arthouse picture. Director Abel Ferrara, who built a reputation with violent B movies such as \"The Driller Killer\" (1979) and \"Ms. 45\" (1981), made two works in the early nineties that marry exploitation-worthy depictions of sex, drugs, and general sleaze to complex examinations of honor and redemption: \"King of New York\" (1990) was backed by a group of mostly small production companies and the cost of \"Bad Lieutenant\" (1992), , was financed totally independently. Larry Fessenden's micro-budget monster movies, such as \"No Telling\" (1991) and \"Habit\" (1997), reframe classic genre subjects—Frankenstein and vampirism, respectively—to explore issues of contemporary relevance. The budget of David Cronenberg's \"Crash\" (1996), , was not comfortably A-grade, but it was hardly B-level either. The film's imagery was another matter: \"On its scandalizing surface, David Cronenberg's \"Crash\" suggests exploitation at its most disturbingly sick\", wrote critic Janet Maslin. Financed, like \"King of New York\", by a consortium of production companies, it was picked up for U.S. distribution by Fine Line Features. This result mirrored the film's scrambling of definitions: Fine Line was a subsidiary of New Line, recently merged into the Time Warner empire—specifically, it was the old exploitation distributor's arthouse division. \"Pulp Fiction\" (1994), directed by Quentin Tarantino on a budget, became a hugely influential hit by crossing multiple lines, as James Mottram describes: \"With its art house narrative structure, B-movie subject matter and Hollywood cast, the film is the axis for three distinct cinematic traditions to intersect.\"\n", "\"Rocky\" was shot on a budget of $1 million and eventually grossed $225 million worldwide, making Sylvester Stallone a star. \"Halloween\" was produced on a budget of $325,000 and grossed $70 million worldwide. \"Napoleon Dynamite\" cost less than $400,000 to make but its gross revenue was $46 million. Divisions of major film studios that specialize in such films, such as Fox Searchlight Pictures, Miramax, and New Line Cinema, have made the distribution of low budget films competitive.\n", "Some genres are more conducive to low-budget filmmaking than others. Horror films are a very popular genre for low-budget directorial debuts. Jeremy Gardner, director of \"The Battery\" says that horror fans are more attracted to how the films affect them than seeing movie stars. This allows horror films to focus more on provoking a reaction than on expensive casting choices. Thriller films are also a popular choice for low-budget films, as they focus on narrative. Science fiction films, which were once the domain of B movies, frequently require a big budget to accommodate their special effects, but low-cost do-it-yourself computer-generated imagery can make them affordable, especially when they focus on story and characterization. Plot devices like shooting as found footage can lower production costs, and scripts that rely on extended dialogue, such as \"Reservoir Dogs\" or \"Sex, Lies, and Videotape\", can entertain audiences without many sets.\n", "By 1990, the cost of the average U.S. film had passed $25 million. Of the nine films released that year to gross more than $100 million at the U.S. box office, two would have been strictly B-movie material before the late 1970s: \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\" and \"Dick Tracy\". Three more—the science-fiction thriller \"Total Recall\", the action-filled detective thriller \"Die Hard 2\", and the year's biggest hit, the slapstick kiddie comedy \"Home Alone\"—were also far closer to the traditional arena of the B's than to classic A-list subject matter. The growing popularity of home video and access to unedited movies on cable and satellite television along with real estate pressures were making survival more difficult for the sort of small- or non-chain theaters that were the primary home of independently produced genre films. Drive-in screens were rapidly disappearing from the American landscape: between 1987 and 1990, the number in operation fell from 2,507 to 910. \n", "BULLET::::- \"The Beardless Warriors\" (1960) – for 20th Century Fox based on the novel by Richard Matheson\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Summer World\" (1961) – for 20th Century Fox with Dolores Hart and Bradford Dillman about a high school student who falls for an older woman based on a script by Howard Koch from the novel by Richard Dougherty – directed by Franklin J. Shaeffner\n\nBULLET::::- \"Take Her, She's Mine\" (1963) – Fabian was originally announced for the male lead\n\nBULLET::::- \"Robin Hood Jones\" (1965) – for AIP\n", "As the \"Variety\" report suggests, recent technological advances greatly facilitate the production of truly low-budget motion pictures. Although there have always been economical means with which to shoot movies, including Super 8 and 16 mm film, as well as video cameras recording onto analog videotape, these mediums could not rival the image quality of 35 mm film. The development of digital cameras and postproduction methods now allow even low-budget filmmakers to produce films with excellent, and not necessarily \"grittier\", image quality and editing effects. As Marone observes, \"the equipment budget (camera, support) required for shooting digital is approximately 1/10 that for film, significantly lowering the production budget for independent features. At the same time, [since the early 2000s], the quality of digital filmmaking has improved dramatically.\" Independent filmmakers, whether working in a genre or arthouse mode, continue to find it difficult to gain access to distribution channels, though digital end-to-end methods of distribution offer new opportunities. In a similar way, Internet sites such as YouTube have opened up entirely new avenues for the presentation of low-budget motion pictures.\n", "At the same time as exhibition venues for B films vanished, the independent film movement was burgeoning; among the results were various crossovers between the low-budget genre movie and the \"sophisticated\" arthouse picture. Director Abel Ferrara, who built a reputation with violent B movies such as \"The Driller Killer\" (1979) and \"Ms. 45\" (1981), made two works in the early nineties that marry exploitation-worthy depictions of sex, drugs, and general sleaze to complex examinations of honor and redemption: \"King of New York\" (1990) was backed by a group of mostly small production companies and the cost of \"Bad Lieutenant\" (1992), $1.8 million, was financed totally independently. Ferrara followed these two movies with \"Body Snatchers\" (1993), a major-studio remake of the sci-fi classic and an acknowledgment of his debt to the B's of an earlier generation. Larry Fessenden's micro-budget monster movies, such as \"No Telling\" (1991) and \"Habit\" (1997), reframe classic genre subjects—Frankenstein and vampirism, respectively—to explore issues of contemporary relevance—animal experimentation, ecological destruction, drug addiction, and fin-de-siècle urban romance. Written and directed by Jeremy Horton, \"100 Proof\" (1997) is based on the true story of a killing spree that occurred in Lexington, Kentucky, a decade earlier. Praising its authentic depiction of the impoverished milieu in which it is set, critics variously described its style as evoking a home movie or a reality-style TV police series. Joe Leydon of \"Variety\", capturing the way it crossed the line between genre and art film, called it a \"diamond in the rough, or at least a shiny bit of jagged rhinestone.\"\n", "the cheesy, campy, guilty pleasures that used to bubble up with some regularity out of the B-picture ooze of cut-rate genre entertainment. Those cherished bad movies—full of jerry-built effects, abominable acting, ludicrous story lines—once flickered with zesty crudity in drive-ins and grind houses across the land. B-picture genres—science fiction and comic-book fantasy in particular, but also kiddie cartoons and horror pictures—now dominate the A-list, commanding the largest budgets and the most attention from the market-research and quality-control departments of the companies that manufacture them... [F]or the most part, the schlock of the past has evolved into star-driven, heavily publicized, expensive mediocrities...\n", "By the turn of the millennium, the average production cost of an American feature had already spent three years above the $50 million mark. In 2005, the top ten movies at the U.S. box office included three adaptations of children's fantasy novels (including one extending and , as well as a remake of a 1971 film), a child-targeted cartoon, a comic book adaptation, a , a sci-fi remake, and a \"King Kong\" remake. It was a slow year for Corman: he produced just one movie, which had no American theatrical release, true of most of the pictures he had been involved in recently. \"Bloodfist 2050\", directed by long-time B filmmaker and Corman collaborator Cirio H. Santiago, went straight to DVD in the United States. Ultrawide openings at many thousands of theaters were becoming the norm. In May 2007 alone, three fantasy blockbusters—\"\" (third in a series based on an amusement-park ride), \"Spider-Man 3\" (third in a series based on a superhero comic book), and \"Shrek the Third\" (third in a series of \"family\" cartoons)—each opened on over 10,000 screens. As big-budget Hollywood movies further usurped the genre territories that were traditionally the domain of the B's, the ongoing viability of the familiar brand of B movie was in grave doubt. Critic A. O. Scott of the \"New York Times\" warned of the impending \"extinction\" of\n", "Section::::Reception and Awards.\n\nInstead of Abracadabra was well received by critics. Richard Propes of The Independent Critic said, \"Patrik Eklund has a strong knack for telling a rather basic story in fresh and vibrant ways\" and described him as \"a great example of the new cinematic visionaries coming out of Sweden\". Richard Propes, Daily Film Dose as well as the New York Times said the film was reminiscent of Napoleon Dynamite in genre. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ " “B” (and worse) movies are highly unlikely to be successful." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ " “B” (and worse) movies are highly likely to be successful." ]
2018-03347	Why is the sale of homeopathic "remedies" not punished under fraud/false advertising laws?	They are not sold as medications. They are sold as supplements. They do not have the same rules.	[ "On 15 November 2016, FTC declared that homeopathic products cannot include claims of effectiveness without \"competent and reliable scientific evidence.\" If no such evidence exists, they must state this fact clearly on their labeling, and state that the product's claims are based only on 18th-century theories that have been discarded by modern science. The agency said failure to do so would be considered a violation of the FTC Act, a separate authorizing law from the FDA's. (The Wheeler–Lea Act of 1938 established FTC authority to regulate advertising claims of non-prescription drugs.)\n\nSection::::North America.:Mexico.\n", "In July 2013 the Advertising Standards Authority concluded that homeopathy sellers were engaging in false advertising regarding their claims of efficacy of homeopathic products and that at the same time they discouraged users from seeking essential treatments for conditions for which they were needed.\n", "The FDA makes significant exemptions for homeopathic \"remedies\" as compared to other drugs. Here are a few:\n\nBULLET::::1. They are not required to submit new drug applications to the FDA.\n\nBULLET::::2. They are \"exempt from good manufacturing practice requirements related to expiration dating\".\n\nBULLET::::3. They are exempt from \"finished product testing for identity and strength\".\n\nBULLET::::4. They may \"contain much higher amounts\" of alcohol than other drugs, which may contain \"no more than 10 percent ... and ... even less for children's medications\".\n", "BULLET::::6. A large majority of human drug products labeled as homeopathic are marketed as OTC drugs.These products are available for a wide variety of indications, and many of these indications have never been considered for OTC use under a formal regulatory process. What would be an appropriate regulatory process for evaluating such indications for OTC use?\n\nBULLET::::7. Given the wide range of indications on drug products labeled as homeopathic and available OTC, what processes do companies currently use to evaluate whether such products, including their indications for use, are appropriate for marketing as an OTC drug?\n", "The American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not strictly regulate CEASE or homeopathic treatments. However, in response to a question about CEASE it has stated that \"[the] FDA has warned about the use of products labeled as homeopathic because of concerns that they have not been shown to offer clinical benefits in treating serious and/or life-threatening medical conditions, and that they also may cause serious harm... It deeply concerns us when we see preventable diseases such as measles – a life-threatening infection we thought we had eliminated in the US in 2000 – now making a tragic comeback and threatening our communities, despite having a vaccine available that is safe and highly effective. A factor contributing to the measles outbreak is inaccurate and misleading information about vaccines rather than the reliance on accurate, scientific-based information.\"\n", "Section::::Europe.:Switzerland.\n\nState insurance funding of homeopathy and four other alternative therapies had been withdrawn after a review in 2005, and a 2009 referendum vote called for state backed health insurance to once more pay for these therapies. In 2012 the government reinstated them for a trial period until 2017, pending an independent investigation of the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of the therapies.\n", "The labels of homeopathic products registered without proof of efficacy must include the words \"homeopathic medicinal product without approved therapeutic indications\" as well as \"a warning advising the user to consult a doctor if the symptoms persist during the use of the medicinal product\".\n\nSection::::Europe.:European Union.:Belgium.\n", "The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) of 1938 recognized homeopathic preparations as drugs, but with significant exceptions. A principal sponsor of the Act was New York Senator and homeopathic physician Royal Copeland, who ensured that homeopathy's own \"Homœopathic Pharmacopœia of the United States\" (HPUS) be included, as it expressed the \"self-professed quality standards\" of the homeopathic profession. The finished Act thus created loopholes for the regulation of homeopathic drugs, and they are thus exempted from many of the rules regulating other drugs. The inclusion of HPUS in the Act has since been questioned by \"lawyers, doctors, homeopaths, historians, and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) officials.\"\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Labelling for homeopathic products\" To avert misleading label that the product is regulated by the FDA, all homeopathic products will be required to have prominent labels stating: (1) the product's claimed active ingredients in plain English, and (2) that the product has not been evaluated by the FDA for either safety or effectiveness.\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Regular consumer warnings\" Encouraged by the FDA's recent warning of the ineffectiveness of homeopathic products, CFI urged the FDA to issue regular warning to the consumers in addition to warning during public health crises and outbreaks.\n", "The FDA held a hearing April 20 and 21, 2015, requesting public comment on regulation of homeopathic drugs. Citing the growth of sales of over-the-counter homeopathic medicines, $2.7 billion as of 2007, many labeled as \"natural, safe, and effective\", the FDA asked:\n\nBULLET::::1. What are consumer and health care provider attitudes towards human drug and biological products labeled as homeopathic?\n\nBULLET::::2. What data sources can be identified or shared with FDA so that the Agency can better assess the risks and benefits of drug and biological products labeled as homeopathic?\n", "The CFI urged the FDA to announce and implement strict guidelines that \"require all homeopathic products meet the same standards as non-homeopathic drugs\", arguing that the consumers can only have true freedom of choice (an often used argument from the homeopathy proponents) if they are fully informed of the choices. CFI proposed that the FDA take these three steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Testing for homeopathic products\" The FDA will mandate that all homeopathic products on the market to perform and pass safety and efficacy tests equivalent to those required of non-homeopathic drugs.\n", "The act defines \"magic remedy\" as any talisman, mantra, amulet or any other object which is claimed to have miraculous powers to cure, diagnose, prevent or mitigate a disease in humans or animal. It also includes such devices that are claimed to have power to influence structure or function of an organ in humans or animals.\n\nThe law prohibits advertising of drugs and remedies for\n\nBULLET::::- inducing miscarriage or preventing conception in women\n\nBULLET::::- improving or maintaining the capacity for sexual pleasure\n\nBULLET::::- correction of menstrual disorders\n", "While the practice of homeopathy in the United Kingdom (UK) is not regulated by law, homeopathic products sold as remedies or medicines are regulated by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency.\n", "In the United States, the \"Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act\" of 1938 (sponsored by Royal Copeland, a Senator from New York and homeopathic physician) recognized homeopathic preparations as drugs. In the 1950s, there were only 75 pure homeopaths practising in the U.S. However, by the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback and sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold. Some homeopaths give credit for the revival to Greek homeopath George Vithoulkas, who performed a \"great deal of research to update the scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy\", beginning in the 1970s, but Ernst and Singh consider it to be linked to the rise of the New Age movement. Whichever is correct, mainstream pharmacy chains recognized the business potential of selling homeopathic preparations. The Food and Drug Administration held a hearing April 20 and 21, 2015, requesting public comment on regulation of homeopathic drugs. The FDA cited the growth of sales of over-the-counter homeopathic medicines, which was $2.7 billion for 2007.\n", "In November 2016, The United States FTC issued an \"Enforcement Policy Statement Regarding Marketing Claims for Over-the-Counter Homeopathic Drugs\" which specified that the FTC will hold efficacy and safety claims for OTC homeopathic drugs to the same standard as other products making similar claims. A November 15, 2016, FTC press release summarized the policy as follows:\n\nIn conjunction with the 2016 FTC Enforcement Policy Statement, the FTC also released its \"Homeopathic Medicine & Advertising Workshop Report\", which summarizes the panel presentations and related public comments in addition to describing consumer research commissioned by the FTC. The report concluded:\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Homeopathy is a form of alternative medicine which is ineffective. Practitioners claim to treat patients using highly diluted preparations that are believed to cause healthy people to exhibit symptoms that are similar to those exhibited by the patient.\n\nIn July 2013 the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) adjudicated against the SoH, finding that it was engaging in false advertising regarding claims of efficacy of homeopathic products and that at the same time discouraging users from seeking essential treatments for conditions for which they were needed.\n", "BULLET::::8. Do consumers and health care providers have adequate information to make informed decisions about drug products labeled as homeopathic? If not, what information, including, for example, information in labeling, would allow consumers and health care providers to be better informed about products labeled as homeopathic?\n", "On September 28, 2016 the UK's Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP) Compliance team wrote to homeopaths in the UK to \"remind them of the rules that govern what they can and can't say in their marketing materials\". The letter highlights that \"homeopaths may not currently make either direct or implied claims to treat medical conditions\" and asks them to review their marketing communications \"including websites and social media pages\" to ensure compliance by November 3, 2016. The letter also includes information on sanctions in the event of non-compliance including, ultimately, \"referral by the ASA to Trading Standards under the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008\".\n", "Section::::Homeopathic medications.\n\nHomeopathic preparations are regulated and protected under Sections 201(g) and 201(j), provided that such medications are formulated from substances listed in the Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States, which the Act recognizes as an official drug compendium.\n", "In September 2011, after the National Board of Health and Welfare put a doctor on probation for recommending homeopathy to a patient, Sweden's Supreme Administrative Court ruled that \"doctors can recommend homeopathy\". In October 2013 a legal review conducted by the National Board of Health and Welfare on behalf of the government concluded that the use of homeopathy by licensed medical professionals is limited to patient-initiated last-resort treatments.\n\nSection::::Europe.:European Union.:United Kingdom.\n", "In the United States the Food and Drug Administration's online warnings for consumers about medication health fraud includes a section on Alternative Medicine Fraud, such as a warning that Ayurvedic products generally have not been approved by FDA before marketing.\n\nSection::::United States.:Texas.\n", "The Federal judge concluded that: \"there is no reasonable basis, in the sense of an adequate foundation, in medical science to enable the First Respondent and the Second Respondent to state that Homeopathic\n\nTreatments are safe and effective as an alternative to the Vaccine for the Prevention of Whooping Cough\".\n", "BULLET::::- curing, diagnosing or preventing any disease or condition mentioned in an included schedule\n\nThe original included schedule contained a list of 54 diseases and conditions:\n", "CFI in Canada is calling for persons that feel they were harmed by homeopathic products to contact them.\n\nIn July 2018 the Center for Inquiry filed a lawsuit against CVS for consumer fraud over its sale of homeopathic medicines. According to Nicholas Little, CFI's Vice President and General Counsel:\n", "In 1912, Congress responded with the Sherley Amendments, which addressed the perceived lack of enforcement of fraud related to therapeutic claims;: The Act was amended to prohibit false and fraudulent claims of health benefits but enforcement under the amendment required proof of fraudulent intent, a difficult standard. The misbranding amendment required a curative or therapeutic product to bear a label with a quantity or proportion statement for specified narcotic substances:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04784	How high could a balloon float?	There's two major factors determining how high a balloon can float: The strength of its material and Archimedes’s principle. As the balloon travels higher, the helium inside expands, and it explodes sooner or later, depending on the strength of the material. The ultimate limit is Archimedes's Principle, which states that balloons will stop rising once their density equates to the surrounding air, so it's impossible for it to rise into space. Read more about it here: URL_0	[ "The previous altitude record for a manned balloon flight was set at 39.045 kilometers on October 14, 2012 by Felix Baumgartner breaking a record of 34.7 kilometers on May 4, 1961 by Malcolm Ross and Victor Prather in a balloon launched from the deck of the in the Gulf of Mexico.\n", "In 1976, Ed Yost set 13 aviation world's records for distance traveled and amount of time aloft in his attempt to cross the Atlantic Ocean —solo— by balloon (3.938 km, 107:37 h).\n\nThe current absolute altitude record for manned balloon flight was set at 34,668 m (113,739 ft) on 4 May 1961 by Malcolm Ross and Victor Prather in the Strato-Lab V balloon payload launched from the deck of the USS \"Antietam\" in the Gulf of Mexico.\n", "In April 2008, in Brazil, Roman Catholic priest Adelir Antonio de Carli ascended with 1000 balloons. Ground observers lost track of him when he floated out above the ocean, and he was missing until part of his body was recovered by an offshore oil rig support vessel on 5 July 2008. Carli at one point reached an altitude of 6,000 metres (19,685 ft) before losing contact with authorities; his altitude may have indeed been the record for cluster ballooning, but it cost him his life.\n", "The DHL Balloon measured 22 metres in diameter and was filled with 6,500 cubic metres of helium. It was certified as an aircraft. It was one of only fifteen similar balloons around the world in cities including Paris and Hong Kong made by Aerophile.\n", "The previous record altitude for a manned balloon was set at 38,960.5 m (127,823 ft) by Felix Baumgartner in the Red Bull Stratos balloon launched from Roswell, New Mexico on Sunday, 14 October 2012.\n\nThe current record altitude for a manned balloon was set at 41,419.0 m (135,889.108 ft) by Alan Eustace on 24 October 2014.\n", "In 2012, the Red Bull Stratos balloon took Felix Baumgartner to 128,100 ft. for a freefall jump from the stratosphere.\n\nSection::::Modern ballooning.:Commercial.\n\nTethered gas balloons have been installed as amusement rides in Paris since 1999, in Berlin since 2000, in Disneyland Paris since 2005, in the San Diego Wild Animal Park since 2005, in Walt Disney World in Orlando since 2009, and the DHL Balloon in Singapore in 2006. Modern tethered gas balloons are made by Aerophile SAS.\n", "Fully inflated, a balloon of this size would contain just over of helium. Helium's lift capacity at sea level and 0 °C is 1.113 kg/m (0.07 lbs/ft) and decreases at higher altitudes and at higher temperatures. The volume of helium in the balloon has been estimated as being able to lift a total load, including the balloon material and the structure beneath it, of at sea level and at .\n\nFort Collins is at an elevation of about and the balloon was estimated to have reached .\n\nSection::::Incident.\n", "As the balloon was anchored to the ground with a metal cable, it was only able to ascend and descend vertically. It was approved by the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore to ascend to a maximum altitude of 180 metres, or around 48 stories. Flights to either 150 metres or 180 metres were offered. It could accommodate a maximum of 29 passengers in its gondola.\n\nSection::::Features and specifications.:Piloting.\n", "DHL Balloon\n\nThe DHL Balloon, located in Singapore, was the world's second largest tethered helium balloon. It was closed and dismantled in October 2008.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- 9 May: \"By Associated Press to THE SUN KOENIGSBURG, Germany, May 9. - A German military spherical balloon, the \"Cassiopeia,\" which ascended from this city on Wednesday, is missing with its passengers. It was last seen in the neighborhood of Pillau, about 35 miles from here, traversing the Frischen Ehrung [\"sic\"] peninsula in a storm.\" \"It was under the command of Captain Von Wobeser of the second balloon battalion, stationed here.\"\n", "A gas balloon can also be tethered. \"Aerophile\" is the world's largest lighter-than-air carrier, flying 300,000 passengers every year through its eight operations in Walt Disney World, San Diego Zoo Safari Park, Smoky Mountains & Irvine in the USA and Paris, Disneyland Paris and Parc du Petit Prince in France.\n\nSection::::Records.\n", "The balloon is usually filled with hydrogen due to lower cost, though helium can also be used. The ascent rate can be controlled by the amount of gas with which the balloon is filled. Weather balloons may reach altitudes of 40 km (25 miles) or more, limited by diminishing pressures causing the balloon to expand to such a degree (typically by a 100:1 factor) that it disintegrates. In this instance the instrument package is usually lost. Above that altitude sounding rockets are used, and for even higher altitudes satellites are used.\n\nSection::::Launch time, location, and uses.\n", "The kite balloon pilot had a parachute in a flat container attached to the observation basket suspended from the kite balloon, with the pilot only wearing a simple body harness around his waist, with shroud lines from the harness attached to the main parachute in the container. When the balloonist jumped, the main part of the parachute was pulled from the container, with the shroud lines first, followed by the main canopy. A similar parachute system for the entire observation basket was tested at Rockaway Naval Air Station, but it was not widely used.\n\nSection::::Naval use.:Operation.\n", "The balloon, which flew between two and six times an hour, was operated by a pilot within the gondola. A hydro-electric winch system controlled take-off and landing. As a safety measure, the balloon was not flown when there was lightning, rain, or when the wind speed exceeded five knots on the ground as measured by an anemometer.\n\nSection::::Features and specifications.:Maintenance.\n", "Just two months later, in June 2008, FAA licensed pilot Jonathan Trappe attached a cluster of balloons to his standard, unmodified office chair and flew it to an altitude of 14,783 feet. The flight reportedly lasted four hours and covered 50 miles before Trappe returned to earth, retired the chair, and returned it back to his workplace. On May 28, 2010, Sky News reported on Trappe's crossing of the English Channel by cluster balloon. Trappe departed near Challock, England, crossed over the White Cliffs of Dover at St. Margarets Bay, and made landfall again over Dunkirk, France. Trappe then tracked inland, and landed safely in a farmer's cabbage patch. Three years later, Trappe attempted a trans-Atlantic crossing, but his journey stopped short when he was forced to land in Newfoundland.\n", "Section::::Trajectory.\n\nHelium balloons are claimed to reach a height of anywhere up to ten kilometres. \n\nIt is also possible for a balloon, under the right circumstances, to reach equilibrium, and remain suspended in the air for some time, until the helium slowly diffuses out of the balloon.\n\nSection::::Noted balloon releases.\n", "Similarly, when the balloon rose above about 11.6 km (38,000 ft), the altimeter activated a valve to vent hydrogen. The hydrogen was also vented if the balloon's pressure reached a critical level.\n\nThe control system ran the balloon through three days of flight. At that time, it was likely over the U.S., and its ballast was expended. The final flash of gunpowder released the bombs, also carried on the wheel, and lit a long fuse that hung from the balloon's equator. After 84 minutes, the fuse fired a flash bomb that destroyed the balloon.\n", "The craft ascended by the dropping of ballast, and was to drift at an altitude of up to 25,000 ft (7.6 km). It was intended to follow wind currents toward Europe, the intended destination, however, unpredictable wind currents could have forced the craft to North Africa or Norway. To descend, Trappe would have popped or released some of the balloons.\n\nThe last time the Atlantic was crossed by helium balloon was in 1984 by Colonel Joe Kittinger.\n\nSection::::Records.\n", "The density of air at 20 °C, 68 °F is about 1.2 kg/m³. The total lift for a balloon of 100,000 ft³ heated to (99 °C, 210 °F) would be 1595 lb, 723.5 kg. This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality, the air contained in the envelope is not all the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages.\n", "No further radio transmissions were received from \"Light Heart\". The Liberian freighter \"Ore Meridian\" reported sighting the balloon just after dawn on 21 February. At that point, the balloon was at an altitude of about 305 m (1000 ft), approximately 1,610 km (1,000 miles) west of the Canary Islands and drifting towards Africa. According to this report, eight of the ten balloons remained inflated. The gondola was designed to float in the event of a water landing and to be radar reflective. Notwithstanding this (or conjectures that the balloon might have landed in the Spanish Sahara) no confirmed trace of \"Light Heart\" or Gatch was ever found, after the \"Ore Meridian\"'s reported sighting on 21 February.\n", "On April 20, 2008, after taking off in a chair attached to 1,000 balloons, Carli was able to reach an altitude of before losing contact with authorities. Pieces of balloon were later reported floating in the sea off the coast.\n", "Manned high-altitude balloons were used from the 1930s to 1960s for research and in seeking flight altitude records. Notable manned high altitude balloon flights include three records set for highest skydive, the first set by Joseph Kittinger in 1960 at 31,300m for Project Excelsior, followed by Felix Baumgartner in 2012 at 38,969m for Red Bull Stratos and most recently Alan Eustace in 2014 at 41,419m.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "On 11 August 2007, a hot air balloon burned and crashed in British Columbia when a fuel line became dislodged from a propane tank, killing two passengers; the Transportation Safety Board of Canada subsequently ruled that fuel tanks should have automatic shutoff valves.\n\nOn 1 January 2011, a hot air balloon crashed in Westfield, Somerset, United Kingdom, killing both people on board.\n\nOn 7 January 2012, a scenic hot air balloon flight from Carterton, New Zealand, touched a power line, caught fire, and crashed just north of the town, killing all eleven people on board.\n", "In 1984, the Soviet space probes Vega 1 and Vega 2 released two balloons with scientific experiments in the atmosphere of Venus. They transmitted signals for two days to Earth.\n\nSection::::Ballooning records.\n", "On 23 August 2012 in Slovenia, a hot air balloon crash-landed due to a thunderstorm, killing 6 and injuring the other 26 people on board.\n\nOn 26 February 2013 the deadliest ballooning accident in history occurred when a hot air balloon exploded and crashed near Luxor, Egypt. The crash killed 19 of the 21 people on board.\n\nOn 30 July 2016, a hot air balloon carrying 16 people caught fire and crashed near Lockhart, Texas. There were no survivors.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Airship\n\nBULLET::::- Aviation\n\nBULLET::::- Balloon (aeronautics)\n\nBULLET::::- Balloon satellite\n\nBULLET::::- Barrage balloon\n\nBULLET::::- Bristol International Balloon Fiesta\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11602	I have high functioning autism. Can anyone explain to me the science behind a meltdown?	I studied brain science in university. Autism is not fully understood. However, one common characteristic is that autistic people don't filter out sensory input as thoroughly as average people do. Therefore the brain can become overwhelmed with seemingly relevant information, at much too high a rate to process. A meltdown is a powerful response to being overwhelmed, an urgent attempt at getting the inputs to stop so that the brain can calm down.	[ "ASD is also associated with epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder. One in four autistic children develops seizures, often starting either in early childhood or adolescence. Seizures, caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, can produce a temporary loss of consciousness (a \"blackout\"), a body convulsion, unusual movements, or staring spells. Sometimes a contributing factor is a lack of sleep or a high fever. An EEG can help confirm the seizure's presence. Typically, onset of epilepsy occurs before age five or during puberty, and is more common in females and individuals who also have a comorbid intellectual disability.\n", "There are two classifications of different social interaction styles associated with HFA. The first is an active-but-odd social interaction style classified by ADHD symptoms, poor executive functioning, and psychosocial problems. The difficulty controlling impulses could cause the active-but-odd social behaviors present in some children with HFA. The second social interaction type is a passive style. This aloof style is characterized by a lack of social initiations and could possibly be caused by social anxiety.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "ASD-related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks.\n\nIn autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the default network (a large-scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing), with intact connectivity of the task-positive network (used in sustained attention and goal-directed thinking). In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time, suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks, possibly reflecting a disturbance of self-referential thought.\n", "The underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes. Evidence for this theory has been found in functional neuroimaging studies on autistic individuals and by a brainwave study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the cortex and weak functional connections between the frontal lobe and the rest of the cortex. Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each hemisphere of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the association cortex.\n", "Although little is known about the biological basis of autism, studies have revealed structural abnormalities in specific brain regions. Regions identified in the \"social\" brain include the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus, fusiform gyrus area and orbitofrontal cortex. Further abnormalities have been observed in the caudate nucleus, believed to be involved in restrictive behaviors, as well as in a significant increase in the amount of cortical grey matter and atypical connectivity between brain regions.\n", "Autism is a disorder that is associated with social and communicative deficits. A single cause of autism has yet to be identified, but the mu wave and mirror neuron system have been studied specifically for their role in the disorder. In a typically developing individual, the mirror neuron system responds when he or she either watches someone perform a task or performs the task him- or herself. In individuals with autism, mirror neurons become active (and consequently mu waves are suppressed) only when the individual performs the task him- or herself. This finding has led some scientists, notably V. S. Ramachandran and colleagues, to view autism as disordered understanding of other individuals' intentions and goals due to problems with the mirror neuron system. This deficiency would explain the difficulty people with autism have in communicating with and understanding others. While most studies of the mirror neuron system and mu waves in people with autism have focused on simple motor tasks, some scientists speculate that these tests can be expanded to show that problems with the mirror neuron system underlie overarching cognitive and social deficits.\n", "The concept of functional disconnection developed still further when it was applied to the understanding of the nature of autistic spectrum disorder. Geschwind and Levitt in 2007 suggested a model of the symptoms of autism in which higher-order association areas of the brain that normally connect to the frontal lobe are partially disconnected during development explaining the heterogeneity of autism etiology. The autism group at Cambridge University provided evidence that the functional connectivity of medial temporal lobe structures specifically is abnormal in people with Asperger’s syndrome at least during fearful face processing. Melillo and Leisman have similarly concluded that a functional disconnection syndrome is a basis for explaining the symptoms of autistic spectrum disorder.\n", "Unlike many other brain disorders, such as Parkinson's, autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular, cellular, or systems level; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways, or is (like intellectual disability) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms. Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems, and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product. Neuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that autism's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception. This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors. Just after birth, the brains of children with autism tend to grow faster than usual, followed by normal or relatively slower growth in childhood. It is not known whether early overgrowth occurs in all children with autism. It seems to be most prominent in brain areas underlying the development of higher cognitive specialization. Hypotheses for the cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth include the following:\n", "A second course of development is characterized by normal or near-normal development followed by loss of skills or regression in the first 2–3 years. Regression may occur in a variety of domains, including communication, social, cognitive, and self-help skills; however, the most common regression is loss of language.\n", "The autism spectrum of psychological conditions affects about 0.6% of children, characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, severely-restricted interests, and highly-repetitive behavior. Notable individuals with autism spectrum disorders include Tim Page, a Pulitzer Prize-winning critic and author and Vernon L. Smith, a Nobel Laureate in economics.\n\nSection::::Adolescents.\n", "Mechanism of autism\n\nAutism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.\n", "The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing: the executive functions such as working memory, planning, inhibition. In his review, Kenworthy states that \"the claim of executive dysfunction as a causal factor in autism is controversial\", however, \"it is clear that executive dysfunction plays a role in the social and cognitive deficits observed in individuals with autism\". Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence, but performance never reaches typical adult levels. A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests; two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure and that executive function deficits have not been found in young children with autism.\n", "BULLET::::- People with HFA more often have problems functioning independently\n\nBULLET::::- Curiosity and interest for many different things, in contrast to people with Asperger syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- People with Asperger syndrome are better at empathizing with another\n\nBULLET::::- The male to female ratio of 4:1 for HFA is much smaller than that of Asperger syndrome\n\nIndividuals with autism spectrum disorders, including high-functioning autism, risk developing symptoms of anxiety. While anxiety is one of the most commonly occurring mental health symptoms, children and adolescents with high functioning autism are at an even greater risk of developing symptoms.\n", "Approaches to the treatment of ODD include parent management training, individual psychotherapy, family therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and social skills training. According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, treatments for ODD are tailored specifically to the individual child, and different treatment techniques are applied for pre-schoolers and adolescents.\n\nSection::::Management.:Psychopharmacological treatment.\n", "From studies based on event-related potentials, transient changes to the brain's electrical activity in response to stimuli, there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention, orientation to auditory and visual stimuli, novelty detection, language and face processing, and information storage; several studies have found a preference for nonsocial stimuli. For example, magnetoencephalography studies have found evidence in children with autism of delayed responses in the brain's processing of auditory signals.\n", "Autistic catatonia\n\nAutistic catatonia is a rare type of disorder that affects roughly 10 percent of all adults with autism spectrum disorder. Most are not severely affected but a few exhibit stupor and severe excitement, which is the most extreme form of the disorder. Full expression of excitement could be a sign of comorbid Bipolar disorder but more research is needed.\n", "Skill loss may be quite rapid, or may be slow and preceded by a lengthy period of no skill progression; the loss may be accompanied by reduced social play or increased irritability. The temporarily acquired skills typically amount to a few words of spoken language, and may include some rudimentary social perception. There are several intermediate types of development, which do not neatly fit into either the traditional early onset or the regressive categories, including mixtures of early deficits, failures to progress, subtle diminishments, and obvious losses. If regression is defined strictly to require loss of language, it is less common; if defined more broadly, to include cases where language is preserved but social interaction is diminished, it is more common.\n", "More than 40 symptoms have been identified to be a result of the disorder, but some of the symptoms overlap with those of autism spectrum disorder, making diagnosing difficult even for a seasoned professional. In a few cases stupor and hyperactivity can continue for weeks or even months. During the excitement phase individuals show combativeness and can have delusions and hallucinations and can also pose a danger to themselves or others and can make marked destruction of property. In the later stages of medium and even more in the severe (and, if left untreated, lethal) state they will also experience autonomic instability.\n", "The exact causes of autism are unknown, but it is believed that both genetic and environmental factors play a role in its development. Multiple studies have shown different types of structural abnormalities in the brains of people with autism. Experiments have been conducted to determine if the degree of brain abnormality yields any correlation to the severity of autism. One study done by Elia et al. (2000) used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on the midsagittal area of the cerebrum, midbrain, cerebellar vermis, corpus callosum, and vermal lobules VI and VII to measure brain abnormalities in children with low-functioning autism. The results suggested that the midbrain structures correlate with certain developmental behavioral aspects such as motivation, mnemonic, and learning processes, but further studies would need to be conducted to confirm this. Furthermore, research has shown that many developmental processes may contribute to several types of brain abnormalities in autism; therefore, determining the link between such abnormalities and severity of autism proves difficult.\n", "No other instances of such rapid spontaneous \"recovery\" from autism have been yet documented, and currently, this \"recovery\" is quite unexpected and unexplained.\n\nSection::::Disorders.:Aphasia.\n", "Children with this disorder tend to decline tremendously in school. This disorder also has the affect to make the person want to stop attending social events and activities. Most of the time, a child is sent to see a regular physician but in some cases a specialist is required. A common suggestion is to try to make the child attend social activities.\n\nIncreasing evidence shows that adults with this disorder often experienced it during their childhood years. Some symptoms tend to be the same for adults struggling with social anxiety.\n", "There is an extremely high association between megalencephaly and autism. Approximately 20% of autistic children have megalencephaly, making it the most common physical characteristic of autism. Patients that present both megalencephaly and autistic characteristics usually also show signs of hyperactivity as a major symptom. However, there is no definitive evidence that autism is the primary cause/result of megalencephaly. This is because megalencephaly has also been described in other neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia or Alzheimer's.\n\nSince most children with megalencephaly also have autism, the goal of treatment for MEG is focused on managing the signs and symptoms associated with autism.\n", "Meltdown (Clearfield and Tilcsik book)\n\nMeltdown: Why Our Systems Fail and What We Can Do About It is a non-fiction book by Chris Clearfield and András Tilcsik, published in March 2018 by Penguin Press. It explores how complexity causes problems in modern systems and how individuals, organizations, and societies can prevent or mitigate the resulting failures. \"Meltdown\" was named a best book of the year by the \"Financial Times\" and won the National Business Book Award in 2019. \n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Damage production.\n\nSince the kinetic energies in a cascade can be very high, it can drive the material locally far outside thermodynamic equilibrium. Typically this results in defect production. The defects can be, e.g., point defects such as \n\nFrenkel pairs, ordered or disordered dislocation loops, stacking faults, or amorphous zones. Prolonged irradiation of many materials can lead to their full amorphization, an effect which occurs regularly during the ion implantation doping of silicon chips.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nAutism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01806	Why do onions irritate your eyes?	Its a defense mechanism. When its cells are destroyed it releases enzymes that break down amino acids. Its a chain reaction that creates organic compounds that contain sulfur, which smells bad and stimulates nerves in your eyes which causes them to sting. This stops most animals from trying to eat them. The onion may be destroyed but the plant is left relatively unharmed. Soon, animals stop trying. Humans are not deterred by such defenses though, and cooking them stops this chain reaction completely.	[ "Some people suffer from allergic reactions after handling onions. Symptoms can include contact dermatitis, intense itching, rhinoconjunctivitis, blurred vision, bronchial asthma, sweating, and anaphylaxis. Allergic reactions may not occur when eating cooked onions, possibly due to the denaturing of the proteins from cooking.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Eye irritation.\n", "Eye irritation can be avoided by cutting onions under running water or submerged in a basin of water. Leaving the root end intact also reduces irritation as the onion base has a higher concentration of sulphur compounds than the rest of the bulb. Refrigerating the onions before use reduces the enzyme reaction rate and using a fan can blow the gas away from the eyes. The more often one chops onions, the less one experiences eye irritation.\n", "Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are usually served cooked, as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish, but can also be eaten raw or used to make pickles or chutneys. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy and etymology.\n", "Guinea hen weed and honey garlic contain a similar lachrymatory factor. Synthetic onion lachrymatory factor has been used in a study related to tear production, and has been proposed as a nonlethal deterrent against thieves and intruders.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.\n", "Section::::Cultivation.:Storage in the home.\n\nCooking onions and sweet onions are better stored at room temperature, optimally in a single layer, in mesh bags in a dry, cool, dark, well-ventilated location. In this environment, cooking onions have a shelf life of three to four weeks and sweet onions one to two weeks. Cooking onions will absorb odours from apples and pears. Also, they draw moisture from vegetables with which they are stored which may cause them to decay.\n", "Section::::Toxic substances.:Dangerous foods.:Onions.\n\nOnions cause hemolytic anemia in dogs (and cats). Allyl propyl disulfide has been reported as being considered to be the main cause of onion poisoning in dogs. Thiosulfate has also been implicated. Thiosulfate levels are not affected by cooking or processing. Occasional exposure to small amounts is usually not a problem, but continuous exposure to even small amounts can be a serious threat. Also garlic contains thiosulfate, even if to a significantly lesser extent, and it is also known to cause diarrhea and vomiting.\n\nSection::::Toxic substances.:Dangerous foods.:Nutmeg.\n", "BULLET::::- (Takes out onion) is a mock stage direction inserted in articles when someone is allegedly faking sorrow (crocodile tears). Onions are well known for inducing tears when close to the eyes and were a useful prop for actors who were required to \"cry\" in dramatic scenes, regardless of whether they would naturally be feeling sadness or despair. To this end, the phrase is therefore usually used to denote hypocrisy. It occurs as early as 1915, in cartoons by W. Heath Robinson.\n", "Section::::Host and symptoms.\n\nThis pathogen only affects onion, garlic and leek – \"Allium\" spp.\n", "They are going to the test in Jones' van, but Walker has been using it to fulfil a blackmarket order for Warden Hodges, the greengrocer, and has half a ton of onions. These cause the platoon (especially Pike) some discomfort on the journey and Hodges is so incensed about the non-delivery of the onions that he follows them.\n", "The amount of sulfenic acids and lacrimal factor released and the irritation effect differs among \"Allium\" species. In 2008, the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research created \"no tears\" onions by genetic modification to prevent the synthesis of lachrymatory factor synthase in onions. One study suggests that consumers prefer the flavor of onions with lower LFS content. However, since the LFS-silencing process involves reducing sulfur ingestion by the plant, it has also been suggested that LFS− onions are inferior in flavor. A method for efficiently differentiating LFS− and LFS+ onions has been developed based on mass spectrometry, with potential application in high-volume production; gas chromatography is also used to measure lachrymatory factor in onions. In early 2018, Bayer released the first crop yield of commercially-available LFS-silenced onions under the name \"Sunions.\" They were the product of 30 years of cross-breeding; genetic modification was not employed.\n", "Onions have particularly large cells that are readily observed under low magnification. Forming a single layer of cells, the bulb epidermis is easy to separate for educational, experimental, and breeding purposes. Onions are therefore commonly used in science education to teach the use of a microscope for observing cell structure.\n\nOnions are toxic to dogs, cats, guinea pigs, and many other animals.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Nutrients.\n", "Freshly cut onions often cause a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby, and often uncontrollable tears. This is caused by the release of a volatile liquid, \"syn\"-propanethial-S-oxide and its aerosol, which stimulates nerves in the eye. This gas is produced by a chain of reactions which serve as a defence mechanism: chopping an onion causes damage to cells which releases enzymes called alliinases. These break down amino acid sulfoxides and generate sulfenic acids. A specific sulfenic acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, is rapidly acted on by a second enzyme, the lacrimatory factor synthase, producing the \"syn\"-propanethial-S-oxide. This gas diffuses through the air and soon reaches the eyes, where it activates sensory neurons. Lacrimal glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant.\n", "There are seven different species of \"Botrytis\" associated with onions in storage but the rot induced by \"B. allii\" and \"B. aclada\" causes the greatest commercial loss. The two can be distinguished microscopically; the conidia of \"B. allii\" have a maximum length of 15 μm and mean size of 10.2 × 5.7 μm, while the conidia of \"B. aclada\" have a maximum length of 12 μm and mean size of 8.6 × 4.6 μm. The infection is present in the field but does not manifest itself until after harvest, however there may be a falling off of vigour while the crop is still growing, particularly in cool, moist weather. In the stored crop, the rot typically starts in the neck of the bulb but can occur in other parts if there is physical injury. The scales inside the bulb become progressively translucent and watery and a mycelium develops between them. A mass of grey conidiophores and conidia develop on the mycelium and blackish sclerotia form at the site of the initial infection.\n", "\"syn\"-Propanethial \"S\"-oxide (CHOS), a member of a class of organosulfur compounds known as thiocarbonyl \"S\"-oxides (formerly \"sulfines\"), is a volatile liquid that acts as a lachrymatory agent (triggers tearing and stinging on contact with the eyes). The chemical is released from onions, \"Allium cepa\", as they are sliced. The release is due to the breaking open of the onion cells and their releasing enzymes called alliinases, which then break down amino acid sulfoxides, generating sulfenic acids. A specific sulfenic acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, formed when onions are cut, is rapidly rearranged by a second enzyme, called the lachrymatory factor synthase or LFS, giving \"syn\"-propanethial \"S\"-oxide. The gas diffuses through the air and, on contact with the eye, it stimulates sensory neurons creating a stinging, painful sensation. Tears are released from the tear glands to dilute and flush out the irritant. Recently, a structurally related lachrymatory compound, \"syn\"-butanethial \"S\"-oxide, CHOS, has been found in another genus \"Allium\" plant, \"Allium siculum\".\n", "In 2017, world production of dried onions was 97.9 million tonnes, led by China and India producing 25% and 23% of the total, respectively.\n\nThe Onion Futures Act, passed in 1958, bans the trading of futures contracts on onions in the United States. This prohibition came into force after farmers complained about alleged market manipulation by Sam Siegel and Vincent Kosuga at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange two years earlier. The subsequent investigation provided economists with a unique case study into the effects of futures trading on agricultural prices. The act remains in effect .\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Impact.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Effect on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange.\n\nAfter the ban was passed, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange filed a lawsuit in federal court alleging that the ban unfairly restricted trade. After a federal judge ruled against them, they declined to appeal to the Supreme Court and the ban stood.\n", "Forty-five percent of the onion produce in India comes from the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. In November 2010, unseasonal and excessive rainfall in onion-producing regions such as Nashik in Maharashtra delayed the arrival of onions in markets. In December, when fresh crop usually begins to arrive, onion shipments were reduced from 2000-3000 tons a day to 700-800 tons a day in New Delhi markets, raising the price of onion from to per kg in the period of one week. The price on some online portals was significantly lower, about 30-40/kg.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "The ban has provided academics with a unique opportunity to study the effect of an active futures market on commodity prices. Experts have been divided on the effect that onion futures trading has on the volatility of onion prices.\n", "Seigel and Kosuga made millions of dollars on the transaction due to their short position on onion futures. At one point, however, of onions were selling in Chicago for less than the bags that held them. This drove many onion farmers into bankruptcy. A public outcry ensued among onion farmers who were left with large amounts of worthless inventory. Many of the farmers had to pay to dispose of the large amounts of onions that they had purchased and grown.\n\nSection::::Commodity trading.:Regulatory action.\n", "Wary of historical precedent, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and his government responded forcefully by banning onion exports, lowering import taxes and by getting in shipments of onions from neighbouring Pakistan. In late December, following government restrictions on exports, wholesale onion prices went down to per kg in metropolitan markets.\n", "White rot of onions, leeks, and garlic is caused by the soil-borne fungus \"Sclerotium cepivorum\". As the roots rot, the foliage turns yellow and wilts. The bases of the bulbs are attacked and become covered by a fluffy white mass of mycelia, which later produces small, globular black structures called sclerotia. These resting structures remain in the soil to reinfect a future crop. No cure for this fungal disease exists, so affected plants should be removed and destroyed and the ground used for unrelated crops in subsequent years.\n", "When \"Allium siculum\" is crushed, it gives off a chemical that makes the eyes water, similar to chopping onions. The lachrymatory agent (\"Z\")-butanethial \"S\"-oxide, along with several 1-butenyl thiosulfinates are detected by mass spectrometry using a DART ion source. (\"Z\")-Butanethial \"S\"-oxide (the higher homolog of \"syn\"-propanethial-\"S\"-oxide, the onion lachrymatory agent) isolated from the plant was shown to be identical to a synthetic sample. The precursor to the lachrymatory compound, (R,R)-(\"E\")-\"S\"-(1-butenyl) cysteine \"S\"-oxide (homoisoalliin), was isolated from homogenates of \"A. siculum\", and a closely related species, \"Allium tripedale\", and fully characterized.\n", "Onions suffer from a number of plant disorders. The most serious for the home gardener are likely to be the onion fly, stem and bulb eelworm, white rot, and neck rot. Diseases affecting the foliage include rust and smut, downy mildew, and white tip disease. The bulbs may be affected by splitting, white rot, and neck rot. Shanking is a condition in which the central leaves turn yellow and the inner part of the bulb collapses into an unpleasant-smelling slime. Most of these disorders are best treated by removing and burning affected plants. The larvae of the onion leaf miner or leek moth (\"Acrolepiopsis assectella\") sometimes attack the foliage and may burrow down into the bulb.\n", "Sulfenate-based ligands are found at the active site of the nitrile hydratases. The S-\"O\" group is proposed as the nucleophile that attacks the nitrile.\n\nSection::::Formation and occurrence.:In cooking.\n\nSulfenic acid forms part of the series of chemical reactions that occur when cutting onions. The lachrymal glands are irritated by the end product of the reactions, syn-Propanethial-S-oxide, causing tears.\n\nSection::::Formation and occurrence.:Organic chemistry.\n\nThe conversion of certain sulfoxides to alkenes proceeds via the elimination of sulfenic acid:\n\nSection::::Other sulfenyl compounds.\n", "Cyanide-based blood agents irritate the eyes and the respiratory tract, while arsine is nonirritating. Hydrogen cyanide has a faint, bitter, almond odor that only about half of all people can smell. Arsine has a very faint garlic odor detectable only at greater than fatal concentrations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03815	Why do snow flakes form on a 2-dimensional plane instead of all directions?	They don't, different atmospheric conditions, like temperature, cause [different shapes]( URL_0 ).	[ "As Nakaya discovered, shape is also a function of whether the prevalent moisture is above or below saturation. Forms below the saturation line trend more towards solid and compact. Crystals formed in supersaturated air trend more towards lacy, delicate and ornate. Many more complex growth patterns also form such as side-planes, bullet-rosettes and also planar types depending on the conditions and ice nuclei. If a crystal has started forming in a column growth regime, at around , and then falls into the warmer plate-like regime, then plate or dendritic crystals sprout at the end of the column, producing so called \"capped columns\".\n", "For example, two 3D objects have the same symmetry type:\n\nBULLET::::- if both have mirror symmetry, but with respect to a different mirror plane\n\nBULLET::::- if both have 3-fold rotational symmetry, but with respect to a different axis.\n", "Consider an axis Δ, and planes belonging to the zone of this axis, i.e. Δ is in all these planes, the intersection of all the planes is Δ. If we call \"P\" the plane that is perpendicular to Δ, then the normals to the planes all belong to \"P\". Thus, the poles of the planes belonging to the same zone are on the trace of the plane \"P\" perpendicular to the axis.\n\nSection::::Application.\n\nSection::::Application.:Planes of a crystal.\n\nThe structure of a crystal is often represented by the pole figure of its crystallographic plane.\n", "BULLET::::- perpendicular cut to one of the three (cubic) axes: two sets of bands at right angles each other\n\nBULLET::::- parallel cut to one of the octahedron faces (cutting all 3 cubic axes at the same distance from the crystallographic center) : three sets of bands running at 60° angles each other\n\nBULLET::::- any other angle: four sets of bands with different angles of intersection\n\nSection::::Structures in non-meteoritic materials.\n", "BULLET::::- 2-fold rotocenters (including possible 4-fold and 6-fold), if present at all, form the translate of a lattice equal to the translational lattice, scaled by a factor 1/2. In the case translational symmetry in one dimension, a similar property applies, though the term \"lattice\" does not apply.\n\nBULLET::::- 3-fold rotocenters (including possible 6-fold), if present at all, form a regular hexagonal lattice equal to the translational lattice, rotated by 30° (or equivalently 90°), and scaled by a factor formula_1\n", "BULLET::::- 7 point groups with multiple 3-or-more-fold rotation axes; they can also be characterized as point groups with multiple 3-fold rotation axes, because all 7 include these axes; with regard to 3-or-more-fold rotation axes the possible combinations are:\n\nBULLET::::- 4 3-fold axes\n\nBULLET::::- 4 3-fold axes and 3 4-fold axes\n\nBULLET::::- 10 3-fold axes and 6 5-fold axes\n\nA selection of point groups is compatible with discrete translational symmetry: 27 from the 7 infinite series, and 5 of the 7 others, the 32 so-called crystallographic point groups. See also the crystallographic restriction theorem.\n\nSection::::The seven infinite series of axial groups.\n", "This dot product represents the cosine of an angle that is half of the angle represented by Phong's dot product if \"V\", \"L\", \"N\" and \"R\" all lie in the same plane. This relation between the angles remains approximately true when the vectors don't lie in the same plane, especially when the angles are small. The angle between \"N\" and \"H\" is therefore sometimes called the halfway angle.\n", "In an A-B-A-B-... stacking pattern, the odd numbered \"planes\" of spheres will have exactly the same coordinates save for a pitch difference in the \"z\"-coordinates and the even numbered \"planes\" of spheres will share the same \"x\"- and \"y\"-coordinates. Both types of planes are formed using the pattern mentioned above, but the starting place for the \"first\" row's first sphere will be different.\n", "The poles (sometimes known as \"control points\") of a surface define its shape. The natural surface edges are defined by the positions of the first and last poles. (Note that a surface can have trimmed boundaries.) The intermediate poles act like magnets drawing the surface in their direction. The surface does not, however, go through these points. The second and third poles as well as defining shape, respectively determine the start and tangent angles and the curvature. In a single patch surface (Bézier surface), there is one more pole than the degree values of the surface.\n", "BULLET::::- UV spheres are composed of quads, and resemble the grid seen on some globes - quads are larger near the \"equator\" of the sphere and smaller near the \"poles,\" eventually terminating in a single vertex.\n", "Section::::In three dimensions.\n\n\"n\"-flakes can generalized to higher dimensions, in particular to a topological dimension of three. Instead of polygons, regular polyhedra are iteratively replaced. However, while there are an infinite number of regular polygons, there are only five regular, convex polyhedra. Because of this, three-dimensional n-flakes are also called platonic solid fractals. In three dimensions, the fractals' volume is zero.\n\nSection::::In three dimensions.:Sierpinski tetrahedron.\n", "A \"polar\" point group is one whose symmetry operations leave more than one common point unmoved. A polar point group has no unique origin because each of those unmoved points can be chosen as one. One or more unique polar axes could be made through two such collinear unmoved points. Polar point groups in crystal include 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, m, mm2, 3m, 4mm, and 6mm. \n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nSnowflakes nucleate around mineral or organic particles in moisture-saturated, subfreezing air masses. They grow by net accretion to the incipient crystals in hexagonal formations. The cohesive forces are primarily electrostatic.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Nucleus.\n", "There are two families of half-way models (this observation is due to Francis and Morin):\n\nBULLET::::- odd order: generalizing Boy's surface: 3-fold, 5-fold, etc., symmetry; half-way model is a double-covered projective plane (generically 2-1 immersed sphere).\n\nBULLET::::- even order: generalizing Morin surface: 2-fold, 4-fold, etc., symmetry; half-way model is a generically 1-1 immersed sphere, and a twist by half a symmetry interchanges sheets of the sphere\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Polarization was discovered — but not named or understood — by Christiaan Huygens, as he investigated the double refraction of \"Iceland crystal\" (transparent calcite, now called Iceland spar). The essence of his discovery, published in his \"Treatise on Light\" (1690), was as follows. When a ray (meaning a narrow beam of light) passes through two similarly oriented calcite crystals at normal incidence, the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the ordinary refraction in the second, while the extraordinary ray emerging from the first suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second. But when the second crystal is rotated 90° about the incident rays, the roles are interchanged, so that the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second, and vice versa. At intermediate positions of the second crystal, each ray emerging from the first is doubly refracted by the second, giving four rays in total; and as the crystal is rotated from the initial orientation to the perpendicular one, the brightnesses of the rays vary, giving a smooth transition between the extreme cases in which there are only two final rays.\n", "Ice approximates hexagonal symmetry in most of its atmospheric manifestations of a crystal lattice as snow. Temperature and vapor pressure determine the growth of the hexagonal crystal lattice in different forms that include columnar growth in the axis perpendicular to the hexagonal plane to form snow crystals. Ukichiro Nakaya developed a crystal morphology diagram, relating crystal shape to the temperature and moisture conditions under which they formed. Magono and Lee devised a classification of freshly formed snow crystals that includes 80 distinct shapes. They are summarized in the following principal snow crystal categories (with symbol):\n", "To draw a \"pole figure\", one chooses a particular crystal direction (e.g. the normal to the (100) plane) and then plots that direction, called a pole, for each and every crystal relative to a set of directions in the material. In a rolled metal, for example, the directions in the material are the rolling direction, transverse direction and rolling plane normal.\n\nIf a large number of crystals are involved, then it is typical to make a contour plot, rather than plotting individual poles.\n", "In the other case, among the isometries of R which map the pattern to itself there are also reflections; this applies, e.g., for the pattern\n", "Although snowflakes are never completely symmetrical, a non-aggregated snowflake often grows so as to exhibit an approximation of six-fold radial symmetry. The symmetry gets started due to the hexagonal crystalline structure of ice. At that stage, the snowflake has the shape of a minute hexagon. The six \"arms\" of the snowflake, or dendrites, then grow independently from each of the corners of the hexagon, while either side of each arm grows independently. The microenvironment in which the snowflake grows changes dynamically as the snowflake falls through the cloud and tiny changes in temperature and humidity affect the way in which water molecules attach to the snowflake. Since the micro-environment (and its changes) are very nearly identical around the snowflake, each arm tends to grow in nearly the same way. However, being in the same micro-environment does not guarantee that each arm grow the same; indeed, for some crystal forms it does not because the underlying crystal growth mechanism also affects how fast each surface region of a crystal grows. Empirical studies suggest less than 0.1% of snowflakes exhibit the ideal six-fold symmetric shape. Very occasionally twelve branched snowflakes are observed; they maintain the six-fold symmetry.\n", "BULLET::::- ditto with screw axes as well as axes, parallel, in between; in this case an additional translation vector is one half of a translation vector in the base plane plus one half of a perpendicular vector between the base planes.\n\nThe four monoclinic hemihedral space groups include\n\nBULLET::::- those with pure reflection at the base of the prism and halfway\n\nBULLET::::- those with glide planes instead of pure reflection planes; the glide is one half of a translation vector in the base plane\n", "BULLET::::- Planar-reflection offset. Every element that is a reflection along a direction in the perpendicular plane has an offset of 1/2. This is analogous to what happens in frieze groups p11g and p2mg.\n\nNote that the wallpaper groups pm, pg, cm, and pmg appear twice. Each appearance has a different orientation relative to the line-group axis; reflection parallel (h) or perpendicular (v). The other groups have no such orientation: p1, p2, pmm, pgg, cmm.\n", "There is further parallelism between the hydrophobicity and icephobicity. The hydrophobicity is crucial for the “hydrophobic effect” and hydrophobic interactions. For two hydrophobic molecules (e.g., hydrocarbons) placed in water, there is an effective repulsive hydrophobic force, entropic in its origin, due to their interaction with the water medium. The hydrophobic effect is responsible for folding of proteins and other macro-molecules leading to their fractal shape. During ice crystal (snowflake) formation, the synchronization of branch growth occurs due to the interaction with the medium (oversaturated vapor) – is somewhat similar to the hydrophobic effect – the apparent repulsion of the hydrophobic particles due to their interaction with the medium (water). Consequently, despite the shapes of snowflakes being very diverse with “no two flakes similar to each other,” most snow crystals are symmetric with each of the six branches almost identical to other five branches. Furthermore, both hydrophobicity and icephobicity can lead to quite complex phenomena, such as self-organized criticality-driven complexity as a result of hydrophobic interactions (during wetting of rough/heterogeneous surfaces or during polypeptide chain folding and looping) or ice crystallization (fractal snowflakes).\n", "Section::::List of point groups.:Two dimensions.\n\nPoint groups in two dimensions, sometimes called rosette groups.\n\nThey come in two infinite families:\n\nBULLET::::1. Cyclic groups \"C\" of \"n\"-fold rotation groups\n\nBULLET::::2. Dihedral groups \"D\" of \"n\"-fold rotation and reflection groups\n\nApplying the crystallographic restriction theorem restricts \"n\" to values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 for both families, yielding 10 groups.\n", "Section::::Controlling the porous structure.:Anisotropy of the interface kinetics.\n\nEven if the temperature gradient within the slurry is perfectly vertical, it is common to see tilting or curvature of the lamellae as they grow through the suspension. To explain this, it is possible to define two distinct growth directions for each ice crystal. There is the direction determined by the temperature gradient, and the one defined by the preferred growth direction crystallographically speaking. These angles are often at odds with one another, and their balance will describe the tilt of the crystal.\n", "BULLET::::- Each point is associated with a unique line, called the \"polar line\" of the point, which is the line on the plane through the centre of the sphere and perpendicular to the diameter of the sphere through the given point.\n\nAs there are two arcs (\"line segments\") determined by a pair of points, which are not antipodal, on the line they determine, three non-collinear points do not determine a unique triangle. However, if we only consider triangles whose sides are minor arcs of great circles, we have the following properties:\n" ]	[ "Snowflakes form on a 2-dimensional plane instead of all directions.", "Snowflakes form on 2 dimensional plane instead of all directions." ]	[ "Snowflakes can form in different shapes.", "Snowflakes don't form on two dimensional planes, temperature causes snow to form differently." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Snowflakes form on a 2-dimensional plane instead of all directions.", "Snowflakes form on 2 dimensional plane instead of all directions." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Snowflakes can form in different shapes.", "Snowflakes don't form on two dimensional planes, temperature causes snow to form differently." ]
2018-03370	Honey in tea makes the resonance of the cup lower?	You’re changing the density of the liquid in the cup. The heavier or denser the liquid becomes from dissolved solids the lower the resonance becomes. The density absorbs vibrations at different rates.	[ "Chifir is typically prepared with 5–8 tablespoons (50–100 ml) of loose tea (or tea bags) per person poured on top of the boiled water. It is brewed without stirring – at least until the leaves drop to the bottom of the cup. During the brewing process the caffeine breaks down, and the leaves start to pour adenine and guanine into the water, which does not happen during traditional tea-making. Sugar is sometimes added; the nature of the brew tends to result in a bitter flavor.\n", "Melton's described methods of pouring away the tea and shaking the cup are rarely seen; most readers ask the querent to drink the tea off, then swirl the cup.\n", "BULLET::::- A large heavy stone, carved into the shape of a short cylinder with a handle, simply weighs down a bag of tea on a wooden board. The tension from the bag and the weight of the stone together give the tea its rounded and sometimes non-uniform edge. This method of pressing is often referred to as: \"hand\" or \"stone-pressing\", and is how many artisanal \"pu'er bǐng\" are still manufactured.\n", "In some places of China，in restaurants, it is common for customers to clean their bowls and utensils at the table by rinsing them with tea from the pot. Tea may be poured over utensils into one of their bowls, or a larger bowl is may be provided as a waste receptacle for tea used to rinse bowls. In restaurants in China, tea is usually served in lieu of water, and hence tends to be a light drink flavoured.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bĭng\": The tea cake itself. Tea cakes or other compressed pu'er can be made up of two or more grades of tea, typically with higher grade leaves on the outside of the cake and lower grades or broken leaves in the center. This is done to improve the appearance of the tea cake and improve its sale. Predicting the grade of tea used on the inside takes some effort and experience in selection. However, the area in and around the dimple of the tea cake can sometimes reveal the quality of the inner leaves.\n", "BULLET::::- A change in Chinese tea \"drinking vessels\" was evident at this point. Smaller bowls with plain or simple designs on the interior surfaces were favoured over the larger patterned bowls used for enjoying the patterns created by powdered teas. Tea drinking in small bowls and cups was likely adopted since it gathers and directs the fragrant steam from the tea to the nose and allows for better appreciation of the tea's flavour.\n", "Light finger tapping is an informal way to thank the tea master or tea server for tea. While or after one's cup is filled, the receiver of the tea may tap the index and middle fingers (one or more in combination) to express gratitude to the person who served the tea. This custom is common in southern Chinese, where their meals often are accompanied by many servings of tea. \n", "Preparation of \"pu'erh\" involves first separating a well-sized portion of the compressed tea for brewing. This can be done by flaking off pieces of the cake or by steaming the entire cake until it is soft from heat and hydration. A \"pu'erh knife\", which is similar to an oyster knife or a rigid letter opener, is used to pry large horizontal flakes of tea off the cake to minimize leaf breakage. Smaller cakes such as \"tuocha\" or mushroom \"pu'erh\" are often steamed until they can be rubbed apart and then dried. In both cases, a vertical sampling of the cake should be obtained since the quality of the leaves in a cake usually varies between the surface and the center.\n", "Compressed tea is prepared by loosening leaves from the cake using a small knife, and steeping the extracted pieces in water. During the Tang dynasty, as described by Lu Yu, compressed tea was ground into a powder, combined with hot water, and ladled into bowls, resulting in a \"frothy\" mixture. In the Song dynasty, the tea powder would instead be whisked with hot water in the bowl. Although no longer practiced in China today, the whisking method of preparing powdered tea was transmitted to Japan by Zen Buddhist monks, and is still used to prepare matcha in the Japanese tea ceremony.\n", "If the sieved matcha is to be served at a Japanese tea ceremony, then it will be placed into a small tea caddy known as a chaki. Otherwise, it can be scooped directly from the sieve into a tea bowl.\n", "Most types of honey are Newtonian liquids, but a few types have non-Newtonian viscous properties. Honeys from heather or manuka display thixotropic properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but then liquify when stirred.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical properties.:Electrical and optical properties.\n\nBecause honey contains electrolytes, in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of electrical conductivity. Measurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms of fly ash content.\n", "Crush, tear, curl\n\nCrush, tear, curl (sometimes cut, tear, curl) is a method of processing black tea in which the leaves are passed through a series of cylindrical rollers with hundreds of sharp teeth that crush, tear, and curl the tea into small, hard pellets. This replaces the final stage of orthodox tea manufacture, in which the leaves are rolled into strips. Tea produced using this method is generally called CTC tea or mamri tea.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The episode opens with Mainwaring keenly anticipating the arrival of his new office door (the last having been destroyed by bomb damage). He is disappointed, however, to discover the replacement is made out of paper. Various misfortunes occur to it, leaving the door in ruins in a matter of minutes. \n", "BULLET::::1. In this episode, Pike refers to two films \"The Ghost Goes West\" (1935) in which an American millionaire transports a castle from Scotland to California, and \"Dangerous Moonlight\" (1941) about the life and romance of an anti-Nazi Polish pilot, who is also a concert pianist, and fights in the Battle of Britain. John Laurie appeared in the latter film.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Arthur Lowe as Captain Mainwaring\n\nBULLET::::- John Le Mesurier as Sergeant Wilson\n\nBULLET::::- Clive Dunn as Lance Corporal Jones\n\nBULLET::::- John Laurie as Private Frazer\n\nBULLET::::- Arnold Ridley as Private Godfrey\n\nBULLET::::- Ian Lavender as Private Pike\n", "In the Sahel region on the southern fringe of the Sahara, green gunpowder tea is prepared with little water and large amounts of sugar. By pouring the tea into the glasses and back, a foam builds on top of the tea. Sahelian tea is a social occasion and three infusions, the first one very bitter, the second in between and the last one rather sweet are taken in the course of several hours.\n\nSection::::Central Asia.\n\nSee also Dastarkhān, Kazakh cuisine, Silk Way, Kyrgyz cuisine, Tajik cuisine, Uzbek cuisine\n", "The traditional preparation is as follows: A \"Kluntje\", a white rock candy sugar that melts slowly, is added to the empty cup (allowing multiple cups to be sweetened) then tea is poured over the Kluntje. A heavy cream \"cloud\" (\"Wölkje\"—a diminutive of 'cloud' in Frisian) is added to the tea \"water\", the sugar represents \"land\". It is served without a spoon and traditionally drunk unstirred, i. e. in three tiers: In the beginning one predominantly tastes the cream, then the tea and finally the sweet taste of kluntje at the bottom of the cup. Stirring the tea would blend all three tiers into one and spoil the traditional tea savouring. The tea is generally served with small cookies during the week and cakes during special occasions or on weekends as a special treat. The tea is said to cure headaches, stomach problems, and stress, among many other ailments. The tea set is commonly decorated with an East Friesian Rose design. As a guest, it is considered impolite to drink fewer than three cups of tea. Placing your cup upside down on the saucer or your spoon in the cup signals that you are finished and want no more tea.\n", "Later, Frazer makes a call to the home of the government minister in charge of building the new aerodrome, Sir Charles Renfrew McAllister, in the middle of the night - and subtly threatens him with exposure, for his youthful transgressions, if he does not re-consider the scheme. \n", "In Sri Lanka, usually black tea is served with milk and sugar, but the milk is always warmed. Tea is a hugely popular beverage among the Sri-Lankan people, and part of its land is surrounded by the many hills of tea plantations that spread for miles. Drinking tea has become part of the culture of Sri Lanka and it is customary to offer a cup of tea to guests. Many working Sri Lankans are used to having a mid-morning cup of tea and another in the afternoon. Black tea is sometimes consumed with ginger. In rural areas some people still have their tea with a piece of sweet jaggery\n", "In the culture of China teacups are very small, normally holding no more than 30ml of liquid. They are designed to be used with Yixing teapots or Gaiwan. Countries in the Horn of Africa like Eritrea also use the handleless cups to drink boon which is traditional coffee there. In Russian-speaking cultures and West Asian cultures influenced by the Ottoman Empire tea is often served in a glass held in a separate metal container with a handle, called a zarf. or in Russian a \"podstakannik.\n", "Tea making techniques vary from home to home, and person to person, but tea is typically made from loose tea leaves and steeped for a couple of minutes before serving. A teapot and tea cosy may be used, if time permits, or tea may be steeped directly in the kettle off the heat. After steeping, the tea is poured into cups through a strainer. Milk may be added before or after the tea, but sugar is typically offered separately so that each individual may add sugar according to his or her own taste. Teabags are usually reserved for when time constraints do not enable one to prepare tea from loose tea leaves.\n", "BULLET::::- Caroline Harker - The Hon. Lucy Courtney\n\nBULLET::::- Alan David - Dr. Basil Quinn\n\nBULLET::::- Tess Dignan - Jill McSweeney\n\nBULLET::::- Crispin Bonham-Carter - Charlie Chadwick\n\nBULLET::::- Helena Little - Prof. Debbie Newman\n\nBULLET::::- Brenda Bruce - Mary Harris\n\nBULLET::::- Bernard Lawrence - Lord St Clair\n\nBULLET::::- April Walker - Lady St Clair\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "\"Sa‘idi\" tea () is common in Upper Egypt. It is prepared by boiling black tea with water for as long as five minutes over a strong flame. \"Sa‘idi\" tea is extremely strong and dark (\"heavy\" in Egyptian parlance), with two teaspoonfuls of tea per cup being the norm. It is sweetened with copious amounts of cane sugar (a necessity since the formula and method yield a very bitter tea). \"Sa‘idi\" tea is often black even in liquid form.\n", "Appearing in \"The Hobbit\" and mentioned in \"The Lord of the Rings\", a \"honey-cake\" is a twice-baked cake made by the Beornings (Beorn the \"skin-changer\" and his descendants), who were also beekeepers. Similar to \"cram\" and \"lembas\", the cakes are sustaining and keep fresh for a long time. Although they are tastier than \"cram\", they tend to make the eater thirsty.\n\nSection::::Foods.:Lembas.\n", "The secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup can be seen by sprinkling heavy particles such as sugar, sand, rice or tea leaves into the water and then setting the water in circular motion by stirring with a hand or spoon. The boundary layer spirals inward and sweeps the heavier solids into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. With water circulating in a bowl or cup, the primary flow is purely circular and might be expected to fling heavy particles outward to the perimeter. Instead, heavy particles can be seen to congregate in the center as a result of the secondary flow along the floor.\n", "A tea taster uses a large spoon and noisily slurps the liquid into his/her mouth - this ensures that both the tea and plenty of oxygen is passed over all the taste receptors on the tongue to give an even taste profile of the tea. The liquid is then usually spat back out into a spittoon before moving onto the next sample to taste. The flavour characteristics and indeed leaf colour, size and shape are graded using a specific language created by the tea industry to explain the overall quality. Generally speaking, once the quality has been tasted/graded, each tea company places a value on it based on market trends, availability and demand.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20112	How is Graphene battery better than Lithium-ion battery?	Several ways. First off is the material it's made from. Graphene is the name for a particular structure of carbon atoms. Carbon is plentiful here on Earth. In fact, we've got too much of it in the atmosphere. Lithium, on the other hand, is a comparatively rare metal, which must be mined and refined through processes that can have devastating effect on the immediate area. Second is the charge time. Graphene batteries charge 5 times faster than Li-ion. With more and more Electric vehicles and hybrids hitting the roads, charge time is one of the biggest barriers to their widespread use. If you could cut the rapid charger charge time from 1 hour down to 12 minutes, you're starting to approach gas station stop times. Third is energy density. Lithium based batteries generally have an energy density of around 180 Watt-hours/Kg (For each kilogram of weight, the battery can sustain 180 Watts of draw for an hour). Graphene batteries run around 1000 Wh/Kg, and the Tesla Model S battery boasts an energy density of 2000 Wh/Kg.	[ "Various forms of carbon are used in lithium-ion battery cell configurations. Besides graphite poorly or non-electrochemically active types of carbon are used in cells such as CNTs, carbon black, grapheme, grapheme oxides, or MWCNTs.\n\nRecent work includes efforts in 2014 by researchers at Northwestern University who found that metallic single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) accommodate lithium much more efficiently than their semiconducting counterparts. If made denser, semiconducting SWCNT films take up lithium at levels comparable to metallic SWCNTs.\n", "Graphene could be used to improve the electrical conductivity of cathode materials. LiCoO, LiMnOand LiFePO are all commonly used cathode materials in lithium-ion batteries. These cathode materials have typically mixed with other carbon-composite materials to improve their rate capability. As graphene has a higher electrical conductivity than these other carbon-composite materials, like carbon black, graphene has a greater ability to improve these cathode materials more than other carbon-composite additives.\n", "Used as the cathode for a lithium-sulfur battery this system has high capacity on the formation of LiS. In 2014, researchers at USC Viterbi School of Engineering used a graphite oxide coated sulfur cathode to create a battery with 800 mAh/g for 1,000 cycles of charge/discharge, over 5 times the energy density of commercial cathodes. Sulfur is abundant, low cost and has low toxicity. Sulfur has been a promising cathode candidate owing to its high theoretical energy density, over 10 times that of metal oxide or phosphate cathodes. However, sulfur's low cycle durability has prevented its commercialization. Graphene oxide coating over sulfur is claimed to solve the cycle durability problem. Graphene oxide high surface area, chemical stability, mechanical strength and flexibility.\n", "Section::::Medicine.:Polymerase chain reaction.\n\nGraphene is reported to have enhanced PCR by increasing the yield of DNA product. Experiments revealed that graphene's thermal conductivity could be the main factor behind this result. Graphene yields DNA product equivalent to positive control with up to 65% reduction in PCR cycles.\n\nSection::::Medicine.:Devices.\n", "BULLET::::- For faster, larger graphene add a liquid layer\n\nBULLET::::- Back to the Future: Oxford nanoscientist takes a trip through time\n\nBULLET::::- Professor Nicole Grobert to work with Williams Advanced Engineering after winning third Royal Society fellowship\n\nBULLET::::- Understanding Nanotube Growth\n\nBULLET::::- Professor Nicole Grobert appointed to European Commission's Group of Chief Scientific Advisors\n\nBULLET::::- Ultraflat transfer method for graphene surface force balance\n\nBULLET::::- Innovative substrate engineering for high quality 2D nanomaterials\n\nBULLET::::- For faster, larger graphene add a liquid layer\n\nBULLET::::- Routes towards defect-free graphene\n\nBULLET::::- How to directly measure the surface energy of pure graphene\n\nSection::::External links.:Social media.\n", "ALD was also used to deposit iron oxide on 3DOM carbon to enhance reactivity between lithium and oxygen. The iron was then coatedwith palladium nanoparticles, which effectively reduced carbon's destructive reaction with oxygen and improved the discharge cycle. Wang said the findings show 3DOm carbon can meet new performance standards when it is stabilized.\n\nSection::::Conformal coatings.:Electropolymerization.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nSection::::Research.:Power density.\n\nLFP has two shortcomings: low conductivity and low lithium diffusion constant, both of which limit the charge/discharge rate. Adding conducting particles in delithiated raises its electron conductivity. For example, adding conducting particles with good diffusion capability like graphite and carbon to powders significantly improves conductivity between particles, increases the efficiency of and raises its reversible capacity up to 95% of the theoretical values. shows good cycling performance even under charge/discharge current as large as 5C.\n\nSection::::Research.:Stability.\n", "In 2015 hydrogen-treated graphene nanofoam electrodes in LIBs showed higher capacity and faster transport. Chemical synthesis methods used in standard anode manufacture leave significant amounts of atomic hydrogen. Experiments and multiscale calculations revealed that low-temperature hydrogen treatment of defect-rich graphene can improve rate capacity. The hydrogen interacts with the graphene defects to open gaps to facilitate lithium penetration, improving transport. Additional reversible capacity is provided by enhanced lithium binding near edges, where hydrogen is most likely to bind. Rate capacities increased by 17–43% at 200 mA/g. In 2015, researchers in China used porous graphene as the material for a lithium ion battery anode in order to increase the specific capacity and binding energy between lithium atoms at the anode. The properties of the battery can be tuned by applying strain. The binding energy increases as biaxial strain is applied.\n", "Stable Lithium ion cycling was demonstrated in bi- and few layer graphene films grown on nickel substrates, while single layer graphene films have been demonstrated as a protective layer against corrosion in battery components such as the battery case. This creates possibilities for flexible electrodes for microscale Li-ion batteries, where the anode acts as the active material and the current collector.\n\nResearchers built a lithium-ion battery made of graphene and silicon, which was claimed to last over a week on one charge and took only 15 minutes to charge.\n", "In 2013, Stanford University physicists reported that single-layer graphene is a hundred times more chemically reactive than thicker sheets.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Electronic.\n", "In 2013, another team reported 15.6% percent by combining titanium oxide and graphene as a charge collector and perovskite as a sunlight absorber. The device is manufacturable at temperatures under using solution-based deposition. This lowers production costs and offers the potential using flexible plastics.\n", "In February 2013 researchers announced a novel technique to produce graphene supercapacitors based on the DVD burner reduction approach.\n\nIn 2014 a supercapacitor was announced that was claimed to achieve energy density comparable to current lithium-ion batteries.\n", "Carbon nanostructures have been used to increase the capability of electrodes, namely the cathode. In LiSO batteries, carbon nanostructuring was able to theoretically increase the energy density of the battery by 70% from the current lithium-ion battery technology. In general, lithium alloyshave been found to have an increased theoretical energy density than lithium ions.\n\nTraditionally, LiCoO has been used as the cathode in lithium-ion batteries. The first successful alternative cathode for use in electric vehicles has been LiFeO. LiFeO has shown increased power density, a longer lifetime and improved safety over LiCoO.\n\nSection::::Active and past research.:Nanostructured cathode materials.:Graphene.\n", "Research in lithium-ion batteries\n\nResearch in lithium-ion batteries has produced many proposed refinements of lithium-ion batteries. Areas on research interest have focused on improving energy density, safety, rate capability, cycle durability, flexibility, and cost.\n\nSection::::Anode.\n\nLithium-ion battery anodes have traditionally been made of graphite. At this time, significant other classes of lithium-ion battery anode materials have been proposed and evaluated as alternatives to graphite, especially in cases where niche applications require novel approaches.\n\nSection::::Anode.:Intercalation oxides.\n", "Section::::Cathode.:Disordered materials.\n\nIn 2014, researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology found that creating high lithium content lithium-ion batteries materials with cation disorder among the electroactive metals could achieved 660 watt-hours per kilogram at 2.5 volts. The materials of the stoichiometry LiMO-LiMO are similar to the lithium rich lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) materials but without the cation ordering. The extra lithium creates better diffusion pathways and eliminates high energy transition points in the structure that inhibit lithium diffusion.\n\nSection::::Cathode.:Disordered materials.:Glasses.\n", "Graphene has been studied extensively for its use in electrochemical systems such as batteries since its first isolation in 2004. Graphene offers high surface area and good conductivity. In current lithium-ion battery technology, the 2D networks of graphite inhibit smooth lithium ion intercalation; the lithium ions must travel around the 2D graphite sheets to reach the electrolyte. This slows the charging rates of the battery. Porous graphene materials are currently being studied to improve this problem. Porous graphene involves either formation of defects in the 2D sheet or the creation of a 3D graphene-based porous superstructure.\n", "Silicon generates only one current-driving electron for each photon it absorbs, while graphene can produce multiple electrons. Solar cells made with graphene could offer 60% conversion efficiency.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Generation.:Electrode.\n", "Charge transport has major concerns due to adsorption of contaminants such as water and oxygen molecules. This leads to non-repetitive and large hysteresis I-V characteristics. Researchers must carry out electrical measurements in vacuum. The protection of graphene surface by a coating with materials such as SiN, PMMA, h-BN, etc., have been discussed by researchers. In January 2015, the first stable graphene device operation in air over several weeks was reported, for graphene whose surface was protected by aluminum oxide. In 2015 lithium-coated graphene exhibited superconductivity, a first for graphene.\n", "Section::::Energy.:Generation.:Solar cells.:Light collector.\n\nUsing graphene as a photoactive material requires its bandgap to be 1.4–1.9 eV. In 2010, single cell efficiencies of nanostructured graphene-based PVs of over 12% were achieved. According to P. Mukhopadhyay and R. K. Gupta organic photovoltaics could be \"devices in which semiconducting graphene is used as the photoactive material and metallic graphene is used as the conductive electrodes\".\n", "In 2016 researchers revealed that uncoated graphene can be used as neuro-interface electrode without altering or damaging properties such as signal strength or formation of scar tissue. Graphene electrodes in the body are significantly more stable than electrodes of tungsten or silicon because of properties such as flexibility, bio-compatibility and conductivity.\n\nSection::::Medicine.:Tissue engineering.\n", "Graphene does not oxidize in air or in biological fluids, making it an attractive material for use as a biosensor. A graphene circuit can be configured as a field effect biosensor by applying biological capture molecules and blocking layers to the graphene, then controlling the voltage difference between the graphene and the liquid that includes the biological test sample. Of the various types of graphene sensors that can be made, biosensors were the first to be available for sale.\n\nSection::::Sensors.:Pressure sensors.\n", "Mechanical properties of the lithiated sulfur compounds are strongly contingent on the lithium content, and with increasing lithium content, the strength of lithiated sulfur compounds improves, although this increment is not linear with lithiation.\n", "Researchers have taken various approaches to improving performance and other characteristics by using nanostructured materials. One strategy is to increase electrode surface area. Another strategy is to reduce the distance between electrodes to reduce transport distances. Yet another strategy is to allow the use of materials that exhibit unacceptable flaws when used in bulk forms, such as silicon.\n", "In 2009, researchers at the University of Dayton Research Institute announced a solid-state battery with higher energy density that uses air as its cathode. When fully developed, the energy density could exceed 1,000 Wh/kg.\n\nIn 2014, researchers at the School of Engineering at the University of Tokyo and Nippon Shokubai discovered that adding cobalt to the lithium oxide crystal structure gave it seven times the energy density. In 2017, researchers at University of Virginia reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer scale lithium cobalt oxide.\n\nSection::::Cathode.:Iron fluoride.\n", "A semiconducting polymer (poly(3-hexylthiophene) placed on top of single-layer graphene vertically conducts electric charge better than on a thin layer of silicon. A 50 nm thick polymer film conducted charge about 50 times better than a 10 nm thick film, potentially because the former consists of a mosaic of variably-oriented crystallites forms a continuous pathway of interconnected crystals. In a thin film or on silicon, plate-like crystallites are oriented parallel to the graphene layer. Uses include solar cells.\n\nSection::::Electronics.:Spintronics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03774	why when laying down we can breathe to raise our chests or our bellies?	With a bit of practice you can breathe either mainly from your chest or from your stomach area (specifically your diaphragm). You probably breathe more with your diaphragm when laying down because that is the method your body uses for deeper, more relaxed breaths (musicians are even trained to breathe that way exactly for that reason) but with practice you'll be able to breathe either way at any time that you want to.	[ "Set point of ventilation is different in wakefulness and sleep. pCO2 is higher and ventilation is lower in sleep. Sleep onset in normal subjects is not immediate, but oscillates between arousal, stage I and II sleep before steady NREM sleep is obtained. So falling asleep results in decreased ventilation and a higher pCO2, above the wakefulness set point. On wakefulness, this constitutes an error signal which provokes hyperventilation until the wakefulness set point is reached. When the subject falls asleep, ventilation decreases and pCO2 rises, resulting in hypoventilation or even apnea. These oscillations continue until steady state sleep is obtained. The medulla oblongata controls our respiration.\n", "In mammals, inhalation at rest is primarily due to the contraction of the diaphragm. This is an upwardly domed sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts the sheet flattens, (i.e. moves downwards as shown in Fig. 7) increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The contracting diaphragm pushes the abdominal organs downwards. But because the pelvic floor prevents the lowermost abdominal organs moving in that direction, the pliable abdominal contents cause the belly to bulge outwards to the front and sides, because the relaxed abdominal muscles do not resist this movement (Fig. 7). This entirely passive bulging (and shrinking during exhalation) of the abdomen during normal breathing is sometimes referred to as \"abdominal breathing\", although it is, in fact, \"diaphragmatic breathing\", which is not visible on the outside of the body. Mammals only use their abdominal muscles only during forceful exhalation (see Fig. 8, and discussion below). Never during any form of inhalation.\n", "Because the bases of the lungs lie posteriorly in the chest, a mild degree of collapse under the lungs' own weight can occur when the patient lies on their back. As the very base of the lungs may be the first region affected in several lung diseases, most notably asbestosis or usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP), the patient may be asked to lie prone to improve sensitivity to early changes of these conditions.\n", "The key to real core stabilization is to maintain the increased IAP while going through normal breathing cycles. […] The diaphragm then performs its breathing function at a lower position to facilitate a higher IAP.\n\nTherefore, if a person's diaphragm position is lower in general, through deep breathing, then this assists the strengthening of their core during that period. This can be an aid in strength training and other forms of athletic endeavour. For this reason, taking a deep breath or adopting a deeper breathing pattern is typically recommended when lifting heavy weights.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "Section::::Rate and depth of breathing.\n\nEarly physiologists believed the reflex plays a major role in establishing the rate and depth of breathing in humans. While this may be true for most animals, it is not the case for most adult humans at rest. However, the reflex may determine breathing rate and depth in newborns and in adult humans when tidal volume is more than 1 L, as when exercising.\n\nSection::::Hering–Breuer deflation reflex.\n", "In upper lobar breathing, clavicular breathing, or clavicle breathing air is drawn predominantly into the chest by the raising of the shoulders and collarbone (clavicles), and simultaneous contracting of the abdomen during inhalation. Maximum amount of air can be drawn this way only for short periods of time, since it requires a lot of effort.\n\nSection::::Conditions.\n\nSeveral conditions are marked by, or are symptomatic of, shallow breathing. The more common of these conditions include: various anxiety disorders, asthma, hyperventilation, pneumonia, pulmonary edema, and shock. Anxiety, stress, and panic attacks often accompany shallow breathing.\n", "Very often, after a sleep study, when someone has been unsuccessfully using positive airway pressure (PAP) ventilation, they are prescribed nasal oxygen at night; this should never be used without clear evidence of oxygen saturation of 94% or less; the non-judicious use of oxygen (which is a prescribed drug) may cause brain damage. \n\nAdditionally, polio survivors with breathing conditions and others with NMDs may be given a tracheostomy (a surgical opening for breathing made in the neck). Any one with symptoms arising during sleep must seek out specialists in neuro-muscular breathing conditions.\n", "During exhalation the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This returns the chest and abdomen to a position determined by their anatomical elasticity. This is the \"resting mid-position\" of the thorax and abdomen (Fig. 7) when the lungs contain their functional residual capacity of air (the light blue area in the right hand illustration of Fig. 7), which in the adult human has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 liters (Fig. 3). Resting exhalation lasts about twice as long as inhalation because the diaphragm relaxes passively more gently than it contracts actively during inhalation.\n", "Overly shallow breathing, also known medically as hypopnea, may result in hypoventilation, which could cause a build up of carbon dioxide in an individual's body, a symptom known as hypercapnia. It's a condition related to neuro-muscular disorders (NMDs) that include Lou Gehrig's Disease, Muscular Dystrophy, Polio, Post-Polio Syndrome and others. It is a serious condition if not diagnosed properly, or if it's ignored. It is often treated as a \"sleep disorder\" after a sleep study performed, but \"sleep studies cannot diagnose shallow breathing (JR Bach, M.D.).\" Serious symptoms arise most commonly during sleep; however, because when the body sleeps, the intercostal muscles do not perform the breathing for mechanism, it's done by the diaphragm, which is often impaired in people with NMDs. \n", "Diaphragmatic breathing causes the abdomen to rhythmically bulge out and fall back. It is, therefore, often referred to as \"abdominal breathing\". These terms are often used interchangeably because they describe the same action.\n\nWhen the accessory muscles of inhalation are activated, especially during labored breathing, the clavicles are pulled upwards, as explained above. This external manifestation of the use of the accessory muscles of inhalation is sometimes referred to as clavicular breathing, seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n\nSection::::Passage of air.\n\nSection::::Passage of air.:Upper airways.\n", "Orthopnea is due to increased distribution of blood to the pulmonary circulation when a person lies flat or closer to a horizontal position. Lying flat decreases the inhibitory effect that the gravity usually has on the blood that is coming back to the heart from the lower extremities of the body. This increases the right sided venous return. In a normal person, this redistribution of blood has little effect on respiratory function as the left ventricle has the adequate capacity to suddenly increase its stroke volume (as a result of Frank-Starling mechanism). In a person with heart failure, the left ventricle has an inadequate capacity to respond to increased arrival of blood from the pulmonary circulation. This leads to the pooling up of blood in the pulmonary circulation. The increased intra-parenchymal pulmonary intravascular pressure can also result in hydrostatic pressure related fluid exudation into the alveoli, thus causing pulmonary edema and further worsening shortness of breath. Thus, shortness of breath is commonly experienced after a reasonably short time lying near to flat for a person with left ventricular failure. This is different from the dyspnea experienced by some with lung parenchymal pathology (both restrictive and obstructive) when lying down, which is sudden and instead related to an acute change in diaphragmatic/accessory respiratory muscle mechanical advantage lost when moving the body into a more horizontal position.\n", "Deep breathing exercises are sometimes used as a form of relaxation, that, when practiced regularly, may lead to the relief or prevention of symptoms commonly associated with stress, which may include high blood pressure, headaches, stomach conditions, depression, anxiety, and others.\n\nDue to the lung expansion being lower (inferior) on the body as opposed to higher up (superior), it is referred to as 'deep' and the higher lung expansion of rib cage breathing is referred to as 'shallow'. The actual volume of air taken into the lungs with either means varies.\n\nSection::::Relation to yoga and meditation.\n", "In a healthy person during sleep, breathing is regular so oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant: After exhalation, the blood level of oxygen decreases and that of carbon dioxide increases. Exchange of gases with a lungful of fresh air is necessary to replenish oxygen and rid the bloodstream of built-up carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in the body (called chemoreceptors) send nerve impulses to the brain, which then signals for reflexive opening of the larynx (enlarging the opening between the vocal cords) and movements of the rib cage muscles and diaphragm. These muscles expand the thorax (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it. In the absence of central apnea, any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide, even if small, strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe; the respiratory drive is so strong that even conscious efforts to hold one's breath do not overcome it.\n", "Diaphragmatic breathing\n\nDiaphragmatic breathing, or deep breathing, is breathing that is done by contracting the diaphragm, a muscle located horizontally between the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity. Air enters the lungs, the chest does not rise and the belly expands during this type of breathing.\n\nDiaphragmatic breathing is also known scientifically as \"eupnea\", which is a natural and relaxed form of breathing in all mammals. Eupnea occurs in mammals whenever they are in a state of relaxation, i.e. when there is no clear and present danger in their environment.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n", "In a study of 19 healthy adults, the minute ventilation in NREM sleep was 7.18 ± 0.39(SEM) liters/minute compared to 7.66 ± 0.34 liters/minute when awake.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions.\n\nRib cage contribution to ventilation increases during NREM sleep, mostly by lateral movement, and is detected by an increase in EMG amplitude during breathing. Diaphragm activity is little increased or unchanged and abdominal muscle activity is slightly increased during these sleep stages.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Upper airway resistance.\n", "Section::::Significance in strength training.\n\nThe adoption of a deeper breathing pattern typically occurs during physical exercise in order to facilitate greater oxygen absorption. During this process the diaphragm more consistently adopts a lower position within the body’s core. In addition to its primary role in breathing, the diaphragm also plays a secondary role in strengthening the posture of the core. This is especially evident during deep breathing where its generally lower position increases intra-abdominal pressure, which serves to strengthen the lumbar spine.\n", "Shallow breathing\n\nShallow breathing, or chest breathing is the drawing of minimal breath into the lungs, usually by drawing air into the chest area using the intercostal muscles rather than throughout the lungs via the diaphragm. Shallow breathing can result in or be symptomatic of rapid breathing and hyperventilation. Most people who breathe shallowly do it throughout the day and are almost always unaware of the condition.\n", "BULLET::::- Normal Respiratory Drive: After exhalation, the blood level of oxygen decreases and that of carbon dioxide increases. Exchange of gases with a lungful of fresh air is necessary to replenish oxygen and rid the bloodstream of built-up carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in the blood stream (called chemoreceptors) send nerve impulses to the brain, which then signals reflex opening of the larynx (so that the opening between the vocal cords enlarges) and movements of the rib cage muscles and diaphragm. These muscles expand the thorax (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it.\n", "During heavy breathing (hyperpnea) as, for instance, during exercise, exhalation is brought about by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation, (in the same way as at rest), but, in addition, the abdominal muscles, instead of being passive, now contract strongly causing the rib cage to be pulled downwards (front and sides). This not only decreases the size of the rib cage but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax. The end-exhalatory lung volume is now less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human, there is always still at least one liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n", "In a study of 19 healthy adults, the minute ventilation in REM sleep was 6.46 +/- 0.29(SEM) liters/minute compared to 7.66 +/- 0.34 liters/minute when awake.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions.\n", "Intercostal muscle activity decreases in REM sleep and contribution of rib cage to respiration decreases during REM sleep. This is due to REM related supraspinal inhibition of alpha motoneuron drive and specific depression of fusimotor function. Diaphraghmatic activity correspondingly increases during REM sleep. Although paradoxical thoracoabdominal movements are not observed, the thoracic and abdominal displacements are not exactly in phase. This decrease in intercostal muscle activity is primarily responsible for hypoventilation that occurs in patients with borderline pulmonary function.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Upper airway function.\n", "While sleeping, a normal individual is \"at rest\" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant. Any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide (even if tiny) strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe.\n", "During heavy breathing (hyperpnea), as, for instance, during exercise, inhalation is brought about by a more powerful and greater excursion of the contracting diaphragm than at rest (Fig. 8). In addition the \"accessory muscles of inhalation\" exaggerate the actions of the intercostal muscles (Fig. 8). These accessory muscles of inhalation are muscles that extend from the cervical vertebrae and base of the skull to the upper ribs and sternum, sometimes through an intermediary attachment to the clavicles. When they contract the rib cage's internal volume is increased to a far greater extent than can be achieved by contraction of the intercostal muscles alone. Seen from outside the body the lifting of the clavicles during strenuous or labored inhalation is sometimes called clavicular breathing, seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n", "Lung volume decreases in the upright position due to cranial displacement of the abdomen due to hydrostatic pressure, and resistance to air flow in the airways increases significantly because of the decrease in lung volume.\n\nHydrostatic pressure differences between the interior of the lung and the breathing gas delivery, increased breathing gas density due to ambient pressure, and increased flow resistance due to higher breathing rates may all cause increased work of breathing and fatigue of the respiratory muscles.\n", "The recovery position is an important prevention technique for an unconscious person that is breathing casually. This position entails having the person lie in a stable position on their side with the head in a dependent position so fluids do not drain down the airway, reducing the risk of aspiration.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04627	Why are buses so square? Doesn't it severely reduce fuel efficiency?	Most busses aren't on the highway; wind drag isn't a big deal when you only get up to 30 mph. For those that do get on the highway, it's all about maximizing space and seats. The biggest drag is not from wind but just from gravity and moving a mutli-ton piece of plastic and steel from point A to point B. Buses are generally limited in size by certain practicalities (beyond a certain size and they need more axles and can't fit in tight streets), and taking out several rows of seats to change the front shape of the bus makes each trip more expensive per seat.	[ "Quadrasteer was an option in 2002–2005 GM full size, single rear wheel trucks. Constant-velocity joints were used instead of universal joints.\n\nSection::::Dana 61.\n", "Section::::History.:1960s.\n\nIn 1961, a new bus design, the Hamburg, was unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show. At a time when most coaches were rounded, bulbous or streamlined, the new design had clear-cut lines with edges and large windows. Developed by the founder's eldest son, Albrecht Auwärter, and another student, Swiss national Bob Lee, as part of their dissertation at Hamburg University. The design also allowed every passenger to regulate their fresh air supply through a nozzle from two air ducts, commonly seen today.\n", "In New Zealand, several operators have Scania K-series UB urban buses. Because of the additional weight of the 9-litre engine compared to the 7-litre units offered by other manufacturers, many (though not all) Scania urban buses are specified as 6x2 rather than 4x2. This helps reduce the operator's liability for road user charges, which are calculated by vehicle weight. Scania K-series urban buses may have tag axles at lengths where buses of other makes would not, e.g. NZ Bus's 2100 and 2200 series at approximately 12.0 m and only 42 seats.\n", "For large schemes, park and ride bus fleets used are usually of a higher and/or different specification to the predominant public transport bus fleet. Fleets are often purchased new in whole or in part for the award of a new contract, meaning low floor buses are increasingly common.\n\nIn the Plymouth scheme, the buses are of an extremely high specification compared to regular public transport buses, being equipped with high backed leather seating, television screens, and individual radio/CD sockets for each seat.\n", "Modern open top bus designs are available, nowadays with long multiple axle and low floor Easy Access features as seen on conventional closed-top buses. Many more have been converted from conventional buses which were no longer required for regular service and so may not have such features.\n", "The Scania Citywide LE (CK) is a longitudinally-engined low-entry city and intercity bus based on the Scania K-series chassis, introduced in 2011 to replace the Scania OmniLink. This bus is not entirely low floor, although it does contain a low entrance and low floor area at the front of the bus; it is intended for quieter intercity or suburban routes. It is available as a two- (CK UB4x2LB) or tri-axle (CK UB6x24LB) between 12.0 and 14.8 metres, and as an articulated bus (CK UA6x2/2LB) at 18.1 metres, known as the Scania Citywide LEA.\n", "Scania K-series urban buses pioneered steerable tag axles in New Zealand, which became a requirement for buses between 12.6 m and 13.5 m in length. Because Scania K-series buses had a longer rear overhang than competing makes, the allowable overhang with a steerable tag axle was increased from 4.25 m to 4.5 m. The Scania K280 UB 6x24 and K320 UB 6x24 have been popular chassis for operators building high-capacity single-deck buses. New Zealand's first double-deck bus in regular urban service was a Gemilang-bodied Scania K310 UD 6x24.\n\nSection::::Scania K UB.:Singapore.\n\nSection::::Scania K UB.:Singapore.:SBS Transit.\n", "The Board's first order for Ford V8 chassis from Canada was for 20 units, of which it took delivery of 10 and then sold 3 to Dunedin City Tramway. The seven remaining chassis were completed with wooden framed, aluminium-panelled motor bodies as follows: nos. 243–244 at Modern Motor Bodies, Christchurch; nos. 245–246 at Crawley Ridley, Wellington; nos. 247–249 were started by the Board but finished by Modern Motor Bodies. Because of their chiselled appearance, they became known as the \"Square\" Fords.\n", "In busy locations, such as main streets or bus stations, allowing the bus the space to lay over may not be appropriate, and the bus may have to run out of service, to a quieter layover point, before returning to the terminus to start the route again.\n", "The 60-foot version was not introduced until 1992, after MCI purchased the Classic design, and only 16 of these articulateds were ever built: 14 for Halifax Transit (Formerly Metro Transit), and two to Réseau de transport de la Capitale (RTC) (Quebec City, Quebec). NovaBus discontinued the articulated Classic in 1993. (This bus is not to be confused with the New Look TA60-102N, a 60-foot articulated bus manufactured by GMC in 1982, which had a Classic front end grafted onto a New Look body, which allowed for a wider front entrance.)\n", "Section::::Use.:Vietnam.\n", "BULLET::::- Half-seats are located near the cab doors for commuters to lean on during peak periods.\n\nSection::::Design.:Retrofits.\n", "BULLET::::- 14.5-metre two-door city bus, with a combined seating and standing capacity of 80\n\nBULLET::::- 18-metre articulated two- or three-door city bus, with a combined seating and standing capacity of 110\n\nBULLET::::- 12-metre two-door double deck city bus, with a combined seating and standing capacity of 90\n\nBULLET::::- 10-metre single-door 'mini' bus, with a combined seating and standing capacity of 40\n\nBULLET::::- 12.5-metre single-door city bus, with a combined seating and standing capacity of 65\n\nBULLET::::- 12.5-metre single-door school bus, with a combined seating and standing capacity of 70\n", "BULLET::::- There are some priority \"head start\" lanes at various intersections that allow buses bypass traffic queues and then enter the intersection before other traffic. Major roundabouts have special slip lanes that allow buses to skip queues and having to give way to the right.\n\nBULLET::::- Bus stops that comply with the Commonwealth Discriminatory Act, with tactile tiles and better signage, as well as lower ground to allow the elderly or wheelchair-using passengers easier access to buses. Stops also feature totem poles with timetables & maps.\n", "Section::::Use.:Asia.:China.\n\nIn Asia, many major Chinese cities had fleets of articulated buses prior to the late 1990s. Some of these fleets have since been replaced by single-section units except in a few cities, namely Beijing, Shanghai, and Hangzhou. While in the 2000s a surge in BRT construction has reintroduced or re-purposed the articulated bus fleets for rapid transit usage in cities like Changzhou, Dalian, Guangzhou, Jinan, Kunming, Xiamen, Yancheng, Zaozhuang, and Zhengzhou.\n\nSection::::Use.:Asia.:Indonesia.\n", "Section::::Use.:North America.\n\nSection::::Use.:North America.:United States.\n\nArticulated buses are commonplace in such US urban centers as Akron, Austin, Baltimore, Boston, Cleveland, Minneapolis-St.Paul, Miami, Orlando, Chicago, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, New York City, Orange County (California), Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Phoenix, the Quad Cities, Rochester, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, Disney World, Orlando, FL. and Washington, D.C.. In Eugene, Lane Transit District uses articulated buses on some high-traffic routes, as well as on their Emerald Express (EmX) Bus Rapid Transit Service.\n\nSection::::Use.:North America.:Canada.\n", "The IC FE Forward Advantage was a school bus prototype built by IC in 2008 as a testbed of a \"flat-floor\" design in the stepwell due to the compact design of the Caterpillar C7 engine. It also included some front-end styling modifications influenced by the severe-service line of International trucks. As Caterpillar has withdrawn from producing diesel engines for the school bus market, the Forward Advantage will not see production in its current form since its design was tailored to the Caterpillar engine.\n\nSection::::Prototype vehicles.:Hybrid diesel-electric buses.\n", "BULLET::::- Five 2002 12-metre Dennis Trident with Alexander ALX500 body (Open-topped, fleet number 1215-1219)\n", "Transit buses can be single-decker, double-decker, rigid or articulated. Selection of type has traditionally been made on a regional as well as operational basis; however, with the advent of global manufacturing, all of these types can be seen in the same location or country. Depending on local policies, transit buses will also usually have two, three or (for articulated) four doors to facilitate rapid boarding and alighting.\n\nIn cases of low-demand routes, or to navigate small local streets, some models of minibus and small midibuses have also been used as transit type buses.\n", "The development of the midibus has also given many operators a low-cost way of operating a transit bus service, with some midibuses such as the Plaxton SPD \"Super Pointer Dart\" resembling full size transit type vehicles.\n\nSection::::Developments.\n\nDue to their public transport role, transit buses were the first type of bus to benefit from low-floor technology, in response to a demand for equal access public service provision. Transit buses are also now subject to various disability discrimination acts in several jurisdictions which dictate various design features also applied to other vehicles in some cases.\n", "The operating area of a transit bus may also be defined as a geographic metropolitan area, with the buses used outside of this area being more varied with buses purchased with other factors in mind. Some regional-size operators for capital cost reasons may use transit buses interchangeably on short urban routes as well as longer rural routes, sometimes up to 2 or 3 hours. Often transit bus operators have a selection of 'dual-purpose' fitted buses, that is standard transit buses fitted with coach-type seating, for longer-distance routes.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Go-Anywhere\" version (numbered in the 8100s and 8200s) are the same length, but have a shorter height of . This variant, also made in Falkirk, entered service in 2012, and their lower height allows these buses to meet many more clearance standards as a result and are used on a wider variety of routes, including those that travel on Highway 401 into Durham Region.\n", "The invention of special curbs for low-floor buses is connected with the introduction of low-floor buses and modern low-floor trams in the late 20th century. The German NEOPLAN Bus GmbH had designed the first bus with a \"low-entry section\" in 1976 but it was not accepted well in the market.\n\nSince the 1980s, the Association of German Transport Companies invested into the design for a new standard bus, the \"\", with the second-generation Neoplan N 416 from 1982 to find wider acceptance.\n", "BULLET::::- Real-Time Passenger Information Displays are available at selected bus stops along SmartBus routes, especially at major road intersections and bus interchanges, although real-time information is not available at all stops. Most stations along the routes have PIDs.\n\nBULLET::::- In some sections of SmartBus routes, buses are given priority at signalised intersections, for example by extending the green time or reducing the red time for that direction in the intersection when a bus is approaching.\n", "Prohibiting turns for traffic across the bus lane significantly reduces delays to the buses. Bus priority will often be provided at signalized intersections to reduce delays by extending the green phase or reducing the red phase in the required direction compared to the normal sequence. Prohibiting turns may be the most important measure for moving buses through intersections.\n\nSection::::Main features.:Platform-level boarding.\n\nStation platforms should be level with the bus floor for quick and easy boarding, making it fully accessible for wheelchairs, disabled passengers and baby strollers, with minimal delays.\n" ]	[ "Busses should be shaped differently to improve fuel efficiency." ]	[ "Fuel efficiency is not as important as maximizing the number of seats on a bus. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Busses should be shaped differently to improve fuel efficiency." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fuel efficiency is not as important as maximizing the number of seats on a bus. " ]
2018-03143	Why is 1000 calories of a healthy food, such as mixed nuts, more filling than 1000 calories of junk food, such as a McDonalds Big Mac?	Satiety comes from a variety of factors, including the specific nutrients of the food, the readiness with which they are absorbed, stretch sensors registering the volume of what you've consumed, and even the mental state of the consumer. The caloric value of food itself is only one variable.	[ "In contrast to nutrient density, energy density is the amount of calories per gram of food. For instance, snacking on two scoops (1 c.) of chocolate ice cream contains 287 calories per 132 grams making the energy density 2.17. As an alternative, one could have a snack containing celery (2 stalks), peanut butter (1 Tbsp), milk (1 c.), and an apple, which would contain similar calorie content (281 calories), but weigh 478 grams making the energy density .59. Other alternatives include salads, fruits, nuts, frozen yogurt, and cereal (1 c.) without milk. Especially when one's under pressure or frustrated, a low energy density is preferable because the food has a low ratio of calories to grams, allowing one to consume more food per calorie. Choosing a healthy snack with lower energy density will increase the amount of food one can ingest, and thus increase satiation and satiety levels, while increasing nutrient intake compared to chocolate ice cream.\n", "Examples include cake mixes, macaroni and cheese, brownie mixes, and gravy mixes. Some packaged mixes may have a high saturated fat content.\n\nSection::::Types.:By country.\n\nIn 2007, it was noted in the book \"Australia's food & nutrition 2012\" that a distinct increase in convenience food consumption had been occurring in Australia.\n\nIn the Republic of Ireland, breakfast rolls eaten by busy workers became a symbol of the Celtic Tiger economic boom.\n", "Considering energy foods as adequate nutrition was first scientifically demonstrated to be false by François Magendie by experiments on dogs and described in his \"Précis élémentaire de Physiologie\". He showed that eating only sugar, olive oil, or butter, each led to the death of his test animals in 30 to 40 days.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThe following foods are often considered to contain mostly empty calories and may lead to weight gain:\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar: cake, cookies, sweets, candy, soft drinks, fruit-flavored sweet beverages and other foods containing mostly added sugars (including High-fructose corn syrup).\n", "The United Kingdom's Advertising Standards Authority, the self-regulatory agency for the UK ad industry, uses nutrient profiling to define junk food. Foods are scored for \"A\" nutrients (energy, saturated fat, total sugar and sodium) and \"C\" nutrients (fruit, vegetables and nut content, fiber and protein). The difference between A and C scores determines whether a food or beverage is categorized as HFSS (high in fat, salt and sugar; a term synonymous with \"junk food\").\n", "Portion sizes in the United States have increased markedly in the past several decades. For example, from 1977 to 1996, portion sizes increased by 60 percent for salty snacks and 52 percent for soft drinks. Importantly, larger product portion sizes and larger servings in restaurants and kitchens consistently increase food intake. Larger portion sizes may even cause people to eat more of foods that are ostensibly distasteful; in one study individuals ate significantly more stale, two-week-old popcorn when it was served in a large versus a medium-sized container.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Serving aids.\n", "In 2000, Roberts visited Paris. He noticed in himself a significant loss of appetite and speculated that it was due to experiencing unfamiliar flavors of soft drinks that were not available to him in the USA. He reasoned, postulated, and concluded that there was a very deep association of familiar \"flavorful\" flavors with the regulation of body weight and that what a person eats can alter the setpoint. The more familiar and \"flavorful\" the food, the greater the effect on the body's setpoint or self-regulating system. So, accordingly, eating flavorful junkfood that is very high in flavor will increase the setpoint while taking 100-400 \"flavorless\" calories per day between meals will reduce the body's setpoint. Seth Roberts focused entirely on the psychology of the association by the brain with calories and familiar flavors and that effect on the setpoint.\n", "Fast food servings, for example, are 2 to 5 times larger than they were in the 1980s. Evidence has shown that larger portions of energy-dense foods lead to greater energy intake and thus to greater rates of obesity.\n\nSection::::Meat consumption.\n", "As told in the textbook \"Nutrition: Concepts and Controversies\" by Frances Sienkiewicz Sizer and Ellie Whitney, sedentary men have a recommended daily calorie intake of about 2400 kcal. For sedentary women the intake is about 2000 kcal. The average calorie intake during a meal is about 500 kilocalories leaving a range of 300-800 kilocalories for snacks between meals. Overdoing this daily allowance can cause weight gain no matter whether the snack is healthy or unhealthy.\n\nSection::::Healthy snacking.\n", "Section::::Definitions.\n\nIn Andrew F. Smith's \"Encyclopedia of Junk Food and Fast Food\", junk food is defined as \"those commercial products, including candy, bakery goods, ice cream, salty snacks and soft drinks, which have little or no nutritional value but do have plenty of calories, salt, and fats. While not all fast foods are junk foods, most are. Fast foods are ready-to-eat foods served promptly after ordering. Some fast foods are high in calories and low in nutritional value, while other fast foods, such as salads, may be low in calories and high in nutritional value.\"\n", "When the density is defined in proportion to energy contents, nutrient-dense foods such as fruits and vegetables are the opposite of energy-dense food (also called \"empty calorie\" food), such as alcohol and foods high in added sugar or processed cereals.\n\nThe Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics reported in 2013 that:\n\nSeveral indicators of nutrient quality have been summarized by the Academy.\n", "BULLET::::- Emotional eating occurs when people use food to cope with emotional triggers including boredom, procrastination, excitement, love, frustration, stress, and mild depression.\n\nBULLET::::- Eating for convenience and food availability occurs when people choose to snack on energy-dense food that is readily available. In some areas the only food available is processed food, which is energy-dense and low in essential nutrients. Sizer and Whitney say, “A steady diet of such foods can easily lead to both obesity and malnutrition”. These foods are high in calories, fat, salt, and have a very low nutrient density.\n\nSection::::Consumer perception.\n", "The MCI consisted of a rectangular cardboard carton containing one small flat can, one large can, and two small cans. It consisted of an \"M\"-unit can (meat-based entree item), a \"B\"-unit (bread item) composed of the Crackers & Candy Can and the flat Spread Can, and a \"D\"-unit can (dessert item). The M-1, M-3, B-1, B-2, D-2, and D-3 unit cans were small and the M-2, B-3, and D-1 unit cans were large. The ration cans were packed upright, with the flat Spread can over the large can on the left side and the two small cans were stacked one over the other on the right side (the lighter one over the heavier one). On top was the brown foil Accessory Pack and a white plastic spoon wrapped in clear plastic. Each carton contained a single complete meal providing approximately 5,000 kJ (1,200 kilocalories or 1,200 kcal), with a packaged weight of and volume of .\n", "Junk food provides empty calories, supplying little or none of the protein, vitamins, or minerals required for a nutritious diet. Many foods, such as hamburgers, pizza, and tacos, can be considered either healthy or junk food, depending on their ingredients and preparation methods. The more highly processed items usually fall under the junk food category, including breakfast cereals that are mostly sugar or high fructose corn syrup and white flour or milled corn.\n", "A review of eating habits in the United States in 2004 found that about 75% of restaurant meals were from fast-food restaurants. Nearly half of the meals ordered from a menu were hamburger, French fries, or poultry — and about one third of orders included a carbonated beverage drink. From 1970 to 2008, the per capita consumption of calories increased by nearly one-quarter in the United States and about 10% of all calories were from high-fructose corn syrup.\n", "The Smart Ones brand was launched by the H.J Heinz Company in 1992 as a sub-brand of the Weight Watchers line of frozen entrées and desserts. At the time, Heinz owned Weight Watchers International, known for its well-known weight-loss program and services. At launch, the Smart Ones line was notable for containing only \"ONE gram of fat\". Later, the meal offerings were expanded significantly and are no longer limited to only one gram of fat.\n", "Discretion should be used to determine whether one snack is a better choice than another based on nutrient density. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) establishes the amount of nutrients required daily to avoid deficiencies and allow the body to function properly. Knowing that one snack has more nutrients than another per calorie can help provide required nutrients without exceeding the discretionary calorie allowance. When analyzing the ratio of nutrients to calories in foods, the caloric level must be lower than the nutrient level in order for it to be nutrient dense. Otherwise, it could potentially cause a deficiency in an essential nutrient.\n", "Fast food fat-rich meals combined with drinks containing sugar typically possess several characteristics, all of which have independently been linked to IR: they are sugar rich, palatable, and cheap, increasing risk of overeating and leptin resistance; simultaneously, they are high in dietary fat and fructose, and low in omega-3 and fiber; and they usually have high glycemic indices. Overconsumption of such cheap fat- and sugar-rich meals and beverages have been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the metabolic syndrome epidemic and all its constituents.\n\nVitamin D deficiency also is associated with insulin resistance.\n", "The exact structure and composition is significant in determining the taxation applicable in the UK as valued-added tax (VAT). The general principle is that luxury foods such as confectionery are taxable, while basic foodstuffs are not. Case law and rulings have determined that a chocolate-covered biscuit such as a chocolate digestive or Kit Kat is taxable while a chocolate-chip cookie or Jaffa cake is not.\n", "The use of fat binaries is not common in operating system software; there are several alternatives to solve the same problem, such as the use of an installer program to choose an architecture-specific binary at install time (such as with Android multiple APKs), selecting an architecture-specific binary at runtime (such as with Plan 9's union directories), distributing software in source code form and compiling it in-place, or the use of a virtual machine (such as with Java) and Just In Time compilation.\n\nSection::::Apple.\n\nSection::::Apple.:Apple's fat binary.\n", "The B-1 unit added Chocolate-Toffee, Chocolate-Vanilla, and Chocolate with Peanuts discs. The B-2 unit jam spreads were expanded with the addition of Blackberry Jam, Peach Jam, and Pineapple Jam. The B-3 unit added a Vanilla Fudge disc and Hickory-Smoked Processed Cheese Spread. The D-2 units added a Cherry Nut Roll and a Chocolate Nut Roll.\n\nSection::::Menus.:Field reports.\n", "Studies have shown that eating monotonous meals (limited variety in food) results in long-term sensory-specific satiety. By continuing to eat similar meals, a dieter can reduce their overall food intake and use sensory-specific satiety as a tool for weight loss. On the contrary, sensory-specific satiety can also cause obesity because of the stimulation of hunger for foods of different variety. The higher energy content the food has, the less likely sensory-specific satiety will become activated.\n\nSection::::Age in relation to sensory-specific satiety.\n", "Another cause of hunger is related to agricultural policy. Due to the heavy subsidization of crops such as corn and soybeans, healthy foods such as fruits and vegetables are produced in lesser abundance and generally cost more than highly processed, packaged goods. Because unhealthful food items are readily available at much lower prices than fruits and vegetables, low-income populations often heavily rely on these foods for sustenance. As a result, the poorest people in the United States are often simultaneously undernourished and overweight or obese. This is because highly processed, packaged goods generally contain high amounts of calories in the form of fat and added sugars yet provide very limited amounts of essential micronutrients. These foods are thus said to provide \"empty calories.\" \n", "Percent composition by weight is a serious matter in the U.S., where mixed nuts have been regulated by the Food and Drug Administration since 1977. Up to that point, the phrase \"mixed nuts\" had been legally meaningless. A 1964 \"Consumer Reports\" investigation of 124 cans of mixed nuts, representing 31 brands bought in 17 American cities, determined that most mixed nuts of the time were mostly peanuts, often 75%; peanutless brands were usually dominated by cashews. Many cans bore misleading labels or were underfilled. \"Consumer Reports\" concluded, \"What's needed of course is a Federal standard of identity...\", detailing a list that of requirements that, with the exception of their desire to limit broken nuts, anticipated the 1977 rules.\n", "Many low-income families struggle with buying fresh fruits and vegetables and nutritional meals for their families because of the price of the products. These families are most often located in food deserts and fresh food is not readily available in their community. Thus, families resort to buying food that is high in fat, sugar, and salt because these highly processed options are inexpensive. These highly processed foods make up a significant portion of unhealthy convenience foods.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comfort food\n\nBULLET::::- Food desert\n\nBULLET::::- Food packaging\n\nBULLET::::- Food preservation\n\nBULLET::::- Food processing\n\nBULLET::::- Junk food\n\nBULLET::::- List of foods\n", "Food security is defined as consistent access, geographically or financially, to sufficient, nutritious, and affordable food and has been theorized to be a cause of excess gestational weight gain. Women that only have access to fast food, for example, would be considered to be \"lower food security\", and these women might be more likely to suffer from excess gestational weight gain because the food available is cheap, but high in calories. Having access to affordable and nutritious food has been linked to a lesser risk of impaired glucose tolerance. which is related to excess gestational weight gain.\n" ]	[ "1000 calories of any food should be the same filling.", "1000 calories of healthy food is more satisfying than 1000 calories of unhealthy food. " ]	[ "Calories in food is only one variable that leads to how full something makes you feel. ", "Satiety is not dependant on the caloric value of food, while it is one factor, it is not the determinant." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "1000 calories of any food should be the same filling.", "1000 calories of healthy food is more satisfying than 1000 calories of unhealthy food. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Calories in food is only one variable that leads to how full something makes you feel. ", "Satiety is not dependant on the caloric value of food, while it is one factor, it is not the determinant." ]
2018-02381	I get that oxygen is required for fire. But what about oxygen and it's chemical properties make it so vital for combustion reactions over other gasses?	Combustion is a high-temperature exothermic redox (reduction-oxidation) chemical reaction. Oxygen is a very common, and fairly strong, oxidizing agent. It is not, however, strictly required for a fire. Some very fun (read horrifying) chemicals like ClF3 are actually stronger oxidizers than oxygen, and will happily cause things to combust without any help from oxygen.	[ "Section::::Prevention of fire.\n\nFires occur when oxygen, fuel, and heat energy combine in a self-sustaining chemical reaction. In an oxygen system the presence of oxygen is implied, and in a sufficiently high partial pressure of oxygen, most materials can be considered fuel. Potential ignition sources are present in almost all oxygen systems, but fire hazards can be mitigated by controlling the risk factors associated with the oxygen, fuel, or heat, which can limit the tendency for a chemical reaction to occur.\n", "Section::::Safety and precautions.:Combustion and other hazards.\n\nHighly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. Oxygen is the oxidant, not the fuel, but nevertheless the source of most of the chemical energy released in combustion.\n", "Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to start much more easily. Once a fire has started, if supplemental oxygen is present it will burn more fiercely, based on the principle of the fire triangle. Materials that do not burn in ambient air may burn when there is a greater concentration of oxygen present than there is in air.\n", "Materials are easier to ignite and burn more readily as oxygen pressure or concentration increase. so operating oxygen systems at the lowest practicable pressure and concentration may be enough to avoid ignition and burning. \n\nUse of materials which are inherently more difficult to ignite or are resistant to sustained burning, or which release less energy when they burn, can, in some cases, eliminate the possibility of fire or minimize the damage caused by a fire. \n", "Fire uses oxygen to oxidize compounds typically of carbon and hydrogen to water and carbon dioxide (although other elements may be involved) whether in uncontrolled conflagrations that destroy buildings and forests or the controlled fire within engines or that supply electrical energy from turbines, heat for keeping buildings warm, or the motive force that drives vehicles.\n\nOxygen forms roughly 21% of the Earth's atmosphere; all of this oxygen is the result of photosynthesis. Pure oxygen has use in medical treatment of people who have respiratory difficulties. Excess oxygen is toxic.\n", "In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion. English chemist John Mayow (1641–1679) refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called \"spiritus nitroaereus\". In one experiment, he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and replace one-fourteenth of the air's volume before extinguishing the subjects. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion.\n", "Understanding of fire hazards is necessary when designing, operating, and maintaining oxygen systems so that fires can be prevented. Ignition risks can be minimized by controlling heat sources and using materials that will not ignite or will not support burning in the applicable environment. Some materials are more susceptible to ignition in oxygen-rich environments, and compatibility should be assessed before a component is introduced into an oxygen system. Both pertial pressure and concentration of oxygen affect the fire hazard.\n\nThe issues of cleaning and design are closely related to the compatibility of materials for safety and durability in oxygen service.\n", "Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. NOx species appear in significant amounts above about , and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of NOx is also a function of oxygen excess.\n", "Combustion is the exothermic chemical reaction between oxygen and a fuel, producing a flame and smoke. Because oxygen is necessary to fuel a fire, oxygen-generating equipment on aircraft pose a significant fire hazard and have contributed to several aircraft fires, both on the ground and while in flight.\n\nAircraft accidents and incidents related to oxygen supply systems include:\n", "A \"chlorate candle\", or an \"oxygen candle\", is a cylindrical chemical oxygen generator that contains a mix of sodium chlorate and iron powder, which when ignited smolders at about , producing sodium chloride, iron oxide, and at a fixed rate about 6.5 man-hours of oxygen per kilogram of the mixture. The mixture has an indefinite shelf life if stored properly: candles have been stored for 20 years without decreased oxygen output. Thermal decomposition releases the oxygen. The burning iron supplies the heat. The candle must be wrapped in thermal insulation to maintain the reaction temperature and to protect surrounding equipment. The key reaction is:\n", "In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually and ) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane () combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required.\n", "Concentrated will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically. Steel pipes and storage vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and liquid oxygen will act as a fuel; and therefore the design and manufacture of systems requires special training to ensure that ignition sources are minimized. Highly concentrated oxygen in a high-pressure environment can spontaneously ignite hydrocarbons such as oil and grease, resulting in fire or explosion. The heat caused by rapid pressurization serves as the ignition source. For this reason, storage vessels, regulators, piping and any other equipment used with highly concentrated oxygen must be \"oxygen-clean\" prior to use, to ensure the absence of potential fuels. This does not apply only to pure oxygen; any concentration significantly higher than atmospheric (approximately 21%) carries a potential risk.\n", "Other recreational uses that do not involve breathing include pyrotechnic applications, such as George Goble's five-second ignition of barbecue grills.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Industrial.\n\nSmelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55% of commercially produced oxygen. In this process, is injected through a high-pressure lance into molten iron, which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides, and . The reactions are exothermic, so the temperature increases to 1,700 °C.\n", "The oxidizer is the other reactant of the chemical reaction. In most cases, it is the ambient air, and in particular one of its components, oxygen (O). By depriving a fire of air, it can be extinguished; for example, when covering the flame of a small candle with an empty glass, fire stops; to the contrary, if air is blown over a wood fire with bellows, the fire is activated by the introduction of more air. In certain torches, gaseous oxygen is introduced to improve combustion.\n", "The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the NOx level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest.\n", "In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen (). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures some nitrogen will be converted to (mostly , with much smaller amounts of ). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to completely combust the fuel, some fuel carbon is converted to carbon monoxide and some of the hydrogen remains unreacted. A more complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.\n", "In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen, and produces a limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron(III) oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant, but small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated species) form when the air is the oxidant.\n", "BULLET::::- Thornton's rule (1917) : Each kilogram of oxygen used in the combustion of common organic materials results in release of 13.1 MJ of energy. This rule states that the amount of heat released during the consumption of a given quantity of oxygen is relatively constant for most combustibles. This means that the heat released per unit of oxygen consumed is about the same for wood or plastic. In a ventilation-controlled fire, where the amount of air entering through openings in a room governs the fire, the heat release rate in the room cannot exceed what the available air supply will support.\n", "Due to that, oxygen has become widely used in the metal processing, welding, cutting and brazing processes. In the chemical and petrochemical industries, as well as in the oil and gas sector oxygen is used in commercial volumes as an oxidizer in chemical reactions.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal gas welding, cutting and brazing\n\nThe use of oxygen in gas-flame operations, such as metal welding, cutting and brazing is one of the most significant and common applications of this gas. Oxygen allows generating high-temperature flame in welding torches thus ensuring high quality and speed of work performance.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal industry\n", "Combustion hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potential, such as peroxides, chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates because they can donate oxygen to a fire.\n", "Highly combustible materials that leave little residue, such as wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston; non-combustible substances that corrode, such as iron, contained very little. Air did not play a role in phlogiston theory, nor were any initial quantitative experiments conducted to test the idea; instead, it was based on observations of what happens when something burns, that most common objects appear to become lighter and seem to lose something in the process.\n\nSection::::History.:Discovery.\n", "BULLET::::- Estimation of the ignition risk and the consequences of ignition. The further development or dissipation of the fire.\n\nBULLET::::- Analysis of the consequences of a fire\n\nCompatibility analysis would also consider the history of use of the component or material in similar conditions, or of a similar component.\n\nSection::::Oxygen service.\n\nOxygen service implies use in contact with high partial pressures of oxygen. Generally this is taken to mean a higher partial pressure than possible from compressed air, but also can occur at lower pressures when the concentration is high.\n\nSection::::Oxygen service.:Oxygen cleaning.\n", "Oxy-fuel combustion process\n\nOxy-fuel combustion is the process of burning a fuel using pure oxygen instead of air as the primary oxidant. Since the nitrogen component of air is not heated, fuel consumption is reduced, and higher flame temperatures are possible. Historically, the primary use of oxy-fuel combustion has been in welding and cutting of metals, especially steel, since oxy-fuel allows for higher flame temperatures than can be achieved with an air-fuel flame.\n", "Chemical oxygen generators store oxygen in their chemical composition, and can be used only one time.\n\n\"Oxygen Candles\" contain a mix of sodium chlorate and iron powder, which when ignited smolders at about 600 °C (1,112 °F) and results in sodium chloride, iron oxide, and oxygen, about 270 liters per kg of mixture.\n\nSome commercial airliners use emergency oxygen generators containing a mixture of sodium chlorate (NaClO), 5 percent barium peroxide (BaO) and 1 percent potassium perchlorate (KClO), which after ignition, reacts releasing oxygen for 12 to 22 minutes while the unit reaches .\n", "There is currently research being done in firing fossil-fueled power plants with an oxygen-enriched gas mix instead of air. Almost all of the nitrogen is removed from input air, yielding a stream that is approximately 95% oxygen. Firing with pure oxygen would result in too high a flame temperature, so the mixture is diluted by mixing with recycled flue gas, or staged combustion. The recycled flue gas can also be used to carry fuel into the boiler and ensure adequate convective heat transfer to all boiler areas. Oxy-fuel combustion produces approximately 75% less flue gas than air fueled combustion and produces exhaust consisting primarily of CO and HO (see figure).\n" ]	[ "Oxygen is required for fire.", "Oxygen is required to create a fire." ]	[ "Some chemicals can burn without oxygen.", "While oxygen is a common agent used to create fire, it isn't a requirement for a fire to be created. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Oxygen is required for fire.", "Oxygen is required to create a fire." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some chemicals can burn without oxygen.", "While oxygen is a common agent used to create fire, it isn't a requirement for a fire to be created. " ]
2018-07595	Why do awesome books come out in May? Coincidence or planned?	Planned - publishers shoot to put out their biggest books in May and June because book sales are highest in summer - people are going to the beach, hopping on a plane for a vacation, kids are taking the time off school. Summer reading is a big thing, and having a book come out in May gives enough time for good reviews to pop up in magazines and the first buyers to rave to their friends before summer vacation kicks into gear.	[ "Posted every Tuesday, to coincide with the publication schedules for Random House, this post gives an overview of the books that will be newly available that week. The post also includes relevant genre release news for other books, movies, DVD releases, and video games of note.\n\nSection::::Types of content.:Feature articles.:'What I Learned This Week' by Betsy Mitchell.\n", "Since 2006, nearly 400 NaNoWriMo novels have been published via traditional publishing houses and over 200 novels have been published by smaller presses or self-published.\n\nSome notable titles include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Water for Elephants\" by Sara Gruen, published by Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill\n\nBULLET::::- \"Persistence of Memory\" by Amelia Atwater-Rhodes, published by Delacorte Press\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anna and the French Kiss\" by Stephanie Perkins, published by Dutton Juvenile\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Night Circus\" by Erin Morgenstern, published by Doubleday\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wool\" by Hugh Howey, published by Simon & Schuster\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cinder\" by Marissa Meyer, published by Square Fish\n", "'While “Dinner” feels like a celebration of its form’s nervous charms, “May–September” expands on its “state of grace” strengths, lending Now a certain comprehensive sweep; taken as a whole, the book feels like a tour de force statement on how — and why — novellas continue to be written.\" – Joseph Martin, \"Baltimore Fishbowl\"\n", "Freelance writer Chris Baty started the project in July 1999 with 21 participants in the San Francisco Bay area. In 2000, it was moved to November \"to more fully take advantage of the miserable weather.\" and launched an official website, designed by a friend of Baty's. That year 140 participants signed up for the event, including several from other countries. Baty launched a Yahoo! group to facilitate socialization between participants and, after the posters began asking about guidelines, he set most of the event's basic ground rules: the novel must be new, cannot be co-authored, and must be submitted in time to be verified. Of the 140 participants, 29 completed the challenge as manually verified by Baty himself.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fangirl\" by Rainbow Rowell, published by St. Martin's Press\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Darwin Elevator\" by Jason M. Hough, published by Del Rey Books\n\nBULLET::::- \"Side Effects May Vary\" by Julie Murphy, published by HarperCollins Publishers\n\nBULLET::::- \"Assassin's Heart\" by Sarah Ahiers, published by HarperCollins Publishers\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Forest of Hands and Teeth\" by Carrie Ryan, published by Gollancz\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Cut Out\" by Jack Heath, published by Allen & Unwin\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Beautiful Land\", by Alan Averill, published by Ace Books\n\nSection::::Spin-off events.\n\nBULLET::::- Script Frenzy: creating a script in April of every year that ran from 2007-2012.\n", "The following year, Baty expected similar numbers, but 5,000 participants registered, which he credits to news of the event being spread by bloggers and later being reported on by various news organizations including the \"Los Angeles Times\" and \"Washington Post\". Though Baty was happy with the large turnout and popularity of the event, it almost did not happen, as the website had a number of problems leading to participants being asked to post themselves as winners on an honor system; in the end, 700 people would do so.\n", "BULLET::::3. Novels must reach a minimum of 50,000 words before the end of November in order to win. These words can either be a complete novel of 50,000 words or the first 50,000 words of a novel to be completed later.\n\nBULLET::::4. Planning and extensive notes are permitted, but no material written before the November 1 start date can go into the body of the novel.\n", "Section::::Published big year books.\n\nBULLET::::- Wild America (1955) by Roger Tory Peterson & James Fisher\n\nBULLET::::- Call Collect, Ask for Birdman (1980) by James M. Vardaman\n\nBULLET::::- Looking for the Wild (1986) by Lyn Hancock\n\nBULLET::::- The Loonatic Journals (1987) by Steven Perry\n\nBULLET::::- Birding's Indiana Jones: A Chaser's Diary (1990) by Sandy Komito\n\nBULLET::::- The Feather Quest (1992) by Pete Dunne\n\nBULLET::::- A Year for the Birds (1995) by William B. Rydell, Jr.\n\nBULLET::::- Kingbird Highway: The Story of a Natural Obsession That Got a Little Out of Hand (1997) by Kenn Kaufman\n", "A new focus of LBF 2015 was the attention to the video games industry. With the development of digital technologies and an increasing level of engagement from people, especially children and young teenagers, many authors and publishers are looking for a new way to tell stories that can help readers have more interaction with the fantasy and gain new knowledge during the games. Several famous professionals from the gaming industry have been to the fair and given speeches about their ideas, concepts that help both publishing and gaming industries to push the boundaries and create a new form of media convergence.\n", "Many skip weeks would feature a consistent cover design across all books in the event. \"New Year's Evil\" used black backgrounds, menacing profiles of the main characters, and an elaborate red border design at the top. Tangent Comics made a special effort to break conventions, using a fifth ink color to create a silver background, placing the titles in the middle of the cover instead of at the top, and adding descriptive information such as book dimensions and indicia in multiple languages that might be mandated by an alternate universe's publishing industry.\n\nSection::::DC Comics.:Vertigo.\n", "Section::::Comic books.:United Kingdom.\n\nIn the U.K., a large number of annuals are published shortly before the end of each year by companies such as D.C. Thomson, Egmont (formerly IPC/Fleetway), and Rebellion Developments, aimed at the Christmas market. These annuals are generally large-sized hardcover books with over 100 pages and a high colour content. They are normally cover-dated with the following year's date to ensure that stockists do not remove them from their shelves immediately after the new year.\n", "Fantasy movies in recent years, such as \"The Lord of the Rings\" films, the first and third \"Narnia\" adaptations, and the first, second, fourth and seventh \"Harry Potter\" adaptations have most often been released in November and December. This is in contrast to science fiction films, which are often released during the northern hemisphere summer (June–August). All three installments of the \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" fantasy films, however, were released in July 2003, July 2006, and May 2007 respectively, and the latest releases in the \"Harry Potter\" series were released in July 2007 and July 2009. The huge commercial success of these pictures may indicate a change in Hollywood's approach to big-budget fantasy film releases.\n", "The official forums provide a place for advice, information, criticism, support, and an opportunity for \"collective procrastination.\" The forums are available from the beginning of October, when signups for the year begin, until late September the following year, when they are archived and the database is wiped in preparation for that year's NaNoWriMo forums to start up again.\n", "Most regions have one or more Municipal Liaisons (ML) assigned to them, who are volunteers that help with organizing local events and mediate regional forums. MLs are encouraged to coordinate at least two kinds of meet-ups; a kickoff party, and a \"Thank God It's Over\" party to celebrate successes and share novels. Kickoff parties are often held the weekend before November to give local writers a chance to meet and get geared up, although some are held on Halloween night past midnight so writers start writing in a community setting. Other events may be scheduled, including weekend meet-ups or overnight write-ins.\n", "Section::::Awards.:Shortlisted.\n\nBig Book Awards 2019, Children's Illustrated Category for \"Alphabet Street\"\n\nAndersen Prize 2019, Best Popular Book category for \"Perché noi boffi siamo così?\" (the Italian edition of \"How the Borks Became\")\n\nKentucky Bluegrass Award, K2 Category 2018-2019 for \"Prince Ribbit\"\n", "In May 2014, DC announced that six titles, \"All-Star Western\", \"Batwing\", \"Birds of Prey\", \"Superboy\", \"Trinity of Sin: Pandora\" and \"Trinity of Sin: The Phantom Stranger\", would have their final publications in August 2014. It was also revealed that 22 titles published in August 2014 would feature \"DC Universe Selfie\" variant covers, focusing on the popular trend of taking selfies. A second \"Superman: Doomed\" one-shot was also announced.\n\nIn June 2014, DC announced six new titles for their Ninth Wave: \"Arkham Manor\", \"Deathstroke\", \"Gotham Academy\", \"Klarion\", \"Lobo\", and \"Trinity of Sin\" for publication in October 2014. \n", "\"Hurricane Gold\" had previously been announced as a 2008 release before the publishing date was pushed up to 2007. With \"Double or Die\" also being published in 2007, this creates a unique situation – the first time more than one James Bond novel was published in the same calendar year, (not counting film novelizations, spinoff novels such as \"The Moneypenny Diaries\" or short stories).\n", "BULLET::::- c. June – Joanne Rowling has the idea for Harry Potter while on a train from Manchester to London: \"I was staring out the window, and the idea for Harry just came. He appeared in my mind's eye, very fully formed. The basic idea was for a boy who didn't know what he was.\" She begins writing \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", which will be completed in 1995 and published in 1997.\n\nBULLET::::- October – Nicci Gerrard marries Sean French in the London Borough of Hackney, to make up a writing team known as Nicci French.\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Knox – \"The Lost Goddess\" (February 7)\n\nBULLET::::- Dean Koontz – \"Odd Apocalypse\" (July 31)\n\nBULLET::::- William Landay – \"Defending Jacob\" (January 31)\n\nBULLET::::- Joe R. Lansdale – \"Edge of Dark Water\" (March 12)\n\nBULLET::::- Dennis Lehane – \"Live by Night\" (October 2)\n\nBULLET::::- Elmore Leonard – \"Raylan\" (January 17)\n\nBULLET::::- Robert R. McCammon – \"The Providence Rider\" (May 31)\n\nBULLET::::- Jo Nesbø – \"Phantom\" (October 2)\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Palmer – \"Oath of Office\" (February 14)\n\nBULLET::::- Ridley Pearson – \"The Risk Agent\" (June 19)\n\nBULLET::::- Matthew Reilly – \"Scarecrow Returns\" (January 3)\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 Big Year attempts may include provisional species (1st ABA Area records not yet accepted to the official list) in parentheses.\n\nThe provisional species for 2019 are Stejneger's Scoter, House Crow, Dark-billed Cuckoo, Great White Pelican and Long-legged Buzzard.\n\nSection::::USA Lower 48 States big year rankings.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Big Year attempts may include provisional species (1st ABA Area records not yet accepted to the official list) in parentheses.\n\nThe provisional species for 2018 is House Crow.\n\nSection::::World big years.\n", "A summer version of NaNoWriMo, called Camp NaNoWriMo, launched in 2011. Two sessions were held, one in July and one in August; however, the months were switched to June and August for Camp NaNoWriMo 2012. The two months were then switched to April and July for 2013 and 2014, and have stayed the same since. The rules used for the main event in November also applied to each Camp NaNoWriMo session. \n", "To celebrate the anniversary of The New 52, which began in September 2011, DC published unique events in subsequent years during the month of September. In September 2012, all publishing books released a zero numbered issue for \"Zero Month\", telling the New 52 origins for many characters. In September 2013, titles were released using a point system, highlighting many of DC's villains for \"Villains Month\". However, not all publishing titles at the time produced a \"Villains Month\" title, with some, such as \"Justice League\", releasing four during the month. In 2014, all ongoing titles in September tie in to \"\", and depict possible events five years in the future. Titles were released as \"[Title]: Futures End\" #1. For example, \"Batman\" issue was released as \"Batman: Futures End\" #1.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Here Comes Harry and his Bucketful of Dinosaurs\" by Ian Whybrow and Adrian Reynolds\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hannah The Happily-Ever-After Fairy\" by Daisy Meadows with illustrations by George Ripper\n\nBULLET::::- \"How to train your Viking\" by Cressida Cowell\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mum Surprise\" by Gwyneth Rees\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Stone Pilot\" by Paul Stewart and Chris Riddell\n\nBULLET::::- \"Koyasan\" by Darren Shan\n\nSection::::2007.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Astrosaurs: Teeth of the T-Rex\" by Steve Cole (Random House Children's Books)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diamond Brothers: I Know What You Did Last Wednesday\" by Anthony Horowitz (Walker)\n", "BULLET::::- Margaret Atwood – \"The Testaments\" (due September 10)\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Barry – \"Night Boat To Tangier\" (June 29, UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Chiang – \"\" (May 7)\n\nBULLET::::- Lucy Ellmann – \"Ducks, Newburyport\" (July 4)\n\nBULLET::::- Bernardine Evaristo – \"Girl, Woman, Other\" (May, UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Lawrence Ferlinghetti – \"Little Boy\" (March)\n\nBULLET::::- Michel Houellebecq – \"Serotonin\" (January 4, France)\n\nBULLET::::- John Lanchester – \"The Wall\" (January 17, UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Deborah Levy – \"The Man Who Saw Everything\" (due August 29, UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Valeria Luiselli – \"Lost Children Archive\" (March 7)\n\nBULLET::::- Ian McEwan – \"Machines Like Me\" (April)\n", "Writers wishing to participate first register on the project's website, where they can post profiles and information about their novels, including synopses and excerpts. Word counts are validated on the site, with writers submitting a copy of their novel for automatic counting. Municipal leaders and regional forums help connect local writers, holding writing events and providing encouragement.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16661	If solar panels absorb energy instead of it be displaced around earth, how will that impact earth's temperature as they become more prevalent?	Solar panels have lower albedo than a similar object the same color. Some of the energy that hits them isn't absorbed to heat them up, it gets away in the form of electricity. However, almost none of that electricity is stored. It's almost all used to make something go and through that process turned into heat. It's not heat on the panel, but it's heat somewhere in the environment. Not much change, overall.	[ "Instrument inaccuracies add a significant uncertainty in determining Earth's energy balance. The energy imbalance has been variously measured (during a deep solar minimum of 2005–2010) to be +0.58 ± 0.15 W/m²), +0.60 ± 0.17 W/m² and +0.85 W/m. Estimates from space-based measurements range from +3 to 7 W/m. SORCE/TIM's lower TSI value reduces this discrepancy by 1 W/m. This difference between the new lower TIM value and earlier TSI measurements corresponds to a climate forcing of −0.8 W/m, which is comparable to the energy imbalance.\n\nSection::::Irradiation at the top of the atmosphere.:Measurement.:2014 reassessment.\n", "Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. \"The atmosphere and ocean work non-stop to even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation.\" Earth is very close to being in radiative equilibrium, the situation where the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space; under that condition, global temperatures will be \"relatively\" stable. Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs and then radiates back to space an average of about 340 watts of solar power per square meter. Anything that increases or decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy will change global temperatures in response.\n", "Section::::Irradiance on Earth's surface.\n\nAverage annual solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is roughly 1361 W/m. The Sun's rays are attenuated as they pass through the atmosphere, leaving maximum normal surface irradiance at approximately 1000 W /m at sea level on a clear day. When 1361 W/m is arriving above the atmosphere (when the sun is at the zenith in a cloudless sky), direct sun is about 1050 W/m, and global radiation on a horizontal surface at ground level is about 1120 W/m.\n", "Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This gives the earth a mean net albedo of 0.29.\n\nSection::::Energy budget.:Earth's internal heat and other small effects.\n", "Section::::Irradiance on Earth's surface.:Solar potential maps.\n", "where formula_2 is the surface weight, formula_3 and formula_4 are the temperatures at the surface and at the atmospheric level formula_5 and formula_6 is the atmospheric weighting function.\n\nBoth the surface and atmospheric weights are dependent on the surface emissivity formula_7, the absorption coefficient formula_8 and the earth incidence angle formula_9; the surface weight is the product of formula_7 and an attenuation factor:\n\nformula_11\n\nwhere\n\nformula_12\n\nThe atmospheric weighting functions formula_6 can be written as:\n\nformula_14\n", "CME radiation is dangerous to astronauts on a space mission who are outside the shielding produced by the Earth's magnetic field. Future mission designs (\"e.g.\", for a Mars Mission) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded \"storm shelter\" for astronauts to retreat to during such an event.\n\nGleißberg developed a CME forecasting method that relies on consecutive cycles.\n\nOn the positive side, the increased irradiance during solar maximum expands the envelope of the Earth's atmosphere, causing low-orbiting space debris to re-enter more quickly.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Space.:Galactic cosmic ray flux.\n", "The photo montage to the left illustrates this variation for soft X-ray, as observed by the Japanese satellite Yohkoh from after August 30, 1991, at the peak of cycle 22, to September 6, 2001, at the peak of cycle 23. Similar cycle-related variations are observed in the flux of solar UV or EUV radiation, as observed, for example, by the SOHO or TRACE satellites.\n", "The latter figure includes radiation scattered or reemitted by atmosphere and surroundings. The actual figure varies with the Sun's angle and atmospheric circumstances. Ignoring clouds, the daily average insolation for the Earth is approximately 6 kWh/m = 21.6 MJ/m.\n\nThe output of, for example, a photovoltaic panel, partly depends on the angle of the sun relative to the panel. One Sun is a unit of power flux, not a standard value for actual insolation. Sometimes this unit is referred to as a Sol, not to be confused with a \"sol\", meaning one solar day.\n\nSection::::Irradiance on Earth's surface.:Absorption and reflection.\n", "The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's atmosphere (TOA) is measured in watts and is given by the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth. Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements.\n", "The impact of the lower 2014 TSI value on climate models is unknown. A few tenths of a percent change in the absolute TSI level is typically considered to be of minimal consequence for climate simulations. The new measurements require climate model parameter adjustments.\n\nExperiments with GISS Model 3 investigated the sensitivity of model performance to the TSI absolute value during present and pre-industrial epochs, and describe, for example, how the irradiance reduction is partitioned between the atmosphere and surface and the effects on outgoing radiation.\n", "Variations from other sources likely include an annual systematics in the ACRIM III data that is nearly in phase with the Sun-Earth distance and 90-day spikes in the VIRGO data coincident with SoHO spacecraft maneuvers that were most apparent during the 2008 solar minimum.\n\nSection::::Irradiation at the top of the atmosphere.:Measurement.:TSI Radiometer Facility.\n", "Earth's energy imbalance measurements provided by Argo floats have detected an accumulation of ocean heat content (OHC). The estimated imbalance was measured during a deep solar minimum of 2005–2010 to be 0.58 ± 0.15 W/m². This level of detail cannot be inferred directly from measurements of surface energy fluxes, which have combined uncertainties of the order of ± 17 W/m².\n\nSection::::Earth's energy imbalance.:Direct measurement.\n", "Because solar collectors panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the sun, insolation must be adjusted to prevent estimates that are inaccurately low for winter and inaccurately high for summer. \n\nThis also means that the amount of sun falling on a solar panel at high latitude is not as low compared to one at the equator as would appear from just considering insolation on a horizontal surface.\n", "However, Earth's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors, such as atmospheric composition (mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases), the albedo (reflectivity) of surface properties, cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns.\n\nChanges in surface temperature due to Earth's energy budget do not occur instantaneously, due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere. The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response.\n\nSection::::Energy budget.\n", "The most recent climate model simulations give a range of results for changes in global average temperature. Some models show more warming in the troposphere than at the surface, while a slightly smaller number of simulations show the opposite behavior. There is no fundamental inconsistency among these model results and observations at the global scale, with the trends now being similar.\n", "Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's cosine; see effect of sun angle on climate.\n", "BULLET::::- Heat is lost more rapidly if the temperature difference between a hot object and its environment is larger. Heat loss is predominantly governed by the thermal gradient between the collector surface and the ambient temperatures. Conduction, convection and radiation all occur more rapidly over large thermal gradients (the delta-\"t\" effect).\n\nSection::::Components.:Collector.:Flat plate.\n", "Section::::Solar intensity.\n\nSolar intensity at the collector reduces with increasing airmass coefficient, but due to the complex and variable atmospheric factors involved, not in a simple or linear fashion.\n\nFor example, almost all high energy radiation is removed in the upper atmosphere (between AM0 and AM1) and so AM2 is not twice as bad as AM1.\n\nFurthermore, there is great variability in many of the factors contributing to atmospheric attenuation,\n\nsuch as water vapor, aerosols, photochemical smog and the effects of temperature inversions.\n", "Most of the world's high energy resources are from the conversion of the sun's rays to other energy forms after being incident upon the planet. Some of that energy has been preserved as fossil energy, some is directly or indirectly usable; for example, via solar PV/thermal, wind, hydro- or wave power. The total solar irradiance is measured by satellite to be roughly 1361 watts per square meter \"(see solar constant)\", though it fluctuates by about 6.9% during the year due to the Earth's varying distance from the sun. This value, after multiplication by the cross-sectional area intercepted by the Earth, is the total rate of solar energy received by the planet; about half, 89,000 TW, reaches the Earth's surface.\n", "The link between recent solar activity and climate has been quantified and is not a major driver of the warming that has occurred since early in the twentieth century. Human-induced forcings are needed to reproduce the late-20th century warming. Some studies associate solar cycle-driven irradiation increases with part of twentieth century warming.\n\nThree mechanisms are proposed by which solar activity affects climate:\n\nBULLET::::- Solar irradiance changes directly affecting the climate (\"radiative forcing\"). This is generally considered to be a minor effect, as the measured amplitudes of the variations are too small to have significant effect, absent some amplification process.\n", "Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves.\n\nSection::::Climate sensitivity.\n", "BULLET::::- Solar insolation – a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area and recorded during a given time. It is also called solar irradiation. Not to be confused with insulation.\n\nBULLET::::- Solar constant – a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit\|astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth).\n", "BULLET::::- In this 24-hour orbit, the Earth's influence is almost negligible except for the shadowing during eclipses, which can vary in duration from zero at solstice to a maximum of 1.2 hours at equinox. Long eclipses influence the design of both the spacecraft's insulation and heating systems. The seasonal variations in the direction and intensity of the solar input have a great impact on the design, complicating the heat transport by the need to convey most of the dissipated heat to the radiator in shadow, and the heat-rejection systems via the increased radiator area needed. Almost all telecommunications and many meteorological satellites are in this type of orbit.\n", "Section::::Modern era.:Lines of evidence.:Direct measurement and time series.\n\nNeither direct measurements nor proxies of solar variation correlate well with Earth global temperature, particularly in recent decades when both quantities are best known.\n\nSection::::Modern era.:Lines of evidence.:Daytime/nighttime.\n\nGlobal average diurnal temperature range has decreased. Daytime temperatures have not risen as fast as nighttime temperatures. This is the opposite of the expected warming if solar energy (falling primarily or wholly during daylight, depending on energy regime) were the principal means of forcing. It is, however, the expected pattern if greenhouse gases were preventing radiative escape, which is more prevalent at night.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00513	Why is there big corn and tiny corn but no medium corn?	"tiny corn" is just immature corn while it is soft enough to just eat outright, cob and all. Mature corn has the corn kernels ready to eat, and at that point, the cob is firm. Corn that's between the two has firm kernels that aren't ready to eat and a firm cob that can't just be eaten, either. So you might as well wait until the corn is ripe at that point.	[ "Field corn\n\nIn North America, field corn also known as \"grain\" corn, is corn (\"Zea mays\") grown for livestock fodder (silage), ethanol, cereal and processed food products. The principal field corn varieties are dent corn, flint corn, flour corn (also known as soft corn) which includes blue corn (\"Zea mays amylacea\"), and waxy corn.\n", "Field corn is not generally regarded, in industrialized societies, as desirable for human food without commercial pre-processing, the main exception being Mexico, in which field corn consumption far exceeds that of sweet corn. Outside Mexico, an exception is \"roasting ears\", similar in appearance to corn on the cob, although it is necessarily roasted (rather than boiled or steamed as is usual with sweet corn), and is neither tender nor sweet even after the roasting. Field corn is also commonly eaten in third world countries, e.g. a variety of Field corn, known as Cuzco corn, is commonly eaten in the Andes region of South America.\n", "Holloway later renamed his product CornNuts. After Holloway and his sons Maurice and Rich learned of a breed of corn grown in Cusco, Peru (often referred to as Cuzco corn) that grew large kernels (some said to have been bigger than a U.S. quarter coin), the company researched developing a hybrid of the Cusco corn that could be grown effectively in California. After a decade of research, the company introduced CornNuts made with the hybrid variety in 1964. CornNuts sold on the market today are no longer of the large Cusco corn size.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1933 'Golden Cross Bantam' was released. It is significant for being the first successful single-cross hybrid and the first specifically developed for disease resistance (Stewart's wilt in this case).\n\nBULLET::::- identification of the separate gene mutations responsible for sweetness in corn and the ability to breed cultivars based on these characteristics:\n\nBULLET::::- \"su\" (normal sugary)\n\nBULLET::::- \"se\" (sugary enhanced, originally called Everlasting Heritage)\n\nBULLET::::- \"sh2\" (shrunken-2)\n\nThere are currently hundreds of cultivars, with more constantly being developed.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "Field corn primarily grown for livestock feed and ethanol production is allowed to mature fully before being shelled off the cob before being stored in silos, pits, bins or grain \"flats\". Field corn can also be harvested as high-moisture corn, shelled off the cob and piled and packed like silage for fermentation; or the entire plant may be chopped while still very high in moisture with the resulting silage either loaded and packed in plastic bags, piled and packed in pits, or blown into and stored in vertical silos. \n", "Nearly all field corn (maize) grown in most developed nations exhibits heterosis. Modern corn hybrids substantially outyield conventional cultivars and respond better to fertilizer.\n", "Section::::Cultivation.\n\nDent corn is typically cultivated as a row crop grown commercially for grain and fodder. Cultivars developed for commercial cultivation are either single- or double-cross hybrids bred for special growing areas, soils, or climatic conditions.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "Open pollinated (non-hybrid) corn has largely been replaced in the commercial market by sweeter, earlier hybrids, which also have the advantage of maintaining their sweet flavor longer. \"su\" cultivars are best when cooked within 30 minutes of harvest. Despite their short storage life, many open-pollinated cultivars such as 'Golden Bantam' remain popular for home gardeners and specialty markets or are marketed as heirloom seeds. Although less sweet, they are often described as more tender and flavorful than hybrids.\n\nSection::::Cultivars.:Genetics.\n", "Wild species of sorghum tend to grow to a height of 1.5–2 m; however, due to problems this height created when the grain was being harvested, in recent years, cultivars with genes for dwarfism have been selected, resulting in sorghum that grows to between 60 and 120 cm tall.\n", "Section::::Materials used.\n\nBULLET::::- Great Britain: mainly wheat, oats, rye and barley\n\nBULLET::::- Ireland: rush\n\nBULLET::::- Southern France: palm leaves\n\nWith the advent of the combine harvester, the old-fashioned, long-stemmed and hollow-stemmed wheat varieties were replaced with knee-high, pithy varieties. However, a number of English and Scottish farmers are still growing the traditional varieties of wheat, such as Maris Wigeon, Squarehead Master, Elite Le Peuple. mainly because they are in great demand in thatching, a craft which is enjoying a renaissance, with customers facing long waiting lists for having their roofs thatched or repaired.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "According to \"Tribes That Slumber\" by Thomas Lewis and Madeline Kneberg, corn was \"the staff of life to the Cherokee\", who grew three types of corn. \"Flour corn\" had \"very large, white kernels\". \"Six weeks corn\" was a type similar to popcorn, roasted at milk stage. \"Hominy corn\" came in different colors of \"smooth, hard kernels\" which might be white, blue, red or yellow, or a mix of any of these.\n", "\"Supersweet corn\" are cultivars of sweet corn which produce higher than normal levels of sugar developed by University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign professor John Laughnan. He was investigating two specific genes in sweet corn, one of which, the \"sh2\" gene, caused the corn to shrivel when dry. After further investigation, Laughnan discovered that the endosperm of \"sh2\" sweet corn kernels store less starch and from 4 to 10 times more sugar than normal \"su\" sweet corn. He published his findings in 1953, disclosing the advantages of growing supersweet sweet corn, but many corn breeders lacked enthusiasm for the new supersweet corn. Illinois Foundation Seeds Inc. was the first seed company to release a supersweet corn and it was called 'Illini Xtra Sweet', but widespread use of supersweet hybrids did not occur until the early 1980s. The popularity of supersweet corn rose due to its long shelf life and large sugar content when compared to conventional sweet corn. This has allowed the long-distance shipping of sweet corn and has enabled manufacturers to can sweet corn without adding extra sugar or salt.\n", "There are two methods for producing baby corn either as a primary crop or as a secondary crop in a planting of sweet corn or field corn. In the first method, a seed variety is chosen and planted to produce only baby corn. Many varieties are suitable, but those developed specifically for baby corn tend to produce more ears per plant. In the second production method, the variety is selected to produce sweet or field corn. The second ear from the top of the plant is harvested for baby corn, while the top ear is allowed to mature.\n", "Corn stover consists of the leaves, stalks, and cobs of maize (corn) (\"Zea mays\" ssp. \"mays\" L.) plants left in a field after harvest. Such stover makes up about half of the yield of a corn crop and is similar to straw from other cereal grasses; in Britain it is sometimes called corn straw. Corn stover is a very common agricultural product in areas of large amounts of corn production. As well as the non-grain part of harvested corn, the stover can also contain other weeds and grasses. Field corn and sweet corn, two different types of maize, have relatively similar corn stover.\n", "As of 2014, the Guinness World Record for largest corn maze was , created by Cool Patch Pumpkins in Dixon, California.\n\nSection::::Creation.\n\nIn order for farmers to create a corn maze they must carefully plan their production, design, and marketing techniques in advance.\n\nBULLET::::1. Planting the correct variety of corn is important for the success of a corn maze. Farmers must consider stalk strength and height when selecting the right hybrid to plant.\n", "and its water use efficiency is among the highest of any crop. \n\nIt has twice the water use efficiency as its fellow C4 plant maize, and four times the efficiency as the C3 plant wheat.\n", "Corn spread across North America a few thousand years ago. The original corn plant known as teosinte is still grown in Mexico. Newer varieties are much larger, due to plant breeding efforts of Native Americans and scientific research. It is now the third leading grain crop in the world.\n", "Section::::Plants.:Dwarfing grains.\n\nDwarfing genes are widely used in creating more productive food plants, such as grains. One condition that results in loss of grain crops is called 'lodging', where heavy ears of almost ripe grain bend the stalk until the grain touches the ground, becomes wet, and spoils. During the Green Revolution, research that identified wheat reduced-height genes (\"Rht\") and a rice semidwarf gene (\"sd1\") resulted in crops that yielded significantly more harvestable grain.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dwarf\n\nBULLET::::- Dwarfism in chickens\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit tree propagation\n\nBULLET::::- Genomics of domestication\n\nBULLET::::- Green revolution\n\nBULLET::::- Habit (biology)\n\nBULLET::::- Deep-sea gigantism\n", "BULLET::::2. Farmers must watch for stalk rot since it is one of the most frequently observed diseases. Key factors for stalk rot include improper fertilization, moisture stress, and disease development.\n\nBULLET::::3. Moderate plant population (about 20,000 plants per acre) would be considered ideal. If moderate plant population is not followed crop crowding can occur.\n", "The corn grown by Kelty was never hybridized or genetically modified. Kelty's stalks would reach a height of four to five feet. Each kernel was capable of producing four to six stalks with three to four ears of corn each, unlike field corn. Each ear of corn was grown to be less than three inches long. The characteristics of Kelty's popcorn were created through open pollination, seed selection, and roguing.\n\nSection::::History.:Mealhow purchase.\n", "In the 1970s, scientists created strains of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as high-yielding varieties (HYV). HYVs have an increased nitrogen-absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge (fall over) before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. Norin 10 wheat, a variety developed by Orville Vogel from Japanese dwarf wheat varieties, was instrumental in developing wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by the International Rice Research Institute, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chinese variety named “Dee Geo Woo Gen.”\n", "Section::::Parental family.\n\nCorn was born March 25, 1884 in Talequah, Oklahoma, which was then known as Talequah, Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory, to Columbus Franklin Corn (1855–1934) and Camelia Jane (nee Little) Corn (1850–1920). He was the fifth of seven children in the family.\n\nSection::::Early history.\n", "Section::::Predators and parasites.\n", "Section::::Structure and physiology.\n\nThe maize plant is often in height, though some natural strains can grow . The stem is commonly composed of 20 internodes of length. A leaf, which grows from each node, is generally in width and in length.\n", "The oldest type of sweet corn contains more sugar and less starch than field corn intended for livestock. Tends to be heartier in respect to planting depth, germination and growth than other types. Begins conversion of sugar to starch after peak maturity or harvest, and as such is best when harvested and eaten immediately.\n\nSection::::Standard (\"su\").:Yellow su.\n\nBULLET::::- Earlivee, 60 days\n\nBULLET::::- Early Sunglow, 62 days\n\nBULLET::::- Sundance, 69 days\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04364	Why do humans scream when scared?	To signal others about the danger. It's typical for social species to instinctively let out cries or other ways of warning the others of the tribe about approaching predators or enemies. Such collective defense makes both the group and its individual members safer.	[ "Section::::As a phenomenon.:As focus of power.\n\nGregory Whitehead, founder of the \"Institute for Screamscape Studies\", believes that the voice is used to focus the power: “scream used to be a psychological weapon both for you and against your opponent, it raises confidence to the person using it. Creating power with yell is having to affect someone without touching them”. In this case screaming is a protective weapon, as also often used by animals, who scream as an expression of power or during fights with another animals.\n\nSection::::As a phenomenon.:Pleasure.\n", "Section::::As a phenomenon.:First.\n\nJanov believes that for babies, screaming is the only form of communication he or she can have; it is the only way a baby can express his necessities, that he needs food, he is in pain or he simply needs some love. Janov writes, “screaming is a language – a primitive one, but a human language”.\n\nSection::::As a phenomenon.:Communication and language.\n", "Diana König, journalist and broadcasting author, writes: “If the scream of babies is their first communication method, then the scream of adults is a recession from communication. By screaming, in the opposite of calling, the voice becomes overloaded and over-amplified, and it loses its control, its fundamental sound”. The scream is there before language and it appears where the language reaches its limits.\n", "The Bettiscombe screaming skull of Dorset, England, is attested at least as early as 1897 in the book \"The Haunted Homes and Family Traditions of Great Britain\". That book details an alleged visit to Bettiscombe in 1883 by curiosity-seekers to investigate a skull which, according to legend, was of an African slave once owned by the owner of the house. The slave had supposedly died determined to be buried in his homeland, and any attempt to bury his skull elsewhere would cause the skull to scream aloud.\n\nSection::::Known skulls.\n\nBULLET::::- Bettiscombe Manor, Bettiscombe, Dorset\n", "Section::::Functions of non-aggressive growling.\n", "In psychology, the scream is an important theme in the theories of Arthur Janov. In his book \"The Primal Scream\", Janov claims that the cure for neurosis is to confront the patient with his suppressed pain resulting from an experienced trauma. This confrontation gives birth to a scream. Janov believes that it is not necessary that it heals the patient from his trauma. The scream is only a form of expression of primal pain, which comes from one's childhood, and the reliving of this pain and its expression. This finally appears through the scream and can cure the patient from his neurosis.\n", "Screaming and yelling are also a means of expressing pleasure. Studies on monkeys have shown that when female monkeys scream during sex, it helps the male ejaculate. An approximation of 86 percent of the times, where female monkeys screamed during sexual encounter, brought a 59 percent of success rate, in comparison to the 2 percent, without the female-scream.\n", "Section::::In mammals.\n\nThough rarely documented in mammals, a few instances of distraction display have appeared in the literature. One researcher documented a distraction display performed by a female red squirrel in order to protect her young. When the nest was approached, the female attempted to lead the researcher away through the trees using a ventriloquistic call that resembled the cries of the young. An additional study documented distraction display in Mentawai langurs, whereby a male will call loudly and bounce on branches while the female and young are able to quietly hide.\n\nSection::::Costs and decision to display.\n", "That these three species use vocalizations to warn others of danger has been called by some proof of proto-language in primates. However, there is some evidence that this behavior does not refer to the predators themselves but to threat, distinguishing calls from words.\n\nAnother species that exhibits alarm calls is the Barbary macaque. Barbary macaque mothers are able to recognize their own offspring's calls and behave accordingly.\n", "Scream is also used predominant as an esthetic element in “cante jondo”, a vocal style in flamenco. The name of this style is translated as “deep sing”. The origins of flamenco and also of its name are still not clear. Flamenco is related to the gypsies’ music and it is said to have appeared in Andalusia in Spain. In cante jondo, that is a subdivision of flamenco, which is considered to be more serious and deep, the singer is reduced to the most rudimentary method of expression, which is the cry and the scream. Ricardo Molima, a Spanish poet, wrote \"flamenco is the primal scream in its primitive form, from a people sunk in poverty and ignorance. Thus, the original flamenco song could be described as a type of self-therapy.” \n", "Section::::Function of aggressive growling.\n", "The essay \"The festal origin of human speech\", though published in the late nineteenth century, made little impact until the American philosopher Susanne Langer re-discovered and publicised it in 1941. \n\nThe theory sets out from the observation that primate vocal sounds are above all \"emotionally\" expressive. The emotions aroused are socially contagious. Because of this, an extended bout of screams, hoots or barks will tend to express not just the feelings of this or that individual but the mutually contagious ups and downs of everyone within earshot.\n", "In Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), a growl may be produced by females as a response to a \"Headslap\" display from males. The \"Headslap\" often involves antagonistic interactions between males and those that do not participate in antagonistic interactions will often lunge toward a female. In response to both the lunge and \"Headslap\", the female will produce the growl in order to project her sex and location. The growl serves as a signal to the male that his display has been recognized and so the female produces the growl in order for the make to know her location for mating.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- The wolf who howls at the moon\n\nBULLET::::- Wolves are nocturnal animals and thus can often be heard howling faced toward the sky, which gave humans the impression that they are actually crying directly at the moon. In reality wolves are communicating with other members of their species and just point their faces upward so that the sound carries farther.\n\nSection::::Common Western animal stereotypes.:Birds in general.\n", "BULLET::::- Growling: Often accompanied by hissing and spitting, the cheetah growls to show its annoyance, or when faced with danger. A study showed that growls consist of numerous short pulses with a combined duration of up to five seconds.\n\nBULLET::::- Moaning or yowling: This is an escalated version of growling and is often combined with it. It is typically displayed when the danger increases. A study found that yowls could last as long as two seconds.\n", "Growling\n\nGrowling is a low, guttural vocalization produced by predatory animals as an aggressive warning but can also be found in other contexts such as playful behaviors or mating. Different animals will use growling in specifics contexts as a form of communication. In humans, low or dull rumbling noises may also be emitted when they are discontent with something or they are angry, although this human sound is often termed \"groaning\".\n\nAnimals that growl include felines, bears, canines, and crocodilians. The animals most commonly known for growling are canines and felines.\n", "Section::::Speculative scenarios.:Twentieth century speculations.:Hunter-gatherer egalitarianism.:Reverse dominance.\n\nWhile counter-dominance, according to this evolutionary narrative, culminates in a stalemate, anthropologist Christopher Boehm extends the logic a step further. Counter-dominance tips over at last into full-scale \"reverse dominance\". The rebellious coalition decisively overthrows the figure of the primate alpha-male. No dominance is allowed except that of the self-organised community as a whole.\n", "\"Ajikwu akpu isi\" bellowed out his fearsome shriek which thundered through the jungle in repeated echos that the verdue quivered in ominous pulses. The monster roused his fierce rage by scampering round his position as a means of revving up his momentum and sharpening a deadly attacking pulse.\n", "Some early accounts of the death wail describe its employment in the aftermath of fighting and disputes. One such discussion can be found in the second volume of Edward Eyre's \"Journal of Expeditions of Discovery Into Central Australia\" (1845). Eyre describes what appears to have been a parlay between the members of two rival tribes —\n", "Arnal and colleague demonstrated that human screams exploit a unique acoustic property, roughness, that selectively activates the auditory brain as well as the amygdala, a deep brain structure involved in danger processing.\n\nSection::::Art.\n\nSection::::Art.:Painting.\n", "In any case, there are some forms of distraction display which may in fact have evolved from stress responses, an idea more in alignment with Lack's hypothesis. One of these is the \"rodent-run\" display, in which a bird fluffs its feathers to mimic the fur of a rodent and scurries away from the nest. It is possible that this display originates from a feather ruffling reflex to alarm.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Adaptive functions.\n", "Hunting grounds for the Cŵn Annwn are said to include the mountain of Cadair Idris, where it is believed \"the howling of these huge dogs foretold death to anyone who heard them\".\n\nAccording to Welsh folklore, their growling is loudest when they are at a distance, and as they draw nearer, it grows softer and softer. Their coming is generally seen as a death portent.\n\nSection::::Owner.\n", "\"Pressure of the unspeakable\" is a radio feature work by Gregory Whitehead. Initiated in 1991 the project started with the founding of the \"Institute of the Screamscape studies\" where people were asked through radio and television to call on a hot line and scream. Whitehead notes: “In addition to framing the nervous system, the telephone-microphone-tape-recorder-radio circuitry also provided the key for the acoustic demarcation of pressure in the system: distortion, the disruption of digital codes, pure unmanageable noise. The scream as an eruption in excess of prescribed circuitries, as capable of “ blowing” communications technologies not designed for such extreme and unspeakable meanings”. \n", "Growling usually first appears in dogs when puppies are about 24 days of age during play fights, emitting a pitch of up to 450 Hz with great variation in consistency. By 9 weeks old, puppies produce a growl of around 300 Hz, with no variation in consistency. This is the final development of the dogs growl, and it will remain consistent through its life, although may vary in pitch between individuals. In other animals, growling can occur for various reasons. Most commonly is fear, aggression, territoriality, or like in alligators, for mating.\n\nSection::::Growling in canines.\n", "Section::::History and variations.\n\nSection::::History and variations.:Early precedents.\n\nGrowled vocals may have been a part of Viking music. In the 10th century, Arab-Spanish Sefardi Jewish merchant Abraham ben Jacob visited Denmark and commented on the local music as follows: \"Never before I have heard uglier songs than those of the Vikings in Slesvig. The growling sound coming from their throats reminds me of dogs howling, only more untamed.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01034	How do we know precisely the properties of earth inner layers even though we did not dig?	We listen for the echoes. Petroleum geologists are very good at setting off explosives and mapping surface geology to determine what lies beneath. To know what is deeper geologists wait for earthquakes. Earthquakes make sound waves in the Earth, called seismic waves. There can be compression waves much like sound. These will refract from dissimilar layers just as light reflects from surfaces. There are vertical waves and sideways waves that shimmy. But a liquid interior does not shimmy. It will transmit compression waves. So delicate sensitive instruments measure all these waves, compression, vertical, and shimmy. Those coming straight from an earthquake are measured and those being reflected and refracted are recorded. They are analyzed. You can always trust a wave to come from the Earthquake along the surface. But you can also detect a wave which went straight down and reflected from a surface change far below. It reflected back to your detector. There is still a lot which is unknown. Scientists delight in what they do know and think hard on how to find out more.	[ "Sandness, Gerald Allyn, \"A numerical evaluation of the Helmholtz integral in acoustic scattering \n\n\", 1973 \n\nDegree: Doctoral \n\nAdvisor: Clay \n\nSkibicky, Taras V., \"Use of matched filters to form an additive array in electromagnetic sounding \n\n\", 1982 \n\nDegree: Master's\n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nSternberg, Ben K., \"Controlled source electromagnetic soundings of the crust in northern Wisconsin\n\n\", 1974\n\nDegree: Master's\n\nAdvisor: Clay and Bentley\n\nSternberg, Ben K., \"Electrical resistivity structure of the crust in the southern extension of the Canadian Shield \n\n\", 1977 \n\nDegree: Doctoral\n\nAdvisor: Clay\n", "Cheng, Amy I Mei, \"Satellite magnetic survey in southern high latitudes \n\n\", 1988 \n\nDegree: Doctoral\n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nChu, Dezang, \"Impulse response of a density contrast wedge using normal coordinates\n\n\", 1989\n\nDegree: Doctoral \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nDaneshvar, Mohammad Reza, \"Easterly extension of the Flambeau resistivity anomaly in northern Wisconsin \n\n\", 1977 \n\nDegree: Master's\n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nDaneshvar, Mohammad Reza, \"Imaging of rough surfaces and planar boundaries using passive seismic signals \n\n\", 1987 \n\nDegree: Doctoral \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nDoll, William Eugene, \"Computer controlled laboratory studies in transient electromagnetic scale modeling \n\n\", 1980 \n", "Degree: Master's \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nKan, Tze Kong, \"Ray theory approximation in geoelectromagnetic probing \n\n\", 1975 \n\nDegree: Doctoral\n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nLeong, Wing Kwong, \"Sea floor topography and microtopography southwest of the Iberian Peninsula \n\n\", 1973 \n\nDegree: Doctoral \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nOkwueze, Emeka Emmanuel, \"Geophysical investigations of the bedrock and the groundwater lake flow system in the Trout Lake region of Vilas County, northern Wisconsin \n\n\", 1983 \n\nDegree: Doctoral \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nPeterson, Miles Lander, \"Hydroacoustic fish stock assessment \n\n\", 1975 \n\nDegree: Master's\n\nAdvisor: Clay \n", "Almost all direct measurements that we have about the physical properties of the inner core are the seismic waves that pass through it. The most informative waves are generated by deep earthquakes, 30 km or more below the surface of the Earth (where the mantle is relatively more homogeneous) and recorded by seismographs as they reach the surface, all over the globe.\n", "These methods have their drawbacks, primarily that they must all make certain assumptions which rarely hold true in nature. The foremost problem is that in large ultramafic intrusions, assimilation of wall rocks tends to alter the chemistry of the melt as time progresses, so measuring groundmass compositions may fall short. Mass balance calculations will show deviations from expected ranges, which may infer assimilation has occurred, but then further chemistry must be embarked upon to quantify these findings.\n", "OBN has proven to be another very good way to accurately repeat a seismic acquisition. The world's first 4D survey using nodes was acquired over the Atlantis Oil Field in 2009, with the nodes being placed by a ROV in a water depth of 1300–2200 m to within a few meters of where they were previously placed in 2005.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Hydrocarbon exploration.:Seismic data processing.\n\nThere are three main processes in seismic data processing: deconvolution, common-midpoint (CMP) stacking and migration.\n", "An engineering geologist or geophysicist may be called upon to evaluate the excavatability (i.e. rippability) of earth (rock) materials to assess the need for pre-blasting during earthwork construction, as well as associated impacts due to vibration during blasting on projects.\n\nSection::::Soil and rock mechanics.\n", "Degree: Master's \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nDoll, William Eugene, \"Seismic diffraction processing applied to data from Ashland County, Wisconsin\n\n\", 1983 \n\nDegree: Doctoral \n\nAdvisor: Clay and Hesbiboz\n\nEckstein, Barbara Ann, \"Gravity data analysis of western Vilas County, northern Wisconsin \n\n\", 1986 \n\nDegree: Doctoral\n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nHuang, Kung, \"PDF of backscattered sound from live fish \n\n\", 1977 \n\nDegree: Master's \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nJohnston, Steven Craig, \"Frequency domain analysis of AC dipole-dipole electromagnetic soundings \n\n\", 1975 \n\nDegree: Master's \n\nAdvisor: Clay\n\nKan, Tze Kong, \"Sonar mapping of underside of pack ice \n\n\", 1973 \n", "In addition to the operational advantages, OBC also has geophysical advantages over a conventional NATS survey that arise from the increased fold and wider range of azimuths associated with the survey geometry. However, much like a land survey, the wider azimuths and increased fold come at a cost and the ability for large-scale OBC surveys is severely limited.\n", "The University of California, Berkeley was an early base for computer-based seismic analysis of structures, led by Professor Ray Clough (who coined the term finite element). Students included Ed Wilson, who went on to write the program SAP in 1970, an early \"finite element analysis\" program.\n", "There is a variety of single-site seismology techniques that can yield data, for example, the detection of an impact on the surface by a meteorite for which the location is identified. If Mars has large marsquakes, they may allow the deep interior to be determined. As the vibrations pass through the planet they are affected by the properties of the materials and its configuration.\n", "Seismometers were also left on the Moon, starting with Apollo 11 in 1969, and also by Apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16 missions and provided many insights into lunar seismology, including the discovery of moonquakes. The Apollo seismic network, which was operated until 1977, detected at least 28 moonquakes up to 5.5 on the Richter scale.\n\nOne of the aspects of the InSight mission is to compare the Earth, Moon, and Mars seismic data to learn more.\n\nSection::::Science background.:Nutation.\n", "Section::::Methods of geology.:Stratigraphy.\n\nIn the laboratory, stratigraphers analyze samples of stratigraphic sections that can be returned from the field, such as those from drill cores. Stratigraphers also analyze data from geophysical surveys that show the locations of stratigraphic units in the subsurface. Geophysical data and well logs can be combined to produce a better view of the subsurface, and stratigraphers often use computer programs to do this in three dimensions. Stratigraphers can then use these data to reconstruct ancient processes occurring on the surface of the Earth, interpret past environments, and locate areas for water, coal, and hydrocarbon extraction.\n", "BULLET::::- A seismic piezocone penetrometer probe is advanced using the same equipment as a CPT or CPTu probe, but the probe is also equipped with either geophones or accelerometers to detect shear waves and/or pressure waves produced by a source at the surface.\n", "Hazen likens this method of modeling to reading a book. “Some words you read over and over throughout, such as ‘and’ and ‘the.’ These common words are everywhere and easy to spot,\" says Hazen. \"On the other hand, there are words that may appear only one or two times in an entire book. Earth’s missing minerals are like these rare words; we haven’t found them yet because they formed only in very few places and in very small quantities.”\n", "BULLET::::9. How can people better interpret geophysical data used to determine the structure and properties of Earth's crust?\n\nSection::::Deepest drillings.\n\nThe Kola Superdeep Borehole on the Kola peninsula of Russia reached and is the deepest penetration of the Earth's solid surface. The German Continental Deep Drilling Program at has shown the earth crust to be mostly porous. Drillings as deep as into the seafloor were achieved at DSDP/ODP/IODP Hole 504B. Because the continental crust is about 45 km thick on average, whereas oceanic crust is 6-7 km thick, deep drillings have penetrated only the upper 25-30% of both crusts.\n", "Section::::Modelling methods.:Araldite-impregnation imaging.\n\nA large core sample is collected. This is then impregnated with araldite and a fluorescent resin. The core is then cut back using a grinding implement, very gradually (~1 mm per time), and at every interval the surface of the core sample is digitally imaged. The images are then loaded into a computer where they can be analysed. Depth, continuity, surface area and a number of other measurements can then be made on the cracks within the soil.\n\nSection::::Modelling methods.:Electrical resistivity imaging.\n", "Soft ground drilling can be undertaken using a rotary auger or wash boring techniques, while rock drilling often use methods such as NMLC which allow for recovery of a core of material which can be examined to determine the strength, degree of weathering, understanding of any how intact the rock is (RQD) and identify any discontinuities or other planes of weakness.\n", "Gravimetry studies use changes in densities to characterize subsurface properties. This method is well applied when identifying dense subsurface anomalies including granite bodies, which are vital to locate in the geothermal exploration projects. Subsurface fault lines are also identifiable with gravitational methods. These faults are often identified as prime drilling locations as their densities are much less than surrounding material. Developments in airborne gravitational studies yield large amounts of data, which can be used to model the subsurface 3 dimensionally with relatively high levels of accuracy.\n", "Margaret and her husband also worked for Sharples Oil and Carter Oil for some time. Their experiences in these companies, and focus on stratigraphy, led to one of their most significant contributions; a paper about the tectonics of the eastern flank and foothills of the Front Range in Colorado.\n\nSection::::Pegmatite in the Colorado Front Range.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n", "Knowledge of local amplification of the seismic motion from the bedrock is very important in order to choose the suitable design solutions. Local amplification can be anticipated from the presence of particular stratigraphic conditions, such as soft soil overlapping the bedrock, or where morphological settings (e.g. crest zones, steep slopes, valleys, or endorheic basins) may produce focalization of the seismic event.\n", "Geophysical methods were extensively used in recent work on the submerged remains of ancient Alexandria as well as three nearby submerged cities (Herakleion, Canopus and Menouthis). Methods that included side-scan sonar, magnetic surveys and seismic profiles uncovered a story of bad site location and a failure to protect buildings against geohazards. In addition, they helped to locate structures that may be the lost Great Lighthouse and palace of Cleopatra, although these claims are contested.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Forensics.\n", "Section::::Detection methods under development.:Acoustic/seismic.\n\nAcoustic/seismic methods involve creating sound waves above the ground and detecting the resulting vibrations at the surface. Usually the sound is generated by off-the-shelf loudspeakers or electrodynamic shakers, but some work has also been done with specialized ultrasound speakers that send tight beams into the ground. The measurements can be made with non-contact sensors such as microphones, radar, ultrasonic devices and laser Dopper vibrometers.\n", "In general, all these elements must be assessed via a limited 'window' into the subsurface world, provided by one (or possibly more) exploration wells. These wells present only a 1-dimensional segment through the Earth and the skill of inferring 3-dimensional characteristics from them is one of the most fundamental in petroleum geology. Recently, the availability of inexpensive, high quality 3D seismic data (from reflection seismology) and data from various electromagnetic geophysical techniques (such as Magnetotellurics) has greatly aided the accuracy of such interpretation. The following section discusses these elements in brief. For a more in-depth treatise, see the second half of this article below.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04217	How can blockchain technology ensure diamond authenticity / no child labour use in a product?	A blockchain is really just a way of people creating a secure series of notes about things. It can track the history of the source of a product and ownership but that chain of ownership is meaningless if the original claim about something being "good" was made in bad faith or can't be trusted. If you can trust Friendly Diamond Mines to make a good/safe product, the blockchain would let you make sure a specific diamond could uniquely be traced back to their original claim. This doesn't mean the original claim is valid, nor does this actually tie into the authenticity of any single diamond (eg - they could sell/lose the real diamond off the blockchain and start calling some other stone the same thing).	[ "Section::::Reports.\n\nSection::::Reports.:India.\n", "Section::::Cultural depictions.\n", "There are several methods producing DLC, which rely on the lower density of sp than sp carbon. So the application of pressure, impact, catalysis, or some combination of these at the atomic scale can force sp bonded carbon atoms closer together into sp bonds. This must be done vigorously enough that the atoms cannot simply spring back apart into separations characteristic of sp bonds. Usually techniques either combine such a compression with a push of the new cluster of sp bonded carbon deeper into the coating so that there is no room for expansion back to separations needed for sp bonding; or the new cluster is buried by the arrival of new carbon destined for the next cycle of impacts. It is reasonable to envisage the process as a \"hail\" of projectiles that produce localized, faster, nanoscale versions of the classic combinations of heat and pressure that produce natural and synthetic diamond. Because they occur independently at many places across the surface of a growing film or coating, they tend to produce an analog of a cobblestone street with the cobbles being nodules or clusters of sp bonded carbon. Depending upon the particular \"recipe\" being used, there are cycles of deposition of carbon and impact or continuous proportions of new carbon arriving and projectiles conveying the impacts needed to force the formation of the sp bonds. As a result, \"ta-C\" may have the structure of a cobblestone street, or the nodules may \"melt together\" to make something more like a sponge or the cobbles may be so small as to be nearly invisible to imaging. A classic \"medium\" morphology for a \"ta-C\" film is shown in the figure.\n", "In February 2017, Sarine and GTTL Laboratories of Switzerland signed a collaboration agreement to research new approaches to diamond grading and authentication, as well as other industry challenges.\n", "De Beers states that 100% of the diamonds it now sells are conflict-free and that all De Beers diamonds are purchased in compliance with national law, the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme and its own Diamond Best Practice Principles. The Kimberley process has helped restore the reputation of the industry, as well as eliminating sources of excess supply.\n\nIn 2018, De Beers used blockchain technology to successfully track 100 high-value diamonds. The diamonds were tracked through the manufacturing process from the mine to the retailer in order to ensure their quality and conflict-free status.\n\nSection::::Operations.:Corporate affairs.\n", "A closely related issue to this monopoly was the emergence of conflict diamonds. The Kimberley Process was established in order to deter the illicit trade of diamonds to fund civil wars in Angola and Sierra Leone. However, it has been shown that the KP is not as effective in decreasing the number of conflict diamonds reaching the European and American markets. The main problem being its definition is too narrow and does not properly include forced labor conditions or human right violations. A 2015 study from the Enough Project, showed that groups in the Central African Republic have reaped between US$3 million and US$6 million annually from blood diamonds. UN reports shows that more than US$24 million in conflict diamonds have been smuggled since the establishment of the KP. Diamond substituents therefore have become an alternative to boycott altogether the funding of such unethical practices. Terms have emerged for these artificial stones such as “Eco-friendly Jewelry” that define them as conflict free origin and environmentally sustainable. However, concerns from mining countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo are that a boycott in purchases of diamonds would only worsen their economy. According to the Ministry of Mines in Congo, 10% of its population relies on the income from diamonds. Therefore, it is argued that in the short term diamonds substituents could be an alternative to reduce conflict around the market of diamond mining but a long term solution would be establish a more rigorous system of identifying the origin of these stones.\n", "In the late 1970s, General Electric pioneered the technology of polycrystalline diamond compacts (PDCs) as a replacement for natural diamonds in drill bits. PDCs have been used to cut through crystalline rock surfaces for extended periods of time in lab environments, and these capabilities have now been implemented in harsh environments throughout the world.\n\nAs of August 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy claimed that nearly one-third of the total footage drilled worldwide is being drilled with PDC bits, with a claimed savings of nearly $100,000 per PDC bit as compared to roller-core bits.\n", "In 2014, 100 Reporters published an article showing how the use of KP certificates had allowed for the publication to identify transfer pricing manipulation in South Africa's trade of rough diamond exports, detailing \"Most imported diamonds appear to be re-exported uncut and unpolished. While imports make up relatively small volume, or carats, they drastically increase the value of rough diamond exports. Subtracting the values and volume of imported diamonds shown on South Africa’s K.P. certificates from corresponding exports, the actual price per carat of rough diamonds being exported for the first time falls dramatically.\"\n", "Another coating treatment applies a thin film of synthetic diamond to the surface of a diamond simulant. This gives the simulated diamond certain characteristics of real diamond, including higher resistance to wear and scratching, higher thermal conductivity, and lower electrical conductivity. While resistance to wear is a legitimate goal of this technique, some employ it in order to make diamond simulants more difficult to detect through conventional means, which may be fraudulent if they are attempting to represent a simulated diamond as real.\n\nSection::::Color enhancements.:High-pressure high-temperature treatment.\n", "In 2005, the company released the first green laser diamond sawing machine, called Quazer®, based on proprietary technology purchased from CNC Laser, a Belgian company. New versions of the Quazer® were released in 2010 and 2014.\n\nIn 2012, Chow Tai Fook Jewellery Group, part of the Chow Tai Fook conglomerate in Hong Kong, implemented Sarin’s Solaris® 100 and DiaExpert® Eye systems for inclusion mapping and rough planning at their diamond manufacturing facilities in China and South Africa.\n", "DTC Sales in 2009 were $3.84bn. The DTC also develops and produces diamond technology, which ensures consistency of DTC rough diamond assortments for its Sightholder clients.\n", "The same internal stress that benefits the hardness of DLC materials makes it difficult to bond such coatings to the substrates to be protected. The internal stresses try to \"pop\" the DLC coatings off of the underlying samples. This challenging downside of extreme hardness is answered in several ways, depending upon the particular \"art\" of the production process. The most simple is to exploit the natural chemical bonding that happens in cases in which incident carbon ions supply the material to be impacted into sp bonded carbon atoms and the impacting energies that are compressing carbon volumes condensed earlier. In this case the first carbon ions will impact the surface of the item to be coated. If that item is made of a carbide-forming substance such as Ti or Fe in steel a layer of carbide will be formed that is later bonded to the DLC grown on top of it. Other methods of bonding include such strategies as depositing intermediate layers that have atomic spacings that grade from those of the substrate to those characteristic of sp bonded carbon. In 2006 there were as many successful recipes for bonding DLC coatings as there were sources of DLC.\n", "A month after the creation of WP Diamonds' online purchasing system, they expanded into the United Kingdom opening their first offices in Birmingham. At this time WP Diamonds also operated from offices in Barcelona, Spain and in 2013 WP Diamonds expanded their operations into Canada, where they began purchasing GIA certified and international laboratory certified diamonds from Canadian citizens. In 2018, WP Diamonds launched in Asia opening an office in Hong Kong.\n", "In 2016, Sarine announced that it was developing new devices for automated grading of diamond color and clarity. Known as Sarine Clarity™ and Sarine Color™, the devices are based on machine learning, and are regarded as creating the first standardized and automated approach to diamond grading and gem labs.\n\nSection::::Notable products & technological services.:Diamond Journey.\n", "In 2008, Sarin Technologies purchased Galatea Ltd, an Israeli company that developed scanning and mapping technology for the detection of inclusions in rough diamonds, at a cost of $10.77 million. Following the development of the prototype to commercial application, Sarine released the Galaxy® in 2009, the world’s first fully automated inclusion mapping device for rough diamonds. In early 2018, the company announced that Galaxy® systems scanned over 10 million rough stones worldwide during 2017, out of a total 30 million stones scanned by the technology since it first launched in 2009. In 2018, the first Galaxy® service center in China was opened, in the Sha Wan Jewellery Park in Guangzhou.\n", "World Diamond Council Industry Self-Regulation – Established in conjunction with the KPCS, the WDC has established a system of buyer-seller warranties to extend the reach and effectiveness of the KPCS throughout the entire diamond pipeline. LKI trades only with companies that provide such warranties, guaranteeing the conflict-free origin of the diamonds on their invoices. All sales and consignments of LKI diamonds are accompanied by LKI's own warranty statement. This flow of warranties in and warranties out is audited and reconciled on an annual basis by LKI's financial auditors.\n", "The hot pressing method is to directly sinter the diamond segments in molds under a certain pressure in the dedicated sintering press machine, and then fix or connect the diamond segments onto the grinding wheel’s body via high-frequency welding, laser welding or mechanical mosaic method.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing technologies.:Ultrasound cavitation.\n", "The company’s first product was the Robogem, an automated device for gemstone processing, as part of an initiative promoted by the Israel Emerald Cutters Association.\n\nIn the early 1990s, the company released DiaMension®, one of the world’s first diamond cut grading softwares that could accurately measure a rough diamond’s measurements within seconds. This transformed the way the industry approached the process of diamond cutting and fueled consumer demand for a wider range of cuts. In the mid-1990s, the company released the DiaExpert® hardware and Advisor® software for automated rough diamond planning via 3D diamond scanning.\n", "Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic. Those potentially synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab. Examples of commercial screening devices are D-Screen (WTOCD / HRD Antwerp) and Alpha Diamond Analyzer (Bruker / HRD Antwerp).\n\nSection::::Stolen diamonds.\n", "The implementation of the KPCS is coordinated by the State Department’s Office of Threat Finance Countermeasures in the Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs. A Kimberley Process Implementation Coordinating Committee was also established in 2003 to implement the act, including officials from the Departments of State, Treasury, Commerce, Homeland Security, and the Office of the United States Trade Representative.\n\nThe person in charge of coordinating the implementation is U.S. State Department’s Special Advisor for Conflict Diamonds, Brad Brooks-Rubin.\n", "In May 2018, the large worldwide diamond company De Beers announced that they would introduce a new jewelry brand called \"Lightbox\" that features synthetic diamonds.\n", "In 2014, Sarine launched Sarine Loupe™, a diamond imaging device that enables 360-degree viewing of diamonds. In the same year, RapNet® announced that it was incorporating Sarine Loupe imagery on its diamond trading platform. In November, a Sarine Loupe™ service center was opened in the Diamond District of New York.\n\nIn 2014, Sarine signed a cooperation agreement with Tiffany & Co. to develop an automated system for the grading of symmetry of polished diamonds based on grading standards set by Tiffany.\n", "The original GE invention by Tracy Hall uses the belt press wherein the upper and lower anvils supply the pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell. This internal pressure is confined radially by a belt of pre-stressed steel bands. The anvils also serve as electrodes providing electric current to the compressed cell. A variation of the belt press uses hydraulic pressure, rather than steel belts, to confine the internal pressure. Belt presses are still used today, but they are built on a much larger scale than those of the original design.\n", "In December 2014, the U.S. Department of Labor issued a \"List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor\" that mentioned Angola, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone as part of the 74 countries with significant incidence of child labor and forced labor as far as the diamond industry is concerned.\n\nSection::::Working conditions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00588	With there being thousands and thousands of satellites (maybe millions? idk) all orbiting Earth at the same time, how are they not constantly colliding with each other?	Space is big, satellites are small. There are 7odd billion humans on the surface of the earth, yet almost all of the earth's surface is empty. The orbital space above earth adds a whole third altitude dimension to that area, and is mind-bogglingly huge. Now consider that Nasa and the ESA track all the known satellites and that the satellites often have the ability to alter their orbits slightly if two appear to intersect. Thousands of objects is a lot for a person to handle, but tracking a bunch of orbits by computer isn't that difficult. Collisions do happen though. Not every loose nut and bolt is accounted for, and satellites do sometimes sustain serious damage from a rogue washer impacting the case at 15000mph.	[ "Section::::Retired Satellites.:Space debris.\n\nSpace debris at geostationary orbits typically has a lower collision speed than at LEO since orbits are mostly synchronous, however the presence of satellites in eccentric orbits allows for collision at up to 4km/s. Although a collision is comparatively unlikely, GEO satellites have a limited ability to avoid any debris.\n\nDebris less than 10cm in diameter can't be seen from the Earth making it difficult to assess their prevalence.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nEvents where two satellites approach within several kilometers of each other occur numerous times each day. Sorting through the large number of potential collisions to identify those that are high risk presents a challenge. Precise, up-to-date information regarding current satellite positions is difficult to obtain. Calculations made by CelesTrak had expected these two satellites to miss by .\n", "All geostationary satellites are influenced by gravity of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun, and tend to drift from their initial orbital position. They are maintained on-station with on-board thrusters fired under the control of the operations centre on the ground. With a group of co-located satellites, the task is complex as each satellite must be maintained within the 150 km box but kept at a suitable distance (typically over 5 km) from the other satellites in the group to avoid collision or mutual interference, at the same time expending the least possible fuel to prolong the life of the satellite.\n", "In contrast, the outer natural satellites of the giant planets (irregular satellites) are too far away to have become locked. For example, Jupiter's Himalia, Saturn's Phoebe, and Neptune's Nereid have rotation periods in the range of ten hours, whereas their orbital periods are hundreds of days.\n\nSection::::Satellites of satellites.\n\nNo \"moons of moons\" or subsatellites (natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of a planet) are currently known . In most cases, the tidal effects of the planet would make such a system unstable.\n", "Most of the planets in the Solar System have secondary systems of their own, being orbited by planetary objects called natural satellites, or moons (two of which, Titan and Ganymede, are larger than the planet Mercury), and, in the case of the four giant planets, by planetary rings, thin bands of tiny particles that orbit them in unison. Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent.\n", "Satellite galaxies generally lead tumultuous lives due to their chaotic interactions with both the larger host galaxy and other satellites. For example, the host galaxy is capable of disrupting the orbiting satellites via tidal and ram pressure stripping. These environmental effects can remove large amounts of cold gas from satellites (i.e. the fuel for star formation), and this can result in satellites becoming quiescent in the sense that they have ceased to form stars. Moreover, satellites can also collide with their host galaxy resulting in a minor merger (i.e. merger event between galaxies of significantly different masses). On the other hand, satellites can also merge with one another resulting in a major merger (i.e. merger event between galaxies of comparable masses). Galaxies are mostly composed of empty space, interstellar gas and dust, and therefore galaxy mergers do not necessarily involve collisions between objects from one galaxy and objects from the other, however, these events generally result in much more massive galaxies. Consequently, astronomers seek to constrain the rate at which both minor and major mergers occur to better understand the formation of gigantic structures of gravitationally bound conglomerations of galaxies such as galactic groups and clusters.\n", "BULLET::::- The objects making up the Rings of Saturn are believed to continually collide and aggregate with each other, leading to debris with limited size constrained to a thin plane. Although this is believed to be an ongoing process, this has not been directly observed.\n\nSection::::Artificial-satellite collisions.\n\nThree types of collisions have occurred involving artificial satellites orbiting the Earth:\n\nBULLET::::- Intentional collisions intended to destroy the satellites, either to test anti-satellite weapons or destroy satellites which may pose a hazard should they reenter the atmosphere intact:\n", "Section::::Features and interactions.:Gravitational interactions.:Perturbation and instability.\n", "BULLET::::- Among \"main-belt asteroids\", the satellites are usually much smaller than the primary (a notable exception being 90 Antiope), and orbit around 10 primary radii away. Many of the binary systems here are members of asteroid families, and a good proportion of satellites are expected to be fragments of a parent body whose disruption after an asteroid collision produced both the primary and satellite.\n", "Section::::Features and interactions.:Atmospheric and magnetic interaction.\n", "While tidal forces from the primary are common on satellites, most satellite systems remain stable. Perturbation between satellites can occur, particularly in the early formation, as the gravity of satellites affect each other, and can result in ejection from the system or collisions between satellites or with the primary. Simulations show that such interactions cause the orbits of the inner moons of the Uranus system to be chaotic and possibly unstable. Some of Io's active can be explained by perturbation from Europa's gravity as their orbits resonate. Perturbation has been suggested as a reason that Neptune does not follow the 10,000:1 ratio of mass between the parent planet and collective moons as seen in all other known giant planets. One theory of the Earth-Moon system suggest that a second companion which formed at the same time as the Moon, was perturbed by the Moon early in the system's history, causing it to impact with the Moon.\n", "The eight identical spacecraft use absolute timing obtained from GPS Satellites to maintain a schedule. Each day, one satellite acts as a Captain and the rest act as Lieutenants. Each spacecraft is able to act as a Captain, and the role of Captain rotates through the constellation each 25-hour period. Lieutenants only communicate with the Captain, and the Captain is responsible for downlinking to an earth station.\n\nSection::::Mission.:Lifetime.\n\nNASA has estimated a 60-day mission lifetime, at which time the satellites will drift apart beyond the 100–120 km estimated range of the cross link and no longer be able to network.\n\nSection::::Mission.:Orbit.\n", "Little is known of satellite systems beyond the Solar System, although it is inferred that natural satellites are common. J1407b is an example of an extrasolar satellite system. It is also theorised that Rogue planets ejected from their planetary system could retain a system of satellites.\n\nSection::::Natural formation and evolution.\n", "A more recent outcome of this work is the Internet, which relies on a backbone of routers that provide the ability to automatically re-routre communication without human intervention when failures occur.\n\nSatellites placed into orbit around the earth must include massive active redundancy to ensure operation will continue for a decade or longer despite failures induced by normal failure, radiation-induced failure, and thermal shock.\n\nThis strategy now dominates space systems, aircraft, and missile systems.\n\nSection::::Principle.\n\nMaintenance requires three actions, which usually involve down time and high priority labor costs:\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic fault detection\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic fault isolation\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic reconfiguration\n", "Of the objects within our Solar System known to have natural satellites, there are 76 in the asteroid belt (five with two each), four Jupiter trojans, 39 near-Earth objects (two with two satellites each), and 14 Mars-crossers. There are also 84 known natural satellites of trans-Neptunian objects. Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the rings of Saturn, but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, and although numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet been confirmed.\n", "BULLET::::- Galactocentric orbit: An orbit around the centre of a galaxy. The Sun follows this type of orbit about the galactic centre of the Milky Way.\n\nBULLET::::- Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 1,886 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.\n", "The vulnerability of the satellites depends on their position as well. The South Atlantic Anomaly is a perilous place for a satellite to pass through.\n\nAs technology has allowed spacecraft components to become smaller, their miniaturized systems have become increasingly vulnerable to the more energetic solar particles. These particles can physically damage microchips and can change software commands in satellite-borne computers.\n", "Because of their small dimensions (with a mass of each), the satellites are hard to detect in their geosynchronous orbit, and thus could approach and examine other satellites without being noticed. After completion of their primary mission, the satellites were parked on opposite sides of Earth. During the 2nd week of 2009 the MiTEx satellites were commanded to approach DSP-23, which had failed two months earlier, and had started to drift by 1 deg East from its own parking position at 8.5deg East. The MiTEx satellite parked over the mid-Atlantic rendezvoused with DSP-23 around Dec 23, 2009, followed by the 2nd MiTEx satellite one week later.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Temporary satellites\": NEAs can also transfer between solar orbits and distant Earth orbits, becoming gravitationally bound temporary satellites. According to simulations, temporary satellites are typically caught when they pass the L1 or L2 Lagrangian points, and Earth has at least one temporary satellite across at any given time, but they are too faint to detect by current surveys. , the only observed transition was that of asteroid , which was a temporary satellite from September 2006 to June 2007 and has been on a solar orbit with a 1.003-year period ever since. According to orbital calculations, on its solar orbit, passes Earth at low speed every 20 to 21 years, at which point it can become a temporary satellite again.\n", "In contrast to \"true\" satellites, quasi-satellite orbits lie outside the planet's Hill sphere, and are unstable. Over time they tend to evolve to other types of resonant motion, where they no longer remain in the planet's neighborhood, then possibly later move back to a quasi-satellite orbit, etc.\n", "The word \"geosynchronous\" is sometimes used to describe quasi-satellites of the Earth, because their motion around the Sun is synchronized with Earth's. However, this usage is unconventional and confusing. Conventionally, geosynchronous satellites revolve in the prograde sense around the Earth, with orbital periods that are synchronized to the Earth's rotation.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Venus.\n\nVenus has one known quasi-satellite, . This asteroid is also a Mercury- and Earth-crosser; it seems to have been a \"companion\" to Venus for the last 7000 years or so only, and is destined to be ejected from this orbital arrangement about 500 years from now.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Earth.\n", "Satellite systems, like planetary systems, are the product of gravitational attraction, but are also sustained through fictitious forces. While the general consensus is that most planetary systems are formed from an accretionary disks, the formation of satellite systems is less clear. The origin of many moons are investigated on a case by case basis, and the larger systems are thought to have formed through a combination of one or more processes.\n\nSection::::Natural formation and evolution.:System stability.\n", "The Hill sphere is the region in which an astronomical body dominates the attraction of satellites. Of the Solar System planets, Neptune and Uranus have the largest Hill spheres, due to the lessened gravitational influence of the Sun at their far orbits, however all of the giant planets have Hill spheres in the vicinity of 100 million kilometres in radius. By contrast, the Hill spheres of Mercury and Ceres, being closer to the Sun are quite small. Outside of the Hill sphere, the Sun dominates the gravitational influence, with the exception of the Lagrangian points.\n", "Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems, though their origin is still unclear. Notable examples include the largest satellite system, the Jovian system, with 79 known moons (including the large Galilean moons) and the Saturnian System with 62 known moons (and the most visible ring system in the Solar System). Both satellite systems are large and diverse. In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings, and it is inferred that this is a general pattern. Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons, including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common center of mass, as well as many asteroids and plutinos. Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars' system of two tiny natural satellites, the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems, although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth.\n", "Orbits are further changed by perturbations (which in LEO include unevenness of the Earth's gravitational field), and collisions can occur from any direction. For these reasons, the Kessler syndrome applies mostly to the LEO region; impacts occur at up to 16 km/s (twice the orbital speed) if head-on – the 2009 satellite collision occurred at 11.7 km/s, creating much spall in the critical size range. These can cross other orbits and lead to a cascade effect. A large-enough collision (e.g. between a space station and a defunct satellite) could make low Earth orbit impassable.\n" ]	[ "The area in Earth's orbit is too small for satellites to orbit safely." ]	[ "Earth's orbit is huge and satellites are very small in comparison." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The area in Earth's orbit is too small for satellites to orbit safely.", "The area in Earth's orbit is too small for satellites to orbit safely." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Earth's orbit is huge and satellites are very small in comparison.", "Earth's orbit is huge and satellites are very small in comparison." ]
2018-02835	How do TV channels make money ? Is advertising is the only source of income for them ?	The cable networks sell the broadcast rights to the service providers, who pay for it with the money you pay each month. The "free" networks (your local stations) work a little differently and their income is mostly from advertising. But they're often owned by larger networks.	[ "Television services in some countries may be funded by a television licence or a form of taxation, which means that advertising plays a lesser role or no role at all. For example, some channels may carry no advertising at all and some very little, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Australia (ABC)\n\nBULLET::::- Belgium (RTBF)\n\nBULLET::::- Denmark (DR)\n\nBULLET::::- Ireland (RTÉ)\n\nBULLET::::- Japan (NHK)\n\nBULLET::::- Norway (NRK)\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden (SVT)\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom (BBC)\n\nBULLET::::- United States (PBS)\n", "A major international television network is the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which is perhaps most well known for its news agency BBC News. Owned by the Crown, the BBC operates primarily in the United Kingdom. It is funded by the television licence paid by British residents that watch terrestrial television and as a result, no commercial advertising appears on its networks. Outside the UK, advertising is broadcast because the licence fee only applies to the BBC's British operations. 23,000 people worldwide are employed by the BBC and its subsidiary, BBC Studios.\n\nSection::::United States.\n", "Broadcasters may rely on a combination of these business models. For example, in the United States, National Public Radio (NPR) and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS, television) supplement public membership subscriptions and grants with funding from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB), which is allocated bi-annually by Congress. US public broadcasting corporate and charitable grants are generally given in consideration of underwriting spots which differ from commercial advertisements in that they are governed by specific FCC restrictions, which prohibit the advocacy of a product or a \"call to action\".\n\nSection::::Recorded and live forms.\n", "Each That's TV station produces its own output, consisting of a single news bulletin, shown on a loop during the evening and overnight, with old films and cartoons broadcast during the day.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n\nIn June 2018, BuzzFeed revealed how That's TV had \"gamed\" the BBC for hundreds of thousands of pounds of licence fee payers' money. The report also claimed that several of the company's stations had fewer than 30 viewers per day. The same month, the Press Gazette reported that unpaid interns working for That's TV \"passed out through exhaustion\".\n", "Life TV Media\n\nLife TV Media was an independent UK broadcaster who produces television content for its own channel, Life One and other broadcasters.\n\nSection::::Channels.\n", "Advertising-free media\n\nAdvertising-free media refers to media outlets whose output is not funded or subsidised by the sale of advertising space. It includes in its scope mass media entities such as websites, television and radio networks, and magazines.\n\nThe public broadcasters of a number of countries air without commercials. Perhaps the best known example of this is the United Kingdom's public broadcaster, the BBC, whose domestic networks do not carry commercials. Instead, the BBC, in common with most other public broadcasters in Europe, is funded by a television licence fee levied on the owners of all television sets.\n", "In the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies, a television licence is required to receive any publicly broadcast television service, from any source. This includes the commercial channels, cable and satellite transmissions. The money from the licence fee is used to provide radio, television and Internet content for the BBC, and Welsh-language television programmes for S4C. The BBC gives the following figures for expenditure of licence fee income:\n\nBULLET::::- 50% – BBC One and BBC Two\n\nBULLET::::- 15% – local TV and radio\n\nBULLET::::- 12% – network radio\n", "BULLET::::- Beat: Life on the Street on ITV, in partnership with the Home Office\n\nBULLET::::- Vodafone TBA on Channel 4, in partnership with Vodafone\n\nBULLET::::- Ford and Toyota in 24\n\nBULLET::::- Crest toothpaste in The Apprentice\n\nBULLET::::- American Express in The Restaurant\n\nBULLET::::- Findmypast.co.uk sponsored the genealogy TV series 'Find My Past' on the Yesterday channel in October 2011.\n", "Public broadcasters may receive their funding from an obligatory television licence fee, individual contributions, government funding or commercial sources. Public broadcasters do not rely on advertising to the same degree as commercial broadcasters, or at all; this allows public broadcasters to transmit programmes that are not commercially viable to the mass market, such as public affairs shows, radio and television documentaries, and educational programmes.\n", "The Sound and Vision Fund is operated by the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland, this fund receives 7% of the licence fee. The fund is used to assist broadcasters to commission public service broadcast programming. It is open to all independent producers provided they get a free to air or community broadcaster's backing, including TV3, Today FM, BBC Northern Ireland, RTÉ, Channel 4, UTV etc. Pay TV broadcaster Setanta Sports have also received funding for programming through the sound and vision fund provided they provide those shows on a free-to-view basis.\n", "Media houses make their money through Direct Payment and Indirect Payment. Direct Payment is the money a consumer pays the media house in exchange for a good or service. This would be the payment from the consumer for a newspaper, paying to call into a radio station or paying to receive cable. Subscriptions are also another form of direct payment. In this instance the customer would pay the company, normally a magazine or a comic book a set fee of money under a contracted time and receive weekly or monthly issues.\n", "Both independent agencies and the global networks have even created dedicated units to concentrate on AFP, such as JWT Entertainment, BBH, Hubbub Communications, Now Inc., Mudra, WPP's Group M, or Omnicom's Grand Central, London based, Advertiser Funded Programming agency.\n\nSome recent examples of AFP:\n\nBULLET::::- Eukanuba's Extraordinary Dogs, developed and distributed by A Brand Apart Television Ltd., the world leaders in Advertiser Funded Programming\n\nBULLET::::- The Krypton Factor, in partnership with The Sage Group on ITV\n\nBULLET::::- The Factory on Eurosport, in partnership with the Philips and AT&T Williams F1\n", "As in Britain, in (Germany), public television stations own a major share of the market. Their programming is funded by a licence fee as well as advertisements on specific hours of the day (20 minutes per day; not after 8 pm), except on Sundays and holidays. Private stations are allowed to show up to 12 minutes of advertisements per hour with a minimum of 20 minutes of programming in between interruptions.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Greece.\n", "\"Good afternoon. I am glad to be in Aberdeen today to welcome you into the great family of Independent Television viewers. You now have your own television company in the North East and I hope that you'll very soon come to regard Grampian Television as an essential part of your everyday life. I wish you and Grampian the best of luck and now, let us join the network.\"\n", "Advertiser-funded programming, largely a neologism, is a solution to this change and means the advertiser pays to integrate their message in the TV programme itself, rather than just buying advertising space around it. It includes product placement, sponsorship, naming rights and more recently the actual creation of whole shows from scratch. Many of these projects are enabled by a content partnership where the programming is co-funded by multiple stakeholders.\n", "Section::::Program production.\n\nMost television stations are commercial broadcasting enterprises which are structured in a variety of ways to generate revenue from television commercials. They may be an independent station or part of a broadcasting network, or some other structure. They can produce some or all of their programs or buy some broadcast syndication programming for or all of it from other stations or independent production companies.\n", "While public broadcasters are completely government-funded in much of the world, there are many countries where some funds must come from donations from the public. In the United States less than 15% of local public broadcasting stations' funding comes from the federal government. Pledge drives, a type of annual giving, commonly occur about three times each year, usually lasting one to two weeks each time. Viewership and listenership often decline significantly during funding periods, so special programming may be aired in order to keep regular viewers and listeners interested.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "Zeinab Badawi, who by the end of the 1980s was presenting Channel 4 News with Jon Snow, was one of the few trainees to have industry sponsorship: \"In those days there wasn’t any kind of media course or anything like that. I was trained on the job, but ITV sent me to something called the National Broadcasting School, which doesn’t exist anymore, which was in Soho, and I did a three-month intensive training course there and that was it.\"\n", "The United States created the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) in 1967, which eventually led to the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR); however, those are loose networks of non-commercial educational (NCE) stations owned by state and local governments, educational institutions, or non-profit organizations, more like U.S. commercial networks (though there are some differences) than European public broadcasters. The CPB and virtually all government-owned stations are funded through general taxes, and donations from individual persons (usually in the form of \"memberships\") and charitable organizations. Individual programs on public broadcasters may also be supported by underwriting spots paid for by sponsors; typically, these spots are presented at the beginning and conclusion of the program. Because between 53 and 60 percent of public television's revenues come from private membership donations and grants, most stations solicit individual donations by methods including fundraising, pledge drives or telethons which can disrupt regularly scheduled programming. Normal programming can be replaced with specials aimed at a wider audience to solicit new members and donations.\n", "There are a number of foundations and other organizations in the U.S. that are responsible for a significant amount of media assistance funding, yet without a program engaged in direct “media development.” These projects are often called “communications for development” and are a very common form of media development.\n\nSection::::Media development organizations.:Other U.S. funders of media assistance.:The National Endowment for Democracy (NED).\n", "The BBC World Service Trust is a British implementer that does direct media development work. It is active in over 40 countries and on every continent. While all its programs are media development-oriented, they focus on Emergency response, Health, Governance and human rights, Education, Environment, and Livelihoods.\n\nThe Trust is funded by external grants and voluntary contributions, mainly from the UK's Department for International Development (DFID), the European Union, UN agencies, and charitable foundations. They also receive a small amount of core support from the BBC (both in kind and cash).\n", "The U.S. Agency for International Development is the largest single U.S. funder, public or private, of independent media abroad. It spent $52.7 million in 2006 on international media sector development—about 37 percent of American funding, according to a study by the Center for International Media Assistance.\n\nUSAID's Office of Democracy and Governance (DCHA/DG) manages roughly $500,000 annually for media-related work. The bureau has two full-time media experts on staff who are consulted on media projects around the world.\n", "Section::::Distribution.:India.\n", "In 2005, A&E launched their feature film production arm A&E IndieFilms. The company has acquired and funded documentaries, four of which were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.\n", "In 1999 the CRTC approved the IPF as a \"Canadian Independent Production Fund\" eligible to receive contributions from Broadcast Distribution Undertakings (BDU's). In 2017, Cogeco Communications directed its annual Broadcast Distribution Undertaking (BDU) contributions to the IPF to establish the Cogeco TV Production Program.\n" ]	[ "Advertising is the only source of income for TV channels. " ]	[ "Advertising is not the only source of income for TV channels, because money paid to service providers is used to buy broadcasting rights. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Advertising is the only source of income for TV channels. ", "Advertising is the only source of income for TV channels. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Advertising is not the only source of income for TV channels, because money paid to service providers is used to buy broadcasting rights. ", "Advertising is not the only source of income for TV channels, because money paid to service providers is used to buy broadcasting rights. " ]
2018-20004	Why does it seem like more people get colds/flu during the colder months of the year than warmer months of the year?	It doesn't just seem that way, they do. This is for a few reasons: 1. Dry/warm air in heated buildings dries out nasal passages, allowing easier access to the body for pathogens. 2. People spending more time indoors closer together creates an environment where disease spreads more easily, especially diseases with which caughing/sneezing is associated, as the pathogens are aerosolized.	[ "The apparent seasonality may also be due to social factors, such as people spending more time indoors, near infected people, and specifically children at school. There is some controversy over the role of low body temperature as a risk factor for the common cold; the majority of the evidence suggests that it may result in greater susceptibility to infection.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Other.\n", "BULLET::::- Viruses are preserved in colder temperatures due to slower decomposition, so they linger longer on exposed surfaces (doorknobs, countertops, \"etc.\").\n\nBULLET::::- In nations where children do not go to school in the summer, there is a more pronounced beginning to flu season, coinciding with the start of public school. It is thought that the day care environment is perfect for the spread of illness.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin D production from Ultraviolet-B in the skin changes with the seasons and affects the immune system.\n", "The exact mechanism behind the seasonal nature of influenza outbreaks is unknown. Some proposed explanations are:\n\nBULLET::::- People are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person.\n\nBULLET::::- A seasonal decline in the amount of ultraviolet radiation may reduce the likelihood of the virus being damaged or killed by direct radiation damage or indirect effects (i. e. ozone concentration) increasing the probability of infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucous membranes, preventing the body from effectively defending against respiratory virus infections.\n", "A long-standing puzzle has been why outbreaks of the flu occur seasonally rather than uniformly throughout the year. One possible explanation is that, because people are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person. Increased travel due to the Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season may also play a role. Another factor is that cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucus particles. Dry particles are lighter and can thus remain airborne for a longer period. The virus also survives longer on surfaces at colder temperatures and aerosol transmission of the virus is highest in cold environments (less than 5°C) with low relative humidity. The lower air humidity in winter seems to be the main cause of seasonal influenza transmission in temperate regions.\n", "Three virus families, Influenzavirus A, B, and C are the main infective agents that cause influenza. During periods of cooler temperature, influenza cases increase roughly tenfold or more. Despite higher incidence of manifestations of the flu during the season, the viruses are actually transmitted throughout populations all year round.\n\nEach annual flu season is normally associated with a major influenzavirus subtype. The associated subtype changes each year, due to development of immunological resistance to a previous year's strain (through exposure and vaccinations), and mutational changes in previously dormant viruses strains.\n", "However, seasonal changes in infection rates also occur in tropical regions, and in some countries these peaks of infection are seen mainly during the rainy season. Seasonal changes in contact rates from school terms, which are a major factor in other childhood diseases such as measles and pertussis, may also play a role in the flu. A combination of these small seasonal effects may be amplified by dynamical resonance with the endogenous disease cycles. H5N1 exhibits seasonality in both humans and birds.\n", "Research in guinea pigs has shown that the aerosol transmission of the virus is enhanced when the air is cold and dry. The dependence on aridity appears to be due to degradation of the virus particles in moist air, while the dependence on cold appears to be due to infected hosts shedding the virus for a longer period of time. The researchers did not find that the cold impaired the immune response of the guinea pigs to the virus.\n", "The traditional theory is that a cold can be \"caught\" by prolonged exposure to cold weather such as rain or winter conditions, which is how the disease got its name. Some of the viruses that cause the common colds are seasonal, occurring more frequently during cold or wet weather. The reason for the seasonality has not been conclusively determined. Possible explanations may include cold temperature-induced changes in the respiratory system, decreased immune response, and low humidity causing an increase in viral transmission rates, perhaps due to dry air allowing small viral droplets to disperse farther and stay in the air longer.\n", "Rhinoviruses are spread worldwide and are the primary cause of the common cold. Symptoms include sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and cough; sometimes accompanied by muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headache, muscle weakness, or loss of appetite. Fever and extreme exhaustion are more usual in influenza. Children may have six to twelve colds a year. In the United States, the incidence of colds is higher in the autumn and winter, with most infections occurring between September to April. The seasonality may be due to the start of the school year and to people spending more time indoors (thus in proximity with each other), thereby increasing the chance of transmission of the virus. Lower ambient, especially outdoor, temperatures may also be factor given that rhinoviruses preferentially replicate at 32 °C (89 °F) as opposed to 37 °C (98 °F) – see following section. Variant pollens, grasses, hays and agricultural practices may be factors in the seasonality as well as the use of chemical controls of lawn, paddock and sportsfields in schools and communities. The changes in temperature, humidity and wind patterns seem to be factors. It is also postulated that poor housing, overcrowding and unsanitary conditions related to poverty are relevant factors in the transmission of 'common cold'.\n", "These conditions can impair coughing, swallowing, clearing the airways, and in the worst cases, breathing. Therefore, they worsen the flu symptoms.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Seasonal variations.\n\nInfluenza reaches peak prevalence in winter, and because the Northern and Southern Hemispheres have winter at different times of the year, there are actually two different flu seasons each year. This is why the World Health Organization (assisted by the National Influenza Centers) makes recommendations for two different vaccine formulations every year; one for the Northern, and one for the Southern Hemisphere.\n", "An alternative hypothesis to explain seasonality in influenza infections is an effect of vitamin D levels on immunity to the virus. This idea was first proposed by Robert Edgar Hope-Simpson in 1965. He proposed that the cause of influenza epidemics during winter may be connected to seasonal fluctuations of vitamin D, which is produced in the skin under the influence of solar (or artificial) UV radiation. This could explain why influenza occurs mostly in winter and during the tropical rainy season, when people stay indoors, away from the sun, and their vitamin D levels fall.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Epidemic and pandemic spread.\n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "Medical conditions that compromise the immune system increase the risks from flu.\n\nSection::::Health conditions likely to cause complications.:Diabetes.\n\nMillions of people have diabetes. When blood sugars are not well controlled, diabetics can quickly develop a wide range of complications. Diabetes results in elevated blood sugars in the body, and this environment allows viruses and bacteria to thrive.\n", "Research done by National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) in 2008 found that the influenza virus has a \"butter-like coating\". The coating melts when it enters the respiratory tract. In the winter, the coating becomes a hardened shell; therefore, it can survive in the cold weather similar to a spore. In the summer, the coating melts before the virus reaches the respiratory tract.\n\nSection::::Timing.\n\nIn the United States, the flu season is considered October through May. It usually peaks in February. In Australia, the flu season is considered May to October. It usually peaks in August.\n", "Influenza, or flu, is a viral infection that affects mainly the throat, nose, bronchi and occasionally lungs. It is considered one of the most common human infectious diseases. Seasonal influenza epidemics are a major public health concern, causing tens of millions of respiratory illnesses and 250,000 to 500,000 deaths worldwide each year. Early detection of disease activity, when followed by a rapid response, can reduce the impact of both seasonal and pandemic influenza.\n", "A recent study estimated that in the United States, annual inﬂuenza epidemics result in approximately 600,000 life-years lost, 3 million hospitalized days, and 30 million outpatient visits, resulting in medical costs of $10 billion annually. According to this study, lost earnings due to illness and loss of life amounted to over $15 billion annually and the total economic burden of annual inﬂuenza epidemics amounts to over $80 billion. Also, in the US the flu season usually accounts for 200,000 hospitalizations and 41,000 deaths.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Reviews.\n", "It is believed that the route of HCoV-NL63 spread is through direct person-to-person transmission in highly populated areas. The virus can survive for up to a week in outside of the body in aqueous solutions at room temperature and three hours on dry surfaces. Most people will be infected with a coronavirus in their lifetime, but some populations are more susceptible to HCoV-NL63. These population include children under the age of 5, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. The virus seems to have seasonal incidence, occurring most frequently in the winter months in temperate climates. In more extreme and tropical climates the virus has no preference toward a particular season. Many studies have reported the co-occurrence of HCoV-NL63 with other human coronavirus, \"Influenza A virus\", \"Human orthopneumovirus\" (RSV), parainfluenza virus, and \"Human metapneumovirus\" (hMPV).\n", "Flu seasons also exist in the tropics and subtropics, but are usually less sharply defined. In Hong Kong, which has a humid subtropical climate, the flu season runs from December to March, in the winter and early spring.\n\nSection::::Flu vaccinations.\n", "Flu season\n\nFlu season is an annually recurring time period characterized by the prevalence of outbreaks of influenza (flu). The season occurs during the cold half of the year in each hemisphere. Influenza activity can sometimes be predicted and even tracked geographically. While the beginning of major flu activity in each season varies by location, in any specific location these minor epidemics usually take about 3 weeks to peak, and another 3 weeks to significantly diminish.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Surveillance data show a clear pattern of strong seasonal epidemics in temperate regions and less periodic epidemics in the tropics. The geographic origin of seasonal epidemics in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres had been a major open question in the field. However, temperate epidemics usually emerge from a global reservoir rather than emerging from within the previous season's genetic diversity. This and subsequent work, has suggested that the global persistence of the influenza population is driven by viruses being passed from epidemic to epidemic, with no individual region in the world showing continual persistence. However, there is considerable debate regarding the particular configuration of the global network of influenza, with one hypothesis suggesting a metapopulation in East and Southeast Asia that continually seeds influenza in the rest of the world, and another hypothesis advocating a more global metapopulation in which temperate lineages often return to the tropics at the end of a seasonal epidemic.\n", "Section::::Health conditions likely to cause complications.:HIV/AIDS.\n", "One factor that may indicate increased severity this season is that the predominant circulating type of influenza virus is Influenza A (H3N2) viruses, which account for about 76 percent of the viruses reported. Typically, H3N2 seasons have been more severe, with higher numbers of hospitalizations and deaths.\n\nSection::::Flu spread, by season.:2014–2015 flu season.\n\nThe vaccines produced for the Northern Hemisphere 2014–2015 season used:\n\nBULLET::::- A/California/7/2009 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- A/Texas/50/2012 (H3N2)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- B/Massachusetts/2/2012-like virus,\n\nQuadrivalent vaccines include a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus.\n", "While phenology fairly consistently points to an earlier spring across temperate regions of North America, a recent comprehensive study of the subarctic showed greater variability in the timing of green-up, with some areas advancing, and some having no discernible trend over a recent 44-year period.\n\nAnother 40 year phenological study in China found greater warming over that period in the more northerly sites studied, with sites experiencing cooling mostly in the south, indicating that the temperature variation with latitude is decreasing there.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Ratings.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02911	How come people sometimes need to learn how to walk again after having a head injury?	It's because damage is done to the brain. I can speak more about needing to learn to talk again than walk again, so I'll use that as an example. The brain has lots of different sections so to speak. There are two main sections for language -- Wernicke's area and Broca's area. If damage is done to one of those areas because of a TBI then a person may need speech therapy to "relearn how to talk" while that area of the brain heals. So, it all depends on where the damage is and how bad it is.	[ "Even with \"complete\" injuries, in some rare cases, through intensive rehabilitation, slight movement can be regained through \"rewiring\" neural connections, as in the case of the late actor Christopher Reeve.\n\nIn the case of cerebral palsy, which is caused by damage to the motor cortex either before, during (10%), or after birth, some people with tetraplegia are gradually able to learn to stand or walk through physical therapy.\n", "Improvement of locomotor function is one of the primary goals for people with a spinal cord injury. SCI treatments may focus on specific goals such as to restore walking or locomotion to an optimal level for the individual. The most effective way to restore locomotion is by complete repair, but techniques are not yet developed for regeneration. Treadmill training, over groundtraining, and functional electrical stimulation can all be used to improve walking or locomotor activity. These activities work if neurons of the central pattern generator (CPG) circuits, which generate rhythmic movements of the body, are still functioning. With inactivity, the neurons of CPG degenerate. Therefore, the above activities are important for keeping neurons active until regeneration activities are developed. A 2012 systematic review found insufficient evidence to conclude \"which\" locomotor training strategy improves walking function most for people with spinal cord injury. This suggests that it is not the type of training used, but the goals and the routines that have the biggest impact. Applying spinal cord stimulation (transcutaneous or epidurally) during weight supported walking have been shown to improve locomotor output.\n", "On 16 July 1997, during a sports camp where he was a supervisor, a diving accident in a swimming pool caused him to displace his spine; he was later told he would never walk again. However, in 1999, after a year of intensive treatment, he regained the ability to walk, although he usually has to use a crutch.\n\nSection::::Career.\n", "BULLET::::- Botox therapy is used to paralyze the calf muscles to reduce the opposition of the muscles to stretching the Achilles tendon, usually together with serial casting or splinting.\n\nBULLET::::- If conservative measures fail to correct the toe walking after about 12–24 months, surgical lengthening of the tendon is an option. The surgery is typically done under full anesthesia but if there are no issues, the child is released the same day. After the surgery, a below-the-knee walking cast is worn for six weeks and then an AFO is worn to protect the tendon for several months.\n", "Spinal cord injuries generally result in at least some incurable impairment even with the best possible treatment. The best predictor of prognosis is the level and completeness of injury, as measured by the ASIA impairment scale. The neurological score at the initial evaluation done 72 hours after injury is the best predictor of how much function will return. Most people with ASIA scores of A (complete injuries) do not have functional motor recovery, but improvement can occur. Most patients with incomplete injuries recover at least some function. Chances of recovering the ability to walk improve with each AIS grade found at the initial examination; e.g. an ASIA D score confers a better chance of walking than a score of C. The symptoms of incomplete injuries can vary and it is difficult to make an accurate prediction of the outcome. A person with a mild, incomplete injury at the T5 vertebra will have a much better chance of using his or her legs than a person with a severe, complete injury at exactly the same place. Of the incomplete SCI syndromes, Brown-Séquard and central cord syndromes have the best prognosis for recovery and anterior cord syndrome has the worst. \n", "In children with uncomplicated minor head injuries the risk of intra cranial bleeding over the next year is rare at 2 cases per 1 million. In some cases transient neurological disturbances may occur, lasting minutes to hours. Malignant post traumatic cerebral swelling can develop unexpectedly in stable patients after an injury, as can post traumatic seizures. Recovery in children with neurologic deficits will vary. Children with neurologic deficits who improve daily are more likely to recover, while those who are vegetative for months are less likely to improve. Most patients without deficits have full recovery. However, persons who sustain head trauma resulting in unconsciousness for an hour or more have twice the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease later in life.\n", "In 2018 two distinct research teams from Minnesota's Mayo Clinic and Kentucky's University of Louisville managed to restore some mobility to patients suffering from paraplegia with an electronic spinal cord stimulator. The theory behind the new spinal cord stimulator is that in certain cases of spinal cord injury the spinal nerves between the brain and the legs are still alive, but just dormant. On 1 November 2018 a third distinct research team from the University of Lausanne published similar results with a similar stimulation technique in the journal Nature.\n", "Seven years prior to this, he was recovering from a serious motorcycle accident that left him with a broken leg as well as a severely broken and dislocated ankle. The prognosis was that he was likely to suffer a permanent walking impairment and would certainly not be able to continue the active physical lifestyle he had enjoyed up to that point.\n", "In 2005, Preston Plevretes, a football player for LaSalle University, had his life changed forever by second-impact syndrome. After undergoing a head-to-head hit at football practice, a university doctor diagnosed Plevretes with a concussion and two days later was told he was allowed to resume play. Three games after returning Plevretes sustained another concussion resulting in second-impact syndrome. He was rushed to the hospital where doctors cut the right side of his skull. Five years after the injury, he still struggles to do everyday activities. Because of Plevretes, the NCAA revised concussion guidelines. The NCAA strongly urges schools to have a concussion management plan. They also require that an athlete have clearance by a team doctor before being allowed to return.\n", "Along with neuroplasticity, people who undergo hemispherectomies remarkably recover due to resilience. Resilience is the ability, in this case, of the brain being able to recover from a tough situation and take back its shape. Neuroplasticity resilience explains why the hemisphere that is still intact is able to recover many of the functions that were once the removed hemisphere's job. Resilience here is an action in patients with hemispherectomies in which they recover and navigate back to health.\n\nSection::::Traumatic hemispherectomy.\n", "As of 2011, there has been an effort to applying a rehabilitation robot connected to a non-invasive brain-computer interface to promote brain plasticity and motor learning following a stroke. Half of stroke survivors experience unilateral paralysis or weakness, and approximately 30-60% of them do not regain function. Typical treatment, post-stroke, involves constraint-induced movement therapy and robotic therapy, which work to restore motor activity by forcing the movement of the weak limbs. Current active therapy cannot be utilized by patients who suffer complete control loss or paralysis, and do not have any residual motor ability to work with.\n", "There are several different types of treatment available to those who have suffered a closed-head injury. The treatment type chosen can depend on several factors including the type and severity of injury as well as the effects that injury has on the patient.\n\nThe course of treatment differs for each patient and can include several types of treatment, depending on the patient's specific needs. \n\nEarly treatment is vital to recovering lost motor function after an injury, but cognitive abilities can be recovered regardless of time past since injury.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Pharmacotherapy.\n", "Darek Fidyka\n\nDarek Fidyka (born c.1974) is a Polish firefighter and recovering paraplegic who became the first person in history to verifiably recover sensory and motor function after the complete severing of his spinal cord. Having been paralysed from the chest down in a knife attack in 2010, Fidyka regained the ability to walk in 2014 after receiving a pioneering regenerative treatment from a British-advised Polish surgical team.\n\nSection::::Biography.\n", "This is the last phase of the recovery rehabilitation. Phase V includes returning to sports after being cleared by therapist or surgeon. In order for this to happen the patient must have full range of motion, continue maintaining strength and endurance, and be able to increase proprioception with agility drills. Patient is still to be aware that going down hill or down stairs while the knee is aggravated may cause further injury like a meniscus tear.\n\nSection::::Cost of procedure.\n", "Parkinson's Disease, which affects the basal ganglia, has been shown to cause an impairment in the ability to consolidate new motor skills. For instance, when Parkinsonian patients were tested in force field reaching tasks, they showed significantly less retention of the motor skill than controls during later testing. This points to the importance of the basal ganglia, the primary target of Parkinson's disease, in creating the new sensory/motor mappings that are necessary for the long term retention of a motor skill.\n\nSection::::Pathologies and processes affecting motor memory consolidation.:Stroke.\n", "Patient education has been shown to be one of the most effective ways to decrease secondary symptoms seen with closed-head injuries. Patient education often includes working with a therapist to review symptom management and learn about returning to regular activities. Educational initiatives have also been shown to decrease the occurrence of PTSD in head-injury survivors.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Cognitive rehabilitation.\n", "People with nontraumatic causes of SCI have been found to be less likely to suffer complete injuries and some complications such as pressure sores and deep vein thrombosis, and to have shorter hospital stays. Their scores on functional tests were better than those of people with traumatic SCI upon hospital admission, but when they were tested upon discharge, those with traumatic SCI had improved such that both groups' results were the same. In addition to the completeness and level of the injury, age and concurrent health problems affect the extent to which a person with SCI will be able to live independently and to walk. However, in general people with injuries to L3 or below will likely be able to walk functionally, T10 and below to walk around the house with bracing, and C7 and below to live independently. New therapies are beginning to provide hope for better outcomes in patients with SCI, but most are in the experimental/translational stage.\n", "Treatment for patients with combined grade III posterolateral injuries is quite similar to that of isolated PLC injuries. Repair or anatomic reconstruction of the posterolateral structures should be scheduled within 3 weeks of the initial injury. The other structures damaged should be reconstructed concurrently with the posterolateral structures so that the patient can readily return to a rehab program stressing range of motion exercises. This acts to prevent the development of arthrofibrosis (excessive scar tissue build up).\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Operative treatment.:Chronic isolated posterolateral corner injuries.\n", "The technology for creating powered exoskeletons, wearable machinery to assist with walking movements, is currently making significant advances. There are products available, such as the Ekso, which allows individuals with up to a C7 complete (or any level of incomplete) spinal injury to stand upright and make technologically assisted steps. The initial purpose for this technology is for functional based rehabilitation, but as the technology develops, so will its uses.\n", "A study by Geeslin and LaPrade indicated that patients reported positive outcomes in 94% of cases following a mix of repairs and reconstructions for with acute posterolateral knee injuries. Recent studies have reported failure rates between 37 and 40% for primary repairs of the main PLC structures Studies have shown that patients who undergo successful surgical repair of posterolateral knee injuries reported increased objective knee stability and better subjective outcomes than those who undergo reconstruction. A study by LaPrade \"et al.\" showed that patients with isolated or combined PLC injuries have positive outcomes when they undergo anatomic reconstruction of the damaged structures, and there was no difference between groups that require an osteotomy versus those who do not. Patients reported significant increases in both knee stability and function following reconstruction. Anatomic techniques aim to restore normal function of the knee's important static stabilizers and are recommended for patients with these types of injuries to provide the best outcomes.\n", "Many patients with severe injuries need therapy to regain basic motor and cognitive skills. Cognitive rehabilitation aims to improve attention, memory function, and cognitive-processing speed. The type of rehabilitation used is tailored to the patient's clinical needs depending on the severity and type of injury sustained.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Other.\n", "Among those affected over the age of 65, 40% are transferred directly to long-term care facilities, long-term rehabilitation facilities, or nursing homes; most of those affected require some sort of living assistance from family or home-care providers. 50% permanently require walkers, canes, or crutches for mobility; all require some sort of mobility assistance throughout the healing process. Most of the recovery of walking ability and activities of daily living occurs within 6 months of the fracture. After the fracture about half of older people recover their pre-fracture level of mobility and ability to perform instrumental activities of daily living, while 40–70 % regain their level of independence for basic activities of daily living.\n", "Prognosis worsens with the severity of injury. Most TBIs are mild and do not cause permanent or long-term disability; however, all severity levels of TBI have the potential to cause significant, long-lasting disability. Permanent disability is thought to occur in 10% of mild injuries, 66% of moderate injuries, and 100% of severe injuries. Most mild TBI is completely resolved within three weeks. Almost all people with mild TBI are able to live independently and return to the jobs they had before the injury, although a small portion have mild cognitive and social impairments. Over 90% of people with moderate TBI are able to live independently, although some require assistance in areas such as physical abilities, employment, and financial managing. Most people with severe closed head injury either die or recover enough to live independently; middle ground is less common. Coma, as it is closely related to severity, is a strong predictor of poor outcome.\n", "In 1992, while motorcycling, Dr Miller was hit head on by another vehicle. In the resulting accident, a Winnebago recreational vehicle ran him over, and completely crushed both of his legs. In the emergency room he talked the attending physician out of amputating his legs, which led to a 15-hour surgery attempting to save his legs. This was the first of 6 surgeries to regain full function of his lower limbs. While In intensive care, Dr. Miller devised methods of coping with the psychological trauma, using visual imagery to aid the healing process. With the expectation of being paraplegic and using a wheelchair, he began rehabilitating himself by doing \"wheel chair laps\" around the hospital ward. As soon as he began walking on crutches, he strapped them onto a motorcycle, drove back to the scene of his accident, and made retraced the original multiple times in an attempt to remove the trauma from his mind, replacing it with \"a perfect ride\". Using special T bar crutches, he went on the complete 2 triathlons including swimming in San Francisco Bay. He used the same crutches to run the 7 mile Golden Gate Bridge to Bay Bridge run in San Francisco with his marathon buddy Wayne Greene. Dr. Miller used this life changing event to deepen his understanding of himself and those suffering Posttraumatic stress disorder. The implementation of those lessons soon followed, where he created a simple maxim, \"Limits are self-imposed, and one needs to always be cautious of accepting the limitations imposed by others.\"\n", "For post-operative knee replacement patients, immobility is a factor precipitated by pain and other complications. Mobility is known as an important aspect of human biology that has many beneficial effects on the body system. It is well documented in literature that physical immobility affects every body system and contributes to functional complications of prolonged illness. In most medical-surgical hospital units that perform knee replacements, ambulation is a key aspect of nursing care that is promoted to patients. Early ambulation can decrease the risk of complications associated with immobilization such as pressure ulcers, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), impaired pulmonary function, and loss of functional mobility. Nurses’ promotion and execution of early ambulation on patients has found that it greatly reduces the complications listed above, as well as decreases length of stay and costs associated with further hospitalization. Nurses may also work with teams such as physical therapy and occupational therapy to accomplish ambulation goals and reduce complications.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02886	Why video games cost so much to create?	Licenses for the engines and other assets. Many designers, artists, modelers, riggers, testers, etc. A building for everyone to work in. And increasing demand for more features, better graphics, etc.	[ "BULLET::::- The music cost ranges based on length of composition, method of performance (live or synthesized), and composer experience. In 2003 a minute of high quality synthesized music cost between US$600-1.5k. A title with 20 hours of gameplay and 60 minutes of music may have cost $50k-60k for its musical score.\n\nBULLET::::- Voice acting is well-suited for outsourcing as it requires a set of specialized skills. Only large publishers employ in-house voice actors.\n\nBULLET::::- Sound effects can also be outsourced.\n", "Games are produced through the software development process. Games are developed as a creative outlet and to generate profit. Development is normally funded by a publisher. Well-made games bring profit more readily. However, it is important to estimate a game's financial requirements, such as development costs of individual features. Failing to provide clear implications of game's expectations may result in exceeding allocated budget. In fact, the majority of commercial games do not produce profit. Most developers cannot afford changing development schedule and require estimating their capabilities with available resources before production.\n", "BULLET::::- Programming is generally outsourced less than other disciplines, such as art or music. However, outsourcing for extra programming work or savings in salaries has become more common in recent years.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n\nThe game production has similar distribution methods to those of music and film industries.\n", "In 2005, a mainstream console video game cost from US$3M to $6M to develop. Some games cost as much as $20M to develop. In 2006 the profit from a console game sold at retail was divided among parties of distribution chain as follows: developer (13%), publisher (32%), retail (32%), manufacturer (5%), console royalty (18%). In 2008 a developer would retain around 17% of retail price and around 85% if sold online.\n", "Several development disciplines, such as audio, dialogue, or motion capture, occur for relatively short periods of time. Efficient employment of these roles requires either large development house with multiple simultaneous title production or outsourcing from third-party vendors. Employing personnel for these tasks full-time is expensive, so a majority of developers outsource a portion of the work. Outsourcing plans are conceived during the pre-production stage; where the time and finances required for outsourced work are estimated.\n", "Though sales of video games rival other forms of entertainment such as movies, the video game industry is extremely volatile. Game programmers are not insulated from this instability as their employers experience financial difficulty.\n", "BULLET::::- Current generation consoles have more advanced graphic capabilities than previous consoles. Taking advantage of those capabilities requires a larger team-size than games on earlier, simpler consoles. In order to compete with the best games on these consoles, there are more characters to animate; all characters must be modeled with a higher level of detail; more textures must be created; the entire art pipeline must be made more complex to allow the creation of normal maps and more complex programming code is required to simulate physics in the game world, and to render everything as precisely and quickly as possible. On this generation of consoles, games commonly require budgets of US$15 million to $20 million. Activision's \"Spider-Man 3\", for example, cost US$35 million to develop, not counting the cost of marketing and sales. Every game financed is, then, a large gamble, and pressure to succeed is high.\n", "An average development budget for a multiplatform game is US$18-28M, with high-profile games often exceeding $40M.\n", "The eighth generation of video game consoles (PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Wii U) saw further increases in costs and staffing – at Ubisoft, AAA game development involved 400 to 600 persons for open world games, split across multiple locations and countries.\n\nAAA game development has been identified as one environment where crunch time and other working pressures that negatively affect the employees are particularly evident.\n\nSection::::Related terms.\n", "Salaries for game programmers vary from company to company and country to country. In general, however, pay for game programming is generally about the same for comparable jobs in the business sector. This is despite the fact that game programming is some of the most difficult of any type and usually requires longer hours than mainstream programming.\n", "With the growth of the size of development teams in the industry, the problem of cost has increased. Development studios need to be able to pay their staff a competitive wage in order to attract and retain the best talent, while publishers are constantly looking to keep costs down in order to maintain profitability on their investment. Typically, a video game console development team can range in sizes of anywhere from 5 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. In May 2009, one game project was reported to have a development staff of 450. The growth of team size combined with greater pressure to get completed projects into the market to begin recouping production costs has led to a greater occurrence of missed deadlines, rushed games and the release of unfinished products.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nThe cost of developing a competitive commercial MMORPG title often exceeded $10 million in 2003. These projects require multiple disciplines within game design and development such as 3D modeling, 2D art, animation, user interfaces, client/server engineering, database architecture, and network infrastructure.\n", "However, unlike the music industry, where modern technology has allowed a fully professional product to be created extremely inexpensively by an independent musician, modern games require increasing amounts of manpower and equipment. This dynamic makes publishers, who fund the developers, much more important than in the music industry.\n\nSection::::Practices.:Breakaways.\n", "As computing and graphics power increased, so too did the size of development teams, as larger staffs were needed to address the ever-increasing technical and design complexities. The larger teams consist of programmers, artists, game designers, and producers. Their salaries can range anywhere from $50,000 to $120,000 generating large labor costs for firms producing videogames which can often take between one and three years to develop. Now budgets typically reach millions of dollars despite the growing popularity of middleware and pre-built game engines. In addition to growing development costs, marketing budgets have grown dramatically, sometimes consisting of two to three times of the cost of development.\n", "By the seventh generation of video game consoles (late 2000s) AAA game development on the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 game consoles typically cost in the low tens of millions of dollars ($15m to $20m) for a new game, with some sequels having even higher total budgets – for example \"Halo 3\" is estimated to have had a development cost of $30m, and a marketing budget of $40m. According to a whitepaper published for EA games (Dice Europe) the seventh generation saw a contraction in the number of video game developing houses creating AAA level titles, reducing from an estimated 125 to around 25, but with a roughly corresponding fourfold increase in staffing required for game development.\n", "The game revenue from retails is divided among the parties along the distribution chain, such as — developer, publisher, retail, manufacturer and console royalty. Many developers fail to profit from this and go bankrupt. Many developers seek alternative economic models through Internet marketing and distribution channels to improve returns., as through a mobile distribution channel the share of a developer can be up to 70% of the total revenue and through an online distribution channel almost 100%.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Development and marketing.\n", "The first video games, developed in the 1960s, were noncommercial. They required mainframe computers to run and were not available to the general public. Commercial game development began in the '70s with the advent of first-generation video game consoles and early home computers like the Apple I. At that time, owing to low costs and low capabilities of computers, a lone programmer could develop a full and complete game. However, in the late '80s and '90s, ever-increasing computer processing power and heightened expectations from \"gamers\" made it difficult for a single person to produce a mainstream console or PC game. The average cost of producing a triple-A video game slowly rose, from 1–4 million in 2000, to over $5 million in 2006, then to over $20 million by 2010.\n", "\"Eve Online\" has a player-driven economy with some NPC merchants who curb inflation by fixing the prices of many items. Basic blueprints and skill books bought from NPCs are inexpensive, even for new players; however advanced blueprints and skill books, such as those required for capital ship production and flight are thousands of times more expensive. These are generally only of interest to veteran players, reflecting the desire to remove money in proportion to each player's wealth.\n", "Section::::Game engines as an industry.\n\nProducers of game engines decide how they allow users to utilize their products. Just as gaming is an industry, so are the engines they are built off of. The major game engines come at varying prices, whether it be in the form of subscription fees or license payments. \n", "Large publishers may also attempt to boost efficiency across all internal and external development teams by providing services such as sound design and code packages for commonly needed functionality.\n\nBecause the publisher often finances development, it usually tries to manage development risk with a staff of producers or project managers to monitor the progress of the developer, critique ongoing development, and assist as necessary. Most video games created by an external video game developer are paid for with periodic advances on royalties. These advances are paid when the developer reaches certain stages of development, called milestones.\n\nSection::::Business risks.\n", "Section::::Combat.\n", "Other functions usually performed by the publisher include deciding on and paying for any license that the game may utilize; paying for localization; layout, printing, and possibly the writing of the user manual; and the creation of graphic design elements such as the box design.\n\nLarge publishers may also attempt to boost efficiency across all internal and external development teams by providing services such as sound design and code packages for commonly needed functionality.\n", "In turn-based games the need for economic micromanagement is generally regarded as a defect in the design, and more recent TBS games have tried to minimize it. But hands-on tactical combat is a feature of many turn-based games (e.g. \"Master of Orion II\", \"Space Empires III\", \"Heroes of Might and Magic III\"), and reviewers complained about the difficulty of controlling combat in \"Master of Orion 3\".\n", "Section::::Economics.\n\nEarly on, development costs were minimal, and video games could be quite profitable. Games developed by a single programmer, or by a small team of programmers and artists, could sell hundreds of thousands of copies each. Many of these games only took a few months to create, so developers could release multiple titles per year. Thus, publishers could often be generous with benefits, such as royalties on the games sold. Many early game publishers started from this economic climate, such as Origin Systems, Sierra Entertainment, Capcom, Activision and Electronic Arts.\n" ]	[ "Video games shouldn't cost so much to create. " ]	[ "There's so many factors including engines, graphics, a place of employment and the employees to work on the games. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Video games shouldn't cost so much to create. ", "Video games shouldn't cost so much to create. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There's so many factors including engines, graphics, a place of employment and the employees to work on the games. ", "There's so many factors including engines, graphics, a place of employment and the employees to work on the games. " ]
2018-03377	Why do some diets (like Paleo) say beans are unhealthy, toxic or have "antinutrients"? Are there toxins or antinutrients in cooked beans?	There is no such thing as an ‘antinutrient’. Also, don’t ever listen to anyone who uses the word ‘toxin’.	[ "It is common to make beansprouts by letting some types of bean, often mung beans, germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked. There have been many outbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often by \"salmonella\", \"listeria\", and \"Escherichia coli\", of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked, some causing significant mortality.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.:Antinutrients.\n", "White beans that are used to make Tavče Gravče or kidney beans are part of the legume family. Legume plants or so called dry edible beans such as pinto, navy, kidney, pink and black beans, lentils, peas, chickpeas, peanuts and soybeans are all nutrient-rich foods that contain a variety of vitamins, minerals and other nutrients while providing moderate amount of calories. Beans provide protein, fiber, iron, potassium and magnesium and they contain little or no total fat, trans-fat, sodium and cholesterol. That is why promoting beans in a diet could improve overall health and also decrease the risk of developing certain diseases, including heart disease, obesity and many types of cancers. \n", "Cooking beans, without bringing them to the boil, in a slow cooker at a temperature well below boiling may not destroy toxins. A case of poisoning by butter beans used to make falafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditional broad beans or chickpeas, soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, and shallow fried.\n", "Some kinds of raw beans contain a harmful tasteless toxin, lectin phytohaemagglutinin, that must be removed by cooking. Red kidney beans are particularly toxic, but other types also pose risks of food poisoning. A recommended method is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; undercooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans.\n", "Many types of bean contain significant amounts of antinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in the body. Phytic acid and phytates, present in grains, nuts, seeds and beans, interfere with bone growth and interrupt vitamin D metabolism. Pioneering work on the effect of phytic acid was done by Edward Mellanby from 1939.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n\nBeans are high in protein, complex carbohydrates, folate, and iron. Beans also have significant amounts of fiber and soluble fiber, with one cup of cooked beans providing between nine and 13 grams of fiber. Soluble fiber can help lower blood cholesterol.\n", "Consuming beans adds significant amounts of fiber and soluble fiber to a diet, with one cup of cooked beans providing between nine and thirteen grams of fiber. Soluble fiber can help lower blood cholesterol. Adults are recommended to have up to two (female), and three (male) servings. 3/4 cup of cooked beans provide one serving.\n\nSection::::Flatulence.\n", "Like many beans, raw lima beans are toxic (containing e.g. phytohaemagglutinin) if not boiled for at least 10 minutes. However, canned beans can be eaten without having to be boiled first, as they are pre-cooked.\n\nThe lima bean can contain anti-nutrients like phytic acids, saponin, oxalate, tannin, and trypsin inhibitors. These inhibit absorption of nutrients in animals and can cause damage to some organs. In addition to boiling, methods of roasting, pressure cooking, soaking, and germination can also reduce the antinutrients significantly.\n\nSection::::Health, cooking and nutrition.:Blood sugar.\n", "German research in 2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients. Sulforaphane, a glucosinolate breakdown product, which may be found in vegetables such as broccoli, has been shown to be protective against prostate cancer, however, much of it is destroyed when the vegetable is boiled.\n\nThe USDA has studied retention data for 16 vitamins, 8 minerals, and alcohol for approximately 290 foods for various cooking methods.\n\nSection::::Health and safety.:Carcinogens.\n", "In Mexico, Central America, and South America, the traditional spice used with beans is \"epazote\", which is also said to aid digestion. In East Asia, a type of seaweed, \"kombu\", is added to beans as they cook for the same purpose. Salt, sugar, and acidic foods such as tomatoes may harden uncooked beans, resulting in seasoned beans at the expense of slightly longer cooking times.\n\nDry beans may also be bought cooked and canned as refried beans, or whole with water, salt, and sometimes sugar.\n\nSection::::Description.:Green beans and wax beans.\n", "In 2002, the British Dietetic Association allowed manufacturers of canned baked beans to advertise the product as contributing to the recommended daily consumption of five to six vegetables per person. This concession was criticised by heart specialists, who pointed to the high levels of sugar and salt in the product. However, it has been proven that consumption of baked beans does indeed lower total cholesterol levels and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, even in normo-cholesterolaemic individuals. Some manufacturers produce a \"healthy\" version of the product with reduced levels of sugar and salt.\n\nSection::::Flatulence.\n", "Fermentation is used in some parts of Africa to improve the nutritional value of beans by removing toxins. Inexpensive fermentation improves the nutritional impact of flour from dry beans and improves digestibility, according to research co-authored by Emire Shimelis, from the Food Engineering Program at Addis Ababa University. Beans are a major source of dietary protein in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.:Bacterial infection from bean sprouts.\n", "BULLET::::- Frijoles charros, pinto beans cooked with bacon and sometimes tomatoes, are popular in Mexico and the American border states.\n\nBULLET::::- Greek Fasolia Gigandes Gigandes plaki\n\nBULLET::::- In the Italian cuisine beans (of various size and various types) are widely used for several recipes also mixed with other ingredients: \"fagiolata\" generally stands for baked beans but there are also regional variations like \"fagioli all'uccelletto\" in Florence; \"minestra di fagioli\" (beans soup normally cooked with vegetables) \"pasta e fagioli\" (meaning \"pasta and beans\").\n\nBULLET::::- New England baked beans\n\nBULLET::::- Quebec-style baked beans are often prepared with maple syrup.\n", "Raw kidney beans, and, to a lesser extent, some other such beans as broad beans or fava beans, contain the highly toxic lectin phytohemagglutinin. Boiling destroys this lectin, but the far lower temperature of a slow cooker does not. This means that dry beans must be boiled at for at least 30 minutes prior to slow cooking, or, alternatively, they must be soaked in water overnight, after which the water must be discarded, and the beans must then be boiled for at least 10 minutes. Even a few beans can be toxic, and beans can be as much as five times more toxic if cooked at than if eaten raw, so adequate pre-boiling is vital to avoid phytohemagglutinin poisoning.\n", "The cooked beans can be used in soups, cakes, salads, tortillas etc. They can be dried after the boiling process, ground and used as flour for different purposes.\n", "Section::::Nutrition.:Effects of sprouting in kidney beans.\n\nThe following table lists selected nutrients in kidney beans to show the effect of sprouting. Raw kidney beans contain high amounts of the toxin phytohemagglutinin, and the US Food and Drug Administration recommends boiling for 30 minutes to ensure they reach a sufficient temperature long enough to completely destroy the toxin. Nutrients are calculated for 100 grams of non-water components to remove water from the equation since after sprouting beans absorb a lot of water.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.:Chelation of minerals.\n", "A nutrient-dense legume, the pinto bean contains many essential nutrients. It is a good source of protein, phosphorus and manganese, and very high in dietary fiber and folate.\n\nRice and pinto beans served with cornbread or corn tortillas are often a staple meal where meat is unavailable. This combination contains the essential amino acids necessary for humans in adequate amounts: corn complements beans' relative scarcity of methionine and cystine and beans complement corn's relative scarcity of lysine and tryptophan.\n", "Fermented beans will usually not produce most of the intestinal problems that unfermented beans will, since yeast can consume the offending sugars.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nThe production data of legume are published by FAO in three category. 1 Pulses dry: all mature and dry seeds of leguminous plants except soybeans and groundnuts. 2 Oil crops: soybeans and groundnuts. 3 Fresh vegetable: immature green fresh fruits of leguminous plants. Following are summary of FAO data. \n", "Section::::Around the world.\n\nTraditional cuisines of many regions claim such recipes as typical specialities, for example:\n\nBULLET::::- In Poland, with the addition of bacon and/or sausage these are known as Breton Beans (\"fasolka po bretońsku\").\n\nBULLET::::- In France these are known as \" à la bretonne\".\n\nBULLET::::- Jersey bean crock\n\nBULLET::::- Boston baked beans\n\nBULLET::::- Pork and beans, which despite the name often contain very little pork\n\nBULLET::::- Guernsey Bean Jar\n\nBULLET::::- Spanish Cocido Montañés\n\nBULLET::::- Cassoulet (South-western France)\n\nBULLET::::- Feijoada\n\nBULLET::::- Fasolada\n", "In the United States, Bush's (Bush Brothers and Company), Van Camp's, B&M (Burnham & Morrill Inc.), Allens, Inc., the H. J. Heinz Company, and the Campbell's Soup Company are well-known producers or brands of packaged baked beans. B&M specializes in Boston-style baked beans often sold in beanpot-shaped jars, and canned brown bread, a traditional regional accompaniment to baked beans, whereas Bush and Van Camp produce multiple flavor varieties of canned beans, some styles using cured bacon to flavor the products.\n", "While soup beans are traditionally pinto beans (called brown beans in the mountain region), other types of beans are also used.\n", "BULLET::::- Bean-hole beans, traditionally from Northern New England and Quebec, cooked in a covered fire pit in the ground for up to two days\n\nBULLET::::- British cuisine claims beans on toast as a teatime favourite, the combination of cereal and legume forming an inexpensive complete protein; compare rice and beans. Variations of \"beans on toast deluxe\" can include extras as such as egg, grated cheese, marmite, tuna etc., and baked beans sometimes form part of a full English breakfast.\n\nBULLET::::- Beans cooked in barbecue sauce (or a similarly flavoured sauce) are a traditional side dish in an American barbecue.\n", "Sprouts should be offered at least weekly) to juveniles, adults, pets & breeder specimens in the breeding season. And on a daily or at least weekly basis to breeders in breeding-season rearing their chicks.\n\nBULLET::::- Caution with only lima and navy beans which are toxic when sprouted but healthy when well cooked.\n\nFresh water and a mineral block must be available at all times.\n", "There may occasionally be difficulties in getting biofortified foods to be accepted if they have different characteristics to their unfortified counterparts. For example, vitamin A enhanced foods are often dark yellow or orange in color – this for example is problematic for many in Africa, where white maize is eaten by humans and yellow maize is negatively associated with animal feed or food aid, or where white-fleshed sweet potato is preferred to its moister, orange-fleshed counterpart. Some qualities may be relatively simple to mitigate or breed out of biofortified crops according to consumer demand, such as the moistness of the sweet potato, whereas others cannot be.\n", "In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product. Also, oils in Canadian food products which have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word \"modified\" or \"hydrogenated\" when listed as an ingredient. A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as \"vegetable oil\" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing \"vegetable oil\" as an ingredient is not acceptable.\n", "Dietician Sarah Tyson Rorer authored the popular cookbook, \"Mrs. Rorer's Vegetable Cookery and Meat Substitutes\" in 1909. The book includes a mock veal roast recipe made from lentils, breadcrumbs and peanuts. In 1945, Mildred Lager commented that soybeans \"are the best meat substitute from the vegetable kingdom, they will always be used to a great extent by the vegetarian in place of meat.\"\n\nSection::::Animal flesh analogues.\n" ]	[ "Beans have toxins or antinutrients.", "An antinutrient is an actual term or object." ]	[ "Antinutrients are not real. And toxins are just a buzzword/marketing term. Beans are completely safe to eat.", "There is no such thing as an antinutrient. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Beans have toxins or antinutrients.", "An antinutrient is an actual term or object." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Antinutrients are not real. And toxins are just a buzzword/marketing term. Beans are completely safe to eat.", "There is no such thing as an antinutrient. " ]
2018-13869	When airplanes takeoff, why does the pilot tip the plane right and left?	Runways are pointed in fixed directions, and an airport might only have 2-3 pairs. That gives 4-6 directions where you can take off. Alas, the wind can blow in any direction. Runways are carefully engineered to cover the most popular wind directions, but there are probably more than 6 "popular" directions. When you take off in a different direction than the wind, called a cross-wind takeoff, it's necessary to turn the plane to the wind direction. Passengers don't like to feel pushed to the side, the plane is too cozy already, so the tip compensates for the sideways turn motion. Once the plane's in the right direction, it has to tip back or it would start to roll.	[ "In a standard airport landing pattern, which is usually used under visual meteorological conditions (VMC), aircraft turn from base leg to final within one-half to two miles of the airport. For instrument approaches, as well as approaches into a controlled airfield under visual flight rules (VFR), often a \"straight-in\" final approach is used, where all the other legs are dispensed with. Straight-in approaches are discouraged at non-towered airports in the United States.\n\nSection::::Approach slope.\n", "Section::::Event.\n\nAfter the seven passengers and three crew members boarded, the plane was cleared for takeoff on time at 5:54 p.m. (16:54 UTC). The aircraft departed Runway 28 heading west. From takeoff, the plane climbed normally. But after the plane suddenly started to lose altitude and turn to the right instead of following the approved flight path to the left. When air traffic controllers asked the pilot if he meant to turn right, they were answered with \"Stand by,\" followed by a loss of radio contact.\n", "The LSOs also write a comment in shorthand for use in the LSO-Pilot debrief. An example comment might read, \"High, a little overshooting start, fly through down on comeback in the middle, low in close to at the ramp. Fair-2\" This means the aircraft was high at the start of the approach and had slightly overshot the landing area centerline. As the pilot corrected to centerline, he did not add enough power so he flew through the glideslope from high to low. The LSO likely would have given the pilot a signal at this time to add power. For the last portion of the approach, the aircraft remained below glideslope (but was on centerline because of the lack of a comment), touching down prior to the target 3-wire. The pilot caught the 2 wire, and received a grade of \"fair\".\n", "When the rudder trim is centered to zero degrees, as required for takeoff, the rudder pedals would be matched so that the captain's legs would be extended the same amount, for each pedal, and the plane's nosewheel steering would not keep trying to turn the plane to the left, during taxi operations (See graphic).\n", "An instrument approach wherein final approach is begun without first having executed a procedure turn, not necessarily completed with a straight-in landing or made to straight-in landing minimums. A direct instrument approach requires no procedure turn or any other course reversal procedures for alignment (usually indicated by \"NoPT\" on approach plates), as the arrival direction and the final approach course are not too different from each other. The direct approach can be finished with a straight-in landing or circle-to-land procedure.\n\nSection::::Basic concepts.:Course reversal procedure.\n", "In the United States, student pilots are required to know how to do forward slips before embarking on their first solo flight. The logic is that in the event of an engine failure, the pilot will have to land on the first attempt and will not have a chance to go around if the aircraft is too high or too fast .\n\nSection::::Forward-slip vs. sideslip.:Sideslip.\n", "11.09.47 am\n\nOkęcie Tower: From your current position you have about to the runway.\n\nCrew: Understood.\n\nCrew: ...[turn] to the left! Engines to the left!\n\n11.10.13 am\n\nTower: 5055, to the left, to the left zero-five-zero.\n\nCrew: OK.\n\n11.10.40 am\n\nTower: 5055, to the left, course 360.\n\nCrew: We want to turn. That's just what we want. [implied meaning: \"we're trying\"]\n\nTower: Keep turning, turn to three-six-zero. Now you have about to the runway.\n\nCrew: OK.\n\n11.11.02 am\n\nTower: 5055, to the left, course 330.\n\nCrew: We are turning to the left.\n\nTower: Start final approach about from the runway.\n", "The term \"fly-by-wire\" implies a purely electrically signaled control system. It is used in the general sense of computer-configured controls, where a computer system is interposed between the operator and the final control actuators or surfaces. This modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters.\n\nSide-sticks, centre sticks, or conventional flight control yokes can be used to fly FBW aircraft.\n\nSection::::Rationale.:Weight saving.\n", "In both cases, the pilot in command must make a clear and unequivocal Yes/No decision upon arrival at the MAP point – either the runway (or its specified environment) is positively visible and accessible for landing using a safe and \"stabilized approach\" (i.e. no excessively steep bank or descent angles required), in which case the approach to landing may be continued, or else the approach must be discontinued and the published missed approach procedure must be initiated immediately.\n\nSection::::Visual descent point (U.S.).\n", "Captain Fernandez noticed this and requested for a go-around. He would climb to 6000 ft, do another circle and come back better aligned to the normal glide path. The check pilot, Captain Gopujkar then responded to his request: “Do you want a go around? Or do you want vertical speed?” Captain Fernandez chose to proceed with the vertical speed option. If the pilots would have proceeded with the go-around, the emergency that was to follow could have been averted.\n", "At 14:05, Flight 1713 was lined up on the number one position at the north end of the runway, and the crew was ready for take off. Not kept properly informed of Flight 1713’s position, the air traffic controllers tried repeatedly to have a different plane takeoff, leaving Flight 1713 standing in the falling snow for several minutes. Flight 1713 then notified air traffic controllers that they were holding at the start of the runway and awaiting takeoff instructions.\n", "There are common situations where a pilot may deliberately enter a slip by using opposite rudder and aileron inputs, most commonly in a landing approach at low power.\n", "Aircraft: Boston Tower, Warrior three five foxtrot (35F), holding short of two two right.br\n\nTower: Warrior three five foxtrot, Boston Tower, runway two two right, cleared for immediate takeoff. br\n\nAircraft: Roger, cleared for immediate takeoff, two two right, Warrier three five foxtrot.\n", "The Captain then requested a right hand downwind visual approach to Runway 12 (the request again being contrary to established procedures at Islamabad Airport), but this was not agreed to by the Radar due to procedural limitations. The Captain became worried about bad weather and low clouds on the left hand downwind. The aircraft then started its descent. The First Officer then repeated the request, but it wasn't agreed on by the control tower, and retained the decision for the crew to make a left downwind. Once again the Captain requested if the right downwind was available, but this still wasn't agreed on by the control tower.\n", "At 18:10:24 the ground proximity warning system (GPWS) began to sound a \"sink rate\" warning in the cockpit. The aircraft was descending at an angle of 7 degrees, when the angle of descent for most aircraft landing on that runway was 3 or 4 degrees. Both pilots ignored the warnings. At 18:10:44 the warning system in the cockpit began to sound. The captain responded to these warnings with \"that's all right.\"\n", "Section::::Operation.\n", "When the approach controller asked Flight 805 on why they initiated go-around, the captain responded, \"We lost the localizer close in there...couldn’t position ourselves on final...we had the glidepath, but not the localizer.\" The approach controller gave Flight 805 a 100 degree heading for another approach.\n", "Some approach procedures do not permit straight-in approaches unless the pilots are being radar vectored. In these situations, pilots are required to complete a procedure turn (PT) or other course reversal, generally within 10 NM of the PT fix, to establish the aircraft inbound on the intermediate or final approach segment. When conducting any type of approach, if the aircraft is not lined up for a straight-in approach, then a course reversal might be necessary. The idea of a course reversal is to allow sufficiently large changes in the course flown (in order to line the aircraft up with the final approach course), without taking too much space horizontally and while remaining within the confines of protected airspace. This is accomplished in one of three ways: a procedure turn, a holding pattern, or a teardrop course reversal.\n", "BULLET::::- In the United States, aircraft usually depart the pattern either straight out along the runway heading, with a 45° turn in the direction of (or against) the crosswind leg, downwind, or with a 45° turn away from downwind.\n\nBULLET::::- In Canada, aircraft usually depart straight out along the runway heading until at circuit altitude, at which point they may turn as desired. At controlled airports, the tower typically gives instructions for what turn to make on departure.\n", "Section::::Takeoff.\n", "At 18:39, while DAL 379 was in the process of clearing the runway, Flight 159 was cleared for takeoff. Before Flight 159 began moving, the tower controller observed that DAL 379 had stopped moving, and called DAL 379 to confirm they were clear of the runway. The captain of the Delta DC-9 replied, \"Yeah, we're in the dirt though.\" The tower controller then advised TWA that DAL 379 was clear of the runway, and that Flight 159 was cleared for takeoff. With the first officer operating the controls, Flight 159 then began its takeoff roll down runway 27L.\n", "Section::::Go-around.\n", "Pushbacks at busy aerodromes are usually subject to ground control clearance to facilitate ground movement on taxiways. Once clearance is obtained, the pilot will communicate with the tractor driver (or a ground handler walking alongside the aircraft in some cases) to start the pushback. To communicate, a headset may be connected near the nose gear.\n", "On the third landing attempt, captain Lontrão chose runway 24. At 9:43:52, an altitude of was reported at the rate of , and at 9:44:57 the controller asked the crew to see if they had the aircraft's landing lights on. The crew said that the landing lights were on. At 9:45:02 the crew reported on the passage of the airport's beacon and reported the runway in sight. At 9:46:48, when performing a right turn on a heading of 250, captain Lontrão instructed to read the control card before landing.\n", "When the pilot is instructed or decides to go around, the pilot applies full power to the engine(s), adopts an appropriate climb attitude and airspeed, raises the landing gear when the airplane is positively climbing, retracts the flaps as necessary, follows the instructions of the control tower (at a towered field), and typically climbs into the traffic pattern for another circuit if required.\n\nMany modern aircraft, such as the Boeing and Airbus series, have autothrottles/autothrust systems that will set go-around thrust if they are engaged.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17314	Why does cold water taste so much better than warm water?	Temperature effects taste. Certain bitter and sweet flavors are reduced or increased with temperature. This is why cold ice cream tastes good, but warm melted ice cream is overly sweet. Or why hot coffee is nice, but room temperature coffee is sour. Cold masks some of the bitter flavors of the trace minerals in water.	[ "Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Starchiness.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "In Act I of Bernard Shaw's play \"Widowers' Houses\" (1892), the English tourist Sartorius is shocked that there is a church in Germany called Apollinaris, thinking they have named it after the mineral water.\n\nIn \"What Maisie Knew\" by Henry James (1897) (chapter 19), Maisie and her stepfather, in a coffee-room at lunch-time, partake of cold beef and apollinaris.\n", "\"Billboard\" ranked \"Cold Water\" at number 56 on their \"Billboard's 100 Best Pop Songs of 2016\" list.\n\nSection::::Commercial performance.\n", "Among fishers in the United States, freshwater fish species are usually classified by the water temperature in which they survive. The water temperature affects the amount of oxygen available as cold water contains more oxygen than warm water.\n\nSection::::Classification in the United States.:Coldwater.\n\nColdwater fish species survive in the coldest temperatures, preferring a water temperature of . In North America, air temperatures that result in sufficiently cold water temperatures are found in the northern United States, Canada, and in the southern United States at high elevation. Common coldwater fish include brook trout, rainbow trout, and brown trout.\n", "BULLET::::2. experience, such as prior exposure to taste-odor mixtures\n\nBULLET::::3. internal state\n\nBULLET::::4. cognitive context, such as information about brand\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Description.\n\nTemperature modality excites or elicits a symptom through cold or hot temperature. Different mammalian species have different temperature modality.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Perception.\n", "The opah utilizes retia mirabilia to conserve heat, making it the newest addition to the list of regionally endothermic fish. Blood traveling through capillaries in the gills must carry cold blood due to their exposure to cold water, but retia mirabilia in the opah's gills are able to transfer heat from warm blood in arterioles coming from the heart that heats this colder blood in arterioles leaving the gills. The huge pectoral muscles of the opah, which generate most of the body heat, are thus able to control the temperature of the rest of the body.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Frost\": Has insulating effects. The lower temperature water will tend to freeze from the top, reducing further heat loss by radiation and air convection, while the warmer water will tend to freeze from the bottom and sides because of water convection. This is disputed as there are experiments that account for this factor.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solutes\": The effects of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate among others.\n", "Section::::Post 2010.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Critical reviews.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.:Recognition.\n", "Montana Fish Wildlife and Parks notes that trout and whitefish prefer water temperatures close to .\n\nSection::::Fishing.\n", "Section::::Classification in the United States.:Warmwater.\n\nWarmwater fish species can survive in a wide range of conditions, preferring a water temperature around . Warmwater fish can survive cold winter temperatures in northern climates, but thrive in warmer water. Common warmwater fish include catfish, largemouth bass, bluegill, crappies, and many other species from the Centrarchidae family.\n\nSection::::Classification in the United States.:Coolwater.\n\nCoolwater fish species prefer water temperature between the coldwater and warmwater species, around . They are found throughout North America except for the southern portions of the United States. Common coolwater species include muskellunge, northern pike, walleye, and yellow perch\n\nSection::::Status.\n", "In these ways, winter swimmers can survive both the initial shock and prolonged exposure. Nevertheless, the human organism is not suited to freezing water: the struggle to maintain blood temperature (by swimming or conditioned metabolic response) produces great fatigue after thirty minutes or less.\n\nSection::::Cold shock response in bacteria.\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Spa Marie-Henriette\". It contains natural carbonation.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spa Citron\" (Spa green). It contains some carbonation and added lemon flavour.\n\nThe water comes from different sources which are characterised by their difference in minerals.\n\nSection::::Spa in national culture.\n\nSection::::Spa in national culture.:The Netherlands.\n", "A common strategy when dealing with new items is to couple a collaborative filtering recommender, for warm items, with a content-based filtering recommender, for cold-items. While the two algorithms can be combined in different ways, the main drawback of this method is related to the poor recommendation quality often exhibited by content-based recommenders in scenarios where it is difficult to provide a comprehensive description of the item characteristics. \n", "BULLET::::- 134: Nanalympics - Watching too much television can be fun, but when you are exercising with Nana, Mona, Russell and Mr. Wooka, you'll know that it's much more fun and good for you!\n\nBULLET::::- 135: Spring - Today is Spring! And that can only mean one thing: spring cleaning! Also, Mona and Russell go on a teeter-totter with Mr. Wooka, smell flowers, and find a cocoon! A butterfly comes out of it after reading a book called \"Little Fuzz\" with Nana.\n", "Coldwater fish\n\nColdwater fish, in the context of aquariums, refers to fish species that prefer colder water temperatures than\n\naverage tropical fish, typically below . Some examples are koi and goldfish. These species tend to grow more slowly and live longer than fish that live in warmer waters, and are generally felt to be easier to keep.\n", "Cold-water delicacies, such as salmon and lobster, thrive in this nutrient-rich, deep, seawater. Microalgae such as \"Spirulina\", a health food supplement, also can be cultivated. Deep-ocean water can be combined with surface water to deliver water at an optimal temperature.\n", "Various effects of heat on the freezing of water were described by ancient scientists such as Aristotle: \"The fact that the water has previously been warmed contributes to its freezing quickly: for so it cools sooner. Hence many people, when they want to cool water quickly, begin by putting it in the sun. So the inhabitants of Pontus when they encamp on the ice to fish (they cut a hole in the ice and then fish) pour warm water round their reeds that it may freeze the quicker, for they use the ice like lead to fix the reeds.\" Aristotle's explanation involved \"antiperistasis\", \"the supposed increase in the intensity of a quality as a result of being surrounded by its contrary quality.\"\n", "BULLET::::- : The second law of thermodynamics seems to be violated by a cleverly operated trapdoor.\n\nBULLET::::- : Hot water can, under certain conditions, freeze faster than cold water, even though it must pass the lower temperature on the way to freezing.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n\nBULLET::::- : In some areas of the oceans, phytoplankton concentrations are low despite there apparently being sufficient nutrients.\n\nBULLET::::- : Genome size does not correlate with organismal complexity. For example, some unicellular organisms have genomes much larger than that of humans.\n", "If the hot fluid had a much larger heat capacity rate, then when hot and cold fluids went through a heat exchanger, the hot fluid would have a very small change in temperature while the cold fluid would heat up a significant amount. If the cool fluid has a much lower heat capacity rate, that is desirable. If they were equal, they would both change more or less temperature equally, assuming equal mass-flow per unit time through a heat exchanger. In practice, a cooling fluid which has both a higher specific heat capacity and a lower heat capacity rate is desirable, accounting for the pervasiveness of water cooling solutions in technology—the polar nature of the water molecule creates some distinct sub-atomic behaviors favorable in practice.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "In the 1840s, there was a strong revival of interest in cold water cures, or hydropathy, following the promotion of Vincent Priessnitz's methods by Captain R. T. Claridge and others. Yet while acknowledging the contributions of Currie's predecessors, such as John Floyer, Claridge noted that \"After all, the merit of settling the use of cold water on just a principle, belongs incontestably to our own countryman, Currie, whose work, published in 1797, upon the efficacy of water, may be considered the scientific base of Hydropathy\".\n\nSection::::Anthology of Robert Burns.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04957	Why does it take so long (longer than a week) to feel pain after a car accident and not a few days?	If there still is pain you better go see a doctor and ask an actual professional about your very specific case! There can be no general answer as injuries - from neglectible to very concerning - of all imaginable and unimaginable kinds can happen.	[ "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "BULLET::::- August 8 – The US begins conducting targeted airstrikes on ISIS militants in Iraq to prevent an invasion of the Kurdistan Region capital city of Erbil. President Obama warns the airstrike campaign could last for several months, but that no actual troops will be sent to Iraq.\n\nBULLET::::- August 9\n\nBULLET::::- In auto racing, NASCAR driver Tony Stewart runs over 20-year-old driver Kevin Ward Jr. during a sprint car race in northern New York. Ward is pronounced dead on arrival at the hospital.\n", "The incidence is 3.7 per 100,000 for pedestrians, 2.9 per 100,000 for automobile occupants, and 190 per 100,000 for motorcyclists.\n\nVehicular accidents account for 43% of catastrophic spinal injury in the United States and 45% in Australia.\n", "\"The basics are this. My car broke down on the side of the interstate. I pulled over, put my hazards on, and got out to call for help. When I got out of the car, another car drove off the right lane and hit me at 75 mph, pinning me between both cars, then [the other car] drove away, never hitting his breaks or stopping. The injuries were severe. My left leg was shattered open, bones littered across the interstate. The back of my head split in half, the car hit me so hard I had its part number indented into my chest. That's the accident. I was in a coma. I've been on therapy ever since, and they miraculously saved my leg, putting it back together with a bunch of titanium. Although they're not sure how much better it will get, I'm grateful to still have it. I work hard at therapy in hopes of one day getting this pain under control and walking normally again. Numerous surgeries and procedures undergone, many more to go most likely, so I say my prayers every day.\"\n", "Low levels of damaging forces produce small bruises and generally cause the individual to feel minor pain straight away. Repeated impacts worsen bruises, increasing the harm level. Normally, light bruises heal nearly completely within two weeks, although duration is affected by variation in severity and individual healing processes; generally, more severe or deeper bruises take somewhat longer.\n", "Contusions are identified with two forms of diagnosis: acceleration of the brain and direct trauma. A direct trauma injury is much more severe than an acceleration injury (in most cases) and requires much more intensive diagnosis and testing. The full extent of the injury may not be known until testing done in a hospital is complete.\n", "This method should not be used within the first 48–72 hours after the injury in order to speed up the recovery process.\n\nSection::::Management.:Treatment.\n\nIf severe pain persists after the first 24hours it is recommended that an individual consult with a professional who can make a diagnosis and implement a treatment plan so the patient can return to everyday activities. To make a full diagnosis, a professional may use nerve conduction studies to localize nerve dysfunction (e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome), assess severity, and help with prognosis. Electrodiagnosis also helps differentiate between myopathy and neuropathy.\n", "In 2005, Preston Plevretes, a football player for LaSalle University, had his life changed forever by second-impact syndrome. After undergoing a head-to-head hit at football practice, a university doctor diagnosed Plevretes with a concussion and two days later was told he was allowed to resume play. Three games after returning Plevretes sustained another concussion resulting in second-impact syndrome. He was rushed to the hospital where doctors cut the right side of his skull. Five years after the injury, he still struggles to do everyday activities. Because of Plevretes, the NCAA revised concussion guidelines. The NCAA strongly urges schools to have a concussion management plan. They also require that an athlete have clearance by a team doctor before being allowed to return.\n", "Altogether it is of note that, especially in many Western countries, after a motor vehicle collision those involved seek health care for the assessment of injuries and for insurance documentation purposes. In contrast, in many less wealthy countries, there may be limited access to care and insurance may only be available to the wealthy. Against this background, the “(late) whiplash syndrome” (ICD-10: S13.4) has been one special focus of continuous and controversial scientific research since the 1950s as the worldwide incidence of such injuries varies enormously, from 16-2000 per 100,000 population, and the late whiplash syndrome in these cases varies between 18% to 40%. Thus, important work by Schrader et al. in \"The Lancet\" showed that late whiplash syndrome after a motor vehicle collision is rare or uncommon in Lithuania, and Cassidy et al.’s conclusion in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" is that “the elimination of compensation for pain and suffering is associated with a decreased incidence and improved prognosis of whiplash injury”.\n", "The most common initial response is depression. About 6% of patients with a spinal cord injury commit suicide, usually in the years immediately after sustaining the injury. By ten years after an injury, the rate of suicide is similar to that of the general population.\n\nMany patients recover only partially from their injury, and must cope with paralysis or mental deficiency, usually requiring lifetime medical care.\n", "Section::::Relationships.\n\nA catastrophic injury such as SCI puts strain on marriages and other romantic relationships, which in turn has important implications for quality of life. Partners of injured people often feel out of control, overwhelmed, angry, and guilty while having added work related to the injury, less help with responsibilities like parenting, and loss of wages. Relationship stress and excessive dependence in relationships increases risk of depression for the person with SCI; supportive relationships are protective.\n", "A recent study conducted by the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) in Australia has revealed 29 closed case fatalities (and at least a dozen case fatalities still under coronial investigation) that had been reported to Australian coroners where a person was \"struck in an emergency lane after their vehicle had stopped\" between July 2000 and November 2010.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bus lane\n\nBULLET::::- Rumble strip\n\nBULLET::::- Wide outside lane\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Traffic Signs about Shoulders\n\nBULLET::::- Deaths in Emergency Lanes - National Coroners Information System (NCIS) Fact-Sheet, January 2011\n", "“I wasn’t limited in the car at all,” Denny Hamlin said after finishing sixth with a torn right ACL. “You really don’t notice anything until you stop, and that’s the thing, feeling the throbbing, feeling my heart beat in my knee. I thought it (his knee) was good at first. I had it drained right before the race started, which helped a lot, getting a bunch of that blood out of there. After that, I felt pretty good. Obviously, any kind of heat brings swelling back. I’m sure it swelled again at the end of the race, and that’s why I’m as stiff as I am.”\n", "In cases of neurapraxia, the function of the nerves are temporarily impaired. However, the prognosis for recovery from neurapraxia is efficient and quick. Recovery begins within two to three weeks after the injury occurs, and it is complete within six to eight weeks. There are instances when function is not completely restored until four months after the instance of injury. The recovery period of neurapraxia is not an entirely ordered process, but the recovery is always complete and fast.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Seinsheimer classification, Evans-Jensen classification, Pipkin classification, and Garden classification for hip fractures\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nBoth high- and low-force trauma can cause bone fracture injuries. Preventive efforts to reduce motor vehicle crashes, the most common cause of high-force trauma, include reducing distractions while driving. Common distractions are driving under the influence and texting or calling while driving, both of which lead to an approximate 6-fold increase in crashes. Wearing a seatbelt can also reduce the likelihood of injury in a collision.\n", "According to research by the advocacy web site kidsandcars.org, back up collisions were the leading cause (34%) for U.S. non-traffic fatalities of children under 15 from 2006–2010.\n\nThe U.S. Center for Disease Control reported that from 2001–2003, an estimated 7,475 children (CI = 4,453--10,497) (2,492 per year) under the age of 15 were treated for automobile back-over incidents. About 300 fatalities per year result from backup collisions.\n\nThe U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found that back-up collisions most often:\n\nBULLET::::- occur in residential driveways and parking lots\n\nBULLET::::- involve sport utility vehicles (SUVs) or small trucks\n", "In 2012, Schneider et al., also in the US, carried out a study of 38,675 patients with traumatic brain injury. Weekend patients demonstrated 14% increased risk of mortality (OR = 1.14; 95% CI 1.05-1.23). However, Nandyala et al., in the following year, in a US study of 34,122 patients who had undergone cervical fusion for cervical spine trauma, found the mortality rate was not significantly different among the weekend patients.\n", "Traumatic spinal cord injuries occur in approximately 40 people per million annually in the United States, resulting from traumas due to motor vehicle accidents, sporting injuries, falls, and other factors. An estimated 10 to 25% of vertebral fractures will result in injury to the spinal cord. Thorough physical examinations are required, as 5 to 15% of trauma patients have fractures that initially go undiagnosed.\n", "Pain is the main reason for visiting an emergency department in more than 50% of cases, and is present in 30% of family practice visits. Several epidemiological studies have reported widely varying prevalence rates for chronic pain, ranging from 12 to 80% of the population. It becomes more common as people approach death. A study of 4,703 patients found that 26% had pain in the last two years of life, increasing to 46% in the last month.\n", "Section::::Effects of impact drive.\n", "In the United States, each state has different statutes of limitation, and within a state different types of injuries may have different statutes of limitation. Rape claims, for example, often have a much longer statute of limitation than other injuries. In some states such as Colorado, the statute of limitations starts to run once the injury is discovered. For example, if you were in a car accident and then 6 months later started having severe back problems, the statute would start when you noticed the injury.\n", "One important predictor of motor recovery in an area is presence of sensation there, particularly pain perception. Most motor recovery occurs in the first year post-injury, but modest improvements can continue for years; sensory recovery is more limited. Recovery is typically quickest during the first six months. Spinal shock, in which reflexes are suppressed, occurs immediately after the injury and resolves largely within three months but continues resolving gradually for another 15.\n", "SCI is present in about 2% of all cases of blunt force trauma. Anyone who has undergone force sufficient to cause a thoracic spinal injury is at high risk for other injuries also. In 44% of SCI cases, other serious injuries are sustained at the same time; 14% of SCI patients also suffer head trauma or facial trauma. Other commonly associated injuries include chest trauma, abdominal trauma, pelvic fractures, and long bone fractures.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Risk factors.\n\nSports involving repetitive or forceful hyperextension of the spine, especially when combined with rotation are the main mechanism of injury for spondylolysis. The stress fracture of the pars interarticularis occurs on the side opposite to activity. For instance, for a right-handed player, the fracture occurs on the left side of the vertebrae.\n\nSpondylolysis has a higher occurrence in the following activities:\n\nBULLET::::- Baseball\n\nBULLET::::- Military service\n\nBULLET::::- Tennis\n\nBULLET::::- Diving\n\nBULLET::::- Cheerleading\n\nBULLET::::- Gymnastics\n\nBULLET::::- Gridiron Football\n\nBULLET::::- Association Football\n\nBULLET::::- Wrestling\n\nBULLET::::- Weightlifting\n\nBULLET::::- Roller Derby\n\nBULLET::::- Cricket\n\nBULLET::::- Pole Vault\n\nBULLET::::- Rugby\n\nBULLET::::- Volleyball\n\nBULLET::::- Gym\n", "A number of physical injuries can commonly result from the blunt force trauma caused by a collision, ranging from bruising and contusions to catastrophic physical injury (e.g., paralysis) or death.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "One does not feel pain after a car accident until longer than a week has passed." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "One can feel pain after a car accident." ]
2018-03853	What exactly do developers do when they "optimise" an app to reduce stutters/lag?	Could be dozens of different things. Most commonly it is things like: * turning off or removing services that are not needed * moving long requests (e.g. "go retrieve this data from this remote server") to the background so the UI remains functional * identifying pieces of code that are taking a long time to run and making them faster	[ "In order to increase the downloads of an app, an app's assets (e.g. the icon, preview video, screenshots, etc.) must also be optimized. It is recommended to measure the effect of these optimizations by creating different variations of each asset, showing each variation to users, and then comparing the conversion rate of each variant, in a process referred to as A/B testing. Google Play facilitates this process by providing ASO marketers with an A/B testing platform built into the Google Play Console. For other platforms such as the Apple App Store, ASO marketers can run A/B tests via 3rd party A/B testing tools, running a pre-post test (i.e. pushing new assets live to the store and measuring the impact pre-and-post change), a country-by-country experiment (i.e. testing different asset variations across similar countries, such as UK/AU/CA/US/NZ), or testing different variations via ad platforms such as Facebook Ads.\n", "The following are examples of applications which use the QuickStart method:\n\nBULLET::::- Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Reader and Acrobat 3D, though these do \"not\" load the programs into memory (since version 7.0) (reader_sl.exe, adobearm.exe)\n\nBULLET::::- Java Runtime (jqs.exe)\n\nBULLET::::- The Microsoft Office Suite (OSA.exe)\n\nBULLET::::- The OpenOffice.org Suite\n\nBULLET::::- Apple QuickTime and iTunes (QTTask.exe, iTunesHelper.exe)\n\nBULLET::::- Winamp Music Player\n", "Google followed Apple in 2015 and started manually reviewing apps, to enforce app quality and reduce black hat practices.\n\nSection::::iOS 11.\n\nAt WWDC 2017, Apple announced major changes to its App Store experience arriving with iOS 11. The major implications of iOS 11 for ASO are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Subtitles show for all app impressions – The new subtitle metadata element now appears below the title wherever an app preview appears, as well as in the app product page.\n", "Section::::White hat versus black hat.\n\nMany app marketers attempt to perform ASO in a way that most app stores would approve of and accept. This is called \"white hat\" ASO and publicly covered by presentations, conferences. Developers also use different platforms available to get their peers to rate their apps for them which provides great feedback. Some app marketers, however, engage in what many call \"black hat\" ASO and are practices which the app stores do not condone.\n", "BULLET::::- Optimize app store assets (e.g. icon, screenshots, promo video, description, etc.) to increase download conversion rate from store features, top chart impressions, and keyword searches.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nMany ASO marketers categorize their work into two distinct processes: keyword optimization and conversion rate optimization.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Keyword Optimization.\n", "As performance is part of the specification of a program – a program that is unusably slow is not fit for purpose: a video game with 60 Hz (frames-per-second) is acceptable, but 6 frames-per-second is unacceptably choppy – performance is a consideration from the start, to ensure that the system is able to deliver sufficient performance, and early prototypes need to have roughly acceptable performance for there to be confidence that the final system will (with optimization) achieve acceptable performance. This is sometimes omitted in the belief that optimization can always be done later, resulting in prototype systems that are far too slow – often by an order of magnitude or more – and systems that ultimately are failures because they architecturally cannot achieve their performance goals, such as the Intel 432 (1981); or ones that take years of work to achieve acceptable performance, such as Java (1995), which only achieved acceptable performance with HotSpot (1999). The degree to which performance changes between prototype and production system, and how amenable it is to optimization, can be a significant source of uncertainty and risk.\n", "BULLET::::- Navigation Tabs Revamped – The iOS 11 App Store now includes three featured tabs (Today, Apps, and Games), as well as the Updates, and Search items. Additionally, the top charts have been moved to within the Apps and Games tabs.\n\nBULLET::::- Top Grossing chart removed – The top grossing chart is now removed from the App Store app.\n\nBULLET::::- All time-only ratings – Ratings and reviews will no longer reset after a new app update and there is no longer a current set of ratings/reviews. Developers can choose to manually reset their ratings and reviews.\n", "Techniques for improving perceived performance may include more than just decreasing the delay between the user's request and visual feedback. Sometimes an increase in delay can be perceived as a performance improvement, such as when a variable controlled by the user is set to a running average of the users input. This can give the impression of smoother motion, but the controlled variable always reaches the desired value a bit late. Since it smooths out hi-frequency jitter, when the user is attempting to hold the value constant, they may feel like they are succeeding more readily. This kind of compromise would be appropriate for control of a sniper rifle in a video game. Another example may be doing trivial computation ahead of time rather than after a user triggers an action, such as pre-sorting a large list of data before a user wants to see it.\n", "Some commonly used RTOS scheduling algorithms are:\n\nBULLET::::- Cooperative scheduling\n\nBULLET::::- Preemptive scheduling\n\nBULLET::::- Rate-monotonic scheduling\n\nBULLET::::- Round-robin scheduling\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed priority pre-emptive scheduling, an implementation of preemptive time slicing\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed-Priority Scheduling with Deferred Preemption\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed-Priority Non-preemptive Scheduling\n\nBULLET::::- Critical section preemptive scheduling\n\nBULLET::::- Static time scheduling\n\nBULLET::::- Earliest Deadline First approach\n\nBULLET::::- Stochastic digraphs with multi-threaded graph traversal\n\nSection::::Intertask communication and resource sharing.\n", "Applications that expect real-time responses and low latency can react poorly with Nagle's algorithm. Applications such as networked multiplayer video games or the movement of the mouse in a remotely controlled operating system, expect that actions are sent immediately, while the algorithm purposefully delays transmission, increasing bandwidth efficiency at the expense of latency. For this reason applications with low-bandwidth time-sensitive transmissions typically use codice_1 to bypass the Nagle delay.\n\nAnother option is to use UDP instead.\n\nSection::::Operating systems implementation.\n", "There is nothing magic about the assumed time-periods – three years for system development and one month for the walk-forward interval. Picking these two time parameters is a trade-off between optimization time and statistical validity of the results. In practice, I have found that using about 20% of the optimization period for the walk- forward window works fairly well. Which window sizes work best is also affected by the given system, for different systems the optimal training and out-of-sample window size will be different.\n", "Apps for the platform are either made using Java ME, or as web apps, which are rendered by the Nokia Xpress browser which uses the Gecko rendering engine. The mobile operating system lacks true multitasking but the radio and music app can run in background mode (which is advertised as multitasking), while swiping to fastlane apps will actually close down previously opened applications instead of minimizing them.\n\nIt features a notification centre, named \"Fastlane\", which is accessible by swiping to the left of the home screen.\n", "Android Pie introduces a major change to power management, using algorithms to prioritize background activity by apps based on long-term usage patterns and predictions, dividing apps into \"Active\", \"Working Set\" (run often), \"Frequent\", \"Rare\", and \"Never\". Similar \"adaptive brightness\" settings are adjusted automatically based on detected lighting conditions. Both of these features were developed in collaboration with DeepMind. \n", "Section::::Solutions and lag compensation.:Client-side.\n\nAs clients are normally not allowed to define the main game state, but rather receive it from the server, the main task of the client-side compensation is to render the virtual world as accurately as possible. As updates come with a delay and may even be dropped, it is sometimes necessary for the client to predict the flow of the game. Since the state is updated in discrete steps, the client must be able to estimate a movement based on available samples. Two basic methods can be used to accomplish this; extrapolation and interpolation.\n", "In addition, Reduced Latency also implies support of Piggy-backed ACK/NACK (PAN), in which a bitmap of blocks not received is included in normal data blocks. Using the PAN field, the receiver may report missing data blocks immediately, rather than waiting to send a dedicated PAN message.\n", "One of the main jobs of an ASO marketer is to optimize the keywords in an app's metadata, so that the app store keyword ranking algorithms rank that app higher in the search engine results page for relevant keywords. This is accomplished by ensuring that relevant and important keywords are found in an app's metadata, as well as adjusting the mix of keywords across an app's metadata elements in order to increase the ranking strength of target keywords.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Conversion Rate Optimization.\n", "The Exynos version is faster than the Qualcomm Snapdragon version at multitasking where there is a clear difference, as the Qualcomm version fails to keep as many apps in the background and takes more time to switch between apps. However, the Snapdragon version performs better in graphically intensive apps and games.\n", "Generally, speech coding involves a trade-off of different aspects including bit-rate, speech quality, delay (frame size and lookahead), computational complexity, robustness to different speakers and languages, robustness to different background noises, channel error robustness, and also codec state recovery in the face of packet loss. Since the MELPe's lower rates (600 and 1200 bit/s) are supersets of the 2400 bit/s rate, the algorithm complexity (e.g. in MIPS) is about the same for all rates. The lower rates use increased frames and lookahead, as well as codebook size, therefore they require more memory.\n\nSection::::Intellectual property rights.\n", "BULLET::::4. Up to 20 promoted In-App Purchases, each of which appears in the app product page and is also eligible to appear in the featured tabs and the search results page. In-App Purchase metadata includes a name (30 characters, which does rank for keyword searches), description (45 characters, which does not rank for keyword searches), and an icon (1024x1024 PNG/JPEG).\n\nBULLET::::- App titles now limited to 30 characters\n", "Conversely, the same holds true for the server. The frame rate (or tick rate) of the server determines how often it can process data from clients and send updates.\n\nThis type of problem is difficult to predict and compensate for. Apart from enforcing minimum hardware requirements and attempting to optimize the game for better performance, there are no feasible ways to deal with it.\n", "App store optimization works by optimizing a target app's keyword metadata in order to earn higher ranks for relevant keywords in the search engine results page, as well as increasing the rate at which users decide to download that target app. ASO marketers try to achieve goals, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Being found more easily by users on the app stores, due to the fact that 65% of all downloads come from App Store searches\n\nBULLET::::- Ranking higher than competitors.\n\nBULLET::::- Ranking higher for specific keywords .\n\nBULLET::::- Ranking higher in Google´s semantic search through relevant backlinking.\n", "On May 26, 2012, Adam, C-P and Jeffball of DC949 gave a presentation at the LayerOne hacker conference detailing how they were able to achieve an automated solution with an accuracy rate of 99.1%. Their tactic was to use techniques from machine learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence, to analyse the audio version of reCAPTCHA which is available for the visually impaired. Google released a new version of reCAPTCHA just hours before their talk, making major changes to both the audio and visual versions of their service. In this release, the audio version was increased in length from 8 seconds to 30 seconds, and is much more difficult to understand, both for humans as well as bots. In response to this update and the following one, the members of DC949 released two more versions of Stiltwalker which beat reCAPTCHA with an accuracy of 60.95% and 59.4% respectively. After each successive break, Google updated reCAPTCHA within a few days. According to DC949, they often reverted to features that had been previously hacked.\n", "If an application consists of a collection of processes working closely together, and if some but not all of the processes are scheduled for execution, the executing processes may attempt to communicate with those that are not executing, which will cause them to block. Eventually the other processes will be scheduled for execution, but by this time the situation may be reversed so that these processes also block waiting for interactions with others. As a result, the application makes progress at the rate of at most one interprocess interaction per time slice, and will have low throughput and high latency.\n", "Per-day and per-minute quotas restrict bandwidth and CPU use, number of requests served, number of concurrent requests, and calls to the various APIs, and individual requests are terminated if they take more than 60 seconds or return more than 32MB of data.\n\nSection::::Major differences.:Differences between SQL and GQL.\n", "The effects of micro stuttering varies depending on the application and driver optimizations. Beyond dual-GPU setups, CrossFireX/SLI setups do not seem to be as affected by micro-stuttering; the frame rate variability in a three-way CrossFireX/SLI setup approaches the smoothness achieved by a single GPU.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04668	How do scientists seperate particles from the rest of their groupings?	The one used in the gold foil experiment was the alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons together). Radioactive substances found in nature like Uranium or Radium naturally decay and shoot out alpha particles. If you want electrons, you make a voltage between two electrodes in a gas, or shoot light on a photoelectric substance. Some substances emit electrons when heated too. If you want heavier particles such as ions, there are some chemical reactions that produce ions. In each case, you then speed them up by using electric and magnetic fields in certain configurations, and 'shoot' them.	[ "Often data sets of tens of thousands of particle images are used, and to reach an optimal solution an iterative procedure of alignment and classification is used, whereby strong image averages produced by classification are used as reference images for a subsequent alignment of the whole data set.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Image filtering.\n", "However, a micrograph often contains particles in multiple different orientations and/or conformations, and so to get more representative image averages, a method is required to group similar particle images together into multiple sets. This is normally carried out using one of several data analysis and image classification algorithms, such as multi-variate statistical analysis and hierarchical ascendant classification, or \"k\"-means clustering.\n", "It is of course possible to include distinguishable \"types\" of particles in the grand canonical ensemble—each distinguishable type formula_26 is tracked by a separate particle counter formula_27 and chemical potential formula_28. As a result, the only consistent way to include \"fully distinguishable\" particles in the grand canonical ensemble is to consider every possible distinguishable type of those particles, and to track each and every possible type with a separate particle counter and separate chemical potential.\n", "BULLET::::2. A gray scale thresholding process is used to perform image segmentation, segregating out the particles from the background, creating a binary image of each particle.\n\nBULLET::::3. Digital image processing techniques are used to perform image analysis operations, resulting in morphological and grey-scale measurements to be stored for each particle.\n", "Before a reconstruction can be made, the orientation of the object in each image needs to be estimated. Several methods have been developed to work out the relative Euler angles of each image. Some are based on common lines (common 1D projections and sinograms), others use iterative projection matching algorithms. The latter works by beginning with a simple, low resolution 3D starting model and compares the experimental images to projections of the model and creates a new 3D to bootstrap towards a solution.\n", "Section::::Synthesis.:Phase separation.\n\nThis method involves the mixing of two or more incompatible substances which then separate into their own domains while still part of a single nanoparticle. These methods can involve the production of Janus nanoparticles of two inorganic, as well as two organic, substances.\n", "But the only correct way is to match packages at the same level theoretical accuracy like the NLO matrix element calculation with NLO parton shower packages. This is currently in development.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe idea of automation of the calculations in high-energy physics is not new. It dates back to the 1960s when packages such as SCHOONSCHIP and then REDUCE had been developed.\n", "BULLET::::4. The measurements saved for each particle are then used to generate image population statistics, or as inputs to algorithms for filtering and sorting the particles into groups of similar types. In some systems, sophisticated pattern recognition techniques may also be employed in order to separate different particle types contained in a heterogeneous sample.\n\nImaging particle analyzers can be subdivided into two distinct types, static and dynamic, based upon the image acquisition methods. While the basic principles are the same, the methods of image acquisition are different in nature, and each has advantages and disadvantages.\n", "Biological samples, and especially samples embedded in thin vitreous ice, are highly radiation sensitive, thus only low electron doses can be used to image the sample. This low dose, as well as variations in the metal stain used (if used) means images have high noise relative to the signal given by the particle being observed. By aligning several similar images to each other so they are in register and then averaging them, an image with higher signal to noise ratio can be obtained. As the noise is mostly randomly distributed and the underlying image features constant, by averaging the intensity of each pixel over several images only the constant features are reinforced. Typically, the optimal alignment (a translation and an in-plane rotation) to map one image onto another is calculated by cross-correlation.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Alignment and classification.\n", "Each particle-target collision is called an \"event\". An elaborate data acquisition system records each event measured by the particle detectors, up to several thousand events per second on average. This data is then transferred to a \"farm\" of computing processors. Teams of physicists analyze the events, looking for new kinds of particles or information related to the underlying structure of the proton.\n\nSection::::Detector Description.\n", "Neutral hadrons can sometimes be identified in calorimeters. In particular, antineutrons and Ks can be identified. Neutral hadrons can also be identified at electron-positron colliders in the same way as neutrinos.\n\nSection::::Heavy quarks.\n\nQuark flavor tagging identifies the flavor of quark a jet comes from. B-tagging, the identification of bottom quarks, is the most important example.\n", "Section::::Techniques.\n\nSingle particle analysis can be done on both negatively stained and vitreous ice-embedded CryoTEM samples. Single particle analysis methods are, in general, reliant on the sample being homogeneous, although techniques for dealing with conformational heterogeneity are being developed.\n\nImages (micrographs) collected on film are digitized using high-quality scanners, although increasingly electron microscopes have built-in CCD detectors coupled to a phosphorescent layer. The image processing is carried out using specialized software programs (for instance ), often run on multi-processor computer clusters. Depending on the sample or the desired results, various steps of two- or three-dimensional processing can be done.\n", "In a \"traditional\" experiment, particles are identified or at least assigned to families (charged or neutral hadrons), by the characteristic signatures they leave in the detector. The experiment is divided into a few main components and each component tests a specific set of particle properties. These components are stacked in layers and the particles go through the layers sequentially from the collision point outwards: first a tracking system, then an electromagnetic (EM) and a hadronic calorimeter and finally a muon system. The detectors are embedded in a magnetic field in order to bend the tracks of charged particles for momentum and charge determination. This method for particle identification works well only for certain particles, and is used for example by the large LHC experiments ATLAS and CMS. However, this technique is not suitable for hadron identification as it doesn't allow distinguishing the different charged hadrons that are produced in Pb-Pb collisions.\n", "The initial electron or positron may undergo radiation before they actually interact: initial state radiation and beamstrahlung.\n\nThe bare partons that do not exist in nature (they are confined inside the hadrons) must be so to say dressed so that they form the known hadrons or mesons. They are made in two steps: parton shower and hadronization.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nThe most common type of particles used in single particle tracking are based either on scatterers, such as polystyrene beads or gold nanoparticles that can be tracked using bright field illumination, or fluorescent particles. For fluorescent tags, there are many different options with their own advantages and disadvantages, including quantum dots, fluorescent proteins, organic fluorophores, and cyanine dyes.\n\nOn a fundamental level, once the images are obtained, single-particle tracking is a two step process. First the particles are detected and then the localized different particles are connected in order to obtain individual trajectories.\n", "In simple manual columns, the eluent is collected in constant volumes, known as fractions. The more similar the particles are in size the more likely they are in the same fraction and not detected separately. More advanced columns overcome this problem by constantly monitoring the eluent.\n", "The mass defect used in nuclear physics is different from its use in mass spectrometry. In nuclear physics, the mass defect is the difference in the mass of a composite particle and the sum of the masses of its component parts. In mass spectrometry the mass defect is defined as the difference between the exact mass and the nearest integer mass.\n\nThe Kendrick mass defect is the exact Kendrick mass subtracted from the nearest integer Kendrick mass.\n\nMass defect filtering can be used to selectively detect compounds with a mass spectrometer based on their chemical composition.\n\nSection::::Packing fraction (mass spectrometry).\n", "During the simulation stage, the number of new particles that must be created is calculated based on spawning rates and the interval between updates, and each of them is spawned in a specific position in 3D space based on the emitter's position and the spawning area specified. Each of the particle's parameters (i.e. velocity, color, etc.) is initialized according to the emitter's parameters. At each update, all existing particles are checked to see if they have exceeded their lifetime, in which case they are removed from the simulation. Otherwise, the particles' position and other characteristics are advanced based on a physical simulation, which can be as simple as translating their current position, or as complicated as performing physically accurate trajectory calculations which take into account external forces (gravity, friction, wind, etc.). It is common to perform collision detection between particles and specified 3D objects in the scene to make the particles bounce off of or otherwise interact with obstacles in the environment. Collisions between particles are rarely used, as they are computationally expensive and not visually relevant for most simulations.\n", "Particle accelerators or colliders produce collisions (interactions) of particles (like the electron or the proton). The colliding particles form the \"Initial State\". In the collision, particles can be annihilated or/and exchanged producing possibly different sets of particles, the \"Final States\". The Initial and Final States of the interaction relate through the so-called scattering matrix (S-matrix).\n", "Section::::Reducing computation cost using Coarse Grained Particles.\n\nThe computation cost of CFD-DEM is huge due to a large number of particles and small time steps to resolve particle-particle collisions. To reduce computation cost, many real particles can be lumped into a Coarse Grained Particle (CGP) . The diameter of the CGP is calculated by the following equation:\n\nwhere formula_2 is the number of real particles in CGP. Then, the movement of CGPs can be tracked using DEM.\n", "Before the Standard Model was developed in the 1970s (the key elements of the Standard Model known as quarks were proposed by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964), physicists observed hundreds of different kinds of particles in particle accelerators. These were organized into relationships on their physical properties in a largely ad-hoc system of hierarchies, not entirely unlike the way taxonomy grouped animals based on their physical features. Not surprisingly, the huge number of particles was referred to as the \"particle zoo\".\n", "Section::::Collecting and collating the data.\n\nSection::::Collecting and collating the data.:Pattern recognition.\n\nNew particles discovered in CMS will be typically unstable and rapidly transform into a cascade of lighter, more stable and better understood particles. Particles travelling through CMS leave behind characteristic patterns, or ‘signatures’, in the different layers, allowing them to be identified. The presence (or not) of any new particles can then be inferred.\n\nSection::::Collecting and collating the data.:Trigger system.\n", "Particle systems may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional.\n\nSection::::Typical implementation.\n\nTypically a particle system's position and motion in 3D space are controlled by what is referred to as an emitter. The emitter acts as the source of the particles, and its location in 3D space determines where they are generated and where they move to. A regular 3D mesh object, such as a cube or a plane, can be used as an emitter. \n", "At two places of the ring the electron and the proton beam could be brought to collision. In the process, electrons or positrons are scattered at the constituents of the protons, the quarks. The products of these particle collisions, the scattered lepton and the quarks, which are produced by the fragmentation of the proton, were registered in huge detectors. In addition to the two collision zones, there are two more interaction zones. All four zones are placed in big subterranean halls. A different international group of researchers were at work in each hall. These groups developed, constructed and run house-high, complex measurement devices in many years of cooperative work and evaluate enormous amounts of data.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07962	why don’t humans have any real fur, and why does the fur we have feel different than animal fur?	Ancient humans where endurance hunters in Africa. We would run our prey down over incredible long distances until they inevitably tired or overheated, and then we would beat them to death with our buddies. This means that humans have evolved things like less fur to prevent overheating and the ability to sweat to cool ourselves while running.	[ "The fur of mammals has many uses: protection, sensory purposes, waterproofing, and camouflage, with the primary usage being thermoregulation. The types of hair include definitive, which may be shed after reaching a certain length; vibrissae, which are sensory hairs and are most commonly whiskers; pelage, which consists of guard hairs, under-fur, and awn hair; spines, which are a type of stiff guard hair used for defense in, for example, porcupines; bristles, which are long hairs usually used in visual signals, such as the mane of a lion; velli, often called \"down fur,\" which insulates newborn mammals; and wool, which is long, soft, and often curly. Hair length is negligible in thermoregulation, as some tropical mammals, such as sloths, have the same fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals. The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the musk ox has guard hairs measuring as well as a dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of . Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach in the summer, but the skin stays at . Aquatic mammals, conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping the skin dry.\n", "The manufacturing of fur clothing involves obtaining animal pelts where the hair is left on. Depending on the type of fur and its purpose, some of the chemicals involved in fur processing may include table salts, alum salts, acids, soda ash, sawdust, cornstarch, lanolin, degreasers and, less commonly, bleaches, dyes and toners (for dyed fur). Workers exposed to fur dust created during fur processing have been shown to have reduced pulmonary function in direct proportion to their length of exposure.\n", "In contrast, leather made from any animal hide involves removing the fur from the skin and using only the tanned skin. However, the use of wool involves shearing the animal's hair from the living animal. Fake fur (or \"faux fur\") designates any synthetic material that attempts to mimic the appearance and feel of real fur.\n", "Fur is also used to make felt. A common felt is made from beaver fur and is used in high-end cowboy hats.\n\nSection::::Use in clothing.:Common furbearers.\n\nCommon furbearers used include fox, rabbit, mink, beaver, ermine, otter, sable, seal, coyote, chinchilla, raccoon, and possum.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Nicole Kidman as Diane Arbus\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Downey Jr. as Lionel Sweeney\n\nBULLET::::- Ty Burrell as Allan Arbus\n\nBULLET::::- Harris Yulin as David Nemerov\n\nBULLET::::- Jane Alexander as Gertrude Nemerov\n\nBULLET::::- Emmy Clarke as Grace Arbus\n\nBULLET::::- Genevieve McCarthy as Sophie Arbus\n\nBULLET::::- Boris McGiver as Jack Henry\n\nBULLET::::- Marceline Hugot as Tippa Henry\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Duffy as Althea\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin 'Peppermint' Moore\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Quicker and more efficient methods of production are being researched, such as, special animal simulation techniques. One technique is simulating non-shrinkable fibers and shrinkable fibers of minks and another is mixing coarse and certain fine fibers together.\n", "Fur has long served as a source of clothing for humans, including Neanderthals. Historically, it was worn for its insulating quality, with aesthetics becoming a factor over time. Pelts were worn in or out, depending on their characteristics and desired use.\n\nToday fur and trim used in garments may be dyed bright colors or to mimic exotic animal patterns, or shorn close like velvet. The term \"a fur\" may connote a coat, wrap, or shawl.\n", "Section::::Composition.:Guard hair.\n", "The traditional heartland of the Fur is the mountainous region around Jebel Sî and Jebel Marra Wadi Salih and Zaligi; today, however, most of them live in the lower country west and southwest of that area, between 11–14 N and 23–26 E. Some Fur live across the border in Chad, many of them refugees.\n", "Section::::Mammals without fur.\n\nHair is one of the defining characteristics of mammals; however, several species or breeds have considerably reduced amounts of fur. These are often called \"naked\" or \"hairless\".\n\nSection::::Mammals without fur.:Natural selection.\n", "The only difference between hair and fur is semantics. Technically, both are made from keratin, which is also the protein that makes up skin, feathers, nails, hooves, claws, and horns. \"The way I think a lot of people understand fur versus hair is in the density of follicles,\" says Ross McPhee, Curator of the Department of Mammalogy at the American Museum of Natural History. \"So for fur-bearing animals—which were converted into coats and so-forth—people always wanted it to be something that was very dense, so there’s the idea therefore that fur is dense, and it certainly is in [the] kinds of fur-bearers that we use for this purpose. Whereas hair is not so dense. There's less of it.\" This remains untrue however, because the human head has as the same \"follicle density\" as a mouse, but it just so happens to be genetically predisposed to stop at the head and not continue down the body. There are three types of hair: ground hair, guard hair, and whiskers. \"Ground hair is used primarily as insulation and is soft, while guard hair is for protection from the elements and tends to be coarse.\" Both ground hair and guard hair are classified as fur. Because human hair acts as both, it can technically be called \"fur\". In reality, the keratin fibers that are described variously as hair, wool, or fur, depending on the animal type, are all referring to the same thing.\n", "Common animal sources for fur clothing and fur trimmed accessories include fox, rabbit, mink, raccoon dogs, muskrat, beaver, stoat (ermine), otter, sable, seals, cats, dogs, coyotes, wolves, chinchilla, and opossum and common brushtail possum. Some of these are more highly prized than others, and there are many grades and colors.\n\nSection::::Processing of fur.\n", "The term \"pelage\"first known use in English c. 1828 (French, from Middle French, from \"poil\" for \"hair\", from Old French \"peilss\", from Latin \"pilus\")is sometimes used to refer to an animal's complete coat. The term fur is also used to refer to animal pelts which have been processed into leather with their hair still attached. The words \"fur\" or \"furry\" are also used, more casually, to refer to hair-like growths or formations, particularly when the subject being referred to exhibits a dense coat of fine, soft \"hairs\". If layered, rather than grown as a single coat, it may consist of short down hairs, long guard hairs, and in some cases, medium awn hairs. Mammals with reduced amounts of fur are often called \"naked\", as with the naked mole-rat, or \"hairless\", as with hairless dogs.\n", "The manufacturing of fur clothing involves obtaining animal pelts where the hair is left on the animal's processed skin. In contrast, making leather involves removing the hair from the hide or pelt and using only the skin. The use of wool involves shearing the animal's fleece from the living animal, so that the wool can be regrown but sheepskin shearling is made by retaining the fleece to the leather and shearing it. Shearling is used for boots, jackets and coats and is probably the most common type of skin worn.\n", "Fur (disambiguation)\n\nFur refers to the body hair of non-human mammals.\n\nFur may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Material.\n\nBULLET::::- Fake fur (also called \"faux fur\"), material designed to resemble animal fur\n\nBULLET::::- Fur clothing\n\nSection::::Places.\n\nBULLET::::- Fur (island), in Denmark\n\nBULLET::::- Fur Formation, a geologic feature\n\nBULLET::::- Fur, Sweden, a village in Sweden\n\nSection::::People.\n\nBULLET::::- Fur (surname)\n\nBULLET::::- Für, a Hungarian surname\n\nBULLET::::- Fur people, an ethnic group of Sudan\n\nSection::::Languages.\n\nBULLET::::- Fur language\n\nBULLET::::- Fur languages\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fur\" (Archie Bronson Outfit album)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fur\" (Jane Wiedlin album)\n", "The Fur are the largest ethnic group in the Darfur region of western Sudan. They are also sometimes referred to by the names Fora, Fordunga, Furawi, Konjara, or Kungara. They are an active agricultural people and may also herd cattle. Some Fur families who have accumulated a substantial cattle herd developed a more nomadic lifestyle like that of their herding neighbors, the Baqqara (Baggara) Arabs. Culturally, those cattle-herding Fur are now considered to be Baqqara. The Fur are nominally Sunni Muslims following the Maliki school of Islamic law.\n", "Section::::Canadian Plush Lop.:Working Standard.\n\nWorking Standard for the Canadian Plush Lop [source: document approved by the Breeders' Group in 2008, updated 2011]\n\nThe Canadian Plush Lop\n\nWorking Standard\n\nSCHEDULE OF POINTS\n\nBULLET::::- General type: 45\n\nBULLET::::- Head and ears: 10\n\nBULLET::::- Chest and shoulders: 5\n\nBULLET::::- Midsection 5\n\nBULLET::::- Hindquarters 10\n\nBULLET::::- Bone, legs, and feet 10\n\nBULLET::::- Tail 5\n\nBULLET::::- Fur: 40\n\nBULLET::::- Texture 15\n\nBULLET::::- Luster 5\n\nBULLET::::- Amount of curl 20\n\nBULLET::::- Color and Markings: 10\n\nBULLET::::- Condition: 5\n\nTotal Points: 100\n\nTo be entered and shown in two classifications:br\n\nBroken Pattern and Solid Patternbr\n", "The popularity of natural fur has gone up and down in recent years. Vogue Paris published a homage to fur in August 2017 and later Gucci followed the idea of not using animal fur other high end brands to follow this lead are Stella McCartney, Givenchy, Calvin Klein, Ralph Lauren, Michael Kors, Philosophy di Lorenzo Serafini. Burberry announced to stop sending model with fur on runways however did not stop selling it in stores. There are many companies that are taking the imitative of coming up with more sustainable ways in producing leather and fur. Designer Ingar Helgason is developing Bio fur which would grows synthetic pelts the way that Modern Meadow has been able to produce grown leather and Diamond foundry created lab grown diamonds. BOF fur debate hosted by Zilberkweit director of the British Fur Association argued that natural fur was more sustainable, many forms of faux fur are not biodegradable “Our industry is about raising animals in a natural way, a kind way and it’s a renewable source. However not everyone agrees to this others said that chemical processes needed to treat animals’ fur in order to be worn are just as detrimental to the environment. \n", "Hair length is not a factor in thermoregulation: for example, some tropical mammals such as sloths have the same length of fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals. The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the musk ox has guard hairs measuring as well as a dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of . Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach in the summer, but the skin stays at . Aquatic mammals, conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping the skin dry.\n", "Fur is still worn in most mild and cool climates around the world due to its superior warmth and durability. From the days of early European settlement, up until the development of modern clothing alternatives, fur clothing was popular in Canada during the cold winters. The invention of inexpensive synthetic textiles for insulating clothing led to fur clothing falling out of fashion.\n", "BULLET::::- Wool has a combination of wicking and water-repelling properties and, along with silk, is the most expensive of the materials used for base layers. How comfortable wool feels against skin varies greatly, with Merino wool being softer . Wool is highly odor resistant.\n", "While wearing fur clothing in cold weather as protection goes back to the Stone Age, the source for this material came from the wild. As human populations grew, furs, leathers, and hides for use in clothing came from farm stock, such as sheep (sheepskin), rabbits, cattle, pigs, and goats. The earliest records of breeding mink for fur in North America were in the 1860s. Foxes were first raised on farms for fur in Prince Edward Island in Canada in 1895.\n", "Section::::Use in clothing.:Criticisms.:Fur today.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nFur is generally thought to have been among the first materials used for clothing and bodily decoration. The exact date when fur was first used in clothing is debated. It is known that several species of hominoids including \"Homo sapiens\" and \"Homo neanderthalensis\" used fur clothing.\n", "Section::::Australian brushtail possum.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16818	How do music streaming services like Spotify work out how much to pay artists?	Probably based on how much each of their songs are played per unit of time(month or week). Unless the song isn't copyrighted(really old songs like Rock Lobster) then they probably don't have to pay anything to have it.	[ "Who license music (to music-users) and act as royalty collection and distribution agencies for their members. These funds are distributed quarterly though there can be delays depending on what PRO is being used to collect on music royalties. If copyrights holder(s) want payment sooner they have an option to take out an advance against their royalties with their PRO though these are based around 100% recoupment. \n", "Further, companies like Sentric Music and the royalty payment service offered by Last.fm can help in generating income streams for unsigned bands.\n\nSection::::History and current scene.\n", "In December 2013, the company launched a new website, \"Spotify for Artists\", that explained its business model and revenue data. Spotify gets its content from major record labels as well as independent artists, and pays copyright holders royalties for streamed music. The company pays 70% of its total revenue to rights holders. Spotify for Artists states that the company does not have a fixed per-play rate, instead considers factors such as the user's home country and the individual artist's royalty rate. Rights holders received an average per-play payout between $.006 and $.0084.\n", "One artist has stated that artist royalties per track from Aspiro/Tidal are currently over three times than those paid by Spotify, but that royalties may decrease to provide a sufficient return on investment. Jay-Z commented in an interview to \"Billboard\" that artists would be paid more by being streamed on Tidal than with Spotify, stating \"Will artists make more money? Even if it means less profit for our bottom line? Absolutely.\" In the same interview he also stressed the service was for people \"lower down on the food chain\".\n", "Pricing: Amazon Prime subscribers are given access to part of the music library, and can unlock full access by paying either $8 a month, or $79 per year. Non Amazon-Prime users can pay the industry standard of $10 per month, and there is a $4 per month option for users who exclusively listen through Amazon's Echo speaker.\n\nBusiness Model: subscription-based streaming + a-la-carte downloads.\n\nSection::::Exclusive Releases as Promotion.\n\nSection::::Exclusive Releases as Promotion.:The Beginning of Exclusive Releases.\n", "In mid-November, Borchetta disputed figures released by Spotify that claimed that Swift would receive US$6 million annually from the streaming site—Borchetta said in a \"TIME\" magazine interview that Swift was paid a total of US$500,000 over the previous 12 months. Spotify responded to Borchetta, by clarifying that Swift had been paid US$2 million for global streaming over the year-long time frame. Spotify further explained: \"We [Spotify] paid Taylor [Swift]'s label and publisher roughly half a million dollars in the month before she took her catalog down\". According to Borchetta, the amount Swift earned from streaming her music videos on the Vevo site was greater than the payout she received from Spotify.\n", "In the U.S., the Harry Fox Agency, HFA, is the predominant licensor, collector and distributor for mechanical royalties, although there are several small competing organizations. For its operations, it charges about 6% as commission. HFA, like its counterparts in other countries, is a state-approved quasi-monopoly and is expected to act in the interests of the composers/songwriters – and thus obtains the right to audit record company sales. Additional third party administrators such as RightsFlow provide services to license, account and pay mechanical royalties and are growing. RightsFlow is paid by the licensees (artists, labels, distributors, online music services) and in turn does not extract a commission from the mechanical royalties paid out.\n", "BULLET::::3. Tour Financials: Artists and their business managers are able to track all revenue and costs associated with a tour. Artist Growth's integrations with booking agencies provide real-time revenue information. Tour managers are also able to report expenses on the road in real-time. Artist managers and financial accountants are able to view roster-wide financials.\n", "The SoundExchange, a non-profit organization, is defined under the legislation to act on behalf of record companies (including the majors) to license performance and reproduction rights and negotiate royalties with the broadcasters. It is governed by a board of artist and label representatives. Services include track level accounting of performances to all \"members\" and collection and distribution of foreign royalties to all members.\n", "Exclusive streaming may on the way out just as quickly as it appeared. Record labels have begun to realize that exclusively releasing through one or two streaming services could stunt the long-term growth in subscription music. The upfront fee may be enticing to struggling labels in the short term, but may hurt their overall sales and streaming while the streaming services themselves benefit much more from the PR, new users, and streaming itself.\n", "Section::::Business structure.:Broadcast, soundtrack and streaming.\n", "When a recording is broadcast (either on radio or by a background music service such as Muzak), performance rights organisations (such as the ASCAP and BMI in the US, SOCAN in Canada, or MCPS and PRS in the UK), collect a third type of royalty known as a performance royalty, which is paid to songwriters, composers and recording artists. This royalty is typically much smaller than publishing or mechanical royalties. Within the past decade, more than \"15 to 30 percent\" of tracks on streaming services are unidentified with a specific artist. Jeff Price says \"Audiam, an online music streaming service, has made over several hundred thousand dollars in the past year from collecting royalties from online streaming. According to Ken Levitan, manager from Kings of Leon, Cheap Trick and others, \"Youtube has become radio for kids\". Because of the overuse of YouTube and offline streaming, album sales have fallen by 60 percent in the past few years. When recordings are used in television and film, the composer and their publishing company are typically paid through a synchronization license. In the 2000s, online subscription services (such as Rhapsody) also provide an income stream directly to record companies, and through them, to artists, contracts permitting.\n", "Prices for Rock Band Networks songs are set by the parties involved with authoring and submitting the song, and can be set at either 80, 160 or 240 Microsoft Points ($1, 2, or 3, respectively.) The artist retains 30% of this cost, with the remaining 70% of each sale split between Harmonix and Microsoft (although the exact ratios of that distribution are unknown).\n\nSection::::Complete list of available songs.\n", "In July, 2019 it was reported that Page is leaving the company in the autumn.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\n\"Money in, money out: Lessons from CMOs in allocating and distributing licensing revenue\", Music & Copyright Newsletter 29 August 2018\n\n\"Can two societies ever be better than one? Lessons in collective rights management from Brazil, Turkey, and the US\", Ovum TMT Intelligence 2016\n\n\"The Causes and Consequences of Allocating Revenue between Mechanical and Performing rights\", Ovum TMT Intelligence 2017\n\nSpotify: Global Value of the Music Industry 2017 - Music Business Worldwide\n\nSpotify: Global Value of the Music Industry 2016 - Music Business Worldwide\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bloomberg TV\", Snow White, Whitney & Usher Royalties for Sale, Feb. 19 2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stocks, Bonds, And...Coldplay?/ \"Yahoo Finance\", Stocks, Bonds, And...Coldplay?, May 14 2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"USA Today\", Website Turns Music Royalties into Investments, June 9 2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"Forbes\", Forbes 30 Under 30 in Music, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"Entrepreneur\", An Introduction to Royalty Financing, Aug. 18 2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yahoo Finance\", Jennifer Lopez's bottom line: How to share in her earnings, Nov. 10 2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"Music Row\", Royalty Exchange Launches ARIA Online Tool For Royalty Owners & Publishers, Jan. 14 2015\n", "BULLET::::- \"See You Again\": In July 2017, a backup singer on Wiz Khalifa's #1 single \"See You Again\" auctioned off his digital performer royalties for the United States.\n", "It would then be responsible for using that money to pay the artist's royalty - a fee that, at the superstar level, can come close to equaling the licensing royalty the company is apt to get from a label.\n", "On January 3, 2019, Amazon Music launched its 2019 Artists to Watch, a playlist featuring a diverse set of up-and-coming artists across numerous genres the tech giant is betting will have a breakout year in 2019. Among the artists poised to break is recently signed Capitol singer/songwriter Freya Ridings.\n", "Unlike physical or download sales, which pay artists a fixed price per song or album sold, Spotify pays royalties based on the number of artists' streams as a proportion of total songs streamed. It distributes approximately 70% of total revenue to rights holders, who then pay artists based on their individual agreements. Spotify has faced criticism from artists and producers including Taylor Swift and Thom Yorke, who have argued that it does not fairly compensate musicians. In 2017, as part of its efforts to renegotiate license deals for an interest in going public, Spotify announced that artists would be able to make albums temporarily exclusive to paid subscriptions if they are part of Universal Music Group or the Merlin Network.\n", "In September 2017, Royalty Exchange created a company called Royalty Flow, designed to acquire and hold royalty streams \"of the world's biggest artists,\" starting with the Bass Brothers' production share of Eminem's 1999-2013 catalog. Royalty Flow filed with the SEC under Regulation A+ to raise between $11 million and $50 million to acquire the Eminem catalog from the producers who discovered and developed him--FBT Productions--as well as future catalogs. Those buying shares in Royalty Flow would have the right to collect dividends based on the performance of the Eminem catalog and any other catalogs acquired over time. The company intends to later list directly to the NASDAQ. \n", "Prices for Rock Band Networks songs are set by the parties involved with authoring and submitting the song, and can be set at either US$1.00, $1.99 or $2.99 The artist retains 30% of this cost, with the remaining 70% of each sale split between Harmonix and Microsoft (although the exact ratios of that distribution are unknown).\n\nSection::::Complete list of available songs.\n", "In a fair publishing agreement, every 100 units of currency that flows to the publisher gets divided as follows: 50 units go to the songwriter and 50 units to the publisher minus operating and administrative fees and applicable taxes. However, the music writer obtains a further 25 units from the publisher's share, if the music writer retains a portion of the music publishing rights (as a co-publisher). In effect, the co-publishing agreement is a 50/50 share of royalties in favor of the songwriter if administrative costs of publishing are disregarded. This is near international practice.\n", "Mechanical societies for other countries can be found at the main national collection societies.\n\nThe mechanical royalty rate paid to the publisher in Europe is about 6.5% on the Published Price to Dealer (PPD).\n\nRecord companies are responsible for paying royalties to those artists who have performed for a recording based on the sale of CDs by retailers.\n\nSection::::Music.:Performance.\n\n\"Performance\" in the music industry can include any of the following:\n", "Prices for Rock Band Networks songs are set by the parties involved with authoring and submitting the song, and can be set at either $1.00, 1.99, or 2.99. The artist retains 30% of this cost, with the remaining 70% of each sale split between Harmonix and Microsoft (although the exact ratios of that distribution are unknown).\n\nSection::::Complete list of available songs.\n", "The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) revealed in its 2015 earnings report that streaming services were responsible for 34.3 percent of the year's U.S. recorded-music-industry revenue, growing 29 percent from the previous year and becoming the largest source of income, pulling in around $2.4 billion. US streaming revenue grew 57 percent to $1.6 billion in the first half of 2016 and accounted for almost half of industry sales. This contrasts with the $14.6 billion in revenue that was received in 1999 by the U.S. music industry from the sale of CDs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22950	why does our metabolism start to work slower when we hit our 20’s?	It doesn’t really. At least not significantly. Your resting metabolic rate does slow down over time, but only to the point of where you would need about 250-500 calories less in a day when you hit middle/late age. People tend to gain weight in early to mid adulthood because they’re no longer playing high school sports or doing anything to stay active enough, along with more stress and alcohol consumption. Don’t be worried about your metabolism as you age, worry about your eating and exercise habits. Slow metabolism isn’t an excuse at all	[ "Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atwater system\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical energy\n\nBULLET::::- Food chain\n\nBULLET::::- Food composition\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by food energy intake\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition facts label\n\nBULLET::::- Table of food nutrients\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book \"Ars de statica medicina\". He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called \"insensible perspiration\".\n", "Section::::Transitions in body composition.:Changes in body composition when food is restricted.\n\nData from the Minnesota Starvation Experiment by Ancel Keys and others demonstrate that during food restriction, total body mass, fat mass and lean body mass follow an exponential approach to a new steady state. The observation that body mass changes exponentially during partial or complete starvation seems to be a general feature of adaptation to energy restriction.\n\nSection::::The plateau principle in biochemistry.\n", "Section::::Research.:Human metabolism.\n", "BULLET::::- stoichiometric constraints on production\n\nBULLET::::- organizational uncoupling of metabolic modules (assimilation, dissipation, growth)\n\nBULLET::::- strong and weak homeostasis (composition of compartments is constant; composition of the organism is constant when the food is constant)\n\nBULLET::::- substrate(s) from the environment is/are first converted to reserve(s) before being used for further metabolism\n", "The fitness level of a human body in training can be broken down into four periods: initial fitness, parietal fitness training, recovery, and supercompensation. During the initial fitness period, the target of the training has a base level of fitness (shown by the first time sector in the graph). Upon entering the training period, the target's level of fitness decreases (shown by the second time sector in the graph). After training, the body enters the recovery period during which level of fitness increases up to the initial fitness level (shown by the third time sector in the graph). Because the human body is an adjustable organism, it will feel the need to adjust itself to a higher level of fitness in anticipation of the next training session. Accordingly, the increase in fitness following a training session does not stop at the initial fitness level. Instead the body enters a period of supercompensation during which fitness surpasses the initial fitness level (shown by the fourth time sector in the graph). If there are no further workouts, this fitness level will slowly decline back towards the initial fitness level (shown by the last time sector in the graph). First put forth by Russian scientist Nikolai N. Yakovlev (1911–1992) in 1949-1959, this theory is a basic principle of athletic training.\n", "This energy expenditure is very large compared to the basal resting metabolic rate of the adult human body. This rate varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W.\n\nSection::::Metabolic changes.\n\nSection::::Metabolic changes.:Rapid energy sources.\n", "The fact that weight loss and dieting reduce the metabolic rate is supported by research. In one study, heat production was reduced 30% in obese men after a weight loss program, and this led to resistance to further lose body weight. Whether body mass increases or decreases, adjustments in the thermic effect of food, resting energy expenditure, and non-resting energy expenditure all oppose further change.\n\nSection::::Transitions in body composition.:Plateaus during strength training.\n", "But in the 1950s, Louis Sokoloff and his colleagues noticed that metabolism in the brain stayed the same when a person went from a resting state to performing effortful math problems suggesting active metabolism in the brain must also be happening during rest. In the 1970s, Ingvar and colleagues observed blood flow in the front part of the brain became the highest when a person is at rest. Around the same time, intrinsic oscillatory behavior in vertebrate neurons was observed in cerebellar Purkinje cells, inferior olivary nucleus and thalamus.\n", "The environment can have major influences on human physiology. Environmental effects on human physiology are numerous; one of the most carefully studied effects is the alterations in thermoregulation in the body due to outside stresses. This is necessary because in order for enzymes to function, blood to flow, and for various body organs to operate, temperature must remain at consistent, balanced levels.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Humans.:Thermoregulation.\n\nTo achieve this, the body alters three main things to achieve a constant, normal body temperature:\n\nBULLET::::- Heat transfer to the epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of evaporation\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of heat production\n", "Metabolic window\n\nThe metabolic window (also called the anabolic window or protein window) is a term used in strength training to describe the 30-minute (give or take, dependent on the individual) period after exercise during which nutrition can shift the body from a catabolic state to an anabolic one. Specifically, it is during this period that the intake of protein and carbohydrates can aid in the increase of muscle mass.\n", "BULLET::::- Harnessing the strain rate determinants – In this mode, the relationship governing the amount of strain incurred per unit effort is altered so that less strain is incurred. This is done for instance through endurance programs and providing productive work environments in organizational management, or by reduced interest rates in macroeconomic management to reduce the economic strain incurred as economic agents pursue economic activities.\n", "Section::::Metabolic flux analysis.:Determining the optimal genetic manipulations.\n", "Section::::Energy.\n\nDuring the eccentric phase of movement, the muscle absorbs energy. This work is done \"by stretching the muscle and in this process the muscle absorbs mechanical energy\".\n\nThis mechanical energy is dissipated or converted into one or a combination of two energies. \n\nBULLET::::- Heat\n\nBULLET::::- Elastic recoil\n\nSection::::Energy.:Heat.\n\nThe energy that is absorbed by the muscle will be dissipated as heat if the muscle is being used as a \"damper or shock absorber\". This leads to increase in body temperature.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Elastic recoil.\n", "The loss of 10 pounds of muscle per decade is one consequence of a sedentary lifestyle. The adaptive processes of the human body will only respond if continually called upon to exert greater force to meet higher physiological demands.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n", "The Dynamic Energy Budget theory provides a mechanistic explanation of this model in the case of isomorphs that experience a constant food availability. The inverse of the Bertalanffy growth rate appears to depend linearly on the ultimate length, when different food levels are compared. The intercept relates to the maintenance costs, the slope to the rate at which reserve is mobilized for use by metabolism. The ultimate length equals the maximum length at high food availabilities.\n\nSection::::Work.:Bertalanffy equation.\n", "Section::::Research.:Metabolic engineering.\n", "BULLET::::- Tachymetabolism, maintaining a high metabolic rate, particularly when at rest. This requires a fairly high and stable body temperature because of the Q effect: biochemical processes run about half as fast if an animal's temperature drops by 10 °C.\n", "Temperature is increased after eating or drinking anything with calories. Caloric restriction, as for a weight-loss diet, decreases overall body temperature. Drinking alcohol decreases the amount of daily change, slightly lowering daytime temperatures and noticeably raising nighttime temperatures.\n\nExercise raises body temperatures. In adults, a noticeable increase usually requires strenuous exercise or exercise sustained over a significant time. Children develop higher temperatures with milder activities, like playing.\n\nPsychological factors also influence body temperature: a very excited person often has an elevated temperature.\n", "Using these equations we can look at some simple extreme behaviors. For example, let us assume that the first step is completely insensitive to its product (i.e. not reacting with it), S, then formula_20. In this case, the control coefficients reduce to:\n\nformula_21\n\nformula_22\n", "where,\n\nOr\n\nwhere,\n\nIt is also acceptable to approximate this relationship for occupants engaged in near sedentary physical activity (with metabolic rates between 1.0 met and 1.3 met), not in direct sunlight, and not exposed to air velocities greater than 0.10 m/s (20 fpm). \n\nwhere formula_5 and formula_6 have the same meaning as above.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "Section::::Unique brain percentage of body energy consumption.\n", "All the components in the body require various levels of energy to be maintained. Body fat requires much less energy than lean muscle, as lean muscle is much more metabolically active and therefore requires more energy expenditure to remain in homeostasis. If comparing two individuals, with all variables being equal, the person with more lean muscle mass will have a higher basal metabolic rate, and therefore, a lower metabolic age in comparison to those with the identical chronological age.\n", "In certain ways, a metabolic pathway is similar to a factory assembly line. Products are assembled from parts by workers who each perform a specific step in the manufacturing process. Enzymes of a cell are like workers on an assembly line; each is only responsible for a particular step in the assembly process. A lag period also occurs when a new factory is constructed, a time period before finished products begin to roll off the assembly line at a steady rate. This lag period partially results from the time needed to fill supply bins with the necessary parts. As you might imagine, when parts are not readily available, production slows or stops. Metabolite pools are somewhat analogous to the parts bins of a factory. The Calvin-Benson cycle will only operate at full speed when the cellular 'bins' are full of the molecular building blocks that lie between PGA and RUBP.\n", "Section::::Control system.\n\nThe core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus. As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).\n\nSection::::In hot conditions.\n" ]	[ "Metabolism slows down when people reach their 20s", "Metabolism slows when we hit our 20's." ]	[ "Metabolism doesn't slow down until middle or late age.", "Metabolism does not slow significantly when we hit our 20's, weight is gained due to a reduction in physical activity." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Metabolism slows down when people reach their 20s", "Metabolism slows when we hit our 20's." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Metabolism doesn't slow down until middle or late age.", "Metabolism does not slow significantly when we hit our 20's, weight is gained due to a reduction in physical activity." ]
2018-06257	Why do scientific names use English/Latin pronunciation and characters when not all languages have a relationship to Latin	because the current scientific community was historically dominated by Western Europe for centuries. Which was when they were set as conventions, by a latin loving royal society. Changing it now would be complicated and confusing. I'm sorry there isn't a more elegant answer to that question, but its how people work.	[ "During modern times Europe has largely abandoned Latin as a scholarly language (most scientific studies and scholarly publications are printed in English), but a variety of fields still use Latin terminology as the norm. By tradition, it is still common in some fields to name new discoveries in Latin. And because Western science became dominant during the 18th and 19th centuries, the use of Latin names in many scholarly fields has gained worldwide acceptance, at least when European languages are being used for communication.\n", "Section::::Literary translation.:Science fiction.\n\nScience fiction being a genre with a recognizable set of conventions and literary genealogies, in which language often includes neologisms, neosemes, and invented languages, techno-scientific and pseudoscientific vocabulary, and fictional representation of the translation process, the translation of science-fiction texts involves specific concerns. The science-fiction translator tends to acquire specific competences and assume a distinctive publishing and cultural agency. As in the case of other mass-fiction genres, this professional specialization and role often is not recognized by publishers and scholars.\n", "More extensive modifications to the spelling and pronunciation are routinely used in some other languages. French organism names are usually gallicized. For example: \"Chlorophyceae\" becomes Chlorophycées; \"Portulacineae\" becomes Portulacinées.\n\nSection::::Orthography of taxon names.:Alphabet.\n\nThe Classical Latin alphabet consisted of 21 letters, to which w, y, and z were later added, and the vowel/consonant pairs i and j, u and v, were later separated. This 26-letter alphabet is used for taxon names in Botanical Latin. Diacritics are not used in names, and a dieresis is considered an optional mark that does not affect spelling.\n\nSection::::English pronunciation.\n", "Some English speakers, and some speakers of other languages, use the reconstructed pronunciation guide for Classical Latin when speaking Botanical Latin. Latin names pronounced by gardeners and English botanists usually follow a system close to English. It differs greatly from Classical pronunciation, and also from Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation (which is based on Italian, and has, for example, \"c\" before \"i\" or \"e\" pronounced as \"ch\").\n\nEvery vowel is pronounced, except diphthongs, which are treated as single long vowels.\n", "This list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names is intended to help those unfamiliar with classical languages to understand and remember the scientific names of organisms. The binomial nomenclature used for animals and plants is largely derived from Latin and Greek words, as are some of the names used for higher taxa, such as orders and above. At the time when biologist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) published the books that are now accepted as the starting point of binomial nomenclature, Latin was used in Western Europe as the common language of science, and scientific names were in Latin or Greek: Linnaeus continued this practice.\n", "Botanical Latin is primarily a written language. It includes taxon names derived from any language or even arbitrarily derived, and consequently there is no single consistent pronunciation system. When speakers of different languages use Botanical Latin in speech, they use pronunciations influenced by their own languages, or, notably in French, there may be variant spellings based on the Latin. There are at least two pronunciation systems used for Latin by English speakers. All of these systems, however, will inevitably be unsustainable across the spectrum of botanical names.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n\nAugustin Pyramus de Candolle described the language in 1880:\n", "When occasionally a term for a modern concept cannot be found, the customary practice is to do exactly what most other languages do: to borrow an international word (often from a Romance language or English). Such direct borrowing was done for the particle names and and for the unit of temperature . The word is given a Latin morphology if this can be done easily, or, if not, used unchanged in its foreign form; but many international words already have a Latin or Graeco-Latin appearance, because Greek and Latin have always served as sources of new scientific terminology.\n\nSection::::Orthography.\n", "Because most scientific journals accept manuscripts only in English, an entire industry has developed to help non-native English speaking authors improve their text before submission. It is just now becoming an accepted practice to utilize the benefits of these services. This is making it easier for scientists to focus on their research and still get published in top journals.\n", "Many universities and other institutions have official Latin names. In fields where Latin is the current standard language, Vicipaedia normally adopts official names as pagenames, even if they belong to scientific or technical, rather than to classical Latin. This applies to:\n\nBULLET::::- names of Catholic dioceses\n\nBULLET::::- Catholic official titles\n\nBULLET::::- biological species and other taxa\n\nBULLET::::- planets, asteroids, satellites and constellations\n\nBULLET::::- topographical features on extraterrestrial bodies\n\nBULLET::::- anatomical names\n\nBULLET::::- names of diseases\n", "Translation of science fiction accounts for the transnational nature of science fiction's repertoire of shared conventions and tropes. After World War II, many European countries were swept by a wave of translations from the English. Due to the prominence of English as a source language, the use of pseudonyms and pseudotranslations became common in countries such as Italy and Hungary, and English has often been used as a vehicular language to translate from languages such as Chinese and Japanese.\n\nMore recently, the international market in science-fiction translations has seen an increasing presence of source languages other than English.\n\nSection::::Technical translation.\n", "There is no definite limit to how sophisticated a level of Latin may be brought to bear in conventional scientific terminology; such convention dates back to the days when nearly all standard communications in such subjects were written in Latin as an international scientific lingua franca. That was not so long ago; from the latter days of the Roman empire, Classical Latin had become the dominant language in learned, civil, diplomatic, legal, and religious communication in many states in Europe. Even after Latin had lost its status as a vernacular, Medieval or Late Latin increasingly became the \"de facto lingua franca\" in educated circles during the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. The peak of the dominance of Latin in such contexts probably was during the Renaissance, but the language only began to lose favour for such purposes in the eighteenth century, and gradually at that. The presence of Latin terms in modern writing is largely the residue of the terminology of old documents.\n", "Since the pioneering work of Linnaeus, species of organisms have had recognized scientific names in Latin, Greek, or a modernized derivative of one or both of those languages. In most groups of organisms, the scientific names are sufficient, enjoying widespread use among academics and amateurs alike. By contrast, non-scientific (vernacular) names for birds are extensively used in scientific communication as well as in the large community of amateur enthusiasts. However, vernacular names change frequently and often vary from place to place. Consequently, there is a need to have a degree of consistency in the vernacular names used around the world.\n", "It is generally accepted that the name of the author shall be given in the nominative singular case if originally given in a different case, and that the name of the author should be spelled in Latin script. There are no commonly accepted conventions how to transcribe names of authors if given in non-Latin script.\n", "The ISV is one of the concepts behind the development and standardization of the constructed language called Interlingua. Scientific and medical terms in Interlingua are largely of Greco-Latin origin, but, like most Interlingua words, they appear in a wide range of languages. Interlingua's vocabulary is established using a group of \"control languages\" selected because they radiate words into, and absorb words from, a large number of other languages. A \"prototyping\" technique then selects the most recent common ancestor of each eligible Interlingua word or affix. The word or affix takes a contemporary form based on the control languages. This procedure is meant to give Interlingua the most generally international vocabulary possible.\n", "In Western and Central Europe and parts of Africa, Latin retained its elevated status as the main vehicle of communication for the learned classes throughout the Middle Ages; this is especially seen during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Books which had a revolutionary impact on science, such as Nicolaus Copernicus' \"De revolutionibus orbium coelestium\" (1543), were composed in Latin. This language was not supplanted for scientific purposes until the 18th century, and for formal descriptions in zoology, as well as botany - it survived to the later 20th century. The modern international Binomial nomenclature holds to this day: the scientific name of each species is classified by a Latin or Latinized name.\n", "Summarizing the situation of Spanish language in science researcher Álvaro Cabezas writes: \"\"No serious scientist publish his best works in a language other than English\".\"\n\nThe creation of new terminology in Spanish corresponds more to the translation of concepts from other languages than to the crafting of original ideas. \n\nSection::::Bibliometric studies.\n", "Many of the plants were identified in local vernacular and required additional research to verify the Latin or English names. In some instances an English name did not exist. “Nalls located botanical taxonomy scholars from the New York Botanical Garden and ethno-botanists from the National Tropical Botanical Garden in Hawaii to assist in properly identifying the botanical names” materials which had been referred to in colloquial terms such as, Senegal: Gowe (Cyperus articulatus), no English name, and American Samoa: Mos’oi (Cananga odorata), English name Ylang-ylang.\n", "Species names are written in the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, but many species names are based on words from other languages, Latinized.\n\nOnce the manuscript has been accepted for publication, the new species name is officially created.\n", "For Bacteria, valid names must have a Latin or Neolatin name and can only use basic latin letters (w and j inclusive, see History of the Latin alphabet for these), consequently hyphens, accents and other letters are not accepted and should be transliterated correctly (e.g. ß=ss). Ancient Greek being written in the Greek alphabet, needs to be transliterated into the Latin alphabet.\n", "\"These rules cannot satisfactorily be applied to all generic names and specific epithets commemorating persons. About 80 per cent of generic names and 30 per cent of specific epithets come from languages other than Latin and Greek. A simple and consistent method of pronouncing them does not exist.\"\n\nThe rules also create difficulties with the -\"ii\" and -\"iae\" endings derived from personal names, because the stress falls in a place that is not usual for those names.\n\nSection::::English pronunciation.:Traditional English pronunciation.\n", "and 1983 reverted the orthography back to the incorrect spelling \"locus coeruleus\", while the subsequent edition from 1989 eventually returned to the correct spelling \"locus caeruleus\". The current edition of the \"Nomina Anatomica\", rebaptized as \"Terminologia Anatomica\", dictates \"locus caeruleus\" in its list of Latin expressions and correspondingly mentions \"locus caeruleus\" in its list of English equivalents. This is in line with the statement made by the chairman of the \"Terminologia Anatomica\" that \"the committee decided that Latin terms when used in English should be in correct Latin\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Raphe nucleus\n\nBULLET::::- Substantia nigra\n\nBULLET::::- Reticular formation\n\nSection::::References.\n", "All such words are so much terminology. It does not much matter whether modern users know that they are classical or not. Some distinct term is necessary for any meaningful concept, and if it is not classical, a modern coinage would not generally be any more comprehensible (consider examples such as \"byte\" or \"dongle\"). Another modern use of classical language however, is the subject of often acrimonious debate. It is the use of foreign or classical (commonly Latin) expressions terms, or \"tags\", where it would be possible to use the vernacular instead. This is common in everyday speech in some circles, saying \"\" instead of \"rest in peace\" might be pretension or pleasantry, but in law and science among other fields, there are many Latin expressions in use, where it might be equally practical to use the vernacular. Consider the following discussion of the Latin term \"\"sensu\"\".\n", "In modern science and its applied fields such as technology and medicine, a knowledge of classical languages is not as rigid a prerequisite as it used to be. However, traces of their influence remain. Firstly, languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic – either directly or via more recently derived languages such as French – have provided not only most of the technical terms used in Western science, but also a \"de facto\" vocabulary of roots, prefixes and suffixes for the construction of new terms as required. Echoes of the consequences sound in remarks such as \"Television? The word is half Latin and half Greek. No good can come of it.\" (referring to it being a hybrid word).\n", "BULLET::::- Johannes Gutenberg (c.1398–1468) – inventor of the printing press\n\nBULLET::::- Samuel Stehman Haldeman (1812–1880) – American naturalist and convert to Catholicism who researched fresh-water mollusks, the human voice, Amerindian dialects, and the organs of sound of insects\n\nBULLET::::- Jean Baptiste Julien d'Omalius d'Halloy (1783–1875) – one of the pioneers of modern geology\n\nBULLET::::- Eduard Heis (1806–1877) – astronomer who contributed the first true delineation of the Milky Way\n\nBULLET::::- Jan Baptist van Helmont (1579–1644) – founder of pneumatic chemistry\n\nBULLET::::- George de Hevesy (1885–1966) – Hungarian radiochemist and Nobel laureate\n", "Botanical Latin\n\nBotanical Latin is a technical language based on New Latin, used for descriptions of botanical taxa. Until 2012, International Code of Botanical Nomenclature mandated Botanical Latin to be used for the descriptions of most new taxa. It is still the only language other than English accepted for descriptions. The names of organisms governed by the Code also have forms based on Latin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01940	If two perfect singers sing the same song and can sing the same octaves and notes, how do those two singing voices still sound different?	Every person, and every instrument, plays each note slightly differently. If you take A over middle C, it will always be 440 Hz no matter whether you sing it, play it on a piano, play it on a saxophone, etc. But just because the note itself is 440 Hz doesn't mean that all of those 440 Hz notes sound the same. Each instrument is playing a 440 Hz fundamental frequency, but it's also playing a bunch of other significant frequencies that are multiples or fractions of the fundamental frequency. The overall sound produced by the fundamental frequency, and all of the other frequencies, is distinct for the different instruments - and that's what we call the "timbre."	[ "Section::::Penderecki's Timbre System.\n", "“These differences in voice qualities are reflections on variation in the muscular, aerodynamic, and acoustical conditions in the larynx and in the vocal tract. The subglottal pressure, the driving force in phonation, needs to be adapted in accordance with the laryngeal conditions.” In other words, the very act of singing consistently within one technique or another literally causes the voice to physically develop in different ways, and thus change the timbre of that particular voice.\n", "BULLET::::- the kyrios and plagios do use the same octave species, but their basis tone with the ison is on the top of the pentachord within the mele of kyrioi echoi, while it is on the bottom within the mele of plagioi echoi;\n", "In non-classical singing, it is difficult to place voices within either system for two major reasons. First, these voice categorizations were made with the understanding that the singer would be using classical vocal technique. These specific techniques, through study and training, result in a particular kind of vocal production and vocal timbre for each voice type which is unique to classical music. This is particularly problematic when trying to apply the operatic terms, as the vocal types are more descriptive of vocal timbre and vocal facility than simple vocal range. For example, one category of voice in opera is a contralto, which is the lowest female voice in the operatic system. One of the qualifying characteristics of this voice is a deep and dark quality to the vocal sound. This quality is not entirely innate to the voice, but is developed through classical vocal training. So although a singer in another genre might have a range equivalent to a contralto, they would not have a similar sound.\n", "In late 2005, the idea of merging the San Jose Garden City Chorus and the Bay Area Metro Pot O' Gold Chorus from Pleasanton, CA, began to take shape. The abundance of experienced singers and musical leadership from both choruses provided a strong foundation from which to grow quickly. With the merger in hand, VIH was able to secure four-time International Chorus Champion director, Dr. Greg Lyne as musical director and move him to California.\n", "From all this it is clear that the theory that the movement of the stars produces a harmony, i.e. that the sounds they make are concordant, in spite of the grace and originality with which it has been stated, is nevertheless untrue. Some thinkers suppose that the motion of bodies of that size must produce a noise, since on our earth the motion of bodies far inferior in size and in speed of movement has that effect. Also, when the sun and the moon, they say, and all the stars, so great in number and in size, are moving with so rapid a motion, how should they not produce a sound immensely great? Starting from this argument and from the observation that their speeds, as measured by their distances, are in the same ratios as musical concordances, they assert that the sound given forth by the circular movement of the stars is a harmony. Since, however, it appears unaccountable that we should not hear this music, they explain this by saying that the sound is in our ears from the very moment of birth and is thus indistinguishable from its contrary silence, since sound and silence are discriminated by mutual contrast. What happens to men, then, is just what happens to coppersmiths, who are so accustomed to the noise of the smithy that it makes no difference to them. But, as we said before, melodious and poetical as the theory is, it cannot be a true account of the facts. There is not only the absurdity of our hearing nothing, the ground of which they try to remove, but also the fact that no effect other than sensitive is produced upon us. Excessive noises, we know, shatter the solid bodies even of inanimate things: the noise of thunder, for instance, splits rocks and the strongest of bodies. But if the moving bodies are so great, and the sound which penetrates to us is proportionate to their size, that sound must needs reach us in an intensity many times that of thunder, and the force of its action must be immense.\n", "In \"The Missouri Harmony\", the parts freely cross one another—a bass, for example, might find himself singing a higher note than the tenors. In fact, the dispersed harmony determined the oblong shape of the tune books, with a staff for each part so that singers would always know exactly which notes they ought to be singing.\n", "The quality or color of a voice also depends on the singer's ability to develop and use various resonances by controlling the shape and size of the chambers through which the sound flows. It has been demonstrated electrographically in the form of \"voice-prints\" that, like fingerprints, no two voices are exactly alike.\n\nSection::::Sympathetic and forced vibration.\n", "A second problem in applying these systems is a question of range specification. This is particularly a problem when trying to apply the choral music system to the non-classical singer. The choral system was developed to delineate polyphonic structure and was not really intended to designate a vocal type to individual singers. In other words, choral music was designed to be broken down into four vocal sections and it is the sections themselves that are labeled soprano, alto, tenor, and bass and not the individual singers. For example, most women that sing the alto line in choirs would be considered mezzo-sopranos in opera due to their vocal timbre and their particular range resting somewhere in the middle between a soprano and contralto. A small portion of them, however, would most likely be contraltos. Therefore, one could say, \"I am a mezzo-soprano singing the alto line\", and the other \"I am a contralto singing the alto line.\" They have two different ranges and sounds but they are singing the same part. This is important to understand, because it means that choral music isn't really about vocal type but about vocal range within a specific type of music: choral music.\n", "Meanwhile, the Ladies in Red (Melody, Meghan, Mickey, Valerie, and their student manager Kerri) are already in crisis. Valerie apologizes for abandoning the group at Nationals last year by locking herself in the janitor's closet so she wouldn’t have to be looked at, and promises she’ll be there this year. Meghan challenges Melody's decision to keep singing the same old songs, especially “My Life Flows On In Endless Song, How Can I Keep From Singing”. Melody co-opts the insubordination, for now, by making Meghan their new soloist, and changing the name of the group to Lady Treble.\n", "The celestial choir Kepler formed was made up of a tenor (Mars), two bass (Saturn and Jupiter), a soprano (Mercury), and two altos (Venus and Earth). Mercury, with its large elliptical orbit, was determined to be able to produce the greatest number of notes, while Venus was found to be capable of only a single note because its orbit is nearly a circle.\n", "Sounds-alikes have sometimes been the subject of litigation. In the 1980s, singer Bette Midler sued over a sound-alike version of her recording of \"Do You Wanna Dance?\" being used in a commercial which sounded too close to the original. \"Old Cape Cod\" was the subject of a 1990 lawsuit subsequent to a sound-alike version of the Patti Page hit which was featured in a 1989 commercial for American Savings Bank. Page sued the advertising agency responsible for the commercial, alleging the commercial implied that Page, herself, endorsed the bank. Guitarist Carlos Santana sued over a commercial music bed which closely imitated his playing and arranging style. \n", "The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include spectrum and envelope. Singers and instrumental musicians can change the timbre of the music they are singing/playing by using different singing or playing techniques. For example, a violinist can use different bowing styles or play on different parts of the string to obtain different timbres (e.g., playing sul tasto produces a light, airy timbre, whereas playing sul ponticello produces a harsh, even and aggressive tone). On electric guitar and electric piano, performers can change the timbre using effects units and graphic equalizers.\n", "Two notes with fundamental frequencies in a ratio equal to any integer power of two (e.g., half, twice, or four times) are perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with these kinds of relations can be grouped under the same pitch class.\n", "Rule #1 Begin and finish with perfect consonance. It is, however, not wrong if the singer is improvising a counterpoint and ends with imperfect consonance, but in that case, the movement should be many-voiced. Sixth or octave doubling of the bass is not allowed.\n\nRule #2 Follow together with ténor up and down in imperfect and perfect consonances of the same kind. (Parallels at the third and sixth are recommended, fifth and octave parallels are forbidden.)\n\nRule #3 If ténor remains on the same note, you can add both perfect and imperfect consonances.\n", "Four-part harmony\n\nThe term \"four-part harmony\" refers to music written for four voices, or for some other musical medium—four musical instruments or a single keyboard instrument, for example—where the various musical parts can give a different note for each chord of the music.\n\nThe four main voices are typically labelled as soprano (or treble), alto (contralto or countertenor), tenor, and bass. Because the human voice has a limited range, different voice types are usually not able to sing pitches that lie outside of their specific range. \n", "However, most classical music systems acknowledge seven different major voice categories. Women are typically divided into three groups: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and contralto. Men are usually divided into four groups: countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When considering voices of pre-pubescent children an eighth term, treble, can be applied. Within each of these major categories, there are several sub-categories that identify specific vocal qualities like coloratura facility and vocal weight to differentiate between voices.\n", "Timbre, sometimes called \"color\" or \"tone color\" is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument. Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe, piano, violin or electric guitar. Even if different players of the same instrument play the same note, their notes might sound different due to differences in instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures), different types of accessories (e.g., mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and bassoon players) or strings made out of different materials for string players (e.g., gut strings versus steel strings). Even two instrumentalists playing the same note on the same instrument (one after the other) may sound different due to different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might hold the bow differently).\n", "Another example would be a coloratura soprano in opera. This is not only the highest female voice in opera, but also distinguished by its ability to do vocal acrobatic leaps, fast vocal runs and trills, and free movement within the highest part of the voice. A non-opera singer might be able to sing as high as a coloratura soprano, but they would not be able to do the vocal acrobatics of a coloratura soprano without classical technique and training. Therefore, the voice classification system in opera is not really applicable to singers in other genres.\n", "Same Difference\n\nSame Difference were an English bubblegum pop duo from Portsmouth, England, made up of siblings Sean Smith and Sarah Smith. They came to prominence in 2007 when they finished third in the fourth series of the ITV talent show, \"The X Factor\". \n", "Another difference between \"The Sound\" and the duo's previous efforts is the vocal structure. On previous recordings, each group member would sing a verse and take turns on the bridge. However, on songs such as \"Get Up\", the duo harmonizes both of the verses and bridge together, only ad-libing on the final chorus. On Superfriend, each member alternated lines and shared one verse while harmonizing on the bridge. On other songs, one member sings both verses (Tina on \"Boom\" and Erica on \"Forgiven Me\") and the other repeats the pre-chorus.\n", "Section::::Contest successes.\n", "Meghan and Mickey decide that MTV 3 necessitates new choreography and demonstrate “What I Like About You”, but Melody worries that it's perhaps a little “loose” and she performs a more ladylike version.\n", "In the case of a musical note, the lowest frequency of its timbre is designated as the sound's fundamental frequency. For simplicity, we often say that the note is playing at that fundamental frequency (e.g. \"middle C is 261.6 Hz\"), even though the sound of that note consists of many other frequencies as well. The set of the remaining frequencies is called the overtones (or the harmonics) of the sound. In other words, the fundamental frequency alone is responsible for the pitch of the note, while the overtones define the timbre of the sound. The overtones of a piano playing middle C will be quite different from the overtones of a violin playing the same note; that's what allows us to differentiate the sounds of the two instruments. There are even subtle differences in timbre between different versions of the same instrument (for example, an upright piano vs. a grand piano).\n", "... in general they are best sung together, viz. if a man sings it as a Medius, and a woman as a Treble, it is in effect as two parts; so likewise, if a man sing a Tenor with a masculine and woman with a feminine voice, the Tenor is as full as two parts, and a tune so sung (although it has but four parts) is in effect the same as six. Such a conjunction of masculine and feminine voices is beyond expression, sweet and ravishing, and is esteemed by all good judges to be vastly preferable to any instrument whatever, framed by human invention.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00776	Why in mirrors, the image formed behind the mirror is called "virtual," but in lenses it is called "real"	The light that forms the image in the mirror appears to originate from behind the mirror, but the only light is coming from in front of the mirror, so the image is considered virtual. "Real" images are where light actually focuses on a point/converges.	[ "Using a positive lens of focal length \"f\", a virtual image results when , the lens thus being used as a magnifying glass (rather than if as for a camera). Using a negative lens () with a \"real object\" () can only produce a virtual image (), according to the above formula. It is also possible for the object distance \"S\" to be negative, in which case the lens sees a so-called \"virtual object\". This happens when the lens is inserted into a converging beam (being focused by a previous lens) \"before\" the location of its real image. In that case even a negative lens can project a real image, as is done by a Barlow lens.\n", "In some cases \"S\" is negative, indicating that the image is formed on the opposite side of the lens from where those rays are being considered. Since the diverging light rays emanating from the lens never come into focus, and those rays are not physically present at the point where they \"appear\" to form an image, this is called a virtual image. Unlike real images, a virtual image cannot be projected on a screen, but appears to an observer looking through the lens as if it were a real object at the location of that virtual image. Likewise, it appears to a subsequent lens as if it were an object at that location, so that second lens could again focus that light into a real image, \"S\" then being measured from the virtual image location behind the first lens to the second lens. This is exactly what the eye does when looking through a magnifying glass. The magnifying glass creates a (magnified) virtual image behind the magnifying glass, but those rays are then re-imaged by the lens of the eye to create a \"real image\" on the retina.\n", "Plane mirrors are the only type of mirror for which a real object always produces an image that is virtual, erect and of the same size as the object. Virtual objects produce real images, however. The focal length of a plane mirror is infinity; its optical power is zero.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "In contrast, a real image is one that is formed when the outgoing rays from a point converge at a real location. Real images can be projected onto a diffuse reflecting screen, but a screen is not necessary for the image to form.\n", "Therefore, if an object is placed at a distance from a positive lens of focal length \"f\", we will find an image distance \"S\" according to this formula. If a screen is placed at a distance \"S\" on the opposite side of the lens, an image is formed on it. This sort of image, which can be projected onto a screen or image sensor, is known as a \"real image\".\n", "Real image\n\nIn optics, a real image is an image which is located in the plane of convergence for the light rays that originate from a given object. If a screen is placed in the plane of a real image the image will generally become visible on the screen. Examples of real images include the image seen on a cinema screen (the source being the projector), the image produced on a detector in the rear of a camera, and the image produced on an eyeball retina (the camera and eye focus light through an internal convex lens).\n", "BULLET::::- A diverging lens (one that is thicker at the edges than the middle) or a convex mirror forms a virtual image. Such an image is reduced in size when compared to the original object. A converging lens (one that is thicker in the middle than at the edges) or a concave mirror is also capable of producing a virtual image if the object is within the focal length. Such an image will be magnified. In contrast, an object placed in front of a converging lens or concave mirror at a position beyond the focal length produces a real image. Such an image may be magnified or reduced depending on the position of the object.\n", "With diverging lenses, incoming parallel rays diverge after going through the lens, in such a way that they seem to have originated at a spot one focal length in front of the lens. This is the lens's front focal point. Rays from an object at finite distance are associated with a virtual image that is closer to the lens than the focal point, and on the same side of the lens as the object. The closer the object is to the lens, the closer the virtual image is to the lens. As with mirrors, upright images produced by a single lens are virtual, while inverted images are real.\n", "Another core meaning has been elicited by Denis Berthier, in his 2004 book \"Méditations sur le réel et le virtuel\" (\"Meditations on the real and the virtual\"), based on uses in science (virtual image), technology (virtual world), and etymology (derivation from virtue—Latin \"virtus\"). At the same ontological level as \"the possible\" (i.e. ideally-possible) abstractions, representations, or imagined \"fictions\", the actually-real \"material\", or the actually-possible \"probable\", the \"virtual\" is \"ideal-real\". It is what is \"not real\", but displays the full qualities of the real—in a plainly actual (i.e., not potential)—way. The prototypical case is a reflection in a mirror: it is already there, whether or not one can see it; it is not waiting for any kind of actualization. This definition allows one to understand that real effects may be issued from a virtual object, so that our perception of it and our whole relation to it, are fully real, even if it is not. This explains how virtual reality can be used to cure phobias. Brian Massumi shows the political implications of this.\n", "BULLET::::- It is \"virtual\", meaning that the image appears to be behind the mirror, and cannot be projected onto a screen.\n", "BULLET::::- A plane mirror forms a virtual image positioned behind the mirror. Although the rays of light seem to come from behind the mirror, light from the source only exists in front of the mirror. The image in a plane mirror is not magnified (that is, the image is the same size as the object) and appears to be as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.\n", "Various techniques have existed for see-through HMDs. Most of these techniques can be summarized into two main families: “Curved Mirror” (or Curved Combiner) based and “Waveguide” or \"Light-guide\" based. The mirror technique has been used in EyeTaps, by Meta in their Meta 1, by Vuzix in their Star 1200 product, by Olympus, and by Laster Technologies.\n\nVarious waveguide techniques have existed for some time. These techniques include diffraction optics, holographic optics, polarized optics, reflective optics, and projection:\n\nBULLET::::- Diffractive waveguide – slanted diffraction grating elements (nanometric 10E-9). Nokia technique now licensed to Vuzix.\n", "Various techniques have existed for see-through HMDs. Most of these techniques can be summarized into two main families: \"Curved Mirror\" (or Curved Combiner) based and \"Waveguide\" or \"Light-guide\" based. The curved mirror technique has been used by Vuzix in their Star 1200 product, by Olympus, and by Laster Technologies. Various waveguide techniques have existed for some time. These techniques include diffraction optics, holographic optics, polarized optics, and reflective optics:\n\nBULLET::::- Diffractive waveguide – slanted diffraction grating elements (nanometric 10E-9). Nokia technique now licensed to Vuzix.\n", "For concave mirrors, whether the image is virtual or real depends on how large the object distance is compared to the focal length. If the formula_9 term is larger than the formula_7 term, formula_8 is positive and the image is real. Otherwise, the term is negative and the image is virtual. Again, this validates the behavior described above.\n\nThe magnification of a mirror is defined as the height of the image divided by the height of the object:\n", "where \"M\" is the magnification factor defined as the ratio of the size of an image compared to the size of the object. The sign convention here dictates that if \"M\" is negative, as it is for real images, the image is upside-down with respect to the object. For virtual images \"M\" is positive, so the image is upright.\n", "The image recorded by a photographic film or image sensor is always a real image and is usually inverted. When measuring the height of an inverted image using the cartesian sign convention (where the x-axis is the optical axis) the value for \"h\" will be negative, and as a result \"M\" will also be negative. However, the traditional sign convention used in photography is \"real is positive, virtual is negative\". Therefore, in photography: Object height and distance are always \"real\" and positive. When the focal length is positive the image's height, distance and magnification are \"real\" and positive. Only if the focal length is negative, the image's height, distance and magnification are \"virtual\" and negative. Therefore, the \"photographic magnification\" formulae are traditionally presented as:\n", "In late 2008, a new type of camera emerged, called a \"mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera\". It is technically a DSLR camera that doesn’t require a reflex mirror, a key component of the former. While a typical DSLR has a mirror that reflects light from the lens up to the optical viewfinder, in a mirrorless camera, there is no optical viewfinder. The image sensor is exposed to light at all times, gives the user a digital preview of the image either on the built-in rear LCD screen or an electronic viewfinder (EVF).\n", "Veselago’s work has been more prominent in recent years due to the advancement in metamaterials, which are engineered materials that have special internal physical properties and have the ability to negatively refract light.\n\nSection::::Devices.\n\nAn illusion device is how illusion optics works—without a device there is no way to define how light is refracted and deflected. Based on a study on circular objects with illusion optic properties, (i.e. negative refraction indexes) there are three basics of an illusion device: the invisibility cloak, real object, and illusion object.\n", "Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera\n\nA mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC), frequently simply mirrorless camera, increasingly called DSLM (digital single lens mirrorless), and sometimes also called EVIL (electronic viewfinder, interchangeable lens) features a single, removable lens and uses a digital display system rather than an optical viewfinder.\n\nThe word \"mirrorless\" indicates that the camera does not have an optical mirror or an optical viewfinder like a conventional digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR), but an electronic viewfinder which displays what the camera image sensor sees.\n", "Section::::Difference with optical illusions.\n\nUnlike optical illusions that utilize the misinterpretation of the human brain to create illusionary perception different from the physical measurement, illusion optics changes the optical response or properties of objects. Illusion optic devices make these changes happen. Although both these terms deal with illusions, Illusion optics deal with the refraction and reflection of light, whereas while optical illusions are basically mind tricks.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Following the great shift towards expressionism in painting, André Bazin used the word \"pseudoreal\" in reference to mechanical means which freed the plastic arts from the drive toward 'unachievable likeness'. Meanwhile, photorealistic CGI animation and 3D computer graphics used today have become indistinguishable from cine-photography. In that regard, the special effects augmenting feature film through photographic deception of the eye have gained an entirely different dimension. Computer generated imagery and 3D animation are used not only to bolster reality based images but also to create imaginary worlds. \n", "A volatile image is one that exists only for a short period of time. This may be a reflection of an object by a mirror, a projection of a camera obscura, or a scene displayed on a cathode ray tube. A fixed image, also called a hard copy, is one that has been recorded on a material object, such as paper or textile by photography or any other digital process.\n", "Eyepiece\n\nAn eyepiece, or ocular lens, is a type of lens that is attached to a variety of optical devices such as telescopes and microscopes. It is so named because it is usually the lens that is closest to the eye when someone looks through the device. The objective lens or mirror collects light and brings it to focus creating an image. The eyepiece is placed near the focal point of the objective to magnify this image. The amount of magnification depends on the focal length of the eyepiece.\n", "Internal reflections, sometimes called \"scatter\", cause the light passing through an eyepiece to disperse and reduce the contrast of the image projected by the eyepiece. When the effect is particularly bad, \"ghost images\" are seen, called \"ghosting\". For many years, simple eyepiece designs with a minimum number of internal air-to-glass surfaces were preferred to avoid this problem.\n", "Rays from an object at finite distance are associated with a virtual image that is closer to the lens than the focal length, and on the same side of the lens as the object. The closer the object is to the lens, the closer the virtual image is to the lens. \n\nLikewise, the magnification of a lens is given by\n\nwhere the negative sign is given, by convention, to indicate an upright object for positive values and an inverted object for negative values. Similar to mirrors, upright images produced by single lenses are virtual while inverted images are real.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01946	Why when ink is too dry and unerasable on dry erase board, reinking the dry ink makes it erasable?	Dry-erase ink contains both a pigment and a solvent that helps dissolve the pigment. When left for too long, the solvent evaporates, laving just the pigment behind. Rubbing over the dried pigment with a fresh marker allows the solvents in the newly-applied marker to help dissolve the old, dried pigment.	[ "Ballpoint pens with erasable ink were pioneered by the Paper Mate pen company. The ink formulas of erasable ballpoints have properties similar to rubber cement, allowing the ink to be literally rubbed clean from the writing surface before drying and eventually becoming permanent. Erasable ink is much thicker than standard ballpoint inks, requiring pressurized cartridges to facilitate inkflow—meaning they can also write upside-down. Though these pens are equipped with erasers, any eraser will suffice.\n", "The chemical ink eradicator contains a substance that reacts with some inks removing their pigmentation and hiding the writing.\n\nSection::::Metal ink erasers.\n\nMetal ink erasers were generally used before chemical ink erasers were introduced, and when permanent writing was done in ink. The erasers were essentially small knives.\n\nSection::::Chemical ink erasers.\n\nThe chemical ink eraser was invented by the German manufacturer Pelikan in the 1930s, and was introduced as a novelty in Germany in 1972 under the name \"Tintentiger\" (ink tiger).\n", "Since Paper Mate has no signification on replacement parts and model numbers, there have been owners who have done modifications with other pen ink cartridges. These owners would take other Paper Mate ballpoint stick pens and trim their cartridges with the original cartridges. In addition, you can use Paper Mate's Inkjoy 100 RT substitute refills with the same process of trimming.\n", "A whiteboard marker, or a dry-erase marker in some locations, uses an erasable ink, made to be used on a slick (or matte-finished), non-porous writing surface, for temporary writing with overhead projectors, whiteboards, and the like. They are designed so that the user is able to easily erase the marks using either a damp cloth, tissue, handkerchief, baby wipe, or other easily cleaned or disposable items. Generally, people use fabrics to do so, but others use items like paper, clothing items, some even use their bare hands to wipe it clear. The erasable ink does not contain the toxic chemical compounds xylene and/or toluene as have been used in permanent markers, being less of a risk to being used as a recreational drug.\n", "The former is unstable over time and can be easily erased by rewinding a tape and letting it sit so that the patterns formed by the contact of upper and lower layers begin to erase each other and form new patterns with the repositioning of upper/lower layers after rewinding. This type of contact printing begins immediately after a recording and increases over time at a rate dependent on the temperature of the storage conditions.\n\nSection::::Audibility.\n\nThe audibility of print noise caused by contact printing depends on a number of factors:\n", "Lamy also makes double-ended pens that allow one to edit what they have written in ink before. One end is a white nib with a fluid that makes ink 'disappear', the other end has a nib that writes in blue ink which is not affected by the ink eraser so that one can write on top of what was just erased. However, after this is done, one can not rub it out again.\n\nSection::::Product range.:Earlier designs.\n", "BULLET::::- It is only possible to erase flash in large segments (usually 64 KiB or more), whereas it can be read or written in smaller blocks (often 512 bytes)\n\nBULLET::::- Flash memory can only be erased a limited number of times (typically 10–10) before it becomes worn out.\n", "The whiteboard pen (also called a whiteboard marker or dry erasable marker) was invented by Jerry Woolf of Techform Laboratories and later patented by Pilot Pen in 1975. It is a non-permanent marker and uses an erasable ink that adheres to the writing surface without binding to or being absorbed by it. Applications range from temporary writing with acetate sheets (for use with overhead projectors) to whiteboards and similar glossy surfaces. The erasable ink does not contain the toxic chemical compounds xylene and/or toluene, unlike permanent markers.\n\nSection::::Surface materials.\n\nThere are six types of materials commonly used for whiteboard surfaces:\n", "Anhysteretic print signals are almost as strong as intentionally recorded signals and are much more difficult to erase. This type of print noise is relatively rare because users are typically careful about accidentally exposing recordings to strong magnetic fields, and the magnetic influence of such fields decreases with distance. \n\nDigital tapes can also be affected by contact print effects in a phenomenon known as \"bit-shift\" when upper or lower layers of tape cause a middle layer to alter the pulses recorded to represent binary information.\n\nSection::::Video recording.\n", "Since the erase head erases the old signal right before the video heads write onto the tape, there is no remnant of the old signal to cause visible distortion at and after the moment a cut is made, resulting in a clean edit. In addition, the ability of flying erase heads to erase old video off the tape right before recording new video on it allows the ability to perform insert editing, where new footage can be placed within an existing recording with clean cuts at the beginning and end of the edit.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n", "Drypoint wiping techniques vary slightly from other intaglio techniques. Less pressure is applied to achieve desirable lines, because the burrs forming the image are more fragile than etched or engraved lines, but also because the ink rests on the plate surface, instead of pressed down into indentations. Also, because of the characteristics of the way the burrs catch ink, the direction of the wiping matters. Ink tends to pile up in the lee of the burr during the application of the ink and wiping with the tarlatan, so if the printer wipes in the direction of the lines with his hand, he may remove most of the ink, leaving a light gray line. However, if he wipes perpendicularly to the line, he can actually increase the pile of ink on the other side of the line, darkening the printed line.\n", "Erase–remove idiom\n\nThe erase–remove idiom is a common C++ technique to eliminate elements that fulfill a certain criterion from a C++ Standard Library container.\n\nSection::::Motivation.\n\nA common programming task is to remove all elements that have a certain value or fulfill a certain criterion from a collection. In C++, this can be achieved using a hand-written loop. It is, however, preferable to use an algorithm from the C++ Standard Library for such tasks.\n", "This process is the formation of the latent image, as it forms an invisible image in the paper that is subsequently made visible by development. So the paper is now placed in the developer, which transforms the silver halide particles that have a latent image speck on them into metallic silver. Now the image is visible, but the remaining unexposed silver halide must still be removed to make the image permanent. But first the print is placed into the stop bath, which stops development and prevents the developer from contaminating the next bath: the fixer.\n", "Paper companies produced a special form of typewriter paper called \"erasable bond\" (for example, Eaton's Corrasable Bond). This incorporated a thin layer of material that prevented ink from penetrating and was relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. An ordinary soft pencil eraser could quickly produce perfect erasures on this kind of paper. However, the same characteristics that made the paper erasable made the characters subject to smudging due to ordinary friction and deliberate alteration after the fact, making it unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or any archival use.\n\nSection::::Correction technologies.:Correction fluid.\n", "Because of their semi-permanent nature, wet wipe markers are often used to draw a template, especially in school classrooms or on calendars (to mark the boxes). Dry erase markers can usually be applied on top of the wet wipe marker, and erased without touching the wet wipe marks.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Permanent marker.\n\nPermanent markers are porous pens that can write on surfaces such as glass, plastic, wood, metal, and stone. The marks made by such pens are however, not permanent on some plastics like Teflon, polypropylene etc., and can be erased easily. The ink is generally resistant to rubbing and water, and can last for many years. Depending on the surface and the marker used, however, the marks can often be removed with either vigorous scrubbing or chemicals such as acetone.\n\nSection::::Types.:Highlighters.\n", "BULLET::::- Erasing blocks: flash memory blocks have to be explicitly erased before they can be written to. The time taken to erase blocks can be significant, thus it is beneficial to erase unused blocks while the device is idle.\n\nBULLET::::- Random access: general-purpose file systems are optimized to avoid disk seeks whenever possible, due to the high cost of seeking. Flash memory devices impose no seek latency.\n\nBULLET::::- Wear leveling: flash memory devices tend to wear out when a single block is repeatedly overwritten; flash file systems are designed to spread out writes evenly.\n", "Unlike with most permanent markers the ink is an oil-based paint and generally requires shaking before use, similar to an aerosol spray paint can. In addition, the line is very opaque and, unlike spirit-based or other permanent inks, will not fade with exposure to UV light, and overlays all other colors beneath it. The paint from these types of markers is not truly permanent, as it can be removed using high pressure cleaning or paint thinning solvents such as acetone.\n\nSection::::Dangers.\n", "Hand sanitizer and acetone based nail polish remover are said to be effective on permanent markers. Sharpie official FAQ suggests trying a product called Amodex stain remover. Though Sharpie ink will become mostly permanent after setting, it can be erased. A dry erase marker is usually successful in removing sharpie ink by covering the sharpie ink using three to four pen strokes. \n", "The inks are resistant to water after drying but can be defaced by certain solvents which include acetone and various alcohols.\n\nSection::::Types of ballpoint pens.\n", "\"Dry highlighters\" (occasionally called \"dry line highlighters\") have an applicator that applies a thin strip of highlighter tape (physically similar to audio tape) instead of a felt tip. Unlike standard highlighters, they are easily erasable. They are different from \"dry mark highlighters\", which are sometimes advertised as being useful for highlighting books with thin pages.\n\n\"Gel highlighters\" contain a gel stick rather than a felt tip. The gel does not bleed through paper or become dried out in the pen as other highlighters' inks may.\n", "In 1979/80 Papermate introduced two retractable versions of the Erasermate; called the TW200 and TW400, they carried retail prices of $7.50 and $9.50 respectively. The TW name was possibly used to signify \"twist\", as both the ink cartridge and the eraser would retract by twisting the pen tip, which clicked into place when fully exposed. To close, the user would twist it the other direction hiding the ink and eraser inside the pen's body.\n", "Consumers can refill ink cartridges themselves with a kit, or they can take the cartridge to a refiller or re-manufacturer where ink is pumped back into the cartridge. \"PC World\" reports that refilled cartridges have higher failure rates, print fewer pages than new cartridges, and demonstrate more on-page problems like streaking, curling, and colour bleed.\n\nSection::::Metals.\n", "Because the ink used in many low-cost consumer inkjets is water-soluble, care must be taken with inkjet-printed documents to avoid even the smallest drop of moisture, which can cause severe \"blurring\" or \"running\". In extreme cases, even sweaty fingertips during hot humid weather could cause low-quality inks to smear. Similarly, water-based highlighter markers can blur inkjet-printed documents and discolor the highlighter's tip. The lifetime of inkjet prints produced using aqueous inks is generally shorter (although UV-resistant inks are available) than those produced with solvent-based inkjets; however, so-called \"archival inks\" have been produced for use in aqueous-based machines which offer extended life.\n", "BULLET::::- 64 pages of 4,096+128 bytes each for a block size of 256 KB\n\nBULLET::::- 128 pages of 4,096+128 bytes each for a block size of 512 KB.\n\nWhile reading and programming is performed on a page basis, erasure can only be performed on a block basis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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