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[ "Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed in many cultures. Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations because it requires economic surpluses and a high population density to be viable. Thus, although it has existed among unusually resource-rich hunter gatherers, such as the American Indian peoples of the salmon-rich rivers of the Pacific Northwest Coast, slavery became widespread only with the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution about 11,000 years ago.\n", "Section::::Origins.\n\nEvidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed in many cultures. However, slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations. Mass slavery requires economic surpluses and a high population density to be viable. Due to these factors, the practice of slavery would have only proliferated after the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution, about 11,000 years ago.\n", "History of slavery\n\nThe history of slavery spans many cultures, nationalities, and religions from ancient times to the present day. However the social, economic, and legal positions of slaves have differed vastly in different systems of slavery in different times and places.\n\nSlavery occurs relatively rarely among hunter-gatherer populations because it develops under conditions of social stratification. Slavery operated in the very first civilizations (such as Sumer in Mesopotamia, which dates back as far as 3500 BCE). Slavery features in the Mesopotamian \"Code of Hammurabi\" (c. 1860 BCE), which refers to it as an established institution.\n", "Records of slavery in Ancient Greece go as far back as Mycenaean Greece. The origins are not known, but it appears that slavery became an important part of the economy and society only after the establishment of cities. Slavery was common practice and an integral component of ancient Greece, as it was in other societies of the time, including ancient Israel. It is estimated that in Athens, the majority of citizens owned at least one slave. Most ancient writers considered slavery not only natural but necessary, but some isolated debate began to appear, notably in Socratic dialogues. The Stoics produced the first condemnation of slavery recorded in history.\n", "The institution of slavery condemned a majority of slaves to agricultural and industrial labor and they lived hard lives. In many of these cultures slaves formed a very large part of the economy, and in particular the Roman Empire and some of the Greek poleis built a large part of their wealth on slaves acquired through conquest.\n\nSection::::Ancient Near East.\n", "Slavery in antiquity\n\nSlavery in the ancient world, from the earliest known recorded evidence in Sumer to the pre-medieval Antiquity Mediterranean cultures, comprised a mixture of debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime, and the enslavement of prisoners of war.\n\nMasters could free slaves, and in many cases such freedmen went on to rise to positions of power. This would include those children born into slavery but who were actually the children of the master of the house. Their father would ensure that his children were not condemned to a life of slavery.\n", "In the ancient Near East and Asia Minor slavery was common practice, dating back to the very earliest recorded civilisations in the world such as Sumer, Elam, Ancient Egypt, Akkad, Assyria, Ebla and Babylonia, as well as amongst the Hattians, Hittites, Hurrians, Mycenaean Greece, Luwians, Canaanites, Israelites, Amorites, Phoenicians, Arameans, Ammonites, Edomites, Moabites, Byzantines, Philistines, Medes, Persians, Phrygians, Lydians, Mitanni, Kassites, Parthians, Urartians, Colchians, Chaldeans and Armenians.\n", "Systems of servitude and slavery were common in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the ancient world. In many African societies where slavery was prevalent, the enslaved people were not treated as chattel slaves and were given certain rights in a system similar to indentured servitude elsewhere in the world.\n", "Slavery was known in almost every ancient civilization and society including Sumer, Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Ancient India, Ancient Greece, Carolingian Europe, the Roman Empire, the Hebrew kingdoms of the ancient Levant, and the pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas. Such institutions included debt-slavery, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the birth of slave children to slaves.\n\nSection::::History.:Classical antiquity.\n\nSection::::History.:Classical antiquity.:Africa.\n", "Slavery was known in civilizations as old as Sumer, as well as in almost every other ancient civilization, including Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Babylonia, Ancient Iran, Ancient Greece, Ancient India, the Roman Empire, the Arab Islamic Caliphate and Sultanate, Nubia and the pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas. Such institutions were a mixture of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the birth of slave children to slaves.\n\nSection::::Africa.\n", "In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica the most common forms of slavery were those of prisoners of war and debtors. People unable to pay back debts could be sentenced to work as slaves to the persons owed until the debts were worked off. Warfare was important to Maya society, because raids on surrounding areas provided the victims required for human sacrifice, as well as slaves for the construction of temples. Most victims of human sacrifice were prisoners of war or slaves. Slavery was not usually hereditary; children of slaves were born free. In the Inca Empire, workers were subject to a \"mita\" in lieu of taxes which they paid by working for the government. Each \"ayllu\", or extended family, would decide which family member to send to do the work. It is unclear if this labor draft or corvée counts as slavery. The Spanish adopted this system, particularly for their silver mines in Bolivia.\n", "Slavery in ancient Greece\n\nSlavery was a common practice in ancient Greece, as in other societies of the time. Some Ancient Greek writers (including, most notably, Aristotle) considered slavery natural and even necessary. This paradigm was notably questioned in Socratic dialogues; the Stoics produced the first recorded condemnation of slavery.\n", "BULLET::::- War-captives (\"andrapoda\") who served primarily in unskilled tasks at which they could be chained: for example, rowers in commercial ships, or miners.\n\nIn some areas of Greece there existed a class of unfree laborers tied to the land and called \"penestae\" in Thessaly and helots in Sparta. Penestae and helots did not rate as chattel slaves; one could not freely buy and sell them.\n", "Slavery existed in Pharaonic Egypt but studying it is complicated by terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of servitude over the course of history. Interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves in ancient Egypt has been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone. There were three apparent types of enslavement in Ancient Egypt: chattel slavery, bonded labor, and forced labor.\n\nSection::::History.:Classical antiquity.:Asia.\n\nSlavery is known to have existed in ancient China as early as the Shang Dynasty. Slavery was largely employed by governments as a means of maintaining a public labor force. \n", "Sepúlveda was opposed in the Valladolid debate by Bartolomé de las Casas, bishop of Chiapas. De las Casas countered that Aristotle's definition of the \"barbarian\" and the natural slave did not apply to the Indians, who were fully capable of reason and should be brought to Christianity without force or coercion.\n", "According to Scott Levi, slavery was an established institution in ancient India by the start of the common era based on texts such as the \"Arthashastra\", the \"Manusmriti\" and the \"Mahabharata\". Slavery was \"likely widespread by the lifetime of the Buddha\" and it \"likely existed in the Vedic period\" if the term \"dasas\" is interpreted as slaves, but states Levi, this association is problematic. The term \"dāsa\" and \"dāsyu\" in Vedic and other ancient Indian literature has been interpreted as \"slave\", but others contest it.\n", "Slavery is more common when the labor done is relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large-scale growing of a single crop, like sugar and cotton, in which output was based on economies of scale. This enables such systems of labor, such as the gang system in the United States, to become prominent on large plantations where field hands were monitored and worked with factory-like precision.\n", "The comedies of Menander show how the Athenians preferred to view a house-slave: as an enterprising and unscrupulous rascal, who must use his wits to profit from his master, rescue him from his troubles, or gain him the girl of his dreams. These plots were adapted by the Roman playwrights Plautus and Terence, and in the modern era influenced the character Jeeves and \"A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\".\n\nSection::::Ancient Rome.\n", "Slavery in ancient Rome\n\nSlavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services, and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Accountants and physicians were often slaves. Slaves of Greek origin in particular might be highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. \n", "Section::::In the Bible.\n\nThe Bible contains several references to slavery, which was a common practice in antiquity. The Bible stipulates the treatment of slaves, especially in the Old Testament. There are also references to slavery in the New Testament. Male Israelite slaves were to be offered release after six to seven years of service, with some conditions. Foreign slaves and their posterity became the perpetual property of the owner's family, except in the case of certain injuries.\n", "Perhaps the best-known case of Aristotle's idea of Natural Slavery being applied is through its use as justification for the chattel slavery in the Americas and the opposing arguments of Bartolomé de las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. During the 1520's Las Casas worked in Spain and the New World (modern-day Venezuela) in an attempt to peacefully convert native peoples without enslaving them. For years, Las Casas protested the treatment of natives by Spaniards, and in 1520 was granted an audience with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain). Las Casas protested the enslavement of Native Americans and asked instead for their peaceful conversion.\n", "Section::::In literature.:Roman comedies.\n", "Many commoners were assigned to serve as workers that cleaned, cooked, and built temples and shrines without any compensation. From analyzing ancient inscriptions, Judith Jacob has discovered that there were fourteen categories of slaves in Chenla distinguished by different origins and kinds of duties (Jacob 406–426). These groups of people could be bought, sold, and given away, having no freedom to escape because their parents were in need of money or they had to pay off debts that they contracted or were passed on in their family (Chandler 23). This suggests hereditary servitude; if your parent is a slave for a temple than you also have to serve at the same place, bearing no liberty of your own.\n", "Greece in pre-Roman times consisted of many independent city-states, each with its own laws. All of them permitted slavery, but the rules differed greatly from region to region. Greek slaves had some opportunities for emancipation, though all of these came at some cost to their masters. The law protected slaves, and though a slave's master had the right to beat him at will, a number of moral and cultural limitations existed on excessive use of force by masters. \n", "Alcidamas, at the same time as Aristotle, took the opposite view, saying: \"\"nature\" has made \"nobody\" a slave\".\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Review of European Planning Systems – December 2009\n\n2010\n\nBULLET::::- Housing Supply and Planning Controls: The impact of planning control processing times on housing supply in England – February 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Housing affordability: A fuller picture – February 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Evaluating requirements for market and affordable housing – February 2010\n\nBULLET::::- How do housing price booms and busts affect home ownership for different birth cohorts? – February 2010\n\nBULLET::::- The Implications of Housing Type/Size Mix and Density for the Affordability and Viability of New Housing Supply – March 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Public attitudes to Housing 2010 – June 2010\n", "The report also showed that there has been great demand for downsizing properties but there has been nowhere near sufficient supply of suitable sized housing. Some social landlords have started subdividing their stock into 1- and 2- bedroom properties, which has more demand than the 3- bedroom properties that much of their stock had consisted of in large numbers; questions have been raised why it took them until now before they did this.\n", "In 2009 it was estimated between 22,000 and 89,000 properties were affected, but the government's scheme would cover around 3,500 at the most.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Rates impact.\n", "From April 2016 the LHA rates used to calculate maximum housing benefit levels for private sector tenants were frozen for four years. Research by the housing charity Shelter indicated that the proportion of such tenants likely to experience a shortfall in housing benefit was 80%, amounting to 300,000 families. The degree of shortfall depends on dwelling, location and individual circumstances, but Shelter expected that by 2020 the shortfall could in some cases reach hundreds of pounds a month.\n", "The bursting of the biggest financial bubble in history in 2008 wreaked havoc globally on the housing market. By 2011 home prices in Ireland had plunged by 45% from their peak in 2007. In the United States prices fell by 34% while foreclosures increased exponentially. In Spain and Denmark home prices dropped by 15%. However, in spite of the bust, home prices continue to be overvalued by about 25% or more in Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, Britain, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden.\n\nSection::::Housing expenditures.:Causes and consequences of rise in house prices.\n", "BULLET::::- The building of 200,000 starter homes which will be obtainable to first time buyers between 23 and 40 for sale at 20% below market prices.\n\nBULLET::::- The extension of right to buy to include housing association properties. Due to a deal with the National Housing Federation right to buy will be extended to housing association tenants on a voluntary basis with the Government making payments to housing associations to compensate for the discounts on offer.\n", "Conditions to be met before EUA is applied:\n\nBULLET::::- Notify existing mortgage holder\n\nBULLET::::- Tenants must opt-in\n\nBULLET::::- Only non-residential buildings\n\nAccording to 1200 Buildings, the benefits of using EUAs include:\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed interest rates\n\nBULLET::::- No re-financing required\n\nBULLET::::- A repayment period of 10 years or more\n\nBULLET::::- The loan stays with the property if the owner decides to sell\n", "One of the reasons that 106 agreements are unpopular with developers is that, at present, the government makes more money from the sale of affordable rented housing (about £5 billion a year) than it spends (about £3.5 billion a year) and it is arguable that the main cause of these proceeds is not ongoing government investment but private sector (developer) investment.\n\nA counter-argument would run that developers seek to maximise revenue and would neither provide services for housing at a subsidised rate, nor subsidised rents for the vulnerable, unless such a provision forced them to do so.\n", "BULLET::::- Buy-to-let mortgage lending and the impact on UK house prices (research findings 1) – February 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Meeting the housing requirements of an aspiring and growing nation – June 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Affordability still matters – July 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Rapid evidence review of the research literature on the impact of worsening affordability – July 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Impact of worsening affordability on the demand for social and affordable housing - tenure choice and household formation – July 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Public attitudes towards the affordability of market housing (research findings 3) – July 2008\n\nBULLET::::- NHPAU Annual report 2007/08 – July 2008\n", "At the beginning of April, Kris Hopkins, the UK housing minister, said that these house-price increases were a good thing. Business Secretary Vince Cable expressed his disagreement with Hopkins, saying the gathering housing bubble could end up being worse than the one whose collapse resulted in the 2008 financial crisis. At the same time, the house-price gap between London and the rest of the UK was pronounced a new record, and Deutsche Bank and others sounded more alarms about the situation in the capital. George Osborne said he had \"not seen any evidence\" that Help to Buy was fuelling the boom.\n", "BULLET::::- Punished if they do not sell by a government-ordered sale plus confiscation of any capital gain.\n\nBULLET::::- Required to build on vacant land within two years of purchase to stop \"land banking\".\n\nFailure to do this would also lead to a government-ordered sale.\n\nSeveral Australian Banks and lenders provide home loans to non-residents for the purchase of Australian real estate. This is also thought by some to have contributed to the increases in Australia's property prices.\n\nSection::::Government inquiries related to housing.\n", "From April 2016, a Stamp Duty surcharge of three per cent of the purchase price was required for those buying to let. From April 2017, buy-to-let mortgage interest payments will have higher rates of income tax relief phased out by the government. Although, companies would not be affected by the new rules.\n\nSection::::Rented homes.\n", "BULLET::::- a move to \"more neutral personal income tax treatment of private residential rental investment . . through a 40 per cent discount on all net residential rental income and losses, and capital gains.\"\n\nIn regard to recommendations of changes to tax policy that might impact the housing market, the Government advised \"that it will not implement the following policies at any stage\" (excerpt of list):\n\nBULLET::::- include the family home in means tests (see Rec 88c),\n", "The HFI has looked extensively at the housing crisis in London. The Institute's chairman, Mark Boleat, has called for a radical planning shake-up to solve London's housing crisis that would professionalise decision-making in the planning system, increase the supply of land suitable for house building and allow substantially greater densities of homes in the capital. Following this report, Chancellor Philip Hammond welcomed planning reform in his 2017 Autumn Budget and announced a review to be conducted by Oliver Letwin. The Letwin Review ultimately determined that slow build out was caused by a lack of diversity in new housing and the incentive of housebuilders to restrict supply to avoid reducing prices.\n", "This issue had wider political significance since housing associations' borrowing (which stood at approximately £30 billion in 2006) does not contribute to the UK's public sector borrowing requirement, the control of which is both a stated government objective and part of the EU's criteria for membership of the European single currency.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "BULLET::::- In order to reduce this rate to the EU average of 1.1% an additional 120,000 houses each year may be required.\n\nThe policy recommendations outlined in the report were:\n\nBULLET::::- For government to set a goal for improved market affordability.\n\nBULLET::::- Between £1.2 - £1.6 billion of additional funding per annum to meet predicted social housing needs.\n\nBULLET::::- Implementation of a planning gain supplement to capture some of the benefits of development for the community.\n", "In some countries, the market has been unable to meet the growing demand to supply housing stock at affordable prices. Although demand for affordable housing, particularly rental housing that is affordable for low and middle income earners, has increased, the supply has not. Potential home buyers are forced to turn to the rental market, which is also under pressure. An inadequate supply of housing stock increases demand on the private and social rented sector, and in worse case scenarios, homelessness.\n\nSection::::Economy.:Some of the factors that affect the supply and demand of housing stock.\n\nBULLET::::- Demographic and behavioural factors\n", "Typically, a new housing development over a given threshold size (commonly 15 dwellings in many local authorities) would be required to provide a pre-determined proportion of affordable housing - see DCLG Circular 05/2005. This is a source of friction between developers and local planning authorities, because the developers attempt to maximise revenue while the councils attempt to maximise the amount of affordable housing. Many councils have a loosely worded Development or Local Plan to reflect s 54A of the Act, which requires any decision to be reached in accordance with the terms of the Plan unless material considerations indicate otherwise. Circular 6/98 states affordable housing itself is just one material planning consideration, therefore simply meeting a requirement for affordable housing provides no guarantee that other issues may need to be addressed.\n", "In 2016, it was announced that the penalty would be extended to pensioners. Caroline Abrahams of Age UK, said: \"Imposing the cap on older tenants will not only cause them anxiety and distress, it is also pointless given the lack of affordable housing options available to them\".\n", "Despite the run up in prices in places such as London, Ian McCafferty, who sits on the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee, argued that the housing market had by no means fully recovered, because the number of house sales taking place was still below historic norms, though increasing prices were predicted to at least partly cure the situation.\n\nOther notable factors were cited as contributing to inflating prices, the main ones being: a continuing lack of supply. Record-low borrowing costs; economic recovery; and, particularly in London, demand from foreign investors.\n", "There are also a range of affordable home ownership options, including shared ownership (where a tenant rents part share in the property from a social landlord, and owns the remainder). The government has also attempted to promote the supply of affordable housing principally by using the land-use planning system to require that housing developers provide a proportion of either social or affordable housing within new developments. This approach is known in other countries with formal zoning systems as inclusionary zoning, whilst the current mechanism in the UK is through the use of a S.106 Agreement. In Scotland the equivalent is a Section 75 planning agreement. (Section 75 of the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997)\n", "Section::::Examples.:Apartment price control in Finland.\n", "Taking into account the government’s policy of minimal market intervention, other than PRH, the Government will continue to withdraw as far as possible from housing assistance programmes.\n\nUnder the minimal intervention approach, the government is firmly committed to provide a fair and stable\n\noperating environment for the sake of the healthy development of the\n\nprivate property market. Moreover, efforts are made to enhance the transparency of sales information and fairness of transactions of first-hand private residential properties in order to protect consumers’ rights;\n\nSection::::The Government's Housing Policy Objectives.:(C) To maintain the steady development of property market.\n", "Premises are not in short supply. Typically, local authorities will approach GDW Süd with a proposal to re-occupy an empty shop. In practice, some 80% of these proposals have to be turned down. GDW Süd offers support during lease negotiations and in fitting the shop out.\n\nSection::::Start-up.\n", "One of the underlying issues that stand in the way of monetary union is the structural difference between the UK housing market and those of many continental European countries. Although home ownership in Britain is near the European average, variable rate mortgages are more common, making the retail price index in Britain more influenced by interest rate changes. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Economy of the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Economy of the European Union\n\nBULLET::::- Euroscepticism\n\nBULLET::::- Eurozone\n\nBULLET::::- No Campaign\n\nBULLET::::- Pro-European\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- HM Treasury - Official UK Treasury euro website\n" ]

[ "Governments cannot implement caps on housing prices.", "Governments can't implement caps on housing prices." ]

[ "They can do this, but there is no benefit to doing this.", "Governments can implement caps on housing prices, there is just no real benefit to doing so." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Governments cannot implement caps on housing prices.", "Governments can't implement caps on housing prices." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "They can do this, but there is no benefit to doing this.", "Governments can implement caps on housing prices, there is just no real benefit to doing so." ]

[ "Section::::Distinguishing features.\n", "Section::::Genotypes.\n\nTE1/TE1 or TE1/TE2: Yellow, amber, or bright orange eyes.br\n\nTE2/TE2: Blue eyes when in combination with cream. It is not known what this looks like without cream. Only one horse has been tested to carry this genotype.br\n\nTE1/n, TE2/n, or n/n: Dark eyes.\n\nSection::::Molecular Genetics.\n", "Sectoral heterochromia, usually sectoral hypochromia, is often seen in dogs, specifically in breeds with merle coats. These breeds include the Australian Shepherd, Border Collie, Collie, Shetland Sheepdog, Welsh Corgi, Pyrenean Shepherd, Mudi, Beauceron, Catahoula Cur, Dunker, Great Dane, Dachshund and Chihuahua. It also occurs in certain breeds that do not carry the merle trait, such as the Siberian Husky and rarely, Shih Tzu. There are example of cat breeds that have the condition such as Van cat.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Photograph of Radial Reddish Sunburst Pattern in Right Eye of Bluish Hazel Eyed Woman\"\n", "BULLET::::- Anterior pigment epithelium\n\nBULLET::::- Posterior pigment epithelium\n\nSection::::Structure.:Development.\n\nThe stroma and the anterior border layer of the iris are derived from the neural crest, and behind the stroma of the iris, the sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae muscles as well as the iris epithelium develop from optic cup neuroectoderm.\n\nSection::::Eye color.\n", "Cherry eye is not considered a genetic problem, as no proof of inheritance has been determined. The NM contains many glands which merge and appear as a single gland. Typically, glands secrete tears for lubrication of the cornea. Lack of anchoring allows the gland to flip up, causing the gland to prolapse.\n", "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n", "Eye color is determined primarily by the concentration and distribution of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.\n\nThe human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.\n", "The cornea, unlike the sclera, has five layers. The middle, thickest layer is also called the stroma. The sclera, like the cornea, contains a basal endothelium, above which there is the lamina fusca, containing a high count of pigment cells.\n\nSometimes, very small gray-blue spots can appear on the sclera, a harmless condition called scleral melanocytosis.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.\n\nThe RPE is composed of a single layer of hexagonal cells that are densely packed with pigment granules.\n\nWhen viewed from the outer surface, these cells are smooth and hexagonal in shape. When seen in section, each cell consists of an outer non-pigmented part containing a large oval nucleus and an inner pigmented portion which extends as a series of straight thread-like processes between the rods, this being especially the case when the eye is exposed to light.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nThe RPE has several functions, namely, light absorption, epithelial transport, spatial ion buffering, visual cycle, phagocytosis, secretion and immune modulation.\n", "Section::::Eye color.:Genetic and physical factors determining iris color.\n\nIris color is a highly complex phenomenon consisting of the combined effects of texture, pigmentation, fibrous tissue and blood vessels within the iris stroma, which together make up an individual's epigenetic constitution in this context. A person's \"eye color\" is actually the color of one's iris, the cornea being transparent and the white sclera entirely outside the area of interest.\n", "Drafters can only draft so much in their lives. The more they draft, the more the luxin which courses through their bodies changes them. Not only does drafting damage the body, but it also affects the mind. As a drafter uses more Luxin, small amounts of it build up in the eye around the iris. This band of luxin is called the Halo, and it is by this that a drafter's life span is deduced. If a drafter uses too much luxin, the iris will fill with luxin, and any more drafting will cause them to \"break the halo\". This means that the band of luxin breaks and spreads into the whites of the eye. Once this happens, the drafter is considered a color wight, also known as a giist.\n", "Pupillages are split into two different phases. The \"first six\" involves observing the pupil's supervisor at court and in conference, and assisting with related paperwork. In many chambers, this is the more relaxed part of the pupillage, as the pupil has little responsibility.\n", "Many songbirds (like evening grosbeak, yellow warbler, common yellowthroat and Javan green magpie) deposit lutein obtained from the diet into growing tissues to color their feathers.\n\nSection::::Role in human eyes.\n\nAlthough lutein is concentrated in the macula – a small area of the retina responsible for three-color vision – the precise functional role of retinal lutein has not been determined.\n\nSection::::Role in human eyes.:Macular degeneration.\n", "The word \"\"Coreoperca\"\" is based in Greek roots. The prefix \"kore\"(, -es) stands for pupil or maid, and suffix \"perke\" stands for the perch family.\n", "In a male child, from 2 months upwards, an aversion to light and nystagmus may lead to the suspicion of a case of blue cone monochromacy, but it does not provide sufficient indications to establish the form of the condition. To identify a case of BCM, it is necessary to reconstruct the family history, with the condition linked to the transmission of the X chromosome if there are other cases in the family.\n\nThe electroretinogram (ERG), can demonstrate the loss of cone function with retained rod function.\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n", "The gene \"OCA2\" (), when in a variant form, causes the pink eye color and hypopigmentation common in human albinism. (The name of the gene is derived from the disorder it causes, oculocutaneous albinism type II.) Different SNPs within \"OCA2\" are strongly associated with blue and green eyes as well as variations in freckling, mole counts, hair and skin tone. The polymorphisms may be in an \"OCA2\" regulatory sequence, where they may influence the expression of the gene product, which in turn affects pigmentation. A specific mutation within the \"HERC2\" gene, a gene that regulates \"OCA2\" expression, is partly responsible for blue eyes. Other genes implicated in eye color variation are SLC24A4 and TYR. A 2010 study on eye color variation into hue and saturation values using high-resolution digital full-eye photographs found three new loci for a total of ten genes, and now about 50% of eye colour variation can be explained.\n", "Blue cone monochromacy is inherited from the X chromosome.\n\nThe genes involved in the BCM are on chromosome X, at position Xq28, at the end of the q arm of the X chromosome. The genes’ names are:\n\nLCR is the Locus Control Region, and acts as a promoter of the expression of the two opsin genes thereafter. In the absence of this gene, none of the following two opsin genes are expressed in the human retina. In addition, it ensures that only one of the two opsin genes (red or green) is expressed exclusively in each cone. OPN1LW and OPN1MW\n", "Section::::Habitat and conservation.\n", "Section::::Blue irises.\n", "Section::::Mate selection and traits that have been linked to iris color.\n\nSection::::Mate selection and traits that have been linked to iris color.:Selection for rare iris colors.\n", "Although the eye color is described as having depth \"even greater even than that seen in a Siamese (cat)\" it, in fact, does not. The blue color seen in cats is due to the same physical phenomenon, the absence of melanin in the iris. The cause of the absence of pigment differs between Siamese, white cats, and Ojos but the end result is pigment loss and blue eyes. The depth of color of the blue eyes is due to currently unknown polygenetic variations. The depth of eye color can be selected for in breeding programs and current show Siamese have extremely deep eye color.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n\nThe pupil is a hole located in the centre of the iris of the eye that allows light to strike the retina. It appears black because light rays entering the pupil are either absorbed by the tissues inside the eye directly, or absorbed after diffuse reflections within the eye that mostly miss exiting the narrow pupil.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Iris (anatomy)\n\nIn humans and most mammals and birds, the iris (plural: irides or irises) is a thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupil and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. Eye color is defined by that of the iris. In optical terms, the pupil is the eye's aperture, while the iris is the diaphragm.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThe iris consists of two layers: the front pigmented layer known as a stroma and, beneath the stroma, pigmented epithelial cells.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "The coloring in the pupil has a purpose." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The coloring in the pupil is caused by a lack of melanin in the eye, which allows light to be reflected out of the iris." ]

[ "Within this network, central inhibitory connections play a major role, producing a rostrocaudal inhibition that parallels the rostrocaudal anatomy of the swallowing tract. Thus, when the neurons controlling the proximal parts of the tract are active, those that command more distal parts are inhibited. Apart from the type of connection between the neurons, intrinsic properties of the neurons, especially those of NTS neurons, probably also contribute to the shaping and timing of the swallowing pattern.\n", "Some drugs are inactive in the digestive tract, but this can be avoided if held between the upper lip and gum. This prevents the substances from getting swallowed with salivation, as would normally occur between the lower lip and gum, permitting slow release of the drug to prolong the duration of action.\n", "The portion of food, drink, or other material that will move through the neck in one swallow is called a bolus.\n\nSwallowing comes so easily to most people that the process rarely prompts much thought. However, from the viewpoints of physiology, of speech-language pathology, and of health care for people with difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia), it is an interesting topic with extensive scientific literature.\n\nSection::::In humans.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Coordination and control.\n", "In fish, the tongue is largely bony and much less mobile and getting the food to the back of the pharynx is helped by pumping water in its mouth and out of its gills.\n\nIn snakes, the work of swallowing is done by raking with the lower jaw until the prey is far enough back to be helped down by body undulations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dysphagia\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusion\n\nBULLET::::- Speech and language pathology\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Overview at nature.com\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomy and physiology of swallowing at dysphagia.com\n\nBULLET::::- Swallowing animation (flash) at hopkins-gi.org\n", "ICP is a position used by the mandible at the end of a chewing cycle. This position is also used a hundred times a day in function specifically to stabilise the mandible during swallowing. When we swallow, a majority of us will form an anterior oral seal which is when the teeth are in ICP and the lips closed together. However, there is a small number of people who are unable to do that and swallow with their teeth apart instead. The reasons for this could be that there is a discrepancy in the jaw(s), a malposition of the teeth or a deformity in the soft tissues.\n", "Eating and swallowing are complex neuromuscular activities consisting essentially of three phases, an oral, pharyngeal and esophageal phase. Each phase is controlled by a different neurological mechanism. The oral phase, which is entirely voluntary, is mainly controlled by the medial temporal lobes and limbic system of the cerebral cortex with contributions from the motor cortex and other cortical areas. The pharyngeal swallow is started by the oral phase and subsequently is coordinated by the swallowing center on the medulla oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as a bolus of food is pushed to the back of the mouth by the tongue, or by stimulation of the palate (palatal reflex).\n", "Forked tongue\n\nA forked tongue is a tongue split into two distinct tines at the tip; this is a feature common to many species of reptiles. Reptiles smell using the tip of their tongue, and a forked tongue allows them to sense from which direction a smell is coming. Sensing from both sides of the head and following trails based on chemical cues is called tropotaxis. It is unclear whether forked-tongued reptiles can actually follow trails or if this is just a hypothesis.\n", "Food is mechanically broken down by the action of the teeth controlled by the muscles of mastication (V) acting on the temporomandibular joint. This results in a bolus which is moved from one side of the oral cavity to the other by the tongue. Buccinator (VII) helps to contain the food against the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. The bolus is ready for swallowing when it is held together by saliva (largely mucus) , sensed by the lingual nerve of the tongue (VII—chorda tympani and IX—lesser petrosal)(V). Any food that is too dry to form a bolus will not be swallowed.\n", "At the end of the oral preparatory phase, the food bolus has been formed and is ready to be propelled posteriorly into the pharynx. In order for anterior to posterior transit of the bolus to occur, orbicularis oris contracts and adducts the lips to form a tight seal of the oral cavity. Next, the superior longitudinal muscle elevates the apex of the tongue to make contact with the hard palate and the bolus is propelled to the posterior portion of the oral cavity. Once the bolus reaches the palatoglossal arch of the oropharynx, the pharyngeal phase, which is reflex and involuntary, then begins. Receptors initiating this reflex are proprioceptive (afferent limb of reflex is IX and efferent limb is the pharyngeal plexus- IX and X). They are scattered over the base of the tongue, the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches, the tonsillar fossa, uvula and posterior pharyngeal wall. Stimuli from the receptors of this phase then provoke the pharyngeal phase. In fact, it has been shown that the swallowing reflex can be initiated entirely by peripheral stimulation of the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. This phase is \"voluntary\" and involves important cranial nerves: V (trigeminal), VII (facial) and XII (hypoglossal).\n", "During swallowing or yawning, several muscles in the pharynx (throat) act to elevate the soft palate and open the throat. One of these muscles, the tensor veli palatini, also acts to open the Eustachian tube. This is why swallowing or yawning is successful in equalizing middle ear pressure. Contrary to popular belief, the jaw does not pinch the tubes shut when it is closed. In fact, the Eustachian tubes are not located close enough to the mandible to be pinched off. People often recommend chewing gum during ascent/descent in aircraft, because chewing gum increases the rate of salivation, and swallowing the excess saliva opens the Eustachian tubes.\n", "In salamanders of the genus Hydromantes, the pattern of muscle activation has been mapped. The main muscles used for ballistic tongue movements in these salamanders are the subarcualis rectus (SAR) muscles. These SAR muscles can be further divided into anterior (SARA) and posterior (SARP). The first muscle to be activated is the SARA, which is located near the back of the head. The SARA remains active until the tongue makes contact with the prey. Next, the posterior SARP, located further back on the medial and lateral sides of the salamander is activated. Then the middle SARP is activated and the anterior SARP is the last to be activated. The time between activation shortens and duration of activation increases with increasing prey distance. Ballistic tongues have evolved two times previously in the Hemidactyliini and Bolitoglossini genera. The exact mechanisms of tongue projection vary slightly throughout the taxa, but the resulting projections have remained relatively constant.\n", "Section::::Technique.:Vagus Nerve Injury.\n", "Exceptions to Uchchhishta are given in the \"Vasishtha Dharmasutra\". Food remnants stuck in teeth or food currently in the mouth are not considered impure, as they are treated part of the mouth like teeth. Swallowing the same cleanses the individual. While pouring water for someone to drink, if drops of water fall on the person's feet; the drops are not Uchchhista, but considered part of the ground.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nThe production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic.\n\nThe saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more fluid-like.\n\nSympathetic stimulation of saliva is to facilitate respiration, whereas parasympathetic stimulation is to facilitate digestion.\n", "Section::::Description.:Voice.\n", "For example, a subject's chances of correctly reporting both appearances of the word \"cat\" in the RSVP stream \"dog mouse cat elephant cat snake\" are lower than their chances of reporting the third and fifth words in the stream \"dog mouse cat elephant pig snake\".\n", "Swallowing involves the coordinated contraction of more than 25 pairs of muscles in the oropharynx, larynx and esophagus, which are active during an oropharyngeal phase, followed by the primary esophageal peristalsis. Swallowing depends on a CPG located in the medulla oblongata, which involves several brain stem motor nuclei and two main groups of interneurons: a dorsal swallowing group (DSG) in the nucleus tractus solitarii and a ventral swallowing group (VSG) located in the ventrolateral medulla above the nucleus ambiguus. Neurons in the DSG are responsible for the generation of the swallowing pattern, while those in the VSG distribute the commands to the various motoneuronal pools. As in other CPGs, the functioning of the central network can be modulated by peripheral and central inputs, so that the swallowing pattern is adapted to the size of the bolus.\n", "Finally the larynx and pharynx move down with the hyoid mostly by elastic recoil. Then the larynx and pharynx move down from the hyoid to their relaxed positions by elastic recoil.\n\nSwallowing therefore depends on coordinated interplay between many various muscles, and although the initial part of swallowing is under voluntary control, once the deglutition process is started, it is quite hard to stop it.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Phases.:Clinical significance.\n", "In the esophagus, two types of peristalsis occur:\n\nBULLET::::- First, there is a primary peristaltic wave, which occurs when the bolus enters the esophagus during swallowing. The primary peristaltic wave forces the bolus down the esophagus and into the stomach in a wave lasting about 8–9 seconds. The wave travels down to the stomach even if the bolus of food descends at a greater rate than the wave itself, and continues even if for some reason the bolus gets stuck further up the esophagus.\n", "Section::::Process.:Co-articulation.\n\nVisemes can be captured as still images, but speech unfolds in time. The smooth articulation of speech sounds in sequence can mean that mouth patterns may be ‘shaped’ by an adjacent phoneme: the ‘th’ sound in ‘tooth’ and in ‘teeth’ appears very different because of the vocalic context. This feature of dynamic speech-reading affects lip-reading 'beyond the viseme'.\n\nSection::::Process.:How can it 'work' with so few visemes?\n", "Swallowing is a complex mechanism using both skeletal muscle (tongue) and smooth muscles of the pharynx and esophagus. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) coordinates this process in the pharyngeal and esophageal phases.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Phases.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Phases.:Oral phase.\n", "Swallowing\n\nSwallowing, sometimes called deglutition in scientific contexts, is the process in the human or animal body that allows for a substance to pass from the mouth, to the pharynx, and into the esophagus, while shutting the epiglottis. Swallowing is an important part of eating and drinking. If the process fails and the material (such as food, drink, or medicine) goes through the trachea, then choking or pulmonary aspiration can occur. In the human body the automatic temporary closing of the epiglottis is controlled by the swallowing reflex.\n", "Prior to the following stages of the oral phase, the mandible depresses and the lips abduct to allow food or liquid to enter the oral cavity. Upon entering the oral cavity, the mandible elevates and the lips adduct to assist in oral containment of the food and liquid. The following stages describe the normal and necessary actions to form the bolus, which is defined as the state of the food in which it is ready to be swallowed.\n\n1) Moistening\n\nFood is moistened by saliva from the salivary glands (parasympathetic).\n\n2) Mastication\n", "Saliva consists of proteins (for example; mucins) that lubricate and protect both the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity. Mucins are the principal organic constituents of mucus, the slimy visco-elastic material that coats all mucosal surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Buffering\n\nIn general, the higher the saliva flow rate, the faster the clearance and the higher the buffer capacity, hence better protection from dental caries. Therefore, people with a slower rate of saliva secretion, combined with a low buffer capacity, have lessened salivary protection against microbes.\n\nBULLET::::- Pellicle formation\n", "A written form such as \"-ddh-\" (a literal rendition of the devanāgarī representation) presents problems of interpretation. The choice is between a long voiced stop with a specific release feature, aspiration, symbolized in transliteration by -\"h\"-, or else a long stop (or stop cluster) with a different phonational state, \"murmur\", whereby the breathy release is an artifact of the phonational state. The latter interpretation is rather favored by such phenomena as the Rigvedic form \"gdha\" \"he swallowed,\" which is morphologically a middle aorist (more exactly \"injunctive\") to the root \"ghas\"- \"swallow\", as follows: \"ghs-t-a\" *\"gzdha\", whence \"gdha\" by the regular loss of a sibilant between stops in Indic. While the idea of voicing affecting the whole cluster with the release feature conventionally called aspiration penetrating all the way to the end of the sequence is not entirely unthinkable, the alternative – the spread of a phonational state (but murmur rather than voice) through the whole sequence – involves one less step and therefore via Occam's razor counts as the better interpretation.\n" ]

[ "Cannot swallow saliva in fast succession.", "If a human can swallow in fast succession when drinking or eating, they should be able to do so with their own saliva. " ]

[ "You could if you had more saliva to drink. You need something in your mouth to be able to swallow. ", "There is not enough saliva in ones mouth for them to be able to swallow in a fast succession." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Cannot swallow saliva in fast succession.", "If a human can swallow in fast succession when drinking or eating, they should be able to do so with their own saliva. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "You could if you had more saliva to drink. You need something in your mouth to be able to swallow. ", "There is not enough saliva in ones mouth for them to be able to swallow in a fast succession." ]

[ "Near-Earth asteroids, or NEAs, are asteroids that have orbits that pass close to that of Earth. Asteroids that actually cross Earth's orbital path are known as \"Earth-crossers\". , 14,464 near-Earth asteroids are known and the number over one kilometer in diameter is estimated to be 900–1,000.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Size distribution.\n", "For almost two centuries, from the discovery of Ceres in 1801 until the discovery of the first centaur, Chiron in 1977, all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter, though a few such as Hidalgo ventured far beyond Jupiter for part of their orbit. Those located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter were known for many years simply as The Asteroids. When astronomers started finding more small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter, now called centaurs, they numbered them among the traditional asteroids, though there was debate over whether they should be considered asteroids or as a new type of object. Then, when the first trans-Neptunian object (other than Pluto), Albion, was discovered in 1992, and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up, new terms were invented to sidestep the issue: Kuiper-belt object, trans-Neptunian object, scattered-disc object, and so on. These inhabit the cold outer reaches of the Solar System where ices remain solid and comet-like bodies are not expected to exhibit much cometary activity; if centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects were to venture close to the Sun, their volatile ices would sublimate, and traditional approaches would classify them as comets and not asteroids.\n", "Asteroids vary greatly in size, from almost for the largest down to rocks just 1 meter across. The three largest are very much like miniature planets: they are roughly spherical, have at least partly differentiated interiors, and are thought to be surviving protoplanets. The vast majority, however, are much smaller and are irregularly shaped; they are thought to be either surviving planetesimals or fragments of larger bodies.\n", "Meteorites are metallic or stony objects that fall to the Earth's surface from space. Scientists believe that most meteorites originate from asteroids within the asteroid belt of our solar system, but there is an increasing amount of evidence to suggest some may come from comets. Some meteorites also come from larger planetary bodies, such as the moon and Mars. Meteorites typically preserve their histories from the time when they were first accreted on their parent body, to when they were ejected from that body and landed on Earth, so our understanding of planetary body formation and evolution over the last 4.56 billion years becomes better each time a new meteorite is found.\n", "About 8% of the meteorites are achondrites (meaning they do not contain chondrules), some of which are similar to terrestrial igneous rocks. Most achondrites are also ancient rocks, and are thought to represent crustal material of differentiated planetesimals. One large family of achondrites (the HED meteorites) may have originated on the parent body of the Vesta Family, although this claim is disputed. Others derive from unidentified asteroids. Two small groups of achondrites are special, as they are younger and do not appear to come from the asteroid belt. One of these groups comes from the Moon, and includes rocks similar to those brought back to Earth by Apollo and Luna programs. The other group is almost certainly from Mars and constitutes the only materials from other planets ever recovered by humans.\n", "Asteroids are minor planets, especially of the inner Solar System. Larger asteroids have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not resemble a planet-like disc and was not observed to have characteristics of an active comet such as a tail. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered they were typically found to have volatile-rich surfaces similar to comets. As a result, they were often distinguished from objects found in the main asteroid belt. In this article, the term \"asteroid\" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter.\n", "Section::::Meteoroids.:In the Solar System.\n\nMost meteoroids come from the asteroid belt, having been perturbed by the gravitational influences of planets, but others are particles from comets, giving rise to meteor showers. Some meteoroids are fragments from bodies such as Mars or our moon, that have been thrown into space by an impact.\n", "Asteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition: while asteroids are mainly composed of mineral and rock, comets are primarily composed of dust and ice. Furthermore, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of cometary ice. The difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size: meteoroids have a diameter of one meter or less, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials.\n", "Section::::Research and study.\n\nScientists suspect that some asteroids were once comets. A comet loses part of its mass with each passage around the Sun. It would appear that some would eventually use all of their volatiles, or perhaps cover these under a blanket of dust after repeated passages around the Sun. Such an object might then have an asteroid appearance.\n", "BULLET::::- 4158 Santini\n\nBULLET::::- 4169 Celsius\n\nBULLET::::- 4177 Kohman\n\nBULLET::::- 4236 Lidov\n\nBULLET::::- 4423 Golden\n\nBULLET::::- 4973 Showa\n\nBULLET::::- 5164 Mullo\n\nBULLET::::- 5201 Ferraz-Mello\n\nBULLET::::- 5301 Novobranets\n\nBULLET::::- 5362 Johnyoung\n\nBULLET::::- 5370 Taranis\n\nBULLET::::- 5495 Rumyantsev\n\nBULLET::::- 5780 Lafontaine\n\nBULLET::::- 5833 Peterson\n\nBULLET::::- 5914 Kathywhaler (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- 6039 Parmenides\n\nBULLET::::- 6057 Robbia\n\nBULLET::::- (6103) 1993 HV\n\nBULLET::::- 6574 Gvishiani\n\nBULLET::::- 6924 Fukui\n\nBULLET::::- 6996 Alvensleben\n\nBULLET::::- 7501 Farra\n\nBULLET::::- 7710 Ishibashi\n\nBULLET::::- 8482 Wayneolm\n\nBULLET::::- 8917 Tianjindaxue\n\nBULLET::::- 9398 Bidelman\n\nBULLET::::- 9522 Schlichting\n\nBULLET::::- (9552) 1985 UY (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- 9767 Midsomer Norton\n\nBULLET::::- 10257 Garecynthia\n\nBULLET::::- 10379 Lake Placid\n", "The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, generally in relatively low-eccentricity (i.e. not very elongated) orbits. This belt is now estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than in diameter, and millions of smaller ones. These asteroids may be remnants of the protoplanetary disk, and in this region the accretion of planetesimals into planets during the formative period of the Solar System was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by Jupiter.\n\nSection::::Distribution within the Solar System.:Trojans.\n", "Section::::Inner Solar System.:Asteroid belt.\n\nAsteroids except for the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies and are composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice. They range from a few metres to hundreds of kilometres in size. Asteroids smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids (grain-sized), depending on different, somewhat arbitrary definitions.\n", "When found, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until \"small Solar System body\" was coined in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to sublimation of near surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface volatile ices and become asteroid-like. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most \"asteroids\" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets.\n", "BULLET::::- 260 Huberta\n\nBULLET::::- 319 Leona\n\nBULLET::::- 401 Ottilia\n\nBULLET::::- 414 Liriope\n\nBULLET::::- 420 Bertholda\n\nBULLET::::- 466 Tisiphone\n\nBULLET::::- 483 Seppina\n\nBULLET::::- 522 Helga\n\nBULLET::::- 528 Rezia\n\nBULLET::::- 536 Merapi\n\nBULLET::::- 566 Stereoskopia\n\nBULLET::::- 570 Kythera\n\nBULLET::::- 643 Scheherezade\n\nBULLET::::- 692 Hippodamia\n\nBULLET::::- 713 Luscinia\n\nBULLET::::- 721 Tabora\n\nBULLET::::- 733 Mocia\n\nBULLET::::- 790 Pretoria\n\nBULLET::::- 909 Ulla (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- 940 Kordula\n\nBULLET::::- 1004 Belopolskya\n\nBULLET::::- 1028 Lydina\n\nBULLET::::- 1091 Spiraea\n\nBULLET::::- 1154 Astronomia\n\nBULLET::::- 1167 Dubiago\n\nBULLET::::- 1177 Gonnessia\n\nBULLET::::- 1266 Tone\n\nBULLET::::- 1280 Baillauda\n\nBULLET::::- 1295 Deflotte\n\nBULLET::::- 1328 Devota\n\nBULLET::::- 1373 Cincinnati\n\nBULLET::::- 1390 Abastumani\n\nBULLET::::- 1467 Mashona\n", "The innermost of these are the Kuiper-belt objects, called \"objects\" partly to avoid the need to classify them as asteroids or comets. They are thought to be predominantly comet-like in composition, though some may be more akin to asteroids. Furthermore, most do not have the highly eccentric orbits associated with comets, and the ones so far discovered are larger than traditional comet nuclei. (The much more distant Oort cloud is hypothesized to be the main reservoir of dormant comets.) Other recent observations, such as the analysis of the cometary dust collected by the \"Stardust\" probe, are increasingly blurring the distinction between comets and asteroids, suggesting \"a continuum between asteroids and comets\" rather than a sharp dividing line.\n", "Section::::Number and classification.:Near-Earth asteroids.:Co-orbital asteroids.\n\nNEAs on a co-orbital configuration have the same orbital period as the Earth. All co-orbital asteroids have special orbits that are relatively stable and, paradoxically, can prevent them from getting close to Earth:\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n", "Near-Earth objects are classified as meteoroids, asteroids, or comets depending on size and composition. Asteroids can also be members of an asteroid family, and comets create meteoroid streams that can generate meteor showers.\n\n, according to statistics maintained by CNEOS, 19,470 NEOs have been discovered. Only 107 (0.55%) of them are comets, whilst 19,363 (99.45%) are asteroids. There are 1,955 NEOs that are classified as potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs).\n", "The physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood. Ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, where Vesta is thought to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle, and basaltic crust. 10 Hygiea, however, which appears to have a uniformly primitive composition of carbonaceous chondrite, is thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid. Most of the smaller asteroids are thought to be piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity, though the largest are probably solid. Some asteroids have moons or are co-orbiting binaries: Rubble piles, moons, binaries, and scattered asteroid families are thought to be the results of collisions that disrupted a parent asteroid, or, possibly, a planet.\n", "When meteoroids intersect with Earth's atmosphere at night, they are likely to become visible as meteors. If meteoroids survive the entry through the atmosphere and reach Earth's surface, they are called meteorites. Meteorites are transformed in structure and chemistry by the heat of entry and force of impact. A noted asteroid, , was observed in space on a collision course with Earth on 6 October 2008 and entered Earth's atmosphere the next day, striking a remote area of northern Sudan. It was the first time that a meteoroid had been observed in space and tracked prior to impacting Earth. NASA has produced a map showing the most notable asteroid collisions with Earth and its atmosphere from 1994 to 2013 from data gathered by U.S. government sensors (see below).\n", "BULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- 243285 Fauvaud\n\nBULLET::::- 243320 Jackuipers\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (ULA)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- 249520 Luppino\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n\nBULLET::::- (SYL)\n", "About 86% of the meteorites are chondrites, which are named for the small, round particles they contain. These particles, or chondrules, are composed mostly of silicate minerals that appear to have been melted while they were free-floating objects in space. Certain types of chondrites also contain small amounts of organic matter, including amino acids, and presolar grains. Chondrites are typically about 4.55 billion years old and are thought to represent material from the asteroid belt that never coalesced into large bodies. Like comets, chondritic asteroids are some of the oldest and most primitive materials in the solar system. Chondrites are often considered to be \"the building blocks of the planets\".\n", "The minor planets beyond Jupiter's orbit are sometimes also called \"asteroids\", especially in popular presentations. However, it is becoming increasingly common for the term \"asteroid\" to be restricted to minor planets of the inner Solar System. Therefore, this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids: objects of the asteroid belt, Jupiter trojans, and near-Earth objects.\n", "Section::::Naming.:Symbols.\n\nThe first asteroids to be discovered were assigned iconic symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate the planets. By 1855 there were two dozen asteroid symbols, which often occurred in multiple variants.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In many modern restaurants and drinking establishments, soda water is manufactured on-site using devices known as carbonators. Carbonators use mechanical pumps to pump water into a pressurized chamber where it is combined with from pressurized tanks at approximately . The pressurized, carbonated water then flows to taps or to mixing heads where it is then mixed with flavorings as it is dispensed.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Carbonated beverages.\n", "After mixing up the concentrate to the prescribed recipe (including all recommended safety precautions), the syrup is diluted 5:1 with (\"preferably sodium-free\") soda water to make the finished drink; at this dilution, the above combination of ingredients will yield approximately 24 litres of OpenCola.\n\nThe full recipe also includes instructions for home-made soda water produced from basic ingredients such as yeast and sugar in order to make the entire process open source, otherwise there would be a need to use commercially produced bottled or canned soda, or consumer carbonation machines with commercially manufactured carbon dioxide canisters.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Home soda siphons can carbonate flat water through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn. Soda water made in this way tends not to be as carbonated as commercial soda water because water from the refrigerator is not chilled as much as possible, and the pressure of carbon dioxide is limited to that available from the cartridge rather than the high-pressure pumps in a commercial carbonation plant.\n\nSection::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Gasogene.\n", "Users have experimented with various alternative flavours and syrups, including snow cone syrup, concentrates from real fruit juices, powdered drink mixes and home-made or supermarket concoctions. A few small independent vendors offer speciality flavours such as soft drink syrups with real cane sugar. A modern version of the \"Hires Root Beer kit\" unsweetened concentrate is distributed by the Hires Big H drive-in restaurant chain, but its users must add both sugar and carbonated water.\n\nSection::::Environmental marketing.\n", "The process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water is called carbonation. Commercial soda water in siphons is made by chilling filtered plain water to or below, optionally adding a sodium or potassium based alkaline compound such as sodium bicarbonate to reduce acidity, and then pressurizing the water with carbon dioxide. The gas dissolves in the water, and a top-off fill of carbon dioxide is added to pressurize the siphon to approximately , some higher than is present in fermenting champagne bottles.\n", "Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n", "The MythBusters also set a new record for the cola geyser at just over by using a nozzle, beating the previous record of , set by the person who popularized the phenomenon, Steve Spangler. They extended the geyser to by using rock salt, which is more porous and hence provides even more nucleation sites per area than Mentos.\n", "Section::::Post-bottling.\n", "The Coca-Cola Company produces concentrate, which is then sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. A typical can contains of sugar (usually in the form of high fructose corn syrup). The bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores, restaurants, and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants and foodservice distributors.\n", "Section::::Pre-mix soda gun.\n\nPre-mix soda guns are connected to a simpler system that closely resembles a draft beer system. The drink is supplied to a restaurant in pressurized canisters that are connected to the pre-mix soda gun. Pre-mix soda guns are primarily used in countries where the supply of water cannot easily be filtered to a level suitable for use in a restaurant.\n", "In the 1980s, Wint-O-Green Life Savers were used to create soda geysers. The tubes of candies were threaded onto a pipe cleaner and dropped into the soft drink to create a geyser. At the end of the 1990s, the manufacturer of Wintergreen Lifesavers increased the size of the mints and they no longer fit in the mouth of soda bottles. Science teachers found that Mint Mentos candies had the same effect when dropped into a bottle of any carbonated soft drink.\n", "Once the raw MMC is melted, it is then transferred to the foaming apparatus where gas is injected into the melt and dispersed using either rotating impellers or vibrating nozzles. The bubbles rise to the surface and the resultant metal foam mixture cast will rise out of the foaming apparatus due to its density relative to that of the molten MMC. As the metallic foam is being cast, it is simultaneously drawn off the surface by, for example, a conveyor belt. While it is drawn off, it is then cooled and forms a porous metallic structure.\n\nMajor Production Revenue Breakthrough:\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nThe eruption is caused by a physical reaction, rather than any chemical reaction. The addition of the Mentos leads to the rapid nucleation of carbon dioxide gas bubbles precipitating out of solution: \n", "The \"Charmat method\" takes place in stainless steel fermentation tanks that are pressurized. The fresh yeast and sugar mixture is added to the wine which rapidly stimulates fermentation in the pressurized environment. The wine is then cooled, clarified and bottled using a counter pressure filler. The process of carbon injection (or carbonation), the method used to make soda pop fizzy, does not involve initiating a secondary fermentation but rather injecting carbon dioxide gas directly into the wine. This method produces large bubbles that quickly dissipate and is generally only used in the cheapest sparkling wines.\n\nSection::::Production.:Bubbles.\n", "For portable 1 litre bottles, the head of the siphon bottle is removed for filling. A rubber seal and tube are also removed. Then about 1 litre of very cold water is added to the bottle; the bottle is not completely filled. The rubber seal, tube, and head are then reassembled. An 8-gram CO charger is inserted and securely screwed into a port in the head; the port has a conical seal and a hollow pin that pierces the charger and lets the gas into the bottle. When the sound of the gas bubbling into the water is heard, the bottle is shaken, then left to rest. Within seconds, the trigger pull will release seltzer water.\n", "BULLET::::1. Before any graphics can be put on the can product, disks are cut in aluminium sheet stock and are formed to make the can body and shape. Before it reaches the printer, the can is washed, trimmed and dried thoroughly before an over varnish or ink is applied. Special coating for inside the can is also applied here.\n", "This ice cream soda starts with approximately 1 oz of chocolate syrup, then several scoops of chocolate ice cream in a tall glass. Unflavored carbonated water is added until the glass is filled and the resulting foam rises above the top of the glass. The final touch is a topping of whipped cream and usually, a maraschino cherry. This variation of ice cream soda was available at local soda fountains and nationally, at Dairy Queen stores for many years.\n\nA similar soda made with chocolate syrup but vanilla ice cream is sometimes called a \"black and white\" ice cream soda.\n", "Section::::Process.\n\nThe process utilizes a closed mold with pre-vacuum, followed by freezing to maintain uniform bubble geometry. Carbon dioxide (CO) is flooded through the frozen, open foam matrix to form carbonic acid (CO+HO→ HCO). Much like the addition of sodium fluorosilicate (NaSiF) in the Dunlop process, the carbonic acid lowers the pH, thereby causing gellation. In the next process step, vulcanization locks the foam into a uniform bubble distribution.\n\nSection::::Process.:Molding.\n", "The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this \"phosphatation\" technique is \"carbonatation\", which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate.\n", "Soda fountain\n\nA soda fountain is a device that dispenses carbonated soft drinks, called fountain drinks. They can be found in restaurants, concession stands and other locations such as convenience stores. The device combines flavored syrup or syrup concentrate and carbon dioxide with chilled and purified water to make soft drinks, either manually, or in a vending machine which is essentially an automated soda fountain that is operated using a soda gun. Today, the syrup often is pumped from a special container called a bag-in-box (BiB).\n", "The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n", "Soft drinks are made by mixing dry or fresh ingredients with water. Production of soft drinks can be done at factories or at home. Soft drinks can be made at home by mixing a syrup or dry ingredients with carbonated water, or by lacto-fermentation. Syrups are commercially sold by companies such as Soda-Club; dry ingredients are often sold in pouches, in a style of the popular U.S. drink mix Kool-Aid. Carbonated water is made using a soda siphon or a home carbonation system or by dropping dry ice into water. Food-grade carbon dioxide, used for carbonating drinks, often comes from ammonia plants.\n", "Section::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Soda makers.\n\nSoda makers or soda carbonators are appliances that carbonate water with multiple-use carbon dioxide canisters. Soda makers may reach a higher level of carbonation than home soda siphons. A variety of systems are produced by manufacturers and hobbyists. The commercial units may be sold with concentrated syrup for making flavored soft drinks.\n\nOne major producer of soda carbonators is SodaStream. Their products were popular during the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom, and are associated with nostalgia for that period and have experienced a comeback in the 2000s.\n\nSection::::Products for carbonating water.:Commercial.\n", "The tiny bubbles within the chocolate form via aerating the molten chocolate with gas, typically carbon dioxide or nitrogen, while at a high pressure, which causes microscopic gas bubbles to form within the liquid. The liquid is then lowered to atmospheric pressure as it cools, causing the gas pockets to expand and become trapped in the chocolate. Air is not used to make the bubbles as this would oxidize the chocolate.\n\nSection::::Advertising.\n", "A Diet Coke and Mentos eruption (also known as a soda geyser) is a reaction between the carbonated beverage Diet Coke and Mentos mints that causes the beverage to spray out of its container. The gas released by the candies creates an eruption that pushes most of the liquid up and out of the bottle. Lee Marek and \"Marek's Kid Scientists\" were the first to demonstrate the experiment on television in 1999. Steve Spangler's televised demonstration of the eruption in 2005 went viral on YouTube, launching a chain of several other Diet Coke and Mentos experiment viral videos. \n\nSection::::History.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "In the novel, a young Stephen disparages the lack of \"really adequate pockets\" in the feminine dresses and sashes she is forced to wear. At the end of the nineteenth century, sartorial changes in the dress of the New Woman included the development of accessible pockets in dresses as part of rational dressing, and in her article, Janet Myers discusses how pockets were depicted in magazine caricatures of the time as indicative of the more masculine, undesirable New Woman of sexual degeneracy. It is of interest to note that this problem from 1928 largely persists in women's clothing today.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The earliest item in the collection is a sixteenth-century men's goatskin pouch. With metal belt loops and eighteen concealed pockets, it was most likely used by travelling merchants. Many of the earliest bags in the collection are characterised by their heavy metal frames. Frames often outlasted the fabric bags, leading to many early purse frames being reused in later bags, something the museum showcases. The number of bags owned by men notably declines after the introduction of pockets to menswear in the sixteenth century. Bags owned by men become increasingly specialised, with the museum displaying examples such as tobacco pouches and doctors bags. \n", "The rugged canvas and leather style of Duluth packs has become fashionable, and the company manufactures and markets a range of other products, such as purses and computer cases made in the same style.\n", "8. Because pockets have been used by men to carry tobacco, pipes, whiskey flasks, chewing gum and compromising letters. We see no reason to suppose that women would use them more wisely.\n\nSection::::Summary and Themes.:\"Women's Sphere\".\n", "BULLET::::- Focus Group: Erika was eliminated. The focus group thought the idea wasn't new (many already carried flats in their own, larger purses, and so didn't need two more bags to worry about).\n\nBULLET::::- Second Stage:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Guest Advisor:\" Diane Gilman, designer of the Diane Gilman Collection at HSN\n", "BULLET::::- Dooney and Bourke handbags: teenage girls and young women under 35 years\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "The permanent exhibits showcase handbags that most women owned from the early 1900s through 1999, giving glimpses into their lives. Display cases set up by decade show the styles of purses women carried and their contents, reflecting the events of each decade and illustrating how war, fashion, and economics influenced the style and function of purses. Special exhibits have included vintage Barbie dolls (2014), a local artist's series of paintings of women and their purses (2017), images and objects from African American women, 1891–1987 (2017), and paper dresses from the 1960s (2018).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- ESSE Purse Museum website\n", "In slightly later European clothing, pockets began by being hung like purses from a belt, which could be concealed beneath a coat or jerkin to discourage pickpocketing and reached through a slit in the outer garment. \n\nIn the 17th century, pockets began to be sewn into men's clothing, but not women's, which continued to be tied on and hidden under the large skirts popular at the time. This difference between men's and women's pockets continues today with men's version of clothing of the same size and type having bigger pockets.\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 Monastic dress - shift-like, untailored, loose sleeves, patch pockets, belted to create shape\n\nBULLET::::- 1942 Popover dress - versatile wrap dress that could be used as a bathing suit cover-up, housedress, dressing gown, or party dress\n\nBULLET::::- Diaper bathing suit - made of light cotton with a panel that wrapped up between the legs, and was secured by thin strings\n\nBULLET::::- Streamlined wool bathing suits\n\nBULLET::::- Ballet slippers as everyday footwear\n\nBULLET::::- Trouser pockets and pleats in women's wear\n\nBULLET::::- Revealing sundresses and casual wear\n\nBULLET::::- Fabric draping and gathering to accentuate the natural shape of the body\n", "Femme was officially announced in Women's Wear Daily on February 5, 2009. Duff said she wanted to design clothes that were multi-functional, like tunics with removable scarves, skinny jeans with adjustable belt loops and tees with detachable and printed necklaces. Femme for DKNY jeans hit shelves nationwide in August 2009 with prices ranging from $39 to $129.\n\nSection::::Promotion.\n", "In the fall of 2009, Threadless added women’s handbags to their product line:\n\nSection::::Pelle Pelle Product Lines.:Leather.\n\nPelle Pelle leather jackets include a light leather jacket for spring or a heavy one for winter. Most jackets have fur trimmings. Bomber jackets made of leather are available in adult as well as children's sizes.\n\nSection::::Pelle Pelle Product Lines.:Outerwear.\n\nThe company specializes in blending urban gear with street clothes. In 1978, this clothing line catered to only men but is now producing clothing for teenagers and women, as well.\n\nSection::::Pelle Pelle Product Lines.:Handbags.\n\nPelle Pelle launched its handbag line in fall 2009.\n", "Jack Spade's series of duffel bags for men are one of the most recognizable bags from the brand. Series such as \"Wayne\" and \"Nolan\" were constant staples in the brand's collections. The Wayne duffel came in a variety of materials, mostly leather, nylon, and canvas; and included a roomy interior, four metal feet, and a detachable shoulder strap. Jack Spade duffel bags were frequently featured on lists of the best travel gear for men by notable publications.\n\nSection::::Jack Spade.:Bags for Men.:Coal Bags.\n", "Men's purses were revived by designers in the 1970s in Europe. Since the 1990s, designers have marketed a more diverse range of accessory bags for men. The names man bag, man-purse and murse have been used. The designs are typically variations on backpacks or messenger bags, and have either a masculine or a more unisex appearance, although they are often more streamlined than a backpack and less bulky than a briefcase. These bags are often called messenger bags or organizer bags. The leather satchel is also common. Men's designer bags are produced by well-known companies such as Prada, Louis Vuitton, Coach, and Bottega Veneta in a variety of shapes and sizes. The global men's bag and small leather goods trade is a $4-billion-a-year industry. Sales of men's accessories including \"holdall\" bags are increasing in North America.\n", "In the early 2000s the conceptual New York label \"Slow and Steady Wins the Race\", founded by the Chinese-American designer Mary Ping, offered a range of consciously affordable bags deliberately based on It bags by Balenciaga, Dior and Gucci, but made in inexpensive calico with metalwork from hardware stores mirroring the original bags' exclusive designer fittings. These bags were \"Slow and Steady\"'s way of challenging the concept of consumerism and inbuilt obsolescence in traditional fashion manufacture.\n", "Another exhibition of the trend is the oversized handbag. Designers such as Balenciaga, Betsey Johnson, and Michael Kors began producing purses and satchel-like bags that were larger than usual and complied with the oversized aesthetic. As a result of the enormous increase in influence of the internet and social media, these bags quickly became very popular after pictures of celebrities carrying them were posted online for many to see and then emulate.\n", "Section::::Collection.\n", "\"Pocketbook\" is another term for a woman's hand bag that was most commonly used on the East Coast of the United States in the mid-twentieth century.\n\nSection::::Modern origin.\n", "Section::::History.:The Empty Pockets.:Baby It's Cold Outside/Baby Please Come Home.\n", "The oldest known purse dates back more than 5000 years, and was a pouch worn by a man, Ötzi the Iceman. Men once carried coin purses. In early Modern Europe, when women's fashions moved in the direction of using small ornamental purses, which evolved into handbags, men's fashions were moving in another direction. Men's trousers replaced men's breeches during the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, and pockets were incorporated in the loose, heavy material. This enabled men to continue carrying coins, and then paper currency, in small leather wallets. Men's pockets were plentiful in 19th century and 20th century trousers and coats, to carry possessions, such as pipes, matches and knives, and they were an item frequently mended by their wives.\n", "In 2011, the New York Times reported that the Susan B. Anthony House museum had sold a large quantity of \"a $250 handbag made of fake alligator that was inspired by one of Anthony’s own club bags, similar to a doctor’s bag,\" noting that for Anthony, \"a bag was not a fashion statement but a symbol of independence at a time when women were not allowed to enter into a contract or even open a bank account.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- First aid kit\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The bags, priced in the US$150 to $450 range, quickly became popular, particularly in New York. Teenagers with disposable income appreciated the affordability of the lower-end bags. That was \"a real shift\" in fashion, said Fern Mallis, director of the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) during the 1990s. \"Everybody had Kate Spade bags. You could afford them, and happily buy more than one.\"\n", "Alice Forrester wins a $10,000 mink in a radio contest. Alice's husband Joe is a clerk who works for Herb Pendleton, whose wife Rose desperately wants that coat. Herb offers Joe a promotion and $5,000, telling him it'll save Joe the cost of paying a tax and insurance on the coat as well as taking Alice to expensive places to wear it.\n", "The online retailer carries an array of brands such as Bali, Wacoal, SPANX, Calvin Klein, Hanky Panky, Chantelle, Freya, Panache, Hanro, La Perla, Le Mystere, Ugg Australia, Wolford, Hugo Boss, Armani, and Polo Ralph Lauren. The company also carries over 200 bra sizes ranging from 28 to 56 inch bands and from an AA cup to N Cup. Bare Necessities ships throughout the United States and worldwide.\n\nSection::::Models.\n", "Section::::Decline in popularity.\n", "Handbag collecting\n\nHandbag collecting is a hobby that has become increasingly popular in the 2000s.\n\nIn 2014, the auction house Christie's started a handbag department, which now has several staff, headed by an \"international head of handbags\".\n\nAccording to \"The Daily Telegraph\", the most sought-after and valuable brand is Hermès, followed by others including Céline, Chanel and Louis Vuitton.\n\nIn June 2017, Christie's London will have its first sale devoted exclusively to handbags.\n\nSection::::World records.\n" ]

[ "There is a demand for female clothing with pockets.", "There is a demand for female clothing with pockets.", "There is a demand for female clothing with pockets." ]

[ "There is more demand for female clothing without pockets than with pockets.", "There is more demand for female clothing without pockets than with pockets.", "There is more demand for female clothing without pockets than with pockets." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "There is a demand for female clothing with pockets.", "There is a demand for female clothing with pockets.", "There is a demand for female clothing with pockets.", "There is a demand for female clothing with pockets." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "There is more demand for female clothing without pockets than with pockets.", "There is more demand for female clothing without pockets than with pockets.", "There is more demand for female clothing without pockets than with pockets.", "There is more demand for female clothing without pockets than with pockets." ]

[ "In 2002 Audi, with the Audi A8, was the first motor vehicle manufacturer to install Bluetooth technology in a car, enabling the passenger to use a wireless in-car phone. The following year DaimlerChrysler and Acura introduced Bluetooth technology integration with the audio system as a standard feature in the third-generation Acura TL in a system dubbed HandsFree Link (HFL). Later, BMW added it as an option on its 1 Series, 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series and X5 vehicles. Since then, other manufacturers have followed suit, with many vehicles, including the Toyota Prius (since 2004), 2007 Toyota Camry, 2007 Infiniti G35, and the Lexus LS 430 (since 2004). Several Nissan models (Versa, X-Trail) include a built-in Bluetooth for the Technology option. Volvo started introducing support in some vehicles in 2007, and as of 2009 all Bluetooth-enabled vehicles support HFP.\n", "Developed over three years beginning in 2003 in partnership with CRF (Centro Ricerche FIAT), Magneti Marelli and Microsoft, and based on Windows Embedded Automotive, Blue&Me was formally launched in 2006 at the Geneva Auto Show. The system uses a paired Bluetooth-compatible phone to allow users to make hands-free telephone calls, control music, and other functions using voice commands and steering-wheel mounted controls.\n\nSection::::Development history.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Just works\": As the name implies, this method just works, with no user interaction. However, a device may prompt the user to confirm the pairing process. This method is typically used by headsets with very limited IO capabilities, and is more secure than the fixed PIN mechanism this limited set of devices uses for legacy pairing. This method provides no man-in-the-middle (MITM) protection.\n", "Seeking to extend the compatibility of Bluetooth devices, the devices that adhere to the standard use as an interface between the host device (laptop, phone, etc.) and the Bluetooth device as such (Bluetooth chip) an interface called HCI (Host Controller Interface)\n", "To resolve this conflict, Bluetooth uses a process called \"bonding\", and a bond is generated through a process called \"pairing\". The pairing process is triggered either by a specific request from a user to generate a bond (for example, the user explicitly requests to \"Add a Bluetooth device\"), or it is triggered automatically when connecting to a service where (for the first time) the identity of a device is required for security purposes. These two cases are referred to as dedicated bonding and general bonding respectively.\n", "BULLET::::3. In PC to peripheral usage models (such as dial up networking using a cellular phone), the PC may need to download device drivers or other software for that peripheral from a web site. To do this the driver must know the proper identity of the peripheral. Note that devices are expected to provide some basic functionality using only the Bluetooth profile implementation, and that additional software loaded using the Device ID information should only be necessary for extended or proprietary features. Likewise, devices which access a profile in another device are expected to be able provide the basic services of the profile regardless of the presence or absence of Device ID information.\n", "BULLET::::- Alternative MAC/PHY: Enables the use of alternative MAC and PHYs for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth radio is still used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration. However, when large quantities of data must be sent, the high-speed alternative MAC PHY 802.11 (typically associated with Wi-Fi) transports the data. This means that Bluetooth uses proven low power connection models when the system is idle, and the faster radio when it must send large quantities of data. AMP links require enhanced L2CAP modes.\n", "Blue&Me is a new feature which was first introduced with the Fiat Grande Punto, and was fitted as standard on the Bravo Dynamic and Sport. Developed with Microsoft, this system offers Bluetooth hands free use with a mobile phone. \n\nIt is also capable of displaying SMS text on the dash screen, and it has built in voice activation. Another part of the system is the inclusion of a USB connector so that an MP3 player or USB flashcard can be plugged in, giving the car's entertainment system access to MP3 files stored on the unit.\n", "Any device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to connect to, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However, if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device, it always responds to direct connection requests and transmits the information shown in the list above if requested. Use of a device's services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner, but the connection itself can be initiated by any device and held until it goes out of range. Some devices can be connected to only one device at a time, and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the other device.\n", "Smartphones can connect to Hyundai Blue Link using bluetooth technology or a USB cable and an installed Hyundai Blue Link mobile application. Hyundai Blue Link is wirelessly upgradeable, so in-vehicle applications may be upgraded. Hyundai Blue Link is compatible with a wide variety of mobile phones (iOS & Android) with a data plan.\n", "This profile allows devices such as car phones with built-in GSM transceivers to connect to a SIM card in a Bluetooth enabled phone, thus the car phone itself doesn't require a separate SIM card. This profile is sometimes referred to as rSAP (remote-SIM-Access-Profile), though that name does not appear in the profile specification published by the Bluetooth SIG. Information on phones that support SAP can be found below:\n\nCurrently the following cars by design can work with SIM-Access-Profile:\n", "This is designed for cordless phones to work using Bluetooth. It is hoped that mobile phones could use a Bluetooth CTP gateway connected to a landline when within the home, and the mobile phone network when out of range. It is central to the Bluetooth SIG's \"3-in-1 phone\" use case.\n\nSection::::Device ID Profile (DIP).\n", "Unlike its predecessor, IrDA, which requires a separate adapter for each device, Bluetooth lets multiple devices communicate with a computer over a single adapter.\n\nSection::::Computer requirements.:Operating system implementation.\n", "Most cellular phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most cellular phones and laptops show only the Bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can be confusing as, for example, there could be several cellular phones in range named T610 (see Bluejacking).\n\nSection::::Technical information.:Pairing and bonding.\n\nSection::::Technical information.:Pairing and bonding.:Motivation.\n", "Section::::First generation (E83; 2003–2010).:2003–2006.\n\nBULLET::::- Bluetooth could actually be ordered straight from the factory (part of the Premium Package) and functioned without dealer intervention. (Although the BMW X3 was originally offered and promised with Bluetooth support in 2004, none of the cars that shipped from the factory actually had it installed. Few were able to get it to work with servicing from their dealer.)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Legacy pairing\": This is the only method available in Bluetooth v2.0 and before. Each device must enter a PIN code; pairing is only successful if both devices enter the same PIN code. Any 16-byte UTF-8 string may be used as a PIN code; however, not all devices may be capable of entering all possible PIN codes.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Limited input devices\": The obvious example of this class of device is a Bluetooth Hands-free headset, which generally have few inputs. These devices usually have a \"fixed PIN\", for example \"0000\" or \"1234\", that are hard-coded into the device.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Secure Simple Pairing\" (SSP): This is required by Bluetooth v2.1, although a Bluetooth v2.1 device may only use legacy pairing to interoperate with a v2.0 or earlier device. Secure Simple Pairing uses a form of public key cryptography, and some types can help protect against man in the middle, or MITM attacks. SSP has the following authentication mechanisms:\n", "Only L2CAP channels configured in ERTM or SM may be operated over AMP logical links.\n\nSection::::Technical information.:Bluetooth protocol stack.:Service Discovery Protocol.\n", "Many manufacturers like Pioneer or JVC build car radios with Bluetooth modules. These modules usually support HFP.\n\nBluetooth car kits allow users with Bluetooth-equipped cell phones to make use of some of the phone's features, such as making calls, while the phone itself can be left in the user's pocket or hand bag. Companies like Visteon Corp., Peiker acustic, RAYTEL, Parrot SA, Novero, Dension, S1NN and Motorola manufacture Bluetooth hands-free car kits for well-known brand car manufacturers.\n", "BULLET::::- Windows XP SP1 : Microsoft released a QFE of its Bluetooth stack (labelled as QFE323183) to install onto Windows XP Service Pack 1. Microsoft only released this directly to third-party companies and did not directly release it to the public. The third-party companies were then allowed to release the QFE as part of their own Bluetooth device's software installation. Microsoft no longer supports this QFE.\n", "This poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth devices from a distance beyond expectation. The attacker must also be able to receive information from the victim to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on, although these can be deduced within a few minutes if the device is in use.\n\nSection::::Security.:History of security concerns.:2005.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Out of band\" (OOB): This method uses an external means of communication, such as near-field communication (NFC) to exchange some information used in the pairing process. Pairing is completed using the Bluetooth radio, but requires information from the OOB mechanism. This provides only the level of MITM protection that is present in the OOB mechanism.\n\nSSP is considered simple for the following reasons:\n\nBULLET::::- In most cases, it does not require a user to generate a passkey.\n\nBULLET::::- For use cases not requiring MITM protection, user interaction can be eliminated.\n", "Link keys may be stored on the device file system, not on the Bluetooth chip itself. Many Bluetooth chip manufacturers let link keys be stored on the device—however, if the device is removable, this means that the link key moves with the device.\n\nSection::::Security.\n\nSection::::Security.:Overview.\n", "Pairing often involves some level of user interaction. This user interaction confirms the identity of the devices. When pairing successfully completes, a bond forms between the two devices, enabling those two devices to connect to each other in the future without repeating the pairing process to confirm device identities. When desired, the user can remove the bonding relationship.\n\nSection::::Technical information.:Pairing and bonding.:Implementation.\n", "The Windows XP and Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stacks support the following Bluetooth profiles natively: PAN, SPP, DUN, HID, HCRP. The Windows XP stack can be replaced by a third party stack that supports more profiles or newer Bluetooth versions. The Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stack supports vendor-supplied additional profiles without requiring that the Microsoft stack be replaced. It is generally recommended to install the latest vendor driver and its associated stack to be able to use the Bluetooth device at its fullest extent.\n\nApple products have worked with Bluetooth since Mac OSX v10.2, which was released in 2002.\n" ]

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[ "The downside of this exclusive approach is that items that are high in gross profit are typically the highest priced items on the menu and they typically are on the high end of the food cost percentage scale. This approach works fine in price inelastic markets like country clubs and fine dining white table cloth restaurants. However, in highly competitive markets, which most restaurants reside, think Applebee's, Chili's, Olive Garden, price points are particularly critical in building customer counts. In addition, food cost cannot be ignored completely. If food cost increases, total costs must increase enough to lower the overall fixed cost percentage or the bottom line will not improve. This is not a recommended strategy for neighborhood restaurant with average checks under $15.\n", "Progressions of pay and display include pay by phone parking and Pay by Plate, where payment is linked to a specific vehicle registration plate.\n\nSection::::Systems.:Coupon parking.\n", "The projected Meals Tax revenue was divided into the amount the county would generate by increasing its property tax by one cent. This produced the one cent Meals Tax equivalent for property tax. Fifty-one of the seventy-one counties' Meals Tax equivalents generated more than one cent of property tax. For 20 counties, the Meals Tax equivalent generated less than one cent on the property tax. Therefore, for a majority of North Carolina counties, implementing a one cent Meals Tax could produce more revenue than a one cent property tax increase.\n\nSection::::Restrictions governing use.\n", "Small plates\n\nSmall plates is a manner of dining that became popular in US food service after 2000. \"Small plates\" may either refer to small dishes resembling appetizers which are ordered à la carte and often shared (such as tapas), or to the small courses served as part of a more formal meal.\n\nSome types of small plates which have influenced the modern US concept are:\n\nBULLET::::- Tapas, a wide variety of appetizers in Spanish cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Mezze, a wide variety of appetizers in Turkish cuisine, and sometimes in Greek cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Antipasti and cicchetti in Italian cuisine\n", "While Norwalk, CT launched their plate enabled permit system on March 25, 2011, it was not a true pay-by-plate system as it utilized parking permits instead and takes a pay-by-space approach. It was a project managed and driven by LAZ Parking utilizing the gtechna Permit System, Cale pay by space pay stations, ParkMobile pay by phone system, and gtechna Officer Plate system. The only piece missing to make this a complete plate processing solution, is the parking terminal. With no parking terminal and pay by space, this breaks the plate enforcement efficiency in the field.\n", "In most countries where restaurant cover charges are made the practice is far from universal; many restaurants make no charge. Tourist destinations may be more likely to make this charge, which unwary visitors may not anticipate. Tips are usually much lower internationally than the 15-20% typical in restaurants in the USA without cover charge; the total outlay for the meal including tip is not necessarily higher.\n", "Truck Stop: The teams had to switch trucks with their partners for part of the second day, and cook their opponent's menu but the money they made went into their own cash till. Lone Star swapped with Military Moms, Let There Be Bacon swapped with Middle Feast, and Beach Cruiser swapped with Madres Mexican. The team who sold the most of their opponent's food earned $500 toward their till, second got $250, and third got $100. Winner was Let There be Bacon, 1st Runner Up was Beach Cruiser, 2nd Runners Up was a tie between The Middle Feast and Madres Mexican Meals\n", "BULLET::::- have an established hot take-away trade and are selling the food as a part of that trade\n\nBULLET::::- advertise it as either hot take-away food or in any other way which indicates that it is meant to be eaten while still hot\n\nBULLET::::- sell it accompanied by napkins, forks, etc to enable it to be eaten before it cools\n", "For example, I may spend $1000 per year at fast food restaurants. If I spend $100 at Wendy's Restaurants, then Wendy's has (100/1000=10%) ten percent of my patronage. As long as the amount spent at one firm is less than the total amount spent at all firms in the industry, the customer will be patronizing more than one firm, and patronage concentration will be less than 100%.\n", "The gateway arch in St Louis greeted the incoming food trucks and so did a speed bump. Every truck partnered up with a local business and every truck had huge crowds of people waiting for them. Lone Star raised their prices figuring people who waited on line would be willing to pay a premium price. Tyler made surprise visits to each truck to check on their timing and the quality of their food. He chastised Lone Star on their high prices in relation to skimpy portions.\n", "In grocery stores, unprepared food items are not taxed but vitamins and all other items are. Ready-to-eat hot foods, whether sold by supermarkets or other vendors, are taxed. Restaurant bills are taxed. As an exception, hot beverages and bakery items are tax-exempt if and only if they are for take-out and are not sold with any other hot food. If consumed on the seller's premises, such items are taxed like restaurant meals. All other food is exempt from sales tax.\n", "In the USA, the first pay-by-plate system to go live with real-time enforcement was in Denver Colorado. On February 2008, the Regional Transportation District rolled out a system consisting of MacKay Meters, MacKay Guardian Multi pay stations and Federal APD PIPS mobile LPR enforcement system. The system features optional receipts that consumers don't need to put on their dash and vehicle mounted ALPR at speeds up to 30 mph for enforcement.\n", "The food system, including food service and food retailing supplied $1.24 trillion worth of food in 2010 in the US, $594 billion of which was supplied by food service facilities, defined by the USDA as any place which prepares food for immediate consumption on site, including locations that are not primarily engaged in dispensing meals such as recreational facilities and retail stores. Full-service and Fast-food restaurants account for 77% of all foodservice sales, with full-service restaurants accounting for just slightly more than fast food in 2010. The shifts in the market shares between fast food and full-service restaurants to market demand changes the offerings of both foods and services of both types of restaurants.\n", "In Australia the restaurant and food outlet services charge add on is include in the price of the food meals. However some Restaurant and food outlet charge additional services charge on Public Holiday and Sundays which is also know Public holidays surcharge . Which is a standard common practice in food and hospitality industry . The public Holiday Surcharge in Australia can range from ten percent and up to firth-teen percent. The whole idea is to cover the cost of staff working on Holidays or weekend Hours. Because Public holidays and Sunday in Australia and staff wages is to different to Monday to Friday which is know penalty rate . \n", "BULLET::::- In the \"Three's Company\" episode \"Opening Night,\" (November 16, 1982) Larry Dallas invites his family, visiting from Greece, to Jacks Bistro. The large family gathering ends with the Greek celebratory custom of the breaking of plates. Reluctant at first because of all the money it will cost to replace the plates, Jack joins in the celebration when Larry says they will cover the bill for each plate. Jack then looks at Janet who shows him the final cost of all the plates that were broken. Jack, while clenching the remaining two plates he owns, throws them up in the air and says \"Opa!\" and lets them break as well.\n", "In addition, larger bowls and spoons can also cause people to serve and consume a greater volume of food, although this effect may not also extend to larger plates. It has been suggested that people serve more food into larger dishes due to the Delboeuf illusion, a phenomenon in which two identical circles are perceived to be different in size depending upon the sizes of larger circles surrounding them.\n", "Washington, DC has done some trial tests with Pay by Plate (Fall 2010), and will probably proceed with this technology. As of May 2014, Washington, DC the only component available for the \"parker\" to pay plate for parking, is with the ParkMobile mobile system.\n", "The company was founded by H. J. Contos in 1947 in Anderson, Indiana. In 1960, a second store was opened in Lafayette, Indiana. Contos died in 1961, and the company was taken over by his son, Larry D. Contos. The company was acquired by The Kroger Company in 1999. Kroger today continues to operate the Pay Less banner under its central division, which includes Owen's Market.\n", "For Pittsburgh, PA the Parking Authority has now (Sept 2014) installed 800+ pay by plate parking terminals. These terminals generate over 25,000 transactions per day for on-street and off-street parking. The technology used for terminals supplied by CALE America and to enforce / verify the plate it is an Android smartphone & Officer eTicket software provided by gtechna. Mr. Mastronardi CTO of gtechna, is watching the pay by plate at Pittsburgh very closely since it requires extreme tight integration with the meter and pay by phone suppliers.\n", "In 2008 Cash sales of Food and Beverage come fairly close to covering the raw cost of sales, and the departmental expenses. In 1990 both food and beverage were sold at a loss. Complimentary food and beverage is shown as well (everything relative to the raw cost of sales).\n", "As the days of the plantations came to an end, plate lunches began to be served on-site by lunch wagons to construction workers and day laborers. Later, local hole-in-the-wall restaurants and other stand-alone plate lunch restaurants began popping up, then plate lunch franchises. Eventually these made their way to the U.S. mainland such as the L&L Drive-Inn chain in California in 1999. L&L founder Eddie Flores rebranded it \"L&L Hawaiian Barbecue\", explaining that \"When we went to the mainland, the name 'Hawaiian' is a draw, because everyone just fantasized, everyone wants to come to Hawaii.\"\n\nSection::::Popular entrées.\n", "The term \"cover charge\" is used in other cases, and can be confusing. A practice, sometimes called a cover charge in the USA is to make a flat charge for unlimited food. Restaurants may make a charge to diners who book but fail to show up; this is occasionally called a cover charge.\n\nSection::::Legal restrictions.\n", "That month, Plated appeared on episode 22 of the fifth season of \"Shark Tank\", which aired on April 4, 2014; on the show, Plated struck a deal with Mark Cuban of $500,000 for 6% of the company. However, the deal never closed because Taranto and Hix, who had initially asked for a $500,000/4% deal on the show, wanted to renegotiate the deal based on growth after the show. Four months after the deal with Cuban fell through, the Plated founders made a deal with \"Shark Tank\"'s Kevin O'Leary for an undisclosed sum.\n", "BULLET::::- Oregon (Portland)\n", "When you dine at restaurant This is How the whole process example (Singapore ) : Meal $20 ( include tax GST 7% ) + 10% ($2) =$22 .\n\nSection::::Services Charge in Singapore and Taiwan.:Legal Requirement.\n" ]

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[ "For mass-market personal computers, there may be no financial advantage to a manufacturer in providing more memory sockets, address lines, or other hardware than necessary to run mass-market software. When memory devices were relatively expensive compared with the processor, often the RAM delivered with the system was much less than the address capacity of the hardware, because of cost. \n", "In November 1996, Rambus entered into a development and license contract with Intel. Intel announced that it would only support the Rambus memory interface for its microprocessors, and had been granted rights to purchase one million shares of Rambus' stock at $10 per share.\n\nAs a transition strategy, Intel planned to support PC-100 SDRAM DIMMs on future Intel 82x chipsets using Memory Translation Hub (MTH). In 2000, Intel recalled the Intel 820 motherboard which featured the MTH due to occasional occurrences of hanging and spontaneous reboots caused by simultaneous switching noise. Since then, no production Intel 820 motherboards contain MTH.\n", "Even when the original client PXE firmware has been written by Intel and always provided at no cost as a linkable IA32 object code format module included in their Product Development Kit (PDK), the open source world has produced over the years non-standard derivative projects like gPXE/iPXE offering their own ROMs. While Intel based ROMs have been implementing the client side of the PXE standard for more than 20 year some users were willing to trade extra features for stability and PXE standard conformance.\n\nSection::::Acceptance.\n", "Due to the number of GPUs in the system, its initial boot was unsuccessful. This was because its motherboard uses a 32 bit BIOS, which only had approximately 3 GB of address space for the video cards. However, Asus managed to provide them a specialized BIOS that entirely skipped the address space allocation of the GTX 295 video cards. The BIOS-replacement coreboot was not tested.\n", "There have been RAM drives which use DRAM memory that is exclusively dedicated to function as an extremely low latency storage device. This memory is isolated from the processor and not directly accessible in the same manner as normal system memory.\n", "Through the 1990s, many graphic subsystems used VRAM, with the number of megabits touted as a selling point. In the late 1990s, synchronous DRAM technologies gradually became affordable, dense, and fast enough to displace VRAM, even though it is only single-ported and more overhead is required. Nevertheless, many of the VRAM concepts of internal, on-chip buffering and organization have been used and improved in modern graphics adapters.\n", "The first IBM PC to use the SMA was the IBM PCjr, released in 1984. Video memory was shared with the first 128KiB of RAM. The exact size of the video memory could be reconfigured by software to meet the needs of the current program.\n\nAn early hybrid system was the Commodore Amiga which could run as a shared memory system, but would load executable code preferentially into non-shared \"fast RAM\" if it was available.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- IBM PCjr\n\nBULLET::::- Video memory\n\nBULLET::::- Shared memory, in general, other than graphics\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- PC Magazine Definition for SMA\n", "All seven PCI Express x16 slots in the Asus P6T7 motherboard were used in the building of the Fastra II computer. However, the video cards in the Fastra II are wide enough to require two such slots each. To solve this issue, the researchers came up with flexible PCI Express cables, and Tones developed a custom cage which allowed the video cards to suspend over the motherboard.\n\nSection::::Specifications and benchmarks.\n", "OPMA was created as a joint technology development effort between AMD and various platform management subsystem technology companies such as Agilent, AMI, Avocent, and Raritan Embedded Solutions (formerly called Peppercon). When OPMA was first released in February 2005, platform hardware management was being treated as a value added feature by OEMs. This resulted in a constant redesign of the management card infrastructure such that no two motherboard manufacturers could use the same card. Lack of standards and constant redesign resulted in higher end user costs. While PCI based management cards were available which could be plugged into a variety of platforms, the PCI bus did not provide direct access to all of the sensors needed to manage the hardware aspects of a platform. To gain full sensor access, custom headers had to be added to motherboards. Custom cables then linked these sideband signals between the card and the motherboard. PCI based platform management cards also consume a PCI slot which is a premium resource for many servers. This is especially true of those using the 1U rack format and those which need PCI slots for RAID interface cards that enhance system hard disk throughput.\n", "An integrated graphics card, usually by Intel to use in their computers, is bound to the motherboard and shares RAM(Random Access Memory) with the CPU, reducing the total amount of RAM available. This is undesirable for running programs and applications that use a large amount of video memory. \n", "The SPARCstation IPX uses an M48T02 battery-backed RTC with RAM chip which handles the real time clock and boot parameter storage. The only problem with this chip is that the battery is internal, which means the entire chip must be replaced when its battery runs out. As all sun4c machines are now older than the battery life of this chip, a substantial number of these systems now refuse to boot. Additionally, the sun4c design used the reserved bits in the M48T02's NVRAM in a non-standard way; since later revisions of the M48T02 chip exert stricter control over these bits, a current M48T02 will store the NVRAM data, but the RTC will not function correctly and the system may fail to auto-boot.\n", "BULLET::::- 8 MB VRAM support in VirtualRPC\n\nBULLET::::- Filer updates, Keyboard shortcuts, alternative layouts, configurability\n\nBULLET::::- SVG export in !Draw\n\nSelect 4 releases are initially compatible with only Acorn Risc PC and A7000 machines. RiscStation R7500, MicroDigital Omega and Mico computers will not officially be supported, as the company does not have test machines available and requires proprietary software code to which they do not have the rights. Lack of detailed technical information about the MicroDigital Omega has also been cited as being another reason why support of that hardware is difficult.\n", "Section::::Products.:Chipsets.:Slot A and Socket A Chipsets.\n\n It was not implemented.\n\nSection::::Products.:Chipsets.:Southbridge Chips.\n\nUsed with ATI Radeon Xpress 200 chipsets (RS480, RX480)\n\nUsed with ATI Radeon Xpress 200 chipsets (RS482, RS485, RD480)\n\nTable shows the I/O capabilities of these single-chip chipsets, which do not have a physical \"southbridge\".\n\nSection::::Products.:VGA.\n\nBULLET::::- M3141\n\nBULLET::::- M3143\n\nBULLET::::- M3145A AliCat - PCI SVGA card, 2 MB DRAM, external RAMDAC, no DDC support - most likely S3 Trio64V+ compatible\n\nBULLET::::- M3147V AliCat - PCI SVGA card, 2 MB (S3 Trio 64V+ compatible ?)\n\nBULLET::::- M3149 GUI Accelerator, 4MB\n\nBULLET::::- M3151 GUI Accelerator, 8 MB\n\nSection::::Products.:Video.\n", "The PaX team had to make some design decisions about how to handle the mmap() system call. This function is used to either map shared memory, or to load shared libraries. Because of this, it needs to supply writable or executable RAM, depending on the conditions it is used under.\n", "By the early 1990s, the PC chip-industry had advanced to the point where RAMDACs were integrated into the display controller chip, thus reducing the number of discrete chips and the cost of video cards. Consequently, the market for standalone RAMDACs disappeared. Today, RAMDACs are still manufactured and sold for niche applications, but in obviously limited quantity.\n", "Section::::Supported hardware.:Machines.:A680 Technical Publishing System.\n\nUnreleased but widely prototyped, the A680 contained an ARM2 processor, 8 MiB RAM (dual MEMCs) and a 67 MB hard drive running from an onboard SCSI controller (no other machine from Acorn Computers included integrated SCSI). It is rumoured that overheating from the SCSI controller was one reason for the machine to never be released.\n\nSection::::Supported hardware.:Machines.:R140.\n", "Mwave in some form or another has been produced for the MCA, ISA and PCMCIA busses. Select ThinkPad 600 and 770 models had a PCI version integrated (the Mwave chip integrated in select ThinkPad 755, 760 and 765 models was ISA-based). Certain Sun Sparcstation workstations incorporated the Mwave DSP chip for sound card functionality.\n\nAlthough Mwave adapter cards were discontinued, a Linux driver for the PCI-based Mwave in the ThinkPad 600 and 770 models was developed and released by IBM.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Robotics, Courier modems - Internal DSP design allowed soft upgrades.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n", "BULLET::::- On systems which display a boot splash screen, the video hardware must be initialized and a user-space helper started to paint animations onto the display in lockstep with the boot process.\n\nBULLET::::- If the root file system is on NFS, it must then bring up the primary network interface, invoke a DHCP client, with which it can obtain a DHCP lease, extract the name of the NFS share and the address of the NFS server from the lease, and mount the NFS share.\n", "Main motherboard manufacturers like Asus prepared boards with the Aladdin TNT2 and local memory. But solution was mostly known from low-cost and low-quality boards without separate memory. Boards like PC-CHIPS M754LMR (used chipset relabelled to PC133 GfX Pro) were known for both low speed and low stability. TNT2 graphic speed was crippled by missing local frame buffer and slow access to the main memory.\n\nSection::::Competing chipsets.\n\nBULLET::::- 3dfx Voodoo2\n\nBULLET::::- 3dfx Voodoo3\n\nBULLET::::- Matrox G400\n\nBULLET::::- ATI Rage 128\n\nBULLET::::- S3 Graphics Savage4\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- TNT2 - The Mainstream 128-bit TwiN Texel 3D Processor\n", "There are a few chipsets that support two types of RAM (generally these are available when there is a shift to a new standard). For example, the northbridge from the Nvidia nForce2 chipset will only work with Socket A processors combined with DDR SDRAM; the Intel i875 chipset will only work with systems using Pentium 4 processors or Celeron processors that have a clock speed greater than 1.3 GHz and utilize DDR SDRAM, and the Intel i915g chipset only works with the Intel Pentium 4 and the Celeron, but it can use DDR or DDR2 memory.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "BULLET::::- The ARM architecture dominates the market for low power and low cost embedded systems (typically 200–1800 MHz in 2014). It is used in a number of systems such as most Android-based systems, the Apple iPhone and iPad, Microsoft Windows Phone (former Windows Mobile), RIM devices, Nintendo Game Boy Advance, DS, 3DS and Switch, Raspberry Pi, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- IBM's PowerPC, today found in the GameCube, Wii, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Wii U gaming consoles.\n", "OpenPIC and MPIC\n\nIn order to compete with Intel's Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC), which had enabled the first Intel 486-based multiprocessor systems, in early 1995 AMD and Cyrix proposed as somewhat similar-in-purpose OpenPIC architecture supporting up to 32 processors. The OpenPIC architecture had at least declarative support from IBM and Compaq around 1995. No x86 motherboard was released with OpenPIC however. After the OpenPIC's failure in the x86 market, AMD licensed the Intel APIC Architecture for its AMD Athlon and later processors.\n", "However, to make up for the inevitably slower system RAM with a video card, a small high-bandwidth local framebuffer is usually added to the video card itself under Game or Graphic environment. This can be noted by the one or two small RAM chips on these cards, which usually have a 32-bit or 64-bit bus to the GPU. This small local memory caches the most often needed data for quicker access, somewhat remedying the inherently high-latency connection to system RAM. \n", "Since the PCjr uses the main system RAM for the video buffer, less memory is available for software than on a standard PC, which has its video memory in the A000h-BFFFh segments, above conventional memory.\n\nSection::::Description.:Overview.:Software.\n", "The disadvantage of this design is lower performance because system RAM usually runs slower than dedicated graphics RAM, and there is more contention as the memory bus has to be shared with the rest of the system. It may also cause performance issues with the rest of the system if it is not designed with the fact in mind that some RAM will be 'taken away' by graphics. \n" ]

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[ "The Kibble balance originating from the National Physical Laboratory was transferred to the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) in 2009, where scientists from the two labs continued to refine the instrument.\n", "In April 2007, the NIST's implementation of the Kibble balance demonstrated a combined relative standard uncertainty (CRSU) of 36μg. The UK's National Physical Laboratory's Kibble balance demonstrated a CRSU of 70.3μg in 2007. That Kibble balance was disassembled and shipped in 2009 to Canada's Institute for National Measurement Standards (part of the National Research Council), where research and development with the device could continue.\n", "Section::::Kibble balance.\n", "Section::::Alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram.\n\nSeveral alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram that were fundamentally different from the Kibble balance were explored to varying degrees, with some abandoned. The Avogadro project, in particular, was important for the 2018 redefinition decision because it provided an accurate measurement of the Planck constant that was consistent with and independent of the Kibble balance method. The alternative approaches included:\n\nSection::::Atom-counting approaches.\n\nSection::::Atom-counting approaches.:Avogadro project.\n", "Section::::Atom-counting approaches.:Carbon-12.\n", "The Kibble balance (known as a \"watt balance\" before 2016) is essentially a single-pan weighing scale that measures the electric power necessary to oppose the weight of a kilogram test mass as it is pulled by Earth's gravity. It is a variation of an ampere balance, with an extra calibration step that eliminates the effect of geometry. The electric potential in the Kibble balance is delineated by a Josephson voltage standard, which allows voltage to be linked to an invariant constant of nature with extremely high precision and stability. Its circuit resistance is calibrated against a quantum Hall effect resistance standard.\n", "The calorimeter had 24 slices, each weighing 4 tons. These slices were arranged around the collision point like segments of an orange. Particles ejected from the collision produced showers of secondary particles in the layers of heavy material. These showers passed through layers of plastic scintillators, generating light which was read with photomultiplier by the data collection electronics. The amount of light was proportional to the energy of the original particle. Accurate calibration of the central calorimeter allowed the W and Z masses to be measured with a precision of about 1%.\n\nSection::::Components and operation.:Upgrades of the detector.\n", "The importance of such measurements is that they are also a direct measurement of the Planck constant \"h\":\n\nThe principle of the electronic kilogram relies on the newly agreed-upon value of the Planck constant similar to the metre being defined by the speed of light. In this case, the electric current and the potential difference are measured in SI units, and the Kibble balance becomes an instrument to measure mass:\n", "Metrologists investigated several alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram based on fundamental physical constants. Among others, the Avogadro project and the development of the Kibble balance (known as the \"watt balance\" before 2016) promised methods of indirectly measuring mass with very high precision. These projects provided tools that enable alternative means of redefining the kilogram.\n", "Any laboratory that has invested the (very considerable) time and money in a working Kibble balance will be able to measure masses to the same accuracy as they formerly measured the Planck constant via the IPK.\n", "The Kibble balance requires extremely precise measurement of the local gravitational acceleration \"g\" in the laboratory, using a gravimeter. For instance when the elevation of the centre of the gravimeter differs from that of the nearby test mass in the Kibble balance, the NIST compensates for Earth's gravity gradient of 309μGal per metre, which affects the weight of a one-kilogram test mass by about 316μg/m.\n", "Beyond the simple wear that check standards can experience, the mass of even the carefully stored national prototypes can drift relative to the IPK for a variety of reasons, some known and some unknown. Since the IPK and its replicas are stored in air (albeit under two or more nested bell jars), they gain mass through adsorption of atmospheric contamination onto their surfaces. Accordingly, they are cleaned in a process the BIPM developed between 1939 and 1946 known as \"the BIPM cleaning method\" that comprises firmly rubbing with a chamois soaked in equal parts ether and ethanol, followed by steam cleaning with bi-distilled water, and allowing the prototypes to settle for days before verification. Before the BIPM's published report in 1994 detailing the relative change in mass of the prototypes, different standard bodies used different techniques to clean their prototypes. The NIST's practice before then was to soak and rinse its two prototypes first in benzene, then in ethanol, and to then clean them with a jet of bi-distilled water steam. Cleaning the prototypes removes between 5 and 60μg of contamination depending largely on the time elapsed since the last cleaning. Further, a second cleaning can remove up to 10μg more. After cleaning—even when they are stored under their bell jars—the IPK and its replicas immediately begin gaining mass again. The BIPM even developed a model of this gain and concluded that it averaged 1.11μg per month for the first 3 months after cleaning and then decreased to an average of about 1μg per year thereafter. Since check standards like K4 are not cleaned for routine calibrations of other mass standards—a precaution to minimise the potential for wear and handling damage—the BIPM's model of time-dependent mass gain has been used as an \"after cleaning\" correction factor.\n", "The Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) surrounds the inner detectors (P0D, TPCs, FGDs) and consists of scintillator bars and lead absorber sheets between layers of scintillators. The ECAL has 13 modules: 1 downstream of the last TPC, six surrounding the P0D and six surrounding the tracker.\n\nSection::::Near detector.:Data Acquisition.\n\nData Acquisition from the T2K near detector was implemented by British, Canadian and Spanish collaborators using MIDAS.\n\nSection::::Super-Kamiokande.\n", "The various copies of the international prototype kilogram are given the following designations in the literature:\n\nBULLET::::- The IPK itself, stored in the BIPM's vault in Saint-Cloud, France.\n\nBULLET::::- Six sister copies: K1, 7, 8(41), 32, 43 and 47. Stored in the same vault at the BIPM.\n\nBULLET::::- Ten working copies: eight (9, 31, 42′, 63, 77, 88, 91, and 650) for routine use and two (25 and 73) for special use. Kept in the BIPM's calibration laboratory in Saint-Cloud, France.\n", "There would be no automatic effect on the metre because the second—and thus the metre's length—is abstracted via the laser comprising the metre's practical realisation. Scientists performing metre calibrations would simply continue to measure out the same number of laser wavelengths until an agreement was reached to do otherwise. \n", "Since their manufacture, drifts of up to kilograms per year in the national prototype kilograms relative to the international prototype kilogram (IPK) have been detected. There was no way of determining whether the national prototypes were gaining mass or whether the IPK was losing mass. Newcastle University metrologist Peter Cumpson has since identified mercury vapour absorption or carbonaceous contamination as possible causes of this drift. At the 21st meeting of the CGPM (1999), national laboratories were urged to investigate ways of breaking the link between the kilogram and a specific artefact.\n", "CLEO built its first silicon vertex detector for the CLEO II.V upgrade. The silicon detector was a three-layer device, arranged in octants. The innermost layer was at a radius of 2.4 cm and the outermost layer was at a radius of 4.7 cm. A total of 96 silicon wafers were used, with a total of 26208 readout channels.\n", "Note that none of the replicas has a mass precisely equal to that of the IPK; their masses are calibrated and documented as offset values. For instance, K20, the US's primary standard, originally had an official mass of (micrograms) in 1889; that is to say, K20 was 39μg less than the IPK. A verification performed in 1948 showed a mass of . The latest verification performed in 1989 shows a mass precisely identical to its original 1889 value. Quite unlike transient variations such as this, the US's check standard, K4, has persistently declined in mass relative to the IPK—and for an identifiable reason: check standards are used much more often than primary standards and are prone to scratches and other wear. K4 was originally delivered with an official mass of in 1889, but as of 1989 was officially calibrated at and ten years later was Over a period of 110 years, K4 lost 41μg relative to the IPK.\n", "What \"is\" known specifically about the IPK is that it exhibits a short-term instability of about 30μg over a period of about a month in its after-cleaned mass. The precise reason for this short-term instability is not understood but is thought to entail surface effects: microscopic differences between the prototypes' polished surfaces, possibly aggravated by hydrogen absorption due to catalysis of the volatile organic compounds that slowly deposit onto the prototypes as well as the hydrocarbon-based solvents used to clean them.\n", "In 2013, accuracy criteria were agreed upon by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) for replacing this definition with one based on the use of a Kibble balance. After these criteria had been achieved, the CGPM voted unanimously on November 16, 2018 to change the definition of the kilogram and several other units, effective May 20, 2019, to coincide with World Metrology Day.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Replacement of the International Prototype Kilogram.\n", "In 2014, NRC researchers published the most accurate measurement of the Planck constant at that time, with a relative uncertainty of 1.8. A final paper by NRC researchers was published in May 2017, presenting a measurement of Planck's constant with an uncertainty of only 9.1 parts per billion, the measurement with the least uncertainty to date. Other Kibble balance experiments are conducted in the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the Swiss Federal Office of Metrology (METAS) in Berne, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) near Paris and Laboratoire national de métrologie et d’essais (LNE) in Trappes, France.\n", "In 2003, German experiments with gold at a current of only demonstrated a relative uncertainty of 1.5%. Follow-on experiments using bismuth ions and a current of 30mA were expected to accumulate a mass of 30g in six days and to have a relative uncertainty of better than 1 ppm. Ultimately, ionaccumulation approaches proved to be unsuitable. Measurements required months and the data proved too erratic for the technique to be considered a viable future replacement to the IPK.\n", "Before 2019, by definition, the error in the measured value of the IPK's mass was exactly zero; the mass of the IPK \"was\" the kilogram. However, any changes in the IPK's mass over time could be deduced by comparing its mass to that of its official copies stored throughout the world, a rarely undertaken process called \"periodic verification\". The only three verifications occurred in 1889, 1948, and 1989. For instance, the US owns four 10%iridium (Pt10Ir) kilogram standards, two of which, K4 and K20, are from the original batch of 40 replicas delivered in 1884. The K20 prototype was designated as the primary national standard of mass for the US. Both of these, as well as those from other nations, are periodically returned to the BIPM for verification. Great care is exercised when transporting prototypes. In 1984, the K4 and K20 prototypes were hand-carried in the passenger section of separate commercial airliners.\n", "As part of this project, a variety of very different technologies and approaches were considered and explored over many years. They too are covered below. Some of these now-abandoned approaches were based on equipment and procedures that would have enabled the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass prototypes on demand (albeit with extraordinary effort) using measurement techniques and material properties that are ultimately based on, or traceable to, physical constants. Others were based on devices that measured either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned kilogram test masses and which expressed their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to physical constants. All approaches depend on converting a weight measurement to a mass, and therefore require the precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories. All approaches would have precisely fixed one or more constants of nature at a defined value.\n" ]

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[ "The kilogram is recalculated." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The kilogram is only proposed to be recalculated." ]

[ "Section::::Methods of removal.:Rapid release approach.\n", "On the demolition of the East Span of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge in Spring 2017, Bluegrass cut and segmented the above-water blocks of Piers E6, E7, E8, and E10 through E16, then core drilled for rigging and removal all the cut blocks except those on E6. The pier demolition project was authorized by the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission in part to mitigate for all the fill associated with construction of the new East Span of the Bay Bridge.\n\nSection::::Civil.:Hydroelectric.\n", "BULLET::::- Exploring Dam Removal: A Decision Making Guide\n\nBULLET::::- Small Dam Removal in Oregon\n\nBULLET::::- US Army Corps of Engineers: Engineering and Ecological Aspects of Dam Removal—An Overview\n\nBULLET::::- Beyond Dams: Options and Alternatives\n\nBULLET::::- Dam Removal: A New Option for a New Century\n\nBULLET::::- Dam Removal Research: Status and Prospectus\n\nBULLET::::- Elwha River Dam Removal Study\n\nBULLET::::- Dam Removal Success Stories:Restoring Rivers through Selective Removal of Dams that Don't Make Sense\n\nBULLET::::- Portland General Electric Marmot Dam\n\nBULLET::::- Army Corps of Engineers Dam Removal Page\n\nBULLET::::- Friends of the Earth River Restoration Page\n", "A routine annual audit of the dam wall undertaken during 2011 revealed that the anchor bolts, which are part of the flap gate hinge mechanism, showed signs of corrosion. These bolts, of which there are 120 in total, are each in diameter and long. It was anticipated that work would be completed by the end of 2013, and cost A$20m.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Flood mitigation.\n", "Section::::Generating electricity.\n\nThe water flowing through the dam enters the facility through the trash bars, catching any large debris, and then spinning a shaft connected to the blades which then spin the turbine, rotating the generator and producing electricity. The eight generators produce roughly 80 MW of electricity.\n\nSection::::Improvements.\n", "The Malpasset Dam failure in Fréjus on the French Riviera (Côte d'Azur), southern France, collapsed on December 2, 1959, killing 423 people in the resulting flood.\n\nSmaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even after being decommissioned. For example, the small earthen embankment Kelly Barnes Dam failed in 1977, twenty years after its power station was decommissioned, causing 39 deaths.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Comparison and interactions with other methods of power generation.\n", "Section::::Methods of removal.:Dig and dewater approach.\n", "Since around 2000, most major dam removal projects, and the largest single project, the $350M removal of two Olympic Peninsula dams as part of the Elwha Ecosystem Restoration, have been driven by restoration of river habitat and fish passages. Inspired by the Elwha project, a French group called \"SOS Loire Vivante\" successfully lobbied for the removal of two dams in the Upper Loire Valley, and the re-engineering of a 1941 hydroelectric dam on the Allier River to restore habitat for Atlantic salmon.\n", "There are several ways dams can be removed and the chosen method will depend on many factors. The size and type of the dam, the amount of sediment behind the dam, the aquatic environment below the dam, who owns the dam and what their priorities are, and the timeframe of dam removal are all factors that affect how the dam will be removed. Removal is costly no matter what and expenses typically rise when greater weight is given to environmental concerns. Fortunately, the cost of dam removal is usually shared by multiple stakeholders such as the dam owner and either the federal, state or local government. Four of the most common dam removal methods are described below.\n", "Contraction joints are normally placed every 20 m in the arch dam and are later filled with grout after the control cools and cures.\n\nSection::::Types of Arch Dam.\n\nOn the basis of shape for the face of the arch dam; we can divide arch dams into three basic types :-\n\nBULLET::::1. Constant Radii Arch Dam\n\nBULLET::::2. Variable Radii Arch Dam\n\nBULLET::::3. Constant Angle Arch Dam\n", "Section::::Internal erosion and the piping process.\n\nAccording to the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), there are four general failure modes for internal erosion of embankment dams and their foundations:\n\nBULLET::::- Through the embankment\n\nBULLET::::- Through the foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Embankment-into-foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Associated with through-penetrating structures\n\nThe process of internal erosion occurs across four phases: initiation of erosion, progression to form a pipe, surface instability, and, lastly, initiation of a breach. Internal erosion is also classified in four types, dependent on failure path, how the erosion initiates and progresses, and its location:\n", "Section::::Operations and plans.:Hydroelectric dams.\n", "Local stakeholder organizations in the FERC relicensing process include the Friends of the Kinni, the Kiap-TU-Wish Chapter of Trout Unlimited, the Kinnickinnic River Land Trust, and the River Alliance of Wisconsin. Government agencies also serving as stakeholder organizations include the Wisconsin DNR, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Park Service.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dam failure\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental impact of reservoirs\n\nBULLET::::- Riparian zone restoration\n\nBULLET::::- DamNation\n\nDam Removal Europe (\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- American Rivers - Dam Removals Interactive Map\n\nBULLET::::- Dam Removal Success Stories - American Rivers\n\nBULLET::::- The Friends of the Kinni\n", "The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was involved in the testing of the concrete for the dam. Drums of aggregates, cement, sand and soil were shipped to their North Pacific Division Materials Laboratory in Troutdale, Oregon. The materials were separated and tested for various properties. RCC concrete cylinders and beams were batched and poured. Tests were performed, for 7, 28, 90, 180 and 365 days. Tests included compressive strength, tensile strength, expansion, and slow load beams. The testing required almost 2 years to complete.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "FERC has created a plan for monitoring dam construction and operation called the Dam Safety Surveillance Monitoring Plan (DSSMP). This plan, created with the aid of dam owners, consultants, the National Hydropower Association and the Hydraulic Power Committee, outlines how an owner will monitor the safety and performance of a dam with respect to rules and regulations that govern them.\n\nThe plan includes sections on instrumentation, equipment maintenance, reading frequency and procedures, action levels, procedures should a failure occur and how reports sent to FERC must be formatted. The reports include photographs, diagrams and data taken at the dam.\n", "BC Hydro's last dam was completed in 1984, since then run-of-the-river projects with private partners have been built. Power production without reservoirs varies dramatically though the year, so older dams with large reservoirs, retain water and average out capacity. As of 2012 there were approximately 40 small hydro sites generating 750 MW. By 2014 various companies have built a total of 100 run of the river projects under 50 MW. In 2014 they produced 18,000 GWh from 4,500 MW of capacity.\n\nSection::::By region.:Manitoba Hydro.\n", "Ameren had 90 days from the date of the report to tell the PSC how it will meet the recommendations of the report, which include a whistle blower rule, changes in safety management structure, financial accounting for the rebuild of the upper reservoir, and single point of management for the rebuild.\n\nAs of late 2011, Ameren was reported to have paid a total of close to $200 million in settlements related to the 2005 breach.\n\nSection::::History.:Reconstruction.\n", "In the United States roughly 900 dams were removed between 1990 and 2015, with another 50 to 60 more every year. France and Canada have also completed significant removal projects, and Japan's first removal, of the Arase Dam on the Kuma River, began in 2012 and is scheduled to complete in 2018.\n\nSection::::Purposes and effects of dams.\n", "Section::::Future.\n\nSection::::Future.:Rehabilitation.\n", "Kobuchi Dam\n\nSection::::Summary.\n\nIn 1951, the Kobuchi Dam became the first rock-fill dam built in Japan. A rock-fill dam is a dam built up of stone, so the dam must have an impermeable wall, and there are various types of dams classified depending on the type of wall. In the case of Kobuchi Dam, the upstream side is covered with a concrete cement surface making it a concrete-face rock-fill dam.\n", "Small hydro may developed by constructing new facilities or through re-development of existing dams whose primary purpose is flood control, or irrigation. Old hydro sites may be re-developed, sometimes salvaging substantial investment in the installation such as penstock pipe and turbines, or just re-using the water rights associated with an abandoned site. Either of these cost saving advantages can make the return on investment for a small hydro site well worth the use of existing sites.\n\nSection::::Project design.\n", "Check dams require regular maintenance as they are used primarily as a temporary structure and thereby are not designed to withstand long-term use. Dams should be inspected every week that it is sited in the channel and after every large storm. It is important that rubble, litter, and leaves are removed from the upstream side of the dam. This is typically done when the sediment has reached a height of one-half the original height of the dam.\n", "The hydroelectric releasing process requires an environmental review of the Project with input from state and federal agencies, tribes, non-governmental organizations and the local community interests. When relicensing a hydroelectric process one must determine how to balance the generation of an electric project while still being environmentally friendly.\n", "Countertop components fabricated out of granite and other natural stones are sometimes reinforced with metal rods inserted into grooves cut into the underside of the stone, and bonded in place with various resins. This procedure is called \"rodding\" by countertop fabricators. Most commonly, these rods will be placed near sink cutouts to prevent cracking of the brittle stone countertop during transportation and installation. Data published by the Marble Institute of America shows that this technique results in a 600% increase in the deflection strength of the component.\n", "This is a list of major hydroelectric power station failures due to damage to a hydroelectric power station or its connections. Every generating station trips from time to time due to minor defects and can usually be restarted when the defect has been remedied. Various protections are built into the stations to cause shutdown before major damage is caused. Some hydroelectric power station failures may go beyond the immediate loss of generation capacity, including destruction of the turbine itself, reservoir breach and significant destruction of national grid infrastructure downstream. These can take years to remedy in some cases.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "As a mixed string of new and old batteries is depleted, the string voltage will drop, and when the old batteries are exhausted the new batteries still have charge available. The newer cells may continue to discharge through the rest of the string, but due to the low voltage this energy flow may not be useful, and may be wasted in the old cells as resistance heating.\n", "Batteries also have a small amount of internal resistance that will discharge the battery even when it is disconnected. If a battery is left disconnected, any internal charge will drain away slowly and eventually reach the critical point. From then on the film will develop and thicken. This is the reason batteries will be found to charge poorly or not at all if left in storage for a long period of time.\n\nSection::::Chargers and sulfation.\n", "Unlike other Palm computers, which had rechargeable batteries, they were designed to run on standard dry cell batteries (except for the m130, which uses a rechargeable battery). Data preservation occurred via a backup battery system that had a very short life and high voltage volatility, such that users had to change dry-cell batteries one at a time; users who removed all the batteries and then replaced them all could find that the backup battery had died in the time that it took to change the batteries, resulting in loss of unit memory.\n", "NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called \"memory effect\". The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Environmental conditions.\n", "Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will \"reverse charge\" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\n", "Server-grade disk array controllers often contain onboard disk buffer, and provide an option for a \"backup battery unit\" (BBU) to maintain the contents of this cache after power loss. If this battery is present, disk writes can be considered completed when they reach the cache, thus speeding up I/O throughput by not waiting for the hard drive. This operation mode is called \"write-back caching\".\n\nSection::::Examples.:Telephony.\n", "Even though the recovery effect phenomenon is more prominent in the lead acid battery chemistry, its existence in alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries is still questionable. For instance, a systematic experimental case study shows that an intermittent discharge current in case of alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries results in a decreased usable energy output compared to a continuous discharge current of the same average value. This is primarily due to the increased overpotential experienced due to the high peak currents of the intermittent discharge over the continuous discharge current of same average value. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Capacity fading\n", "Motor vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars, trucks, etc have used lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the battery which deposits a layer of sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Typically sulfated batteries are simply replaced with new batteries, and the old ones recycled. Lead–acid batteries will experience substantially longer life when a maintenance charger is used to \"float charge\" the battery. This prevents the battery from ever being below 100% charge, preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should be used to achieve the best results.\n", "Disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case.\n\nRecalls of devices using Lithium-ion batteries have become more common in recent years. This is in response to reported accidents and failures, occasionally ignition or explosion. An expert summary of the problem indicates that this type uses \"liquid electrolytes to transport lithium ions between the anode and the cathode. If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires\".\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Leakage.\n", "It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell reversal—either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to dissipate its charge over time.\n\nEven if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the sulfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods.\n", "Battery users may attempt to avoid the memory effect proper by fully discharging their battery packs. This practice is likely to cause more damage as one of the cells will be deep discharged. The damage is focused on the weakest cell, so that each additional full discharge will cause more and more damage to that cell.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Age and use—normal end-of-life.\n", "If the battery is stored or repeatedly operated in this partially charged state for an extended period, the film will slowly crystallize into a solid. This process of \"sulfation\" takes time, so it only has a chance to build to significant levels if the battery is repeatedly discharged below this critical level. There are numerous other conditions that can lead to the same problem developing.\n", "BULLET::::- Charging systems may attempt to gauge battery string capacity by measuring overall voltage. Due to the overall string voltage depletion due to the dead cells, the charging system may detect this as a state of discharge, and will continuously attempt to charge the series-parallel strings, which leads to continuous overcharging and damage to all the cells in the degraded series string containing the damaged battery.\n", "The safety circuit determines that a pack has been used when its voltage falls below a threshold, or if it detects a minimum number of pulses. Testing a pack is not normally sufficient to cause it to become \"used\", but normal operation should make it \"used\" around the time 1% of its capacity has been depleted. The safety circuit causes the pack to become \"depleted\" when it falls below its end-of-life voltage and turns off. A used pack will continue to function normally, but a depleted pack can no longer be used.\n", "These batteries are used in radiosondes, missiles, projectile and bomb fuzes, and various weapon systems. \n\nWhile not advertised as reserve batteries, the principle is illustrated by the sale of \"dry charged\" car batteries where the electrolyte is added at the time of sale. Another example is zinc-air batteries where the cell is sealed until use: a tab is removed to admit air and activate the cell.\n\nSection::::Activation.\n", "Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range. When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Sealed cells will sometimes explode violently if safety vents are overwhelmed or nonfunctional. Reports of exploding cellphones have been published in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.\n", "If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the end of their useful life. Different battery systems have differing mechanisms for wearing out. For example, in lead-acid batteries, not all the active material is restored to the plates on each charge/discharge cycle; eventually enough material is lost that the battery capacity is reduced. In lithium-ion types, especially on deep discharge, some reactive lithium metal can be formed on charging, which is no longer available to participate in the next discharge cycle. Sealed batteries may lose moisture from their liquid electrolyte, especially if overcharged or operated at high temperature. This reduces the cycling life.\n", "Section::::Rediscovery.\n", "The KiBaM battery model describes the recovery effect for lead-acid batteries and is also a good approximation to the observed effects in Li-ion batteries. In some batteries the gains from the recovery life can extend battery life by up to 45% by alternating discharging and inactive periods rather than constantly discharging. The size of the recovery effect depends on the battery load, recovery time and depth of discharge.\n", "In November 2016, Apple announced that a \"very small number\" of iPhone 6S devices manufactured between September and October 2015 have faulty batteries that unexpectedly shut down. While Apple noted that the battery problems were \"not a safety issue\", it announced a battery replacement program for affected devices. Customers with affected devices, which span \"a limited serial number range\", were able to check their device's serial number on Apple's website, and, if affected, receive a battery replacement free of charge at Apple Stores or authorized Apple Service Providers.\n", "As of mid 2016, LiPo packs of 1.3 Ah exist, providing 95C continuous discharge, and short-time 190C bursts. In March 2017, LiPo packs were available in various configurations, most commonly up to 6400mAh, achieving a maximum 4.2V/cell, for powering certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Primary\" batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Secondary\" batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.\n", "The NVFS, as claimed by palmOne, is a file system designed to keep all information safe should the battery run out of power. Previous non-flash memory designs would lose all stored data in the event of a power loss. \"NVFS\" is a derivative of Flash Memory, which continually stores all data even when no power is applied. palmOne invented NVFS in response to complaints that a handheld's data was destroyed when the battery power ran out. In the past, it was necessary to keep the handheld continuously charged to avoid losing data, since all information was stored in volatile memory.\n", "The Revo was notorious for battery and charging problems. Unlike the Series 5mx, which used 2 user-replaceable AA batteries, the Revo is powered by 2 built-in rechargeable AAA 700 mAh NiMH batteries, which typically need to be replaced after about 3 years of service. After backing up all data, the batteries can be accessed by closing the unit, peeling off the Revo logo (using a screwdriver or similar if necessary), moving the 2 small pins that are behind it, and lifting up the silver part of the casing. The batteries are wrapped in black tape, which can be removed starting from the left, taking care not to break the thermistor that it also encloses. It may not be possible to separate the batteries from their connectors without damaging the latter, which would then need to be replaced. Injury could result if separation is attempted with a blade. Replacement batteries must be taped in just as securely, otherwise resets could occur due to intermittent power loss. After replacing, the unit should be charged uninterrupted for at least 6 hours, so that the hardware can re-calibrate (as per instructions for a new unit).\n", "A sulfated battery has higher electrical resistance than an unsulfated battery of identical construction. As related by Ohm's law, current is the ratio of voltage to resistance, so a sulfated battery will have lower current flow. As the charging process continues, such a battery will reach the charger's preset cut-off more rapidly, long before it has had time to accept a complete charge. In this case the battery charger indicates the charge cycle is complete, but the battery actually holds very little energy. To the user, it appears that the battery is dying.\n\nSection::::Regeneration.\n" ]

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[ "Another emotion with a bodily effect that can be measured by EGG is that of stress. When the body is stressed and engages in the fight-or-flight response, blood flow is directed to the muscles in the arms and legs and away from the digestive system. This loss of blood flow slows the digestive system, and this slowing can be seen on the EGG. However, this response can vary from person to person and situation to situation.\n", "Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and then sends messages to the digestive system. While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the GI tract itself; in others, information is received from sources other than the GI tract. When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feedforward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or danger triggering effects in the GI tract. Emotional responses can also trigger GI response such as the butterflies in the stomach feeling when nervous. The feedforward and emotional reflexes of the GI tract are considered cephalic reflexes.\n", "Nervous\n\nNervous may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Nervous system, a network of cells in an animal's body that coordinates movement and the senses. It includes mainly CNS and PNS\n\nBULLET::::- Nervous tissue, the cells of the nervous system that work in aggregate to transmit signals\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nervous\" (song), a song first recorded by Gene Summers and His Rebels in 1958\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nervous\" (Gavin James song), a 2016 single by Irish singer-songwriter Gavin James from his 2015 album \"Bitter Pill\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nervous Records, a UK record label\n\nBULLET::::- Nervous Records (US), a US record label\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Anger, happiness, joy, stress, and excitement are some of the feelings that can be experienced in life. In response to these emotions, our bodies react as well. For example, nervousness can lead to the sensation of knots in the stomach.\n", "The PNS can be divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be divided into the parasympathetic, sympathetic, and enteric nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the “fight or flight” responses. The parasympathetic nervous system regulates the “rest and digest” responses. The enteric nervous system innervates the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder). The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system and motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. The somatic nervous system engages in voluntary reactions, and the autonomic nervous system engages in involuntary reactions.\n", "Determining how signaling is stable in these situations has concerned both economists and biologists, and both have independently suggested that signal cost might play a role. If sending one signal is costly, it might only be worth the cost for the starving person to signal. The analysis of when costs are necessary to sustain honesty has been a significant area of research in both these fields.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cheap talk\n\nBULLET::::- Extensive form game\n\nBULLET::::- Incomplete information\n\nBULLET::::- Intuitive criterion and Divine equilibrium – refinements of PBE in signaling games.\n", "Section::::Human interactions.\n", "Unhealthy or \"nervous\" laughter comes from the throat. This nervous laughter is not true laughter, but an expression of tension and anxiety. Instead of relaxing a person, nervous laughter tightens them up even further. Much of this nervous laughter is produced in times of high emotional stress, especially during times where an individual is afraid they might harm another person in various ways, such as a person's feelings or even physically.\n", "This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.\n\nThe autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n", "\"Psychosomatic disease states in monkeys and the limbic system\" was the result of Foltz’ investigation of chaired \"executive\" monkeys. They were trained to conditioned avoidance and \"conditioned stress,\" and monitored as to agitate states by the degree of lever pulling and the effect on intestinal motility (direct contraction measurements). The study proved that cingulotomy reduced the agitated responses, thus modifying lever pulling to an efficient level and reducing the increased gut motility.\n", "Another study looked at the differentiated effects of being raised with only either a wire-mother or a cloth-mother. Both groups gained weight at equal rates, but the monkeys raised on a wire-mother had softer stool and trouble digesting the milk, frequently suffering from diarrhea. Harlow's interpretation of this behavior, which is still widely accepted, was that a lack of contact comfort is psychologically stressful to the monkeys, and the digestive problems are a physiological manifestation of that stress.\n", "Irritability can be a growing response to the objective stimuli of hunger or thirst in animals or humans which then reaches some level of awareness of that need. Irritability may be demonstrated in behavioral responses to both physiological and behavioral stimuli including environmental, situational, sociological, and emotional stimuli.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Section::::Systematic response.:Digestive-system response.\n\nSection::::Systematic response.:Digestive-system response.:Cephalic phase.\n", "The perception of a \"threat\" may also trigger an associated ‘feeling of distress’.\n\nPhysiological reactions triggered by mind cannot differentiate both the physical or mental threat separately, Hence the \"fight-or-flight\" response of mind for the both reactions will be same.\n\nSection::::Duration of threat and its different physiological effects on the nervous system..\n", "Section::::Structure.:Autonomic nervous system.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n\nThe sympathetic system is activated during a “fight or flight” situation in which mental stress or physical danger is encountered. Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, and epinephrine are released, which increases heart rate and blood flow in certain areas like muscle, while simultaneously decreasing activities of non-critical functions for survival, like digestion. The systems are independent to each other, which allows activation of certain parts of the body, while others remain rested.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Autonomic nervous system.:Parasympathetic nervous system.\n", "Section::::Neuropharmacology.\n\nThe posterior and intermediate lobes of the pituitary are necessary for maintenance of the avoidance response once learned. When these areas of the brain are lesioned or removed, animals display difficulty in maintaining a conditioned avoidance response. \n", "Section::::Cause.:Stress.\n\nPublications suggesting the role of brain-gut \"axis\" appeared in the 1990s and childhood physical and psychological abuse is often associated with the development of IBS. It is believed that psychological stress may trigger IBS in predisposed individuals.\n", "The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the \"fight or flight\" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness. This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. The epinephrine and norepinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart, which feeds the heart sympathetic nerve fibers in order to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction; as a result more blood gets circulated, increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. Simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. This plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the \"rest and digest\" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. Parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).\n", "The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the \"rest and digest\" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilises and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Reaction.\n", "An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.\n\nSection::::Other animals.:Examples.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nWhile the causes of IBS are still unknown, it is believed that the entire gut–brain axis is affected.\n", "Acute Stress Reaction - The body executes the “Fight-or-flight” reaction to get the body out of danger quickly. When the timing between the \"threat\" and the resolution of the \"threat\" are close, the “fight-or-flight\" reaction is executed, the \"threat\" is handled, and the body returns to its previous state (taking care of the business of life - digestion, relaxation, tissue repair etc.). The body has evolved to stay in this mode for only a short time.\n", "Nervous nineties\n\nThe nervous nineties is a commonly used term in cricket.\n", "Nervous laughter is a physical reaction to stress, tension, confusion, or anxiety. Neuroscientist Vilayanur S. Ramachandran states \"We have nervous laughter because we want to make ourselves think what horrible thing we encountered isn't really as horrible as it appears, something we want to believe.\" Those are the most embarrassing times, too, naturally.\n\nPsychologist and neuroscientist Robert Provine, from the University of Maryland, studied over 1,200 \"laughter episodes\" and determined that 80% of laughter isn't a response to an intentional joke. \n", "Likewise, chronic or acutely stressful situations activate the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, causing changes in the gut flora and intestinal epithelium, and possibly having systemic effects. Additionally, the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, signaling through the vagus nerve, affects the gut epithelium and flora. Hunger and satiety are integrated in the brain, and the presence or absence of food in the gut and types of food present, also affect the composition and activity of gut flora.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "The apparent seasonality may also be due to social factors, such as people spending more time indoors, near infected people, and specifically children at school. There is some controversy over the role of low body temperature as a risk factor for the common cold; the majority of the evidence suggests that it may result in greater susceptibility to infection.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Other.\n", "Rhinoviruses are spread worldwide and are the primary cause of the common cold. Symptoms include sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and cough; sometimes accompanied by muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headache, muscle weakness, or loss of appetite. Fever and extreme exhaustion are more usual in influenza. Children may have six to twelve colds a year. In the United States, the incidence of colds is higher in the autumn and winter, with most infections occurring between September to April. The seasonality may be due to the start of the school year and to people spending more time indoors (thus in proximity with each other), thereby increasing the chance of transmission of the virus. Lower ambient, especially outdoor, temperatures may also be factor given that rhinoviruses preferentially replicate at 32 °C (89 °F) as opposed to 37 °C (98 °F) – see following section. Variant pollens, grasses, hays and agricultural practices may be factors in the seasonality as well as the use of chemical controls of lawn, paddock and sportsfields in schools and communities. The changes in temperature, humidity and wind patterns seem to be factors. It is also postulated that poor housing, overcrowding and unsanitary conditions related to poverty are relevant factors in the transmission of 'common cold'.\n", "The traditional theory is that a cold can be \"caught\" by prolonged exposure to cold weather such as rain or winter conditions, which is how the disease got its name. Some of the viruses that cause the common colds are seasonal, occurring more frequently during cold or wet weather. The reason for the seasonality has not been conclusively determined. Possible explanations may include cold temperature-induced changes in the respiratory system, decreased immune response, and low humidity causing an increase in viral transmission rates, perhaps due to dry air allowing small viral droplets to disperse farther and stay in the air longer.\n", "The common cold is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. The average adult gets two to three colds a year, while the average child may get six to eight. Infections occur more commonly during the winter. These infections have existed throughout human history.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "A long-standing puzzle has been why outbreaks of the flu occur seasonally rather than uniformly throughout the year. One possible explanation is that, because people are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person. Increased travel due to the Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season may also play a role. Another factor is that cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucus particles. Dry particles are lighter and can thus remain airborne for a longer period. The virus also survives longer on surfaces at colder temperatures and aerosol transmission of the virus is highest in cold environments (less than 5°C) with low relative humidity. The lower air humidity in winter seems to be the main cause of seasonal influenza transmission in temperate regions.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nPythiosis occurs in areas with mild winters because the organism survives in standing water that does not reach freezing temperatures. In the United States, it is most commonly found in the Southern Gulf states, especially Louisiana, Florida, and Texas, but has also been reported as far away as California and Wisconsin. It is also found in southeast Asia, eastern Australia, New Zealand, and South America.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Viruses are preserved in colder temperatures due to slower decomposition, so they linger longer on exposed surfaces (doorknobs, countertops, \"etc.\").\n\nBULLET::::- In nations where children do not go to school in the summer, there is a more pronounced beginning to flu season, coinciding with the start of public school. It is thought that the day care environment is perfect for the spread of illness.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin D production from Ultraviolet-B in the skin changes with the seasons and affects the immune system.\n", "In temperate climates there is an annual epidemic during the winter months. In tropical climates, infection is most common during the rainy season.\n", "The exact mechanism behind the seasonal nature of influenza outbreaks is unknown. Some proposed explanations are:\n\nBULLET::::- People are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person.\n\nBULLET::::- A seasonal decline in the amount of ultraviolet radiation may reduce the likelihood of the virus being damaged or killed by direct radiation damage or indirect effects (i. e. ozone concentration) increasing the probability of infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucous membranes, preventing the body from effectively defending against respiratory virus infections.\n", "Human rhinovirus is most contagious during the fall and winter months. The virus can live up to 3 hours outside of a human host. Once a virus is contracted, a person is most contagious within the first 3 days. Preventive measures such as regular vigorous hand washing with soap and water may aid in avoiding infection. Avoiding touching the mouth, eyes and nose, the most common entry points for rhinovirus, may also aid in prevention. Droplet precautions, which take the form of a surgical mask and gloves, is the method used in major hospitals.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "More CAP cases occur during the winter than at other times of the year. CAP is more common in males than females, and more common in black people than Caucasians. Patients with underlying illnesses (such as Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis, COPD, tobacco smoking, alcoholism or immune-system problems) have an increased risk of developing pneumonia.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bacterial pneumonia\n\nBULLET::::- Viral pneumonia\n\nBULLET::::- Fungal pneumonia\n\nBULLET::::- Parasitic pneumonia\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society Consensus Guidelines on the Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Adults PDF\n", "Rhinovirus-caused colds are most infectious during the first three days of symptoms; they are much less infectious afterwards.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Weather.\n", "One epidemiological finding is that people diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring (at least in the northern hemisphere). However, the effect is not large. Explanations have included a greater prevalence of viral infections at that time, or a greater likelihood of vitamin D deficiency. A similar effect (increased likelihood of being born in winter and spring) has also been found with other, healthy populations, such as chess players.\n", "Herd immunity, generated from previous exposure to cold viruses, plays an important role in limiting viral spread, as seen with younger populations that have greater rates of respiratory infections. Poor immune function is a risk factor for disease. Insufficient sleep and malnutrition have been associated with a greater risk of developing infection following rhinovirus exposure; this is believed to be due to their effects on immune function. Breast feeding decreases the risk of acute otitis media and lower respiratory tract infections among other diseases, and it is recommended that breast feeding be continued when an infant has a cold. In the developed world breast feeding may not be protective against the common cold in and of itself.\n", "The common cold virus is typically transmitted via airborne droplets (aerosols), direct contact with infected nasal secretions, or fomites (contaminated objects). Which of these routes is of primary importance has not been determined. The viruses may survive for prolonged periods in the environment (over 18 hours for rhinoviruses) and can be picked up by people's hands and subsequently carried to their eyes or nose where infection occurs. Transmission is common in daycare and at school due to the proximity of many children with little immunity and frequently poor hygiene. These infections are then brought home to other members of the family. There is no evidence that recirculated air during commercial flight is a method of transmission. People sitting in close proximity appear to be at greater risk of infection.\n", "It is believed that the route of HCoV-NL63 spread is through direct person-to-person transmission in highly populated areas. The virus can survive for up to a week in outside of the body in aqueous solutions at room temperature and three hours on dry surfaces. Most people will be infected with a coronavirus in their lifetime, but some populations are more susceptible to HCoV-NL63. These population include children under the age of 5, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. The virus seems to have seasonal incidence, occurring most frequently in the winter months in temperate climates. In more extreme and tropical climates the virus has no preference toward a particular season. Many studies have reported the co-occurrence of HCoV-NL63 with other human coronavirus, \"Influenza A virus\", \"Human orthopneumovirus\" (RSV), parainfluenza virus, and \"Human metapneumovirus\" (hMPV).\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\n\"Didymella bryoniae\" is common in the Southern U.S. and other subtropical or tropical locations . Most infections occur during rainy/wet seasons, in which the humid is greater than 90% and the temperature is roughly 20-24 °C . Humidity seems to be a larger factor than temperature when it comes to infection success . \"D. bryoniae\" can also be found in temperate regions, especially where winter squash and pumpkins are grown . This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown .\n", "The economic impact of the common cold is not well understood in much of the world. In the United States, the common cold leads to 75–100 million physician visits annually at a conservative cost estimate of $7.7 billion per year. Americans spend $2.9 billion on over-the-counter drugs and another $400 million on prescription medicines for symptom relief. More than one-third of people who saw a doctor received an antibiotic prescription, which has implications for antibiotic resistance. An estimated 22–189 million school days are missed annually due to a cold. As a result, parents missed 126 million workdays to stay home to care for their children. When added to the 150 million workdays missed by employees suffering from a cold, the total economic impact of cold-related work loss exceeds $20 billion per year. This accounts for 40% of time lost from work in the United States.\n", "Research in guinea pigs has shown that the aerosol transmission of the virus is enhanced when the air is cold and dry. The dependence on aridity appears to be due to degradation of the virus particles in moist air, while the dependence on cold appears to be due to infected hosts shedding the virus for a longer period of time. The researchers did not find that the cold impaired the immune response of the guinea pigs to the virus.\n", "The common cold is the most common human disease and affects people all over the globe. Adults typically have two to three infections annually, and children may have six to ten colds a year (and up to twelve colds a year for school children). Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to declining immunity.\n\nNative Americans and Inuit are more likely to be infected with colds and develop complications such as otitis media than Caucasians. This may be explained by issues such as poverty and overcrowding rather than by ethnicity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The incidence of disease does not appear be related to season or geography; however, infection tends to occur more frequently during the summer and fall months when other respiratory pathogens are less prevalent. Reinfection and epidemic cycling is thought to be a result of P1 adhesin subtype variation. Approximately 40% of community-acquired pneumonia is due to \"M. pneumoniae\" infections, with children and elderly individuals being most susceptible, however no personal risk factors for acquiring \"M. pneumoniae\" induced pneumonia have been determined. Transmission of \"M. pneumoniae\" can only occur through close contact and exchange of aerosols by coughing due to the increased susceptibility of the cell wall-lacking organism to desiccation. Outbreaks of \"M. pneumoniae\" infections tend to occur within groups of people in close and prolonged proximity, including schools, institutions, military bases, and households.\n", "BULLET::::- Climate and living area. Rainfall (number of rainy days being more important than total precipitation), mean of sunshine daily hours, latitude, altitude are characteristic agents to take in account when assessing the possibility of spread of any airborne infection. Furthermore, some infrequent or exceptional extreme events also influence the dissemination of airborne diseases, as tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, or monsoons. Climate conditions determine temperature, winds and relative humidity in any territory, either all year around or at isolated moments (days or weeks). Those are the main factors affecting the spread, duration and infectiousness of droplets containing infectious particles. For instance, influenza virus, is spread easily in northern countries (north hemisphere), because of climate conditions which favour the infectiousness of the virus but on the other hand, in those countries, lots of bacterial infections cannot spread outdoor most of the year, keeping in a latent stage.\n", "Rhinovirus\n\nThe rhinovirus (from the Greek \"rhis\" \"nose\", \"rhinos\" \"of the nose\", and the Latin \"vīrus\") is the most common viral infectious agent in humans and is the predominant cause of the common cold. Rhinovirus infection proliferates in temperatures of 33–35 °C (91–95 °F), the temperatures found in the nose. Rhinoviruses belong to the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae.\n", "Well over 200 virus strains are implicated in causing the common cold, with rhinoviruses being the most common. They spread through the air during close contact with infected people or indirectly through contact with objects in the environment, followed by transfer to the mouth or nose. Risk factors include going to child care facilities, not sleeping well, and psychological stress. The symptoms are mostly due to the body's immune response to the infection rather than to tissue destruction by the viruses themselves. In contrast, those affected by influenza can show similar symptoms as people with a cold, but symptoms are usually more severe. Additionally, influenza is less likely to result in a runny nose.\n", "Ultraviolet light (UV) is the light in sunlight and can inactivate viruses by causing cross-linking of the nucleotides in the viral genome. Many viruses in water are exterminated in the presence of sunlight. The combination of higher temperatures and more UV in the summer time corresponds to shorter viral survival in summer compared to winter. Double stranded DNA viruses like adenoviruses are more resistant to UV light inactivation than enteroviruses because they can use their host cell to repair the damage caused by the UV light.\n" ]

[ "Cold should make you sick in winter time", "Winter time makes people sick." ]

[ "It is the closer proximity that allows more germs/viruses to spread.", "Winter time causes people to stay inside which allows germ/viruses to spread more easily since people are in close proximity." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Cold should make you sick in winter time", "Winter time makes people sick." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is the closer proximity that allows more germs/viruses to spread.", "Winter time causes people to stay inside which allows germ/viruses to spread more easily since people are in close proximity." ]

[ "Additional medication may be indicated for treatment of nausea, tremor, and anxiety.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nA normal liver detoxifies the blood of alcohol over a period of time that depends on the initial level and the patient's overall physical condition. An abnormal liver will take longer but still succeeds, provided the alcohol does not cause liver failure.\n\nPeople having drunk heavily for several days or weeks may have withdrawal symptoms after the acute intoxication has subsided.\n\nA person consuming a dangerous amount of alcohol persistently can develop memory blackouts and idiosyncratic intoxication or pathological drunkenness symptoms.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Vitamins.\n\nAlcoholics are often deficient in various nutrients, which can cause severe complications during alcohol withdrawal, such as the development of Wernicke syndrome. To help to prevent Wernicke syndrome, alcoholics should be administered a multivitamin preparation with sufficient quantities of thiamine and folic acid. During alcohol withdrawal, the prophylactic administration of thiamine, folic acid, and pyridoxine intravenously is recommended before starting any carbohydrate-containing fluids or food. These vitamins are often combined into a banana bag for intravenous administration.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Anticonvulsants.\n", "Management of alcohol intoxication involves supportive care. Typically this includes putting the person in the recovery position, keeping them warm, and making sure they are breathing sufficiently. Gastric lavage and activated charcoal have not been found to be useful. Repeated assessments may be required to rule out other potential causes of a person's symptoms.\n", "The severity of symptoms is dictated by a number of factors, the most important of which are degree of alcohol intake, length of time the individual has been using alcohol, and previous history of alcohol withdrawal. Symptoms are also grouped together and classified:\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol hallucinosis: patients have transient visual, auditory, or tactile hallucinations, but are otherwise clear.\n\nBULLET::::- Withdrawal seizures: seizures occur within 48 hours of alcohol cessations and occur either as a single generalized tonic-clonic seizure or as a brief episode of multiple seizures.\n", "Typically the severity of the symptoms experienced depends on the amount and duration of prior alcohol consumption as well as the number and severity of previous withdrawals. Even the most severe of these symptoms can occur as soon as 2 hours after cessation; this rapid onset along the syndrome's unpredictability necessitates either pre-planned hospitalization, treatment coordinated with a doctor, or at the very least rapid access to medical care; a supporting system of friends or family should also be introduced prior to addressing detoxification. In many cases, however, symptoms follow a reasonably predictable time frame as exampled below:\n", "Section::::Adverse effects.:Long-term effects.:Other effects.\n\nFrequent drinking of alcoholic beverages is a major contributing factor in cases of elevated blood levels of triglycerides.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Reinforcement disorders.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Reinforcement disorders.:Addiction.\n\nAlcohol addiction is termed alcoholism.\n\nTwo or more consecutive alcohol-free days a week have been recommended to improve health and break dependence.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Reinforcement disorders.:Dependence and withdrawal.\n", "Severe acute withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens and seizures rarely occur after 1-week post cessation of alcohol. The acute withdrawal phase can be defined as lasting between one and three weeks. In the period of 3–6 weeks following cessation increased anxiety, depression, as well as sleep disturbance, is common; fatigue and tension can persist for up to 5 weeks as part of the post-acute withdrawal syndrome; about a quarter of alcoholics experience anxiety and depression for up to 2 years. These post-acute withdrawal symptoms have also been demonstrated in animal models of alcohol dependence and withdrawal.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Alcohol withdrawal.\n", "Other conditions that may present similarly include benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome (a condition also mainly caused by GABA receptor adaptation).\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nBenzodiazepines are effective for the management of symptoms as well as the prevention of seizures. Certain vitamins are also an important part of the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. In those with severe symptoms inpatient care is often required. In those with lesser symptoms treatment at home may be possible with daily visits with a health care provider.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Benzodiazepines.\n", "Six to 12 hours after the ingestion of the last drink, withdrawal symptoms such as shaking, headache, sweating, anxiety, nausea, or vomiting occur. Other comparable symptoms may also occur in this period. Twelve to 24 hours after cessation, the condition may progress to such major symptoms as confusion, hallucinations (with awareness of reality), tremor, agitation, and similar ailments.\n\nAt 24 to 48 hours following the last ethanol ingestion, the possibility of seizures should be anticipated. Meanwhile, none of the earlier withdrawal symptoms will have abated. Seizures carry the risk of death for the alcoholic.\n", "Many hospitals use the Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol (CIWA) protocol in order to assess the level of withdrawal present and therefore the amount of medication needed. When overuse of alcohol is suspected but drinking history is unclear, testing for elevated values of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin or gammaglutamyl transferase can help make the diagnosis of alcohol overuse and dependence more clear. The CIWA has also been shortened (now called the CIWA-Ar), while retaining its validity and reliability, to help assess patients more efficiently due to the life-threatening nature of alcohol withdrawal.\n", "Alcohol withdrawal syndrome\n\nAlcohol withdrawal syndrome is a set of symptoms that can occur following a reduction in alcohol use after a period of excessive use. Symptoms typically include anxiety, shakiness, sweating, vomiting, fast heart rate, and a mild fever. More severe symptoms may include seizures, seeing or hearing things that others do not, and delirium tremens (DTs). Symptoms typically begin around six hours following the last drink, are worst at 24 to 72 hours, and improve by seven days.\n", "Alcohol intoxication is the negative health effects due to the recent drinking of ethanol (alcohol). When severe it may become a medical emergency. Some effects of alcohol intoxication, such as euphoria and lowered social inhibition, are central to alcohol's desirability.\n\nThe signs and symptoms of acute alcohol poisoning include:\n\nBULLET::::- severe confusion, unpredictable or violent behavior and stupor\n\nBULLET::::- sudden lapses into and out of unconsciousness or semi-consciousness (with later alcoholic amnesia)\n\nBULLET::::- vomiting while unconscious or semi-conscious\n\nBULLET::::- seizures\n\nBULLET::::- respiratory depression (fewer than eight breaths a minute)\n\nBULLET::::- pale, bluish, cold and clammy skin due to insufficient oxygen\n", "Section::::Prognosis.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Urine and blood tests.\n\nThere are reliable tests for the actual use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content (BAC). These tests do not differentiate alcoholics from non-alcoholics; however, long-term heavy drinking does have a few recognizable effects on the body, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV)\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated GGT\n\nBULLET::::- Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and an AST: ALT ratio of 2:1\n\nBULLET::::- High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT)\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Long-term persistent consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol can cause liver damage and have other deleterious health effects.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n", "BULLET::::- Achieving long-term sobriety usually involves (1) a less harmful, substitute dependency; (2) new relationships; (3) sources of inspiration and hope; and (4) experiencing negative consequences of drinking.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:Study Samples.\n", "Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome is a manifestation of thiamine deficiency, usually as a secondary effect of alcohol abuse. The syndrome is a combined manifestation of two eponymous disorders, Korsakoff's Psychosis and Wernicke's encephalopathy. Wernicke's encephalopathy is the acute presentation of the syndrome and is characterised by a confusional state while Korsakoff's psychosis main symptoms are amnesia and executive dysfunction. \"Banana bags\", intravenous fluid containers containing vitamins and minerals (bright yellow due to the vitamins), can be used to mitigate these outcomes.\n\nSection::::Nervous system.:Essential tremor.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe risk of alcohol dependence begins at low levels of drinking and increases directly with both the volume of alcohol consumed and a pattern of drinking larger amounts on an occasion, to the point of intoxication, which is sometimes called \"binge drinking\". Young adults are particularly at risk of engaging in binge drinking.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Long-term misuse.\n", "BULLET::::- Delirium tremens: hyperadrenergic state, disorientation, tremors, diaphoresis, impaired attention/consciousness, and visual and auditory hallucinations. This usually occurs 24 to 72 hours after alcohol cessation. Delirium tremens is the most severe form of withdrawal and occurs in 5 to 20% of patients experiencing detoxification and 1/3 of patients experiencing withdrawal seizures.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Progression.\n", "Alcohol use disorders often cause a wide range of cognitive impairments that result in significant impairment of the affected individual. If alcohol-induced neurotoxicity has occurred a period of abstinence for on average a year is required for the cognitive deficits of alcohol abuse to reverse.\n", "Section::::Nervous system.:Strokes.\n", "Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism. The American Heart Association \"cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation.\"\n", "In the Western world about 15% of people have problems with alcoholism at some point in time. About half of people with alcoholism will develop withdrawal symptoms upon reducing their use, with four percent developing severe symptoms. Among those with severe symptoms up to 15% die. Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal have been described at least as early as 400 BC by Hippocrates. It is not believed to have become a widespread problem until the 1800s.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- On an episode of \"MythBusters\", experiments were done to see if dynamite can be used to clean out hardened concrete from inside of a mixer truck, with limited practical results. For the finale, an excessive amount of explosive (800 lbs of commercial blasting agent) was used, and was detonated from a long distance away. The explosion left a very clear crater, and only the engine block was recovered.\n", "Controlled implosion, being spectacular, is the method that the general public often thinks of when discussing demolition; however, it can be dangerous and is only used as a last resort when other methods are impractical or too costly. The destruction of large buildings has become increasingly common as the massive housing projects of the 1960s and 1970s are being leveled around the world. At and , the J. L. Hudson Department Store and Addition is the tallest steel framed building and largest single structure ever imploded.\n\nSection::::Building implosion.:Preparation.\n", "The firm was created by Jack Loizeaux who used dynamite to remove tree stumps in the Baltimore, Maryland area, and moved on to using explosives to take down chimneys, overpasses and small buildings in the 1940s.\n\nSection::::Records.\n", "Before demolition, buildings are stripped of their contents, including internal plasterboard linings. As the fees for dumping demolition waste have risen since the earthquakes, it is more economical for demolition contractors to produce 'clean' demolition material. Holes were drilled into support columns of the building and filled with a total of some of explosives, which when set off, would destroy the support structure and cause the collapse of the building. A challenge for the demolition contractor was that explosives available in New Zealand are low-velocity and low-energy.\n", "In 1987, the main characters of the film are anarchists squatting in an abandoned building in Kreuzberg and making propaganda films. In one of these films, they demonstrate how to make a homemade bomb out of a pressure cooker and chemicals available over the counter, and they plant the bomb in a vacant villa in Grunewald. However, the timer sticks, and the bomb does not go off until 12 years later, when it is jostled by a real estate broker and a potential buyer. They are injured in the blast, and the police are pressured to hunt down the \"terrorists\" responsible.\n", "Section::::Event.:Preparation and construction.\n\nAccording to Cathy Wilkerson, who was a leader of the New York collective of the Weathermen, they were disappointed with the minimal effects of their earlier use of Molotov cocktails at the home of Judge Murtagh and other locations. At the suggestion of Terry Robbins, another of the leaders, they decided to use dynamite for newly planned actions.\n", "Numerous small explosives, strategically placed within the structure, are used to catalyze the collapse. Nitroglycerin, dynamite, or other explosives are used to shatter reinforced concrete supports. Linear shaped charges are used to sever steel supports. These explosives are progressively detonated on supports throughout the structure. Then, explosives on the lower floors initiate the controlled collapse.\n\nA simple structure like a chimney can be prepared for demolition in less than a day. Larger or more complex structures can take up to six months of preparation to remove internal walls and wrap columns with fabric and fencing before firing the explosives.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.\n\nAs part of the demolition industry, the history of building implosion is tied to the development of explosives technology.\n\nOne of the earliest documented attempts at building implosion was the 1773 razing of Holy Trinity Cathedral in Waterford, Ireland with 150 pounds of gunpowder, a huge amount of explosives at the time. The use of low velocity explosive produced a deafening explosion that instantly reduced the building to rubble.\n", "Section::::Remixes.\n\nSection::::Remixes.:Khalid, Post Malone and SZA remix version.\n", "To demolish the structure, the team used large bulldozers and literally drove through the mall, demolishing everything except for the structural members themselves. When asbestos was a problem, a specialized demolition robot was used.\n", "It takes several weeks or months to prepare a building for implosion. All items of value, such as copper wiring, are stripped from a building. Some materials must be removed, such as glass that can form deadly projectiles, and insulation that can scatter over a wide area. Non-load bearing partitions and drywall are removed. Selected columns on floors where explosives will be set are drilled and high explosives such as nitroglycerin, TNT, RDX, or C4 are placed in the holes. Smaller columns and walls are wrapped in detonating cord. The goal is to use as little explosive as possible so that the structure will fail in a progressive collapse, and therefore only a few floors are rigged with explosives, so that it is safer due to fewer explosives, and costs less. The areas with explosives are covered in thick geotextile fabric and fencing to absorb flying debris. Far more time-consuming than the demolition itself is the clean-up of the site, as the debris is loaded into trucks and hauled away.\n", "In the Early 1980's Chief Dunn was an adjunct professor in the mechanical engineering department of Manhattan College in the Bronx, New York; instructing a course entitled \"Fire Engineering\". The course taught engineering students importance of fire loading design on concrete and fire resistant buildings, and how it related to structural integraty and building survivability.\n", "Section::::Select projects.\n\nSection::::Select projects.:Alfred P. Murrah Building, Oklahoma City.\n\nOn May 24, 1995, the firm was responsible for the demolition of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building after its bombing on April 19, 1995.\n\nSection::::Select projects.:The Seattle Kingdome.\n", "Within days after the disaster, major companies that had lost facilities in the explosions announced plans to rebuild in Texas City and even expand their operations. Some companies implemented policies of retaining all of the hourly workers who had previously worked at destroyed facilities with plans to use them in the rebuilding. In all, the expenditures for industrial reconstruction were estimated to have been approximately $100 million ($ in today's terms).\n\nSection::::Legal case.\n", "Controlled Demolition, Inc.\n\nControlled Demolition, Inc. (CDI), founded by Jack Loizeaux in 1947, is a firm headquartered in Phoenix, Maryland that specializes in the use of explosives to create a controlled demolition of a structure, with the structure collapsing on itself into a pile of debris contained within the site of the building. Controlled Demolition claims to have imploded \"more buildings, chimneys, towers, bridges, and other structures\" than all of its other competitors combined.\n", "As part of an eco-group, Scott, an ex-firefighter, Carla, a climate specialist, Barbie and Jason go to hang up an anti-oil advertisement banner on a large storage tank on top of a hill inside a Synco compound. They find a bomb on the tank, planted by the CIA, and run away as it explodes. The explosion creates a fire twister which passes down to the town below causing a vast amount of destruction.\n", "Beginning in 2006, while making way for the North Carolina Research Campus in Kannapolis, North Carolina, D.H. Griffin Wrecking Co. was hired to demolish the Pillowtex Corporation industrial complex at the former Cannon Mills site. The demolition work of the six million-square-foot site is considered \"the largest commercial effort of its kind conducted on the planet.\"\n", "Demolition work has been carried out using a wrecking ball suspended from a Kaman K-MAX helicopter.\n\nThe same mechanism is applied to quarrying rock where an excavator lifts and releases a loose ball (called a drop ball) onto large rocks to reduce them to manageable size.\n\nSection::::Modern equivalents.\n", "According to the documentary on Cannon Films, \"\", the scene where terrorists destroy homes in a suburb with rocket launchers featured explosions in actual houses. Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport was going to bulldoze an entire suburban neighborhood to extend a runway, so the filmmakers were allowed to destroy the existing homes. Similarly, part of Avondale Mall was being rebuilt, so the filmmakers were allowed to destroy everything in the actual mall.\n", "Meanwhile, public interest in the spectacle of controlled building explosion also grew. The October 1994 demolition of the Sears Merchandise Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania drew a cheering crowd of 50,000, as well as protesters, bands, and street vendors hawking building implosion memorabilia. Evolution in the mastery of controlled demolition led to the world record demolition of the Seattle Kingdome on March 26, 2000.\n", "High reach demolition excavators are more often used for tall buildings where explosive demolition is not appropriate or possible. Excavators with shear attachments are typically used to dismantle steel structural elements. Hydraulic hammers are often used for concrete structures and concrete processing attachments are used to crush concrete to a manageable size, and to remove reinforcing steel. For tall concrete buildings, where neither explosive nor high reach demolition with an excavator is safe or practical, the \"inside-out\" method is used, whereby remotely operated mini-excavators demolish the building from the inside, whilst maintaining the outer walls of the building as a scaffolding, as each floor is demolished.\n", "BULLET::::- On an episode of \"Wrecked - Life In The Crash Lane\", O'Hare Towing responds to a call on a construction site to recover a mixer truck that had become stuck in mud, continuing to sink and threatening to roll over. After several unsuccessful attempts to hoist the mixer using a heavy rotator wrecker, the foreman informs the wrecker driver that the mixing drum contains approximately 5 cubic yards of concrete, and asks whether emptying the drum would lighten the truck enough to enable the wrecker to recover it. After emptying the drum, the wrecker operator is able to winch the mixer truck out of the mud onto solid ground.\n", "In contrast, building implosion techniques do not rely on the difference between internal and external pressure to collapse a structure. Instead, the goal is to induce a progressive collapse by weakening or removing critical supports, therefore the building can no longer withstand gravity loads and will fail under its own weight\n", "We were making a home out of a crumbling building [Fifth Street Squat]. The interior of the building needed help, and we brought that building back to life. It was standing strong. And the only reason it was standing was because people were living in it. If we had let it go the way the city wanted it to go—they tore out the stairwell, they punched holes in the roof. The water—the rain was rotting that building from the inside out. We replaced the joists. We rebuilt the floors. We sheetrocked the walls and made the building alive. What did they do? They killed it. That building is over a hundred years old. It was standing strong.\n", "BULLET::::- In season 5, episode 1 of TV series \"MacGyver\", the series' main character uses an engine from a small portable gasoline powered concrete mixer, in order to build an aeroplane.\n\nBULLET::::- Magicians Penn & Teller perform a trick called \"The Psychic Cement Mixer of Death\" in which Teller is strapped blindfolded inside an empty, spinning concrete mixer and picks one half of a signed, broken brick (much like other tricks that tear a card or dollar bill in half) from dozens of other bricks spinning in the mixer.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Types of concrete\n\nBULLET::::- Concrete plant\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Career.:Legal controversies.:Paul Ceglia.\n", "On October 26, 2012, federal authorities arrested Ceglia, charging him with mail and wire fraud and of \"tampering with, destroying and fabricating evidence in a scheme to defraud the Facebook founder of billions of dollars.\" Ceglia is accused of fabricating emails to make it appear that he and Zuckerberg discussed details about an early version of Facebook, although after examining their emails, investigators found there was no mention of Facebook in them. Some law firms withdrew from the case before it was initiated and others after Ceglia's arrest.\n\nSection::::Career.:Legal controversies.:Palestinian terror attacks.\n", "Throughout April 2014, Kodama reported various websites which allegedly facilitated or reproduced unauthorized texts by Jorge Luis Borges on the internet. Finally, the justice made its settlement in line with the jurisprudence of recent cases in Argentina - p.e \"Belén Rodriguez and Google\" - making the responsibility of internet intermediaries a subjective one.\n", "In June 2010, Pakistani Deputy Attorney General Muhammad Azhar Sidiqque launched a criminal investigation into Zuckerberg and Facebook co-founders Dustin Moskovitz and Chris Hughes after a \"Draw Muhammad\" contest was hosted on Facebook. The investigation named the anonymous German woman who created the contest. Sidiqque asked the country's police to contact Interpol to have Zuckerberg and the three others arrested for blasphemy. On May 19, 2010, Facebook's website was temporarily blocked in Pakistan until Facebook removed the contest from its website at the end of May. Sidiqque also asked its UN representative to raise the issue with the United Nations General Assembly.\n", "Section::::Other professional activities.\n\nNsue represented Simon Mann, a British citizen who was jailed in 2008 for plotting to overthrow the president. According to the Human Rights Foundation, Nsue “defended Weja Chicambo, a former prisoner of conscience and the founder of an 'illegal' opposition party.” \n", "BULLET::::- Violation of California Penal Code §502(c)(2). Facebook alleged that StudiVZ knowingly accessed and without permission, took, copied, or made use of data from a computer, computer system, or computer network, or took or copied supporting documentation in violation of California Penal Code §502(c)(2).\n", "Lippes Mathias Wexler Friedman withdrew as counsel in early 2011, when their own analysis concluded that the contract Ceglia was using as evidence had been forged. On June 29, 2011, DLA Piper withdrew from the case, and Ceglia retained a Jeffrey Lake. On October 18, 2011, Lake also withdrew from the case. Lake did not give a reason for his withdrawal.\n\nSection::::Paul Ceglia vs. Mark Zuckerberg.:Arrest of Ceglia on fraud charges.\n", "Throughout the film, the narrative is intercut with scenes from depositions taken in the Winklevoss twins' and Saverin's respective lawsuits against Zuckerberg and Facebook. The Winklevoss twins claim that Zuckerberg stole their idea, while Saverin claims his shares of Facebook were unfairly diluted when the company was incorporated. At the end, Marylin Delpy, a junior lawyer for the defense, informs Zuckerberg that they will settle with Saverin, since the sordid details of Facebook's founding and Zuckerberg's own callous attitude will make him highly unsympathetic to a jury. After everyone leaves, Zuckerberg is shown sending a friend request to Albright on Facebook and then refreshing the webpage every few seconds as he waits for her response.\n", "The consequences of the controversy are pending (be it FTC or court proceedings) but it did prompt an \"Editorial Expression of Concern\" from its publisher, the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, as well as a blog posting from OkCupid titled \"We experiment on human beings!\" In September 2014, law professor James Grimmelmann argued that the actions of both companies were \"illegal, immoral, and mood-altering\" and filed notices with the Maryland Attorney General and Cornell Institutional Review Board.\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Julian Assange.\n", "George Washington University law professor Orin Kerr wrote on January 15, 2013 that \"the charges brought here were pretty much what any good federal prosecutor would have charged.\" Duke University law professor James Boyle replied in \"The Huffington Post\": \"I think that in [Kerr's] descriptions of the facts [and of] the issues surrounding prosecutorial discretion ... he tends ... to minimize or ignore facts that might put [Swartz] in a more favorable light.\"\n", "The NGO, Common Cause, had approached Court challenging Asthana’s appointment as Special Director on the grounds that his name had figured in a 2011 diary seized from Sterling Biotech – a company being probed by the CBI for money laundering. Asthana was not named in the FIR but was presumably the subject of an ongoing investigation by his own agency.\n", "Opinions are divided on the question of the arrest of Assange. United Kingdom, a member of Council of Europe, is committed to respecting Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights which provides the right to freedom of expression and information. This is why, several politicians and associations consider that the arrest of the whistleblower constitutes an attack on the freedom of expression and international law.\n", "Zuckerberg admitted to having worked for Ceglia on StreetFax.com, but claimed that Facebook was an entirely separate idea that had no relation to Ceglia. Ceglia and his lawyers have claimed that Facebook planted a fake document on his computer to incriminate him. The evidence presented by Ceglia was determined to be fabricated.\n\nSection::::Paul Ceglia vs. Mark Zuckerberg.:Legal counsel in Facebook case.\n", "In October, 2011, The \"National Court of Appeals\" (\"Cámara Nacional de Apelaciones en lo Criminal y Correccional\") also prosecuted Alberto Nakayama finding him responsible for publishing links that allowed users to download books without permission from their authors. The court also unveiled three precedent rulings that seized Nakayama's assets for $100,000, $200,000 and $300,000 respectively.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Charges\": Criminal conspiracy to cause criminal breach of trust by a public servant, criminal conspiracy (Section 120-B), cheating (Section 420) and forgery (Sections 468 and 471); booked under the Prevention of Corruption Act\n\nBULLET::::- \"Status\": Arrested by the CBI on 20 April 2011 and granted bail on 24 November 2011. As of 21 December 2017 he has been acquitted by a special CBI Court.\n\nSection::::Accused parties.:Executives.:Hari Nair.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Position\": Senior vice-president, Reliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group\n", "The US Department of Justice charged Aaron Swartz with multiple felonies. He faced a potential penalty of 35 years confinement in a federal penitentiary. On January 11, 2013, two days after the prosecution denied his lawyer's second offer of a plea bargain, Swartz was found dead, having hanged himself. Many commentators viewed the prosecution, which could have imposed a devastating prison term for accessing information in bulk rather than one article at a time, as 'bullying' that ultimately lead to Swartz's death.\n", "BULLET::::- William McBride (Australia), a physician who discovered the teratogenicity of thalidomide, was found by an Australian medical tribunal to have \"deliberately published false and misleading scientific reports and altered the results of experiments\" on the effects of Debendox/Bendectin on pregnancy.\n\nBULLET::::- Alirio Melendez (Singapore), a former immunologist at the National University of Singapore, was found guilty by a University committee of misconduct on an \"unprecedented\" scale by having fabricated, falsified or plagiarized at least 21 research papers published in international academic journals. Melendez has had 14 of his publications retracted.\n", "BULLET::::- In July 2009, an emergency medical technician in New York City was terminated and arrested for taking a picture of a crime scene and uploading it to Facebook. The technician, 46-year-old Frank Musarella, was charged with \"official misconduct\".\n", "Concerning the improper access of Facebook's secret information, the court found the allegations set forth by Facebook improper in order to justify the claim. Neither could Facebook prove any illegal appropriation of the source code, nor was the information accessed by one of the founders of StudiVZ as a registered member of Facebook improperly obtained. Equally, the reliance on general security blackouts was found insufficient.\n", "\"The New York Times\" wrote of the case: \"a respected Harvard researcher who also is an Internet folk hero has been arrested in Boston on charges related to computer hacking, which are based on allegations that he downloaded articles that he was entitled to get free.\" The Awl similarly commented that \"Swartz is being charged with hacker crimes, not copyright-infringement crimes, because he didn't actually distribute any documents, plus JSTOR didn't even want him prosecuted.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Charges\": Criminal conspiracy to cause criminal breach of trust by a public servant, criminal conspiracy (Section 120-B), cheating (Section 420) and forgery (Sections 468 and 471); booked under the Prevention of Corruption Act\n\nBULLET::::- \"Allegations\": Former CBI prosecutor AK Singh was implicated in a taped conversation sharing legal strategy and privileged information with Chandra.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Status\": Arrested by the CBI on 20 April 2011 and granted bail on 24 November, As of 21 December 2017 he has been acquitted by a special CBI Court.\n\nSection::::Accused parties.:Executives.:Umashankar.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Charges\": Criminal conspiracy to cause criminal breach of trust by a public servant, criminal conspiracy (Section 120-B), cheating (Section 420) and forgery (Sections 468 and 471); booked under the Prevention of Corruption Act\n\nBULLET::::- \"Status\": Arrested by the CBI on 20 April 2011 and granted bail on 24 November 2011. As of 21 December 2017 he has been acquitted by a special CBI Court.\n\nSection::::Accused parties.:Executives.:Surendra Pipara.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Position\": Senior vice-president, Reliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group\n", "At the same time, an independent investigation by the FBI was going on regarding Assange's release of the Manning documents, and according to court documents dated May 2014, he was still under active and ongoing investigation. A warrant issued to Google by the district court cited several crimes, including espionage, conspiracy to commit espionage, theft or conversion of property belonging to the United States government, violation of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and general conspiracy. The indictment continued to remain sealed as of January 2019, although investigations seemed to have intensified as the case neared its statute of limitations.\n", "BULLET::::- \"December 12th\": The CBI files a third chargesheet, naming Essar Group corporate promoters Ravi Ruia, his son Anshuman Ruia and its director of strategy and planning, Vikas Saraf, and Loop Telecom promoters Kiran Khaitan and her husband, I P Khaitan. It also charges Loop Mobile India, its subsidiary Loop Telecom and Essar Tele Holding.\n\nBULLET::::- \"December 16th\": The HC rejects the bail request of Siddharth Behura: \"He was the 'perpetrator' of the illegal designs of Raja and would not claim benefit of parity with 10 others released on bail\".\n\nSection::::Chronology.:2012.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "Mark Zuckerberg should be prosecuted." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Mark has personal information about everyone so he has leverage. Facebook also is a part of US intelligence. " ]

[ "The carbon dioxide equivalency for a gas is obtained by multiplying the mass and the GWP of the gas. The following units are commonly used:\n\nBULLET::::- By the UN climate change panel IPCC: n×10 tonnes of CO equivalent (GtCOeq).\n\nBULLET::::- In industry: million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCDE).\n\nBULLET::::- For vehicles: g of carbon dioxide equivalents / km (gCDE/km).\n", "Section::::Purposes and highlights of findings.\n", "Knowing the relation between excess volumes and activity coefficients of the components, one can determine the activity coefficients.\n\nSection::::Common units.\n\nThe SI unit for density is:\n\nBULLET::::- kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m)\n\nThe litre and metric tons are not part of the SI, but are acceptable for use with it, leading to the following units:\n\nBULLET::::- kilogram per litre (kg/L)\n\nBULLET::::- gram per millilitre (g/mL)\n\nBULLET::::- metric ton per cubic metre (t/m)\n", "The mass fraction can be calculated from the molar fraction by multiplying the molar fraction by the molecular mass for each constituent, to find a constituent mass, and comparing it to the summed masses of all the constituents. The actual mass of each constituent needed for a mixture is calculated by multiplying the mass fraction by the desired mass of the mixture.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Batch methods.:Partial pressure blending.\n", "In the first example, we will show how to use a mass balance to derive a relationship between the percent excess air for the combustion of a hydrocarbon-base fuel oil and the percent oxygen in the combustion product gas. First, normal dry air contains of oxygen per mole of air, so there is one mole of in of dry air. For stoichiometric combustion, the relationships between the mass of air and the mass of each combustible element in a fuel oil are:\n", "Therefore, the respiratory minute volume may be expressed as a function of the extraction ratio and oxygen uptake:\n\nThe volume of gas in the breathing circuit can be described as approximately constant, and the fresh gas addition must balance the sum of the dumped volume, the metabolically removed oxygen, and the volume change due to depth change. (metabolic carbon dioxide added to the mixture is removed by the scrubber and therefore does not affect the equation)\n", "From these measurements, further products are made which integrate data from the various sources. These products also address issues such as data discontinuity and sparseness. GLOBALVIEW-CO2 is one of these products.\n\nOngoing ground-based total column measurements began more recently. Column measurements typically refer to an averaged column amount denoted X, rather than a surface only measurement. These measurements are made by the TCCON. These data are also hosted on the CDIAC, and made publicly available according to the data use policy.\n", "Historically, the equivalent weights of the elements were often determined by studying their reactions with oxygen. For example, 50 g of zinc will react with oxygen to produce 62.24 g of zinc oxide, implying that the zinc has reacted with 12.24 g of oxygen (from the Law of conservation of mass): the equivalent weight of zinc is the mass which will react with eight grams of oxygen, hence 50 g × 8 g/12.24 g = 32.7 g.\n\nSection::::Use in volumetric analysis.\n", "Equivalent weight\n\nEquivalent weight (also known as gram equivalent) is the mass of one equivalent, that is the mass of a given substance which will combine with or displace a fixed quantity of another substance. The equivalent weight of an element is the mass which combines with or displaces 1.008 gram of hydrogen or 8.0 grams of oxygen or 35.5 grams of chlorine. These values correspond to the atomic weight divided by the usual valence; for oxygen as example that is 16.0g / 2.\n", "For acid-base reactions, the equivalent weight of an acid or base is the mass which supplies or reacts with one mole of hydrogen cations (). For redox reactions, the equivalent weight of each reactant supplies or reacts with one mole of electrons (e) in a redox reaction.\n", "Considering the accuracy of typical analytical procedures, an equation for the mass of air per mass of fuel at stoichiometric combustion is:\n\nwhere wC, wH, wS, and wO refer to the mass fraction of each element in the fuel oil, sulfur burning to SO2, and AFR refers to the air-fuel ratio in mass units.\n", "BULLET::::- The density of water is approximately 1000 g/L and its molar mass is 18.02 g/mol (or 1/18.02=0.055 mol/g). Therefore, the molar concentration of water is:\n\nLikewise, the concentration of solid hydrogen (molar mass = 2.02 g/mol) is:\n\nThe concentration of pure osmium tetroxide (molar mass = 254.23 g/mol) is:\n\nBULLET::::- A typical protein in bacteria, such as \"E. coli\", may have about 60 copies, and the volume of a bacterium is about formula_23 L. Thus, the number concentration \"C\" is:\n\nThe molar concentration is:\n\nBULLET::::- Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted by molar concentration:\n\nSection::::Formal concentration.\n", "Solubility tables (based upon temperature) and corrections for different salinities and pressures can be found at the USGS web site. Tables such as these of \"DO\" in millilitres per litre (mL/L) are based upon empirical equations that have been worked out and tested:\n\nwhere ln is the symbol for natural logarithm and the coefficients take the following values:\n\nTo convert the calculated \"DO\" above from mL/L to mg/L, multiply the answer by (P/T)*0.55130, P=mmHg, T=Kelvin\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "Metric equivalents are based upon one of two nearly equivalent systems. In the standard system the conversion is that 1 gallon = 231 cubic inches and 1 inch = 2.54 cm, giving that a gallon = 3785.411784 millilitres exactly. For nutritional labeling on food packages in the US, the teaspoon is defined as exactly 5 ml, giving 1 gallon = 3840 ml exactly. This chart uses the former.\n", "be defined as the ratio of the mass formula_3 (in kg) of X in the box to its removal rate, which is the sum of the flow of X out of the box\n\n(formula_4),\n\nchemical loss of X\n\n(formula_5),\n\nand deposition of X\n\n(all in kg/s):\n\nformula_7.\n\nIf output of this gas into the box ceased, then after time formula_1, its concentration would decrease by about 63%.\n", "For of fuel oil containing 86.1% C, 13.6% H, 0.2% O, and 0.1% S the stoichiometric mass of air is , so AFR = 14.56. The combustion product mass is then . At exact stoichiometry, should be absent. At 15 percent excess air, the AFR = 16.75, and the mass of the combustion product gas is , which contains of excess oxygen. The combustion gas thus contains 2.84 percent by mass. The relationships between percent excess air and % in the combustion gas are accurately expressed by quadratic equations, valid over the range 0–30 percent excess air:\n", "A simple method for calculating the mass of a volume of gas is to calculate the mass at STP, at which densities for gases are available. The mass of each component gas is calculated for the volume of that component calculated using the gas fraction for that component.\n\nExample: Twin 12l cylinders filled with Trimix 20/30/50 to 232bar at 20°C (293K)\n\nCalculate volume at 1.013 bar, 0%deg;C (273K)\n\nOf this,\n\nThe mass of the helium is a small part of the total. and density of oxygen and nitrogen are fairly similar.\n", "For example, the GWP for methane over 100 years is 34 and for nitrous oxide 298. This means that emissions of 1 million metric tonnes of methane and nitrous oxide respectively is equivalent to emissions of 34 and 298 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Equivalent carbon dioxide.\n\nEquivalent (e) is the concentration of that would cause the same level of radiative forcing as a given type and concentration of greenhouse gas. Examples of such greenhouse gases are methane, perfluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. e is expressed as parts per million by volume, ppmv.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon accounting\n", "where one molecule of methane () and two oxygen molecules are converted into one molecule of carbon dioxide () and two of water (). The number of molecules as result from the reaction can be derived from the principle of conservation of mass, as initially four hydrogen atoms, 4 oxygen atoms and one carbon atom are present (as well as in the final state), then the number water molecules produced must be exactly two per molecule of carbon dioxide produced.\n", "formula_1\n\nWhere F.W. = formula weight, ρ = density and is the standard, relative atomic weight. Thicknesses are typically converted from centimeters to Angstrom units.\n", "BULLET::::- In chemistry, compositions can be expressed as molar concentrations of each component. As the sum of all concentrations is not determined, the whole composition of \"D\" parts is needed and thus expressed as a vector of \"D\" molar concentrations. These compositions can be translated into weight per cent multiplying each component by the appropriated constant.\n", "With processed foods that are made of many different ingredients, it is very complicated, though not impossible, to calculate the CO2 emissions from transport by multiplying the distance travelled of each ingredient, by the carbon intensity of the mode of transport (air, road or rail). However, as both Prof. Lang and the original Food Miles report noted, the resulting number – although interesting, cannot give the whole picture of how sustainable – or not – a food product is.\n", "Section::::Correcting concentrations for reference conditions.:Correcting to a reference carbon dioxide content.\n\nThe following equation can be used to correct a measured pollutant concentration in an emitted gas (containing a measured CO content) to an equivalent pollutant concentration in an emitted gas containing a specified reference amount of CO:\n\nAs an example, a measured particulates concentration of 200 mg/m in a dry gas that has a measured 8 volume % CO is:\n\nwhen corrected to a dry gas having a specified reference CO content of 12 volume %.\n", "Equivalent weight has the dimensions and units of mass, unlike atomic weight, which is dimensionless. Equivalent weights were originally determined by experiment, but (insofar as they are still used) are now derived from molar masses. Additionally, the equivalent weight of a compound can be calculated by dividing the molecular weight by the number of positive or negative electrical charges that result from the dissolution of the compound.\n\nSection::::In history.\n", "Pressure measurements that affect the accuracy of the metering system should have an overall loop accuracy of 0.5 bar or better and the corresponding readout should have a resolution of 0.1 bar or better.\n\nSection::::Gaseous custody transfer.\n\nCustody transfer of gaseous flow measurement follow guidelines set by the international bodies. By industrial consensus, gaseous flow measurement is defined as mass flow measurement with an overall uncertainty of ±1.0% or better. The overall uncertainty is derived from an appropriate statistical combination of the component uncertainties in the measurement system.\n\nSection::::Gaseous custody transfer.:Mode of measurement.\n" ]

[ "Gas cannot be weighed." ]

[ "Gas can be weighed just like any other material. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Gas cannot be weighed." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Gas can be weighed just like any other material. " ]

[ "In such fields, an electron may gain an energy corresponding to the production of a new electron-positron pair, if it is transported over a distance given by the quantum mechanical uncertainty of its location : Δd= ƛ = ħ/mc. Thus, significant production of new particles is expected – and observed – once the field in the electron rest frame becomes critical.\n", "Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a \"complete standstill\" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium, one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge. However, the popular description of light being \"stopped\" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had \"stopped\" it had ceased to be light.\n", "As faster computing resources became available at lowered costs, the task of making measurements from microscope images of particles could now be performed automatically by machine without human intervention, making it possible to measure significantly larger numbers of particles in much less time.\n\nSection::::Image acquisition methods.\n\nThe basic process by which imaging particle analysis is carried out is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::1. A digital camera captures an image of the field of view in the optical system.\n", "For example, the LHCb experiment at the CERN LHC studies, amongst other \"B-meson\" decays, the particular process \"B → ππ\". The following figure shows, on the left, the \"ππ\" mass distribution without RICH identification, where all particles are assumed to be \"π\" ; the \"B → ππ\" signal of interest is the turquoise-dotted line and is completely swamped by background due to \"B\" and \"Λ\" decays involving kaons and protons, and combinatorial background from particles not associated with the \"B\" decay.\n", "Section::::Aspects.\n\nMost Cherenkov detectors aim at recording the Cherenkov light produced by a primary charged particle. Some sensor technologies explicitly aim at Cherenkov light produced (also) by secondary particles, be it incoherent emission as occurring in an electromagnetic particle shower or by coherent emission, example Askaryan effect.\n\nCherenkov radiation is not only present in the range of visible light or UV light but also in any frequency range where the emission condition can be met i.e. in the radiofrequency range.\n", "In a hot QCD medium, when the temperature is raised well beyond the Hagedorn temperature, the and its excitations are expected to melt. This is one of the predicted signals of the formation of the quark–gluon plasma. Heavy-ion experiments at CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron and at BNL's Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider have studied this phenomenon without a conclusive outcome as of 2009. This is due to the requirement that the disappearance of mesons is evaluated with respect to the baseline provided by the total production of all charm quark-containing subatomic particles, and because it is widely expected that some are produced and/or destroyed at time of QGP hadronization. Thus, there is uncertainty in the prevailing conditions at the initial collisions.\n", "In the experiments with Ne atoms, usually just fall down, when the MOT is suddenly switched off. Then, the speed of atoms is determined as formula_14, where formula_15 is acceleration of free fall, and formula_16 is distance from the MOT to the sample. In experiments described, this distance was of order of , providing the speed of order of . Then, the transversal wavenumber can be calculated as formula_17, where formula_18 is mass of the atom, and formula_19 is the Planck constant.\n", "The SilEye-Alteino and Anomalous Long Term Effects in Astronauts' Central Nervous System (ALTEA) projects have investigated the phenomenon aboard the International Space Station, using helmets similar in nature to those in the ALFMED experiment. The SilEye project has also examined the phenomenon on Mir. The purpose of this study was to examine the particle tracks entering the eyes of the astronauts when the astronaut said they observed a LF. In examining the particles, the researchers hoped to gain a deeper understanding of what particles might be causing the LF. Astronauts wore the SilEye detector over numerous sessions while on Mir. During those sessions, when they detected a LF, they pressed a button on a joystick. After each session, they recorded down their comments about the experience. Particle tracks that hit the eye during the time when the astronauts indicated that they detected a LF would have had to pass through silicon layers, which were built to detect protons and nuclei and distinguish between them.\n", "With the increasing power of computers and widespread use of CCD cameras, digital PIV has become increasingly common, to the point that it is the primary technique today.\n\nSection::::Equipment and apparatus.\n\nSection::::Equipment and apparatus.:Seeding particles.\n", "Given the above, the primary method for imaging particle analysis is using optical microscopy. While optical microscopes have been around and used for particle analysis since the 1600s, the \"analysis\" in the past has been accomplished by humans using the human visual system. As such, much of this analysis is subjective, or qualitative in nature. Even when some sort of qualitative tools are available, such as a measuring reticle in the microscope, it has still required a human to determine and record those measurements.\n", "The sample is prepared on a microscope slide which is placed on the microscope stage. Once the sample has been focused on, then an image can be acquired and displayed on the monitor. If it is a digital camera or a frame grabber is present, the image can now be saved in digital format, and image processing algorithms can be used to isolate particles in the field of view and measure them.\n", "The scattered light from each particle should be in the region of 2 to 4 pixels across on the image. If too large an area is recorded, particle image size drops and peak locking might occur with loss of sub pixel precision. There are methods to overcome the peak locking effect, but they require some additional work.\n", "The simplest type of particle identification device based on a Cherenkov radiation technique is the threshold counter, which gives an answer as to whether the velocity of a charged particle is lower or higher than a certain value (formula_25, where formula_3 is the speed of light, and formula_4 is the refractive index of the medium) by looking at whether this particle does or does not emit Cherenkov light in a certain medium. Knowing particle momentum, one can separate particles lighter than a certain threshold from those heavier than the threshold.\n", "In a critical electromagnetic field, on the contrary, electrons are deflected so violently that they don't have enough time to radiate photons. So adjusting the electromagnetic field past a critical level can modify the emerging radiation spectrum of a beam of electrons: increase the field and the relative radiation yield from the beam diminishes. NA63 is investigating such effects, and one of the main results shown so far is the measurement of quantum corrections to synchrotron radiation that is normally only observed in its classical form in a synchrotron (storage) ring.\n\nSection::::Radiation Reaction.\n", "BULLET::::2. A gray scale thresholding process is used to perform image segmentation, segregating out the particles from the background, creating a binary image of each particle.\n\nBULLET::::3. Digital image processing techniques are used to perform image analysis operations, resulting in morphological and grey-scale measurements to be stored for each particle.\n", "Wave function collapse is a forced expression for whatever just happened when it becomes appropriate to replace the description of an uncertain state of a system by a description of the system in a definite state. Explanations for the nature of the process of becoming certain are controversial. At any time before a photon \"shows up\" on a detection screen it can be described only with a set of probabilities for where it might show up. When it does show up, for instance in the [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] of an electronic camera, the time and the space where it interacted with the device are known within very tight limits. However, the photon has disappeared, and the wave function has disappeared with it. In its place some physical change in the detection screen has appeared, e.g., an exposed spot in a sheet of photographic film, or a change in electric potential in some cell of a CCD.\n", "Note that, because the points of emission of the photons can be at any place on the (normally straight line) trajectory of the particle through the radiator, the emerging photons fill a light-cone in space.\n", "(Some couliknd should be taken into account; otherwize, there is no optical decay.) In the idealized case, the evolution of the system is disturbed only by the interaction \n\nwith the continuum of the modes of the electromagnetic field. Then, the spectral width of the emitted photons is determined by the relaxation rate.\n\nFor the narrow spectral lines, the decay is almost exponential; then, the profile of the spectral line is determined by the Fourier transform of the exponential decay \n\nof the quantum amplitude of probability that the system is still excited; this profile is Lorentian.\n\nSection::::Deformed vacuum.\n", "In another experiment, Tobias \"et al.\" (1971) exposed two people to a beam composed of neutrons ranging from 20 to 640 MeV after they were fully dark-adapted. One observer, who was given four exposures ranging in duration from one to 3.5 seconds, observed \"pinpoint\" flashes. The observer described them as being similar to \"luminous balls seen in fireworks, with initial tails fuzzy and heads like tiny stars\". The other observer who was given one exposure lasting three seconds long, reported seeing 25 to 50 \"bright discrete light, he described as stars, blue-white in color, coming towards him\".\n", "Photons with high photon energy can transform in quantum mechanics to lepton and quark pairs, the latter fragmented subsequently to jets of hadrons, i.e. protons, pions, etc. At high energies the lifetime of such quantum fluctuations of mass becomes nearly macroscopic: ; this amounts to flight lengths as large as one micrometer for electron pairs in a 100 GeV photon beam, and still 10 fermi, i.e. the tenfold radius of a proton, for light hadrons. High energy photon beams have been generated by photon radiation off electron beams in circular beam facilities such as PETRA at DESY in Hamburg and LEP at CERN in Geneva. Exceedingly high photon energies may be generated in the future by shining laser \n", "\"Stopped\" light, in the context of an EIT medium, refers to the \"coherent\" transfer of photons to the quantum system and back again. In principle, this involves switching \"off\" the coupling beam in an adiabatic fashion while the probe pulse is still inside of the EIT medium. There is experimental evidence of trapped pulses in EIT medium. In authors created a stationary light pulse inside the atomic coherent media. In 2009 researchers from Harvard University and MIT demonstrated a few-photon optical switch for quantum optics based on the slow light ideas. Lene Hau and a team from Harvard University were the first to demonstrate stopped light.\n", "The intrusion of particles into particle detectors is connected with electron–positron annihilation, Compton scattering, Cherenkov radiation etc., so that a cascade of effects is leading to the production of new particles (photons, electrons, neutrinos, etc.). The energy of such particle showers corresponds to the relativistic kinetic energy and rest energy of the initial particles. This energy can be measured by calorimeters in an electrical, optical, thermal, or acoustical way.\n", "BULLET::::- 2000 – scientists at European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) publish experimental results in which they claim to have observed indirect evidence of the existence of a quark–gluon plasma, which they call a \"new state of matter.\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 – the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada) confirm the existence of neutrino oscillations. Lene Hau stops a beam of light completely in a Bose–Einstein condensate.\n", "In thermoluminescence dating, these long-term traps are used to determine the age of materials: When irradiated crystalline material is again heated or exposed to strong light, the trapped electrons are given sufficient energy to escape. In the process of recombining with a lattice ion, they lose energy and emit photons (light quanta), detectable in the laboratory.\n", "Section::::Education program.\n\nThe CLS has an education program – \"Students on the Beamlines\" – funded by NSERC Promoscience. This outreach program for science allows high school students to fully experience the work of a scientist, in addition to having the chance to use the CLS beamlines.\n\n\"The program allows students the development of active research, a very rare phenomena in schools and provides direct access to the use of a particle accelerator, something even rarer!\" said teacher Steve Desfosses form College Saint-Bernard, Drummondville, Quebec.\n" ]

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[ "One more difference to standard formats is the sampling process. The audio stream is sampled and convolved with a triangle function, and interpolated later during playback. The techniques employed, including the sampling of signals with a finite rate of innovation, were developed by a number of researchers over the preceding decade, including Pier Luigi Dragotti and others.\n", "Section::::Facility.\n", "Section::::Related organizations.:AVS Patent Pool Management Committee.\n", "BULLET::::2. This signal is amplified and transmitted to the loudspeakers or video screen.\n\nSection::::Recording of bits.\n\nEven after getting the signal converted to bits, it is still difficult to record; the hardest part is finding a scheme that can record the bits fast enough to keep up with the signal. For example, to record two channels of audio at 44.1 kHz sample rate with a 16 bit word size, the recording software has to handle 1,411,200 bits per second.\n\nSection::::Recording of bits.:Techniques to record to commercial media.\n", "A Soundfield microphone kit, consisting of the microphone and a signal processor, produces two distinct sets of audio signals called \"A-Format\" and \"B-Format\". The sound processor may be either dedicated hardware, or a computer running software. The software processing may be done in real-time during the recording, or later offline.\n\nSection::::Signals.:A-Format.\n", "Universal Audio (company)\n\nUniversal Audio is a designer and importer of audio signal processing hardware and DSP software founded in 1958 by Bill Putnam (→Universal Audio). The current incarnation of the company was re-established in 1999 by brothers Bill Putnam, Jr. and Jim Putnam. Universal Audio merged with Kind of Loud Technologies to \"...reproduce classic analog recording equipment designed by their father and his colleagues,\" and \"...research and design new recording tools in the spirit of vintage analog technology.\"\n", "Some systems using electro-mechanical switching in regard to microphone activation were engineered in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Peter W. Tappan and Robert F. Ancha devised a system of seat sensors that would activate one of 350 hidden microphones at the Seventeenth Church of Christ, Scientist in Chicago in 1970. From approximately 1968, Ken Patterson and Diversified Concepts developed a hardware system that could detect the \"Number of Open Microphones\" (NOM) and attenuate the master output by an amount which increased with a higher number of microphones in use. This latter system was public domain.\n", "Section::::Original Master Recordings.\n", "The most recent and revolutionary developments have been in digital recording, with the development of various uncompressed and compressed digital audio file formats, processors capable and fast enough to convert the digital data to sound in real time, and inexpensive mass storage\n", "In some ways similar to the laser turntable is the IRENE scanning machine for disc records, which images with microphotography, invented by a team of physicists at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories.\n\nAn offshoot of IRENE, the Confocal Microscope Cylinder Project, can capture a high-resolution three-dimensional image of the surface, down to 200 µm. In order to convert to a digital sound file, this is then played by a version of the same 'virtual stylus' program developed by the research team in real-time, converted to digital and, if desired, processed through sound-restoration programs.\n\nSection::::Formats.\n\nSection::::Formats.:Types of records.\n", "As early as 1978, field analysis of rock concert audio was undertaken by Don Pearson, known by his nickname \"Dr. Don\", while working on sound systems used by the Grateful Dead. Pearson published articles about impulse response measurements taken during setup and testing of concert sound systems, and recommended the Dead buy an expensive Brüel & Kjær 2032 Dual Channel FFT analyzer, made for industrial engineering. Along with Dead soundman Dan Healy, Pearson developed methods of working with this system to set up sound systems on tour, and he assisted Meyer engineers working on a more suitable source-independent measurement system which was to become their SIM product. As well, Pearson had an \"intimate involvement\" with the engineers who were creating Smaart, including a meeting with Jamie Anderson.\n", "BULLET::::- 2005:\"U.S. Patent Issued for Meyer Sound MAPP Online Method\" patent granted\n\nBULLET::::- 2006:Mipa award for best Large Format PA System given to MICA\n\nBULLET::::- 2007:Mipa award for best Large Format PA System given to M’elodieAES presents Silver Medal to John Meyer\n\nBULLET::::- 2008:TEC award for Outstanding Technical Achievement, Sound Reinforcement Loudspeaker Technology given to UPJuniorUSITT recognizes Pearson Theatre with an Architecture Merit awardEast Bay Business Times declares Helen Meyer a Woman of Distinction\n", "Among the vast and often rapid changes that have taken place over the last century of audio recording, it is notable that there is one crucial audio device, invented at the start of the \"Electrical Era\", which has survived virtually unchanged since its introduction in the 1920s: the electro-acoustic transducer, or loudspeaker. The most common form is the dynamic loudspeaker – effectively a dynamic microphone in reverse. This device typically consists of a shallow conical diaphragm, usually of a stiff paper-like material concentrically pleated to make it more flexible, firmly fastened at its perimeter, with the coil of a moving-coil electromagnetic driver attached around its apex. When an audio signal from a recording, a microphone, or an electrified instrument is fed through an amplifier to the loudspeaker, the varying electromagnetic field created in the coil causes it and the attached cone to move backward and forward, and this movement generates the audio-frequency pressure waves that travel through the air to our ears, which hear them as sound. Although there have been numerous refinements to the technology, and other related technologies have been introduced (e.g. the electrostatic loudspeaker), the basic design and function of the dynamic loudspeaker has not changed substantially in 90 years, and it remains overwhelmingly the most common, sonically accurate and reliable means of converting electronic audio signals back into audible sound.\n", "Source Audio's initial innovation was the Hot Hand Motion Controlled Wah Filter. The Hot Hand Motion Controller Ring converts hand movement into a digital signal using an accelerometer, a technology pioneered by Analog Devices. The ring combined with the Motion Controlled Wah Filter pedal produces effects similar to the Dunlop Cry Baby Wah, a pedal made famous by players like Jimmy Page and Jimi Hendrix. The unit offers 11 different wah filters, including classic wah, low pass, band pass, multi peak—and volume swell, which produce a wide range of wah effects.\n", "BULLET::::- WBS M466M Meter for M466\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M467 Noise Gate and Meter\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M468A 8 X 1 High Level Switcher\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M470 Pre-amp / Line Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M470A Pre-amp / Line Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M470C Pre-amp / Line Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M470D Pre-amp / Line Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M470E Pre-amp / Line Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M471 Stereo Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M471A Stereo Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M471C Stereo Input\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M472 Equalizer\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M472A Stereo Equalizer\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M473 Sub master\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M473A Sub master\n\nBULLET::::- WBS M473B Stereo Sub master\n", "BULLET::::- WaveFrame AudioFrame, manufactured by WaveFrame of Emeryville, California\n\nBULLET::::- Several DAWs have been manufactured by Fairlight\n\nBULLET::::- SonicSolutions\n\nBULLET::::- AMS-Neve Audiofile\n\nBULLET::::- AudioVision manufactured by Avid\n", "There were three mastering engineers at Sterling Sound when Jensen was hired to work in the tape copy room, George Marino, Lee Hulko and Greg Calbi. One of Jensen's earliest mastering jobs was the first single by the Talking Heads, \"Love → Building on Fire\" and later that year, Jensen mastered The Eagles' \"Hotel California\". The following year, he mastered Billy Joel's \"The Stranger\", which began a working relationship with Phil Ramone. Jensen was promoted to Chief Mastering Engineer at Sterling in 1984, and since then has overseen several proprietary developments in mastering technology. This included working closely with Graham Boswell of Neve Electronics in the mid-1980s in developing the first all-digital mastering console, the DTC-1, and as one of the consultants to Apple for Mastering for iTunes. Jensen also designed some of the studio monitors at Sterling, including the ones used by Tom Coyne. In 1998, Jensen, Greg Calbi and Tom Coyne, along with Murat Aktar (Absolute Audio co-founder) and UK based Metropolis, purchased Sterling Sound from previous owner, Lee Hulko.\n", "Erikson co-produced and co-wrote \"The American Epic Sessions\", an award-winning musical film, directed by Bernard MacMahon, in which an engineer restores the fabled long-lost first electrical sound recording system from 1925, and twenty contemporary artists pay tribute to the momentous machine by attempting to record songs on it for the first time in 80 years. The film starred Steve Martin, Nas, Elton John, Alabama Shakes, Willie Nelson, Merle Haggard, Jack White, Taj Mahal, Ana Gabriel, Pokey LaFarge, Rhiannon Giddens and Beck.\n", "Section::::Systems operation.:Audio systems.\n\nSections of track trigger various audio sequences stored onboard 16-gig EEPROM storage, which also stores motion sequence programming.\n\nSection::::Systems operation.:Motion systems.\n\nSection::::Systems operation.:Motion systems.:Propulsion.\n\nPropulsion is generated through the hydraulic system. Refer to the hydraulic system overview below.\n\nSection::::Systems operation.:Motion systems.:Hydraulics.\n", "DTS was founded by Terry Beard, an audio engineer and Caltech graduate. Beard, speaking to a friend of a friend, was able to get in touch with Steven Spielberg to audition a remastering of Spielberg's film \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\" mixed in DTS. Spielberg then selected DTS sound for his next film, \"Jurassic Park\" and with the backing of Universal Pictures and its then-parent Matsushita Electric, over 1,000 theatres in the United States adopted the DTS system.\"\n", "Section::::Measurable performance.\n\nSection::::Measurable performance.:Analog electrical.\n", "The wire is pulled rapidly across a recording head, which magnetizes each point along the wire in accordance with the intensity and polarity of the electrical audio signal being supplied to the recording head at that instant. By later drawing the wire across the same or a similar head while the head is not being supplied with an electrical signal, the varying magnetic field presented by the passing wire induces a similarly varying electric current in the head, recreating the original signal at a reduced level.\n", "Section::::Process.\n\nFirst, a clear digital signature is created from the output sound, and this is then stored in a database. The signature can be linked to additional meta information in a database, e.g. artist or title information. As soon as an audio signal's signature is available, AudioID can identify a sample of the original audio, even if the sample is only a few seconds long. Alteration of the output sound material, e.g. bias or equalization, MP3 encoding or acoustic transfer does not influence the quality of the recognition process. The rate of recognition normally amounts to 99%.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "Section::::Audio components.\n", "Section::::Operation.\n\nThe configuration of a digital room correction system begins with measuring the impulse response of the room at the listening location for each of the loudspeakers. Then, computer software is used to compute a FIR filter, which reverses the effects of the room and linear distortion in the loudspeakers. Finally, the calculated filter is loaded into a computer or other room correction device which applies the filter in real time. Because most room correction filters are acausal, there is some delay. Most DRC systems allow the operator to control the added delay through configurable parameters.\n\nSection::::Challenges.\n" ]

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[ "Diamagnetism is a magnetic response shared by all substances. In response to an applied magnetic field, electrons precess (see Larmor precession), and by Lenz's law they act to shield the interior of a body from the magnetic field. Thus, the moment produced is in the opposite direction to the field and the susceptibility is negative. This effect is weak but independent of temperature. A substance whose only magnetic response is diamagnetism is called a diamagnet.\n\nSection::::Fundamentals.:Types of magnetic order.:Paramagnetism.\n", "As stated above, many materials that contain d- or f-elements do retain unquenched spins. Salts of such elements often show paramagnetic behavior but at low enough temperatures the magnetic moments may order. It is not uncommon to call such materials 'paramagnets', when referring to their paramagnetic behavior above their Curie or Néel-points, particularly if such temperatures are very low or have never been properly measured. Even for iron it is not uncommon to say that \"iron becomes a paramagnet\" above its relatively high Curie-point. In that case the Curie-point is seen as a phase transition between a ferromagnet and a 'paramagnet'. The word paramagnet now merely refers to the linear response of the system to an applied field, the temperature dependence of which requires an amended version of Curie's law, known as the Curie–Weiss law:\n", "BULLET::::- Small molecules can be stable in radical form, oxygen O is a good example. Such systems are quite rare because they tend to be rather reactive.\n\nBULLET::::- Dilute systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Dissolving a paramagnetic species in a diamagnetic lattice at small concentrations, e.g. Nd in CaCl will separate the neodymium ions at large enough distances that they do not interact. Such systems are of prime importance for what can be considered the most sensitive method to study paramagnetic systems: EPR.\n\nSection::::Examples of paramagnets.:Systems with interactions.\n", "Thus, condensed phase paramagnets are only possible if the interactions of the spins that lead either to quenching or to ordering are kept at bay by structural isolation of the magnetic centers. There are two classes of materials for which this holds:\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular materials with a (isolated) paramagnetic center.\n\nBULLET::::- Good examples are coordination complexes of d- or f-metals or proteins with such centers, e.g. myoglobin. In such materials the organic part of the molecule acts as an envelope shielding the spins from their neighbors.\n", "An alternative treatment applies when the paramagnetons are imagined to be classical, freely-rotating magnetic moments. In this case, their position will be determined by their angles in spherical coordinates, and the energy for one of them will be:\n\nwhere formula_33 is the angle between the magnetic moment and\n\nthe magnetic field (which we take to be pointing in the formula_34\n\ncoordinate.) The corresponding partition function is\n\nWe see there is no dependence on the formula_36 angle, and also we can\n\nchange variables to formula_37 to obtain\n", "When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.\n\nSection::::Types of Magnetism.:Other types of magnetism.\n\nBULLET::::- Metamagnetism\n\nBULLET::::- Molecule-based magnets\n\nBULLET::::- Single-molecule magnet\n\nBULLET::::- Spin glass\n\nSection::::Electromagnet.\n", "A material is paramagnetic only above its Curie temperature. Paramagnetic materials are non-magnetic when a magnetic field is absent and magnetic when a magnetic field is applied. When a magnetic field is absent, the material has disordered magnetic moments; that is, the atoms are asymmetrical and not aligned. When a magnetic field is present, the magnetic moments are temporarily realigned parallel to the applied field; the atoms are symmetrical and aligned. The magnetic moments being aligned in the same direction are what causes an induced magnetic field.\n", "\"Diamagnetism\" is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment in the direction opposing the external field. Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than \"μ\" (a relative permeability less than 1).\n", "Anisotropic induced magnetic field effects are the result of a local induced magnetic field experienced by a nucleus resulting from circulating electrons that can either be paramagnetic when it is parallel to the applied field or diamagnetic when it is opposed to it. It is observed in alkenes where the double bond is oriented perpendicular to the external field with pi electrons likewise circulating at right angles. The induced magnetic field lines are parallel to the external field at the location of the alkene protons which therefore shift downfield to a 4.5 ppm to 7.5 ppm range. The three-dimensional space where a diamagnetic shift is called the shielding zone with a cone-like shape aligned with the external field.\n", "Diamagnetism is a universal property of chemical compounds, because all chemical compounds contain electron pairs. A compound in which there are no unpaired electrons is said to be diamagnetic. The effect is weak because it depends on the magnitude of the induced magnetic moment. It depends on the number of electron pairs and the chemical nature of the atoms to which they belong. This means that the effects are additive, and a table of \"diamagnetic contributions\", or Pascal's constants, can be put together. With paramagnetic compounds the observed susceptibility can be adjusted by adding to it the so-called diamagnetic correction, which is the diamagnetic susceptibility calculated with the values from the table.\n", "With one unpaired electron μ values range from 1.8 to 2.5 μ and with two unpaired electrons the range is 3.18 to 3.3 μ. Note that low-spin complexes of Fe and Co are diamagnetic. Another group of complexes that are diamagnetic are square-planar complexes of d ions such as Ni and Rh and Au.\n\nSection::::Complexes of transition metal ions.:Spin cross-over.\n", "Exchange interactions occur when the substance is not magnetically dilute and there are interactions between individual magnetic centres. One of the simplest systems to exhibit the result of exchange interactions is crystalline copper(II) acetate, Cu(OAc)(HO). As the formula indicates, it contains two copper(II) ions. The Cu ions are held together by four acetate ligands, each of which binds to both copper ions. Each Cu ion has a d electronic configuration, and so should have one unpaired electron. If there were a covalent bond between the copper ions, the electrons would pair up and the compound would be diamagnetic. Instead, there is an exchange interaction in which the spins of the unpaired electrons become partially aligned to each other. In fact two states are created, one with spins parallel and the other with spins opposed. The energy difference between the two states is so small their populations vary significantly with temperature. In consequence the magnetic moment varies with temperature in a sigmoidal pattern. The state with spins opposed has lower energy, so the interaction can be classed as antiferromagnetic in this case. It is believed that this is an example of superexchange, mediated by the oxygen and carbon atoms of the acetate ligands. Other dimers and clusters exhibit exchange behaviour.\n", "The above methods are applicable to electromagnets with a magnetic circuit and do not apply when a large part of the magnetic field path is outside the core. An example would be a magnet with a straight cylindrical core like the one shown at the top of this article. For electromagnets (or permanent magnets) with well defined 'poles' where the field lines emerge from the core, the force between two electromagnets can be found using the 'Gilbert model' which assumes the magnetic field is produced by fictitious 'magnetic charges' on the surface of the poles, with pole strength \"m\" and units of Ampere-turn meter. Magnetic pole strength of electromagnets can be found from:\n", "formula_15\n\nThe force between two poles is:\n\nformula_16\n\nThis model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n\nThere are several side effects which occur in electromagnets which must be provided for in their design. These generally become more significant in larger electromagnets.\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Ohmic heating.\n", "Compounds which are expected to be diamagnetic may exhibit this kind of weak paramagnetism. It arises from a second-order Zeeman effect in which additional splitting, proportional to the square of the field strength, occurs. It is difficult to observe as the compound inevitably also interacts with the magnetic field in the diamagnetic sense. Nevertheless, data are available for the permanganate ion. It is easier to observe in compounds of the heavier elements, such as uranyl compounds.\n\nSection::::Paramagnetism.:Exchange interactions.\n", "where γ and γ are the gyromagnetic ratios of the nuclei. In a strong magnetic field, the dipolar coupling depends on the angle \"θ\" between the internuclear vector and the external magnetic field \"B\" (see the figure) according to\n\n\"D\" becomes zero for \"formula_3\" = 54.7°. Consequently, two nuclei with a dipolar coupling vector at an angle of \"θ\" = 54.7° to a strong external magnetic field have zero dipolar coupling. \"θ\" is called the magic angle. One technique for removing dipolar couplings, at least relatively weak ones, is magic angle spinning.\n\nSection::::Nuclear spin interactions in the solid phase.:Quadrupolar interaction.\n", "The magnetic moment of a current loop is equal to the current times the area of the loop. Suppose the field is aligned with the axis. The average loop area can be given as formula_2, where formula_3 is the mean square distance of the electrons perpendicular to the axis. The magnetic moment is therefore\n", "An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.\n", "Note that the RDC-derived motion parameters are local measurements.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n\nAny RDC measurement in solution consists of two steps, aligning the molecules and NMR studies:\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Methods for aligning molecules.\n\nFor diamagnetic molecules at moderate field strengths, molecules have little preference in orientation, the tumbling samples a nearly isotropic distribution, and average dipolar couplings goes to zero. Actually, most molecules have preferred orientations in the presence of a magnetic field, because most have anisotropic magnetic susceptibility tensors, Χ.\n", "In paramagnetic materials, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms spontaneously align with an externally applied magnetic field. In diamagnetic materials, on the other hand, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms spontaneously align oppositely to any externally applied magnetic field, even if it requires energy to do so.\n", "Diamagnetism appears in all materials and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates. Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows:\n", "Curie's law is valid under the commonly encountered conditions of low magnetization (\"μ\"\"H\" ≲ \"k\"\"T\"), but does not apply in the high-field/low-temperature regime where saturation of magnetization occurs (\"μ\"\"H\" ≳ \"k\"\"T\") and magnetic dipoles are all aligned with the applied field. When the dipoles are aligned, increasing the external field will not increase the total magnetization since there can be no further alignment.\n\nFor a paramagnetic ion with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum \"J\", the Curie constant is related the individual ions' magnetic moments,\n", "BULLET::::1. If all the particles are identical (same energy barrier and same magnetic moment), their easy axes are all oriented parallel to the applied field and the temperature is low enough (\"T T ≲ KV/(10 k)\"), then the magnetization of the assembly isformula_11.\n\nBULLET::::2. If all the particles are identical and the temperature is high enough (\"T ≳ KV/k\"), then, irrespective of the orientations of the easy axes:formula_12\n\nIn the above equations:\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\" is the density of nanoparticles in the sample\n\nBULLET::::- formula_13 is the magnetic permeability of vacuum\n\nBULLET::::- formula_14 is the magnetic moment of a nanoparticle\n", "For low levels of magnetization, the magnetization of paramagnets follows what is known as Curie's law, at least approximately. This law indicates that the susceptibility, formula_1, of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to their temperature, i.e. that materials become more magnetic at lower temperatures. The mathematical expression is:\n\nwhere:\n", "A gas of lithium atoms already possess two paired core electrons that produce a diamagnetic response of opposite sign. Strictly speaking Li is a mixed system therefore, although admittedly the diamagnetic component is weak and often neglected. In the case of heavier elements the diamagnetic contribution becomes more important and in the case of metallic gold it dominates the properties. The element hydrogen is virtually never called 'paramagnetic' because the monatomic gas is stable only at extremely high temperature; H atoms combine to form molecular H and in so doing, the magnetic moments are lost (\"quenched\"), because of the spins pair. Hydrogen is therefore \"diamagnetic\" and the same holds true for many other elements. Although the electronic configuration of the individual atoms (and ions) of most elements contain unpaired spins, they are not necessarily paramagnetic, because at ambient temperature quenching is very much the rule rather than the exception. The quenching tendency is weakest for f-electrons because \"f\" (especially 4\"f\") orbitals are radially contracted and they overlap only weakly with orbitals on adjacent atoms. Consequently, the lanthanide elements with incompletely filled 4f-orbitals are paramagnetic or magnetically ordered.\n" ]

[ "Diamagnets repel both the North and South poles of a magnetic field." ]

[ "A magnetic field is not made up of a North and South pole." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Diamagnets repel both the North and South poles of a magnetic field." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "A magnetic field is not made up of a North and South pole." ]

[ "Although some C alpha olefin is sold into aqueous detergent applications, C has other applications such as being converted into chloroparaffins. A recent application of C is as on-land drilling fluid basestock, replacing diesel or kerosene in that application. Although C is more expensive than middle distillates, it has a significant advantage environmentally, being much more biodegradable and in handling the material, being much less irritating to skin and less toxic.\n", "The ratio of C to C is slightly higher in plants employing C4 carbon fixation than in plants employing C3 carbon fixation. Because the different isotope ratios for the two kinds of plants propagate through the food chain, it is possible to determine if the principal diet of a human or other animal consists primarily of C3 plants or C4 plants by measuring the isotopic signature of their collagen and other tissues. Deliberate increase of proportion of C in diet is the concept of i-food, a proposed way to increase longevity.\n\nSection::::Uses in science.\n", "Loss processes can range between 10-60% of incorporated C according to the incubation period, ambient environmental conditions (especially temperature) and the experimental species used. Aside from those caused by the physiology of the experimental subject itself, potential losses due to the activity of consumers also need to be considered. This is particularly true in experiments making use of natural assemblages of microscopic autotrophs, where it is not possible to isolate them from their consumers.\n", "C4 carbon fixation\n\nThe naming \"Hatch–Slack pathway\" is in honor of Marshall Davidson Hatch and C. R. Slack, who elucidated it in Australia in 1966.\n\nSection::::pathway.\n\nThe first experiments indicating that some plants do not use carbon fixation but instead produce malate and aspartate in the first step of carbon fixation were done in the 1950s and early 1960s by Hugo P. Kortschak and Yuri Karpilov. The pathway was elucidated by Marshall Davidson Hatch and C. R. Slack, in Australia, in 1966; it is sometimes called the Hatch-Slack pathway.\n", "The C isotope is important in distinguishing biosynthetized materials from man-made ones. Biogenic chemicals are derived from biospheric carbon, which contains C. Carbon in artificially made chemicals is usually derived from fossil fuels like coal or petroleum, where the C originally present has decayed below detectable limits. The amount of C currently present in a sample therefore indicates the proportion of carbon of biogenic origin.\n\nSection::::Stable isotopes.:Nitrogen isotopes.\n", "BULLET::::- C because of being the key component of all organic compounds despite occurring at a low abundance (1.1%) compared to the major isotope of carbon C, which has a spin of 0 and therefore is NMR-inactive.\n\nBULLET::::- N because of being a key component of important biomolecules such as proteins and DNA\n\nBULLET::::- F because of high relative sensitivity\n\nBULLET::::- P because of frequent occurrence in organic compounds and moderate relative sensitivity\n\nSection::::Chemical Shift Manipulation.\n", "One consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. The reference implementations of Python, Perl and PHP, for example, are all written in C.\n\nBecause the layer of abstraction is thin and the overhead is low, C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, useful for computationally intense programs. For example, the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica, and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C.\n", "C plants preface the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO into one of the 4-carbon compounds, malic acid or aspartic acid. C plants have a distinctive internal leaf anatomy. Tropical grasses, such as sugar cane and maize are C plants, but there are many broadleaf plants that are C. Overall, 7600 species of terrestrial plants use C carbon fixation, representing around 3% of all species. These plants have a carbon isotope signature of −16 to −10 ‰.\n\nSection::::Oxygenic photosynthesis.:CO concentrating mechanisms.:C plants.\n", "C3 plants are the most common type of plant, and typically thrive under moderate sunlight intensity and temperatures, CO concentrations above 200 ppm, and abundant groundwater. C3 plants do not grow well in very hot or arid regions, in which C4 and CAM plants are better adapted.\n\nThe isotope fractionations in C3 carbon fixation arise from the combined effects of CO gas diffusion through the stomata of the plant, and the carboxylation via RuBisCO. Stomatal conductance discriminates against the heavier C by 4.4‰. RuBisCO carboxylation contributes a larger discrimination of 27‰.\n", "BULLET::::- Channel 4, a UK television channel broadcasting since 1982\n\nSection::::Math, science and technology.\n\nBULLET::::- Biology\n\nBULLET::::- C4: an EEG electrode site according to the 10-20 system\n\nBULLET::::- Apolipoprotein C4, a protein encoded by the \"APOC4\" gene\n\nBULLET::::- ATC code C04 \"Peripheral vasodilators\", a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System\n\nBULLET::::- C carbon fixation, a pathway for carbon fixation in photosynthesis that produces C4 plants\n\nBULLET::::- Cervical spinal nerve 4, a nerve originating in the neck\n\nBULLET::::- Cervical vertebra 4, one of the cervical vertebrae of the vertebral column\n\nBULLET::::- C04, Oral cancer ICD-10 code\n", "The C and C ratio is either depleted (more negative) or enriched (more positive) relative to the international standard, which is set to an arbitrary zero. The different photosynthesis pathways used by C3 and C4 plants cause them to discriminate differently towards C The C4 and C3 plants have distinctly different ranges of C; C4 plants range between -9 and -16 per mil, and C3 plants range between -22 to -34 per mil. δC studies have been used in North America to document the transition from a C3 to a C4 (native North American plants to corn) diet. The rapid and dramatic increase in C after the adoption of maize agriculture attests to the change in the southeastern American diet by 1300 CE.\n", "C1 chemistry\n\nC1 chemistry is the chemistry of one-carbon molecules. Although many compounds and ions contain only one carbon, stable and abundant C-1 feedstocks are the focus of research. Four compounds are of major industrial importance: methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methanol. Technologies that interconvert these species are often consequential.\n\nSection::::Industrial processes.\n", "C-- is a \"portable assembly language\", designed to ease the task of implementing a compiler which produces high quality machine code. This is done by having the compiler generate C-- code, delegating the harder work of low-level code generation and optimisation to a C-- compiler.\n", "Stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen in human bone collagen allows bioarchaeologists to carry out dietary reconstruction and to make nutritional inferences. These chemical signatures reflect long-term dietary patterns, rather than a single meal or feast. Stable isotope analysis monitors the ratio of carbon 13 to carbon 12 (C/C), which is expressed as parts per mil (per thousand) using delta notation (δC). The ratio of carbon isotopes varies according to the types of plants consumed with different photosynthesis pathways. The three photosynthesis pathways are C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and Crassulacean acid metabolism. C4 plants are mainly grasses from tropical and subtropical regions, and are adapted to higher levels of radiation than C3 plants. Corn, millet and sugar cane are some well-known C4 domesticates, while all trees and shrubs use the C3 pathway. C3 plants are more common and numerous than C4 plants. Both types of plants occur in tropical areas, but only C3 plants occur naturally in colder areas. C and C occur in a ratio of approximately 98.9 to 1.1.\n", "BULLET::::- Complement component 4, a protein involved in the intricate complement system\n\nBULLET::::- Math\n\nBULLET::::- formula_1, the Cyclic group of order 4\n\nBULLET::::- C4, the fourth pure \"core\" module in the Edexcel A-level mathematics examination\n\nBULLET::::- Other uses in science and technology\n\nBULLET::::- C4, butyl-type hydrocarbon chain, a type of four-carbon molecule, especially in C4 reversed-phase chromatography columns\n\nBULLET::::- Cluster 4 or Tango, an ESA satellite that studies the Earth's magnetosphere over the course of an entire solar cycle\n\nSection::::Organizations.\n\nBULLET::::- C4 (Colombia), a political party in Colombia\n", "BULLET::::2. incorporation of inorganic carbon-14 (C in the form of sodium bicarbonate) into organic matter\n\nBULLET::::3. Stable isotopes of Oxygen (O, O and O)\n\nBULLET::::4. fluorescence kinetics (technique still a research topic)\n\nBULLET::::5. Stable isotopes of Carbon (C and C)\n\nBULLET::::6. Oxygen/Argon Ratios\n", "Currently, many human beings come into contact or consume, directly or indirectly, many harmful materials and chemicals daily. In addition, countless other forms of plant and animal life are also exposed. C2C seeks to remove dangerous \"technical nutrients\" (synthetic materials such as mutagenic materials, heavy metals and other dangerous chemicals) from current life cycles. If the materials we come into contact with and are exposed to on a daily basis are not toxic and do not have long term health effects, then the health of the overall system can be better maintained. For example, a fabric factory can eliminate all harmful \"technical nutrients\" by carefully reconsidering what chemicals they use in their dyes to achieve the colours they need and attempt to do so with fewer base chemicals.\n", "In 1985, the C discovery caused Kroto to shift the focus of his research from spectroscopy in order to probe the consequences of the C structural concept (and prove it correct) and to exploit the implications for chemistry and material science.\n", "Regulation of the amplification phase of the alternative pathway is exerted by multiple mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Intrinsic decay of C3 convertase\n\nBULLET::::- Stabilization of C3 convertase by properdin\n\nBULLET::::- Disassembly of this enzyme by serum glycoprotein β1H\n\nBULLET::::- Inactivation of C3b\n\nBULLET::::- Protection of C3 convertase from the activation of these control proteins afforded by the surface properties of certain cells and other activators of the alternative pathway.\n\nSection::::Location on chromosome.\n", "BULLET::::1. The four-carbon acid transported from mesophyll cells may be malate, as above, or aspartate.\n\nBULLET::::2. The three-carbon acid transported back from bundle-sheath cells may be pyruvate, as above, or alanine.\n\nBULLET::::3. The enzyme that catalyses decarboxylation in bundle-sheath cells differs. In maize and sugarcane, the enzyme is NADP-malic enzyme; in millet, it is NAD-malic enzyme; and, in \"Panicum maximum\", it is PEP carboxykinase.\n\nSection::::Kranz leaf anatomy.\n", "C (programming language)\n\nC (, as in the letter \"c\") is a general-purpose, procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, while a static type system prevents unintended operations. By design, C provides constructs that map efficiently to typical machine instructions, and has found lasting use in applications previously coded in assembly language. Such applications include operating systems, as well as various application software for computers ranging from supercomputers to embedded systems.\n", "Anammox bacteria, including those belonging to \"Ca.\" Scalindua, fix carbon using carbon dioxide as a carbon source. Metagenomic analysis has revealed the presence of genes responsible for the “reductive acetyl-CoA pathway (also known as the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway) which allows for the creation of the precursor molecule acetyl CoA from carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Discovery and Distribution.\n", "In nature, there are six different pathways where CO is fixed. Of these, the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway is the predominant sink in anaerobic conditions. Acetyl-CoA Synthase (ACS) and carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) are integral enzymes in this one pathway and can perform diverse reactions in the carbon cycle as a result. Because of this, the exact activity of these molecules has come under intense scrutiny over the past decade.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.:Wood-Ljungdahl pathway.\n", "One of the first compilers that could easily be adapted to output code for different computer architectures, the compiler had a long life span. It debuted in Seventh Edition Unix and shipped with BSD Unix until the release of 4.4BSD in 1994, when it was replaced by the GNU C Compiler. It was very influential in its day, so much so that at the beginning of the 1980s, the majority of C compilers were based on it. Anders Magnusson and Peter A Jonsson restarted development of pcc in 2007, rewriting it extensively to support the C99 standard.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "The first prediction that C could be a carrier of DIBs was put forward by Harry Kroto, co-discoverer of C In 1987, Kroto proposed that \"The present observations indicate that C might survive in the general medium (probably as the ion C) protected by its unique ability to survive processes so drastic that most, if not all, other known molecules are destroyed.\" However, that time it was hard to prove due to inability to record a reliable spectrum of C.\n" ]

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[ "Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. In June the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, so at any given Northern Hemisphere latitude sunlight falls more directly on that spot than in December (see Effect of sun angle on climate). This effect causes seasons. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbital parameters affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate. (See Milankovitch cycles).\n", "Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The atmosphere is a chaotic system, and small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that civilized human activity such as agriculture and industry has inadvertently modified weather patterns.\n", "Atmospheric circulation\n\nAtmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and together with ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth.\n\nThe Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the large-scale structure of its circulation remains fairly constant. The smaller scale weather systems – mid-latitude depressions, or tropical convective cells – occur \"randomly\", and long-range weather predictions of those cannot be made beyond ten days in practice, or a month in theory (see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect).\n", "Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n\nSection::::Physical processes.:Weathering.\n", "There are many elements that make up both the weather and the climate of a geographical location. The most significant of these elements are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, solar irradiance, humidity, precipitation, and topography. The greatest influence of climatic change is associated with not only natural, but also artificial factors, which can be measured in terms of both short-term and long-term climate change.\n\nSection::::Modifying factors.\n\nThe most important factors affecting climate are latitude, altitude, distance to the ocean or sea, orientation of mountain ranges toward prevailing winds, and the ocean current.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Extreme weather\n\nBULLET::::- Outline of meteorology\n", "As this energy moves through Earth's climate system, it creates Earth's weather and long-term averages of weather are called \"climate\". Changes in the long term average are called \"climate change\". Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter Earth's energy budget. Examples include cyclical ocean patterns such as the well-known El Niño–Southern Oscillation and less familiar Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate change can also result from \"external forcing\", when events outside of the climate system's five parts nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\n", "Climate looks at the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time. Weather, on the other hand, is the present condition of these same elements over periods up to two weeks.\n", "Section::::Shaping the planet Earth.\n", "On Earth, the common weather phenomena include wind, cloud, rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons and ice storms. Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere). Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are poorly understood.\n", "BULLET::::- polar-continental air masses, cold and dry in winter, hot and dry in summer; arisen from east and northeast;\n\nBULLET::::- arctic-maritime air masses pervade from North Atlantic Ocean, within the pale of polar circulation. Determine frosty weather and relatively wet in winter, and in spring and autumn frosts;\n\nBULLET::::- tropical-maritime air masses, that pervade from the south and southwest, determine during the winter mists and heavy snow falls, and in summer determine atmospheric instability;\n", "Effect of Sun angle on climate\n\nThe amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate, as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location, time of day, and season due to the Earth's orbit around the Sun and the Earth's rotation around its tilted axis. Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight, caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis, is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter. Change in day length is another factor. (See also season.)\n", "Weather and climate\n\nThere is often confusion between weather and climate. Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place over a short period of time, whereas climate refers to the weather pattern, using statistical data, of a place over a long enough period to yield meaningful averages.\n\nClimatology studies climateic change which is the study\n", "On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the Sun and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of Earth. This energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions.\n", "The movement of air in the Walker circulation affects the loops on either side. Under normal circumstances, the weather behaves as expected. But every few years, the winters become unusually warm or unusually cold, or the frequency of hurricanes increases or decreases, and the pattern sets in for an indeterminate period. \n", "The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase \"Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.\" Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.\n", "Section::::Date.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Atmospheric composition research.\n", "If the air mass is relatively stable, rainfall will increase until the front reaches the location, at which time the clouds can extend all the way to the earth’s surface as fog. Once the front passes, the location experiences some warming and clearing. If the air mass is unstable, thunderstorms may precede and follow the front and temperature changes will be larger.\n\nIn the northern hemisphere, a warm front causes a shift of wind blowing from southeast to southwest, and in the southern hemisphere a shift from winds blowing from northeast to northwest. Common characteristics associated with warm fronts include:\n", "Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes, as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The Earth's weather system is a chaotic system; as a result, small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history, and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns.\n", "Section::::Climate and weather.\n", "Climate\n\nOn Earth, interactions between the five parts of the climate system produce our daily weather and long-term averages of weather are called \"climate\". Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their currents. \n\nIn a broader sense, the \"climate\" of a region is the general state of the climate system at that location. \n", "Section::::Meteorological reckoning.\n", "The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation. The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun's gravitational field is referred to as space weather. A major weather component is the solar wind, a stream of plasma released from the Sun's upper atmosphere. It is responsible for the aurora, natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic. Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth, disrupting communications, as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere. Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth's climate. These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event, while the Sun's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth.\n", "Section::::Where weather happens.\n\nIt is in Earth's middle latitudes, between roughly 30° to 60° North and South, that a significant portion of \"weather\" can be said to happen, that is, where meteorological phenomena do not persist over the long term, and where it may be warm, sunny, and calm one day, and cold, overcast and stormy the next.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Without the inflow from the Atlantic, the Mediterranean would evaporate much more water than it receives, and would evaporate down to two large lakes, one on the Balearic Abyssal Plain, the other further east.\n\nBULLET::::- The east lake would receive most of the incoming river water, and may have overflowed into the west lake.\n\nBULLET::::- All or some of this seabed may have had a human population, where it was watered from the incoming rivers.\n\nBULLET::::- There is a long deep submerged valley running from the Mediterranean out into the Atlantic.\n", "The total volume of water on Earth is estimated at 1.386 billion km³ (333 million cubic miles), with 97.5% being salt water and 2.5% being fresh water. Of the fresh water, only 0.3% is in liquid form on the surface.\n\nIn addition, the lower mantle of inner earth may hold as much as 5 times more water than all surface water combined (all oceans, all lakes, all rivers).\n\nSection::::Distribution of river water.\n", "BULLET::::- February flood of 1825 – Storm surge flood on the North Sea coast of Germany and the Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Gale of January 1976 – An extratropical cyclone and storm surge which occurred over January 1976\n\nBULLET::::- North Sea flood of 1953 – Late January-early February 1953 North sea flood storm\n\nBULLET::::- North Sea flood of 1962 – A natural disaster affecting mainly the coastal regions of Germany\n\nBULLET::::- North Sea flood of 2007 – A European windstorm which affected northern and western Europe in early November 2007\n", "BULLET::::- Water transfer from the north and south coastal areas of western 'North America continent' to south western region of the United States and central parts of Mexico.\n\nBULLET::::- East to west Water transfer from a coastal reservoir on Bay of Bengal sea to water deficit parts of India from Ganga and Bramhaputra flood waters.\n\nBULLET::::- Water transfer from Andhra Pradesh state in India from Krishna and Godavari rivers flood waters to Tamil Nadu state in India with a coastal reservoir on Bay of Bengal sea.\n", "Simplicio objects that if this accounts for the water, should it not even more be seen in the winds? Salviati suggests that the containing basins are not so effective and the air does not sustain its motion. Nevertheless, these forces are seen by the steady winds from east to west in the oceans in the torrid zone.\n", "There is an opinion that during the Messinian, the Red Sea was connected at Suez to the Mediterranean, but was not connected with the Indian Ocean, and dried out along with the Mediterranean. \n\nSection::::Replenishment.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Tectonic basins.:The refilling of the Mediterranean Sea (5.3 million years ago).\n\nA catastrophic flood refilled the Mediterranean Sea 5.3 million years ago, at the beginning of the Zanclean age that ended the Messinian salinity crisis. The flood occurred when Atlantic waters found their way through the Strait of Gibraltar into the desiccated Mediterranean basin, following the Messinian salinity crisis during which it repeatedly became dry and re-flooded, dated by consensus to before the emergence of modern humans.\n", "As a result, the vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as \"saline\" or \"salt water\", with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 4.5%, roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater), though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff received from surrounding land. In all, water from oceans and marginal seas, saline groundwater and water from saline closed lakes amount to over 97% of the water on Earth, though no closed lake stores a globally significant amount of water. \"Saline\" groundwater is seldom considered except when evaluating water quality in arid regions.\n", "BULLET::::- Burchardi flood – A storm tide that struck the North Sea coast of North Frisia and Dithmarschen on the night between 11 and 12 October 1634\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas Flood of 1717 – December 1717 North Sea storm\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclone Berit – A very strong European windstorm in mid-November 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclone Xaver – A winter storm that affected northern Europe in 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Cymbrian flood – A legendary large-scale incursion of the sea in the region of the Jutland peninsula in the period 120 to 114 BC, resulting in a permanent alteration of the coastline with much land lost\n", "Evaporite depositional environments that meet the above conditions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Graben areas and half-grabens within continental rift environments fed by limited riverine drainage, usually in subtropical or tropical environments\n\nBULLET::::- Example environments at the present that match this is the Denakil Depression, Ethiopia; Death Valley, California\n\nBULLET::::- Graben environments in oceanic rift environments fed by limited oceanic input, leading to eventual isolation and evaporation\n\nBULLET::::- Examples include the Red Sea, and the Dead Sea in Jordan and Israel\n\nBULLET::::- Internal drainage basins in arid to semi-arid temperate to tropical environments fed by ephemeral drainage\n", "The presence of Atlantic fish in Messinian deposits and the volume of salt deposited during the Messinian Salinity Crisis implies that there was some remnant flow from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean even before the Zanclean flood. Already before the Zanclean flood, increased precipitation and runoff had lowered the salinity of the remnant sea, with some water putatively originating in the Paratethys north of the Mediterranean.\n\nSection::::Event.\n", "After the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view.\n", "BULLET::::- Example environments at the present include the Simpson Desert, Western Australia, the Great Salt Lake in Utah\n\nBULLET::::- Non-basin areas fed exclusively by groundwater seepage from artesian waters\n\nBULLET::::- Example environments include the seep-mounds of the Victoria Desert, fed by the Great Artesian Basin, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Restricted coastal plains in regressive sea environments\n\nBULLET::::- Examples include the sabkha deposits of Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the Red Sea; the Garabogazköl of the Caspian Sea\n\nBULLET::::- Drainage basins feeding into extremely arid environments\n\nBULLET::::- Examples include the Chilean deserts, certain parts of the Sahara, and the Namib\n", "Survivors living in places such as Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma are safe from flooding and have sufficient air pressure to sustain human habitability, but in the new stable climate of the still Earth it will either receive very little or will never rain in these places again— even worse, because the electricity supply is destroyed due to the flooding, the survivors are unable to desalinate the oceans for water for several years. Survivors living in Hawaii, now part of the new equatorial megacontinent are better off than survivors living in Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma because the colony is about 1000 miles north from the edge of the Sun's path— survivors living there are able to get sufficient amounts of water from rain to last the year, and would be able to fish without having to break through the ice and put their lives at risk.\n", "Research since then has suggested that the desiccation-flooding cycle may have repeated several times during the last 630,000 years of the Miocene epoch. This could explain the large amount of salt deposited. Recent studies, however, show that the repeated desiccation and flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view.\n\nSection::::Chronology.:Synchronism versus diachronism—deep water versus shallow water evaporites.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Indonesia and Japan post-earthquake and tsunamis.\n", "BULLET::::- Harry Turtledove's novella \"Down in the Bottomlands\" takes place on an alternate Earth where the Mediterranean Sea stayed empty, and void of water, and part of it is a national park to the countries around it, none of which are nations that we are familiar with in the real world.\n\nBULLET::::- The episode \"The Vanished Sea\" of the Animal Planet/ORF/ZDF-produced television series \"The Future Is Wild\" posits a world 5 million years in the future where the Mediterranean Basin has again dried up, and explores what kind of life could survive the new climate.\n", "The climate of the abyssal plain during the drought is unknown. There is no situation on Earth directly comparable to the dry Mediterranean, and thus it is not possible to know its climate. There is not even a consensus as to whether the Mediterranean Sea even dried out completely; it seems likeliest that at least three or four large brine lakes on the abyssal plains remained at all times. The extent of desiccation is very hard to judge due to the reflective seismic nature of the salt beds, and the difficulty in drilling cores, making it difficult to map their thickness.\n", "It is possible that at one time these estuaries were positive, that is, ones in which the seawater component is diluted; therefore, the water is brackish, with salinity less than that of the ocean.\n", "The massive presence of salt does not require a desiccation of the sea. The main evidence for the evaporative drawdown of the Mediterranean comes from the remains of many (now submerged) canyons that were cut into the sides of the dry Mediterranean basin by rivers flowing down to the abyssal plain. For example, the Nile cut its bed down to several hundred feet below sea level at Aswan (where Ivan S. Chumakov found marine Pliocene foraminifers in 1967), and below sea level just north of Cairo.\n", "Hey, now trees fell on the island \n\nAnd the houses give away \n\nSome they strained and drowned \n\nSome died in most every way \n\nAnd the sea began to rolling \n\nAnd the ships they could not stand \n\nAnd I heard a captain crying \n\n\"God save a drowning man.\"\n\nDeath, your hands are clammy \n\nYou got them on my knee \n\nYou come and took my mother \n\nWon't you come back after me \n\nAnd the flood it took my neighbor \n\nTook my brother, too \n", "BULLET::::- Bajo Almanzora 65,000 m/day\n\nSection::::South Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- Mossel Bay 15,000 m/day\n\nBULLET::::- Transnet Saldanha 2,400 m/day\n\nBULLET::::- Knysna 2,000 m/day\n\nBULLET::::- Plettenberg Bay 2,000 m/day\n\nBULLET::::- Bushman's River Mouth 1,800 m/day\n\nBULLET::::- Lambert's Bay 1,700 m/day\n\nBULLET::::- Cannon Rocks 750 m/day\n\nSection::::Trinidad and Tobago.\n", "River flooding causes less damage than salt water flooding, which causes long-term damage to agricultural lands. Areas at risk from river flooding were assigned a higher acceptable risk. River flooding also has a longer warning time, producing a lower estimated death toll per event.\n\nBULLET::::- South Holland at risk from river flooding: 1 per 1,250 years\n\nBULLET::::- Other areas at risk from river flooding: 1 per 250 years.\n", "Flooding, whether from rivers overflowing their banks or in coastal regions, is among the most disastrous of natural phenomena. Altimetry data from the SWOT mission will make it possible to measure floodwater levels and local topographic details more reliably.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Coastal ocean dynamics.\n", "There are mixed predictions in relation to climate change’s effect on salinity in Australia. Climate change can be seen to appease salinity in Australia in some circumstances, but in others it may have detrimental effects. It is predicted that in some instances climate change will result in the reduction in annual rainfall leading to a drier and warmer climate, which will ultimately reduce salinity. Conversely climate changes impact on the salt concentration in water bodies is expected to be unfavourable.\n" ]

[ "World can be flooded." ]

[ "World could not be flooded because there isn't enough water on Earth. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "World can be flooded." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "World could not be flooded because there isn't enough water on Earth. " ]

[ "Overall, nominal household income in New York City is characterized by large variations. This phenomenon is especially true of Manhattan, which in 2005 was home to the highest incomes U.S. census tract, with a household income of $188,697, as well as the lowest, where household income was $9,320. The disparity is driven in part by wage growth in high income brackets. In 2006 the average weekly wage in Manhattan was $1,453, the highest among the largest counties in the United States. Wages in Manhattan were the fastest growing among the nation's 10 largest counties. Among young adults in New York who work full-time, women now earn more money than men — approximately $5,000 more in 2005.\n", "The average income in Dumbo-Vinegar Hill-Downtown Brooklyn-Boerum between 2009 and 2013 was less than $10,000 for 7.3% of residents, between $10,000 and $14,000 for 5.0%, and about $15,000-$24,000 for 10.3%. Nine and a half percent of inhabitants in this area made between $25,000 and $34,999 during 2009-2013. Incomes of approximately $35,000- $49,999 were earned by 12.2% residents, and $50,000-$74,999 represented annual wages for 15.7% of the people in this neighborhood.\n", "Real estate is a major force in Midtown Manhattan's economy, and indeed the city's, as the total value of all New York City property was estimated at US$914.8 billion for the 2015 fiscal year. Manhattan has perennially been home to some of the nation's, as well as the world's, most marketable real estate, including the Time Warner Center, which had the highest-listed market value in the city in 2006 at US$1.1 billion, to be subsequently surpassed in October 2014 by the Waldorf Astoria New York, which became the most expensive hotel ever sold after being purchased by the Anbang Insurance Group, based in China, for . When 450 Park Avenue was sold on July 2, 2007, for US$510 million, about US$1,589 per square foot (US$17,104/m²), it broke the barely month-old record for an American office building of US$1,476 per square foot (US$15,887/m²) based on the sale of 660 Madison Avenue. In 2014, Manhattan was home to six of the top ten zip codes in the United States by median housing price. In 2019, the most expensive home sale ever in the United States achieved completion in Midtown Manhattan, at a selling price of US$238 million, for a penthouse apartment overlooking Central Park.\n", "Based on data from the 2011–2015 American Community Survey, 59.9% of Manhattan residents over age 25 have a bachelor's degree. As of 2005, about 60% of residents were college graduates and some 25% had earned advanced degrees, giving Manhattan one of the nation's densest concentrations of highly educated people.\n", "Manhattan is one of the highest-income places in the United States with a population greater than one million. , Manhattan's cost of living was the highest in the United States, but the borough also contained the country's most profound level of income inequality. Manhattan is also the United States county with the highest per capita income, being the sole county whose per capita income exceeded $100,000 in 2010. However, from 2011–2015 Census data of New York County, the per capita income was recorded in 2015 dollars as $64,993, with the median household income at $72,871, and poverty at 17.6%. In 2012, \"The New York Times\" reported that inequality was higher than in most developing countries, stating, \"The wealthiest fifth of Manhattanites made more than 40 times what the lowest fifth reported, a widening gap (it was 38 times, the year before) surpassed by only a few developing countries\".\n", "Manhattan is one of the highest-income places in the United States with a population over 1,000,000. In particular the Upper East Side, ZIP Code 10021, with over 100,000 inhabitants and a per capita income of over $90,000, is one of the largest concentrations of wealth in the entire United States, although this is offset by a high cost of living. Like all large US cities, Manhattan does have some large enclaves of concentrated poverty.\n\nSection::::Languages.\n", "As of 2016, the median household income in Community Board 16 was $30,207. In 2018, an estimated 28% of Brownsville residents lived in poverty, compared to 21% in all of Brooklyn and 20% in all of New York City. One in seven residents (14%) were unemployed, compared to 9% in the rest of both Brooklyn and New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 57% in Brownsville, higher than the citywide and boroughwide rates of 52% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Brownsville is considered to be low-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.\n", "Midtown Manhattan generally has a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. A majority of residents age 25 and older (78%) have a college education or higher, while 6% have less than a high school education and 17% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Midtown Manhattan students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011 and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period.\n", "According to some estimates, about one in five dollars of profit income in the USA nowadays consists of \"rentier income\", but this is difficult to trace in the accounts (see Epstein & Jayadev 2005 and Michael Hudson 2005 for some discussion). In reality, insofar such estimates are themselves derived from gross product data, they will underestimate the true significance of property income from rents, because many those rents are excluded from gross product accounts.\n", "Morningside Heights and Manhattanville generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. A plurality of residents age 25 and older (49%) have a college education or higher, while 21% have less than a high school education and 30% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Morningside Heights and Manhattanville students excelling in math rose from 25% in 2000 to 49% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 32% to 35% during the same time period.\n", "Financial District and Lower Manhattan generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. The vast majority of residents age 25 and older (84%) have a college education or higher, while 4% have less than a high school education and 12% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Financial District and Lower Manhattan students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period.\n", "Many U.S. studies, for example, focus primarily on the median cost of renting a two-bedroom apartment in a large apartment complex for a new tenant. These studies often lump together luxury apartments and slums, as well as desirable and undesirable neighborhoods. While this practice is known to distort the true costs, it is difficult to provide accurate information for the wide variety of situations without the report being unwieldy.\n", "Manhattan is the economic engine of New York City, with its 2.3 million workers in 2007 drawn from the entire New York metropolitan area accounting for almost two-thirds of all jobs in New York City. In the first quarter of 2014, the average weekly wage in Manhattan (New York County) was $2,749, representing the highest total among large counties in the United States. Manhattan's workforce is overwhelmingly focused on white collar professions, with manufacturing nearly extinct. Manhattan also has the highest per capita income of any county in the United States.\n", "Between the 1870s and the 1920s, the first wave of Arab immigrants brought mostly Syrians and Lebanese people to NYC. The majority of them were Christian. A lot of the Syrian immigrants settled on Washington Street. In this area, the first Arabic neighborhood was formed. During the second immigration wave in the '60s, Little Syria became more affluent and moved to the area around Atlantic Avenue. After a certain period, the Arabic inhabitants of this area moved to other parts of the city, such as Astoria and Bay Ridge. There are now around 160,000 Arabic people in NYC and more than 480,000 in the New York State. According to the Arab American Institute the population of people who identify themselves as Arab, grew by 23% between 2000 and 2008.\n", "Marxist economists object to this accounting procedure on the ground that the monetary imputation made refers to a flow of income which does not exist, because most home owners do not rent out their homes if they are living in them.\n", "Manhattanville and Morningside Heights generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. A plurality of residents age 25 and older (49%) have a college education or higher, while 21% have less than a high school education and 30% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Manhattanville and Morningside Heights students excelling in math rose from 25% in 2000 to 49% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 32% to 35% during the same time period.\n", "New York City's borough of Manhattan is the highest nominal income county in the United States. In particular, ZIP code 10021 on Manhattan's Upper East Side, with more than 100,000 inhabitants and a per capita income of over $90,000, has one of the largest concentrations of income in the United States. The other boroughs, especially Queens and Staten Island, have large middle-class populations.\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n\nAccording to the 2000 census (in which Manhattan Valley's census tracts are 187, 189, 191, 193, and 195), 48,983 people live in the community. Of the population, 44% are of Hispanic origin, 32% are African Americans, and 24% are Asians, whites, and other races. Fifty-five percent of the residents are of very low income (below 50% of the area's median family income, which is $13,854). The more affluent families reside West of Broadway (which is not Manhattan Valley) and East of Manhattan Avenue. Of the Manhattan Valley population, 20.76% are on Social Security and 23% on public assistance.\n\nSection::::Landmarks.\n", "The entirety of Community District 5, which comprises Midtown Manhattan, had 53,120 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 84.8 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are adults: a plurality (45%) are between the ages of 25–44, while 22% are between 45–64, and 13% are 65 or older. The ratio of youth and college-aged residents was lower, at 7% and 12% respectively.\n", "Demographics of Manhattan\n\nNew York County, coterminous with the New York City borough of Manhattan, is the most densely populated U.S. county, with a density of 70,825.6/mi (27,267.4/km) as of 2013. In 1910, it reached a peak of 101,548/mi (39,222.9/km). The county is one of the original counties of New York state.\n\nSection::::Demographics from the 2010 census.\n", "Manhattanville and Morningside Heights are patrolled by the 26th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 520 West 126th Street. The 26th Precinct ranked 38th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. With a non-fatal assault rate of 57 per 100,000 people, Manhattanville and Morningside Heights's rate of violent crimes per capita is about the same as that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 633 per 100,000 people is higher than that of the city as a whole.\n", "In the county the population was spread out with 16.8% under the age of 18, 10.2% from 18 to 24, 38.3% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 90.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.9 males. The largest age cohort in the county was 25–29(recent college graduates).\n", "Manhattan's real estate market for luxury housing continues to be among the most expensive in the world, and Manhattan residential property continues to have the highest sale price per square foot in the United States.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure.:Transportation.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure.:Transportation.:Public transportation.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Real estate.\n", "According to a 2001 study by Claritas, four of the city's five boroughs ranked among the nation's twenty most diverse counties. Queens ranked 1st, Brooklyn 3rd, Manhattan 7th, and The Bronx 17th. In addition, Hudson County and Essex County, New Jersey, both of which are part of the New York Metropolitan Area, ranked 6th and 15th, respectively.\n\nThe city has several demographically unique characteristics. Queens is the only large county in the United States where the median income among black households, about $52,000 a year, has surpassed that of whites.\n" ]

[ "It does not make sense for Manhattan to have a median rent of 3,300 when median income is only 67,000" ]

[ "Many people that actually work in Manhattan don't live in Manhattan, making the cost to live versus the median income of the city irrelevant. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It does not make sense for Manhattan to have a median rent of 3,300 when median income is only 67,000", "It does not make sense for Manhattan to have a median rent of 3,300 when median income is only 67,000" ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Many people that actually work in Manhattan don't live in Manhattan, making the cost to live versus the median income of the city irrelevant. ", "Many people that actually work in Manhattan don't live in Manhattan, making the cost to live versus the median income of the city irrelevant. " ]

[ "In 2010, based on \"the vast array of molecular sequences now available from all domains of life,\" a formal test of universal common ancestry was published. The formal test favored the existence of a universal common ancestor over a wide class of alternative hypotheses that included horizontal gene transfer. Basic biochemical principles make it overwhelmingly likely that all organisms do have a single common ancestor. It is extremely unlikely that organisms descended from separate incidents of cell-formation would be able to complete a horizontal gene transfer without garbling each other's genes, converting them into noncoding segments. Further, many more amino acids are chemically possible than the twenty found in modern protein molecules. These lines of chemical evidence, incorporated into the formal statistical test point to a single cell having been the LUCA. While the test overwhelmingly favored the existence of a single LUCA, this does not imply that the LUCA was ever alone: instead, it was one of many early microbes but the only one whose descendents survived beyond the Paleoarchean Era.\n", "There is a single concestor of all surviving life forms and its evidence is that all that have ever been examined share the same genetic code and the genetic code is too complex to have been invented twice. There is no sign of other independent origins of life and if new ones arise, they would probably be eaten by bacteria. \n", "In an earlier hypothesis, Carl Woese (1988) had proposed that: (1) no individual organism can be considered a LUCA, and (2) the genetic heritage of all modern organisms derived through horizontal gene transfer among an ancient community of organisms. While the results described by Theobald (2010) and Saey (2010) demonstrate the existence of a single LUCA, Woese's argument can still be applied to Ur-organisms (initial products of abiogenesis) before the LUCA. At the beginnings of life, ancestry was not as linear as it is today because the genetic code had not evolved. Before high fidelity replication, organisms could not be easily mapped on a phylogenetic tree. However, the LUCA lived after the origin of the genetic code and at least some rudimentary early form of molecular proofreading.\n", "In 2017, there has been significant pushback against this scenario, arguing that the eukaryotes did not emerge within the Archaea. Cunha \"et al.\" produced analyses supporting the three domains (3D) or Woese hypothesis (2 in the table above) and rejecting the eocyte hypothesis (4 above). Harish and Kurland found strong support for the earlier two empires (2D) or Mayr hypothesis (1 in the table above), based on analyses of the coding sequences of protein domains. They rejected the eocyte hypothesis as the least likely. A possible interpretation of their analysis is that the universal common ancestor (UCA) of the current tree of life was a complex organism that survived an evolutionary bottleneck, rather than a simpler organism arising early in the history of life.\n", "The primary candidates for non-cellular life are viruses. A minority of biologists consider viruses to be living organisms, but most do not. Their primary objection is that no known viruses are capable of autonomous reproduction: they must rely on cells to copy them. However, the recent discovery of giant viruses that possess genes for part of the required translation machinery has raised the prospect that they may have had extinct ancestors that could evolve and replicate independently. Most biologists agree that such an ancestor would be a \"bona fide\" non-cellular lifeform, but its existence and characteristics are still uncertain.\n", "There is strong evidence from genetics that all organisms have a common ancestor. For example, every living cell makes use of nucleic acids as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty amino acids as the building blocks for proteins. All organisms use the same genetic code (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to translate nucleic acid sequences into proteins. The universality of these traits strongly suggests common ancestry, because the selection of many of these traits seems arbitrary. Horizontal gene transfer makes it more difficult to study the last universal ancestor. However, the universal use of the same genetic code, same nucleotides, and same amino acids makes the existence of such an ancestor overwhelmingly likely.\n", "However, despite there being a wealth of statistically supported studies towards the rooting of the tree of life between the \"Bacteria\" and the \"Neomura\" by means of a variety of methods, including some that are impervious to accelerated evolution—which is claimed by Cavalier-Smith to be the source of the supposed fallacy in molecular methods—there are a few studies which have drawn different conclusions, some of which place the root in the phylum \"Firmicutes\" with nested archaea.\n", "Using single genes as phylogenetic markers, it is difficult to trace organismal phylogeny in the presence of horizontal gene transfer. Combining the simple coalescence model of cladogenesis with rare HGT horizontal gene transfer events suggest there was no single most recent common ancestor that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of life. Each contemporary molecule has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule cenancestor. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times.\"\n\nSection::::Importance in evolution.:Challenge to the tree of life.\n", "\"In building the tree of life, analysis of whole genomes has begun to supplement, and in some cases to improve upon, studies previously done with one or a few genes. For example, recent studies of complete bacterial genomes have suggested that the hyperthermophilic species are not deeply branching; if this is true, it casts doubt on the idea that the first forms of life were thermophiles. Analysis of the genome of the eukaryotic parasite \"Encephalitozoon cuniculi\" supports suggestions that the group \"Microsporidia\" are not deep branching protists but are in fact members of the fungal kingdom. Genome analysis can even help resolve relationships within species, such as by providing new genetic markers for population genetics studies in the bacteria causing anthrax or tuberculosis. In all these studies, it is the additional data provided by a complete genome sequence that allows one to separate the phylogenetic signal from the noise. This is not to say the tree of life is now resolved – we only have sampled a smattering of genomes, and many groups are not yet touched\"\n", "Charles Darwin proposed the theory of universal common descent through an evolutionary process in his book \"On the Origin of Species\" in 1859, saying, \"Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed.\" Later biologists have separated the problem of the origin of life from that of the LUCA.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Chemical.\n\nNo single compound will prove life once existed. Rather, it will be distinctive patterns present in any organic compounds showing a process of selection. For example, membrane lipids left behind by degraded cells will be concentrated, have a limited size range, and comprise an even number of carbons. Similarly, life only uses left-handed amino acids. Biosignatures need not be chemical, however, and can also be suggested by a distinctive magnetic biosignature.\n", "Future endeavors are to reconstruct a now more complex tree of life.\n\nChristoph Adami, a professor at the Keck Graduate Institute made this point in \"Evolution of biological complexity\":\n\nDavid J. Earl and Michael W. Deem—professors at Rice University made this point in \"Evolvability is a selectable trait\":\n", "One important development in the study of microbial evolution came with the discovery in Japan in 1959 of horizontal gene transfer. This transfer of genetic material between different species of bacteria came to the attention of scientists because it played a major role in the spread of antibiotic resistance. More recently, as knowledge of genomes has continued to expand, it has been suggested that lateral transfer of genetic material has played an important role in the evolution of all organisms. These high levels of horizontal gene transfer have led to suggestions that the family tree of today's organisms, the so-called \"tree of life,\" is more similar to an interconnected web or net.\n", "Section::::Location of the root.\n\nThe most commonly accepted tree of life, based on several molecular studies, has its root between a monophyletic domain Bacteria and a clade formed by Archaea and Eukaryota. However, a very small minority of studies place the root in the domain Bacteria, either in the phylum Firmicutes or state that the phylum Chloroflexi is basal to a clade with Archaea and Eukaryotes and the rest of Bacteria (as proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith).\n", "The recent discovery of giant viruses (aka giruses, nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses, NCLDVs) has reignited this debate, since they are not only physically larger than previously known viruses, but also possess much more extensive genomes, including genes coding for aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, key proteins involved in translation, which were previously thought to be exclusive to cellular organisms. This raises the prospect that the giant viruses may have had extinct ancestors (or even undiscovered ones) capable of engaging in life processes (such as evolution and replication) independent of cells, and that modern viruses lost those abilities secondarily. The viral lineage including this ancestor would be ancient and may have originated alongside the earliest archaea or before the LUCA. If such a virus is discovered, or its past existence supported by further genetic evidence, most biologists agree that it would constitute a \"bona fide\" lifeform, and its descendants (at least the giant viruses, and possibly including all known viruses) could be phylogenetically classified in a fourth domain of life. Discovery of the pandoraviruses, with genomes are even larger than the other giant viruses and exhibiting particularly low homology with the three existing domains, further discredited the traditional view that viruses simply \"pick-pocketed\" all of their genes from cellular organisms, and further supported the \"complex ancestors\" hypothesis.\n", "Studies from 2000 to 2018 have suggested an increasingly ancient time for the inception of LUCA. During 2000 estimations suggested LUCA existed 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago in the Paleoarchean era, a few hundred million years after the earliest evidence of life on Earth, for which there are several candidates. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone from Western Australia, while biogenic graphite has been found in 3.7 billion-year-old metamorphized sedimentary rocks from Western Greenland. Studies of 2015 and 2017 have tentatively proposed evidence of life as early as 4.28 billion years ago. A study of 2018 by the University of Bristol based on the application of the concept of a molecular clock indicate the LUCA existed at a time close to but not including 4.5 billion years ago, within the Hadean.\n", "Section::::Resolution of uncertainty with phylogenomics.\n\nDespite the uncertainties in reconstructing phylogenies back to the beginnings of life, progress is being made in reconstructing the tree of life in the face of uncertainties raised by HGT. The uncertainty of any inferred phylogenetic tree based on a single gene can be resolved by using several common genes or even evidence from whole genomes. One such approach, sometimes called 'multi-locus typing', has been used to deduce phylogenic trees for organisms that exchange genes, such as meningitis bacteria.\n\nJonathan Eisen and Claire Fraser have pointed out that:\n", "Horizontal gene transfer poses a possible challenge to the concept of the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) at the root of the tree of life first formulated by Carl Woese, which led him to propose the Archaea as a third domain of life. Indeed, it was while examining the new three-domain view of life that horizontal gene transfer arose as a complicating issue: \"Archaeoglobus fulgidus\" was seen as an anomaly with respect to a phylogenetic tree based upon the encoding for the enzyme HMGCoA reductase—the organism in question is a definite Archaean, with all the cell lipids and transcription machinery that are expected of an Archaean, but whose HMGCoA genes are of bacterial origin. Scientists are broadly agreed on symbiogenesis, that mitochondria in eukaryotes derived from alpha-proteobacterial cells and that chloroplasts came from ingested cyanobacteria, and other gene transfers may have affected early eukaryotes. (In contrast, multicellular eukaryotes have mechanisms to prevent horizontal gene transfer, including separated germ cells.) If there had been continued and extensive gene transfer, there would be a complex network with many ancestors, instead of a tree of life with sharply delineated lineages leading back to a LUCA. However, a LUCA can be identified, so horizontal transfers must have been relatively limited.\n", "The SSU rRNA as a measure of evolutionary distances was pioneered by Carl Woese when formulating the first modern \"tree of life\", and his results led him to propose the Archaea as a third domain of life. However, recently it has been argued that SSU rRNA genes can also be horizontally transferred. Although this may be rare, this possibility is forcing scrutiny of the validity of phylogenetic trees based on SSU rRNAs.\n", "Evidence for fossilized microorganisms considered to be 3,770 million to 4,280 million years old was found in the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt in Quebec, Canada, although the evidence is disputed as inconclusive.\n\nSection::::Origins of life on Earth.\n\nBiologists reason that all living organisms on Earth must share a single last universal ancestor, because it would be virtually impossible that two or more separate lineages could have independently developed the many complex biochemical mechanisms common to all living organisms.\n\nSection::::Origins of life on Earth.:Independent emergence on Earth.\n", "While there is no specific fossil evidence of LUCA, it can be studied by comparing the genomes of its descendants, all organisms whose genomes have yet been sequenced. By this means, a 2016 study identified a set of 355 genes inferred to have been present in LUCA. This would imply it was already a complex life form with many co-adapted features, including transcription and translation mechanisms to convert information between DNA, RNA, and proteins. However, some of those genes could have developed later and spread universally by horizontal gene transfer between archaea and bacteria.\n", "All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, reflecting their common descent; based on these observations, hypotheses on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a universal common ancestor, from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. Models have been divided into \"genes-first\" and \"metabolism-first\" categories, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that combine both categories.\n", "The MRCA is the most recent \"common\" ancestor shared by all individuals in the population under consideration. This MRCA may well have contemporaries who are also ancestral to some but not all of the extant population. The \"identical ancestors point\" is a point in the past more remote than the MRCA at which time there are no longer organisms which are ancestral to some but not all of the modern population. \n\nDue to pedigree collapse, modern individuals may still exhibit clustering, due to vastly different contributions from each of ancestral population .\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "In analyzing which environments are likely to support life, a distinction is usually made between simple, unicellular organisms such as bacteria and archaea and complex metazoans (animals). Unicellularity necessarily precedes multicellularity in any hypothetical tree of life, and where single-celled organisms do emerge there is no assurance that greater complexity will then develop. The planetary characteristics listed below are considered crucial for life generally, but in every case multicellular organisms are more picky than unicellular life.\n\nSection::::Planetary characteristics.:Mass.\n", "The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is the most recent organism from which all organisms now living on Earth descend. Thus it is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Paleoarchean era). The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Although more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on the planet are estimated to be extinct, there are currently 10–14 million species of life on Earth.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Jumping fits (in which motor control is partially or totally lost)\n\nBULLET::::- Tremors\n\nOne study described a patient with astasis as lying in bed with a normal body posture. When the patient was sitting, he tilted his body to the left. When he was asked to stand up, the patient rotated his trunk axis to the left (left shoulder going backwards), and tilted his body to that same side, showing resistance to passive correction of posture in both of these planes. He was unable to stand and fell backwards and towards the left.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Control.:Spring action.\n\nTraditionally, such correction was explained by the spring action of the muscles, a local mechanism taking place without the intervention of the central nervous system (CNS). Recent studies, however, show that this spring action by itself is insufficient to prevent a forward fall. Also, human sway is too complicated to be adequately explained by spring action.\n\nSection::::Control.:Nervous system.\n", "Evidence show that there is high prevalence of falls among people with multiple sclerosis (MS), with approximately 50% reporting a fall in their past 6 months. About 30% of those individuals report falling multiple times. \n\nBULLET::::- Gait Deviations – Gait variability is elevated in individuals with MS. Stride length, Cadence, and Velocity decreased. Stance duration and cycle duration increased.\n\nBULLET::::- Drop foot - may cause the person to stumble on flat surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- Ataxia - loss of motor skills. Vestibular ataxia results in loss of balance. Symptoms exacerbated when eyes closed and base of support reduced.\n", "Sudden falls without loss of consciousness (drop attacks) may be experienced by some people.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThe cause of Ménière's disease is unclear but likely involves both genetic and environmental factors. A number of theories exist including constrictions in blood vessels, viral infections, autoimmune reactions.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "In older adults, physical training and perturbation therapy is directed to improving balance recovery responses and preventing falls. Gait related changes in elderly provide greater chance of stability during walking due to slow speed and greater base of support, but they also increase the chance of slipping or tripping and falling. Appropriate joint moment generation is required to create sufficient push-off for balance recovery. Age-related changes in muscles, tendons, and neural structures may contribute to slower reactive responses. Interventions involving resistance training along with perturbation training may prove to be beneficial in improving muscle strength and balance recovery.\n", "Common causes of falls in dementia include:\n\nBULLET::::- Gait deviations - Slower walking speed, reduced cadence and step length, increased postural flexion, increased double support time\n\nBULLET::::- Postural instability - gait changes and impaired balance. People with balance deficits are three time more at risk of falling than those with normal gait and intact balance\n\nBULLET::::- Lack of physical exercise\n\nBULLET::::- Memory impairment\n\nBULLET::::- Visual impairment\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- Medications – psychotropic drugs have effects on balance, reaction time and other sensori-motor functions, orthostatic hypotension and extra pyramidal symptoms\n\nSection::::Strategies and interventions.\n", "The idea that climbing fiber activity functions as an error signal has been examined in many experimental studies, with some supporting it but others casting doubt. In a pioneering study by Gilbert and Thach from 1977, Purkinje cells from monkeys learning a reaching task showed increased complex spike activity—which is known to reliably indicate activity of the cell's climbing fiber input—during periods when performance was poor. Several studies of motor learning in cats observed complex spike activity when there was a mismatch between an intended movement and the movement that was actually executed. Studies of the vestibulo–ocular reflex (which stabilizes the visual image on the retina when the head turns) found that climbing fiber activity indicated \"retinal slip\", although not in a very straightforward way.\n", "After the crash, despite breaking his pelvis, Knievel addressed the audience and announced his retirement by stating, \"Ladies and gentlemen of this wonderful country, I've got to tell you that you are the last people in the world who will ever see me jump. Because I will never, ever, ever jump again. I'm through.\" Near shock and not yielding to Frank Gifford's (of \"ABC's Wide World of Sports\") plea to use a stretcher, Knievel walked off the Wembley pitch stating, \"I came in walking, I went out walking!\"\n\nSection::::Stunt performance.:Kings Island jump.\n", "This phenomenon is generally stimulated to help improve the mobility of people with akinesia. Akinesia consists of changes in walking pattern, freezing of gait (FOG), and losses of balance (LOBs). FOG occurs in the middle of stride, cutting off walking, and making it fairly difficult for a person to re-initiate a movement. Kinesia paradoxa can be used as a management strategy to overcome this. LOBs are when a person has difficulty maintaining an upright position and lose their balance, eventually leading to them falling. Since Parkinson’s disease is a progressive disease, patient’s symptoms continue to worsen with time and they often develop visible differences in their walking that greatly affects their quality of life. These differences include shuffling of steps, decreased stride length, and decrease in overall movement. Kinesia paradoxa is not able to be stimulated in everyone with movement disorders; persons who can stimulate this phenomenon demonstrate visible improvements in mobility including, increased stride length, more fluidity in strides, less FOGs incidents, less LOBs, and those that appeared to be completely frozen previously can regain their movement. More recently, kinesia paradoxa is also being used to treat children with Asperger's syndrome. Children with Asperger's demonstrate excellent skills in drawing, modeling, building, and computer games, but often struggle with everyday motor tasks such as walking or catching a ball. Kinesia paradoxa is currently being explored to help aid these individuals in focusing their attention and improving their efficiency in these simple motor tasks.\n", "Pushing behavior has shown that perception of body posture in relation to gravity is altered. Patients experience their body as oriented \"upright\" when the body is actually tilted to the side of the brain lesion. In addition, patients seem to show no disturbed processing of visual and vestibular inputs when determining subjective visual vertical. In sitting, the push presents as a strong lateral lean toward the affected side and in standing, creates a highly unstable situation as the patient is unable to support their body weight on the weakened lower extremity. The increased risk of falls must be addressed with therapy to correct their altered perception of vertical.\n", "Rapid compensation to damage of the vestibular nerve occurs within seven to ten days of receiving the damage. A small percentage of patients with damage to the vestibular nerve experience recurrent symptoms. These patients have not been able to undergo vestibular compensation and are left with long-term attacks of vertigo. By administering betahistine to the damaged nerve over a long period of time, the process of vestibular compensation can be accelerated to alleviate symptoms. Patients can also learn strategies to recover their balance through physical therapy.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Vestibular system\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Illustration at dizziness-and-balance.com\n", "Drop attack\n\nA drop attack is a sudden fall without loss of consciousness. Drop attacks stem from diverse mechanisms, including orthopedic causes (for example, leg weakness and knee instability), hemodynamic causes (for example, transient vertebrobasilar insufficiency, a type of interruption of blood flow to the brain), and neurologic causes (such as epileptic seizures or unstable vestibular function), among other reasons. Those afflicted typically experience abrupt leg weakness, sometimes after sudden movement of the head. The weakness may persist for hours.\n", "Vertigo, the sensation of spinning even while a person is still, is the most recognizable and quite often the sole symptom of decreased blood flow in the vertebrobasilar distribution. The vertigo due to VBI can be brought on by head turning, which could occlude the contralateral vertebral artery and result in decreased blood flow to the brain if the contralateral artery is occluded. When the vertigo is accompanied by double vision (diplopia), graying of vision, and blurred vision, patients often go to the optometrist or ophthalmologist. If the VBI progresses, there may be weakness of the quadriceps and, to the patient, this is felt as a buckling of the knees. The patient may suddenly become weak at the knee and crumple (often referred to as a “drop attack”). Such a fall can lead to significant head and orthopedic injury, especially in the elderly.\n", "There are balance impairments associated with aging. Age-related decline in the ability of the above systems to receive and integrate sensory information contributes to poor balance in older adults. As a result, the elderly are at an increased risk of falls. In fact, one in three adults aged 65 and over will fall each year.\n\nIn the case of an individual standing quietly upright, the limit of stability is defined as the amount of postural sway at which balance is lost and corrective action is required.\n", "Research suggests that this is the body's natural way of adjusting to these systems. The bodies of experienced pilots have adapted to different types of motion experienced during actual flight conditions. When placed into a flight simulator, visual and other stimuli cause their bodies to expect the same motions associated with actual flight conditions. But their bodies instead experience the imperfect motion of the simulator, resulting in sickness.\n", "Sural nerve (SN) stimulation results in a reflex that is both phase and intensity dependent. The sural nerve innervates the lateral (outside) portion of the foot and could be activated during either the swing or stance phase when encountering uneven terrain. The intensity dependent response is indicative of the level of activation and, therefore, the potential for harm.\n\n1. During the swing phase, SN stimulation indicates encountering an obstacle on the lateral side of the foot. The reaction is to move the foot inward and the leg up, out of the way. Observed EMG responses are:\n", "Many health institutions in USA have developed screening questionnaires. Enquiry includes difficulty with walking and balance, medication use to help with sleep/mood, loss of sensation in feet, vision problems, fear of falling, and use of assistive devices for walking.\n\nOlder adults who report falls should be asked about their circumstances and frequency to assess risks from gait and balance which may be compromised. A fall risk assessment is done by a clinician to include history, physical exam, functional capability, and environment.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "External threats to our balance are dealt with by the vestibular system. However, a 2008 experiment showed that the intensity of the after-effect in subjects lacking a vestibular function (labyrinthine defective subjects) was not superior to normal subjects, suggesting that the vestibular system is not responsible for 'braking' the aftereffect. Instead, in the first AFTER trial (when the after-effect is the strongest) an increase in leg EMG activity is observed for all subjects. This increase is generated unconsciously and before foot-sled contact. The 'braking' of the after-effect is therefore an anticipatory process, rather than being triggered by an external threat: the central nervous system anticipates that the after-effect will occur and that it will threaten our balance, and generates mechanisms to deal with the threat. When stepping onto a stationary escalator, anticipatory motor mechanisms prevent us from falling by attenuating the after-effect.\n", "A typical person sways from side to side when the eyes are closed. This is the result of the vestibulospinal reflex working correctly. When an individual sways to the left side, the left lateral vestibulospinal tract is activated to bring the body back to midline. Generally damage to the vestibulospinal system results in ataxia and postural instability. For example, if unilateral damage occurs to the vestibulocochlear nerve, lateral vestibular nucleus, semicircular canals or lateral vestibulospinal tract, the person will likely sway to that side and fall when walking. This occurs because the healthy side \"over powers\" the weak side in a way that will cause the person to veer and fall towards the injured side. Potential early onset of damage can be witnessed through a positive Romberg's test. Patients with bilateral or unilateral vestibular system damage will likely regain postural stability over weeks and months through a process called vestibular compensation. This process is likely related to a greater reliance on other sensory information.\n", "On Earth, our bodies react automatically to gravity, maintaining both posture and locomotion in a downward pulling world. In microgravity environments, these constant signals are absent: the otolith organs in the inner ear are sensitive to linear acceleration and no longer perceive a downwards bias; muscles are no longer required to contract to maintain posture, and pressure receptors in the feet and ankles no longer signal the direction of \"down\". These changes can immediately result in visual-orientation illusions where the astronaut feels as if they have flipped 180 degrees. Over half of astronauts also experience symptoms of motion sickness for the first three days of travel due to the conflict between what the body expects and what the body actually perceives. Over time however the brain adapts and although these illusions can still occur, most astronauts begin to see \"down\" as where the feet are. People returning to Earth after extended weightless periods have to readjust to the force of gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. This is just an initial problem, as they recover these abilities quickly.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Damage.\n\nDue to its role in transforming motor coordinates, the vestibular nerve implicitly plays a role in maintaining stable blood pressure during movement, maintaining balance control, spatial memory and spatial navigation. The most common causes of damage to the vestibular nerve are exposure to ototoxic antibiotics, Ménière's disease, encephalitis and some rare autoimmune disorders. Typically, patients with a damaged nerve suffer from acute attacks of vertigo accompanied by nausea/vomiting, inability to maintain posture and horizontal nystagmus.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Rehabilitation.\n", "There is an increased risk of falls associated with aging. These falls can lead to skeletal damage at the wrist, spine, hip, knee, foot, and ankle. Part of the fall risk is because of impaired eyesight due to many causes, (e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g. Parkinson's disease), dementia, and sarcopenia (age-related loss of skeletal muscle). Collapse (transient loss of postural tone with or without loss of consciousness). Causes of syncope are manifold, but may include cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart beat), vasovagal syncope, orthostatic hypotension (abnormal drop in blood pressure on standing up), and seizures. Removal of obstacles and loose carpets in the living environment may substantially reduce falls. Those with previous falls, as well as those with gait or balance disorders, are most at risk.\n", "Risk factors include participating in a sport or activity that involves running, jumping, bounding, and change of speed. Although Achilles tendinitis is mostly likely to occur in runners, it also is more likely in participants in basketball, volleyball, dancing, gymnastics and other athletic activities. Other risk factors include gender, age, improper stretching, and overuse. Another risk factor is any congenital condition in which an individual’s legs rotate abnormally, which in turn causes the lower extremities to overstretch and contract; this puts stress on the Achilles tendon and will eventually cause Achilles tendinitis.\n", "Dizziness is another common symptom reported in about half of people diagnosed with PCS and is still present in up to a quarter of them a year after the injury. Older people are at especially high risk for dizziness, which can contribute to subsequent injuries and higher rates of mortality due to falls.\n", "When the vestibular system and the visual system deliver incongruous results, nausea often occurs. When the vestibular system reports no movement but the visual system reports movement, the motion disorientation is often called motion sickness (or seasickness, car sickness, simulation sickness, or airsickness). In the opposite case, such as when a person is in a zero-gravity environment or during a virtual reality session, the disoriented sensation is often called space sickness or space adaptation syndrome. Either of these \"sicknesses\" usually ceases once the congruity between the two systems is restored.\n" ]

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[ "Password managers commonly reside on the user's personal computer or mobile device, such as smart phones, in the form of a locally installed software application. These applications can be offline, wherein the password database is stored independently and locally on the same device as the password manager software. Alternatively, password managers may offer or require a cloud-based approach, wherein the password database is dependent on an online file hosting service and stored remotely, but handled by password management software installed on the user's device.\n\nSection::::Web-based services.\n", "Depending on the type of password manager used and on the functionality offered by its developers, the encrypted database is either stored locally on the user's device or stored remotely through an online file-hosting service. Password managers typically require a user to generate and remember one \"master\" password to unlock and access any information stored in their databases.\n\nSection::::Locally installed software.\n", "There are mixed solutions. Some online password management systems distribute their source code. It can be checked and installed separately.\n\nThe use of a web-based password manager is an alternative to single sign-on techniques, such as OpenID or Microsoft's Microsoft account (previously Microsoft Wallet, Microsoft Passport, .NET Passport, Microsoft Passport Network, and Windows Live ID) scheme, or may serve as a stop-gap measure pending adoption of a better method.\n\nSection::::Token-based hardware devices.\n", "As with any system which involves the user entering a password, the master password may also be attacked and discovered using key logging or acoustic cryptanalysis. Some password managers attempt to use virtual keyboards to reduce this risk – though this is still vulnerable to key loggers that take screenshots as data is entered. This risk can be mitigated with the use of a multi-factor verification device.\n\nSome password managers include a password generator. Generated passwords may be guessable if the password manager uses a weak random number generator instead of a cryptographically secure one.\n", "The port for macOS and iOS, \"pwSafe\" (not to be confused with \"pwsafe password database\", a compatible unix commandline program), is compatible with Password Safe files. It uses iCloud or Dropbox to keep password databases synced between iOS devices and computers.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe program was initiated by Bruce Schneier at Counterpane Systems, and is now hosted on SourceForge and developed by a group of volunteers.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "After the claimant authenticates with a password, the verifier makes an out-of-band authentication request to a trusted third party that manages a public-key infrastructure on behalf of the verifier. The trusted third party sends a push notification to the claimant’s mobile phone. The claimant demonstrates possession and control of the authenticator by pressing a button in the user interface, after which the authenticator responds with a digitally signed assertion. The trusted third party verifies the signature on the assertion and returns an authentication response to the verifier.\n", "On May 13, 2014, Lieberman Software Privileged User Management (PUM) capabilities in the Enterprise Random Password Manager™ (ERPM) at Microsoft TechEd 2014 in Houston, TX. \n", "Depending on the software used, password synchronization may be triggered by a password change on any one of the synchronized systems (whether initiated by the user or an administrator) and/or by the user initiating the change centrally through the software, perhaps through a web interface.\n\nSome password synchronization systems may copy password hashes from one system to another, where the hashing algorithm is the same. In general, this is not the case and access to a plaintext password is required.\n\nSection::::Videos.\n\nTwo processes which yields synchronized passwords are shown in the following animations, hosted by software vendor Hitachi ID Systems:\n", "Because IOS needs to know the cleartext password for certain uses, (e.g., CHAP authentication) passwords entered into the CLI by default are weakly encrypted as 'Type 7' ciphertext, such as \"Router(config)#username jdoe password 7 \"0832585B1910010713181F\"\". This is designed to prevent \"shoulder-surfing\" attacks when viewing router configurations and is not secure – they are easily decrypted using software called \"getpass\" available since 1995, or \"ios7crypt\", a modern variant, although the passwords can be decoded by the router using the \"key chain\" command and entering the type 7 password as the key, and then issuing a \"show key\" command; the above example decrypts to \"stupidpass\". However, the program will not decrypt 'Type 5' passwords or passwords set with the enable secret command, which uses salted MD5 hashes.\n", "Section::::Issues.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Vulnerabilities.\n\nIf the passwords are stored in an unencrypted fashion, it is still generally possible to obtain the passwords given local access to the machine.\n\nSome password managers use a user-selected master password or passphrase to form the key used to encrypt the protected passwords. The security of this approach depends on the strength of the chosen password (which might be guessed or brute-forced), and also that the passphrase itself is never stored locally where a malicious program or individual could read it. A compromised master password renders all of the protected passwords vulnerable.\n", "Antivirus software and Internet security programs can protect a programmable device from attack by detecting and eliminating malware; Antivirus software was mainly shareware in the early years of the Internet, but there are now several free security applications on the Internet to choose from for all platforms.\n\nSection::::Internet security products.:Password managers.\n\nA password manager is a software application that helps a user store and organize passwords. Password managers usually store passwords encrypted, requiring the user to create a master password; a single, ideally very strong password which grants the user access to their entire password database from top to bottom.\n", "Password Safe supports importing TXT and CSV files which were exported from KeePass version 1.x (V1). KeePass version 2.x (V2) allows databases to be exported as a KeePass V1 database, which in turn can be imported to Password Safe.\n\nPassword Safe cannot directly import a XML file exported by KeePass V1 or V2, as the fields are too different. However, the Help file provides instructions for processing an exported XML file with one of multiple XSLT files (included with Password Safe) which will produce a Password Safe compatible XML file that can then be imported.\n\nSection::::Features.:File encryption.\n", "Password managers can protect against keyloggers or keystroke logging malware. When using a multi-factor authentication password manager that automatically fills in logon fields, the user does not have to type any user names or passwords for the keylogger to pick up. While a keylogger may pick up the PIN to authenticate into the smart card token, for example, without the smart card itself (something the user has) the PIN does the attacker no good. However, password managers cannot protect against Man-in-the-browser attacks, where malware on the user's device performs operations (e.g. on a banking website) while the user is logged in while hiding the malicious activity from the user.\n", "A strong password manager will include a limited number of false authentication entries allowed before the password manager is locked down and requires IT services to re-activate. This is the best way to protect against the brute-force attack.\n\nPassword managers that do not prevent swapping their memory to hard drive make it possible to extract unencrypted passwords from the computer’s hard drive. Turning off swap can prevent this risk.\n", "A software-based authenticator (sometimes called a software token) may be implemented on a general-purpose electronic device such as a laptop, a tablet computer, or a smartphone. For example, a software-based authenticator implemented as a mobile app on the claimant’s smartphone is a type of phone-based authenticator. To prevent access to the secret, a software-based authenticator may use a processor's trusted execution environment or a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) on the client device.\n", "Section::::Cryptography.:Offline security.\n\nAccess to the database is restricted by a master password or a key file. Both methods may be combined to create a \"composite master key\". If both methods are used, then both must be present to access the password database. KeePass version 2.x introduces a third option—dependency upon the current Windows user.\n", "It then attempts to capture passwords from the iCloud Keychain, using the proof-of-concept Keychaindump, and transmits them back to the server. Keychaindump reads securityd’s memory and searches for the decryption key for the user’s keychain as described in “Keychain Analysis with Mac OS X Memory Forensics” by K. Lee and H. Koo.\n\nSection::::Technical Details.:Gatekeeper Signing Workaround.\n", "An online password manager is a website that securely stores login details. They are a web-based version of more conventional desktop-based password manager.\n", "Data stored in secure private corporate clouds is referred to as “\"rested\".” Data shared between two independent devices is considered to be “\"in motion\".” The distinction represents a significant shift in communication as data is sent and shared from remote locations.\n\nSection::::Modular approach.\n\nPassword banks utilize a modular approach when designing data security systems. Software utilizing modular programming divides mechanisms such as authentication and authorization into separate components, allowing each part to be removed or reconfigured with ease.\n", "How do you confirm trust when abnormal user behavior or suspicious activity is identified? The IBM Trusteer Pinpoint Verify cloud-based authentication service seamlessly integrates \n\nwith Pinpoint Assure and Pinpoint Detect to help companies apply strong step-up authentication when necessary. \n\nApplication developers simply use the exposed interfaces of the service to challenge users to perform a second factor authentication via their digital application. Users can then \n\nchoose to enroll in various forms of two-factor authentication, from one-time passcodes via email, SMS or mobile push notification to biometric authentication. \n", "Passwords stored by this application can be further divided into manageable groups. Each group can have an identifying icon. Groups can be further divided into subgroups in a tree-like organization.\n\nFurther, KeePass tracks the creation time, modification time, last access time, and expiration time of each password stored. Files can be attached and stored with a password record, or text notes can be entered with the password details. Each password record can also have an associated icon.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Import and export.\n", "The author makes several claims regarding the security of the control and its resistance to password revealing utilities; however, the author does not cite or make any references to any third-party testing of the control to corroborate the claims of its security.\n\nPasswords are protected in memory while KeePass is running. On Windows Vista and later versions, passwords are encrypted in process memory using Windows Data Protection API, which allows storing the key for memory protection in a secure, non-swappable memory area. On previous Windows systems, KeePass falls back to using the ARC4 cipher with a temporary, random session key.\n", "Each location features hotspots that activate via a context-sensitive cursor, including switches, items, or paths to a different area. Tasks include fixing the dome's malfunctioning heating, ventilation and drainage systems, while passwords can be discovered by accessing different parts of the complex.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "There are also different ways to make the user aware of the next OTP to use. Some systems use special electronic security tokens that the user carries and that generate OTPs and show them using a small display. Other systems consist of software that runs on the user's mobile phone. Yet other systems generate OTPs on the server-side and send them to the user using an out-of-band channel such as SMS messaging. Finally, in some systems, OTPs are printed on paper that the user is required to carry.\n\nSection::::Methods of generating the OTP.\n\nSection::::Methods of generating the OTP.:Time-synchronized.\n", "On the Windows operating system, service programs execute in the context of either system (very privileged but has no password) or of a user account. When services run as a non-system user, the service control manager must provide a login ID and password to run the service program so service accounts have passwords. On Unix and Linux systems, init and inetd can launch service programs as non-privileged users without knowing their passwords so services do not normally have passwords.\n\nSection::::Privileged password management.:Examples of privileged passwords.:Connections by one application to another.\n" ]

[ "Password managers sync passwords between devices without compromising security." ]

[ "Password managers sync an encrypted file with the passwords while a master password is required to decrypt it in each device." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Password managers sync passwords between devices without compromising security." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Password managers sync an encrypted file with the passwords while a master password is required to decrypt it in each device." ]

[ "However, Child Soldiers International also reported in 2018 that at least 46 states were recruiting personnel below the age of 18. Most of these states were recruiting from age 17, including Australia, China, France, Germany, Saudi Arabia and the United States (US); approximately 20 were recruiting from age 16, including Brazil, Canada, and the United Kingdom (UK).\n", "Section::::In the United States.\n", "While until 2000 the Greek Army was mainly conscript based, since then a large Professional Enslisted institution has been adopted, which combined with the reduction of conscript service will produce an approximate 1:1 ratio between conscript and professional enlisted. While initially training of the two institutions was shared, it has since then diverged, and conscript training has been reduced in length while professional enlisted training has been increased.\n", "Recruitment for officers typically draws on upwardly-mobile young adults from age 18, and recruiters for these roles focus their resources on high-achieving schools and universities. (Canada is an exception, recruiting high-achieving children from age 16 for officer training.)\n\nSection::::Outreach and marketing.\n\nSection::::Outreach and marketing.:Early years.\n", "The hope of escaping socio-economic deprivation is one of the main reasons that young people are attracted to military employment. For example, after the US suspended conscription in 1973, 'the military disproportionately attracted African American men, men from lower-status socioeconomic backgrounds, men who had been in nonacademic high school programs, and men whose high school grades tended to be low'. As an indication of the socio-economic background of British Army personnel, in 2015 three-quarters of its youngest recruits had the literacy skills normally expected of an 11-year-old or younger, and 7% had a reading age of 5–7. The British Army's recruitment drive in 2017 targeted families with an average annual income of £10,000.\n", "Basic training for airmen of the Sri Lanka Air Force is handled by the Training Wing of the SLAF Diyatalawa. This is followed by secularized training at \" Advanced & Specialized Trade Training School\".\n\nSection::::Sweden.\n\nSince conscription ended in 2010 (reintroduced in 2017), all recruits who seek employment within the Swedish Armed Forces have to go through \"Grundläggande Militär Utbildning\" (GMU) (Basic Military Training) for three months.\n\nAfter a recruit has completed GMU, he/she may continue with further, specialized training with any of the branches of the military, as long as the candidate fits the requirements.\n", "Young men from poorer circumstances sometimes simply avoid showing up for the draft and attempt to function without a military ID card. Besides facing limited employment prospects, these men are vulnerable to being forced into service through periodic army sweeps of poor neighborhoods.\n\nSection::::By country.:Eritrea.\n\nEritrea instituted a military draft in 1995. Three years later, it became open-ended; everyone under 50 [sic] can be enlisted for an indefinite period of time According to \"The Economist\", \"release can depend on the arbitrary whim of a commander, and usually takes years\".\n", "The process of attracting children and young people to military employment begins in their early years. In Germany, Israel, Poland, the UK, the US, and elsewhere, the armed forces visit schools frequently, including primary schools, to encourage children to enlist once they become old enough to do so. For example, a poster used by the German armed forces in schools reads: \"After school you have the world at your feet, make it safer.\" [\"Nach der Schule liegt dir die Welt zu Füßen, mach sie sicherer.\"] In the US, recruiters have right of access to all schools and to the contact details of students, and are encouraged to embed themselves into the school community. A former head of recruitment for the British Army, Colonel (latterly Brigadier) David Allfrey, explained the British approach in 2007:\"Our new model is about raising awareness, and that takes a ten-year span. It starts with a seven-year-old boy seeing a parachutist at an air show and thinking, 'That looks great.' From then the army is trying to build interest by drip, drip, drip.\"\n", "Depending on whether the application criteria are met, and depending also on which military units have vacancies for new recruits, candidates may or may not be offered a job in a certain role or roles. Candidates who accept a job offer then wait for their recruit training to begin. Either at or before the start of their training, candidates swear an oath of allegiance and/or sign their joining papers.\n", "Personnel may be recruited or conscripted, depending on the system chosen by the state. Most military personnel are males; the minority proportion of female personnel varies internationally (approximately 3% in India, 10% in the UK, 13% in Sweden, 16% in the US, and 27% in South Africa). While two-thirds of states now recruit or conscript only adults, as of 2017 50 states still relied partly on children under the age of 18 (usually aged 16 or 17) to staff their armed forces.\n", "List of militaries that recruit foreigners\n\nThis is a List of militaries that recruit foreign applicants. This includes any individuals who are aliens of the state whose armed forces they are being recruited to join by professional recruiters. The foreigners need not be legal residents of that nation, but may gain legal residence status by joining the armed forces.\n\nSection::::A.\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Defence Force - The ADF routinely recruits New Zealand citizens who are Permanent Residents to serve in the military.\n", "NSFs will serve the remaining part of their NS in their respective units until their Operationally-Ready Date (ORD), whereupon they will be known as Operationally-Ready National Serviceman (NSmen, or reservists). NSmen may still be required to attend reservist training or In-Camp Training (ICT) for ten annual cycles.\n\nSection::::Sri Lanka.\n\nIn Sri Lanka, officer training is carried out at the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University and at the respective Military Academies of each respective service.\n", "Section::::Outreach and marketing.:Popular culture.\n\nRecruiters use action films and videogames to promote military employment. Scenes from Hollywood blockbusters (including \"Behind Enemy Lines\" and \"\") have been spliced into military advertising in the US, for example. In the US and elsewhere, the armed forces commission bespoke videogames to present military life to children.\n\nSection::::Outreach and marketing.:Military schools and youth organisations.\n", "Military recruitment\n\nMilitary recruitment refers to the activity of attracting people to, and selecting them for, military training and employment.\n\nSection::::Demographics.\n\nSection::::Demographics.:Gender.\n\nAcross the world, the large majority of recruits to state armed forces and non-state armed groups are male. The proportion of female personnel varies internationally; for example, it is approximately 3% in India, 10% in the UK, 13% in Sweden, 16% in the US, and 27% in South Africa.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe national service program, first proposed in late 2002, came to committee the following year, and was finally implemented in 2004. Initial proposals envisaged drafting all youths of a certain age, but later lack of resources led to restricting the numbers of the intake. The program, planned around a two-year program, was later reduced to a year, then to six months, and then to its three-month length.\n", "U.S. Army recruiters generally are DA selected for three-year assignments. These \"detailed\" recruiters return to their primary military occupational specialty after obligation as recruiters. Center Leaders and reserve recruiters are all career recruiters who stay within USAREC for the duration of their careers.\n\nGeneral Paul Gorman's (USA, ret.) in his institutional history of the U.S. Army, \"The Secret of Future Victories\", credits George C. Marshall as the architect of the modern version of the current system for personnel allocation.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::India.\n\nThe Indian military services have established numerous and distinguished academies and staff colleges across India for the purpose of training professional soldiers in new generation military sciences, warfare command and strategy, and associated technologies.\n\nSection::::Israel.\n", "BULLET::::- General Eric K. Shinseki, then Chief of Staff of the United States Army, testified that \"Our indications are about 30 percent of those youngsters—we don't recruit them, as you know. We are not permitted to do that. But by virtue of the things that they like about that experience, about 30 percent of them end up joining the Army, either enlisting or going on to ROTC and then joining the officer population.\"\n", "Conscripted enlisted, serving a 9-month obligation, are called 6 times per year. They report to various recruit camps spread over the country. The first week is the reception week, followed by a 3-week basic soldier training course, which ends with the oathing ceremony. Depending on their awarded specialty the conscript recruits are then transferred to specialty training camps or to operational units. In the operational units the recruits go through a 3-week 'advanced' recruit training course, followed occasionally (depending on whether they have already received specialty training or not), by a 2 to 6 week specialty training course, conducted by the unit.\n", "The \"Richmond Times-Dispatch\" wrote, \"The use of contractors in psyops is a new wrinkle. But psychological warfare expert Herb Friedman said he is not surprised. ... With only one active-duty and two reserve psyops units remaining, Friedman said, 'The bottom line is, they don't have the manpower.'\"\n", "National Service (NS) in Singapore is compulsory for all able-bodied male citizens and second generation permanent residents who have reached the age of 18. Conscripts enlisted into the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) are required to attend Basic Military Training (BMT) at the beginning of their NS. They are known as Full Time National Servicemen (NSFs).\n", "BULLET::::- Evidence from Germany, Israel, the UK, the US and elsewhere that recruiting practices sanitise war, glorify the role of military personnel, and obscure the risks and obligations of military employment, thereby misleading potential recruits, particularly adolescents from socio-economically deprived backgrounds.\n\nBULLET::::- Evidence from Germany, the UK, the US and elsewhere that recruiters target, and capitalise on the precarious position of, socio-economically deprived young people as potential recruits, in a phenomenon sometimes called the poverty draft.\n", "Recruits enter a binding contract of service, which for full-time personnel typically requires a minimum period of service of several years, with the exception of a short discharge window, near the beginning of their service, allowing them to leave the armed force as of right. Part-time military employment, known as reserve service, allows a recruit to maintain a civilian job while training under military discipline for a minimum number of days per year. After leaving the armed forces, for a fixed period (between four and six years is normal in the UK and US, for example), former recruits may remain liable for compulsory return to full-time military employment in order to train or deploy on operations.\n", "On December 19, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that he was considering sending more troops to Iraq. The next day, the Selective Service System's director for operations and chief information officer, Scott Campbell, announced plans for a \"readiness exercise\" to test the system's operations in 2006, for the first time since 1998.\n", "Section::::From National Service to all-professional army.:Present day.\n\nThe Army mainly recruits within the United Kingdom, and normally has a recruitment target of around 25,000 soldiers per year. Low unemployment in Britain has resulted in the Army having difficulty in meeting its target, and in the early years of the 21st century there has been a marked increase in the number of recruits from mostly Commonwealth countries.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Zero to the power of zero\n\nZero to the power of zero, denoted by 0, is a mathematical expression with no agreed-upon value. The most common possibilities are 1 or leaving the expression undefined, with justifications existing for each, depending on context.\n\nIn algebra, combinatorics, or set theory, the generally agreed upon value is , whereas in mathematical analysis, the expression is generally left undefined. Computer programs also have differing ways of handling this expression.\n\nSection::::Discrete exponents.\n", "The C and C++ standards do not specify the result of 0 (a domain error may occur), but as of C99, if the normative annex F is supported, the result is required to be 1 because there are significant applications for which this value is more useful than NaN (for instance, with discrete exponents). The Java standard and the .NET Framework method codice_1 also treat 0 as 1. Some languages document that their exponentiation operation corresponds to the codice_2 function from the C mathematical library; this is the case of Lua and Perl's codice_3 operator (where it is explicitly mentioned that the result of codice_4 is platform-dependent).\n", "Undefined value\n\nIn computing (particularly, in programming), undefined value is a condition where an expression does not have a correct value, although it is syntactically correct. An undefined value must not be confused with empty string, boolean \"false\" or other \"empty\" (but defined) values. Depending on circumstances, evaluation to an undefined value may lead to exception or undefined behaviour, but in some programming languages undefined values can occur during a normal, predictable course of program execution.\n", "In the complex domain, the function may be defined for nonzero by choosing a branch of and defining as . This does not define since there is no branch of defined at , let alone in a neighborhood of .\n\nSection::::History of differing points of view.\n", "Dynamically typed languages usually treat undefined values explicitly when possible. For instance, Perl has codice_1 operator which can \"assign\" such value to a variable. In other type systems an undefined value can mean an unknown, unpredictable value, or merely a program failure on attempt of its evaluation. Nullable types offer an intermediate approach; see below.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThe value of a partial function is undefined when its argument is out of its domain of definition. This include numerous arithmetical cases such as division by zero, square root or logarithm of a negative number etc.; see NaN.\n", "Undefined variable\n\nAn undefined variable in the source code of a computer program is a variable that is accessed in the code but has not been previously declared by that code.\n\nIn some programming languages, an implicit declaration is provided the first time such a variable is encountered at compile time. In other languages such a usage is considered to be sufficiently serious that a diagnostic being issued and the compilation fails.\n\nSome language definitions initially used the implicit declaration behavior and as they matured provided an option to disable it (e.g. Perl's \"codice_1\" or Visual Basic's \"codice_2\").\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Mathematicians have different opinions as to whether 0 should be defined to equal 1, or be left undefined; see Zero to the power of zero for details.\n\nSection::::Values for which functions are undefined.\n\nThe set of numbers for which a function is defined is called the \"domain\" of the function. If a number is not in the domain of a function, the function is said to be \"undefined\" for that number. Two common examples are formula_4, which is undefined for formula_5, and formula_6, which is undefined (in the real number system) for negative formula_7.\n\nSection::::In trigonometry.\n", "A variable which is not initialized has undefined (or unpredictable) value until it is assigned.\n\nDereferences of null pointers lead to undefined values and usually raise an exception immediately.\n\nAny expression of the bottom type is undefined by definition, because that type has no values.\n\nThe value of a function which loops forever (for example, in the case of failed μ operator in a partial recursive function) may be seen as undefined too, but is of only theoretical interest because such a function \"never returns\".\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In the C community, undefined behavior may be humorously referred to as \"nasal demons\", after a comp.std.c post that explained undefined behavior as allowing the compiler to do anything it chooses, even \"to make demons fly out of your nose\". Under some circumstances there can be specific restrictions on undefined behavior. For example, the instruction set specifications of a CPU might leave the behavior of some forms of an instruction undefined, but if the CPU supports memory protection then the specification will probably include a blanket rule stating that no user-accessible instruction may cause a hole in the operating system's security; so an actual CPU would be permitted to corrupt user registers in response to such an instruction, but would not be allowed to, for example, switch into supervisor mode.\n", "Section::::Treatment on computers.:IEEE floating-point standard.\n\nThe IEEE 754-2008 floating-point standard is used in the design of most floating-point libraries. It recommends a number of operations for computing a power: \n\nBULLET::::- pow treats 0 as 1. If the power is an exact integer the result is the same as for pown, otherwise the result is as for powr (except for some exceptional cases).\n\nBULLET::::- pown treats 0 as 1. The power must be an exact integer. The value is defined for negative bases; e.g., pown(−3,5) is −243.\n", "Section::::Treatment on computers.:Mathematical and scientific software.\n\nBULLET::::- SageMath simplifies \"b\" to 1, even if no constraints are placed on \"b\". It takes 0 to be 1, but does not simplify 0 for other \"x\".\n", "In such statically typed languages as C(C++) there is no specific notion of a value undefined at runtime. Arithmetically undefined expressions invoke exceptions and crash the program, if uncaught. Undefined (means, \"unpredictable\") data in C and similar languages may appear in poorly designed programs or as a result of an unexpected fault, and represent a severe danger, particularly pointers to deallocated memory and null pointers to arrays or structures. Even an attempt to read a value, which a garbage pointer refers to, can crash a program.\n\nSection::::Undefined value and nullable types.\n", "The symbol for the standby button was created by superimposing the symbols \"|\" and \"o\"; however, it is commonly interpreted as the numerals \"0\" and \"1\". Yet the IEC holds these symbols as a graphical representation of a line and a circle.\n\nSection::::Standby symbol ambiguity.\n", "The behavior of some programming languages—most famously C and C++—is undefined in some cases. In the standards for these languages the semantics of certain operations is described as \"undefined\". These cases typically represent unambiguous bugs in the code, for example indexing an array outside of its bounds. An implementation is allowed to assume that such operations never occur in correct standard-conforming program code. In the case of C/C++, the compiler is allowed to give a compile-time diagnostic in these cases, but is not required to: the implementation will be considered correct whatever it does in such cases, analogous to don't-care terms in digital logic. It is the responsibility of the programmer to write code that never invokes undefined behavior, although compiler implementations are allowed to issue diagnostics when this happens. This assumption can make various program transformations valid or simplify their proof of correctness, giving flexibility to the implementation. As a result, the compiler can often make more optimizations. It also allows more compile-time checks by both compilers and static program analysis. \n", "Even some mathematically well-defined expressions like exp(100000) may be undefined in floating point arithmetic because the result is so large that it cannot be represented. If an implementation supports ±∞, then this value may be computed as +∞ (inf), however.\n\nAn element of an array is undefined when its index is out of bounds, as is the value in an associative array for a key which it does not contain.\n\nAn argument of a variadic function which was not passed to it, is undefined within the function body.\n", "In Perl language, definedness of an expression can be checked via predicate codice_2\"expr\"codice_3. The use of undefined value in Perl is quite safe, it is equivalent to false in logical context (under if etc.). \n", "The problem is particularly acute for the exponentiation function The expressions 0, ∞ and 1 are considered indeterminate forms when they occur as limits (just like ∞ × 0), and the question of whether zero to the zero power should be defined as 1 has divided opinion.\n", "BULLET::::- PARI/GP also distinguishes between integer and floating-point types: When the exponent 0 is of integer type, the expression, such as 0^0 or 0.^0, is simplified to 1. When the exponent is not of integer type, PARI/GP treats \"x\"^\"n\" as the transcendental function formula_39, so that 0^0. yields a domain error.\n\nBULLET::::- Matlab, Python, Magma, GAP, singular, and GNU Octave evaluate 0 as 1.\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Excel treats =0^0 as #NUM!.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- sci.math FAQ: What is 0?\n\nBULLET::::- What does 0^0 (zero to the zeroth power) equal? on AskAMathematician.com\n", "BULLET::::- As a special case of the latter, some arithmetic operations may not assign a meaning to certain values of its operands, such as happens with division by zero. In such a case an expression involving such an operation is called \"undefined\".\n\nSection::::Undefined terms.\n\nIn ancient times, geometers attempted to define every term. For example, Euclid defined a point as \"that which has no part\". In modern times, mathematicians recognize that attempting to define every word inevitably leads to circular definitions, and therefore leave some terms, \"point\" for example, undefined (see primitive notion).\n", "BULLET::::- powr treats 0 as NaN (Not-a-Number – undefined). The value is also NaN for cases like powr(−3,2) where the base is less than zero. The value is defined by \"e\".\n\nThe pow variant is inspired by the pow function from C99, mainly for compatibility. It is useful mostly for languages with a single power function. The pown and powr variants have been introduced due to conflicting usage of the power functions and the different points of view (as stated above).\n\nSection::::Treatment on computers.:Programming languages.\n", "Zero to the power of zero gives a number of examples of limits that are of the indeterminate form 0. The limits in these examples exist, but have different values, showing that the two-variable function has no limit at the point . One may consider at what points this function does have a limit.\n", "There are many widely used formulas having terms involving natural-number exponents that require to be evaluated to . For example, regarding as an empty product assigns it the value , even when . Alternatively, the combinatorial interpretation of is the number of empty tuples of elements from a set with elements; there is exactly one empty tuple, even if . Equivalently, the set-theoretic interpretation of is the number of functions from the empty set to the empty set; there is exactly one such function, the empty function.\n\nSection::::Polynomials and power series.\n", "Here are some examples of declarations that are definitions, again in C:\n\nSection::::Undefined variables.\n\nIn some programming languages, an implicit declaration is provided the first time such a variable is encountered at compile time. In other languages, such a usage is considered to be an error, which may resulting in a diagnostic message. Some languages have started out with the implicit declaration behavior, but as they matured they provided an option to disable it (e.g. Perl's \"codice_1\" or Visual Basic's \"codice_2\").\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Function prototype\n\nBULLET::::- Scope (programming)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "This more abstract approach allows for fruitful generalizations. In topology, a topological space may be defined as a set of points endowed with certain properties, but in the general setting the nature of these \"points\" is left entirely undefined. Likewise, in category theory a category consists of \"objects\" and \"arrows\"; again, these are primitive, undefined terms. This allows such abstract mathematical theories to be applied to very diverse concrete situations.\n\nSection::::In arithmetic.\n\nThe expression 0/0 is undefined in arithmetic, as explained in division by zero (the expression is used in calculus to represent an indeterminate form).\n", "In C the use of any automatic variable before it has been initialized yields undefined behavior, as does integer division by zero, signed integer overflow, indexing an array outside of its defined bounds (see buffer overflow), or null pointer dereferencing. In general, any instance of undefined behavior leaves the abstract execution machine in an unknown state, and causes the behavior of the entire program to be undefined. \n\nAttempting to modify a string literal causes undefined behavior:ISO/IEC (2003). \"ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++ §2.13.4 String literals [lex.string]\" para. 2/ref\n" ]

[ "0 to the power of 0 is undefined." ]

[ "Many mathematicians define 0 to the power of 0 as 1." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "0 to the power of 0 is undefined." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Many mathematicians define 0 to the power of 0 as 1." ]

[ "The ancient Greeks believed that small penises were ideal. Scholars believe that most ancient Greeks probably had roughly the same size penises as most other Europeans, but Greek artistic portrayals of handsome youths show them with inordinately small, uncircumcised penises with disproportionately large foreskins, indicating that these were seen as ideal. Large penises in Greek art are reserved exclusively for comically grotesque figures, such as satyrs, a class of hideous, horse-like woodland spirits, who are shown in Greek art with absurdly massive penises. Actors portraying male characters in ancient Greek comedy wore enormous, fake, red penises, which dangled underneath their costumes; these were intended as ridiculous and were meant to be laughed at.\n", "The obelisk shows male forms in two separate registers. The lower figure is a nude male who kneels with a pestle and mortar, which could suggest equally craftsmen or food preparation. He has parallels on the Warka Vase, where likewise nude males carry baskets of food for religious purposes. \n", "Fertility was present in art traditionally in many different forms. These include ceramic figures from some Pre-Columbian cultures, and a few figures from most of the ancient Mediterranean cultures. Many of these seem to be connected with fertility. Palielothic statuettes had round bellies, short heads and short, pointed legs. They also exaggerate the hips, breasts, thighs, or vulva of the subject.\n", "Section::::Phalluses.\n\nThe phallus (the erect penis), whether on Pan, Priapus or a similar deity, or on its own, was a common image. It was not seen as threatening or even necessarily erotic, but as a ward against the evil eye. The phallus was sculpted in bronze as \"tintinnabula\" (wind chimes). Phallus-animals were common household items. Note the child on one of the wind chimes.\n\nSection::::Priapus.\n", "Nonetheless, there are indications that the Greeks had an open mind about large penises. A statue of the god Hermes with an exaggerated penis stood outside the main gate of Athens and in Alexandria in 275 BC, a procession in honor of Dionysus hauled a 180-foot phallus through the city and people venerated it by singing hymns and reciting poems. The Romans, in contrast to the Greeks, seem to have admired large penises and large numbers of large phalli have been recovered from the ruins of Pompeii. Depictions of Priapus were very popular in Roman erotic art and literature. Over eighty obscene poems dedicated to him have survived.\n", "The Greeks regularly built a shrine which they called \"Herm\" at the entrance of major public buildings, homes and along roads to honor Hermes, messenger of the gods. The shrines typically \"took the form of a vertical pillar topped by the bearded head of a man and from the surface of the pillar below the head, an erect phallus protruded\". It is believed that they sought their inspiration from the ancient Egyptians and their phallic image of Min, the valley god, who was similarly \"depicted as a standing bearded king with simplified body, one arm raised, the other hand holding his erect phallus.\"\n", "Perceptions of penis size are culture-specific. Some prehistoric sculptures and petroglyphs depict male figures with exaggerated erect penises. Ancient Egyptian cultural and artistic conventions generally prevented large penises from being shown in art, as they were considered obscene, but the scruffy, balding male figures in the Turin Erotic Papyrus are shown with exaggeratedly large genitals. The Egyptian god Geb is sometimes shown with a massive erect penis and the god Min is almost always shown with an erection.\n\nSection::::Historical perceptions.:Antiquity.\n", "The models or statuettes of \"bigae\" were art objects, toys, or collector's items. They are perhaps comparable to the modern hobby of model trains.\n\nSection::::Mythological and ceremonial use.\n", "Life-size human sculpture in hard stone began in Greece in the archaic period. This was inspired in part by ancient Egyptian stone sculpture: the proportions of the New York Kouros exactly correspond to Egyptian rules about the proportion of human figures. In Greece, these sculptures best survive as religious dedications and grave markers, but the same techniques would have also been used to make cult images.\n", "BULLET::::- as sacred symbols, nuraghe models could have been seen as guardians for the dead of a necropolis and/or as ritual devices, given their presence as altars in all the great Nuragic sanctuaries. This sacred/political ambivalence, the depiction of nuraghes in everyday objects such as buttons, smoothing tools and others, attest through the so-called models, a real cult of the Nuraghe monument.\n", "Grave monuments of this kind were regularly set up along streets of graves at the edges of Greek cities. The figures appear blocky. At the time of its creation, the relief was deeper and the figural depictions distinct from the background. The grave relief is an early example of this new type of depiction. The figures retain a strong, plastic liveliness.\n", "BULLET::::- An unfinished statue of a young naked man with wreath\n\nBULLET::::- A gargoyle head representing the Greek cook-slave\n\nBULLET::::- A frieze of a naked man, possibly the god Hermes, wearing a chlamys\n\nBULLET::::- A hermaic sculpture of an old man thought to be a master of the gymnasium, where it was found. He used to hold a long stick in his left hand, symbol of his function.\n", "Section::::Pediment.\n", "An intermediate stage of this process could be represented by the appearance of hammered relief sculptures during the Middle Bronze Age – in both Sardinia and Corsica: in the former country, baetyls were engraved with male or female sexual characters in relief, while in the latter – perhaps due to the greater presence of metal implements – relief sculpture was applied for the first time to menhirs. In both islands, anthropomorphic statuary in the strict sense of the word would not exist between 1600 and 1250 BC, but sexual characters and weapons were represented in Sardinia and Corsica respectively. In a successive evolution stage, the relief technique was employed in Sardinia – for the first time after Eneolithic sculptures – to represent a human face, as shown in the famous baetyl of \"San Pietro di Golgo\" (Baunei).\n", "The \"coraplasters\", or sculptors of the models that provided the molds, delighted in revealing the body under the folds of a \"himation\" thrown round the shoulders like a cloak and covering the head, over a \"chiton\", and the movements of such drapery in action.\n\nSection::::Discovery and excavation.\n", "Other works from that series are aluminium sculptures of a semi-insects semi aliens that prosper in a \"post-human environment\". Regarding these sculptures Levy said that he had \"created a breed of large insects, with all sorts of skills, a race more resistant and adapting than human beings. After the human extinction they are the ones to be restoring the world, and therefore their genitals are emphasized, as reproduction is grave.\"\n", "Still in the time-frame of the Prenuragic age, but in this case during the Eneolithic period, there is a remarkable production of \"Laconi-type\" statue-menhirs or statue-stelae, assigned to the Abealzu-Filigosa culture and characterized by a uniform tripartite scheme encompassing, from top to bottom: a stylized T-shaped human face; the depiction of the enigmatic \"capovolto\" (the capsized) in the kind of \"trident capovolto\"; and a double-headed dagger in relief.\n", "Two of the earliest known possible depictions of fertility in art are the \"Venus of Willendorf\" (c. 25,000 BCE), an oolitic limestone figurine of a woman whose breasts and hips have been exaggerated to emphasise her fertility found in Austria and the \"Fertility Goddess\" of Cernavoda (c. 5,000 BCE) found in Romania, a small figurine that is meant to possibly show fertility. Historians consider these figurines to be goddesses. It is believed that worshippers would push the pointed legs into the earth to erect a temporary shrine for the goddess. The rotundity and obesity of these figurines were seen as attractive in early times when food was scarce.\n", "Since Winckelmann this word has traditionally been translated as \"famous\". This celebrity explains the large number of examples of this type, one of the most popular in the Mediterranean - just under 115 have been found, including 15 from Rome, 4 from North Africa, 8 from Greece, two from Spain and one from Gaul. According to H.S. Jones, there is no documented motive for the creation of this statue type but infers that the motive was most likely purely artistic.\n", "BULLET::::- Paper read May, 1986, 21st Int. Congress on Medieval Studies, Kalamazoo, MI., \"More Modest than Thou: Complexities of Decorum in Christian Funerary Sculpture\"\n", "The site was excavated in 1966 by Editta Castaldi. Among the artifacts recovered were pans, bowls and plates with comb decoration, as well as vases with bent necks, and vase fragments of the early Nuragic Bonnanaro culture, suggesting the monument was constructed early in the Nuragic period \"c.\" 1800–1600 BC.\n", "There stand two statues of naked men in the Anaktoron of the Samothracians, with both hands stretched up toward heaven and their pudenda turned up, just as the statue of Hermes at Kyllene. The aforesaid statues are images of the primal man and of the regenerated, spiritual man who is in every respect consubstantial with that man.\n", "Roman baths were another site for sculpture; among the well-known pieces recovered from the Baths of Caracalla are the \"Farnese Bull\" and \"Farnese Hercules\" and over life-size early 3rd century patriotic figures somewhat reminiscent of Soviet Social Realist works (now in the Museo di Capodimonte, Naples).\n\nFound in the Gardens of Sallust\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Monumental sculpture\n\nIn contemporary art, monumental sculpture is large sculpture regardless of purpose, carrying a sense of permanent, solid, objects, rather than the temporary or fragile assemblages used in much contemporary sculpture. In ancient and medieval sculpture, size is normally taken as the criterion for definition, although smaller architectural sculptures may also be labelled monumental sculpture. In the Early Modern period a specific funerary function may be attributed to monumental sculpture.\n", "Section::::Minoan and Mycenaean.:Utensils.\n" ]

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[ "Table 3: Gum Base Ingredients Approved for Use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2016)\n\nSection::::Manufacturing process.\n", "Ford Gum\n\nFord Gum is a brand of bubble gum and chewing gum often found in gum machines. It is produced by Ford Gum & Machine Co. The history of the company goes back to 1913, when Ford Mason leased 102 machines and placed them in stores and shops in New York City. The gumballs, while they are covered with different flavors, all have the same flavor under the surface.\n\nFord Gum is also available in a square \"chiclet\" shape, with the same colors/flavors as the gumballs.\n", "Gum bases with higher molecular weights are typically used in gums intended to meet bubble-forming expectations. Higher molecular weight gum bases include longer polymers that are able to stretch further, and thus are able to form larger bubbles that retain their shape for a longer time.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Flavor release.\n", "Section::::Ingredient composition.\n\nGum base composition is considered proprietary information known by select individuals within each gum-manufacturing company. Information about the other components of chewing gum are more accessible to the public and they are listed in Table 2.\n\nTable 2: Common Ingredients in the Formulation of Modern Chewing Gum\n\nSection::::Ingredient composition.:Gum base.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing process.:Product varieties.\n\nChewing gum can come in a variety of formats ranging from 1.4 to 6.9 grams per piece, and products can be differentiated by the consumers’ intent to form bubbles or the sugar/sugarless dichotomy.\n", "Gum base is made of polymers, plasticizers, and resins. Polymers, including elastomers, are responsible for the stretchy and sticky nature of chewing gum. Plasticizers improve flexibility and reduce brittleness, contributing to the plastic and elastic nature of gum. The interactions of plasticizers within gum base are governed by solubility parameters, molecular weight, and chemical structure. Resins compose the hydrophobic portion of the gum base, responsible for its chewiness. Although the exact ingredients and proportions used in each brand's gum base are trade secrets within the gum industry, Table 3 lists all of the natural and synthetic gum base components approved for use in the United States, demonstrating some examples of key gum base components.\n", "Studies have shown that gum flavor is perceived better in the presence of sweetener. Companies have started to create chemical systems in gum so that the sweetener and flavor release together in a controlled manner during chewing.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Cooling sensation.\n", "Chewing gum typically comes in three formats: tablets, coated pellets, and sticks/ slabs. Bubble gum typically come in three formats as well: tablets, hollow balls, and cubes or chunks. Stick, slab, and tab gums typically come in packs of about five to 17 sticks or more, and their medium size allows for softer texture. Pellet gums, or \"dragée\" gums, are pillow shaped pieces that are almost always coated. Packaging of pellet gums can vary from boxes to bottles to blister packs. The coating of pellet gum allows for the opportunity for multiple flavor sensations, since coating is done in a layering process and different flavor attributes can be added to various layers. Cube or chunk gums, which are typically intended for bubble blowing, are called cut and wrap gums as they are typically severed from continuous strands of extruded gum and packaged directly.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing process.:Quality and safety.\n", "Flavor delivery is extended throughout the mastication process by timed release of different flavor components due to the physical-chemical properties of many of chewing gum's ingredients. Entropy is a key player in the process of flavor delivery; because some gum components are more soluble in saliva than gum base and because over time flavor components desire to increase their entropy by becoming dispersed in the less ordered system of the mouth than in the more ordered system of the gum bolus, flavor delivery occurs. During the first three to four minutes of the chew, bulking agents such as sugar or sorbitol and maltitol have the highest solubility and, therefore, are chewed out first. As these components dissolve in the consumers’ saliva and slide down the esophagus, they are no longer retained in the gum base or perceived by the chewer. During the next phase of the chew in the four to six minute range, intense sweeteners and some acids are dissolved and chewed out. These components last slightly longer than the bulking agents because they have a slightly lower solubility. Next, encapsulated flavors are released during either 10-15 minute into the chew or after 30–45 minutes. Encapsulated flavors remain incorporated in the gum base longer because the molecules that they are encapsulated in are more easily held within the gum matrix. Finally, during the last phase of the chew, softeners such as corn syrup and glycerin and other textural modifiers are dissolved, resulting in a firming up of the gum and the end of the chew.\n", "Rev7 Gum\n\nRev7 Gum is a chewing gum, which after chewing is to some extent removable and biodegradable. The idea behind the gum's composition was developed by Professor Terence Cosgrove at the University of Bristol and it was developed by the British company Revolymer. \n\nRev7 is designed to be a low adhesive gum that, unlike conventional gum, can be easily removed from a variety of surfaces, and which degrades and disperses over a short time-scale when in contact with water.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "In modern chewing gum, if natural rubber such as chicle is used, it must pass several purity and cleanliness tests. However, most modern types of chewing gum use synthetic gum based materials. These materials allow for longer lasting flavor, a better texture, and a reduction in tackiness.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The polymers that make up the main component of chewing gum base are hydrophobic. This property is essential because it allows for retention of physical properties throughout the mastication process. Because the polymers of gum repel water, the water-based saliva system in a consumer's mouth will dissolve the sugars and flavorings in chewing gum, but not the gum base itself. This allows for gum to be chewed for a long period of time without breaking down in the mouth like conventional foods. Chewing gum can be classified as a product containing a liquid phase and a crystalline phase, providing gum with its characteristic balance of plastic and elastic properties.\n", "Section::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Bubble-blowing capability.\n", "Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and at Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company are studying the possibility of making gum base with biodegradable zein (corn protein).\n\nLarge chewing gum manufacturers generally produce their own gum base in-house while small chewing gum producers usually buy gum base from third-party suppliers.\n\nSection::::Composition and manufacture.\n\nAnother way to categorize the various components of gum bases is by their utility in the base.\n", "Chewing gum is rather shelf stable because of its non-reactive nature and low moisture content. The water activity of chewing gum ranges from 0.40 to 0.65. The moisture content of chewing gum ranges from three to six percent. In fact, chewing gum retains its quality for so long that, in most countries, it is not required by law to be labeled with an expiration date. If chewing gum remains in a stable environment, over time the gum may become brittle or lose some of its flavor, but it will never be unsafe to eat. If chewing gum is exposed to moisture, over time water migration may occur, making the gum soggy. In lollipops with a gum center, water migration can lead to the end of the product's shelf life, causing the exterior hard candy shell to soften and the interior gum center to harden.\n", "Section::::Physical and chemical characteristics.\n\nThe physical and chemical properties of chewing gum impact all aspects of this product, from manufacturing to sensory perception during mastication.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Chewiness.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Attached gum.\n", "Section::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Stickiness.\n", "\"Does Your Chewing Gum...\" has been a popular song on the Dr. Demento Show, appearing 54 times between the show's premiere and 2006 and selected for the \"Dr. Demento 20th Anniversary Collection\" double CD.\n\nIn Ken Kesey's novel \"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest\", the character Randle Patrick McMurphy also sings a few lines of this song when he realizes the Chief is storing used gum under his bed.\n", "Gum should not be used less than 15 minutes after eating or drinking as doing so will reduce absorption. Users are directed to chew the gum until it softens and produces a tingling sensation or \"peppery\" taste. The gum is then \"parked,\" or tucked, in between the cheek and gums. When the tingling ends the gum is chewed again until it returns, and is then re-parked in a new location. These steps are repeated until the gum is depleted of nicotine (about 30 minutes) or the craving dissipates. Dosage suggested by the Dental-professional.com website is: weeks 1-6: 1 piece every 1 to 2 hours; weeks 7-9: 1 piece every 2 to 4 hours; weeks 10-12: 1 piece every 4–8 hours; no more than 24 pieces per day. Do not use for longer than 12 weeks. Pregnant women should neither smoke nor use NRT. Light smokers should use the 2 mg and heavy smokers the 4 mg; size of gum is the same for both doses.\n", "\"Stimorol\" is its primary brand of gum, which came onto the market in 1956. It was initially sold only in Scandinavia, but later became available in other countries throughout Europe, beginning with the Netherlands in 1959. In 1978, the company introduced a sugar-free gum, and by the 1990s it had various fruit and mint flavors. \n", "Gum\n\nGum may refer to:\n\nSection::::Substances.\n\nBULLET::::- Adhesive\n\nBULLET::::- Bubble gum\n\nBULLET::::- Chewing gum\n\nBULLET::::- Gum (botany), a sap or other resinous material associated with certain species of the plant kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Gum arabic, made from the sap of species Acacia senegal of the acacia tree\n\nBULLET::::- Gum base\n\nBULLET::::- Gum copal, a resin produced from the sap of the forest tree \"Daniella\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gum ghatti, made from the sap of \"Anogeissus latifolia\" tree\n\nBULLET::::- Gum guaicum, a substance produced from the tree species \"Guaiacum officinale\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gum guar, made from the seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Guar, an annual legume\n", "Gum base\n\nGum base is the non-nutritive, non-digestible, water-insoluble masticatory delivery system used to carry sweeteners, flavors, and any other substances in chewing gum and bubble gum. It provides all the basic textural and masticatory properties of gum.\n\nThe actual composition of gum base is usually a trade secret. The FDA allows 46 different chemicals under the umbrella of \"gum base.\" The chemicals are posted on their website. These chemicals are grouped into the following categories.\n", "BULLET::::- Uber Bubble 2.0\n\nBULLET::::- Whitemint\n\nBULLET::::- Winterblue 2.0\n\nBULLET::::- Fearless Fruit\n\nBULLET::::- Stride IQ\n\nSection::::Current flavors.:Stride 2.0.\n\nA new line of Stride, named the “2.0” series, was released in February 2011. This series was released to upgrade some of the original flavors.\n\nSection::::Current flavors.:Stride Shift.\n" ]

[ "Companies with long lasting gum, use a different ingredient in order to make them last longer. " ]

[ "Companies with long lasting gum don't really use different materials than any other, but it does depend on how they coat and manufacture the gum. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Companies with long lasting gum, use a different ingredient in order to make them last longer. ", "Companies with long lasting gum, use a different ingredient in order to make them last longer. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Companies with long lasting gum don't really use different materials than any other, but it does depend on how they coat and manufacture the gum. ", "Companies with long lasting gum don't really use different materials than any other, but it does depend on how they coat and manufacture the gum. " ]

[ "Section::::External and internal costs.:Private or internal costs.:Kinetic speed vs. consumer speed.\n\nThe Austrian philosopher Ivan Illich, a critic of the modern society habits, was one of the first thinkers to establish the so-called consumer speed concept. He wrote in his book \"Energy and Equity\" published in 1974:\n\nIt is known by classical mechanics that the average kinetic speed formula_1 of an automobile and its passengers is simply the amount of space the car travels, divided by the elapsed time, i.e.:\n", "where formula_3 is the distance travelled by the car and formula_4 is the travelled time, i.e., the time elapsed during the travel.\n\nThough, to assess the consumer speed, we must sum the amount of time the car owner strictly allocates to work to afford such travelled distance. Then the consumer speed formula_5 is:\n\nwhere formula_7 is the time the driver needs to work, to afford doing that specific travelled distance formula_3 using such car.\n\nSection::::External and internal costs.:Private or internal costs.:Kinetic speed vs. consumer speed.:Example.\n", "For example, one would calculate the kinetic energy of an 80 kg mass (about 180 lbs) traveling at 18 metres per second (about 40 mph, or 65 km/h) as\n", "Since the total force opposing the vehicle's motion (at constant speed) multiplied by the distance through which the vehicle travels represents the work that the vehicle's engine must perform, the study of fuel economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of distance traveled) requires a detailed analysis of the forces that oppose a vehicle's motion. In terms of physics, Force = rate at which the amount of work generated (energy delivered) varies with the distance traveled, or:\n", "When a person throws a ball, the person does work on it to give it speed as it leaves the hand. The moving ball can then hit something and push it, doing work on what it hits. The kinetic energy of a moving object is equal to the work required to bring it from rest to that speed, or the work the object can do while being brought to rest: net force × displacement = kinetic energy, i.e.,\n", "Formula One has stated that they support responsible solutions to the world's environmental challenges, and the FIA allowed the use of KERS in the regulations for the 2009 Formula One season. Teams began testing systems in 2008: energy can either be stored as mechanical energy (as in a flywheel) or as electrical energy (as in a battery or supercapacitor).\n", "Section::::Kinetic energy of the moving parts of a machine.\n\nThe kinetic energy of a machine is the sum of the kinetic energies of its individual moving parts. A machine with moving parts can, mathematically, be treated as a connected system of bodies, whose kinetic energies are simply summed. The individual kinetic energies are determined from the kinetic energies of the moving parts' translations and rotations about their axes.\n", "The kinetic energy, \"K\", depends on the speed of an object and is the ability of a moving object to do work on other objects when it collides with them. It is defined as one half the product of the object's mass with the square of its speed, and the total kinetic energy of a system of objects is the sum of the kinetic energies of the respective objects:\n", "Kinetic energy may be best understood by examples that demonstrate how it is transformed to and from other forms of energy. For example, a cyclist uses chemical energy provided by food to accelerate a bicycle to a chosen speed. On a level surface, this speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air resistance and friction. The chemical energy has been converted into kinetic energy, the energy of motion, but the process is not completely efficient and produces heat within the cyclist.\n", "Note: The amount of work generated by the vehicle's power source (energy delivered by the engine) would be exactly proportional to the amount of fuel energy consumed by the engine if the engine's efficiency is the same regardless of power output, but this is not necessarily the case due to the operating characteristics of the internal combustion engine.\n\nFor a vehicle whose source of power is a heat engine (an engine that uses heat to perform useful work), the amount of fuel energy that a vehicle consumes per unit of distance (level road) depends upon:\n", "The kinetic energy of any entity depends on the reference frame in which it is measured. However the total energy of an isolated system, i.e. one in which energy can neither enter nor leave, does not change over time in the reference frame in which it is measured. Thus, the chemical energy converted to kinetic energy by a rocket engine is divided differently between the rocket ship and its exhaust stream depending upon the chosen reference frame. This is called the Oberth effect. But the total energy of the system, including kinetic energy, fuel chemical energy, heat, etc., is conserved over time, regardless of the choice of reference frame. Different observers moving with different reference frames would however disagree on the value of this conserved energy.\n", "This energy is not necessarily lost- some of it usually ends up as kinetic energy of the vehicle, and the rest is wasted in residual motion of the exhaust.\n\nComparing the rocket equation (which shows how much energy ends up in the final vehicle) and the above equation (which shows the total energy required) shows that even with 100% engine efficiency, certainly not all energy supplied ends up in the vehicle - some of it, indeed usually most of it, ends up as kinetic energy of the exhaust.\n", "When colliding objects do not have a direction of motion that is in-line with their centers of gravity and point of impact, or if their contact surfaces at that point are not perpendicular to that line, some energy that would have been available for the post-collision velocity difference will be lost to rotation and friction. Energy losses to vibration and the resulting sound are usually negligible.\n\nSection::::Speeds after impact.:Colliding different materials and practical measurement.\n", "Ideally, a car traveling at a constant velocity on level ground in a vacuum with frictionless wheels could travel at any speed without consuming any energy beyond what is needed to get the car up to speed. Less ideally, any vehicle must expend energy on overcoming road load forces, which consist of aerodynamic drag, tire rolling resistance, and inertial energy that is lost when the vehicle is decelerated by friction brakes. With ideal regenerative braking, the inertial energy could be completely recovered, but there are few options for reducing aerodynamic drag or rolling resistance other than optimizing the vehicle's shape and the tire design. Road load energy, or the energy demanded at the wheels, can be calculated by evaluating the vehicle equation of motion over a specific driving cycle. The vehicle powertrain must then provide this minimum energy in order to move the vehicle, and will lose a large amount of additional energy in the process of converting fuel energy into work and transmitting it to the wheels. Overall, the sources of energy loss in moving a vehicle may be summarized as follows:\n", "Kinetic energy\n\nIn physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion.\n\nIt is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same amount of work is done by the body when decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest.\n", "An assumption is made that during braking there is no change in the potential energy, enthalpy of the flywheel, pressure or volume of the flywheel, so only kinetic energy will be considered. As the car is braking, no energy is dispersed by the flywheel, and the only energy into the flywheel is the initial kinetic energy of the car. The equation can be simplified to:\n\nWhere:\n", "Like any physical quantity that is a function of velocity, the kinetic energy of an object depends on the relationship between the object and the observer's frame of reference. Thus, the kinetic energy of an object is not invariant.\n", "BULLET::::1. Chemical energy in the fuel converted to kinetic energy of expanding gas via combustion\n\nBULLET::::2. Kinetic energy of expanding gas converted to linear piston movement\n\nBULLET::::3. Linear piston movement converted to rotary crankshaft movement\n\nBULLET::::4. Rotary crankshaft movement passed into transmission assembly\n\nBULLET::::5. Rotary movement passed out of transmission assembly\n\nBULLET::::6. Rotary movement passed through differential\n\nBULLET::::7. Rotary movement passed out of differential to drive wheels\n\nBULLET::::8. Rotary movement of drive wheels converted to linear motion of the vehicle\n\nSection::::Examples.:Other energy conversions.\n", "The motion of a skier is determined by the physical principles of the conservation of energy and the frictional forces acting on the body. For example, in downhill skiing, as the skier is accelerated down the hill by the force of gravity, their gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, the energy of motion. In the ideal case, all of the potential energy would be converted into kinetic energy; in reality, some of the energy is lost to heat due to friction.\n", "Two minor incidents were reported during testing of various KERS systems in . The first occurred when the Red Bull Racing team tested their KERS battery for the first time in July: it malfunctioned and caused a fire scare that led to the team's factory being evacuated. The second was less than a week later when a BMW Sauber mechanic was given an electric shock when he touched Christian Klien's KERS-equipped car during a test at the Jerez circuit.\n\nSection::::Use in motor sport.:FIA.\n", "Gravitational potential energy is a form of energy used in gliders, skis, bobsleds and numerous other vehicles that go down hill. Regenerative braking is an example of capturing kinetic energy where the brakes of a vehicle are augmented with a generator or other means of extracting energy.\n\nSection::::Locomotion.:Motors and engines.\n\nWhen needed, the energy is taken from the source and consumed by one or more motors or engines. Sometimes there is an intermediate medium, such as the batteries of a diesel submarine.\n", "Electric cars do not directly burn fuel, and so do not have fuel economy per se, but equivalence measures, such as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent have been created to attempt to compare them.\n\nSection::::Units of measure.\n\nFuel economy is the relationship between the distance traveled and fuel consumed.\n\nFuel economy can be expressed in two ways:\n", "Energy from the fuel is lost in air drag and gravity drag and is used for the rocket to gain altitude and speed. However, much of the lost energy ends up in the exhaust.\n\nIn a chemical propulsion device, the engine efficiency is simply the ratio of the kinetic power of the exhaust gases and the power available from the chemical reaction:\n", "Neither the gross heat of combustion nor the net heat of combustion gives the theoretical amount of mechanical energy (work) that can be obtained from the reaction. (This is given by the change in Gibbs free energy, and is around 45.7 MJ/kg for gasoline.) The actual amount of mechanical work obtained from fuel (the inverse of the specific fuel consumption) depends on the engine. A figure of 17.6 MJ/kg is possible with a gasoline engine, and 19.1 MJ/kg for a diesel engine. See Brake specific fuel consumption for more information.\n\nSection::::Fuel efficiency of motor vehicles.\n", "Energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy. Approximately 90% of the energy from the battery is converted to mechanical energy, the losses being in the motor and drivetrain.\n\nUsually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.\n" ]

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[ "Coastlines are less definite in their construction than idealized fractals such as the Mandelbrot set because they are formed by various natural events that create patterns in statistically random ways, whereas idealized fractals are formed through repeated iterations of simple, formulaic sequences.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Coastline problem\n\nBULLET::::- Fractal dimension\n\nBULLET::::- Gabriel's Horn, a geometric figure with infinite surface area but finite volume\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\", a paper by Benoît Mandelbrot\n\nBULLET::::- Paradox of the heap\n\nBULLET::::- Zeno's paradoxes\n", "It is because of these considerations that the simple fractal functions are often inappropriate for modeling landscapes. More sophisticated techniques (known as 'multifractal' techniques) use different fractal dimensions for different scales, and thus can better model the frequency spectrum behaviour of real landscapes\n\nSection::::Generation of fractal landscapes.\n", "However, not all curves can be measured in this way. A fractal is, by definition, a curve whose complexity changes with measurement scale. Whereas approximations of a smooth curve tend to a single value as measurement precision increases, the measured value for a fractal does not converge.\n", "Real landscapes also have varying statistical behaviour from place to place, so for example sandy beaches don't exhibit the same fractal properties as mountain ranges. A fractal function, however, is statistically stationary, meaning that its bulk statistical properties are the same everywhere. Thus, any real approach to modeling landscapes requires the ability to modulate fractal behaviour spatially. Additionally real landscapes have very few natural minima (most of these are lakes), whereas a fractal function has as many minima as maxima, on average. Real landscapes also have features originating with the flow of water and ice over their surface, which simple fractals cannot model.\n", "A more subtle form of scale symmetry is demonstrated by fractals. As conceived by Benoît Mandelbrot, fractals are a mathematical concept in which the structure of a complex form looks similar at any degree of magnification, well seen in the Mandelbrot set. A coast is an example of a naturally occurring fractal, since it retains similar-appearing complexity at every level from the view of a satellite to a microscopic examination of how the water laps up against individual grains of sand. The branching of trees, which enables small twigs to stand in for full trees in dioramas, is another example.\n", "Section::::Statistics.:Measuring a coastline.\n\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline. His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\n", "There are different kinds of fractals. A coastline with the stated property is in \"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\" That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\n", "In three-dimensional space, the coastline paradox is readily extended to the concept of fractal surfaces whereby the area of a surface varies, depending on the measurement resolution.\n\nSection::::Mathematical aspects.\n", "Section::::Situations requiring multiple patterning.:Two-dimensional pattern rounding.\n", "The modeling of the Earth's rough surfaces via fractional Brownian motion was first proposed by Benoît Mandelbrot.\n\nBecause the intended result of the process is to produce a landscape, rather than a mathematical function, processes are frequently applied to such landscapes that may affect the stationarity and even the overall fractal behavior of such a surface, in the interests of producing a more convincing landscape.\n", "Section::::Multipatterning Implementations.:Patterning costs.\n\n\"Ref.: A. Raley et al., Proc. SPIE 9782, 97820F (2016).\n", "In 1968, the Hungarian theoretical biologist Aristid Lindenmayer (1925–1989) developed the L-system, a formal grammar which can be used to model plant growth patterns in the style of fractals. L-systems have an alphabet of symbols that can be combined using production rules to build larger strings of symbols, and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures. In 1975, after centuries of slow development of the mathematics of patterns by Gottfried Leibniz, Georg Cantor, Helge von Koch, Wacław Sierpiński and others, Benoît Mandelbrot wrote a famous paper, \"How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\", crystallising mathematical thought into the concept of the fractal.\n", "Whether or not natural landscapes behave in a generally fractal manner has been the subject of some research. Technically speaking, any surface in three-dimensional space has a topological dimension of 2, and therefore any fractal surface in three-dimensional space has a Hausdorff dimension between 2 and 3. Real landscapes however, have varying behaviour at different scales. This means that an attempt to calculate the 'overall' fractal dimension of a real landscape can result in measures of negative fractal dimension, or of fractal dimension above 3. In particular, many studies of natural phenomena, even those commonly thought to exhibit fractal behaviour; do not do so, over more than a few orders of magnitude. For instance, Richardson's examination of the western coastline of Britain showed fractal behaviour of the coastline over only two orders of magnitude. In general, there is no reason to suppose that the geological processes that shape terrain on large scales (for example plate tectonics) exhibit the same mathematical behaviour as those that shape terrain on smaller scales (for instance soil creep).\n", "The shortest known naturally occurring pangrammatic window was discovered in October 2014 through an automated processing of Google's indexed webcorpus, found in a review of the movie Magnolia written by Todd Manlow on the website PopMatters: \"Further, fractal geometries are replicated on a human level in the production of certain “types” of subjectivity: for example, aging kid quiz show whiz Donnie Smith (William H. Macy) and up and coming kid quiz show whiz Stanley Spector (Jeremy Blackman) are connected (or, perhaps, being cloned) in ways they couldn’t possibly imagine.\" at 36 letters.\n", "Coastline paradox\n\nThe coastline paradox is the counterintuitive observation that the coastline of a landmass does not have a well-defined length. This results from the fractal-like properties of coastlines, i.e., the fact that a coastline typically has a fractal dimension (which in fact makes the notion of length inapplicable). The first recorded observation of this phenomenon was by Lewis Fry Richardson and it was expanded upon by Benoit Mandelbrot.\n", "Furthermore, the measurement of any coastline is subject to variation depending upon the scale of map used. It is a meaningless statistic without knowing the scale of the map being used and the accuracy of the measurement. A larger map scale and smaller unit of measure will result in more detail being revealed and measured and thus a greater length. And because the resultant length increases exponentially faster than the increase of scale of measurement, there is no such thing as \"an approximate answer\" to this question. This is referred to as the coastline paradox. A coastline is fractal-like — which means that it has self-similar properties, similar at every scale — therefore the closer the observer looks, the more detail is revealed, leading to a greater overall length.\n", "Fractal-like patterns occur widely in nature, in phenomena as diverse as clouds, river networks, geologic fault lines, mountains, coastlines, animal coloration, snow flakes, crystals, blood vessel branching, actin cytoskeleton, and ocean waves.\n\nSection::::Types of pattern.:Spirals.\n\nSpirals are common in plants and in some animals, notably molluscs. For example, in the nautilus, a cephalopod mollusc, each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral. Given a modern understanding of fractals, a growth spiral can be seen as a special case of self-similarity.\n", "According to R. R. Shearer, the generation of natural looking surfaces and landscapes was a major turning point in art history, where the distinction between geometric, computer generated images and natural, man made art became blurred. The first use of a fractal-generated landscape in a film was in 1982 for the movie \"\". Loren Carpenter refined the techniques of Mandelbrot to create an alien landscape.\n\nSection::::Behaviour of natural landscapes.\n", "In addition to the above analyzed works, symbolic representations of fractals can be found in cultures across the continents spanning several centuries, including Roman, Egyptian, Aztec, Incan and Mayan civilizations. They frequently predate patterns named after the mathematicians who subsequently developed their visual characteristics. For example, although von Koch is famous for developing The Koch Curve in 1904, a similar shape featuring repeating triangles was first used to depict waves in friezes by Hellenic artists (300 B.C.E.). In the 13th century, repetition of triangles in Cosmati Mosaics generated a shape later known in mathematics as The Sierpinski Triangle (named after Sierpinski's 1915 pattern). Triangular repetitions are also found in the 12th century pulpit of The Ravello Cathedral in Italy. The lavish artwork within The Book of Kells (circa 800 C.E.) and the sculpted arabesques in The Jain Dilwara Temple in Mount Abu, India (1031 C.E.) also both reveal stunning examples of exact fractals. The artistic works of Leonardo da Vinci and Katsushika Hokusai serve as more recent examples from Europe and Asia, each reproducing the recurring patterns that they saw in nature. Da Vinci's sketch of turbulence in water, The Deluge (1571–1518), was composed of small swirls within larger swirls of water. In The Great Wave off Kanagawa (1830–1833), Hokusai portrayed a wave crashing on a shore with small waves on top of a large wave. Other woodcuts from the same period also feature repeating patterns at several size scales: The Ghost of Kohada Koheiji shows fissures in a skull and The Falls At Mt. Kurokami features branching channels in a waterfall.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Ecology and evolution.\n", "In architecture, motifs are repeated in various ways to form patterns. Most simply, structures such as windows can be repeated horizontally and vertically (see leading picture). Architects can use and repeat decorative and structural elements such as columns, pediments, and lintels. Repetitions need not be identical; for example, temples in South India have a roughly pyramidal form, where elements of the pattern repeat in a fractal-like way at different sizes.\n\nSection::::Science and mathematics.\n", "Several of the mechanisms underlying patterning of vegetation have been known and studied since at least the middle of the 20th century, however, mathematical models replicating them have only been produced much more recently. The self-organization of complex spatial patterns can be generated from relatively simple mathematical expressions, often called a Turing pattern. These occur at many scales of life, from cellular development (where they were first proposed) to pattern formation on animal pelts to sand dunes and patterned landscapes (see also pattern formation). In their simplest form these models require two interactions at differing scales: local facilitation and more distant antagonism. For example, when Sato and Iwasa produced a simple model of fir waves in the Japanese Alps, they assumed that trees exposed to cold winds would suffer mortality from frost damage, but upwind trees would protect nearby downwind trees from wind. Banding appears because the protective boundary layer created by the wind-most trees is eventually disrupted by turbulence, exposing more distant downwind trees to freezing damage once again.\n", "When the color and size dimensions are correlated in some way with the tree structure, one can often easily see patterns that would be difficult to spot in other ways, such as if a certain color is particularly relevant. A second advantage of treemaps is that, by construction, they make efficient use of space. As a result, they can legibly display thousands of items on the screen simultaneously.\n\nSection::::Tiling algorithms.\n", "Ethnomathematician Ron Eglash has discussed the planned layout of Benin city using fractals as the basis, not only in the city itself and the villages but even in the rooms of houses. He commented that \"When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganised and thus primitive. It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn’t even discovered yet.\" \n", "Progress in the ecological understanding of spatial patterning was not confined to shallow seafloor environments. For the open ocean, advances in ocean observing systems since the 1970s have allowed scientists to map, classify, quantify and track dynamic spatial structure in the form of eddies, surface roughness, currents, runoff plumes, ice, temperature fronts and plankton patches using oceanographic technologies – a theme increasingly referred to as pelagic seascape ecology .Subsurface structures too, such as internal waves, thermoclines, haloclines, boundary layers and stratification resulting in distinct layering of organisms, is increasingly being mapped and modelled in multiple dimensions.\n" ]

[ "coastlines are self similar fractals sometimes.", "Coastlines are self similar. " ]

[ "coastlines are not self similar. ", "Coastlines are not self similar, despite them being a fractal. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "coastlines are self similar fractals sometimes.", "Coastlines are self similar. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "coastlines are not self similar. ", "Coastlines are not self similar, despite them being a fractal. " ]

[ "New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction. Kinetic friction is now understood, in many cases, to be primarily caused by chemical bonding between the surfaces, rather than interlocking asperities; however, in many other cases roughness effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction. Surface roughness and contact area affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces.\n", "The first term \"rough\", \"smooth\", or \"polished\" is established by feeling the surface of the discontinuity; \"rough\" hurts when fingers are moved over the surface with some (little) force, \"smooth\" feels that there is resistance to the fingers, while \"polished\" gives a feeling about similar to the surface of glass.\n", "On a surface that is rough or contaminated, there will also be contact angle hysteresis, but now the local equilibrium contact angle (the Young equation is now only locally valid) may vary from place to place on the surface. According to the Young–Dupré equation, this means that the adhesion energy varies locally – thus, the liquid has to overcome local energy barriers in order to wet the surface. One consequence of these barriers is contact angle hysteresis: the extent of wetting, and therefore the observed contact angle (averaged along the contact line), depends on whether the liquid is advancing or receding on the surface.\n", "Surface texture is one of the important factors that control friction and transfer layer formation during sliding. Considerable efforts have been made to study the influence of surface texture on friction and wear during sliding conditions. Surface textures can be isotropic or anisotropic. Sometimes, stick-slip friction phenomena can be observed during sliding, depending on surface texture.\n", "The contact between surfaces, in reality, is a contact between roughness and the origin of the phenomenon of friction, and therefore of the dissipation of energy, is due precisely to the deformations that such bumps undergo due to the load and of relative movement. Plastic, elastic or rupture deformations can be observed:\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic Deformations – permanent deformations of the shape of the bumps;\n\nBULLET::::- Elastic Deformations – deformations in which the energy expended in the compression phase is almost entirely recovered in the decompression phase (elastic hysteresis);\n", "According to Bon Jovi, the band named the album \"Slippery When Wet\" after visiting The No.5 Orange strip club in Vancouver, British Columbia. According to Sambora, \"This woman descended from the ceiling on a pole and proceeded to take all her clothes off. When she got in a shower and soaped herself up, we just about lost our tongues. We just sat there and said, 'We will be here every day.' That energized us through the whole project. Our testosterone was at a very high level back then.\"\n", "In Japan, most releases of the album included the original cover art.\n\nSection::::Release and reception.\n", "Surface roughness can also affect the adhesive strength. Surfaces with roughness on the scale of 1-2 micrometres can yield better wetting because they have a larger surface area. Thus, more intermolecular interactions at closer distances can arise, yielding stronger attractions and larger adhesive strength. Once the roughness becomes larger, on the order of 10 micrometres, the coating can no longer wet effectively, resulting in less contact area and a smaller adhesive strength.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting adhesion strength.:Macroscopic shape.\n", "Section::::Contact forces.:Friction.\n\nAnother important contact phenomenon is surface-to-surface friction, a force that impedes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact, or that of a body in a fluid. In this section we discuss surface-to-surface friction of two bodies in relative static contact or sliding contact. In the real world, friction is due to the imperfect microstructure of surfaces whose protrusions interlock into each other, generating reactive forces tangential to the surfaces.\n", "Section::::Practical effects.\n\nSurface structure plays a key role in governing contact mechanics, that is to say the mechanical behavior exhibited at an interface between two solid objects as they approach each other and transition from conditions of non-contact to full contact. In particular, normal contact stiffness is governed predominantly by asperity structures (roughness, surface slope and fractality) and material properties.\n", "In 1936 Young's equation was modified by Robert Wenzel to account for rough homogeneous surfaces, and a parameter formula_25 was introduced, defined as the ratio of the true area of the solid compared to it's nominal. Known as the Wenzel equation,\n\nformula_26\n\nshows that the \"apparent contact angle,\" the angle measured at casual inspection, will increase if the surface is roughened. Liquids with contact angle formula_27are known to be in the Wenzel state.\n\nSection::::History behind Cassie's law.:Cassie-Baxter state.\n", "A specific road safety problem is split friction or μ (mu) - split; when the friction significantly differs between the left and the right wheelpath. The road may then not be perceived as hazardous when accelerating, cruising or even braking softly, but in a case of hard braking, the difference in friction will cause the vehicle to start to rotate towards the side offering higher grip. Split friction may cause jack-knifing of articulated trucks, while trucks with towed trailers may experience trailer swing phenomena. Split friction may be caused by an improper road spot repair that results in high variance of texture (roads) and colour (thin ice on newly paved black spots thaws faster than ice on old greyish asphalt) across the road section.\n", "To obtain the surface characteristic almost all measurements are subject to filtering. It is one of the most important topics when it comes to specifying and controlling surface attributes such as roughness, waviness, and form error. These components of the surface deviations must be distinctly separable in measurement to achieve a clear understanding between the surface supplier and the surface recipient as to the expected characteristics of the surface in question. \n", "Further advancement in the field of contact mechanics in the mid-twentieth century may be attributed to names such as Bowden and Tabor. Bowden and Tabor were the first to emphasize the importance of surface roughness for bodies in contact. Through investigation of the surface roughness, the true contact area between friction partners is found to be less than the apparent contact area. Such understanding also drastically changed the direction of undertakings in tribology. The works of Bowden and Tabor yielded several theories in contact mechanics of rough surfaces.\n", "Higher-viscosity lane oils (those with thicker consistency) engage balls with more friction and thus cause slower speeds and shorter length but provide more hook potential and reduced lane transition; conversely, lane oils of lower viscosity (thinner consistency) are more slippery and thus support greater speeds and length but offer less hook potential and allow faster lane transition. Various factors influence an oil's native viscosity, including temperature (with higher temperatures causing the oil to be thinner) and humidity (variations of which can cause crowning and cupping of the lane surface). Also, high humidity increases friction that reduces skid distance so the ball tends to hook sooner.\n", "If the surface is wetted heterogeneously, the droplet is in Cassie-Baxter state. The most stable contact angle can be connected to the Young contact angle. The contact angles calculated from the Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter equations have been found to be good approximations of the most stable contact angles with real surfaces.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.:Dynamic Contact Angles.\n", "\"I liked what Bryan Adams had done with Tina Turner,\" Bon Jovi explained, \"so I suggested we do something similar: I write a song for someone like her, and then we do the song together. But that got changed, and our A&R guy came up with Desmond's name ... He hasn't tried to change what we are, but to refine it slightly; to suggest extra ways that we could wring a bit more out of what we had.\"\n", "The surface tension of a liquid directly affects its wettability. Most common liquids have tensions ranging in the tens of mJ/m, so droplets of oil, water, or glue can easily merge and adhere to other surfaces, whereas liquid metals such as mercury may have tensions ranging in the hundreds of mJ/m, thus droplets do not combine easily and surfaces may only wet under specific conditions. \n\nThe surface tensions of common liquids occupy a relatively narrow range of values, which contrasts strongly with the enormous variation seen in other mechanical properties, such as viscosity.\n\nSection::::Mechanical properties.:Flow.\n", "A study of unilateral contact problems, solvability and rigid body displacements with numerical solution based on Lemke's algorithm for the LCP can be found in \n\nSection::::Contact between rough surfaces.\n", "The road may then not be perceived as hazardous when accelerating, cruising or even braking softly. But in a case of hard (emergency-)braking, the car will start to rotate over the wheelpath offering highest grip. Split friction may cause jack-knifing of articulated trucks, while trucks with towed trailers may experience trailer swing phenomena. Split friction may be caused by an improper road spot repair that results in high variance of texture and colour (thin ice on newly paved black spots thaws faster than ice on old greyish asphalt) across the road section.\n", "Water contact\n\nWater contact is a term used in the hydrocarbon industry to describe the elevation above which fluids other than water can be found in the pores of a rock. \n\nFor example, in a traditional hand-excavated water well, the level at which the water stabilizes represents the water table, or the elevation in the rock where air starts to occupy the rock pores.\n\nIn most situations in the hydrocarbon industry the term is qualified as being an oil-water contact (abbreviated to \"OWC\") or a gas-water contact (\"GWC\"). Often there is also a gas-oil contact (\"GOC\").\n", "When a liquid drop is put onto a flat surface, two situations may result. If the contact angle is zero, the situation is referred to as complete wetting. If the contact angle is between 0 and 180°, the situation is called partial wetting. A wetting transition is a surface phase transition from partial wetting to complete wetting.\n\nSection::::Rough surfaces.\n", "Pressure can be obtained through integration of the momentum equation\n\nwhich gives,\n\nSection::::Stresses on the scraper.\n\nThe tangential stress and the normal stress on the scraper due to pressure and viscous forces are\n\nThe same scraper stress if resolved according to Cartesian coordinates (parallel and perpendicular to the lower plate i.e. formula_25) are\n", "Section::::Mitigation.\n", "The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only on a surface made of a substance to which water does not adhere. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.\n\nThe thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180° is given by:\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- is the depth of the puddle in centimeters or meters.\n" ]

[ "Oil and water together makes the road more slippery than either one on the road alone." ]

[ "The combination of oil and water don't make the road more slippery than one of the substances alone, what causes the issue is that rainwater is more dense than oil, and when oil sits a top of the dense water it makes it more difficult for the tires to make contact with the road. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Oil and water together makes the road more slippery than either one on the road alone.", "Oil and water together makes the road more slippery than either one on the road alone." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The combination of oil and water don't make the road more slippery than one of the substances alone, what causes the issue is that rainwater is more dense than oil, and when oil sits a top of the dense water it makes it more difficult for the tires to make contact with the road. ", "The combination of oil and water don't make the road more slippery than one of the substances alone, what causes the issue is that rainwater is more dense than oil, and when oil sits a top of the dense water it makes it more difficult for the tires to make contact with the road. " ]

[ "Blue raspberry flavor\n\nBlue raspberry is a common flavoring for candy, snack foods, syrups, and soft drinks. The flavor ostensibly originates from \"Rubus leucodermis\", more commonly known as the \"whitebark raspberry\" or \"blue raspberry\" for the blue-black color of its fruit.\n", "Developer Sikes originally created Blue Board for his own BBS, called Blue Hell, which he ran from his home under the pseudonym \"Beelzebub.\" He later went on to an Electrical Engineering degree from the University of British Columbia, then a long career in the video game industry, including as co-founder of Black Box Games (now part of Electronic Arts, where he worked as a programmer on the Need for Speed series of racing games, among others), before his sudden death while sleeping on December 24, 2007 at age 39.\n\nSection::::Technical innovations.\n", "Bluecurve\n\nBluecurve is a desktop theme for GNOME and KDE created by the Red Hat Artwork project. The main aim of Bluecurve was to create a consistent look throughout the Linux environment, and provide support for various Freedesktop.org desktop standards. It has been used in Red Hat Linux since version 8.0, and Fedora Core.\n", "Think Blue Linux\n\nThink Blue Linux (sometimes \"ThinkBlue Linux\") was a port of Linux to IBM S/390 (later, zSeries) mainframe computers, done by the Millenux subsidiary of German company Thinking Objects Software GmbH. \n\nThe distribution consisted primarily of a collection of Red Hat Linux 6.1 packages (or RPMs) on top of IBM's port of the Linux kernel.\n\nDistribution of the product is scheduled to cease in early 2006, as most of its packages are out of date, and other Linux distributions support IBM mainframes. Most modern Linux distributions support IBM mainframes, making a special dedicated distribution unnecessary.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The name SIGSALY was not an acronym, but a cover name that resembled an acronym—the SIG part was common in Army Signal Corps names (e.g., SIGABA). The prototype was called the \"Green Hornet\" after the popular radio show \"The Green Hornet\", because it sounded like a buzzing hornet — resembling the show's theme tune — to anyone trying to eavesdrop on the conversation.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "They achieved some success, playing live shows in Melbourne, Geelong and Shepparton. They received heavy rotation airplay on local community radio, and were second in the RMIT Battle of the Bands competition. Their concert backstage rider asked for two drinks – anything more came out of the band's $60 performance fee.\n", "Blue Wave developed after Fred Rappuhn and George Hatchew met at a picnic arranged for local area sysops. The two developed the concept at the picnic and started development immediately. Rappuhn concentrated on the offline reader, while Hatchew concentrated on the BBS door program that would convert the BBS message system to a Blue Wave format. The first version was released to the public 20 September 1990, marketed via their company, Blue Wave Software. Doors for most PC BBS systems were made available over time.\n", "Section::::Publication history.:Non-English translations.\n", "It was built as a stage of the Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative (ASCI) started by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Nuclear Security Administration to build a simulator to replace live nuclear weapon testing following the moratorium on testing started by President George H. W. Bush in 1992 and extended by Bill Clinton in 1993.\n", "Food products labeled as blue raspberry flavor often contain a bright blue food coloring, the most common being Brilliant Blue FCF, although this coloring is not an accurate rendition of the actual color of the fruit, which has an almost black hue when ripe. The blue color also helps distinguish raspberry-flavored foods from cherry, watermelon and strawberry-flavored foods (the former usually being colored red, and the latter two also sometimes colored red but often colored pink if the same product is also available in a cherry flavor).\n", "Rappuhn was hired as a programmer by Electronic Data Systems (EDS) in September 1991 and was unable to continue development for Blue Wave Software. Blue Wave Software dissolved and Hatchew started Cutting Edge Computing to continue development. Hatchew was later involved in a serious car accident, and was unable to continue development of the system past 1993.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Section::::Publication history.\n", "Section::::The Blueberry biography.\n", "Despite these setbacks, System 7.0 was adopted quite rapidly by Mac users, and quickly became one of the base requirements for new software.\n\nThe engineering group within Apple responsible for System 7 came to be known as the \"Blue Meanies\", named after the blue index cards on which were written the features that could be implemented in a relatively short time as part of Apple's operating system strategy. In comparison, the pink index card features were handled by the Pink group, later becoming the ill-fated Taligent project.\n", "Jean Giraud and William Vance, page layout by René Follet\n\nBULLET::::- 1: \"Sur ordre de Washington \" (Alpen Publishers, 1991/11, )\n\nBULLET::::- 2: \"Mission Sherman\" (Alpen Publishers, 1993/06, )\n\nJean Giraud and Michel Rouge\n\nBULLET::::- 3: \"Frontière sanglante\" (Dargaud, 2000/06, )\n\nSection::::Prequel, intermezzo, and sequel.:Sequel: \"Blueberry 1900\".\n", "Blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada for the cultivar 'Columbian', a hybrid (purple raspberry) of \"R. strigosus\" and \"R. occidentalis\".\n\nFruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries; despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species (red or black). Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries. Yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens.\n", "Section::::Publication history.:English translations.\n", "German IT website Golem.de did a feature about Tönnies Jr. in July 2012. According to the feature, Tönnies Jr. studied computer science, was 36 years old at the time of publication, and was described as a philanthropist.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nBlue Systems became first known as creator of Ubuntu/Kubuntu-based Linux distribution Netrunner whose first release was in March 2010.\n\nIn February 2012, Clement Lefebvre of Ubuntu/Kubuntu-based Linux Mint announced that Blue Systems would become a sponsor to help Mint's KDE edition.\n", "Raspberry Cordial\n\nRaspberry Cordial were an Australian hip-hop group formed in 1991 by Chris Lumsden on keyboards and John Safran on lead vocals. George Weinberg played drums on the first rehearsal, but was quickly replaced with a drum machine. When the duo formed Safran was in Year 12 at Yeshivah College, an orthodox Jewish high school; while Lumsden was his friend.\n", "WIDCOMM was the first Bluetooth stack for the Windows operating system. The stack was initially developed by a company named WIDCOMM Inc., which was acquired by Broadcom Corporation in April 2004. Broadcom continues to license the stack for inclusion with many Bluetooth-powered end-user devices.\n", "Raspberry (color)\n\nRaspberry is a color that resembles the color of raspberries.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"raspberry\" as a color name in English was in 1892.\n\nThe \"raspberry\" color has a specific book published in 2018 by Coloratura Publisher \n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nSection::::Variations.:French raspberry.\n\nAt right is displayed the color French raspberry, which is the deep rich tone of raspberry called \"framboise\" (French name of the raspberry) in the Pourpre.com color list, a color list widely popular in France. This is a color from the pourpre.com color list.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Raspberry rose.\n\nAt right is displayed the color raspberry rose.\n", "Around the same time, Apple CEO John Sculley was facing public scrutiny for declining sales that was blamed in large part on the company's lack of an inexpensive Macintosh computer. Amidst promises to the press and investors that a new low-cost Macintosh was on the way, he revived the Spin project with the goal of creating the lowest-priced Macintosh that was possible. Gassée pleaded with the team to keep color as a feature of the project, and from then on the product was known internally by a new code name, \"Elsie\", a homonym for the \"LC\" (i.e. low-cost color) name the computer would later be sold as. Elsie prototypes at this point resembled an Apple IIc where the keyboard was integrated into the unit, and it had a single 800 KB floppy drive with no hard drive. The team ended up with a problem — the machine was cheap, but it wasn't a good computer, especially because the 68000 CPU was not powerful enough to display color graphics with acceptable performance.\n", "The most common explanation for the name is that it derives from the French \"bleu-jaune\", meaning 'blue-yellow'. The story goes that Blue John was exported to France where it was used by \"ormolu\" workers during the reign of Louis XVI (1774–91). However, there is no archival record of any Blue John being exported to France, and the early \"ormolu\" ornaments which use Blue John were being manufactured by Matthew Boulton of Birmingham in the 1760s.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "It has been remarked that during the 1960s, Blueberry \"was as much a staple in French comics as, say, \"The Avengers\" or \"The Flash\" here [in the USA].\"\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n" ]

[ "Blue raspberries are an idea that was invented." ]

[ "There are real fruits called blue raspberries. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Blue raspberries are an idea that was invented." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "There are real fruits called blue raspberries. " ]

[ "Oceanic crust, which forms the bedrock of abyssal plains, is continuously being created at mid-ocean ridges (a type of divergent boundary) by a process known as decompression melting. Plume-related decompression melting of solid mantle is responsible for creating ocean islands like the Hawaiian islands, as well as the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges. This phenomenon is also the most common explanation for flood basalts and oceanic plateaus (two types of large igneous provinces). Decompression melting occurs when the upper mantle is partially melted into magma as it moves upwards under mid-ocean ridges. This upwelling magma then cools and solidifies by conduction and convection of heat to form new oceanic crust. Accretion occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a tectonic plate, usually associated with seafloor spreading. The age of oceanic crust is therefore a function of distance from the mid-ocean ridge. The youngest oceanic crust is at the mid-ocean ridges, and it becomes progressively older, cooler and denser as it migrates outwards from the mid-ocean ridges as part of the process called mantle convection.\n", "The formation and development of plumes in the early mantle contributed to triggering the lateral movement of crust across the Earth's surface. The effect of upwelling mantle plumes on the lithosphere can be seen today through local depressions around hotspots such as Hawaii. The scale of this impact is much less than that exhibited in the Archean eon where mantle temperatures were much greater. Localised areas of hot mantle rose to the surface through a central plume wedge, weakening the damaged and already thin lithosphere. Once the plume head breaks the surface, crust either side of the head is forced downwards through the conservation of mass, initiating subduction. Numerical modelling shows only strongly energetic plumes are capable of weakening the lithosphere enough to rupture it, such plumes would have been present in the hot Archean mantle.\n", "Melt keeps gathering in these layers until the solid-to-liquid transition is reached and the melt migrates upwards again. The melt uses local features like dikes and faults to migrate towards the surface.\n\nFrom numerical models, it is found that formation of magma which can migrate towards the upper crust occurs at a depth of about 30 km. It takes between 10,000 years and 1 million years to form the magma, depending on the emplacement rate of the mantle material. The emplacement rates in volcanic arc settings can vary between 2 and 20 mm/year.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "Convection within Earth's mantle is the driving force for plate tectonics. Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of lithosphere drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the core-mantle boundary. Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection.\n", "The passive rift model infers that slab pull stretches the lithosphere and thins it. To compensate for lithospheric thinning, asthenosphere upwells, melts due to adiabatic decompression, and derivative melts rise to the surface to erupt. Melts push up through faults towards the surface, forming dikes and sills.\n\nSection::::Development.:Development of transitional crust.\n", "Once released, gases almost always are less dense than the surrounding rocks and sand and seep toward the surface. Explosive eruptions of volcanoes result from water or other volatiles outgassed from magma being trapped, for example by a lava dome. At the Earth's tectonic divergent boundaries where new crust is being created, helium and carbon dioxide are some of the volatiles being outgassed from mantle magma.\n\nSection::::In a closed environment.\n", "The formation of the Archean SCLM is enigmatic. One early theory that komatiite melts formed the Archean SCLM does not explain how komatiites, which form in hot and deep environments, creates a reservoir that is shallow and cool. Another model of Archean SCLM formation suggests that the SCLM formed in a subduction environment in which new Archean crust was created through slab melting. If the primitive mantle is the starting composition for this SCLM formation event, subducting slab would be composed of TTG crust, then the removal of basaltic melt and the enrichment of the mantle wedge with felsic melts could explain the formation of the depleted Archean subcontinental lithosphere. For more information, see Archean subduction.\n", "The lithosphere, which rides atop the asthenosphere, is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Oceanic crust and tectonic plates are formed and move apart at mid-ocean ridges. Abyssal hills are formed by stretching of the oceanic lithosphere. Consumption or destruction of the oceanic lithosphere occurs at oceanic trenches (a type of convergent boundary, also known as a destructive plate boundary) by a process known as subduction. Oceanic trenches are found at places where the oceanic lithospheric slabs of two different plates meet, and the denser (older) slab begins to descend back into the mantle. At the consumption edge of the plate (the oceanic trench), the oceanic lithosphere has thermally contracted to become quite dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old. The overall process of repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the Supercontinent cycle, first proposed by Canadian geophysicist and geologist John Tuzo Wilson.\n", "The Earth's surface is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Creation (accretion) occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate. This hot added material cools down by conduction and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction at an ocean trench. This subducted material sinks to some depth in the Earth's interior where it is prohibited from sinking further. The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism.\n", "It is not clear when all this sand entered the cave but landslides coming from the mountain above are however the reason it came to be there. Since big earthquakes have frequently shaken this area through the years, it being both in the neighbourhood of the famous volcano Hekla and also in a part of Iceland which is subject to large earthquakes several times each century, there are ample opportunities for this to have happened.\n", "Delamination of the lithosphere has two major geologic effects. First, because a large portion of dense material is removed, the remaining portion of the crust and lithosphere undergo rapid uplift to form mountain ranges. Second, flow of hot mantle material encounters the base of the thin lithosphere and often results in melting and a new phase of volcanism. Delamination may thus account for some volcanic regions that have been attributed to mantle plumes in the past.\n\nSection::::Relation to tectonic processes.\n", "In 1963, Wilson proposed that small, long lasting, exceptionally hot areas of magma exist under Earth's surface; these heat centres create thermally active mantle plumes, which in turn sustain long-lasting volcanic activity. This \"intra-plate\" volcanism builds peaks that rise above the surrounding landscape. Plate tectonics cause the local tectonic plate (in the case of the Anahim hotspot, the North American Plate) to slowly slide over the hotspot, carrying its volcanoes with it without affecting the plume. Over hundreds of thousands of years, the magma supply for the volcano is slowly cut off, eventually going extinct. No longer active enough to overpower erosion, the volcano slowly erodes away. As the cycle continues, a new volcanic centre manifests and a volcanic peak arises anew. The process continues until the mantle plume itself collapses.\n", "The hypothesis of mantle plumes from depth is not universally accepted as explaining all such volcanism. It has required progressive hypothesis-elaboration leading to variant propositions such as mini-plumes and pulsing plumes. Another hypothesis for unusual volcanic regions is the \"Plate model\". This proposes shallower, passive leakage of magma from the mantle onto the Earth's surface where extension of the lithosphere permits it, attributing most volcanism to plate tectonic processes, with volcanoes far from plate boundaries resulting from intraplate extension.\n\nSection::::Concepts.\n", "Section::::Mantle wedge flow.\n", "Other mechanisms, such as melting from a meteorite impact, are less important today, but impacts during the accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of our early Earth was probably an ocean of magma. Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces.\n\nSection::::Magma origination.:Decompression.\n\nDecompression melting occurs because of a decrease in pressure.\n", "One group of researchers was able to estimate that between 5 and 10% of the upper mantle is composed of recycled crustal material.\n\nKokfelt et al. completed an isotopic examination of the mantle plume under Iceland and found that erupted mantle lavas incorporated lower crustal components, confirming crustal recycling at the local level.\n", "Evidence for a stoping mechanism has been described locally from the margin of the Tregonning intrusion, where a series of intrusive sheets extend out from the roof zone of the intrusion into the country-rock. Although the Land's End pluton was once thought to have a diapiric origin, its emplacement is now interpreted to have been accommodated by fault movements during regional extension.\n\nSection::::Plutons.\n", "Basins far from this province that dug deeply into the crust (and possibly the mantle), such as the Mare Crisium, the Mare Orientale, and the South Pole–Aitken basin, show only little or no enhancements of KREEP within their rims or ejecta. The enhancement of heat-producing radioactive elements within the crust (and/or the mantle) of the Procellarum KREEP Terrane is almost certainly responsible for the longevity and intensity of mare volcanism on the nearside of the Moon.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Geology of the Moon\n\nBULLET::::- Lunar mare\n\nBULLET::::- Lunar Prospector\n\nBULLET::::- Moon\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Current research indicates that complex convection within the Earth's mantle allows material to rise to the base of the lithosphere beneath each divergent plate boundary. \n\nThis supplies the area with vast amounts of heat and a reduction in pressure that melts rock from the asthenosphere (or upper mantle) beneath the rift area forming large flood basalt or lava flows. Each eruption occurs in only a part of the plate boundary at any one time, but when it does occur, it fills in the opening gap as the two opposing plates move away from each other.\n", "Melt forms an interconnected network along grain boundaries at melt fractions larger than 0.01. This means that at this point, melt can start to slowly move upwards. It collects in layers on the top of the mantle intrusions or just above it. It forms layers here since the overlying portion of the crust is much cooler than the hot zone where hot mantle material is continuously intruded. Thus, the melt cools down on the top of the layer until it approaches its solidus. Once it comes close enough, it cannot move upwards any more and forms a stagnant layer.\n", "Section::::Evidence for the theory.:Seismology.\n", "Magma is a complex, high-temperature mixture of molten silicates, suspended crystals, and dissolved gases. Magma on Mars likely ascends in a similar manner to that on Earth. It rises through the lower crust in diapiric bodies that are less dense than the surrounding material. As the magma rises, it eventually reaches regions of lower density. When the magma density matches that of the host rock, buoyancy is neutralized and the magma body stalls. At this point, it may form a magma chamber and spread out laterally into a network of dikes and sills. Subsequently, the magma may cool and solidify to form intrusive igneous bodies (plutons). Geologists estimate that about 80% of the magma generated on Earth stalls in the crust and never reaches the surface.\n", "Section::::Types of crust.:Secondary crust.\n\nRecycling of existing primordial crust contributes to the production of secondary crust. Partial melting of the existing crust increases the mafic content of the melt producing basaltic secondary crust. A further method of formation due to the decay of radioactive elements within the Earth releasing heat energy and eventually causing the partial melting of upper mantle, also producing basaltic lavas. As a result, most secondary crust on Earth is formed at mid ocean ridges forming the oceanic crust.\n\nSection::::Types of crust.:Tertiary crust.\n", "This theory views volcanism as the resultant of lithospheric processes rather than heat from the mantle rising up. Instead of heat coming up from deep in the mantle, volcanic anomalies come from a shallow source. Volcanism thus occurs where the crust is easier to break up because it has been stretched by lithospheric extension, allowing melt to reach the surface. Volcanic anomalies are created by plate tectonics such as spreading plate boundaries or subduction zones. The location of the volcanism is governed by the stress field in the plate and the amount of melt is governed by the fusibility of the mantle beneath. Plate tectonics can explain most of the volcanism on Earth.\n", "The eruption initially produced a caldera deep. However, much of the ejecta went straight up, fell down, and filled the initial caldera about two-thirds full.\n\nSection::::Geology.:Eruptions.\n" ]

[ "The earth may become more hollow due to lava eruptions." ]

[ "No, because there are points of the earth where the crust goes back into the mantle and is remelted - subduction." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The earth may become more hollow due to lava eruptions.", "The earth may become more hollow due to lava eruptions." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "No, because there are points of the earth where the crust goes back into the mantle and is remelted - subduction.", "No, because there are points of the earth where the crust goes back into the mantle and is remelted - subduction." ]

[ "For most of the Quaternary, from 2.6 million years ago to the present, the basin seems to have been a huge, well-watered plain, with many rivers and water bodies, probably rich in plant and animal life. Towards the end of this period the climate became drier. Around 20,000-40,000 years ago, eolianite sand dunes began to form in the north of the basin.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nA number of running research projects in Jordan found that the erosion of the main agricultural soil, the Terra Rossa, took place at the end of the last Ice Age and during the Younger Dryas. It seems therefore that erosion of the today intensively used soils was limited during historical periods, and not connected with desertification. \n", "BULLET::::- Up to 4m thick reddish windblown Hutton Sands that accumulated during drier intervals since about 0.3-0.5 million years ago.\n", "Sand sheets are flat, gently undulating sandy plots of sand surfaced by grains that may be too large for saltation. They form approximately 40 percent of aeolian depositional surfaces. The Selima Sand Sheet in the eastern Sahara Desert, which occupies 60,000 square kilometers in southern Egypt and northern Sudan, is one of the Earth's largest sand sheets. The Selima is absolutely flat in a few places; in others, active dunes move over its surface.\n", "People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago, since the end of the last glacial period. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including \"Afrovenator\", \"Jobaria\" and \"Ouranosaurus\", have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. It was long believed that the region had been this way since about 1600 BCE, after shifts in the Earth's axis increased temperatures and decreased precipitation, which led to the abrupt desertification of North Africa about 5,400 years ago.\n", "Section::::Dunefields.:Sediment.\n", "Section::::History.:Nubians.\n", "Section::::History and conservation.\n\nThe Sahara was one of the first regions of Africa to be farmed. Some 5,000 years ago, the area was not so arid and the vegetation might have been closer to a savanna. Previous fauna may be recognised in stone carvings. However, desertification set in around 3000 BCE, and the area became much like it is today.\n", "Sediments from the Pleistocene and Holocene, in the last 2.5 million years of the Quaternary are found in large sand dunes in southeastern Western Sahara as well as large lake beds throughout the country. \n\nSection::::Hydrogeology.\n", "Section::::Climate.:Desertification and prehistoric climate.\n\nOne theory for the formation of the Sahara is that the monsoon in Northern Africa was weakened because of glaciation during the Quaternary period, starting two or three million years ago. Another theory is that the monsoon was weakend when the ancient Tethys Sea dried up during the Tortonian period around 7 million years.\n", "The sand consists of quartz grains, with minor amounts of feldspar, biotite, calcite, garnet and magnetite.\n\nSection::::Recreation.\n", "Section::::\"The Sahara Testaments\".\n", "BULLET::::- Saharan halophytics: Seasonally flooded saline depressions in the Maghreb are home to halophytic, or salt-adapted, plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square km (20,800 square miles), including Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and other areas of Egypt, Algeria, Mauritania, and Western Sahara.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "[In] the highlands of the central Sahara Desert beyond the Libyan Desert... in the great massifs of the Tibesti and the Hoggar, the mountaintops, today bare rock, were covered at this period with forests of oak and walnut, lime, alder and elm. The lower slopes, together with those of the supporting bastions — the Tassili and the Acacus to the north, Ennedi and Air to the south — carried olive, juniper and Aleppo pine. In the valleys, perennially flowing rivers teemed with fish and were bordered by seed-bearing grasslands.\n\nSection::::Cultures.\n", "The native inhabitants of the area are the Nubians. The River Nile goes through most of its cataracts while traveling through the Nubian Desert. This is right before the Great Bend of the Nile. The Nubian Desert affected the civilization in ancient Egypt in many ways.\n\nMerchants and traders from ancient Egypt would travel over the Nubian Desert to buy gold, cloth, stone, food, and much more from the ancient civilization of Nubia.\n", "Another key piece of evidence for a processional control on the North African Monsoon can be found in the deposits of freshwater diatoms in the tropical Atlantic. Ocean cores from the tropical Atlantic have been found to have distinct layers of the freshwater diatom Aulacoseira Granulata also known as Melosira Granulata. These layers occur on a 23,000 year cycle that lags the maximum in precession insolation by roughly 5000 to 6000 years. To explain these cyclic freshwater diatom deposits we have to look inland at the Sahara region of Africa. Around the time of the insolation maximum in the precession cycle the North African Monsoon is at its strongest and the Sahara region becomes dominated by large monsoonal lakes. Then as time progress toward the insolation minima, these lakes begin to dry out due to weakening North African Monsoon. As the lakes dry up thin sediment deposits containing freshwater diatoms are exposed. Finally, when the prevailing northeasterly winds arrive during winter, the freshwater diatom deposits in the dried lake beds are picked up as dust and carried thousands of kilometers out into the tropical Atlantic. From this series of events the reason for 5000 to 6000-year delay in the freshwater diatom deposits is evident, since the North African Monsoon must become sufficiently weak before the monsoonal lakes in the Sahara begin to dry up and expose potential freshwater diatom sources. One key factor that must be noted with freshwater diatom deposits is species identification. For instance some ocean cores directly off the western coast of Africa show a mix of freshwater lake and river diatom species. So for a core to accurately represent the diatom cycle of the Sahara it must be recovered from a region of the tropical Atlantic that has sufficient distance from the coast such that the impacts of river outflows are minimized.\n", "Section::::History.:Tenerians.\n", "He also states that little of the area conforms to \"the romantic view... the Hollywood scenery of wind-formed dunes with occasional oases fringed with palm\"; those such areas do exist, in the Sand Sea where dunes are sculpted into fantastic shapes; the area is also the location of a series of oases created where the land dips sufficiently to meet the aquifer. These lie in an arc from Siwa in the north-west near the Libyan border, to Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla, then Kharga in the south.\n", "Section::::Description.:Palate.\n", "For centuries the sands of these dune fields were historically significant because they lay across the much traveled north-south route between Chihuahua City and \"The Pass of the North\" at the site of the border cities of Ciudad Juárez and El Paso. Before the era of the modern highway and the railroad, travel by foot, horse or oxen across this extended barrier of some 30 kilometers of loose sand was laborious and dangerous, but travelers had the option of a longer (and thus more time consuming) detour around the east side of the dune fields.\n", "The world's most noted deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert.\n", "Around 4000 BCE the climate of the Sahara and the Sahel started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace. This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more humid climate of West Africa.\n", "Today the eastern Sahara is among the driest locations on Earth as it is far removed from oceanic moisture sources. However, during the early and middle Holocene, large lakes such as Lake Chad and Lake Ptolemy developed within the Sahara and river systems such as Wadi Howar flowed, although it is not clear if they were flowing through a still desertic landscape. The formation of these paleolakes was ultimately linked to a stronger African monsoon caused by a higher axial tilt and the perihelion of Earth coinciding with late July and thus the monsoon season. \n\nSection::::Geomorphology.:Lake.\n", "Section::::Desertification and soil loss.\n", "Many people think of deserts as consisting of extensive areas of billowing sand dunes because that is the way they are often depicted on TV and in films, but deserts do not always look like this. Across the world, around 20% of desert is sand, varying from only 2% in North America to 30% in Australia and over 45% in Central Asia. Where sand does occur, it is usually in large quantities in the form of sand sheets or extensive areas of dunes.\n" ]

[ "Sand must have come from somewhere else.", "Sand in the Sahara came from somewhere else." ]

[ "Sand was there originally because the sahara was underwater. ", "Sand has always been in the Sahara, since the Sahara use to be underwater. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Sand must have come from somewhere else.", "Sand in the Sahara came from somewhere else." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Sand was there originally because the sahara was underwater. ", "Sand has always been in the Sahara, since the Sahara use to be underwater. " ]

[ "Section::::Overview.\n\nBone conduction is one reason why a person's voice sounds different to them when it is recorded and played back. Because the skull conducts lower frequencies better than air, people perceive their own voices to be lower and fuller than others do, and a recording of one's own voice frequently sounds higher than one expects.\n", "Artifacts created during attempts to boost the clarity of an existing recording might explain some EVP. Methods include re-sampling, frequency isolation, and noise reduction or enhancement, which can cause recordings to take on qualities significantly different from those that were present in the original recording.\n\nThe very first EVP recordings may have originated from the use of tape recording equipment with poorly aligned erasure and recording heads, resulting in the incomplete erasure of previous audio recordings on the tape. This could allow a small percentage of previous content to be superimposed or mixed into a new 'silent' recording.\n", "Several record companies and independent inventors, notably Orlando Marsh, experimented with equipment and techniques for electrical recording in the early 1920s. Marsh's electrically recorded Autograph Records were already being sold to the public in 1924, a year before the first such offerings from the major record companies, but their overall sound quality was too low to demonstrate any obvious advantage over traditional acoustical methods. Marsh's microphone technique was idiosyncratic and his work had little if any impact on the systems being developed by others.\n", "Overall sound fidelity of records produced acoustically using horns instead of microphones had a distant, hollow tone quality. Some voices and instruments recorded better than others; Enrico Caruso, a famous tenor, was one popular recording artist of the acoustic era whose voice was well matched to the recording horn. It has been asked, \"Did Caruso make the phonograph, or did the phonograph make Caruso?\"\n", "Second, copies of analog recordings tend to degrade when copied due to the introduction of hiss or \"noise\" inherent to the use of magnetic tape. As a result, no two copies are identical, and each copy, or generation, sounds inferior to the generation preceding it.\n", "Section::::Versions.:Original mono S-i-S.\n", "Section::::Recording career.:Las Vegas.\n", "One audio historian wrote: \"new methods of electronic reproduction and improved record material that produced very little background noise were developed … by the end of the decade, the use of old phonograph music had largely been replaced by the new electrical transcription ... with the fidelity available, it was difficult to tell a transcription from the original artist.\" A 1948 ad for a disc manufacturer touted the use of transcriptions on the Voice of America, saying; \"a substantial part of these daily programs is recorded and, due to the excellent quality of these transcriptions, such recorded portions cannot be distinguished from the \"live\" transmissions.\"\n", "Beginning in 1948, several innovations created the conditions that made for major improvements of home-audio quality possible:\n\nBULLET::::- Reel-to-reel audio tape recording, based on technology taken from Germany after WWII, helped musical artists such as Bing Crosby make and distribute recordings with better fidelity.\n", "Section::::Stereo experiments on disc.\n\nSection::::Stereo experiments on disc.:Early lateral, vertical and double-sided stereo.\n\nEdison had been recording in a hill-and-dale or vertically modulated format on his cylinders and discs since 1877, and Berliner had been recording in a side-to-side or lateral format since shortly thereafter. Each format developed on its own trajectory until the late 1920s when electric recording on disc, utilizing a microphone surpassed acoustic recording where the performer needed to shout or play very loudly into what basically amounted to a megaphone in reverse.\n", "Section::::Electro-acoustic.\n\nDevelopments in electronics in the early 20th century—specifically the invention of the amplifier and the microphone—led to the creation of the first artificial echo chambers, built for radio and recording studios. Until the 1950s echo and reverberation were typically created by a combination of electrical and physical methods.\n", "\"The Jazz Singer\" used a process called Vitaphone that involved synchronizing the projected film to sound recorded on disc. It essentially amounted to playing a phonograph record, but one that was recorded with the best electrical technology of the time. Audiences used to acoustic phonographs and recordings would, in the theatre, have heard something resembling 1950s \"high fidelity\".\n", "The sound quality of the original recording has been described as \"disappointingly woolly\", with \"incidents of peaky distortion from the piano microphone\". The stereo recording has the piano \"up front and center\", with the double bass \"far to the right channel\" and the drums \"Strictly in the left channel and slightly behind the piano\".\n\nSection::::Reception and influence.:Musicians.\n", "BULLET::::10. As video recorder technology improved it became possible to modify them and use analogue to digital converters (codecs) for digital sound recording. This brought greater dynamic range to tape mastering, combined with low noise and distortion, and freedom from drop outs as well as pre- and post-echo. The digital recording was played back providing a high quality analogue signal to master the lacquer–aluminium cut.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Sound fidelity.:Shortcomings.\n", "Bell Laboratories began experimenting with a range of recording techniques in the early 1930s. Performances by Leopold Stokowski and the Philadelphia Orchestra were recorded in 1931 and 1932 using telephone lines between the Academy of Music in Philadelphia and the Bell labs in New Jersey. Some multitrack recordings were made on optical sound film, which led to new advances used primarily by MGM (as early as 1937) and 20th Century-Fox Film Corporation (as early as 1941). RCA Victor began recording performances by several orchestras using optical sound around 1941, resulting in higher-fidelity masters for 78-rpm discs. During the 1930s, Avery Fisher, an amateur violinist, began experimenting with audio design and acoustics. He wanted to make a radio that would sound like he was listening to a live orchestra—that would achieve high fidelity to the original sound. After World War II, Harry F. Olson conducted an experiment whereby test subjects listened to a live orchestra through a hidden variable acoustic filter. The results proved that listeners preferred high fidelity reproduction, once the noise and distortion introduced by early sound equipment was removed.\n", "Several people believe that this classic recording is not an accurate reflection of Morrison's speech. These people theorize that Nehlsen's Presto 6D recorder ran about 3% slow, causing Morrison's voice to sound different from how it actually was, and that Morrison's normal speaking and radio announcer voice was actually quite deep as evidenced by other recordings of his voice from the same era.\n\nOne of these people is audio historian Michael Biel of Morehead State University, who studied the original recordings and analyzed Nehlsen's vital contribution as an engineer as well as the playback speed issue:\n", "Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the first commercial digital recordings in the early 1970s, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called \"electrical recording\", in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the \"horn sound\" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured.\n", "Magnetic tape brought about sweeping changes in both radio and the recording industry. Sound could be recorded, erased and re-recorded on the same tape many times, sounds could be duplicated from tape to tape with only minor loss of quality, and recordings could now be very precisely edited by physically cutting the tape and rejoining it.\n", "BULLET::::- Audio quality: phonograph discs, Vitaphone's in particular, had superior dynamic range to most sound-on-film processes of the day, at least during the first few playings; while sound-on-film tended to have better frequency response, this was outweighed by greater distortion and noise\n\nAs sound-on-film technology improved, both of these disadvantages were overcome.\n\nThe third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback:\n\nSection::::Crucial innovations.:Fidelity electronic recording and amplification.\n", "Section::::Career.:The sound era and RKO years.\n", "Section::::Career.:Voice work.\n", "Section::::Recording artists.:Bobby Womack.\n", "BULLET::::- Lipman, Samuel,\"The House of Music: Art in an Era of Institutions\", 1984. See the chapter on \"Getting on Record\", pp. 62–75, about the early record industry and Fred Gaisberg and Walter Legge and FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording).\n\nBULLET::::- Millard, Andre J., \"America on record : a history of recorded sound\", Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995.\n\nBULLET::::- Millard, Andre J., \" From Edison to the iPod\", UAB Reporter, 2005, University of Alabama at Birmingham.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The New York Times\" (May 10, 1931): \"a searing, biting, smashing piece of propaganda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Theatre Guild Magazine\" (July 1931): \"frankly propagandist play... (that) deeply moved its audiences.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Theatre Arts Monthly\" (undated, probably 1931): \"a good play, of important native material, well characterized, handling experimental technical material skillfully, worth any theatre's attention--amateur or professional.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Workers' Theatre\" (January 1932): \"Flanagan and Clifford mutilated the class line of the story and adapted it into a play form with a clear liberal ideology.\"\n\nSection::::Production details.:Reviews.:2010s Reviews.\n\nChange in times leads many reviewers to overlook key elements in story and style:\n", "Mullin's tape recorder came along at precisely the right moment. Crosby realized that the new technology would enable him to pre-record his radio show with a sound quality that equaled live broadcasts, and that these tapes could be replayed many times with no appreciable loss of quality. Mullin was asked to tape one show as a test and was immediately hired as Crosby's chief engineer to pre-record the rest of the series.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- More teeth appear, often in the order of two lower incisors then two upper incisors followed by four more incisors and two lower molars but some babies may still be waiting for their first.\n\nBULLET::::- Arm and hands are more developed than feet and legs (cephalocaudal development); hands appear large in proportion to other body parts.\n\nBULLET::::- Legs may continue to appear bowed.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baby fat\" continues to appear on thighs, upper arms and neck.\n\nBULLET::::- Feet appear flat as arch has not yet fully developed.\n\nBULLET::::- Both eyes work in unison (true binocular coordination).\n", "Micrognathism\n\nMicrognathism is a condition where the jaw is undersized. It is also sometimes called \"mandibular hypoplasia\". It is common in infants, but is usually self-corrected during growth, due to the jaws' increasing in size. It may be a cause of abnormal tooth alignment and in severe cases can hamper feeding. It can also, both in adults and children, make intubation difficult, either during anesthesia or in emergency situations.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nWhile not always pathological, it can present as a birth defect in multiple syndromes including:\n\nBULLET::::- Catel–Manzke syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Bloom syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Coffin–Lowry syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Congenital rubella syndrome\n", "Natal and neonatal teeth are an anomaly that involves teeth erupting in a newborn infant’s mouth earlier than usual. The incidence ranges from 1:2,000 to 1:3,500 births. Natal teeth are more frequent, approximately three times more common than neonatal teeth. Some authors reported a higher prevalence in females than males. The most common location is the mandibular region of the central incisors. Natal teeth and neonatal teeth are associated with genetics, developmental abnormalities and certain recognized syndromes. Additional names for this condition include precocious dentition, baby teeth, and milk teeth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Polyphyodont\n\nBULLET::::- Tooth regeneration\n", "Neonatal teeth\n\nNatal teeth are teeth that are present above the gumline (have already erupted) at birth, and neonatal teeth are teeth that emerge through the gingiva during the first month of life (the neonatal period).\n\nThe incidence of neonatal teeth varies considerably, between 1:700 and 1:30,000 depending on the type of study; the highest prevalence is found in the only study that relies on personal examination of patients.\n", "Natal teeth, and neonatal teeth, can be the baby's normal deciduous teeth, sprouting prematurely. These should be preserved, if possible. Alternately, they could be supernumary teeth, extra teeth, not part of the normal allotment of teeth.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nMost often natal teeth are mandibular central incisors. They have little root structure and are attached to the end of the gum by soft tissue and are often mobile.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nMost of the time, natal teeth are not related to a medical condition. However, sometimes they may be associated with:\n\nBULLET::::- Ellis–van Creveld syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Hallermann–Streiff syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Pierre Robin syndrome\n", "Several traditions concern throwing the shed teeth. In Turkey, Cyprus, and Greece, children traditionally throw their fallen baby teeth onto the roof of their house while making a wish. Similarly, in some Asian countries, such as India, Korea, Nepal, the Philippines, and Vietnam, when a child loses a tooth, the usual custom is that he or she should throw it onto the roof if it came from the lower jaw, or into the space beneath the floor if it came from the upper jaw. While doing this, the child shouts a request for the tooth to be replaced with the tooth of a mouse. This tradition is based on the fact that the teeth of mice grow for their entire lives, a characteristic of all rodents.\n", "Generally, there are gender differences in the appearance of this tooth. In males, the size of the maxillary central incisor is larger usually than in females. Gender differences in enamel thickness and dentin width are low. Age differences in the gingival-incisal length of maxillary central incisors are seen and are attributed to normal attrition occurring throughout life. Thus, younger individuals have a greater gingival incisal length of the teeth than older individuals.\n\nSection::::Permanent dentition.:Labial view.\n", "\"Linking to the Past\" by Kenneth L. Feder states that \"Dental development...provides a valuable gauge of the level of physical maturity and age.\" The first set of teeth, or the lower central incisors, does not begin to appear until the infant is approximately six-and-a-half months old. The rest of the baby teeth, which are called deciduous teeth, will then appear “fairly consistently across the species”, until the child is about two-years-old, when the second upper molars appear; at this point in development, there are twenty teeth in all.\n", "Embryonic age: 7 weeks and 0 days until 9 weeks and 6 days old.\n\nBULLET::::- Embryo measures in length.\n\nBULLET::::- Ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse during the 8th week\n\nBULLET::::- Intestines rotate.\n\nBULLET::::- Facial features continue to develop.\n\nBULLET::::- The eyelids are more developed.\n\nBULLET::::- The external features of the ear begin to take their final shape.\n\nBULLET::::- The head comprises nearly half of the fetus' size.\n\nBULLET::::- The face is well formed.\n\nBULLET::::- The eyelids close and will not reopen until about the 28th week.\n\nBULLET::::- Tooth buds, which will form the baby teeth, appear.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nIn almost all European languages the primary teeth are called \"baby teeth\" or \"milk teeth\". In the United States and Canada, the term \"baby teeth\" is common. In some Asian countries they are referred to as \"fall teeth\" since they will eventually fall out.\n\nAlthough shedding of a milk tooth is predominantly associated with positive emotions such as pride and joy by the majority of the children, socio-cultural factors (such as parental education, religion or country of origin) affect the various emotions children experience during the loss of their first primary tooth.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nThe primary tooth will begin to show signs of development between 14 weeks and 16 weeks in utero, at an average of 16 weeks.\n\nThe permanent tooth typically will erupt between when the child is 8 or 9 years old, while the root will continue to mineralize until around 11 years old.. The tooth's crown will conclude its development around the age of 4 or 5.\n\nSection::::Deciduous dentition.\n", "Open bite malocclusion can happen due to several reasons. It may be genetic in nature, leading to a skeletal open bite or can be caused by functional habits which may lead to dental open bite. In the earlier age, open bite may occur due to a transitional change from primary to the permanent dentition. Some factors that may cause an open bite are:\n\nBULLET::::- Tongue thrusting\n\nBULLET::::- Thumb sucking\n\nBULLET::::- Long-term usage of Pacifier\n\nBULLET::::- Macroglossia\n\nBULLET::::- Airway obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Adenoid hypertrophy\n\nBULLET::::- Nasal concha Hypertrophy\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Anterior open bite.\n", "BULLET::::- systemic factors such as nutritional factors, exanthematous diseases like measles and chickenpox, congenital syphilis, hypocalcemia, birth injury or premature birth, fluoride ingestion or idiopathic causes.\n", "Patient with skeletal open bites that accompany dental open bites may have Adenoid faces or Long face syndrome. They are said to have what is known as \"Hyperdivergent Growth Pattern\" which includes characteristics such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased Lower Anterior Facial Height\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusal plane diverges after the 1st molar contact\n\nBULLET::::- May accompany dental open bite\n\nBULLET::::- Narrow nostrils with upturned nose\n\nBULLET::::- Dolicofacial or Leptoprosopic face pattern\n\nBULLET::::- Constricted maxillary arch\n\nBULLET::::- Bilateral Posterior Crossbite\n\nBULLET::::- High and narrow palatal vault\n\nBULLET::::- Presence of crowding in teeth\n\nBULLET::::- Mentalis muscle strain upon forcibly closing of lips\n", "Dental open bite occurs in patients where the anterior teeth fail to touch. However, this is not accompanied by the skeletal tendency of having an open bite. Thus this type of open bite may happen in patients who have horizontal or hypodivergent growth pattern. These patients have normal jaw growth and do not have the long face syndrome. The anterior open bite in these patients may be caused by Macroglossia, Tongue thrusting habit or digit sucking habits. Some of the characteristics of a dental open bite include: \n\nBULLET::::- Normal lower anterior facial height\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal/Hypodivergent growth pattern\n", "Teething age of primary teeth:\n\nBULLET::::- Central incisors : 6–12 months\n\nBULLET::::- Lateral incisors : 9–16 months\n\nBULLET::::- First molars : 13–19 months\n\nBULLET::::- Canine teeth : 16–23 months\n\nBULLET::::- Second molars : 22–33 months\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "BULLET::::2. Upper central incisors (2) at approximately 8 months\n\nBULLET::::3. Upper lateral incisors (2) at approximately 10 months\n\nBULLET::::4. Lower lateral incisors (2) at approximately 10 months\n\nBULLET::::5. First molars (4) at approximately 14 months\n\nBULLET::::6. Canines (4) at approximately 18 months\n\nBULLET::::7. Second molars (4) at approximately 2–3 years\n\nMilk teeth tend to emerge sooner in females than in males. The exact pattern and initial starting times of teething appear to be hereditary. When and how teeth appear in an infant has no bearing on the health of the child.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Misdiagnosis as teething.\n", "Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Humans, like other mammals, are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. The first set (called the \"baby\", \"milk\", \"primary\", or \"deciduous\" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as natal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "Behavior therapy is important especially when the kids are in their primary dentition in the pre-adolescent age. Improving habits at this time may lead to self-correction of open bite in many cases. Sometimes presence of infantile swallowing into early childhood may lead to an anterior open bite in patients. Habit control through appliances such as Tongue crib or Tongue spurs may be used in adolescent ages if the behavior modification fails to stop the habit.\n\nSection::::Open bite correction.:Primary/mixed dentition.:Tongue crib therapy.\n", "BULLET::::- Early loss of deciduous teeth - Whether due to caries, premature exfoliation or planned extraction – the early loss of deciduous teeth results in an increase in the severity of pre-existing crowding. When crowding is present the remaining teeth will drift or tilt into the free space provided. The younger the patient is when the tooth is lost and the earlier in development the adjacent teeth are the more serve the effect.\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperdontia - Hyperdontia is the congenital condition of having supernumerary teeth. Hyperdontia can result in crowding due to an increased number of teeth within the arch.\n", "The tradition of throwing a baby tooth up into the sky to the sun or to Allah and asking for a better tooth to replace it is common in Middle Eastern countries (including Iraq, Jordan, Egypt and Sudan). It may originate in a pre-Islamic offering and certainly dates back to at least the 13th century, when Izz bin Hibat Allah Al Hadid mentions it.\n", "BULLET::::- Developmental crowding of lower incisors - Inter-canine growth increases up to the age of 12–13 years, followed by a gradual diminution throughout adult life. This reduction is arch size is considered a developmental phenomenon\n", "All teeth appear slightly larger than normal, usually occurring in cases with small jaws. It is called pseudomacrodontia because the small jaws give the illusion that they are abnormally large. Genetics plays a major role in this type of macrodontia, as the offspring inherits small jaw size from one of the parents and large teeth from the other parent. \n\nSection::::Types.:Single tooth.\n\nA single tooth is larger than the rest. This is unusual and could be the result of fusion and germination that cause enlarged crowns.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "The primary (baby) teeth generally start coming in by 6 months of age, and all 20 teeth may be in by two and a half years of age. The eruption timing varies greatly. There may be an incomplete formation of the enamel on the teeth (enamel hypoplasia) that makes the teeth more vulnerable to caries (cavities). There may be missing teeth eruptions. If the infant is not closing down properly, the lower jaws become more noticeably deficient (micrognathia or retrognathia). The front teeth may not touch when the child closes down because the back teeth have overerrupted or because of incomplete formation of the maxilla. This condition is called an anterior open bite and has facial/skeletal implications. The saliva may be thick, or the infant may have a dry mouth.\n", "It is important to note the difference of ages that play a role in eruption of the posterior molars. An adolescence has an inter-maxillary growth space which allows the posterior molar eruption without any relapse in the later age when relative intrusion is performed in their orthodontic treatment. However, if relative intrusion is performed in adults who have a deep bite tendency with short anterior lower facial height, there is a higher chance of relapse of this movement. This is due to two reasons: Adults do not have intermaxillary growth space that posterior teeth can erupt into and adults tend to have a strong facial jaw musculature which leads to \"pound\" the molars back into their original position. Therefore, in an orthodontic treatment it is important to diagnose a patient with a type of facial growth that is occurring before taking any treatment steps.\n" ]

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[ "The stories are written to reach periodic semi-cliffhangers coinciding with the network-scheduled times for the insertion of commercials, and are further managed to fill, but not exceed, the fixed running times allotted by the network to each movie \"series\". In the case of films made for cable channels, they may rely on common, repetitive tropes (Hallmark Channel, for example, is notorious for its formulaic Christmas romances, while Lifetime movies are well-known for their common use of damsel in distress storylines). The movies tend to rely on smaller casts one such exception being those produced for premium cable, such as \"Behind the Candelabra\" (which featured established film actors Michael Douglas and Matt Damon in the lead roles) and a limited range of scene settings and camera setups. Even Spielberg's \"Duel\", while having decent production values, features a very small cast (apart from Dennis Weaver, all other actors appearing in the film play smaller roles) and mostly outdoor shooting locations in the desert.\n", "Section::::Sensory Features.:Spatial Information.\n\nViewing spaces on screen from a stable point of view is important for short-term spatial coding and long term spatial memory. Long-time viewers of the television show \"Friends\" were significantly better at accurately recalling spatial information about the show's set, because the camera never moves away from the \"fourth wall\". Equally experienced viewers of the show \"E.R.\" were less likely to recall information about the set and be able to mentally orient themselves inside it, because the show is filmed from many different angles.\n", "In 2012, it was reported that television was growing into a larger component of major media companies' revenues than film. Some also noted the increase in quality of some television programs. In 2012, Academy-Award-winning film director Steven Soderbergh, commenting on ambiguity and complexity of character and narrative, stated: \"I think those qualities are now being seen on television and that people who want to see stories that have those kinds of qualities are watching television.\"\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Development.\n\nSection::::Production.:Development.:United States.\n", "In a 1991 \"New York Times\" article, television critic John J. O'Connor wrote that \"few artifacts of popular culture invite more condescension than the made-for-television movie\". Network-made television movies in the United States have tended to be inexpensively-produced and perceived to be of low quality. Stylistically, these films often resemble single episodes of dramatic television series. Often, television films are made to \"cash in\" on the interest centering on stories currently prominent in the news, as the films based on the \"Long Island Lolita\" scandal involving Joey Buttafuoco and Amy Fisher were in 1993.\n", "The movies typically employ smaller crews, and rarely feature expensive special effects. Although a film's expenses would be lessened by filming using video, as the movies were contracted by television studios, these films were required to be shot on 35 mm film. Various techniques are often employed to \"pad\" television movies with low budgets and underdeveloped scripts, such as music video-style montages, flashbacks, or repeated footage, and extended periods of dramatic slow motion footage. However, the less expensive digital 24p video format has made some quality improvements on the television movie market.\n", "Television movies traditionally were often broadcast by the major networks during sweeps season. Such offerings now are very rare; as Ken Tucker noted while reviewing the Jesse Stone CBS television movies, \"broadcast networks aren’t investing in made-for-TV movies anymore\". The slack has been taken up by cable networks such as Hallmark Channel, Syfy, Lifetime and HBO, with productions such as \"Temple Grandin\" and \"Recount\", often utilizing top creative talent.\n", "\"Gilmore Girls\" relied on a master shot filming style, in which a scene is filmed to frame characters and their dialogue together within a long and uninterrupted, single take; often illustrated through another method regularly employed on the show, the walk and talk. Sherman-Palladino explained \"There's an energy and style to our show that's very simple, in my mind ... [it] almost needs to be shot like a play. That's how we get our pace, our energy, and our flow ... I don't think it could work any other way.\"\n", "One reason for this is that, when rendered in studio format, most screenplays will transfer onto the screen at the rate of approximately one page per minute. This rule of thumb is widely contested — a page of dialogue usually occupies less screen time than a page of action, for example, and it depends enormously on the literary style of the writer — and yet it continues to hold sway in modern Hollywood.\n", "As television shows become increasingly as popular as DVD rentals and purchases, media industries have been attempting to increase the “rewatchability” of programs. If a television program has a simple plot that can be understood in a single viewing, viewers will be less likely to want to purchase a DVD recording of this television show. However, if a show provides a complex narrative construction and richly detailed content, viewers will be more inclined to want to \"rewatch episodes or segments to parse out complex moments.\"\n", "Capacity model implies that television viewers will construct their understanding of the narrative content by accessing prior knowledge and draw inferences on the new material based on previous exposure. Theory and empirical research has supported the notion that people are using working memory to process information needed to follow the story line or plot. Due to the audio/visual nature of television, individual program factors will influence how much demand is used. For example, a fast paced action sequence will require more working memory to follow the action than perhaps a slow dialogue between two characters.\n", "Made-for-TV movie musicals have also become popular. One prime example is the \"High School Musical\" series, which aired its first two films on the Disney Channel. The first television movie was so successful that a sequel was produced, \"High School Musical 2\", that debuted in August 2007 to 17.2 million viewers (this made it the highest-rated non-sports program in the history of basic cable and the highest-rated made-for-cable movie premiere on record). Due to the popularity of the first two films, the second \"HSM\" sequel, \"\", was released as a theatrical film in 2008 instead of airing on Disney Channel; \"High School Musical 3\" became one of the highest-grossing movie musicals.\n", "Chang uses \"Friends\", \"The Simpsons\", \"Seinfeld\", and \"South Park\" as examples of TV shows that peaked after their sixth season. Jeff and Annie describe the Marvel Cinematic Universe (several movies of which have been directed by \"Community\" alumni Anthony and Joe Russo) as \"boring\" and \"flavorless\". The episode's end-tag references \"St. Elsewhere\"'s series finale and Chuck Lorre's vanity cards.\n\nThe song \"Ends of the Earth\" by Lord Huron plays during the final moments of the episode as Jeff drops Abed and Annie off at the airport.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Section::::Broadcast history.:\"At the Movies\" (2008–10).:Scott and Phillips (2009–2010).\n", "\"There are few enough films going these days,\" she said, \"and there are three or four women who are offered all the good parts. Of course I could play a lot of awful parts that are too depressing to contemplate... [Television] is s not the love affair I have with film, but television can be a playground for interesting ideas. I love wild, baroque, slightly excessive theatrical ideas, and because television needs so much material, there's a chance to get some of those odd ideas done.\" \n", "Not all critics, however, were receptive to this new trend in viewership. Syndicated entertainment writer Cynthia Lowry, for example, noted that CBS, as well as its two competitors, were engaged in the programming practice of \"front-loading\"—in other words, \"piling in early the best feature-films.\" She warned that later \"they will have to put on some of the turkeys—and there are those in every package.\" Lowry further complained that as a result of the popularity of old movies, new TV programs were \"suffering seriously this season from the competition\" while attempting to establish a loyal fan base of their own during the crucial first weeks of their broadcast. Ms. Lowry's objections notwithstanding, however, as long as movie anthologies continued to deliver better-than-average product, superior viewer ratings would continue to endure—which they did. Below is listed the entire CBS roster for a season that began with bubbling confidence.\n", "The intermedia network has made all of us artists by proxy. A decade of television-watching is equal to a comprehensive course in dramatic acting, writing, and filming...the mystique is gone—we could almost do it ourselves. Unfortunately too many of us do just that: hence the glut of sub-mediocre talent in the entertainment industry.\n", "Actor Kevin Spacey used the 2013 MacTaggart Lecture to implore television executives to give audiences \"what they want when they want it. If they want to binge, then we should let them binge\". He claimed that high-quality stories will retain audience's attention for hours on end, and may reduce piracy, although millions still download content illegally. Binge-watching \"complex, quality TV\" such as \"The Wire\" and \"Breaking Bad\" has been likened to reading more than one chapter of a novel in one sitting, and is viewed by some as a \"smart, contemplative way\" of watching TV.\n", "The world of TV writing is much like the hell that is high school, only the nerds are nerdier, the jocks are jockier and all the mean girls want to eat your young. With the help of Chad’s book and breezy writing, one will be able to navigate the treacherous waters and dimly lit corridors and emerge overpaid and well fed, just like the rest of us.\n", "Drawing on the ideas of media scholar Marshall McLuhan – altering McLuhan's aphorism \"the medium is the message\" to \"the medium is the metaphor\" – he describes how oral, literate, and televisual cultures radically differ in the processing and prioritization of information; he argues that each medium is appropriate for a different kind of knowledge. The faculties requisite for rational inquiry are simply weakened by televised viewing. Accordingly, reading, a prime example cited by Postman, exacts intense intellectual involvement, at once interactive and dialectical; whereas television only requires passive involvement.\n", "Earlier television, Johnson says, simplified narrative and human relationships, while modern trends not only in reality shows but in \"multiple threading\" in scripted programs such as \"The Sopranos\" improve the audience's cognitive skills. He suggests too that modern television and films have reduced the number of \"flashing arrows\", narrative clues to help the audience understand the plot, and require audiences to do more cognitive work paying attention to background detail and information if they wish to follow what they are viewing.\n\nLater in the book, he mentions that these features of television are also prevalent in film, too.\n", "Gary Solomon, PhD, MPH, MSW, and author of \"The Motion Picture Prescription\" and \"Reel Therapy\" states that viewing television or film movies \"can have a positive effect on most people except those suffering from psychotic disorders.\"\n", "Many early psychological studies of learning from film and particularly TV found this medium to be inferior to text. Studies included comparisons between reading newspaper reports and watching TV news. In these early studies the memory retention was always stronger in those who read the reports. This was shown to be linked mainly to the ability of the individual to control the speed of the delivery of information. When you read you can pause at any time, which was not possible with classroom-based TV and film. This has changed with the advent of online video, which can be paused and rewound easily. More recent studies now see no difference in memory retention between the two media, video and text.\n", "Christopher Cornell, writing in \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\", echoed the sentiment: \"People who liked the movie (read: teenagers) will tune in expecting something like what they saw in the theater. But the network is going to have to completely eliminate the movie's cheerfully rampant drug use and tone down the lusty sexual content, so that parents won't be uncomfortable.\"\n", "In 1996, 264 made-for-TV movies were made by five of the six largest American television networks at the time (CBS, NBC, Fox, ABC, and UPN), averaging a 7.5 rating. By 2000, only 146 TV movies were made by those five networks, averaging a 5.4 rating. while the number of made-for-cable movies made annually in the U.S. doubled between 1990 and 2000.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nABC's \"Battlestar Galactica: Saga of a Star World\" premiered to an audience of over 60 million people on September 17, 1978.\n", "Meanwhile, the movies ABC and NBC offered \"their\" viewers appeared to be equally unattractive because when the Nielsen ratings for the November 1968 sweeps were released, not a single network movie telecast finished in the Top 20—an interesting predicament considering the lofty pronouncements made a year earlier by top media observers concerning the popularity of feature films on television. But as CBS vice-president Michael Dann noted, \"There has been a decided shift [in audience] since the opening of the season. I think you will see a decline in all movies for television.\" And as Rick Du Brow, UPI's television critic, confirmed:\n" ]

[ "TV shows maintain a person's attention span more than movies.", "TV shows maintain a person's attention span more than movies." ]

[ "TV shows do not necessarily maintain a person's attention span more than movies.", "It is not factual that everyones attention span is maintained by TV shows more than movies." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "TV shows maintain a person's attention span more than movies.", "TV shows maintain a person's attention span more than movies." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "TV shows do not necessarily maintain a person's attention span more than movies.", "It is not factual that everyones attention span is maintained by TV shows more than movies." ]

[ "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Urey's model.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Lyttleton's scenario.\n", "Section::::Subsequent evolution.:Asteroid belt.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:The Chamberlin-Moulton model.\n", "After the protoplanet formed, accumulation of heat from radioactive decay of short-lived elements melted the planet, allowing materials to differentiate (i.e. to separate according to their density).\n\nSection::::Formation of solar planets.:Terrestrial planets.\n\nIn the warmer inner Solar System, planetesimals formed from rocks and metals cooked billions of years ago in the cores of massive stars.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Protoplanet theory.\n", "Section::::Solar evolution hypotheses.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Interstellar cloud theory.\n", "BULLET::::- c.4,560–4,550 Ma – Proto-Earth forms at the outer (cooler) edge of the habitable zone of the Solar System. At this stage the solar constant of the Sun was only about 73% of its current value, but liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Proto-Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Early bombardment phase begins: because the solar neighbourhood is rife with large planetoids and debris, Earth experiences a number of giant impacts that help to increase its overall size.\n\nSection::::Precambrian Supereon.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Band-structure model.\n", "inner (large-core) planets form by condensation and raining-out from within giant gaseous protoplanets at high pressures and high temperatures. Earth's complete condensation included a c. 300 Earth-mass gas/ice shell that compressed the rocky kernel to about 66% of Earth's present diameter (Jupiter equates to about 300 Earth masses, which equals c. 2000 trillion trillion kg; Earth is at about 6 trillion trillion kg). T Tauri (see T Tauri type stars) eruptions of the Sun stripped the gases away from the inner planets. Mercury was incompletely condensed and a portion of its gases were stripped away and transported to the region between Mars and Jupiter, where it fused with in-falling oxidized condensate from the outer reaches of the Solar System and formed the parent material for ordinary chondrite meteorites, the Main-Belt asteroids, and veneer for the inner planets, especially Mars. The differences between the inner planets are primarily the consequence of different degrees of protoplanetary compression. There are two types of responses to decompression-driven planetary volume increases: cracks, which form to increase surface area, and folding, creating mountain ranges, to accommodate changes in curvature.\n", "Section::::Subsequent evolution.:Late Heavy Bombardment and after.\n", "The Solar System formed 4.568 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large molecular cloud. This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars. As is typical of molecular clouds, this one consisted mostly of hydrogen, with some helium, and small amounts of heavier elements fused by previous generations of stars. As the region that would become the Solar System, known as the pre-solar nebula, collapsed, conservation of angular momentum caused it to rotate faster. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. As the contracting nebula rotated faster, it began to flatten into a protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot, dense protostar at the centre. The planets formed by accretion from this disc, in which dust and gas gravitationally attracted each other, coalescing to form ever larger bodies. Hundreds of protoplanets may have existed in the early Solar System, but they either merged or were destroyed, leaving the planets, dwarf planets, and leftover minor bodies.\n", "The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are thought to have formed independently and later been captured by their planets. Still others, such as Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions. Collisions between bodies have occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the Solar System. The positions of the planets might have shifted due to gravitational interactions. This planetary migration is now thought to have been responsible for much of the Solar System's early evolution.\n", "Section::::Solar evolution hypotheses.:White dwarfs.\n", "Moons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture. Mars's two small moons, Deimos and Phobos, are thought to be captured asteroids.\n\nThe Earth's Moon is thought to have formed as a result of a single, large head-on collision.\n", "The objects formed by accretion are called planetesimals—they act as seeds for planet formation. Initially, planetesimals were closely packed. They coalesced into larger objects, forming clumps of up to a few kilometers across in a few million years, a small time with comparison to the age of the Solar System.\n\nAfter the planetesimals grew bigger in sizes, collisions became highly destructive, making further growth more difficult. Only the biggest planetesimals survived the fragmentation process and continued to slowly grow into protoplanets by accretion of planetesimals of similar composition.\n", "However, this has been questioned during the last 20 years. Currently, many planetary scientists think that the Solar System might have looked very different after its initial formation: several objects at least as massive as Mercury were present in the inner Solar System, the outer Solar System was much more compact than it is now, and the Kuiper belt was much closer to the Sun.\n\nSection::::Subsequent evolution.:Terrestrial planets.\n", "BULLET::::- c.4,566±2 Ma – A protoplanetary disc (from which Earth eventually forms) emerges around the young Sun, which is in its T Tauri stage.\n", "There are, however, arguments against this hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Formation hypothesis.\n", "Planet that Sentinel orbits.\n\nSection::::Planets.:Teufel.\n", "Section::::Misappellations.:Planet Nine.\n", "Over the course of the Solar System's evolution, comets were ejected out of the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, and sent thousands of AU outward to form the Oort cloud, a spherical outer swarm of cometary nuclei at the farthest extent of the Sun's gravitational pull. Eventually, after about 800 million years, the gravitational disruption caused by galactic tides, passing stars and giant molecular clouds began to deplete the cloud, sending comets into the inner Solar System. The evolution of the outer Solar System also appears to have been influenced by space weathering from the solar wind, micrometeorites, and the neutral components of the interstellar medium.\n", "Section::::Lunar origins hypotheses.:Giant impact hypothesis.\n", "and exchange of angular momentum between giant planets and the particles in the protoplanetary disc.\n" ]

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[ "Example.com\n\nexample.com, example.net, example.org, and example.edu are second-level domain names reserved for documentation purposes and examples of the use of domain names.\n\nThe second-level domain label \"example\" for the top-level domains .com, .net, and .org, was reserved in 1999 by the Internet Engineering Task Force in RFC 2606, Section 3, while it was reserved for the .edu domain by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) since 2000.\n", "While \"com\", \"uk\", and \"us\" are top-level domains (TLDs), Internet users cannot always register the next level of domain, such as \"co.uk\" or \"wy.us\", because these may be controlled by domain registrars. By contrast, users can register second level domains within \"com\", such as \"example.com\", because registrars control only the top level. The Public Suffix List is intended to enumerate all domain suffixes controlled by registrars.\n\nSome uses for the list are:\n", "Some of these affinity namespaces have been supplanted by more convenient sponsored top-level domains. The first sTLD, .museum, became available in October 2001 as an alternative to the .mus namespace. Since April 2003, the .edu top-level domain has been available as an alternative for community colleges, technical and vocational schools, and other tertiary educational institutions that might have previously used the .cc or .tec affinity namespaces.\n", "On June 23, 2010, Public Interest Registry's technology provider Afilias implemented the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) protocol for .org, making .org the first open gTLD to sign its zone. DNSSEC is intended to prevent cache poisoning attacks by making sure internet users arrive at the URL they intended. The implementation began in test environments in mid-2009. The protocol was implemented by Public Interest Registry's technical partner Afilias during the tenure of former CEO, Alexa Raad, who played a role in creating the DNSSEC Industry Coalition. Raad resigned from Public Interest Registry in late 2010. The non-profit had an interim CEO, until it recruited former Afilias executive Brian Cute as its third chief executive officer on January 14, 2011. After a successful tenure, Brian Cute stepped down as CEO in May 2018.\n", "Overall, IANA distinguishes the following groups of top-level domains:\n\nBULLET::::- infrastructure top-level domain (arpa)\n\nBULLET::::- country code top-level domains (ccTLD)\n\nBULLET::::- internationalized top-level domains (IDNs)\n\nBULLET::::- internationalized country code top-level domains\n\nBULLET::::- testing top-level domains\n\nBULLET::::- generic top-level domains (gTLD)\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe initial set of generic top-level domains, defined by RFC 920 in October 1984, was a set of \"general purpose domains\": com, edu, gov, mil, org. The net domain was added with the first implementation of these domains. The com, net, and org TLDs, despite their originally specified goals, are now open to use for any purpose.\n", "As the Internet grew and expanded globally, the U.S. Department of Commerce initiated a process to establish a new organization to perform the IANA functions. On January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce, issued for comment, \"A Proposal to Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses.\" The proposed rule making, or \"Green Paper\", was published in the Federal Register on February 20, 1998, providing opportunity for public comment. NTIA received more than 650 comments as of March 23, 1998, when the comment period closed.\n", "Public Suffix List\n\nThe Public Suffix List is a catalog of \n\ncertain Internet domain names. The term is also known by the form effective top-level domain (eTLD).\n\nThe Mozilla Foundation maintains suffix list for the security and privacy policies of its Firefox web browser, though it is available for other uses under the Mozilla Public License (MPL).\n\nSection::::List.\n\nThe list is used by Mozilla browsers (Firefox), by Google in Chrome and Chromium projects on certain platforms,) and by Opera. Future versions of Internet Explorer will also use the list.\n\nAccording to Mozilla,\n", "On June 2, 2009, the Public Interest Registry signed the .org zone. The Public Interest Registry also detailed on September 26, 2008, that the first phase, involving large registrars it has a strong working relationship with (\"friends and family\") would be the first to be able to sign their domains, beginning \"early 2009\". On June 23, 2010, 13 registrars were listed as offering DNSSEC records for .ORG domains.\n", "Section::::Grandfathered uses.\n\nDomains that were already registered in the .edu domain as of October 29, 2001, were grandfathered into the system. Holders of such domain names can retain their .edu domain names without regard to the current eligibility criteria.\n", "The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) circulated a request for proposals in May 2002 for a new organization to manage the .org domain. The Internet Society (ISOC) teamed with Afilias to put forth one of eleven proposals ICANN received. ISOC won an endorsement within ICANN and was recommended to the selection committee in a preliminary report. At a public ICANN meeting in Bucharest in 2002, ISOC CEO Lynn St. Amour and Afilias CTO Ram Mohan presented ISOC's proposal to manage the .org registry. The proposal included the creation of a separate entity, called the Public Interest Registry, to oversee the .org domain. Its board of directors is appointed by ISOC. Afilias was selected as the back-end technical provider for .org under contract with Public Interest Registry. The then-largest domain transfer in history occurred on January 1, 2003, when ICANN had VeriSign delegate 2.6 million domains to Public Interest Registry. An Internet Society Vice President, David Maher, became the chairman. The following month, Ed Viltz became the organization's first CEO.\n", "Since May 2012, the Federal Executive Branch has a policy of registering no new second-level domains for its agencies, except on a case-by-case basis. Agencies are also prohibited from using other top-level domains such as .org and .com. \"Federal Agency domains\" were also deleted on August 26, 2014.\n\nSection::::Use by states and territories.\n\n, all states, the District of Columbia, and all territories except for the Northern Mariana Islands have operational domains in \"gov\":\n\nSection::::International equivalents.\n", "One main argument against the creation of new domains is that the days of individuals typing in full URLs is slowly dying out. For example, internet browsers such as Google Chrome’s use an address bar which doubles as a search field.\n\nSection::::Global Landrush Periods.\n\nSection::::Global Landrush Periods.:The .eu Landrush Period.\n", "By the mid-1990s there was discussion of introduction of more TLDs. Jon Postel, as head of IANA, invited applications from interested parties. In early 1995, Postel created \"Draft Postel\", an Internet draft containing the procedures to create new domain name registries and new TLDs. Draft Postel created a number of small committees to approve the new TLDs. Because of the increasing interest, a number of large organizations took over the process under the Internet Society's umbrella. This second attempt involved setting up a temporary organization called the International Ad Hoc Committee (IAHC). On February 4, 1997, the IAHC issued a report ignoring the Draft Postel recommendations and instead recommending the introduction of seven new TLDs (arts, firm, info, nom, rec, store, and web). However, these proposals were abandoned after the U.S. government intervened.\n", "Section::::Universal Acceptance of Popular Web Browsers.\n\nOne of the primary ways of interfacing with the Internet is through web browsers. For this reason, the UASG commissioned a report on the performance of major browsers in the treatment and acceptance of 17 different domain names registered for the purpose of providing test cases for UA readiness.\n", "The U.S. Department of Education notes that some \"suspect\" or \"illegitimate\" educational institutions continue to use .edu addresses that were registered before the stringent eligibility criteria were adopted in 2001.\n\nSection::::Related domains.\n\nMany countries operate .edu or .ac namespaces within their country code top-level domains that serve the same purpose as the .edu top-level domain. In the United States, community colleges and technical and vocational schools also have the option of registering fourth-level domains under the .cc.\"state\".us and .tec.\"state\".us affinity namespaces, while elementary and secondary schools and school districts may register under the .k12.\"state\".us namespace.\n", "In September 1998, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) was created to take over the task of managing domain names. After a call for proposals (August 15, 2000) and a brief period of public consultation, ICANN announced on November 16, 2000 its selection of seven new TLDs: aero, biz, coop, info, museum, name, pro.\n\n, info, and museum were activated in June 2001, name and coop in January 2002, pro in May 2002, and aero later in 2002. pro became a gTLD in May 2002, but did not become fully operational until June 2004.\n", "Section::::Plugins and syndicated content support.\n\nInformation about what web standards, and technologies the browsers support. External links lead to information about support in future versions of the browsers or extensions that provide such functionality.\n\nSection::::JavaScript support.\n\nInformation about what JavaScript technologies the browsers support. Note that although XPath is used by XSLT, it is only considered here if it can be accessed using JavaScript. External links lead to information about support in future versions of the browsers or extensions that provide such functionality, e.g., Babel.\n\nSee what parts of DOM your browser supports\n\nSection::::Protocol support.\n", "Registrations take place directly at the second level or at one of the following third level domains. There are a number of registrars, but .gov.lc and .edu.lc can only be registered at the NIC.\n\nBULLET::::- .co.lc\n\nBULLET::::- .com.lc\n\nBULLET::::- .org.lc\n\nBULLET::::- .net.lc\n\nBULLET::::- .l.lc\n\nBULLET::::- .p.lc\n\nBULLET::::- .gov.lc\n\nBULLET::::- .edu.lc\n\nSection::::Accredited registrars.\n\nBULLET::::- 101domain GRS Limited, (d/b/a \"101domain.com\")\n\nBULLET::::- AB NameISP\n\nBULLET::::- Ascio Technologies\n\nBULLET::::- CSC Corporate Domains\n\nBULLET::::- Dominiando.it\n\nBULLET::::- InterNetX\n\nBULLET::::- IP Mirror\n\nBULLET::::- KeySystems Gmbh\n\nBULLET::::- MarkMonitor\n\nBULLET::::- NetNames\n\nBULLET::::- Register IT Spa\n\nBULLET::::- Variomedia\n\nThere are a number of others not listed, found at nic.lc.\n\nSection::::Rules.\n", "On February 23, 2018, the .web applicant Afilias who was the second highest bidder requested documents from ICANN.\n\nSection::::Historic information about .web.\n", "A general characteristic of ILIAS is the concept of Personal Desktop and Repository. While the Repository contains all content, courses and other materials structured in categories and described by metadata, the Personal Desktop is the individual workspace of each learner, author, tutor and administrator. The Personal Desktop contains selected items from the repository (e.g. currently visited courses or an interesting forum) as well as certain tools like mail, tagging, a calendar and also e-portfolio and personal blogs.\n\nBULLET::::- Listing of selected courses, groups and learning resources\n\nBULLET::::- Personal profile and settings like password and system language\n\nBULLET::::- Bookmark Management\n", "There are two types of domain names TLDs or Top Level Domains which include: .com, .edu, .gov, .net, .org, etc., and SLDs or secondary level domains, which precedes TLDs in the web address, and usually refers to the organization that has been registered to TLD by ICANN.\n\nSection::::Evolution of Domain Names.:Domain Names become Lucrative.\n", "This process begins when the user inputs a URL, such as \"codice_1\", into the browser. Virtually all URLs on the Web start with either \"codice_2\" or \"codice_3\" which means the browser will retrieve them with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol. In the case of \"codice_3\", the communication between the browser and the web server is encrypted for the purposes of security and privacy. Another URL prefix is \"codice_5\" which is used to display local files already stored on the user's device.\n", "To register a \"gov\" domain, a letter of authorization must be submitted to the GSA. For federal agencies, the authorization must be submitted by cabinet-level chief information officer (CIO). For state governments, authorization from the governor or state CIO is required. Domains for cities require authorization from the mayor or equivalent official; for counties, authorization may be submitted by county commissioners or equivalent officials, or by the highest-ranking county official. For Native Sovereign Nations, the authorization must come from the Bureau of Indian Affairs.\n\nSection::::Naming conventions.\n", "Section::::Courses.\n\nThis was a list of the products that the company was prepared to arrange. The name Courses caused some confusion at the start for the users as in Registrar speak a Course was not an actual event just a list of events that could be arranged. The name given to an actual event was a Class and again this initially led to some confusion.\n\nSection::::Class.\n", "By implementing the reservation, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) made available domains for use in technical and software documentation, manuals and sample software configurations. Thus, documentation writers can be sure to select a domain name without creating naming conflicts if end-users try to use the sample configurations or examples verbatim.\n\nThese domain names resolve to Internet Protocol (IP) addresses for IPv4 and IPv6 of a web server managed by ICANN and are digitally signed using DNSSEC.\n" ]

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[ "People and governments in developing countries have far fewer financial resources to bear high monopoly prices and drug prices even for patent-protected medicines in these countries are often considerably lower. Profits are often insubstantial and do not proportionally cover development costs. In many cases, a patent holder will license generic manufacturers to sell to low-income countries at low cost. India has less restrictive patent regimes which make the manufacture of generic medications possible sooner, for sale domestically or in other countries where the patent protections do not apply. Typically the cost of making small-molecule drugs is only a very small portion of a developed-country market monopoly price, which makes generic manufacturing very cheap. In contrast, some drugs are inherently expensive to produce, such as the biopharmaceutical drug Cerezyme, typically costing $200,000 per year in the United States.\n", "A generic drug is a chemically equivalent, cheaper version of a brand-name drug. A generic drug form is required to have the same dose, strength and active ingredient(s) as the brand name drug; thus, they carry the same risks and benefits. To ensure compliance, the FDA Generic Drugs Program conducts stringent reviews (3,500 inspections of manufacturing plants per year). Although generic drugs sound like a great money-saver, generic medicines can only be sold after the patents of the brand name versions end. Because of this mandatory period of exclusivity for many brand-name drugs (a period in which generic medicines cannot be sold), delay of generic drugs reaching the market is expected. The high cost of upfront research that the brand-name products have to go through to ensure safety and efficacy largely account for the high discrepancy in pricing between the two groups.\n", "In the United States, private insurance payers will favour a lower-cost agent preferring generics and biosimilars to the more expensive specialty drugs if there is no peer-reviewed or evidence-based justification for them.\n\nAccording to a 2012 report by Sun Life Financial the average cost of specialty drug claims was $10,753 versus $185 for non-specialty drugs and the cost of specialty drugs continues to rise. With such steep prices by 2012 specialty drugs represented 15-20% of prescription drug reimbursement claims.\n", "Section::::Insurance coverage.\n\nThe MiniMed Paradigm 522 and 722 Insulin Pumps have a list price of $6,195 while the optional starter kit for the CGM components list for US$999. Insurance coverage for the CGM system is possible under pharmacy benefits (vs. durable medical benefits which have typically a 20% co-pay). Approximately 30% of American patients with typical \"commercial\" coverage can process their CGM under pharmacy, while 90% of American patients are actually eligible for coverage if they meet plan requirements. The estimated out-of-pocket cost is US$0.86 per day for pharmacy benefit or US$2.33 per day for durable medical benefit.\n\nSection::::Competitive devices.\n", "The 21st Century Cures Act which addressed fast-tracking approval of specialty pharmaceuticals was particularly beneficial for dealing with the development of 2nd run biologics (which might be more easily understood as \"generic biologics\", though they do not exist).  Debate around the act raised some important questions about the efficacy of biologics and their continued high costs. Some call for insurers to pay only the cost of production to manufacturers until the benefit of these biologics can be proven long-term, stating that insurers should not bear the full cost of products that may be unreliable or have only limited efficacy.\n", "Prices for prescription drugs vary widely around the world. Prescription costs for biosimilar and generic drugs are usually less than brand names, but the cost is different from one pharmacy to another.\n\nPrescription drug prices including generic prices are rising faster than the average rate of inflation. To subsidize prescription drug costs, some patients have decided to buy medicine online.\n", "The pharmaceutical industry is currently facing increased pricing pressures globally and rising manufacturing costs. Cost of Goods (COGS) for Brand-Name pharmaceutical drugs can be higher than 30% of the total sales revenues of these companies. In comparison, the percentage of sales revenues spent on R&D by these pharmaceutical companies is only 10-15%. For generic drugs, COGS can be as high as 50% of their total sales revenues. Traditionally, pharmaceutical companies preferred to manufacture their own products internally. They were keen on “making” what they “sold” because it provided them with more control of the quality of their products. However, since the pressures to reduce cost these days are high, to save money, the pharmaceutical industry is increasingly outsourcing manufacturing to countries in Asia – where the regulatory standards are evolving and sometimes could lag several years behind the U.S.\n", "The high cost of specialty pharmaceuticals is one of their defining characteristics; as such, cost-containment is high on the list of all the players in the arena.  For physician-administered biologics, cost-containment is often handled by volume purchasing of biologic drugs for discounted pricing, formularies, step therapy to attempt other treatment before beginning biologics and administrative fees by insurers to keep physicians from artificially inflating requested reimbursement from insurance companies.  Cost-containment for self-administered biologics tends to occur via requiring authorization to be prescribed those drugs and benefit design, such as coinsurance for cost-sharing.\n", "The national debate over the rising cost of prescription medicines drew attention to the huge backlog of generic drug applications at the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).\n\nUsually, when enough generic drug products are introduced to the market, the cost to buy prescription medications decreases for both the insurer and the patient. Generic drugs have been shown to reduce healthcare costs in multiple ways, among them increasing competition which, in most cases, helps drive prices down. https://www.fda.gov/ucm/groups/fdagov-public/documents/image/ucm129445.gif\n", "Section::::By region.:Developing world.\n\nIn many developing countries the cost of proprietary drugs is beyond the reach of the majority of the population. There have been attempts both by international agreements and by pharmaceutical companies to provide drugs at low cost, either supplied by manufacturers who own the drugs, or manufactured locally as generic versions of drugs which are elsewhere protected by patent. Countries without manufacturing capability may import such generics.\n\nThe legal framework regarding generic versions of patented drugs is formalised in the Doha Declaration on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and later agreements.\n", "Large US retailers that operate pharmacies and pharmacy chains use inexpensive generic drugs as a way to attract customers into stores. Several chains, including Walmart, Kroger (including subsidiaries such as Dillons), Target, and others, offer $4 monthly prescriptions on select generic drugs as a customer draw. Publix Supermarkets, which has pharmacies in many of their stores, offers free prescriptions on a few older but still effective medications to their customers. The maximum supply is for 30 days.\n", "Generic drugs are usually sold for significantly lower prices than their branded equivalents and at lower profit margins. One reason for this is that competition increases among producers when a drug is no longer protected by patents. Generic companies incur fewer costs in creating generic drugs—only the cost of manufacturing, without the costs of drug discovery and drug development—and are therefore able to maintain profitability at a lower price. The prices are often low enough for users in less-prosperous countries to afford them. For example, Thailand has imported millions of doses of a generic version of the blood-thinning drug Plavix (used to help prevent heart attacks) from India, the leading manufacturer of generic drugs, at a cost of US$ 0.03 per dose.\n", "In reviewing formularies, the drug program reviews the therapeutic advantage of one product over the existing formulary, and only adds new drugs if program costs are unchanged. The reference-based pricing entails having a “reference product” for each category that is the baseline price, and utilizes an independent panel of pharmacists and doctors the University of British Columbia to evaluate the therapeutic discrepancies between drugs.The LCA, or low-cost alternative program establishes the price of generics for payment regardless if brand or genetics are used. The limited use program requires prior authorization for specific drugs, and restricts reimbursements to the approved rationale of prior authorizations (i.e. patients who have failed previous agents for the same indication).\n", "There can be significant variation of prices for drugs in different pharmacies, even within a single geographical area. Because of this, some people check prices at multiple pharmacies to seek lower prices. Online pharmacies can offer low prices but many consumers using online services have experienced Internet fraud and other problems.\n\nSome consumers lower costs by asking their doctor for generic drugs when available. Because pharmaceutical companies often set prices by pills rather than by dose, consumers can sometimes buy double-dose pills, split the pills themselves with their doctor's permission, and save money in the process\n\nSection::::By region.\n", "Formularies should be easily accessible for patient access as well, such as the online Medicare Planfinder, which is part of the Medicare Part D Plan.\n\nHealthcare providers can substitute three-month for one-month supplies of medicines. A three-month supply represented a 29% decrease in out-of-pocket costs and an 18% decrease in total prescription costs in one study.\n\nPrescribing combination drugs instead of two separate medications can also potentially reduce monthly copays.\n", "In 2012, 84% of prescriptions in the US were filled with generic drugs, and in 2014, the use of generic drugs in the United States led to US$254 billion in health care savings.\n", "Section::::Prescription drugs.\n\nSome insurance companies set the copay percentage for non-generic drugs higher than for generic drugs. Occasionally if a non-generic drug is reduced in price insurers will agree to classify it as generic for copayment purposes (as occurred with simvastatin). Pharmaceutical companies have a very long term (frequently 20 years or longer) lock on a drug as a brand name drug which for patent reasons cannot be produced as a generic drug. However, much of this time is exhausted during pre-clinical and clinical research. \n", "Pharmaceutical drugs are the only major health care service in which the producer is able to set prices with little constraint, according to Peter Bach from the Health Outcomes Research Group, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York and Steven Pearson from the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review, Boston. , prices of brand name drugs were significantly higher in the United States (US) than in Canada, India, the UK and other countries, nearly all of which have price controls, while prices for generic drugs tended to be higher in Canada.\n", "On February 3, 2015 New York-based Pfizer's drug Ibrance was approved through the FDA's Breakthrough Therapy designation program as a treatment for advanced breast cancer. It can only be ordered through specialty pharmacies and sells for \"$9,850 for a month or $118,200 per year\". According to a statement by the New York-based Pfizer the price \"is not the cost that most patients or payors pay\" since most prescriptions are dispensed through health plans, which negotiate discounts for medicines or get government-mandated price concessions.\n\nSection::::AARP.:Trends in spending in the United States.\n\nAccording to Express Scripts, \n", "When the patent expires for a brand name drug, generic versions of that drug are produced by other companies and are sold for lower price. By switching to generic prescription drugs, patients can save significant amounts of money: e.g. one study by the FDA showed an example with more than 50% savings of a patient's overall costs of their prescription drugs.\n\nSection::::Drug cost containment strategies in the US.\n\nIn the United States there are many resources available to patients to lower the costs of medication. These include copayments, coinsurance and deductibles. The Medicaid Drug Rebate Program is another example. \n", "Brand name drugs cost more due to time, money, and resources that drug companies invest in in order to repeat research clinical trials that the FDA requires for the drug to remain in the market. Because drug companies have to invest more in research costs to do this, brand name drug prices are much higher when sold to consumers.\n", "Section::::U.S. national market share.:Affordability of specialty drugs and patient compliance with care plan.\n\nAccording to a 2007 study by employees of Express Scripts or its wholly owned subsidiary CuraScript on specialty pharmacy costs, if payers manage cost control through copayments with patients, there is an increased risk that patients will forego essential but expensive specialty drugs. and health outcomes were compromised. In 2007 these researchers suggested in the adoption of formularies and other traditional drug-management tools. They also recommended specialty drug utilization management programs that guide treatment plans and improve outpatient compliance.\n", "Prescription drugs known as \"specialty\" drugs have become integral to the treatment of certain complex diseases including certain cancers and autoimmune diseases. Additionally, some notoriously treatment-resistant infectious diseases such as HIV and Hepatitis C have now become manageable (and the latter curable) using so-called “specialty pharmaceuticals”. “Specialty pharmaceuticals” are generally classified as such by possessing  one or more of the following characteristics: high cost, high complexity, or high touch (ie requiring special monitoring, follow-up, or administration technique or assistance). The number of specialty pharmaceuticals has increased dramatically since 1990 when only ten were available; by 2015, 300 specialty products were available with more than 700 in development (Pew 2016). The high costs of specialty pharmaceuticals, in addition to the generally high costs of prescription drugs in the United States, have generated a great deal of debate. It is becoming increasingly difficult, at both the individual and societal level, to afford to pay for such medications, as the use of specialty pharmaceuticals continues to increase along with their cost, which had, through 2015, risen faster than inflation for many consecutive years (AARP 2015). In 2015, 1-2% of the US population used specialty drugs, but these drugs represented 38% of drug expenditures for that year. A path forward must be found that provides specialty drugs to those who need them in an affordable, sustainable manner. A recent policy change by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services will allow Medicare Advantage Plans to utilize formulary management tools used in commercial plans, such as step therapy requirements, in order to manage drug costs, including specialty pharmaceuticals  Chambers et al may have identified one path to identifying the value of Specialty Pharmaceuticals using cost-effectiveness analysis:“Conducting cost-effectiveness analyses may be desirable to convey the value of a medication relative to a previous standard of care. Even if a new therapy is expensive, its incremental cost-effectiveness may be within a willingness-to-pay threshold, as specialty drugs, though more expensive, often are also associated with the greatest gains in QALYs.”\n", "Drug companies can price new medicines, particularly orphan drugs, i.e. drugs that treat rare diseases, defined in the United States as those affecting fewer than 200,000 patients, at a cost that no individual person could pay, because an insurance company or the government are payors.\n\nAn orphan drug may cost as much as $400,000 annually. The orphan drug business model could come under increased payer regulation.\n\nSection::::Reasons for high prices.:FDA backlog in generic drug application review.\n", "In the United States as of April 2018 the cost is US$6.29–8.39 per 150 mg capsule. It is available as a generic medication in a number of countries, including the United States as of July 2019. In the US the wholesale costs is about US$450 per month as of 2019, whereas in the United Kingdom a similar dose costs the NHS about £6. In the United States, the high cost of pregabalin has prompted payer requirements for justification of the expenditure, such as necessitating other agents as first-line pain control (that is, step therapy) and prior authorization. A systematic review found that these measures \"significantly decrease utilization of pregabalin, but do not consistently demonstrate cost savings for US health plans.\"\n" ]

[ "Pills cost a lot of money to make.", "The only cost of production for prescription medicine is making the pill." ]

[ "Pills may be cheap to make, but their research and development is an expensive investment.", "The cost of a new prescription drug includes research, development, and licensing." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Pills cost a lot of money to make.", "The only cost of production for prescription medicine is making the pill." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Pills may be cheap to make, but their research and development is an expensive investment.", "The cost of a new prescription drug includes research, development, and licensing." ]

[ "Concerning the use of a two-over-three (2:3) hemiola in Beethoven's String Quartet No. 6, Ernest Walker states, \"The vigorously effective Scherzo is in time, but with a curiously persistent cross-rhythm that does its best to persuade us that it is really in .\"\n\nSection::::In western art music.:Polyrhythm, not polymeter.\n\nThe illusion of simultaneous and , suggests polymeter: triple meter combined with compound duple meter.\n\n/score\n\nHowever, the two beat schemes interact within a metric hierarchy (a single meter). The triple beats are primary and the duple beats are secondary; the duple beats are cross-beats within a triple beat scheme.\n\n/score\n", "The use of asymmetrical rhythms – sometimes called \"aksak\" rhythm (the Turkish word for \"limping\") – also became more common in the 20th century: such metres include quintuple as well as more complex additive metres along the lines of time, where each bar has two 2-beat units and a 3-beat unit with a stress at the beginning of each unit. Similar metres are often used in Bulgarian folk dances and Indian classical music.\n\nSection::::Hypermetre.\n", "Hemiola is found in many Renaissance pieces in triple rhythm. One composer who exploited this characteristic was the 16th-century French composer Claude Le Jeune, a leading exponent of musique mesurée à l'antique. One of his best-known chansons is \"Revoici venir du printemps\" , where the alternation of compound-duple and simple-triple metres with a common counting unit for the beat subdivisions can be clearly heard:\n", "In contemporary pop traditions (Soul, Rap, R&B, Rock) triple metre is much less common but examples do exist:\n\nBULLET::::- The verses of \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" from The Beatles' 1967 album, \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Manic Depression\" from the 1967 album, \"Are You Experienced?\", by Jimi Hendrix\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Way Young Lovers Do\" from the 1968 album, Astral Weeks, by Van Morrison\n\nBULLET::::- \"You Ain't The First\" from the 1991 album, \"Use Your Illusion I\", by Guns N' Roses\n", "Compound time is associated with \"lilting\" and dancelike qualities. Folk dances often use compound time. Many Baroque dances are often in compound time: some gigues, the courante, and sometimes the passepied and the siciliana.\n\nSection::::Metre in song.\n", "It is reasonably common in ballads and classical music but much less so in traditions such as rock & roll and jazz. The most common time in rock, blues, country, funk, and pop is quadruple. Jazz writing has become more adventurous since Dave Brubeck's album \"Time Out\". One noteworthy example of a jazz classic that employs triple metre is John Coltrane's version of \"My Favorite Things\". \n\nTriple time is common in formal dance styles, for example the waltz, the minuet and the mazurka, and thus also in classical dance music.\n", "Three-beat cycle bell patterns\n\nThere is a category of bell patterns based on \"slow\" cycles of three cross-beats across four or eight main beats. Three-over-eight (3:8) is one of the most metrically contradictive, and extraordinarily dynamic cross-rhythms found in African music. Within the context of a single four-beat cycle (single measure or musical period), the cross-rhythmic ratio is 1.5:4. The three cross-beats, spanning 24 pulses, are represented as whole-notes below for visual emphasis.\n", "Just as musical rhythms are defined by a pattern of strong and weak beats, so repetitive body movements often depends on alternating \"strong\" and \"weak\" muscular movements. Given this alternation of left-right, of forward-backward and rise-fall, along with the bilateral symmetry of the human body, it is natural that many dances and much music are in duple and quadruple meter. However, since some such movements require more time in one phase than the other – such as the longer time required to lift a hammer than to strike – some dance rhythms fall equally naturally into triple metre. Occasionally, as in the folk dances of the Balkans, dance traditions depend heavily on more complex rhythms. Further, complex dances composed of a fixed sequence of steps always require phrases and melodies of a certain fixed length to accompany that sequence.\n", "Section::::In western art music.:Composite hemiola.\n\nThe four-note ostinato pattern of Mykola Leontovych's \"Carol of the Bells\" (the first measure below) is the composite of the two-against-three hemiola (the second measure).\n\n/score\n\nAnother example of polyrhythm can be found in measures 64 and 65 of the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 12. Three evenly-spaced sets of three attack-points span two measures.\n\n/score\n\nSection::::Cross-rhythm.\n", "Though it must, the upper figure being divisible by 2 does not of itself indicate duple metre. For example, a time signature of usually indicates compound duple metre though it may locally emphasize simple triple, such as the famous example of Leonard Bernstein's song \"America\" from \"West Side Story\".\n\nThe most common time signature in rock, blues, country, funk, and pop is . Although jazz writing has become more adventurous since Dave Brubeck's\"Time Out\", the majority of jazz and jazz standards are still in four time.\n", "In the Thai dance-drama genre \"lakhon nok\" and the masked dance-drama \"khon\" there is a unique group of songs based on a rhythmic cycle of seven beats, quite unlike the usual rhythmic structures of Thai traditional music. Portions of this repertoire of songs in additive meter date back to the Ayudhia period (1350–1767).\n", "A subtler metrical conflict can be found in the final section of Stravinsky's \"Symphony of Psalms\". The choir sing a melody in triple time, while the bass instruments in the orchestra play a 4-beat ostinato against this. \"This is built up over an ostinato bass (harp, two pianos and timpani) moving in fourths like a pendulum.\"\n\nSection::::Sub-Saharan African music.\n\nSection::::Sub-Saharan African music.:Counter-metric structure.\n", "At the center of a core of rhythmic traditions within which the composer conveys his ideas is the technique of cross rhythm. The technique of cross rhythm is a simultaneous use of contrasting rhythmic patterns within the same scheme of accents or meter.\n\nIn Anlo-Ewe cultural understanding, the technique of cross rhythm is a highly developed systematic interplay of varying rhythmic motions simulating the dynamics of contrasting moments or emotional stress phenomena likely to occur in actual human existence.\n", "For dancers, it is commonly viewed with a compas or bar of 6 counts as opposed to 12. \n\nAn interesting counting method has been used by Pepe Romero, in his book \"Classical Guitar Style and Technique\", which is 2 measures of time followed by 3 measures of time. This puts the emphasis on the last beat of each measure:br\n\n1 2 [3] 1 2 [3] 1 [2] 1 [2] 1 [2]\n\nWhen performed, the \"bulería\" usually starts on beat twelve of the \"compas\", so the accented beat is heard first.\n", "The general measure of the basse danse was elaborated into different named sequences of steps and movements . The basic measure is counted in sixes but, like the later courante, often combines and time, using hemiola to divide the six as 3–3 or as 2–2–2. This rhythm matches the basic steps of the dance. Most basse danse music is in binary form with each section repeated .\n", "Brăiloiu borrowed a term from Turkish medieval music theory: \"aksak\". Such compound time signatures fall under the \"aksak rhythm\" category that he introduced along with a couple more that should describe the rhythm figures in traditional music. The term Brăiloiu revived had moderate success worldwide, but in Eastern Europe it is still frequently used. However, aksak rhythm figures occur not only in a few European countries, but on all continents, featuring various combinations of the two and three sequences. The longest are in Bulgaria. The shortest aksak rhythm figures follow the five-beat timing, comprising a two and a three (or three and two).\n", "As can be seen from above, the counting for polyrhythms is determined by the lowest common multiple, so if one wishes to count 2 against 3, one needs to count a total of 6 beats, as lcm(2,3) = 6 (123456 and 123456). However this is only useful for very simple polyrhythms, or for getting a feel for more complex ones, as the total number of beats rises quickly. To count 4 against 5, for example, requires a total of 20 beats, and counting thus slows the tempo considerably. However some players, such as classical Indian musicians, can intuitively play high polyrhythms such as 7 against 8.\n", "In \"Toads of the Short Forest\" (from the album \"Weasels Ripped My Flesh\"), composer Frank Zappa explains: \"At this very moment on stage we have drummer A playing in , drummer B playing in , the bass playing in , the organ playing in , the tambourine playing in , and the alto sax blowing his nose\" . \"Touch And Go\", a hit single by The Cars, has polymetric verses, with the drums and bass playing in , while the guitar, synthesizer, and vocals are in (the choruses are entirely in ) . Magma (band) uses extensively 7/8 on 2/4 (e.g Mëkanïk Dëstruktïẁ Kömmandöh) and some other combinations. King Crimson's albums of the eighties have several songs that use polymetre of various combinations.\n", "Eugene Novotney observes: \"The 3:2 relationship (and [its] permutations) is the foundation of most typical polyrhythmic textures found in West African musics.\" 3:2 is the \"generative\" or \"theoretic form\" of non-Saharan rhythmic principles. Victor Kofi Agawu succinctly states, \"[The] resultant [3:2] rhythm holds the key to understanding... there is no independence here, because 2 and 3 belong to a single Gestalt.\"\n\n/score\n\nThe two beat schemes interact within the hierarchy of a single meter. The duple beats are primary and the triple beats are secondary. The example below shows the African 3:2 cross-rhythm within its proper metric structure.\n\n/score\n", "The term \"beats\" is commonly used in American method acting. The transformation of \"bits\" into \"beats\" may derive from the pronunciation of émigré Russian teachers in America, possibly in conjunction with the image of a string of \"beads\" on a necklace. \n", "But step-figures such as turns, the corte and walk-ins also require \"quick\" steps of half the duration, each entire figure requiring 3–6 \"slow\" beats. Such figures may then be \"amalgamated\" to create a series of movements that may synchronise to an entire musical section or piece. This can be thought of as an equivalent of prosody (see also: prosody (music)).\n\nSection::::Metre in classical music.\n\nIn music of the common practice period (about 1600–1900), there are four different families of time signature in common use:\n", "The establishment of a basic beat requires the perception of a regular sequence of distinct short-duration pulses and, as a subjective perception of loudness is relative to background noise levels, a pulse must decay to silence before the next occurs if it is to be really distinct. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm. Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking \"kotekan\" rhythms of the \"gamelan\".\n", "The most distinctive characteristic of beat music was its strong beat, using the backbeat common to rock and roll and rhythm and blues, but often with a driving emphasis on all the beats of 4/4 bar. The rhythm itself—described by Alan Clayson as \"a changeless four-four offbeat on the snare drum\"—was developed in the clubs in Hamburg, West Germany, where many English groups, including the Beatles, performed in the early 1960s and where it was known as the \"mach schau\" (make show) beat. The 8/8 rhythm was flexible enough to be adopted for songs from a range of genres. In addition, according to music writer Dave Laing,\n", "At the center of a core of rhythmic traditions within which the composer conveys his ideas is the technique of cross rhythm. The technique of cross rhythm is a simultaneous use of contrasting rhythmic patterns within the same scheme of accents or meter.\n\nIn Anlo-Ewe cultural understanding, the technique of cross rhythm is a highly developed systematic interplay of varying rhythmic motions simulating the dynamics of contrasting moments or emotional stress phenomena likely to occur in actual human existence.\n", "Compound metre divided into three parts could theoretically be transcribed into musically equivalent simple metre using triplets. Likewise, simple metre can be shown in compound through duples. In practice, however, this is rarely done because it disrupts conducting patterns when the tempo changes. When conducting in , conductors typically provide two beats per bar; however, all six beats may be performed when the tempo is very slow.\n" ]

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[ "The nuclear industry also produces a large volume of low-level radioactive waste in the form of contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the materials of which the reactor itself is built. Low-level waste can be stored on-site until radiation levels are low enough to be disposed as ordinary waste, or it can be sent to a low-level waste disposal site.\n\nSection::::Life cycle of nuclear fuel.:Nuclear waste.:Waste relative to other types.\n", "Solid waste can be disposed of simply by placing it where it will not be disturbed for a few years. There are three low-level waste disposal sites in the United States in South Carolina, Utah, and Washington. Solid waste from the CVCS is combined with solid radwaste that comes from handling materials before it is buried off-site.\n", "After filling a cylinder, a seal is welded onto the cylinder head. The cylinder is then washed. After being inspected for external contamination, the steel cylinder is stored, usually in an underground repository. In this form, the waste products are expected to be immobilized for thousands of years.\n", "Section::::Nuclear waste.\n\nLow and intermediate level waste, which represents 99% of the volume of waste, is treated on site. Category A waste with half lives of less than 30 years is transported to Belgoprocess in Dessel for surface disposal.\n", "Section::::Transportation of waste.:Impacts.\n", "Section::::Nuclear waste.\n\nLight and intermediate level waste, which represents 99% of the volume of waste, is treated on site in the WAB (Water and Waste Treatment Building). Category A waste with half lives of less than 30 years is transported to Belgoprocess in Dessel for surface disposal.\n", "In 2000, the K-Reactor building was converted to the K Area Materials Storage Facility. The Savannah River Site was selected as the location of three new plutonium facilities for: a MOX fuel fabrication; pit disassembly and conversion; and plutonium immobilization. WSRC earned the DOE's top safety performance honor of Star Status.\n\nThousands of shipments of transuranic waste were contained and sent by truck and by rail to the DOE's Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) Project in New Mexico, with the first shipments beginning in 2001. DWPF completed production of four million pounds of environmentally acceptable classified waste.\n", "Section::::Management.:Illegal dumping.\n", "Because of construction delays, a number of nuclear power plants in the United States have resorted to dry cask storage of waste on-site indefinitely in steel and concrete casks.\n", "Section::::Waste Treatment.:The incineration plant.\n\nThis furnace consists of three rooms:\n\nBULLET::::- The primary chamber: the temperature there is 900-1000 °C\n\nBULLET::::- The secondary chamber: the temperature of 1100–1200 °C\n\nBULLET::::- The tertiary room\n\nSolid waste is fed into the primary chamber. By cons, liquid waste is injected either in the primary chamber, or in the secondary chamber according to their chemical composition.\n\nThe ash and slag are collected and linked in a \"glue\" by the method of inerting cold. They are then packed in metal drums and shipped to the National Agency for Radioactive Waste (ANDRA).\n", "Section::::National management plans.:Europe.:Finland.\n", "The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority announced in March 2008 that UK Nuclear Waste Management Ltd (a consortium led by the Washington Division of URS Corporation and including Studsvik UK, AREVA-NC and Serco Assurance) had been awarded the contract for the management and operation of the Low Level Waste Repository.\n", "In 1994, the Savannah River Site Citizens Advisory Board was established. The Replacement Tritium Facility saw its startup. In 1996, DWPF introduced radioactive material into the vitrification process. K Reactor was shut down. F Canyon was restarted and began stabilizing nuclear materials. In 1997, the first high-level radioactive waste tanks were closed, numbers 17 and 20. The Cold War Historic Preservation Program was begun.\n", "Section::::Waste management and disposal.\n\nThe UK has a large variety of different intermediate- and high-level radioactive wastes, coming from national programmes to develop nuclear weapons and nuclear power. It is a national responsibility to pay for the management of these. In addition, new nuclear power stations could be built, the waste management from which would be the private sector's financial responsibility, although all would be stored in a single facility. Most of the UK's higher-activity radioactive waste is currently held in temporary storage at Sellafield.\n", "High-level radioactive waste management\n\nHigh-level radioactive waste management concerns how radioactive materials created during production of nuclear power and nuclear weapons are dealt with. Radioactive waste contains a mixture of short-lived and long-lived nuclides, as well as non-radioactive nuclides. There was reported some 47,000 tonnes of high-level nuclear waste stored in the USA in 2002.\n", "Every state in the United States is responsible for providing disposal for any of the LLW that is generated within its borders. There are three options for the disposal of such waste: in-state disposal, joining with other states to form a compact, or by contracting with a state or compact that has a disposal facility. Requirements for LLW disposal sites have been established by the NRC and use a series of natural and engineered barriers to prevent any radioactive waste from escaping into the environment. Currently, the United States has four low-level waste disposal facilities that accept various levels of LLW, all are located in agreement states.\n", "Section::::Chapter Eight: Radioactive Waste Management.\n", "Section::::Disposal facilities.:Barnwell, South Carolina.\n\nThe first is located in Barnwell, South Carolina, and is licensed by the state of South Carolina. They accept Class A, B, and C waste from within its borders as well as from Connecticut and New Jersey.\n\nSection::::Disposal facilities.:Richland, Washington.\n", "The first nuclear waste arrived to the plant on March 26, 1999. This waste shipment was from Los Alamos National Laboratory, a major nuclear weapons research and development facility located north of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Another shipment followed on April 6 of the same year. These shipments marked the beginning of plant operations. As of December 2010, the plant had received and stored 9,207 shipments () of waste. The majority of this waste was transported to the facility via railroad or truck. The final facility contains a total of 56 storage rooms located approximately underground. Each room is in length. The plant is estimated to continue accepting waste for 25 to 35 years and is estimated to cost a grand total of 19 billion dollars.\n", "Radioactive waste in Canada can be grouped into three broad categories: nuclear fuel waste, low-level radioactive waste, and uranium mill tailings. The most recent inventory of these wastes is provided in the LLRWMO 2004 report. At the end of 2003, the total amount of nuclear fuel waste was 6,800 m.\n", "Disposal of low-level radioactive waste is in concrete containers buried 45 to 100 feet below the surface in concrete-lined cells in the red bed clay formations. Space between the containers is filled to help prevent shifting. As the cells are filled, they will be covered by more than 300 feet of liner material and red bed clay and the surface will be restored to its natural state.\n\nThe plant is located 5 miles east of Eunice, New Mexico, and 35 miles west of Andrews. The surrounding area on both sides of the state border, \"nuclear alley\", also includes:\n", "Section::::Management.:Initial treatment.:Synroc.\n", "The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) provides licensing for the entombment process, as well as providing license they research and develop programs to help decommission nuclear power plants. USNRC will continue the development of rule making for entombment. NRC asks companies running power plants to set money aside while the power plant is operating, for future shut down and cleanup costs. The NRC has decided that in order for nuclear entombment to be a possible, a long-term structure must be created specifically for the encasing of the radioactive waste. If the structures are not correctly built water can seep into them and come out with radioactive waste that can infect the public. The NRC itself imposes acts such as the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 and the Low-level radioactive waste policy to help regulate state governments on the procedures and precautions needed to dispose of the nuclear waste. The Nuclear Waste Policy of 1982 states that both the federal government's are responsible to provide a permanent disposal facility for high-level radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel. As well with the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982, which gives states the responsibility to dispose of low-level waste and provides facilities to the states that will be regulated by the NRC or by states who have agreed to follow §274 of the Atomic Energy Act.\n", "In the United States, as of 2008, uranium ore reserves are primarily kept in Wyoming and New Mexico, totaling an estimated one billion, 227 million pounds. This uranium ore will be turned into fuel that will be used in the operation of nuclear power plants, creating low-levels of radioactive waste. \"Spent\" uranium fuel becomes radioactive waste as a result of the fission process. This \"spent\" fuel must be removed and replaced from nuclear power plants every 18 to 24 months; it is then shipped to specifically designed and licensed disposal sites. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Department of Transportation carefully control and regulate the management, packing, transport, and disposal of waste.\n", "Since 1965, approximately 3,000 shipments of spent nuclear fuel have been transported safely over the U.S.'s highways, waterways, and railroads.\n\nSection::::International.:United States.:Baltimore train tunnel fire.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Rocktron Chameleon Pre amp\n\nBULLET::::- Rocktron Voodoo Valve Pre amp\n\nBULLET::::- Rocktron Intellifex\n\nBULLET::::- Rocktron Replifex\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Amplification.\n", "Section::::Product models and variants.:Studio.\n\nBULLET::::- POD 1.0 - 16 guitar amp models\n\nBULLET::::- POD 2.0 - 32 guitar amp models\n\nBULLET::::- POD xt - 36 guitar amp models\n\nBULLET::::- POD xt PRO - 36 guitar amp models\n\nBULLET::::- POD X3 - 78 guitar amp models and 28 bass amp models\n\nBULLET::::- POD X3 Pro - 78 guitar amp models and 28 bass amp models\n\nBULLET::::- Bass POD xt - 28 bass amp models\n\nBULLET::::- Bass POD xt Pro - 28 bass amp models\n\nBULLET::::- POD HD - 16 guitar amp models\n\nBULLET::::- POD HD Pro - 25 guitar amp models\n", "Section::::Equipment history.\n\nSection::::Equipment history.:Amplifiers.\n\nBULLET::::- ML-2 Class A Mono Amplifier with regulated power supplies\n\nBULLET::::- ML-3 Power Amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-9 Power Amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-11 Power Amplifier\n\nSection::::Equipment history.:Preamplifiers.\n\nBULLET::::- LNP-1 Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- LNP-2 Professional Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- JC-1 Moving Coil Cartridge Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- JC-1AC Moving Coil Cartridge Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- JC-2 Straightline Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-1 Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-6, ML-6A, ML-6B Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-7, ML-7A Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-8 Microphone Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-10, ML-10A Preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- ML-12, ML-12A Preamplifier\n\nSection::::Equipment history.:Power Supplies.\n\nBULLET::::- PLS-150\n\nBULLET::::- PLS-151\n\nBULLET::::- PLS-153\n\nBULLET::::- PLS-154\n\nBULLET::::- ML-6\n\nSection::::Equipment history.:Crossovers.\n\nBULLET::::- LNC-2 Electronic Crossover\n\nSection::::Equipment history.:Tape Machines.\n", "Section::::Types.:Bass.\n\nBass amplifiers are designed for bass guitars or more rarely, for upright bass. They differ from amplifiers for the electric guitar in several respects, with extended low-frequency response, and tone controls optimised for the needs of bass players.\n\nHigher-cost bass amplifiers may include built-in bass effects units, such as audio compressor or limiter features, to avoid unwanted distorting at high volume levels and potential damage to speakers; equalizers; and bass overdrive. \n", "Products during this era of the company took a somewhat different direction under the design guidance of Dr. Robert Odell and product development VP Randy Patton (Sumo). Preamplifiers built during this era included the 6.0 and 6.5 and were IC op amp based rather than discrete high-voltage designs of the past era. It was during this time period the company acquired a more modern look to the industrial design.\n", "For electric guitar amplifiers, there is often a distinction between \"practice\" or \"recording studio\" guitar amps, with output power ratings of less than one watt to 20 watts, and \"performance\" or \"stage\" amps of 30 watts or higher. Traditionally, these have been fixed-power amplifiers, with some models having a half-power switch to slightly reduce the listening volume while preserving power-tube distortion.\n", "Section::::Types.:Bass stacks.:Heads.\n", "BULLET::::- Behringer MX602 (2)\n\nBULLET::::- Behringer 662\n\nBULLET::::- Custom Audio Japan GVCA-2 Rev 3 (2)\n\nBULLET::::- Ernie Ball Volume Pedal\n\nBULLET::::- Boss TU-12H\n\nBULLET::::- Korg MPK-130 MIDI Pedal Keyboard\n\nBULLET::::- Shure U4D wireless receivers (2)\n\nBULLET::::- Shure U-1 wireless belt-pack transmitters (9)\n\nBULLET::::- Shure Antenna Distribution System\n\nBULLET::::- Samson UR-5D wireless receiver (for acoustic and piezo guitars)\n\nBULLET::::- Samson UT-5 belt-pack transmitter (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Palmer PDI-03 speaker simulators (4)\n\nSnakes & Arrows Tour\n\nBULLET::::- Gibson Les Paul Custom Black Beauty (Tuned down one whole step for \"Circumstances\" and \"2112\")\n", "Section::::Recording and touring.\n", "Naim pre-amplifiers do not have on-board power, but are designed to be powered either from a dedicated feed from the PSU inside the power amplifier, or directly from an independent external PSU. This is done so that the sensitive pre-amps, running at extremely very low voltages and currents, are not adversely affected by the hum field induced by the power supply. Power units have multiple separate secondary windings dedicated to supplying the various sections of the preamp that they feed. However, the , and power amplifiers do not have provision to power pre-amplifiers, so a PSU is mandatory.\n", "Section::::Types.:Hybrid or miscellaneous units.\n", "BULLET::::- 13\" Paragon Hats\n\nBULLET::::- Signature Paragon Hats 14\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Splash 08\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Splash 10\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Splash 10\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Crash 16\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Crash 16\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Crash 18\"\n\nBULLET::::- Signature Paragon Crash 20\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Ride 22\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Chinese 19\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Chinese 20\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paragon Diamondback Chinese 20\"\n\nSection::::Neil Peart.:Electronics.\n\nBULLET::::- Roland V-Drums\n\nBULLET::::- Roland V-Cymbals\n\nBULLET::::- Roland TD-20 Drum Module\n\nBULLET::::- Roland XV 5080 samplers\n\nBULLET::::- Glyph hard drives\n\nBULLET::::- MalletKAT\n\nBULLET::::- KAT trigger pedals\n\nBULLET::::- Dauz trigger pad\n\nBULLET::::- Remo and Drum Workshop drumheads\n\nSection::::Neil Peart.:Microphones.\n\nBULLET::::- Audio-Technica and Shure\n", "Section::::Instruments and accessories.\n\nAmpeg also manufactured (or had manufactured for them) lines of quirky but distinctive instruments to complement their amplifiers.\n\nSection::::Instruments and accessories.:Baby Bass.\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 Zemaitis Bass (Black with engraved metal front); (Used on: Distant Early Warning)\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 Zemaitis Bass (Natural with engraved metal front); (Used on: Losing It)\n\nVapor Trails Amps\n\nBULLET::::- Maytag Coin-Operated Dryers (3)\n\nR30 Amps\n\nBULLET::::- Maytag Coin-Operated Dryers (2)\n\nBULLET::::- Snack Machine\n\nSnakes & Arrows Amps\n\nBULLET::::- The Henhouse (3)\n\nCitation:\n\nSection::::Alex Lifeson.\n\nVapor Trails Tour\n\nGuitars\n\nBULLET::::- PRS Singlecut CE22\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 PRS CE24 (Tobacco Sunburst with Piezo, Blue, Red with Piezo and dual outputs, Black)\n\nBULLET::::- Gibson SG\n\nBULLET::::- Gibson J-150\n\nBULLET::::- Gibson Les Paul Standard (Two); one of which a '59 Reissue Tobacco Sunburst\n", "Section::::Multi-Stage Amplifiers.\n", "Some bass amps may have additional controls for onboard effects such as bass chorus or a knob for controlling a multi-effects unit (which might include a suboctave generator, chorus, reverb, fuzz bass etc.). Some 2000s-era amps may have a knob to control digital amp or speaker emulation settings (e.g., emulating the tone of a huge 8x10\" speaker stack or a vintage tube amp by famous makers, such as the Ampeg SVT).\n\nSection::::Controls, jacks and indicator LEDs.:Input and output jacks.\n", "During the late 1970s, the iconic matte-black-faced AU-series amplifiers were released. The first-generation '07' models included the dual-mono power supply AU-517 and AU-717, and the second generation featured the updated AU-719, 819 and 919. The separate pre-amp/power-amp CA-F1/BA-F1 topped the model range along with the AU-X1 integrated amplifier.\n", "BULLET::::- Red Rose Music Model One Reference amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Model Two amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Model Three preamplifier\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Model Five integrated amp\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Passion amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Affirmation amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Rosette amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Rosette Two phono stage\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Spirit integrated amp\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Genius integrated amp with inboard USB digital-to-analog converter\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Revelation loudspeaker\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music R-3 loudspeaker\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Rosebud loudspeaker\n\nBULLET::::- Red Rose Music Rosebud II loudspeaker\n", "Section::::Amplifier technology.\n\nAmplifiers may be based on tube (\"thermionic\" or in the UK, \"valve\") or solid state (transistor) technology, or hybrid designs that use both technologies, typically by pairing a tube preamplifier with a transistor power amplifer.\n\nSection::::Amplifier technology.:Tube amplification.\n", "Instrument amplifiers are available for specific instruments, including the electric guitar, electric bass, electric/electronic keyboards, and acoustic instruments such as the mandolin and banjo. Some amplifiers are designed for specific styles of music, such as the \"traditional\"-style \"tweed\" guitar amplifiers, such as the Fender Bassman used by blues and country music musicians, and the Marshall amplifiers used by hard rock and heavy metal bands.\n", "Section::::Types.:Guitar amplifiers.:Standard amps.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Trippin' With Dr. Faustus\" and Rockosmos (2016–present).\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: Retro 50 Head (This was the first amp to feature \"Custom Shop\" on the front panel and was a master volume version of the pics only. Fully hard wired model)\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Retro 50C (Very limited 2×12 combo version of the Retro 50)\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: AD50 Custom Head (Hand built upgrade of the AD30)\n", "BULLET::::- Hughes & Kettner Alex Lifeson Signature Edition TriAmp MKII\n\nBULLET::::- Hughes & Kettner Tube Tools Tube Rotosphere MKII\n\nBULLET::::- Fishman Aura Concert Acoustic Guitar Imaging Pedal\n\nBULLET::::- Dunlop Crybaby Rack Wah\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Furman Power Conditioner PL-8\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Furman PL Plus Power Conditioner\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Behringer Ultralink mx-662 6 Channel Spliter/Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- 4 Audio Technica AEW5200 Guitar Wireless\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Audio Technica AEW-DA6600 Antenna Distribution System\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Whirlwind A/B Box\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Custom Audio Japan AC0912 System Power Supply\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Custom Audio Japan GVCA-2 Rev.3 Midi Programmable Volume Control\n\nBULLET::::- 1 TC 1210 Spatial Expander+Stereo Chorus/Flanger\n", "Section::::Single-Stage Amplifiers.\n" ]

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[ "Like chevaliers and chiroptera, the Schiff have enhanced speed and strength, and must drink blood to survive. However they are different in two key ways: sunlight will burn them to death, and they form a condition they call \"Thorn\" that causes them to slowly crystallize. It initially manifests itself as red cracks that usually appear on the neck, spreading along the body until the afflicted Schiff shatters completely.\n", "Section::::Background.:Gin.\n", "Metals mechanism of action has been hypothesized to inhibit the electrical properties of olfactory neurons by blocking ligand-gated or voltage-gated ion channels in the nervous system of fish. However, direct mechanisms of action for metals are not fully understood and still need to be researched further.\n\nSection::::Metals.:Past studies.\n\nSection::::Metals.:Past studies.:Copper.\n", "alpha-2-Macroglobulin is known to bind zinc, as well as copper in plasma, even more strongly than albumin, and such it is also known as transcuprein. 10-15% of copper in human plasma is chelated by alpha-2-macroglobulin.\n\nSection::::Disease.\n", "BULLET::::- The appearance of a silvery coating on the copper may indicate mercury. A dark coating indicates the presence of one of the other metals.\n\nBULLET::::- Confirm finding using absorption or emission spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, or other analytical technique suitable for inorganic analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- Iron: common simple anemia (iron deficiency), results in the loss of functional heme proteins (hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.), which are responsible for oxygen transport or utilization of oxygen. Pernicious anemia comes from a lack of vitamin B-12 (which contains a cobalt complex called cobalamin), which then in turn interferes with the function of red blood cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Zinc: Zinc anemia is mostly due to diet can result in growth retardation.\n\nBULLET::::- Copper: Copper anemia in infants results from infants with a poor diet and can cause heart disease.\n\nSection::::Metals in diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- In Santería rituals, cantharides are used in incense.\n\nSection::::Veterinary issues.\n", "Historically, an association between the color of blood and rust occurs in the association of the planet Mars, with the Roman god of war, since the planet is an orange-red, which reminded the ancients of blood. Although the color of the planet is due to iron compounds in combination with oxygen in the Martian soil, it is a common misconception that the iron in hemoglobin and its oxides gives blood its red color. The color is actually due to the porphyrin moiety of hemoglobin to which the iron is bound, not the iron itself, although the ligation and redox state of the iron can influence the pi to pi* or n to pi* electronic transitions of the porphyrin and hence its optical characteristics.\n", "Cyanide-based blood agents irritate the eyes and the respiratory tract, while arsine is nonirritating. Hydrogen cyanide has a faint, bitter, almond odor that only about half of all people can smell. Arsine has a very faint garlic odor detectable only at greater than fatal concentrations.\n", "The blood of people killed by blood agents is bright red, because the agents inhibit the use of the oxygen in it by the body's cells. Cyanide poisoning can be detected by the presence of thiocyanate or cyanide in the blood, a smell of bitter almonds, or respiratory tract inflammations and congestions in the case of cyanogen chloride poisoning. There is no specific test for arsine poisoning, but it may leave a garlic smell on the victim's breath.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "The study of odors is complicated by the complex chemistry taking place at the moment of a smell sensation. For example, iron-containing metallic objects are perceived to have a distinctive odor when touched, although iron's vapor pressure is negligible. According to a 2006 study, this smell is the result of aldehydes (for example, nonanal) and ketones: 1-octen-3-one) released from the human skin on contact with ferrous ions that are formed in the sweat-mediated corrosion of iron. The same chemicals are also associated with the smell of blood, as ferrous iron in blood on skin produces the same reaction.\n\nSection::::Types.:Pheromones.\n", "BULLET::::- Iron dominated by Mars ♂ (  )\n\nBULLET::::- Gold dominated by Sol ☉ ☼ (  )\n\nBULLET::::- Copper dominated by Venus ♀ (also:  )\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury (quicksilver) dominated by Mercury ☿ (  )\n\nBULLET::::- Silver dominated by Luna ☽ (  )\n\nSection::::Mundane elements.\n\nBULLET::::- Antimony ♁\n\nBULLET::::- Arsenic 🜺\n\nBULLET::::- Bismuth 🜘\n\nBULLET::::- Boron =\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium\n\nBULLET::::- Magnesium ⊛\n\nBULLET::::- Phosphorus\n\nBULLET::::- Platinum ☽☉\n\nBULLET::::- Potassium\n\nBULLET::::- Sulfur 🜏 🜍\n\nBULLET::::- Zinc\n\nSection::::Alchemical compounds.\n\nBULLET::::- Sal ammoniac (Ammonium chloride) 🜹 *\n\nBULLET::::- Aqua fortis (Nitric acid) 🜅 A.F.\n\nBULLET::::- Aqua regia (Nitro-hydrochloric acid) 🜆 A.R.\n", "BULLET::::- 28 October 2000 - Voivod, Alchemist, Blood Duster, Sadistik Exekution (cancelled - replaced by Alarum), Henry's Anger, Cryogenic, Dreadnaught, Abramelin, Pod People, Deströyer 666, Misery, Psi.Kore, Psychrist, Frankenbok, Lord Kaos, Sakkuth, Toe Cutter, Screwface:13, Earth, Dungeon, Deadspawn, The Wolves (cancelled - replaced by Volatile), Chalice, Post Life Disorder, Astriaal, Encabulos, Atomizer, Dezakrate, Third Symptom\n", "BULLET::::- Silver causes a paralytic effect on vampires, and can leave burn-like wounds and scars.\n\nBULLET::::- Garlic causes tremendous nausea, inflammation of infected areas, and debilitating illness, especially if ingested or absorbed.\n\nBULLET::::- Sunlight causes explosive immolation to the affected body parts.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire is a powerful tool, as vampiric flesh is noticeably weak against it.\n\nBULLET::::- Piercing the leech with a some sort of object, often a wooden stake, will trap the vampire until the offending object is removed.\n", "Upon blood exiting the body, haemoglobin in blood transits from bright red to dark brown, which is attributed to oxidation of oxy-hemoglobin (HbO) to methemoglobin (met-Hb) and ending up in hemichrome (HC). For forensic purposes, the fractions of HbO, met-Hb and HC in a bloodstain can be used for age determination of bloodstains when measured with Reflectance Spectroscopy .\n\nSection::::Hemichrome stability.\n", "BULLET::::- Meskers CEM, Hagelüken C & Van Damme G 2009, 'Green Recycling of EEE: Special and Precious Metal EEE', in SM Howard, P Anyalebechi & L Zhang (eds), \"Proceedings of Sessions and Symposia Sponsored by the Extraction and Processing Division (EPD) of The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (TMS),\" held during the TMS 2009 Annual Meeting & Exhibition San Francisco, California, February 15–19, 2009, The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, Warrendale, Pennsylvania, , pp. 1131–6\n\nBULLET::::- Metcalfe HC, Williams JE & Castka JF 1974, \"Modern Chemistry,\" Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,\n", "BULLET::::- Mostly immune from reaction to all laboratory-standard reagents, ranging from water to aqua regia. Small and faint traces of Widmanstätten pattern appear on it in response to acid reagents. Same reagents also slightly cool it.\n\nBULLET::::- Generally accepted to be a metal of some sort.\n\nBULLET::::- Possesses the qualities expected of a magnetic material.\n\nBULLET::::- Affinity for electricity, to the point where it could divert lightning strikes to itself.\n\nBULLET::::- Mutually damaging to silicon compounds.\n", "Section::::Metals.:Past studies.:Cadmium.\n", "Sometime in the past, a copper refinery owned by Thor Carlsson (Max von Sydow) has metal shipped out on Carlsson Copper trains that run right behind a young boy's house, who stares out forlornly at the tracks.\n", "BULLET::::- Tuthill G 2011, 'Faculty profile: Elements of Great Teaching', \"The Iolani School Bulletin,\" Winter, viewed 29 October 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Tyler PM 1948, \"From the Ground Up: Facts and Figures of the Mineral Industries of the United States,\" McGraw-Hill, New York\n\nBULLET::::- UCR Today 2011, 'Research Performed in Guy Bertrand's Lab Offers Vast Family of New Catalysts for use in Drug Discovery, Biotechnology', University of California, Riverside, July 28\n", "BULLET::::- Everest DA 1953, 'The Chemistry of Bivalent Germanium Compounds. Part IV. Formation of Germanous Salts by Reduction with Hydrophosphorous Acid.' \"Journal of the Chemical Society,\" pp. 4117–4120,\n\nBULLET::::- EVM (Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals) 2003, \"Safe Upper Levels for Vitamins and Minerals\", UK Food Standards Agency, London,\n\nBULLET::::- Farandos NM, Yetisen AK, Monteiro MJ, Lowe CR & Yun SH 2014, 'Contact Lens Sensors in Ocular Diagnostics', \"Advanced Healthcare Materials,\" , viewed 23 November 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Fehlner TP 1992, 'Introduction', in TP Fehlner (ed.), \"Inorganometallic chemistry\", Plenum, New York, pp. 1–6,\n", "Section::::Conditions and mechanisms for dissimilatory metal reduction.\n", "Chemiluminescence has been applied by forensic scientists to solve crimes. In this case, they use luminol and hydrogen peroxide. The iron from the blood acts as a catalyst and reacts with the luminol and hydrogen peroxide to produce blue light for about 30 seconds. Because only a small amount of iron is required for chemiluminescence, trace amounts of blood are sufficient.\n", "BULLET::::- Forshaw, Peter (2007) 'Subliming Spirits: Physical-Chemistry and Theo-Alchemy in the Works of Heinrich Khunrath (1560–1605), in Stanton J. Linden (ed.), \"\"Mystical Metal of Gold\": Essays on Alchemy and Renaissance Culture\". AMS Press\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- University of Wisconsin-Madison site on Khunrath's \"Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae\" including biography and bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- The naturall Chymicall Symboll or short Confession of Doctor Kunwrath\n\nBULLET::::- Khunrath Portrait\n\nBULLET::::- Heinrich Khunrath at the Galileo Project\n\nBULLET::::- A Philosophicall short songe of the incorporating of the Spirit of the Lord in Salt (archive)\n\nBULLET::::- \"An Interpretation of the Alchemy Lab Drawing\" by John Read\n", "• \"Proceedings of the 47th Annual Meeting of the Electron Microscopy Society of America\". Localization of Heavy Metals in the Hepatopancreas of the Terrestrial Isopod Oniscus asellus. Vernon G., Greco R., & Witkus R. 1989.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Navy biography\n\nBULLET::::- Profile at GovernmentExecutive.com\n\nBULLET::::- Testimony, Senate Armed Services Committee\n\nBULLET::::- Department of the Navy Annual Financial Report 2005\n\nBULLET::::- Department of the Navy Financial Report 2006\n\nBULLET::::- United States Navy League New York Council\n\nBULLET::::- The Montfort Academy Website\n\nBULLET::::- Filangieri Capital Website\n\nBULLET::::- SPACS: A No-Brainer (with Achille Teofilatto)\n" ]

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[ "Lightbox\n\nA lightbox is a translucent surface illuminated from behind, used for situations where a shape laid upon the surface needs to be seen with high contrast.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSeveral varieties exist, depending on their purpose:\n\nBULLET::::- Various backlit viewing devices:\n", "Eye floaters are suspended in the vitreous humour, the thick fluid or gel that fills the eye. The vitreous humour, or vitreous body, is a jelly-like, transparent substance that fills the majority of the eye. It lies within the vitreous chamber behind the lens, and is one of the four optical components of the eye. Thus, floaters follow the rapid motions of the eye, while drifting slowly within the fluid. When they are first noticed, the natural reaction is to attempt to look directly at them. However, attempting to shift one's gaze toward them can be difficult as floaters follow the motion of the eye, remaining to the side of the direction of gaze. Floaters are, in fact, visible only because they do not remain perfectly fixed within the eye. Although the blood vessels of the eye also obstruct light, they are invisible under normal circumstances because they are fixed in location relative to the retina, and the brain \"tunes out\" stabilized images due to neural adaptation. This stabilization is often interrupted by floaters, especially when they tend to remain visible.\n", "Optical toys\n\nOptical toys form a group of devices with some entertainment value that usually have a scientific, optical nature. Many of these were also known as \"philosophical toys\" when they were developed in the 19th century. \n", "They are said to be invisible from the water's surface and visible up to ten meters above the surface. If one attempts to approach them, they will appear to get farther away. They were formerly believed to be the lamps of the Dragon God, and nearby fishing villages would prohibit fishing on days when shiranui were seen.\n", "There are various causes for the appearance of floaters, of which the most common are described here.\n\nFloaters can occur when eyes age; in rare cases, floaters may be a sign of retinal detachment or a retinal tear.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Vitreous syneresis.\n", "Like other hydrozoans, certain siphonophores can emit light. A siphonophore of the genus \"Erenna\" has been discovered at a depth of around off the coast of Monterey, California. The individuals from these colonies are strung together like a feather boa. They prey on small animals using stinging cells. Among the stinging cells are stalks with red glowing ends. The tips twitch back and forth, creating a twinkling effect. Twinkling red lights are thought to attract the small fish eaten by these siphonophores.\n", "For low light conditions luminous phosphorescent non-toxic strontium aluminate based lume pigments marketed under brand names like Super-LumiNova or NoctiLumina and tritium based self-powered lighting devices called \"gaseous tritium light source\" (GTLS) are applied on the dials and markers. On digital diving watches, lighted displays are used for legibility under low light conditions.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Power reserve indicator.\n", "Floaters are visible because of the shadows they cast on the retina or refraction of the light that passes through them, and can appear alone or together with several others in one's visual field. They may appear as spots, threads, or fragments of cobwebs, which float slowly before the observer's eyes, and move especially in the direction in which the eyes move. As these objects exist within the eye itself, they are not optical illusions but are entoptic phenomena. They are not to be confused with visual snow, although these two conditions may co-exist.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Floaters are often readily observed by an ophthalmologist or an optometrist with the use of an ophthalmoscope or slit lamp. However, if the floater is near the retina, it may not be visible to the observer even if it appears large to the patient.\n", "Floaters are particularly noticeable when looking at a blank surface or an open monochromatic space, such as blue sky. Despite the name \"floaters\", many of these specks have a tendency to sink toward the bottom of the eyeball, in whichever way the eyeball is oriented; the supine position (looking up or lying back) tends to concentrate them near the fovea, which is the center of gaze, while the textureless and evenly lit sky forms an ideal background against which to view them. The brightness of the daytime sky also causes the eyes' pupils to contract, reducing the aperture, which makes floaters less blurry and easier to see.\n", "The presence of retinal tears with new onset of floaters was surprisingly high (14%; 95% confidence interval, 12–16%) as reported in a meta-analysis published as part of the Rational Clinical Examination Series in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Patients with new onset flashes and/or floaters, especially when associated with visual loss or restriction in the visual field, should seek more urgent ophthalmologic evaluation.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Patients with retinal tears may experience floaters if red blood cells are released from leaky blood vessels, and those with uveitis or vitritis, as in toxoplasmosis, may experience multiple floaters and decreased vision due to the accumulation of white blood cells in the vitreous humour.\n\nOther causes for floaters include cystoid macular edema and asteroid hyalosis. The latter is an anomaly of the vitreous humour, whereby calcium clumps attach themselves to the collagen network. The bodies that are formed in this way move slightly with eye movement, but then return to their fixed position.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The swampy area of Massachusetts known as the Bridgewater Triangle has folklore of ghostly orbs of light, and there have been modern observations of these ghost-lights in this area as well.\n", "Floaters present at birth usually remain lifelong, while those that appear later may disappear within weeks or months. They are not uncommon, and do not cause serious problems for most persons; they represent one of the most common presentations to hospital eye services. A survey of optometrists in 2002 suggested that an average of 14 patients per month per optometrist presented with symptoms of floaters in the UK. However, floaters are more than a nuisance and a distraction to those with severe cases, especially if the spots seem constantly to drift through the field of vision. The shapes are shadows projected onto the retina by tiny structures of protein or other cell debris discarded over the years and trapped in the vitreous humour. Floaters can even be seen when the eyes are closed on especially bright days, when sufficient light penetrates the eyelids to cast the shadows. It is not, however, only elderly persons who are troubled by floaters; they can also become a problem to younger people, especially if they are myopic. They are also common after cataract operations or after trauma.\n", "Aleya (or marsh ghost-light) is the name given to a strange light phenomena occurring over the marshes as observed by Bengalis, especially the fishermen of West Bengal and Bangladesh. This marsh light is attributed to some kind of marsh gas apparitions that confuse fishermen, make them lose their bearings, and may even lead to drowning if one decided to follow them moving over the marshes. Local communities in the region believe that these strange hovering marsh-lights are in fact Ghost-lights representing the ghosts of fisherman who died fishing. Sometimes they confuse the fishermen, and sometimes they help them avoid future dangers.\n", "Section::::Types.\n", "Less-toxic modern imitations of bubble lights are made from acrylic or other clear plastic rods, with permanent bubbles deliberately manufactured into them, lit with fixed-color or color-changing LEDs. Other bubbling lights are much larger and sit on a table or floor, occasionally with fake fish which \"swim\" up and down as they change buoyancy. These tubes are usually filled with distilled water, and have one or more airstones at the bottom, and normally a light, along with an air pump.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Light sources used in photonics are usually far more sophisticated than light bulbs. Photonics commonly uses semiconductor light sources like light-emitting diodes (LEDs), superluminescent diodes, and lasers. Other light sources include single photon sources, fluorescent lamps, cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and plasma screens. Note that while CRTs, plasma screens, and organic light-emitting diode displays generate their own light, liquid crystal displays (LCDs) like TFT screens require a backlight of either cold cathode fluorescent lamps or, more often today, LEDs.\n", "It is reported that one Pingelapese island sea-fisherman with this condition has difficulty seeing in bright sunlight, but at night can see in much fainter light than people with normal vision can; he uses this ability in a boat at night waving a large burning torch about to attract or confuse flying fish, which he then catches; the flying fish act as if the torch is the moon. The commentator said that in his brain, brain capacity intended to process cone signals is instead added to his rod signal processing capacity.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Google Earth view of Pingelap\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- A phosphene is the perception of light without light actually entering the eye, for instance caused by pressure applied to the closed eyes.\n\nA phenomenon that could be entoptical if the eyelashes are considered to be part of the eye is seeing light diffracted through the eyelashes. The phenomenon appears as one or more light disks crossed by dark blurry lines (the shadows of the lashes), each having fringes of spectral colour. The disk shape is given by the circular aperture of the pupil.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Endaural phenomena\n\nBULLET::::- Floater\n\nBULLET::::- Form constant\n\nBULLET::::- Haidinger's brush\n\nBULLET::::- Hypnagogia\n", "While surgeries do exist to correct for severe cases of floaters, there are no medications (including eye drops) that can correct for this vitreous deterioration. Floaters are often caused by the normal aging process and will usually disappear as the brain learns to ignore them. Looking up/down and left/right will cause the floaters to leave the direct field of vision as the vitreous humour swirls around due to the sudden movement. If floaters significantly increase in numbers and/or severely affect vision, then one of the below treatments may be necessary.\n", "Section::::Physics.:Detailed view.:Ray optics.\n", "BULLET::::- The inner-ear condition Ménière's disease can be aggravated by flicker. Sufferers of vertigo are recommended to not use fluorescent lights.\n\nBULLET::::- Polymorphous light eruption is a condition affecting the skin thought to be caused by an adverse reaction to ultraviolet light. Its prevalence across Europe is 10-20% of the population. Artificial light sources may provoke the condition, and compact fluorescent light have been shown to produce an eruption.\n", "The most common type of projector used today is called a video projector. Video projectors are digital replacements for earlier types of projectors such as slide projectors and overhead projectors. These earlier types of projectors were mostly replaced with digital video projectors throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, but old analog projectors are still used at some places. The newest types of projectors are handheld projectors that use lasers or LEDs to project images. Their projections are hard to see if there is too much ambient light.\n", "Floaters are able to catch and refract light in ways that somewhat blur vision temporarily until the floater moves to a different area. Often they trick persons who are troubled by floaters into thinking they see something out of the corner of their eye that really is not there. Most persons come to terms with the problem, after a time, and learn to ignore their floaters. For persons with severe floaters it is nearly impossible to ignore completely the large masses that constantly stay within almost direct view.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n" ]

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[ "Everyday clocks such as wristwatches have finite precision. Eventually they require correction to remain accurate. The rate of drift depends on the clock's quality, sometimes the stability of the power source, the ambient temperature, and other subtle environmental variables. Thus the same clock can have different drift rates at different occasions.\n\nMore advanced clocks and old mechanical clocks often have some kind of speed trimmer where one can adjust the speed of the clock and thus correct for clock drift. For instance, in pendulum clocks the clock drift can be manipulated by slightly changing the length of the pendulum.\n", "BULLET::::- In electric clocks, the power source is either a battery or the AC power line. In clocks that use AC power, a small backup battery is often included to keep the clock running if it is unplugged temporarily from the wall or during a power outage. Battery powered analog wall clocks are available that operate over 15 years between battery changes.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Oscillator.\n\nThe timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a precisely constant frequency.\n", "Section::::Preventive conservation.:Storage and display.:Humidity and temperature levels.\n\nThe humidity and temperature of the environment in which a clock is being displayed or stored can adversely affect the clock's condition. Damage may be avoided by maintaining certain levels of humidity and temperature within the clock environment, dependent on the materials from which the clock is constructed.\n\nSection::::Preventive conservation.:Maintenance.\n\nRegular maintenance of a clock can ensure its long-term preservation.\n\nSection::::Preventive conservation.:Maintenance.:Condition checks.\n", "Section::::Accuracy.:Internal adjustment.\n\nSome premium movement designs self-rate and self-regulate. That is, rather than just counting vibrations, their computer program takes the simple count and scales it using a ratio calculated between an epoch set at the factory, and the most recent time the clock was set. These clocks become more accurate as they age.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Power source.\n\nBULLET::::- In mechanical clocks, the power source is typically either a weight suspended from a cord or chain wrapped around a pulley, sprocket or drum; or a spiral spring called a mainspring. Mechanical clocks must be \"wound\" periodically, usually by turning a knob or key or by pulling on the free end of the chain, to store energy in the weight or spring to keep the clock running.\n", "There is no pattern that is repeated every 60 minutes, but this might well have to do with the fact that the gear ratio of the going train is 95:8, meaning that it takes a full 8 hours until the same teeth on the escapement wheel pinion and the great wheel engage again. A longer measuring interval (24 hours) might be necessary to observe repeat patterns.\n\nThere are a couple of factors that influence the accuracy of the Cotehele Clock:\n", "Electric clocks that are powered from the AC supply often use synchronous motors. The supply current alternates with a frequency of 50 hertz in many countries, and 60 hertz in others. The rotor of the motor rotates at a speed that is related to the alternation frequency. Appropriate gearing converts this rotation speed to the correct ones for the hands of the analog clock. The development of electronics in the 20th century led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all. Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by the alternation of the AC supply, vibration of a tuning fork, the behaviour of quartz crystals, or the quantum vibrations of atoms. Electronic circuits divide these high-frequency oscillations to slower ones that drive the time display. Even mechanical clocks have since come to be largely powered by batteries, removing the need for winding.\n", "Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, these clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the advent of digital clocks in the 1960s, the use of analog clocks has declined significantly.\n", "In modern mass-produced clocks and watches, the same movement is often inserted into many different styles of case. When buying a quality pocketwatch from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, for example, the customer would select a movement and case individually. Mechanical movements get dirty and the lubricants dry up, so they must periodically be disassembled, cleaned, and lubricated. One source recommends servicing intervals of: 3–5 years for watches, 15–20 years for grandfather clocks, 10–15 years for wall or mantel clocks, 15–20 years for anniversary clocks, and 7 years for cuckoo clocks, with the longer intervals applying to antique timepieces.\n", "Slow changes in the motions of the Earth cause gradual changes in the annual variation of the equation of time. The graph at the top of this article shows the annual variation as it is at present, around the year 2000. Many centuries in the past or future, the shape of the graph would be very different. Most equation clocks were constructed some three centuries ago, since when the change in the annual variation of the equation of time has been small, but appreciable. The clocks embody the annual variation as it was when they were made. They do not compensate for the slow changes, which were then unknown, so they are slightly less accurate now than they were when new. The greatest error from this cause is currently about one minute. Centuries in the future, if these clocks survive, the errors will be larger.\n", "BULLET::::- Pendulum damage during clock movement can be prevented by either removing the pendulum or fixing it within the interior of the clock via a latch or padding prior to clock movement. This can also prevent damage to other interior components.\n\nBULLET::::- A clock \"[...] should always be grasped at its most sturdy area\" and moved from one location to the next on its back.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tuning Fork clocks\" keep time by counting the oscillations of a calibrated tuning fork with a specific frequency. These were only made in battery-powered form. Battery-powered clocks have been made using the schemes above with the obvious exception of a synchronous movement. All battery-powered clocks have been largely replaced by the lower cost quartz movement.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Synchronous clocks\" rely on the 50 or 60 Hz utility frequency of the AC electric power grid as a timing source, by driving the clock gears with a synchronous motor. They essentially count cycles of the power supply. While the actual frequency may vary with loading on the grid, the total number of cycles per 24 hours is maintained rigorously constant, so that these clocks can keep time accurately for long periods, barring power cuts; over months they are more accurate than a typical quartz clock. This was the most common type of clock from the 1930s but has now been mostly replaced by quartz clocks.\n", "BULLET::::- The correlation of the size of a clock with the number of people moving it can ensure the safety of the clock. A small, mantle clock for example may only require one mover, while a tall clock can necessitate a number of movers to safely carry it to another location.\n\nSection::::Preventive conservation.:Storage and display.\n", "Clockwork damage can be inflicted via over-winding, interaction with contaminants, ill-advised lubrication, and clock movement when a pendulum is not secured prior to the clock being moved. A free swinging pendulum can itself be damaged and can inflict damage onto other interior components during such clock movement.\n\nSection::::Conservation and restoration.\n\nInterventive actions can be taken by trained conservators when clock issues arise, with treatment varying depending on the type of clock and situation.\n\nSection::::Conservation and restoration.:Conservators.\n", "A problem throughout the history of spring-driven clocks and watches is that the force (torque) provided by a spring is not constant, but diminishes as the spring unwinds (see graph). However, timepieces have to run at a constant rate in order to keep accurate time. Timekeeping mechanisms are never perfectly isochronous, meaning their rate is affected by changes in the drive force. This was especially true of the primitive verge and foliot type used before the advent of the balance spring in 1657. So early clocks slowed down during their running period as the mainspring ran down, causing inaccurate timekeeping. \n", "A major source of error in pendulum clocks is thermal expansion; the pendulum rod changes in length slightly with changes in temperature, causing changes in the rate of the clock. An increase in temperature causes the rod to expand, making the pendulum longer, so its period increases and the clock loses time. Many older quality clocks used wooden pendulum rods to reduce this error, as wood expands less than metal.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Oscillator.:Synchronized or slave clocks.\n\nSome clocks rely for their accuracy on an external oscillator; that is, they are automatically synchronized to a more accurate clock:\n\nBULLET::::- Slave clocks, used in large institutions and schools from the 1860s to the 1970s, kept time with a pendulum, but were wired to a master clock in the building, and periodically received a signal to synchronize them with the master, often on the hour. Later versions without pendulums were triggered by a pulse from the master clock and certain sequences used to force rapid synchronization following a power failure.\n", "BULLET::::- In mechanical clocks, this is either a pendulum or a balance wheel.\n\nBULLET::::- In some early electronic clocks and watches such as the Accutron, it is a tuning fork.\n\nBULLET::::- In quartz clocks and watches, it is a quartz crystal.\n\nBULLET::::- In atomic clocks, it is the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves.\n\nBULLET::::- In early mechanical clocks before 1657, it was a crude balance wheel or foliot which was not a harmonic oscillator because it lacked a balance spring. As a result, they were very inaccurate, with errors of perhaps an hour a day.\n", "Section::::Recent accuracy measurement.\n", "Slow watch\n\nThe Slow watch is a line of 24-hour analog dial watches made by \"Slow watches\". \n\nSection::::Watches.\n\nThe watches made by \"Slow watches\" have a minimalist design, with only one hand. The watch faces mark out 24 hours rather than the traditional 12 hours, with 12 noon located at the top of the face. They are available in over 15 different styles, with both octagonal and round cases. Dashes on the clock face are quarters of an hour as opposed to the usual markings per minute.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Commercial digital clocks are typically more reliable than consumer clocks. Multi-decade backup batteries can be used to maintain time during power loss.\n\nSection::::Uses of digital clocks.\n", "A clock mechanism may be used to \"control\" a device according to time, e.g. a central heating system, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: digital counter). Such mechanisms are usually called timers. Clock mechanisms are also used to drive devices such as solar trackers and astronomical telescopes, which have to turn at accurately controlled speeds to counteract the rotation of the Earth.\n", "And was always his treasure and pride;br\n\nBut it stopped short — never to go again —br\n\nWhen the old man died.\n\nbr\n\nIn watching its pendulum swing to and fro,br\n\nMany hours he spent as a boy.br\n\nAnd in childhood and manhood the clock seemed to knowbr\n\nAnd to share both his grief and his joy.br\n\nFor it struck twenty-four when he entered at the door,br\n\nWith a blooming and beautiful bride;br\n\nBut it stopped short — never to go again —br\n\nWhen the old man died.\n\nMy grandfather said that of those he could hire,br\n", "While the clock has not been wound since it was made by Arthur Beverly in 1864, it has stopped on a number of occasions, such as when its mechanism needed cleaning or there was a mechanical failure, and when the Physics Department moved to new quarters. As well, on occasions when the ambient temperature has not fluctuated sufficiently to absorb the requisite amount of energy, the clock will not function. However, after environmental parameters readjust, the clock begins operating again.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Long-term experiment\n\nBULLET::::- Oxford Electric Bell (1840)\n\nBULLET::::- Pitch drop experiment (1927)\n\nBULLET::::- Cox's timepiece\n" ]

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[ "The sparkling quality of these wines comes from its carbon dioxide content and may be the result of natural fermentation, either in a bottle, as with the traditional method, in a large tank designed to withstand the pressures involved (as in the Charmat process), or as a result of simple carbon dioxide injection in some cheaper sparkling wines.\n", "Ontario, and in particular the Niagara Peninsula, is the largest wine growing region in Canada. Approximately 26 of the Niagara Peninsula wineries produce some sparkling wine, where annual production averages about 55,000 cases (500,000 litres). Sparkling wine is largely produced in the Traditional Method (65%), and a smaller proportion is produced in the Charmat method (35%). The Niagara Peninsula region's micro-climate is well suited for the growth of Chardonnay, Riesling, Vidal Blanc, Pinot Noir and Gamay grapes, which are the prominent varietals for Ontario sparkling wine. Ontario sparkling wines are often noted for having a character and aroma comparable to that of traditional Champagne, including biscuit, subtle yeast and palate cleansing bubbles.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nEffervescence has been observed in wine throughout history and has been noted by Ancient Greek and Roman writers, but the cause of this mysterious appearance of bubbles was not understood. Over time it has been attributed to phases of the moon as well as both good and evil spirits.\n", "Section::::Other European sparkling wine.:Romanian sparkling wine.\n", "Clearly Canadian has released many product SKUs and formats over the years, including the following flavoured sparkling waters (with current offerings as of 2018 in \"italics\"):\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Cherry\"\n\nBULLET::::- Green Apple\n\nBULLET::::- Peach Mango\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orchard Peach\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mountain Blackberry\"\n\nBULLET::::- Coastal Cranberry\n\nBULLET::::- Summer Strawberry\n\nBULLET::::- \"Country Raspberry\"\n\nBULLET::::- Western Loganberry\n\nBULLET::::- Tropical Tangerine\n\nBULLET::::- Alpine Fruit & Berries\n\nAdditionally, the brand has released the following products:\n\nBULLET::::- Clearly Tea\n\nBULLET::::- Clearly Sparkling Tea\n\nBULLET::::- Clearly Canadian Sparkling Water (non-flavoured)\n\nBULLET::::- Reebok Fitness Water by Clearly Canadian\n\nBULLET::::- DailyHydration\n\nBULLET::::- DailyEnergy\n\nBULLET::::- DailyVitamin\n\nBULLET::::- DailyBeauty *(never released)\n", "Historically the various stages were performed manually but the whole process is now automated for most wines. In connection with the filling of the missing volume, it is common to add a certain amount of sugar dissolved in wine to give the sparkling wine a smoother taste. Sugar addition is called \"dosage\" and the added liquid \"liqueur d'expedition\".\n", "Section::::New World sparkling wine.:South Africa.\n", "BULLET::::- Sparkling water – Sparkling water contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. The carbon dioxide may be removed and replenished after treatment.\n\nBULLET::::- Spring water – this type of water comes from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the Earth's surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Sterile water – this type of water meets sterilization requirements, for example, those specified under \"sterility tests\" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.\n", "BULLET::::- Artesian water comes from a well tapping a confined aquifer in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer; it may be collected with the assistance of external force to enhance the natural underground pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- Water that has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis or similar processes is purified or demineralized water.\n\nBULLET::::- Sparkling water contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source, although it may be removed and replenished in treatment.\n", "An emerging sparkling wine-focused region in Ontario is Prince Edward County, Ontario. The County is noted for its Prince Edward County Wine and is the fourth and newest Designated Viticultural Area (DVA) in the Province. Like the Niagara Peninsula, Prince Edward County's terroir and micro-climate are well suited for cool climate grapes where wineries, such as The Hinterland Wine Company, specialize in the production of sparkling wines.\n", "Simpler, cheaper sparkling wines are manufactured simply by adding CO to the wine from a carbonator. The bubbles created by using this method will be relatively large and volatile. In the European Union sparkling wines made via this method must use terms 'aerated sparkling wine' and 'aerated semi-sparkling wine', supplemented where necessary with the words 'obtained by adding carbon dioxide' or 'obtained by adding carbon anhydride.'\n\nSection::::Wine faults.\n", "The growth of the Finger Lakes wine industry in New York State and the success of Riesling wines from the region has resulted in an increasing number of producers making méthode champenoise sparkling wines from primarily or 100% Riesling. Finger Lakes producers such as Glenora and Casa Larga are also producing méthode champenoise sparkling wine from other grapes such as the traditional Chardonnay and Pinot noir.\n\nSection::::New World sparkling wine.:Canada.\n", "Section::::Other European sparkling wine.:Sovetskoye Shampanskoye.\n", "Section::::New World sparkling wine.\n\nSection::::New World sparkling wine.:American sparkling wine.\n", "BULLET::::- Akostné aromatické šumivé víno \"Quality aromatic sparkling wine\" is obtained only by making use, when constituting the cuvée, of grape must or grape must in fermentation which are derived from specific wine grape varieties on a list, excess pressure of not less than 300 kPa (3 bar), of which the actual alcoholic strength may not be less than 6% vol. and of which the total alcoholic strength may not be less than 10% vol.\n\nSection::::Sparkling wines.:Traditional terms.\n\nBULLET::::- Perlivé víno \"Semi sparkling wine\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sýtené víno \"Aerated sparkling wine\"\n", "Section::::Other European sparkling wine.:English sparkling wine.\n", "Sparkling wine production\n\nSparkling wine production is the method of winemaking used to produce sparkling wine. The oldest known production of sparkling wine took place in 1531 with the \"ancestral method\".\n\nSection::::Pressure and terminology.\n\nIn popular parlance and also in the title of this article the term \"sparkling\" is used for all wines that produce bubbles at the surface after opening. Under EU law the term \"sparkling\" has a special meaning that does not include all wines that produce bubbles. For this reason the terms \"fizzy\" and \"effervescent\" are sometimes used to include all bubbly wines.\n", "In Austria, Sekt is often made in the \"méthode champenoise\" with the Welschriesling and Grüner Veltliner grapes giving the wine a golden hue color. Sparkling rosé are made from the Blaufränkisch grape. Austria's history of producing sparkling wine dates back to the Austro-Hungarian empire. Most Austrian Sekt producers are based in Vienna and source their grapes from the Weinviertel region in Lower Austria. Like its German counterpart, Austrian Sekt can be made trocken (dry) or halbtrocken (medium dry).\n", "Section::::Wine production.\n\nCricova produce sparkling wines in accordance with the classical French method, purportedly invented centuries ago by the monk Dom Pierre Perignon – \"Methode Champenoise\", \n\nCricova makes a unique sparkling red wine, kodrinskoie-sparkling, made from cabernet sauvignon stocks and marketed as having a 'rich velvet texture and a blackcurrant and cherry taste'.\n", "Sparkling wine is a wine with significant levels of carbon dioxide in it, making it fizzy. While the phrase commonly refers to champagne, EU countries legally reserve that term for products exclusively produced in the Champagne region of France. Sparkling wine is usually either white or rosé, but there are examples of red sparkling wines such as the Italian Brachetto, Bonarda and Lambrusco, Spanish wine Cava, Australian sparkling Shiraz, and Azerbaijani \"Pearl of Azerbaijan\" made from Madrasa grapes. The sweetness of sparkling wine can range from very dry \"brut\" styles to sweeter \"doux\" varieties (French for 'raw' and 'sweet', respectively).\n", "Section::::Production.:Secondary fermentation.\n", "There is also a Crémant designation outside France:\n\nBULLET::::- Crémant de Luxembourg\n", "Section::::Semi-sparkling wine.\n", "Section::::French sparkling wine.\n", "Prosecco is made in both fully sparkling (\"spumante\") and lightly sparkling (\"frizzante\") styles. The wine is produced in the cool hills around the town of Valdobbiadene and are generally dry but sweeter examples are produced.\n\nv.f.q.p.r.d. (Vini Frizzanti di Qualità Prodotti in Regioni Determinate): Quality \"Vini frizzanti\" made within defined regions are generally labeled as such.\n\nSection::::Other European sparkling wine.:Sekt.\n" ]

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[ "When a firearm or a bullet or cartridge case are recovered from a crime scene, forensic examiners compare the ballistic fingerprint of the recovered bullet or cartridge case with the ballistic fingerprint of a second bullet or cartridge case test-fired from the recovered firearm. If the ballistic fingerprint on the test-fired bullet or cartridge case matches the ballistic fingerprint on the recovered bullet or cartridge case, investigators know that the recovered bullet or cartridge case was also fired from the recovered gun. A confirmed link between a specific firearm and a bullet or cartridge case recovered from a crime scene constitutes a valuable lead, because investigators may be able to connect the firearm to a person, who may then become either a suspect or a source of information helpful to the investigation.\n", "Prior to September 2005, comparative bullet-lead analysis was performed on bullets found at a scene that were too destroyed for striation comparison. The technique would attempt to determine the unique elemental breakdown of the bullet and compare it to seized bullets possessed by a suspect. Review of the method found that the breakdown of elements found in bullets could be significantly different enough to potentially allow for two bullets from separate sources to be correlated to each other. However, there are not enough differences to definitely match a bullet from a crime scene to one taken from a suspect's possession. An additional report in 2004 from the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) found that the testimony given regarding comparative bullet-lead analysis was overstated and potentially \"misleading under the federal rules of evidence\". In 2005, the Federal Bureau of Investigation indicated that they would no longer be performing this type of analysis.\n", "The prevalence of hand-gun related crime in the United States compared to most other developed countries provided the impetus for the development of the comparison microscope. As with most firearms, the fired ammunition components may acquire sufficient unique and reproducible microscopic marks to be identifiable as having been fired by a single firearm. Making these comparisons is correctly referred to as firearms identification, or sometimes called as \"ballistics\".\n", "In 1999, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) established and began administration of the National Integrated Ballistic Information Network. In this program, ATF administers automated ballistic imaging technology for law enforcement, forensic science, and attorney agencies in the United States that have entered into a formal agreement with ATF to enter ballistic information into NIBIN. Partners use Integrated Ballistic Identification Systems to acquire digital images of the markings made on spent ammunition recovered from a crime scene or a crime gun test fire and then compare those images against earlier entries via electronic image comparison. If a high-confidence candidate for a match emerges, firearms examiners compare the original evidence with a microscope to confirm the match.\n", "The ability to compare ammunition is a direct result of the invention of rifling around the turn of the 16th century. By forcing the bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel of the weapon the bullet's accuracy greatly increases. At the same time, the rifling leaves marks on the bullet that are indicative of that particular barrel. Prior to mass production of firearms, each barrel and bullet mold was hand made by gunsmiths making them unique. The first successful documented case of forensic firearm examination occurred in 1835 when a member of the Bow Street Runners in London matched a recovered bullet from a murder victim to a specific mold in a suspect's home confirming that he made the bullet. Further evidence that the bullet maker was the perpetrator was found in his home and he was convicted. As manufacturing and automation replaced hand tools, the ability to compare bullets became impossible due to the standardization of molds within a specific company. However, experts in the field postulated that there were microscopic differences on each barrel left during the manufacturing process. These differences were a result of wear on the machines and since each new weapon caused a tiny amount of wear, each barrel would be slightly different from every other barrel produced by that company. Also, each bullet fired from a specific barrel would be printed with the same marks, allowing investigators to identify the weapon that fired a specific bullet.\n", "By examining unique striations, scratches left behind on the bullet and weapon, individual fired rounds can be, but not always are, linked back to a specific weapon. These striations are due to the rifling inside the barrel of handguns. Rifling spins the bullet when it is shot out of the barrel to improve accuracy. Although striations are individualized evidence and will not match any other bullet or weapon, microscopic striations in the barrel of the weapon will change about every 3-5 shots. This is important because if attorneys wish to present ballistics evidence in court, it would be hard to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that one specific bullet would match one specific weapon. Forensic ballistics examiners may not fire more than 5 shots at most from a weapon found at a scene for this exact reason. Known exemplars taken from a seized weapon can be directly compared to samples recovered from the scene using a comparison microscope as well as newer 3-D imaging technology. Striation images can also be uploaded to any existing national databases. Furthermore, these markings can be compared to other images in an attempt to link one weapon to multiple crime scenes. Like all forensic specialties, forensic firearm examiners are subject to being called to testify in court as expert witnesses.\n", "Historically, and currently, this forensic discipline ultimately requires a microscopic side-by-side comparison of fired bullets or cartridge cases, one pair at a time, by a forensic examiner to confirm or eliminate the two items as having been fired by a single firearm. For this purpose, the traditional tool of the firearms examiner has been what is often called the ballistics comparison microscope.\n", "Particle analysis by scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy detector is the most powerful forensic tool that investigators can use to determine a subject's proximity to a discharging firearm or contact with a surface exposed to GSR (firearm, spent cartridge case, target hole). Test accuracy requires procedures that avoid secondary gunshot residue transfer from police officers onto subjects or items to be tested, and that avoid contamination in the laboratory.\n", "Since, ballistic identification has benefited from a long series of structural, scientific and technological advances, law enforcement agencies have established forensic laboratories and researchers have learned much more about how to match bullets and cartridge cases to the guns used to fire them, and comparison microscopes have become more sophisticated. By the end of the 1980s, ballistic identification was an established sub-specialty of forensic science.\n", "In October 1961, ballistics tests were run with improved technology using Sacco's Colt automatic. The results confirmed that the bullet that killed the victim, Berardelli in 1920 came from the same .32 Colt Auto taken from the pistol in Sacco's possession. Subsequent investigations in 1983 also supported Goddard's findings.\n\nSection::::Notable cases.:St. Valentine's Day massacre.\n", "Once a known exemplar is produced, the evidence sample can be compared to the known by examining both at the same time with a comparison microscope. Striations that line up are examined more closely, looking for multiple consecutive matches. There is no set number of consecutive matches that equates to a match declaration, and examiners are trained to use the phrase \"sufficient agreement\" when testifying. The degree to which an examiner can make that determination is based on their training and expertise. All findings by examiners are subject to questioning by both sides, prosecution and defense, during testimony in court.\n", "One of the first uses of this knowledge was in 1915 to exonerate Charles Stielow of the murder of his neighbors. Stielow was sentenced to death and appealed to Charles S. Whitman, the Governor of New York, who was not convinced by the evidence used to convict Stielow. Whitman halted the execution until an inquiry could be conducted and after further examination it was shown that Stielow's firearm could not have fired the bullets recovered from the victims. The invention of the comparison microscope by Calvin Goddard and Phillip O. Gravelle in 1925 modernized the forensic examination of firearms. Simultaneous comparison of two different objects at the same time allowed to closely examine striations for matches and therefore make a more definitive statement as to whether or not they matched.\n", "Spent cartridges found at a scene can be examined for physical evidence such as fingerprints or compared to samples that match them to a weapon. The examination of the cartridge relies on the unique tool marks left by the various parts of the weapon including the firing pin and the ejector in semi and fully automatic firearms. These markings can be compared and matched to known exemplars fired from the same weapon using the same parts. The examination of the marks left on the cartridge is done using a comparison microscope. Examiners view the questioned cartridge and the known exemplar simultaneously, looking for similar microscopic marks left during the firing process.\n", "In order to compare individual striations, examiners must obtain a known sample using the seized weapon. For slower-traveling bullets, such as pistols or revolvers, known bullet exemplars are created by firing the weapon into a water tank. The spent bullet can be recovered, intact, as the water slows down the bullet before it can reach the tank walls, allowing for it to be recovered. For faster traveling bullets, such as those fired from high-powered rifles and military style weapons, water tanks cannot be used as the tank will not provide enough stopping power for the projectiles. To examine these weapons, investigators must fire them at a target at a controlled range with enough backing to stop the bullet and collect the spent round after it has been fired.\n", "Section::::Striation databasing.\n\nBullets and casings found at a scene require a known example to compare to in order to match them to a weapon. Without a weapon, the striation pattern can be uploaded to a database such as the National Integrated Ballistic Identification Network (NIBIN) maintained by the ATF or the United Kingdom's National Ballistics Intelligence Service (NABIS). Information uploaded to these databases can be used to track gun crimes and to link crimes together. Maintainers of these databases recommend that every recovered firearm be test fired and the resulting known exemplar be uploaded into the database.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n", "Section::::Product identification.\n\nBULLET::::- Color copiers and maybe some color computer printers steganographically embed their identification number to sa countermeasure against currency forgeries.\n\nBULLET::::- Copiers and computer printers can be potentially identified by the minor variants of the way they feed the paper through the printing mechanism, leaving banding artifacts. Analysis of the toners is also used.\n\nBULLET::::- Documents are characterized by the composition of their paper and ink.\n\nBULLET::::- Firearms can be identified by the striations on the bullets they fired and imprints on the cartridge casings.\n", "BULLET::::- The Firearm Analysis Unit is part of the Forensic Technology Division. This Unit provides forensic support to the Boston Police Department, Federal Law Enforcement Agencies and area college and university police departments. This unit provides many services including: firearm and ammunition certification, comparison of ballistic evidence, crime scene processing and evidence preservation, evidence collection, evidence & case review, analysis of evidence and reporting.\n", "BULLET::::- Comparative bullet-lead analysis was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. The theory was that each batch of ammunition possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a specific box. Internal studies and an outside study by the National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable due to improper interpretation, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005.\n", "At trial, prosecutors produced no eyewitness, no fingerprint and no murder weapon. An FBI examiner testified that bullets found in Michael Behn's office and the bullets that had killed the coin dealer, quote, 'came from the same source of lead at the manufacturer, so they were manufactured on our about the same date'. This process is called \"comparative bullet lead analysis\" or CBLA. The FBI was the only lab in the country that performed it. By testing bullets for tiny amounts of impurities, FBI examiners determine a bullet's chemical profile. If the crime scene bullets and the suspect's bullets turn out to have identical profiles, they claimed a virtual match. Thus the FBI claimed in court to be able to link one bullet to others from the same production run, even from the same box.\n", "Forensic innovator Calvin Goddard offered ballistic identification evidence in 1921 to help secure convictions of accused murderers and anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. On April 8, 1927, Sacco and Vanzetti were finally sentenced to death in the electric chair. A worldwide outcry arose and Governor Alvin T. Fuller finally agreed to postpone the executions and set up a committee to reconsider the case. By this time, firearms examination had improved considerably, and it was now known that a semi-automatic pistol could be traced by several different methods if both bullet and casing were recovered from the scene. Automatic pistols could now be traced by unique markings of the rifling on the bullet, by firing pin indentations on the fired primer, or by unique ejector and extractor marks on the casing. The committee appointed to review the case used the services of Calvin Goddard in 1927.\n", "Cartridges are also routinely examined for fingerprints as the act of loading the ammunition into the magazine, or chamber, leaves recoverable impressions. These fingerprints can survive the firing processes and, while a rare occurrence, fingerprints have been obtained from cartridges recovered from the scene. Cartridges are subjected to cyanoacrylate fuming and examined for any usable prints. Usable prints are photographed and can be uploaded to fingerprint databases such as IAFIS for comparison with known exemplars. Cartridges can also be swabbed for trace DNA left by the individual who loaded the magazine. The extremely low levels of recoverable DNA present the same issues as swabbing a firearm for DNA.\n", "There are many questions that can be answered from the proper reconstruction of a shooting incident. Some of the questions typically answered by a shooting reconstruction investigation include (but not limited to) the distance of the shooter from the target, The path of the bullet(s), The number of shots fired and possibly the sequence of multiple discharges at a shooting incident.\n\nThe Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners is an international non-profit organization dedicated to the advancement of firearm and tool mark identification, including shooting reconstruction.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Association for Crime Scene Reconstruction\n", "Preliminary examination of the bullet can exclude a large number of weapons by examining the general characteristics of a recovered bullet. By determining general aspects of the fired ammunition, a number of weapons can be immediately excluded as being incapable of firing that type of bullet. The make and model of the weapon can also be inferred from the combination of different class characteristics that are common to specific manufactures. The three main class characteristics of all bullets are the lands and grooves, the caliber of the bullet, and the rifling twist. All three can be tied directly to the type of barrel that was used to fire the bullet. The lands and grooves of barrel are the bumps and valleys created when the rifling is created. The caliber is the diameter of the barrel. The twist is the direction of the striations left by the barrel's rifling, clockwise (right-handed) or counterclockwise (left-handed). Most barrels will have a right-handed twist with the exception of weapons created by the Colt's Manufacturing Company which uses left-handed twists. Weapon barrels that match the class characteristics of recovered bullets can be examined further for individual characteristics to determine if the bullet came from that particular weapon.\n", "The correlation algorithm is what enables an Automated Ballistic Identification System to distinguish one bullet/cartridge case from another. Computer simulations alone cannot be relied on in developing a reliable algorithm. At some point, this algorithm must be \"field-tested\" against a real-life database. The bigger the database against which the developers can test, the more reliable the algorithm. To put it simply, the only way to determine if a correlation algorithm will be able to find a match of a specimen against a database of 1,000,000 entries is to do an actual test against a database of 1,000,000 entries.\n", "Section::::Examination of the firearm.\n\nAny firearm collected during the course of an investigation could yield viable evidence if examined. For forensic firearm examination specific evidence that can be recovered include weapon serial numbers and potentially fingerprints left on the weapon's surface.\n\nSection::::Examination of the firearm.:Fingerprint recovery.\n" ]

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[ "Many elements of a website that are different according to the locale of the client need only minor manual changes by a localizer, or none at all. For example, the system on which the website is created should automatically produce the correct currency symbol based on the country in which the client is located. \n\nBULLET::::- Website Analytics Software: This software can be created once generally, and then applied to each of the localized domains.\n", "For the two platforms with international user bases (Facebook and Twitter), UNESCO researchers identified tensions between the companies’ own policies and practices and governments’ laws and regulations. The policies and practices of the more domestically focused platforms more closely mirror home governments’ expectations and requirements. Companies are much more transparent about how they respond to government requests than they are about the nature and volume of content restricted for violation of their own private rules. There is significant concern amongst some human rights advocates, including for example those working to stop gender-based violence and online hate speech, about companies’ lack of communication with users about how terms of service are developed, interpreted and enforced. \n", "Time zones vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a single time zone. For internationalization, UTC is often used internally and then converted into a local time zone for display purposes.\n\nDifferent countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example:\n\nBULLET::::- Regulatory compliance may require customization for a particular jurisdiction, or a change to the product as a whole, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Privacy law compliance\n\nBULLET::::- Additional disclaimers on a web site or packaging\n\nBULLET::::- Different consumer labelling requirements\n", "BULLET::::- Portal censorship and search result removal: Major portals, including search engines, may exclude web sites that they would ordinarily include. This renders a site invisible to people who do not know where to find it. When a major portal does this, it has a similar effect as censorship. Sometimes this exclusion is done to satisfy a legal or other requirement, other times it is purely at the discretion of the portal. For example, Google.de and Google.fr remove Neo-Nazi and other listings in compliance with German and French law.\n", "Evidence is found that local country web sites reflect the cultural values of the country of their origin, while international companies adapt their foreign websites to the cultural values of the target country, but this adaptation is not yet extensive. \n", "Section::::Canada.\n\nThe digital divide in Canada is impacted by several factors that include the differences in the availability of online connectivity resources in different locations across the country, levels of digital literacy, and economic levels.\n\nSection::::China.\n\nInternet Censorship\n\nSites in which allow for the regular and free interaction between Chinese citizens, generally come with some restrictions. This will include social media sites, forums, and other sites which are heavy on user interactivity. Google has also been heavily restricted in China and this includes all of its different features.\n\nSection::::Colombia.\n", "Suppose that a company operating exclusively in Germany chooses to open a major office in Russia and needs a Russian-language website. The company offers the same products and services in both countries with minor differences, but perhaps some elements that appeared in the original website intended for a German audience are offensive or upsetting in Russia (use of flags, colours, nationalistic images, songs, etc.). Thus, that company might lose a potential market because of small details of presentation.\n\nFurthermore, this company might need to adapt the product to its new buyers; video games are the best example.\n", "BULLET::::- Limited e-store capabilities, have to use the Google i-store gadget to add a shopping cart, iframe a third-party e-store provider such as Amazon, or use a Google Buy Now button.\n\nBULLET::::- Limited use of HTML coding. HTML is checked and modified when saved, Javascript is made safe with Caja. CSS cannot be incorporated in the theme templates; however, inline CSS can be used within the webpage content area.\n\nBULLET::::- Sites that are hosted on Google Sites are not available to residents of countries where Google services are blocked.\n\nSection::::Censorship.\n", "BULLET::::- Site Search: Results can be reviewed using an algorithm that sifts through possible results using metadata. For example, a consumer who makes a query in the United States should not be shown a good that can only be purchased in Portugal.\n\nBULLET::::- Testimonials: Comments and feedback are often a vital part of a website. Localization efforts usually only include censorship. This can be done largely by software, however human review is sometimes necessary.\n", "Among the cross-cultural studies of websites there are those that look specifically at the use of culturally adapted images and product representations, the use of human representations, differences in brand logos and tag lines, different colour schemes, navigation, trust-building web strategies in the online shopping context, as well as many other website components and overall website look and feel. The studies confirm the existence of measurable differences in appeal, effectiveness and usability of websites between countries. \n\nBULLET::::- Oban Digital provides Cultural Multivariate Testing through its GlobalMaxer tool.\n", "The Kaspersky regions are:\n\nBULLET::::- Region 1: Canada, United States, Mexico, and Bermuda\n\nBULLET::::- Region 2: Western Europe, the Middle East, South Africa, Egypt, and Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Region 3: Southeast Asia\n\nBULLET::::- Region 4: Central America, South America (excluding French Guiana), and Oceania; Mexico uses software that uses flags for both regions 1 and 4\n\nBULLET::::- Region 5: Africa, India, and the Commonwealth of Independent States (also includes Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Serbia)\n\nBULLET::::- Region 6: Mainland China\n\nBULLET::::- Region 7: Elsewhere\n\nBULLET::::- Region 8: Special international area (airplane, steamer, etc.)\n\nSection::::Multimedia.:Websites.\n", "BULLET::::- Access to search results may be restricted due to government involvement in the censorship of specific search terms, content may be excluded due to terms set with search engines. By allowing search engines to operate in new territory they must agree to abide to censorship standards set by the government in that country.\n\nSection::::Content suppression methods.:Self-censorship by web service operators.\n\nSection::::Content suppression methods.:Self-censorship by web service operators.:Removal of user accounts based on controversial content.\n", "Section::::Controversies with publishers.:EU copyright and database right.\n", "The first phase, internationalisation, encompasses the planning and preparation stages for a product that is built by design to support global markets. This process removes all cultural assumptions, and any country- or language-specific content is stored so that it can be easily adapted. If this content is not separated during this phase, it must be fixed during localisation, adding time and expense to the project. In extreme cases, products that were not internationalised may not be localisable. Internationalization is often written as 'i18n' in the localization industry, where the number 18 is the number of letters between i and n in the English word.\n", "BULLET::::- Keyboard shortcuts can only make use of buttons actually on the keyboard layout which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language (e.g. Ctrl-s stands for \"save\" in English), it may need to be changed.\n\nSection::::Scope.:National conventions.\n\nDifferent countries have different economic conventions, including variations in:\n\nBULLET::::- Paper sizes\n\nBULLET::::- Broadcast television systems and popular storage media\n\nBULLET::::- Telephone number formats\n\nBULLET::::- Postal address formats, postal codes, and choice of delivery services\n", "On October 22, 2002, a study reported that approximately 113 Internet sites had been removed from the German and French versions of Google. This censorship mainly affected White Nationalist, Nazi, anti-semitic, Islamic extremist websites and at least one fundamentalist Christian website. Under French and German law, hate speech and Holocaust denial are illegal. In the case of Germany, violent or sex-related sites such as YouPorn and BME that the \"Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien\" deems harmful to youth are also censored.\n", "Though it is sometimes difficult to draw the limits between translation and localisation, in general localisation addresses significant, non-textual components of products or services. In addition to translation (and, therefore, grammar and spelling issues that vary from place to place where the same language is spoken), the localisation process might include adapting graphics; adopting local currencies; using proper format for date and time, addresses, and phone numbers applicable to the location; the choices of colours; cultural references; and many other details, including rethinking the physical structure of a product. All these changes aim to recognise local sensitivities, avoid conflict with local culture, customs, common habits, and enter the local market by merging into its needs and desires. For example, localisation aims to offer country-specific websites of the same company or different editions of a book depending on where it is published. It must be kept in mind that a political entity such as a country is not the same as a language or culture; even in countries where there exists a substantially identical relationship between a language and a political entity, there are almost certainly multiple cultures and multiple minority languages even if the minority languages are spoken by transient populations. For instance, Japan's national language is Japanese and is the primary language for over 99% of the population, but the country also recognises 11 languages officially, others are spoken by transient populations, and others are spoken as second or other languages.\n", "Like most websites, price comparison websites partly rely on search engines for visitors. The general nature of shopping focused price comparison websites is that, since their content is provided by retail stores, content on price comparison websites is unlikely to be absolutely unique. The table style layout of a comparison website could be considered by Google as \"Autogenerated Content and Roundup/Comparison Type of Pages\". As of the 2011 updates to its search algorithm, known as Google Panda, Google seems to have started considering these comparison sites to be of low quality.\n\nSection::::Niche players, fake test sites and fraud.\n", "In English regional and UK-wide editions, the main BBC One or ITV column shows programmes in the London region, with other regions (and nations) in the regional variations column. S4C is also often listed here. In Welsh and Scottish editions, adjoining English regions are usually listed. In Northern Ireland, some services from the Republic of Ireland are often listed as regional variations, although they are not.\n\nSection::::Other instances.\n\nMany programme services on North American cable systems are subject to inserts of regional advertisements inserted by the local cable operator.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- TV listings (UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Listings magazine\n", "BULLET::::- SET Max\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV 24x7\n\nBULLET::::- Sahara One\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Entertainment Television Asia\n\nBULLET::::- STAR Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Star One\n\nBULLET::::- Star Plus\n\nBULLET::::- 9X\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV Imagine\n\nBULLET::::- 9XM\n\nBULLET::::- Zing\n\nBULLET::::- B4U Music\n\nSection::::Netherlands.\n\nBULLET::::- Ziggo\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Entertainment Television Asia\n\nBULLET::::- SET Max\n\nBULLET::::- Zee Cinema\n\nBULLET::::- SET Max\n\nSection::::Poland.\n\nBULLET::::- GlobeCast World TV\n\nBULLET::::- Aaj Tak\n\nBULLET::::- Filmy\n\nBULLET::::- SET Max\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV 24x7\n\nBULLET::::- Sahara One\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Entertainment Television Asia\n\nBULLET::::- STAR Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Star One\n\nBULLET::::- Star Plus\n\nBULLET::::- 9X\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV Imagine\n\nBULLET::::- 9XM\n\nBULLET::::- Zing\n\nBULLET::::- B4U Music\n\nSection::::Portugal.\n", "BULLET::::- In contrast, countries such as China and Tunisia send users a false error indication. China blocks requests by users for a banned website at the router level and a connection error is returned, effectively preventing the user's IP address from making further HTTP requests for a varying time, which appears to the user as \"time-out\" error with no explanation. Tunisia has altered the block page functionality of SmartFilter, the commercial filtering software it uses, so that users attempting to access blocked websites receive a fake \"File not found\" error page.\n", "BULLET::::- B4U Music\n\nBULLET::::- YouSee\n\nSection::::Finland.\n\nBULLET::::- GlobeCast World TV\n\nBULLET::::- Aaj Tak\n\nBULLET::::- Filmy\n\nBULLET::::- SET Max\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV 24x7\n\nBULLET::::- Sahara One\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Entertainment Television Asia\n\nBULLET::::- STAR Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Star One\n\nBULLET::::- Star Plus\n\nBULLET::::- 9X\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV Imagine\n\nBULLET::::- 9XM\n\nBULLET::::- Zing\n\nBULLET::::- B4U Music\n\nSection::::Greece.\n\nBULLET::::- GlobeCast World TV\n\nBULLET::::- Aaj Tak\n\nBULLET::::- Filmy\n\nBULLET::::- SET Max\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV 24x7\n\nBULLET::::- Sahara One\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Entertainment Television Asia\n\nBULLET::::- STAR Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Star One\n\nBULLET::::- Star Plus\n\nBULLET::::- 9X\n\nBULLET::::- NDTV Imagine\n\nBULLET::::- 9XM\n\nBULLET::::- Zing\n\nBULLET::::- B4U Music\n\nSection::::Holland.\n\nBULLET::::- GlobeCast World TV\n", "There are two important considerations to keep in mind during the process of website localization. The first is to focus on the demands of the user. The readers of the “localized version of the website” want to be able to read and understand the pages in a way that makes sense to them. A second consideration is to take into account the goals of the client, whether an institution, government or individual, for example.\n\nSection::::Backend localization.\n", "While the disclosure of location is necessary on such websites for deliveries and adjusting currency, advertisers also use this information to alter the shopping experience based on ethnicity, culture and international trends. Online retailers are able to present advertisements displaying what is expected to be more popular amongst some nationalities than others. For example, Amazon.co.jp (Amazon in Japan) will advertise the sale of Japanese produced TV shows, films and books on their homepage. Consumers would not expect such advertisements to be presented on the Amazon websites of other nations.\n\nSection::::Online retailers.:Gender.\n", "After Germany and France either passed or nearly passed data localization laws, the European Union was considering restrictions on data localization laws in 2017. Data localization laws are often seen as protectionist and would thus violate European Union competition law.\n\nSection::::Data localization laws and scope.\n\nSection::::Data localization laws and scope.:National laws.\n\nBULLET::::- Australia – health records\n\nBULLET::::- Canada in Nova Scotia and British Columbia – public service providers: all personal data\n\nBULLET::::- China – personal, business, and financial data\n\nBULLET::::- Germany – telecommunications metadata\n\nBULLET::::- India – Payment System Data\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Among other methods, recommendations to protect heritage collections of textiles include checking the undersides of chairs, moving and vacuum-cleaning all furniture once a month and sealing the discarded vacuum cleaner bag, checking and shaking textiles every month, and regularly checking attics and chimneys. If textiles do become infested, adults, eggs and larvae can be killed by freezing garments in sealed bags for a fortnight.\n", "The adults mostly overwinter in leaf litter in woods but some find refuge among rough vegetation. When the temperature reaches about they seek out cereal crops, start to feed on the stems, leaves and developing seed heads, mate and lay their eggs. There is only one generation each year so adults and nymphs can be found feeding together on the ripening grain. If the insects are not fully developed when the crop is harvested, some nymphs and young adults feed and mature on fallen grain and other crop residues before flying off to their winter quarters. In Syria, they spend about nine months in hibernation.\n", "Pehr Kalm, a Swedish naturalist visiting Pennsylvania and New Jersey in 1749 on behalf of his nation's government, observed in late May an emergence of Brood X. When reporting the event in a paper that a Swedish academic journal published in 1756, Kalm wrote: The general opinion is that these insects appear in these fantastic numbers in every seventeenth year. Meanwhile, except for an occasional one which may appear in the summer, they remain underground.brThere is considerable evidence that these insects appear every seventeenth year in Pennsylvania.\n", "Cold temperatures outside will cause invasions beginning in the late summer months and early fall. Box elder bugs, cluster flies, ladybugs, and silverfish are noticed some of the most common insects to seek the warm indoors.\n\nSection::::Modern techniques.\n", "In the home, products susceptible to infection should be kept in sealed containers to exclude these beetles. Freezing infested foodstuffs at -18 °C for six days will kill all stages of the O. mercator life cycle. Infestations always center around a food source used for breeding and the identification and removal of all infested foodstuffs will eliminate the population\n", "The lifespan of the \"Blissus leucopterus\" is a typically less than one year. The eggs of two generations are laid down from spring to summer, when they develop into adults. During the fall, the adults from the first generation die off, while the adults from the second generation retreat from the crops to look for overwinter shelters. The adults overwinter in any type of shelters they can find, including in hedgerows, road sides, bushy fence rows, edges of woodlands, and soybean stubble, under tree barks and bunch grass, and inside field mice nests. Once they emerge from their hibernation, they return to the crop fields to feast and breed before their death.\n", "The rates of infection in honey bees fluctuate as \"A. borealis\" populations increase and decline over the seasons. No adults of the fly were found within hives, indicating that phorids do not survive in large numbers in the late winter when foraging bees are inactive.\n\nSection::::Zombee Watch.\n", "Certain types of insects and larvae feed on clothing and textiles, such as the Black carpet beetle and Clothing moths. To deter such pests, clothes may be stored in cedar-lined closets or chests, or placed in drawers or containers with materials having pest repellent properties, such as Lavender or mothballs. Airtight containers (such as sealed, heavy-duty plastic bags) may also deter insect pest damage to clothing materials.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Non-iron.\n", "Coccinellids in temperate regions enter diapause during the winter, so they often are among the first insects to appear in the spring. Some species (e.g., \"Hippodamia convergens\") gather into groups and move to higher elevations, such as a mountain, to enter diapause.\n\nMost coccinellids overwinter as adults, aggregating on the south sides of large objects such as trees or houses during the winter months, dispersing in response to increasing day length in the spring.\n", "Section::::Core aspects of conservation.:Preventive conservation.:Proper storage.\n\nA common way to prevent damage from pests intent to feed on insect specimens and dust accumulation in a collection is to keep them in sealed boxes or cabinets. When properly sealed, they can also aid in preventing damages cause by relative humidity (RH) and temperature fluctuations. Wet specimens are kept in separate vials or jars and in a secure cabinet, tray or shelf. Fluid levels are regularly monitored to ensure specimens are completely immersed in fluid, though a well-sealed jar or vial will prevent excessive evaporation.\n\nSection::::Core aspects of conservation.:Preventive conservation.:Safe handling.\n", "Pehr Kalm, a Swedish naturalist visiting Pennsylvania and New Jersey in 1749 on behalf of his nation's government, observed in late May the first of the three Brood X emergences that Banneker's journal later documented. When reporting the event in a paper that a Swedish academic journal published in 1756, Kalm wrote: The general opinion is that these insects appear in these fantastic numbers in every seventeenth year. Meanwhile, except for an occasional one which may appear in the summer, they remain underground.There is considerable evidence that these insects appear every seventeenth year in Pennsylvania.\n", "Cotton replies with the touchiness of a true obsessive: \"Let me tell you, here are some colours, contemptible as they seem here, that are very hard to be got; and scarce any one of them, which, if it should be lost, I should not miss and be concerned about the loss of it too, once in the year.\"\n\nCotton devotes a whole chapter to collection of flies for every month of the year. Few have modern analogues, but they are based on accurate observation, as with his stonefly:\n", "In April 1800, Benjamin Banneker, who lived near Ellicott's Mills, Maryland, wrote in his record book that he recalled a \"great locust year\" in 1749, a second in 1766 during which the insects appeared to be \"full as numerous as the first\" and a third in 1783. He predicted that the insects \"may be expected again in the year 1800, which is seventeen years since their third appearance to me\".\n", "During certain times of the year boxelder bugs cluster together in large groups while sunning themselves on warm surfaces near their host tree (e.g. on rocks, shrubs, trees, and man-made structures). This is especially a problem in the fall when they are seeking a warm place to overwinter. Large numbers are often seen congregating on houses seeking an entry point. Once they have gained access, they remain inactive behind siding and inside of walls while the weather is cool. Once the home's heating system becomes active for the season, the insects may falsely perceive it to be springtime and enter inhabited parts of the home in search of food and water. Once inside inhabited areas of a home, their excreta may stain upholstery, carpets, drapes, and they may feed on certain types of house plants. In the spring, the bugs leave their winter hibernation locations to feed and lay eggs on maple or ash trees. Clustered masses of boxelder bugs may be seen again at this time, and depending on the temperature, throughout the summer. Their outdoor congregation habits and indoor excreta deposits are perceived as a nuisance by many people, therefore boxelder bugs are often considered pests. However, boxelder bugs are harmless to people and pets. The removal of boxelder trees and maple trees can help control boxelder bug populations. Spiders are minor predators, but because of the boxelder bug's chemical defenses few birds or other animals will eat them. Boxelder bug populations are not affected by any major diseases or parasites.\n", "Locally, adults spread to the exterior of fields during their overwinter. Larvae tend to stay on the outside of crop fields, but are also found in the center. Local populations are never homogenously distributed, hotspots and empty places occur in each field.\n\nSection::::Food.\n", "Research has indicated that over the last 62 years they have been arriving back to their summer range earlier by ten days. Warmer temperatures increases the time and speed of egg hatching and nymph development. There is increasing concern that climate change will shift the overwintering and summer ranges more northward. This will exacerbate the problem of pest management and increase economic losses.\n\nSection::::As a pest.:Pest management.\n", "In the home, foodstuffs found to be infested are usually discarded, and storing such products in sealed containers should prevent the problem from reoccurring. The eggs of these insects are likely to go unnoticed, with the larvae being the destructive life stage, and the adult the most noticeable stage. Since pesticides are not safe to use near food, alternative treatments such as freezing for four days at or baking for half an hour at should kill any insects present.\n\nSection::::In homes and cities.:Methods for specific pests.:Clothes moths.\n", "BULLET::::- Vacuuming – Since the moths like to hide in carpeting and baseboards (skirting), this is an important step towards full eradication. After thorough vacuuming, the bag should immediately be disposed of outside.\n\nBULLET::::- Burning – fire will destroy any live insects or larvae.\n", "The length of the mite's cycle depends on species and environment, but normally lasts two to 12 months. The number of cycles in a year depends on the region. For example, in a temperate region, only three per year may occur, but in tropical regions, the cycle might be continuous all year long. Adult harvest mites winter in protected places such as slightly below the soil surface. Females become active in the spring, and once the ground temperature is regularly above , they lay eggs in vegetation, up to 15 eggs per day. The eggs are round and are dormant for about six days, after which the nonfeeding prelarvae emerge, with only three pairs of legs. After about six days, the prelarvae grow into their larval stage.\n", "Nymphs are green, and over-winter. The species is normally said to be univoltine, but it is possible that the females hibernate and produce a second generation.\n\nSection::::Origin and spread.\n", "Section::::Damage and control.\n\nIn heavy infestations, leaves may be skeletonized except for their main veins, and the plants may become completely defoliated. The larvae can be picked off by hand, or in heavier infestations, chemical pesticides can be used. Organic products such as pyrethrum will control small larvae but more powerful synthetic insecticides are needed when the larvae are large.\n", "During winter months, the wounded darter’s diet consists of about 90% midge larvae, including chironomids. Their diets change as temperatures increase, diet shifts to 70% midge larvae with the rest being mayfly nymphs, water mites, larval black flies, crane flies, and hydropsychid caddisflies.\n", "The 17-year periodical cicadas are distributed across the eastern, upper midwestern, and Great Plains states within the U.S., while the 13-year cicadas occur in the southern and Mississippi Valley states, but some may overlap slightly. For example, Broods IV (17-year cycle) and XIX (13-year cycle) overlap in western Missouri and eastern Oklahoma. Their emergences should again coincide in 2219, 2440, 2661, etc., as they did in 1998 (although distributions change slightly from generation to generation and older distribution maps can be unreliable.). An effort is currently underway to generate new distribution maps of all periodical cicada broods. This effort makes use of crowdsourced records and records collected by entomologists.\n", "The live bugs with their now empty stink glands are then boiled in water. Further sorting is done afterwards. Dead bugs which died before they could release all their chemicals can be distinguished from the 'clean' bugs by their blackened abdomens after boiling. These are also rejected. The remaining bugs are then dried under the sun.\n", "Section::::Preparation.:Carding.\n" ]

[ "Bugs disappear in winter." ]

[ "Bugs are under tree bark, grass, leaves, or in the ground." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Bugs disappear in winter." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Bugs are under tree bark, grass, leaves, or in the ground." ]

[ "An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium \"Salmonella\" and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (\"Plasmodium falciparum\") and leishmaniasis (\"Leishmania spp.\"). Other bacteria, such as \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\", live inside a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement. Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response. Some bacteria form biofilms to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, e.g., the chronic \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Burkholderia cenocepacia\" infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis. Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include \"Streptococcus\" (protein G), \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (protein A), and \"Peptostreptococcus magnus\" (protein L).\n", "Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. As a result of the symbiotic relationship between commensals and the immune system, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced. However, since most antibiotics non-specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics can lead to an \"overgrowth\" of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (a yeast infection). There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yogurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections.\n", "One strategy is intracellular replication, as practised by \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\", or wearing a protective capsule, which prevents lysis by complement and by phagocytes, as in \"Salmonella\". \"Bacteroides\" species are normally mutualistic bacteria, making up a substantial portion of the mammalian gastrointestinal flora. Some species like \"B. fragilis\" for example are opportunistic pathogens, causing infections of the peritoneal cavity inhibit phagocytosis by affecting the phagocytes receptors used to engulf bacteria. They may also mimick host cells so the immune system does not recognize them as foreign. \"Staphylococcus aureus\" inhibits the ability of the phagocyte to respond to chemokine signals. \"M. tuberculosis\", \"Streptococcus pyogenes\", and \"Bacillus anthracis\" utilize mechanisms that directly kill the phagocyte.\n", "The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include:\n\nBULLET::::- the route of entry of the pathogen and the access to host regions that it gains\n\nBULLET::::- the intrinsic virulence of the particular organism\n\nBULLET::::- the quantity or load of the initial inoculant\n\nBULLET::::- the immune status of the host being colonized\n\nAs an example, several staphylococcal species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum, multiply without resistance and cause harm.\n", "The human immune system’s primary home is in the gut; so gastrointestinal microbiota has a direct effect on the human body’s immune responses. The immune system is a host defense system consisting of anatomical barriers and physiological and cellular responses, which protect the host against harmful parasites while limiting inflammation by tolerating harmless symbionts. The immune system must strike a balance between protecting the host without inducing excessive inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. However, without a regular microbiota, the body is more susceptible to infectious and non-infectious diseases.\n\nSection::::In the gastrointestinal tract.:Regulation of immune responses.\n", "Microbial symbiosis and immunity\n\nThere are close and often long-term relationships between symbiotic microbes and their host's immune system. The immune system is a host defense system consisting of anatomical barriers, and physiological and cellular responses, which protect the host against harmful parasites while limiting inflammation by tolerating harmless symbionts. Humans are home to 10 to 10 bacteria. These bacteria can have almost any kind of relationship with the host, including mutually beneficial in a host's gut, or parasitic.\n", "Section::::Pathogen evasion and resistance.:Killing.\n\nBacteria have developed several ways of killing phagocytes. These include cytolysins, which form pores in the phagocyte's cell membranes, streptolysins and leukocidins, which cause neutrophils' granules to rupture and release toxic substances, and exotoxins that reduce the supply of a phagocyte's ATP, needed for phagocytosis. After a bacterium is ingested, it may kill the phagocyte by releasing toxins that travel through the phagosome or phagolysosome membrane to target other parts of the cell.\n\nSection::::Pathogen evasion and resistance.:Disruption of cell signaling.\n", "Section::::Pathogen evasion and resistance.:Avoiding contact.\n", "Like ischemia, bacterial colonization and infection damage tissue by causing a greater number of neutrophils to enter the wound site. In patients with chronic wounds, bacteria with resistances to antibiotics may have time to develop. In addition, patients that carry drug resistant bacterial strains such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) have more chronic wounds.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Growth factors and proteolytic enzymes.\n", "Microbes can promote the development of the host's immune system in the gut and skin, and may help to prevent pathogens from invading. Some release anti-inflammatory products, protecting against parasitic gut microbes. Commensals promote the development of B cells that produce a protective antibody, Immunoglobulin A (IgA). This can neutralize pathogens and exotoxins, and promote the development of TH17 and FOXP3+ regulatory T cells. Microbes trigger development of isolated lymphoid follicles in the small intestine, which are sites of mucosal immune response. Microbes can prevent growth of harmful pathogens by altering pH, consuming nutrients required for pathogen survival, and secreting toxins that inhibit growth of pathogens. However, microbes have been implicated in inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, and cancer.\n", "Section::::General principles.\n\nMicrobial symbiosis relies on interspecies communication.\n\nImmunity has been defined historically in multicellular organisms and occurs through their immune system. Immunity is achieved when the immune system resolves a biological contact with a cell that the system perceives as foreign with a steady state. The stimulus may be a microbe, a carcinogenic cell, a same species cell with different antigens, or cells from a different species. Immunity can occur by any degree in between elimination and tolerance of the cell or microbe.\n\nSection::::In the gastrointestinal tract.\n", "Commensal bacteria may also regulate immune responses that cause allergies. For example, commensal bacteria stimulate TLR4, which may inhibit allergic responses to food.\n\nSection::::In the gastrointestinal tract.:Development of isolated lymphoid tissues.\n", "The lack of or the disruption of normal vaginal microbiota allows the proliferation of opportunistic microorganisms and will cause the opportunistic infection - bacterial vaginosis.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nSince opportunistic infections can cause severe disease, much emphasis is placed on measures to prevent infection. Such a strategy usually includes restoration of the immune system as soon as possible, avoiding exposures to infectious agents, and using antimicrobial medications (\"prophylactic medications\") directed against specific infections.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Restoration of immune system.\n\nBULLET::::- In patients with HIV, starting antiretroviral therapy is especially important for restoration of the immune system and reduces the incidence of opportunistic infections\n", "BULLET::::- Adhesion. Many bacteria must first bind to host cell surfaces. Many bacterial and host molecules that are involved in the adhesion of bacteria to host cells have been identified. Often, the host cell receptors for bacteria are essential proteins for other functions. Due to presence of mucous lining and of anti-microbial substances around some host cells, it is difficult for certain pathogens to establish direct contact-adhesion.\n", "In the first line of defense, inhaled bacteria are trapped by mucus and are swept toward the pharynx and are swallowed. Bacteria which penetrate the mucous layer are dealt with a second line of defense which includes antimicrobial peptides that are secreted by the surface epithelium of the respiratory tract which kill many strains of bacteria. Those bacteria that are resistant to antimicrobial peptides are killed by a variety of reactive oxygen species produced by phagocytes. In a third line of defense and as a last resort, persistent bacterial infections which escape the innate immune system are eliminated by the adaptive immune system.\n", "The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. In simple terms, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals. If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.\n", "Section::::Innate and adaptive immune systems.\n\nVertebrate immunity is dependent on both adaptive and innate immune systems. In vertebrates, the innate immune system is composed of cells such as neutrophils and macrophages (which also have a role in the adaptive immune system as antigen presenting cells), as well as molecular pathways such as the complement system which react to microbial non-self. The innate immune system enables a rapid inflammatory response that contains the infection, and it activates the adaptive immune system, which eliminates the pathogen and, through immunological memory, provides long term protection against reinfection.\n", "Mucosal immunology is the study of immune system responses that occur at mucosal membranes of the intestines, the urogenital tract and the respiratory system, i.e., surfaces that are in contact with the external environment. In healthy states, the mucosal immune system provides protection against pathogens but maintains a tolerance towards non-harmful commensal microbes and benign environmental substances. For example, in the oral and gut mucosa, the secretion of IgA provides an immune response to potential antigens in food without a large and unnecessary systemic immune response. Since the mucosal membranes are the primary contact point between a host and its environment, a large amount of secondary lymphoid tissue is found here. The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, or MALT, provides the organism with an important first line of defense. Along with the spleen and lymph nodes, the tonsils and MALT are also considered to be secondary lymphoid tissue. The mucosal immune system provides three main functions: serving as the body's first line defense from antigens and infection, preventing systemic immune responses to commensal bacteria and food antigens (primarily food proteins in the Gut-associated lymphoid tissue, so-called oral tolerance), and regulating appropriate immune responses to pathogens encountered on a daily basis.\n", "Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter are the various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as \"Corynebacteria sp.\" and \"viridans streptococci\", prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing.\n", "From a medical standpoint, an important feature of this genus is the high level of antibiotic resistance. Some enterococci are intrinsically resistant to β-lactam-based antibiotics (penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems), as well as many aminoglycosides. In the last two decades, particularly virulent strains of \"Enterococcus\" that are resistant to vancomycin (vancomycin-resistant \"Enterococcus\", or VRE) have emerged in nosocomial infections of hospitalized patients, especially in the US. Other developed countries, such as the UK, have been spared this epidemic, and, in 2005, Singapore managed to halt an epidemic of VRE. VRE may be treated with quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid) with response rates around 70%.\n", "Section::::Pathogen evasion and resistance.:Avoiding engulfment.\n", "The relationship between virulence and transmission is complex, and has important consequences for the long term evolution of a pathogen. Since it takes many generations for a microbe and a new host species to co-evolve, an emerging pathogen may hit its earliest victims especially hard. It is usually in the first wave of a new disease that death rates are highest. If a disease is rapidly fatal, the host may die before the microbe can be passed along to another host. However, this cost may be overwhelmed by the short term benefit of higher infectiousness if transmission is linked to virulence, as it is for instance in the case of cholera (the explosive diarrhea aids the bacterium in finding new hosts) or many respiratory infections (sneezing and coughing create infectious aerosols).\n", "Section::::Treatments.\n\nOnce an infection has been diagnosed and identified, suitable treatment options must be assessed by the physician and consulting medical microbiologists. Some infections can be dealt with by the body's own immune system, but more serious infections are treated with antimicrobial drugs. Bacterial infections are treated with antibacterials (often called antibiotics) whereas fungal and viral infections are treated with antifungals and antivirals respectively. A broad class of drugs known as antiparasitics are used to treat parasitic diseases.\n", "Additionally, there are other mechanisms by which commensals promote maturation of isolated lymphoid follicles. For example, commensal bacteria products bind to TLR2 and TLR4, which results in NF-κB mediated transcription of TNF, which is required for the maturation of mature isolated lymphoid follicles.\n\nSection::::In the gastrointestinal tract.:Protection against pathogens.\n\nMicrobes can prevent growth of harmful pathogens by altering pH, consuming nutrients required for pathogen survival, and secreting toxins and antibodies that inhibit growth of pathogens.\n\nSection::::In the gastrointestinal tract.:Protection against pathogens.:Immunoglobulin A.\n", "It is recognized that administration of antibiotics may initially worsen the process outlined above, by increasing the amount of bacterial cell membrane products released through the destruction of bacteria. Particular treatments, such as the use of corticosteroids, are aimed at dampening the immune system's response to this phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Blood tests and imaging.\n\nIf someone is suspected of having meningitis, blood tests are performed for markers of inflammation (e.g. C-reactive protein, complete blood count), as well as blood cultures.\n" ]

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[ "Power naps restore alertness, performance, and learning ability. A nap may also reverse the hormonal impact of a night of poor sleep or reverse the damage of sleep deprivation. A University of Düsseldorf study found superior memory recall once a person had reached 6 minutes of sleep, suggesting that the onset of sleep may initiate active memory processes of consolidation which—once triggered—remains effective even if sleep is terminated.\n", "A NASA study led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\n\nPower Napping Enablers and sleep timers allow properly timed power napping.\n", "Experimental confirmation of the benefits of this brief nap comes from a Flinders University study in Australia in which 5, 10, 20, or 30-minute periods of sleep were given. The greatest immediate improvement in measures of alertness and cognitive performance came after the 10 minutes of sleep. The 20 and 30-minute periods of sleep showed evidence of sleep inertia immediately after the naps and improvements in alertness more than 30 minutes later but not to a greater level than after the 10 minutes of sleep.\n", "Sara Mednick conducted a study experimenting on the effects of napping, caffeine, and a placebo. Her results showed that a 60–90-minute nap is more effective than caffeine in memory and cognition.\n\nSection::::Stimulant nap.\n", "When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia as opposed to a forced awakening but these results may warrant more research into the nature of arousal after sleep periods.\n", "For years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, including the 30-minute nap as well as sleep durations of 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks. A NASA study led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions and that long naps are more effective than short ones. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\n", "For several years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, both the power nap and much longer sleep durations as long as 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks.\n", "These findings also show that the greatest decline in blood pressure occurs between lights-off and onset of daytime sleep itself. During this sleep period, which lasted 9.7 minutes on average, blood pressure decreased, while blood vessel dilation increased by more than 9 percent.\n\n\"There is little change in blood pressure once a subject is actually asleep,\" Zaregarizi noted, and he found minor changes in blood vessel dilation during sleep (Zaregarizi, M. 2007 & 2012).\n\nSection::::Negative effects.\n\nFor those suffering from insomnia or depression, naps may aggravate already disrupted sleep-wake patterns.\n\nSection::::Power nap.\n", "Zaregarizi and his team have concluded that the acute time of falling asleep was where beneficial cardiovascular changes take place. This study has indicated that a large decline in blood pressure occurs during the daytime sleep-onset period only when sleep is expected; however, when subjects rest in a supine position, the same reduction in blood pressure is not observed. This blood pressure reduction may be associated with the lower coronary mortality rates seen in the Mediterranean and Latin American populations where siestas are common. Zaregarizi assessed cardiovascular function (blood pressure, heart rate, and measurements of blood vessel dilation) while nine healthy volunteers, 34 years of age on average, spent an hour standing quietly; reclining at rest but not sleeping; or reclining to nap. All participants were restricted to 4 hours of sleep on the night prior to each of the sleep laboratory tests. During three daytime naps, he noted significant reductions in blood pressure and heart rate. By contrast, the team did not observe changes in cardiovascular function while the participants were standing or reclining at rest.\n", "Various durations are recommended for power naps, which are very short compared to regular sleep. The short duration of a power nap is designed to prevent nappers from entering SWS. Depending on duration and intensity, awakenings out of SWS results in sleep inertia, a phenomenon associated with grogginess, disorientation, and even more fatigue than prior to napping. Since sleep is the most effective and beneficial recovery method from fatigue, experts recommend considering duration vs. risk of entering SWS.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Set point of ventilation is different in wakefulness and sleep. pCO2 is higher and ventilation is lower in sleep. Sleep onset in normal subjects is not immediate, but oscillates between arousal, stage I and II sleep before steady NREM sleep is obtained. So falling asleep results in decreased ventilation and a higher pCO2, above the wakefulness set point. On wakefulness, this constitutes an error signal which provokes hyperventilation until the wakefulness set point is reached. When the subject falls asleep, ventilation decreases and pCO2 rises, resulting in hypoventilation or even apnea. These oscillations continue until steady state sleep is obtained. The medulla oblongata controls our respiration.\n", "NASA, in cooperation with the National Space Biomedical Research Institute, has funded research on napping. Despite NASA recommendations that astronauts sleep eight hours a day when in space, they usually have trouble sleeping eight hours at a stretch, so the agency needs to know about the optimal length, timing and effect of naps. Professor David Dinges of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine led research in a laboratory setting on sleep schedules which combined various amounts of \"anchor sleep\", ranging from about four to eight hours in length, with no nap or daily naps of up to 2.5 hours. Longer naps were found to be better, with some cognitive functions benefiting more from napping than others. Vigilance and basic alertness benefited the least while working memory benefited greatly. Naps in the individual subjects' biological daytime worked well, but naps in their nighttime were followed by much greater sleep inertia lasting up to an hour.\n", "A Flinders University study of individuals restricted to only five hours of sleep per night found a 10-minute nap was overall the most recuperative nap duration of various nap lengths they examined (lengths of 0 min, 5 min, 10 min, 20 min, and 30 minutes): the 5-minute nap produced few benefits in comparison with the no-nap control; the 10-minute nap produced immediate improvements in all outcome measures (including sleep latency, subjective sleepiness, fatigue, vigor, and cognitive performance), with some of these benefits maintained for as long as 155 minutes; the 20-minute nap was associated with improvements emerging 35 minutes after napping and lasting up to 125 minutes after napping; and the 30-minute nap produced a period of impaired alertness and performance immediately after napping, indicative of sleep inertia, followed by improvements lasting up to 155 minutes after the nap.\n", "The NASA Ames Fatigue Countermeasures Group studied the effects of sleep loss and jet lag, and conducts training to counter these effects. A major fatigue countermeasures recommendation consists of a 40-minute nap (\"NASA nap\") which empirically showed to improve flight crew performance and alertness with a 22% statistical risk of entering SWS.\n", "The 20-minute nap increases alertness and motor skills. Various durations may be recommended for power naps, which are very short compared to regular sleep. The short duration prevents nappers from sleeping so long that they enter the slow wave portion of the normal sleep cycle without being able to complete the cycle. Entering deep, slow-wave sleep and failing to complete the normal sleep cycle, can result in a phenomenon known as sleep inertia, where one feels groggy, disoriented, and even sleepier than before beginning the nap. In order to attain optimal post-nap performance, a Stage 2 nap must be limited to the beginning of a sleep cycle, specifically sleep stages N1 and N2, typically 18–25 minutes. \n", "According to clinical studies among men and women, power nappers of any frequency or duration had a significantly lower coronary mortality ratio (MR) than those not napping. Specifically, those occasionally napping had a 12% lower coronary mortality, whereas those systematically napping had a 37% lower coronary mortality.\n", "The National Institute of Mental Health funded a team of doctors, led by Alan Hobson, MD, Robert Stickgold, PhD, and colleagues at Harvard University for a study which showed that a midday snooze reverses information overload. Reporting in \"Nature Neuroscience\", Sara Mednick, PhD, Stickgold and colleagues also demonstrated that \"burnout\" irritation, frustration and poorer performance on a mental task can set in as a day of training wears on. This study also proved that, in some cases, napping could even boost performance to an individual's top levels. The NIMH team wrote: \"The bottom line is: we should stop feeling guilty about taking that 'power nap' at work.\"\n", "According to the book, in a sleep deprived condition, measurements of a polyphasic sleeper's memory retention and analytical ability show increases as compared with monophasic and biphasic sleep (but still a decrease of 12% as compared with free running sleep). According to Stampi, the improvement is due to an extraordinary evolutionary predisposition to adopt such a sleep schedule; he hypothesizes this is possibly because polyphasic sleep was the preferred schedule of ancestors of the human race for thousands of years prior to the adoption of the monophasic schedule.\n", "According to EEG measurements collected by Dr. Stampi during a 50-day trial of polyphasic ultrashort sleep with a test subject and published in his book \"Why We Nap\", the proportion of sleep stages remains roughly the same during both polyphasic and monophasic sleep schedules. The major differences are that the ratio of lighter sleep stages to deeper sleep stages is slightly reduced and that sleep stages are often taken out of order or not at all, that is, some naps may be composed primarily of slow wave sleep while rapid eye movement sleep dominates other naps.\n", "Section::::Nap rooms and tech aided naps.\n\nSome companies have nap rooms to allow employees to take a power nap. This may be in a form of a nap room with a recliner, or chairs specially designed for power napping installed in a designated area. Companies with nap rooms claim that employees are happier and become more productive at work.\n", "A short nap preceded by the intake of caffeine was investigated by British researchers. In a driving simulator and a series of studies, Horne and Reyner looked at the effects of cold air, radio, a break with no nap, a nap, caffeine pill vs. placebo and a short nap preceded by caffeine on mildly sleep-deprived subjects. The caffeine nap was by far the most effective in reducing driving \"incidents\" and subjective sleepiness. Caffeine in coffee takes up to a half-hour to have an alerting effect, hence \"a short (15min) nap will not be compromised if it is taken immediately after the coffee.\"\n", "Napping is physiologically and psychologically beneficial. Napping for 20 minutes can help refresh the mind, improve overall alertness, boost mood and increase productivity. Napping may benefit the heart. In a six-year study of Greek adults, researchers found that men who took naps at least three times a week had a 37 percent lower risk of heart-related death. \n", "A brief period of sleep of around 15 to 20 minutes, preceded by consuming a caffeinated drink or another stimulant, may combat daytime drowsiness more effectively than napping or drinking coffee alone. A stimulant nap (or coffee nap, caffeine nap, occasionally napuccino) was discovered by British researchers, Horne and Reyner, to be more effective than regular naps in improving post-nap alertness and cognitive functioning. In a driving simulator and a series of studies, Horne and Reyner investigated the effects of cold air, radio, a break with no nap, a nap, caffeine pill vs. placebo and a short nap preceded by caffeine on mildly sleep-deprived subjects. A nap with caffeine was by far the most effective in reducing driving accidents and subjective sleepiness as it helps the body get rid of the sleep-inducing chemical compound adenosine. Caffeine in coffee takes up to half an hour to have an alerting effect, hence \"a short (15min) nap will not be compromised if it is taken immediately after the coffee.\" One account suggested that it was like a \"double shot of energy\" from the stimulating boost from caffeine plus better alertness from napping. This procedure has been studied on sleep-deprived humans given the task of driving a motor vehicle afterwards, although it has not been studied on elderly populations.\n", "The National Institute of Mental Health funded a team of doctors, led by Alan Hobson, Robert Stickgold, and colleagues at Harvard University for a study which showed that a midday nap reverses information overload. Reporting in \"Nature Neuroscience\", Sara Mednick, Stickgold and colleagues also demonstrated that, in some cases, a 1-hour nap could even boost performance to an individual's top levels. The NIMH team wrote: \"The bottom line is: we should stop feeling guilty about taking that 'power nap' at work.\"\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Cardiovascular benefits of napping, siesta or daytime sleep.\n", "Nap\n\nA nap is a short period of sleep, typically taken during daytime hours as an adjunct to the usual nocturnal sleep period. Naps are most often taken as a response to drowsiness during waking hours. A nap is a form of biphasic or polyphasic sleep, where the latter terms also include longer periods of sleep in addition to one single period.\n" ]

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[ "Of importance to some backpackers is a sense of authenticity. Backpacking is perceived as being more than a holiday, but a means of education. Backpackers want to experience what they consider the \"real\" destination rather than a packaged version often associated with mass tourism, which has led to the assertion that backpackers are anti-tourist. For many young people in Northern Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Israel, backpacking is a rite of passage. In Canada, it is quite common for gap-year students to visit Europe and Southeast Asia. Backpackers are less commonly from China, India, the United States, Japan, and South Korea, due particularly to their large populations, accounted for by visa restrictions; yet, it is also gradually becoming more popular among affluent people from those countries. Backpacking trips were traditionally undertaken either in a \"gap year\" between high school and university, or between the latter and the commencement of work. However, the average age of backpackers has gradually increased over time, and it is now more common to see people in their 30s, 40s, and even older to backpack during an extended career break. Some retirees enjoy backpacking. \n", "Technological developments and improvements have contributed to changes in backpacking. Traditionally, backpackers did not travel with expensive electronic equipment like laptop computers, digital cameras, and cell phones because of concerns about theft, damage, and additional luggage weight. \n\nBackpackers have traditionally carried their possessions in 30 litre to 60 litre backpacks, but roller-wheeled suitcases and some less-traditional carrying methods have become more common, and there has been a trend towards keeping pack weights under the 7-10 kg carry-on limit of most airlines.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "Recently, at least one brand of backpack has been specially designed for professional cooks and culinary students. This sort of backpack is meant to safely carry knives, cooking tools, and other miscellaneous equipment such as notebooks, towels, and uniforms.\n", "Specialist backpacks are used by fire services for wildfire fighting, as well as by rescue services for Search and Rescue. These backpacks are generally very modular, allowing the pack to be reconfigured to the users wishes and are designed to load around the wearers hips. They may include features such as sections for water bladders and specially designed pouches, such as those used to carry personal fire shelters.\n\nSection::::Backpacks for travel.\n\nBackpacks are sometimes used as luggage, particularly as carry-on bags for airplane travel.\n", "Backpacking has been criticised, with some criticism dating back to travellers' behaviour along the Hippie Trail. For example, the host countries and other travelers may disagree with the actions of backpackers. However, the perception of backpackers seems to have improved as backpacking has become more mainstream. Another criticism is that even though one of the primary aims of backpacking is to seek the \"authentic\", the majority of backpackers spend most of their time interacting with other backpackers, and interactions with locals are of \"secondary importance\".\n\nSection::::Culture.:Planning and Research.\n", "In many countries, backpacks are heavily identified with students, and are a primary means of transporting educational materials to and from school. In this context they are sometimes known as bookbags or schoolbags. The purchase of a suitably fashionable, attractive, and useful backpack is a crucial back-to-school ritual for many students.\n", "Backpacking (travel)\n\nBackpacking is a form of low-cost, independent travel. It includes the use of public transport; inexpensive lodging such as youth hostels; often a longer duration of the trip when compared with conventional vacations; and typically an interest in meeting locals as well as seeing sights. Despite the name it does not have to involve travelers carrying belongings in a backpack, although that is a common practice.\n", "The definition of a backpacker has evolved as travelers from different cultures and regions participate in the trend. A 2007 paper says \"backpackers constituted a heterogeneous group with respect to the diversity of rationales and meanings attached to their travel experiences. They also displayed a common commitment to a non-institutionalised form of travel, which was central to their self-identification as backpackers.\" Backpacking, as a lifestyle and as a business, has grown considerably in the 2000s due to low-cost airlines and hostels or budget accommodations in many parts of the world.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Benefits.\n\nStudies by Columbia Business School professor Adam Galinsky have found that the benefits of travelling to other countries include an increased \"generalised trust, or... general faith in humanity\", as well as a \"creative boost\", when there is true \"multicultural engagement, immersion, and adaptation.\" \n\nSection::::Culture.:Criticism.\n", "The modern popularity of backpacking can be traced, at least partially, to the Hippie trail of the 1960s and '70s, which in turn followed sections of the old Silk Road. Some backpackers follow the same trail today.\n", "Some backpacks are specifically designed to carry certain items. Common examples include backpacks for small valuable items such as laptops and cameras; backpacks designed to hold laptop computers in particular generally have a padded compartment to hold the computer and medium-sized pockets and flaps to accommodate accessories such as charger cables and mice. These are especially common in college and university settings. In order to supply these devices with electricity, a few high-end backpacks are equipped with solar panels.\n", "In the late-20th century, backpackers have traveled to Southeast Asia in large numbers which has caused popular Thai islands and several previously sleepy towns in Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos to be transformed by the influx of travelers. Backpacking in Europe, South America, Central America, Australia, and New Zealand has also become more popular and there are several well-trodden routes around the world that backpackers tend to stick to.\n", "The new travelers have traveled the world, they have seen the classic sites. Staying at a Western hotel is not attractive enough, and they are excited by the prospect of experiencing the authentic local way of life: to go fishing with a local fisherman, to eat the fish with his family, to sleep in a typical village house. These tourists or travelers, are happy to know that while doing so they promote the economic well-being of those same people they spend time with.\n", "A tourist T-shirt (or souvenir T-shirt) is a shirt associated with travel or a holiday. In recent years, T-shirts have become a popular gift or souvenir. Tourist T-shirt designs are typically screen printed with pictures and words directly associated with a particular city, country or culture. The T-shirts express or show something about the place or places a person has been.\n\nSection::::Course T-shirt.\n", "Backpacking with animals\n\nBackpacking with animals is the use of pack animals, such as a horse, llama, goat, dog, or donkey to help carry the weight of a backpackers gear during an excursion. These animals need special considerations when accompanying backpackers on a trip. Some areas restrict the use of horses and other pack animals. For example, Great Basin National Park does not allow domestic animals at all in backcountry areas.\n", "In the United States, backpack journalism is said to have evolved out of Video News International (VNI), a project by The New York Times, in the mid-1990s. Michael Rosenblum, a former broadcast journalist, thought that training print journalists and photographers to use small high-quality digital video cameras would encourage television networks to do more international coverage because it would be more cost effective. \n", "Planning and research can be an important part of backpacking, aided by such guides from companies like Lonely Planet and Rough Guides, books by travel authors such as Rick Steves, and various digital and online resources such as Wikivoyage. Resources provide information about such topics as the language, culture, food, and history. They also provide listings of accommodation and places to eat, together with maps of key locations. Digital format guidebooks are becoming more popular, especially since the advent of smart phones and lightweight netbooks and laptops.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n", "Visa laws in many countries enable people with restricted visas to work and support themselves while they are in those countries. \n\nSection::::History.\n\nPeople have traveled for thousands of years with their possessions on their backs, but usually out of need rather than for recreation. Seventeenth-century Italian adventurer Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri has been suggested as one of the world's first backpackers, in the sense of extensive self-supported traveling for pleasure rather than profit.\n", "The Boblbee backpacks are built to withstand high impacts, protecting both the spine of the wearer and the contents of the pack. Motorcycle riders, skiers/snowboarders, mountain bikers or rock climbers are ideally suited to the extra security provided back protector and rigid outer shell. The packs are also widely used in urban situations, popular with cyclists, couriers, DJ's, business people & travellers to keep laptops or camera equipment protected while on-the-go.\n", "Backpacks are a standard part of the load-bearing equipment of soldiers, especially infantry, in most countries, and military-style packs are regularly available to civilians in military surplus stores. Well-known examples include the United States ALICE field pack and the British Army PLCE rucksack attachment, both of which are widely available to civilian markets both as actual military surplus (new or used) and as replicas. Such packs are often, though not always (e.g. the USMC's ILBE pack), external-frame packs, with the pack itself lashed or pinned to a metal or plastic carrying frame. For units that are entering combat situations, packs may be loaded heavily and can weigh in excess of 100 lbs. Each soldier may carry extra weapons, ammunition, rations, medical supplies, tents or other shelter material, and extra clothing.\n", "The influence of bicycle messengers can be seen in urban fashion, most notably the popularity of single-strap messenger bags, which are a common accessory among people who do not ride a bicycle regularly. The rise in popularity of fixed-gear bicycles in the mid-2000s, complete with affectations such as spoke cards (gathered from \"alleycats\" typically), is attributed to bicycle messengers.\n\nSection::::Messenger culture and influence.:Events.\n", "Backpacks are sometimes worn as fashion accessories, in which they perform the same function as a purse. Some such backpacks designed specifically for women are no larger than a typical purse, and are generally associated with younger women.\n\nSection::::Special-purpose backpacks.\n", "In addition to their use in outdoors pursuits, backpacks are sometimes used in other sports as well. Hydration packs, sometimes used by athletes and military personnel, carry water (in either a bladder or a rigid bottle) and have a tube connected to them from which the wearer can drink without removing the pack; this feature is also included in some more general-purpose hiking backpacks. Backpacks that carry skateboards have also become more popular in the youth culture.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Backpack palsy\n\nBULLET::::- Bindle\n\nBULLET::::- Duffel bag\n\nBULLET::::- Fanny pack\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration pack\n\nBULLET::::- Messenger bag\n\nBULLET::::- Papoose\n\nBULLET::::- Pasiking\n", "Afghanistan is a totally Islamic country. In Islam, a tourist or a traveler is called a \"musafir\". Such person is generally treated as a diplomat and must be protected under Afghan culture at all costs, even if he or she is disobedient to the law of Afghanistan or to the Afghan culture. Every mosque is a place of ultimate protection against common criminals. Although Afghans in general are very friendly to tourists, their country is not very safe because foreign tourists have been kidnapped and sometimes killed. Finding an honest and reliable tour guide is the key to safety in Afghanistan.\n", "In some regions, varying forms of accommodation exist, from simple log lean-to's to staffed facilities offering escalating degrees of service. Beds, meals, and even drinks may be had at Alpine huts scattered among well-traveled European mountains. Backpackers there can walk from hut-to-hut without leaving the mountains, while in places like the Lake District or Yorkshire Dales in England hill-walkers descend to stay in Youth hostels, farmhouses or guest houses.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Developmental animation.\n\nWith the resurgence of 2D animation, free and proprietary software packages have become widely available for amateurs and professional animators. The principal issue with 2D animation is labor requirements. With software like RETAS UbiArt Framework and Adobe After Effects, coloring and compositing can be done in less time.\n\nVarious approaches have been developed to aid and speed up the process of digital 2D animation. For example, by generating vector artwork in a tool like Adobe Flash an artist may employ software-driven automatic coloring and in-betweening.\n", "The rendering process is computationally expensive, given the complex variety of physical processes being simulated. Computer processing power has increased rapidly over the years, allowing for a progressively higher degree of realistic rendering. Film studios that produce computer-generated animations typically make use of a render farm to generate images in a timely manner. However, falling hardware costs mean that it is entirely possible to create small amounts of 3D animation on a home computer system. The output of the renderer is often used as only one small part of a completed motion-picture scene. Many layers of material may be rendered separately and integrated into the final shot using compositing software.\n", "Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Computer animation.:3D animation.:3D terms.\n\nBULLET::::- Cel-shaded animation is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include \"Skyland\" (2007, France), \"The Iron Giant\" (1999, United States), \"Futurama\" (Fox, 1999) \"Appleseed Ex Machina\" (2007, Japan), \"\" (2002, Japan), \"\" (2017, Japan)\n", "Section::::Animation.\n\nCGI animated films can be rendered as stereoscopic 3D version by using two virtual cameras. Because the entire movie is basically a 3D model, it only takes twice the rendering time and a little effort to properly set up stereoscopic views.\n", "Contrary to real-time rendering, performance is only of second priority with pre-rendering. It is used mainly in the film industry to create high-quality renderings of lifelike scenes. Many special effects in today's movies are entirely or partially created by computer graphics. For example, the character of Gollum in the Peter Jackson \"The Lord of the Rings\" films is completely computer-generated imagery (CGI). Also for animation movies, CGI is gaining popularity. Most notably Pixar has produced a series of movies such as \"Toy Story\" and \"Finding Nemo\", and the Blender Foundation the world's first open movie \"Elephants Dream\".\n", "Animations for non-interactive media, such as feature films and video, are rendered much more slowly. Non-real time rendering enables the leveraging of limited processing power in order to obtain higher image quality. Rendering times for individual frames may vary from a few seconds to several days for complex scenes. Rendered frames are stored on a hard disk then can be transferred to other media such as motion picture film or optical disk. These frames are then displayed sequentially at high frame rates, typically 24, 25, or 30 frames per second, to achieve the illusion of movement.\n", "Two approaches to stereo conversion can be loosely defined: quality semiautomatic conversion for cinema and high quality 3DTV, and low-quality automatic conversion for cheap 3DTV, VOD and similar applications.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Re-rendering of computer animated films.\n", "On a larger scale, the 2018 movie \"In Saturn's Rings\" used over 7.5 million separate two-dimensional images, captured in space or by telescopes, which were composited and moved using multi-plane animation techniques.\n\nSection::::Graphic design.\n", "Advertising agencies today employ the use of animatics to test their commercials before they are made into full up spots. Animatics use drawn artwork, with moving pieces (for example, an arm that reaches for a product, or a head that turns). Video storyboards are similar to animatics but do not have moving pieces. Photomatics are another option when creating test spots, but instead of using drawn artwork, there is a shoot in which hundreds of digital photographs are taken. The large number of images to choose from may make the process of creating a test commercial a bit easier, as opposed to creating an animatic, because changes to drawn art take time and money. Photomatics generally cost more than animatics, as they may require a shoot and on-camera talent. However, the emergence of affordable stock photography and image editing software permits the inexpensive creation of photomatics using stock elements and photo composites.\n", "Three-dimensional NPR is the style that is most commonly seen in video games and movies. The output from this technique is almost always a 3D model that has been modified from the original input model to portray a new artistic style. In many cases, the geometry of the model is identical to the original geometry, and only the material applied to the surface is modified. With increased availability of programmable GPU's, shaders have allowed NPR effects to be applied to the rasterised image that is to be displayed to the screen. The majority of NPR techniques applied to 3D geometry are intended to make the scene appear two-dimensional.\n", "Rendering is the final process of creating the actual 2D image or animation from the prepared scene. This can be compared to taking a photo or filming the scene after the setup is finished in real life. Several different, and often specialized, rendering methods have been developed. These range from the distinctly non-realistic wireframe rendering through polygon-based rendering, to more advanced techniques such as: scanline rendering, ray tracing, or radiosity. Rendering may take from fractions of a second to days for a single image/frame. In general, different methods are better suited for either photo-realistic rendering, or real-time rendering.\n\nSection::::Real-time.\n", "Mathematics used in rendering includes: linear algebra, calculus, numerical mathematics, signal processing, and Monte Carlo methods.\n\nRendering for movies often takes place on a network of tightly connected computers known as a render farm.\n\nThe current state of the art in 3-D image description for movie creation is the mental ray scene description language designed at mental images and RenderMan Shading Language designed at Pixar. (compare with simpler 3D fileformats such as VRML or APIs such as OpenGL and DirectX tailored for 3D hardware accelerators).\n", "Section::::2D to 3D conversion.\n\nIn the case of 2D films that were generated from 3D models (as with CGI animated films), it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version.\n", "Not all computer graphics that appear 3D are based on a wireframe model. 2D computer graphics with 3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wireframe modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers. Visual artists may also copy or visualize 3D effects and manually render photorealistic effects without the use of filters.\n\nSection::::Differences with other types of computer graphics.:Pseudo-3D and \"true 3D\".\n", "This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.\n", "Not all morph target animation has to be done by actually editing vertex positions. It is also possible to take vertex positions found in skeletal animation and then use those rendered as morph target animation.\n\nAn animation composed in one 3D application suite sometimes needs to be transferred to another, as for rendering. Because different 3D applications tend to implement bones and other special effects differently, the morph target technique is sometimes used to transfer animations between 3D applications to avoid export issues.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Benefits and drawbacks.\n", "Examples of films produced using computer-assisted animation are \"The Little Mermaid\", \"The Rescuers Down Under\", \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Aladdin\", \"The Lion King\", \"Pocahontas\", \"The Hunchback of Notre Dame\", \"Hercules\", \"Mulan\", \"The Road to El Dorado\" and \"Tarzan\".\n", "Rendering for interactive media, such as games and simulations, is calculated and displayed in real time, at rates of approximately 20 to 120 frames per second. In real-time rendering, the goal is to show as much information as possible as the eye can process in a fraction of a second (a.k.a. \"in one frame\": In the case of a 30 frame-per-second animation, a frame encompasses one 30th of a second).\n", "It can create the source meshes for low poly game models used in video games. In conjunction with other 3D modeling and texturing techniques and Displacement and Normal mapping, it can greatly enhance the appearance of game meshes often to the point of photorealism. Some sculpting programs like 3D-Coat, Zbrush, and Mudbox offer ways to integrate their workflows with traditional 3D modeling and rendering programs. Conversely, 3D modeling applications like 3ds Max, Maya and MODO are now incorporating sculpting capability as well, though these are usually less advanced than tools found in sculpting-specific applications.\n", "The primary goal is to achieve an as high as possible degree of photorealism at an acceptable minimum rendering speed (usually 24 frames per second, as that is the minimum the human eye needs to see to successfully create the illusion of movement). In fact, exploitations can be applied in the way the eye 'perceives' the world, and as a result, the final image presented is not necessarily that of the real world, but one close enough for the human eye to tolerate.\n", "Digital Productions created 27 minutes of animation, in 300 scenes, for the film \"The Last Starfighter\". Each frame of the animation contained an average of 250,000 polygons, and had a resolution of 3000 x 5000 36-bit pixels; they claimed that the imagery was 50 times more complex than the graphics in previous feature films. They estimated that using computer animation required only half the time, and one half to one third the cost, that would have been required if then-traditional methods had been used.\n", "Disadvantages compare to 2D photorealistic rendering may include a software learning curve and difficulty achieving certain photorealistic effects. Some photorealistic effects may be achieved with special rendering filters included in the 3D modeling software. For the best of both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modeling followed by editing the 2D computer-rendered images from the 3D model.\n\nSection::::3D model market.\n", "Because of the growing need for 'moving' mattes, camera projection mapping has been implemented into the matte painting timeline. Although ILM CG Supervisor Stefen Fangmeier came up with the idea of projecting Yusei Uesugi's aerial painting of Neverland onto a 3D mesh modeled by Geoff Campbell while working on the motion picture \"Hook\" in 1991, projection-mapping based 3D environment matte art was until recently, like its predecessor matte painting has been, the industry's best-kept secret. The involvement of 3D in this until then 2D art form was revealed by Craig Barron in 1998 after completing their work on the feature film \"Great Expectations\" when they introduced this technique as a 2.5D matte to the public. In production today this combination of 2D and 3D is part of every matte artist's bread and butter.\n", "Due to the large number of calculations, a work in progress is usually only rendered in detail appropriate to the portion of the work being developed at a given time, so in the initial stages of modeling, wireframe and ray casting may be used, even where the target output is ray tracing with radiosity. It is also common to render only parts of the scene at high detail, and to remove objects that are not important to what is currently being developed.\n", "Computer animated 2D films made with 3D models can be re-rendered in stereoscopic 3D by adding a second virtual camera if the original data is still available. This is technically not a conversion; therefore, such re-rendered films have the same quality as films originally produced in stereoscopic 3D. Examples of this technique include the re-release of \"Toy Story\" and \"Toy Story 2\". Revisiting the original computer data for the two films took four months, as well as an additional six months to add the 3D. However, not all CGI films are re-rendered for the 3D re-release because of the costs, time required, lack of skilled resources or missing computer data.\n" ]

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[ "Food energy intake must be balanced with activity to maintain a proper body weight. Sedentary individuals and those eating less to lose weight may suffer malnutrition if they eat food supplying empty calories but not enough nutrients. In contrast, people who engage in heavy physical activity need more food energy as fuel, and so can have a larger amount of calorie-rich, essential nutrient-poor foods. Dietitians and other healthcare professionals prevent malnutrition by designing eating programs and recommending dietary modifications according to patient's needs.\n", "Studies have shown that the effectiveness of low-fat diets for weight loss is broadly similar to that of low-carbohydrate diets in the long-term. The Endocrine Society state that \"when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\"\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Cardiovascular health.\n", "Section::::Contributions to research.:Intermittent Fasting and Hormesis.\n\nMattson’s research on animal models and human subjects has resulted in the widespread adoption of intermittent fasting as an intervention to optimize health and reduce the risk of many major chronic diseases including obesity, diabetes, cancer, asthma and other inflammatory disorders, cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders.\n", "At the end of his experiment, Naughton details an additional experiment inspired by his research into the lipid hypothesis. In this second experiment, he cuts out most sugars and starches from his diet for a month, eating foods such as cheeseburgers without buns, eggs and bacon fried in butter, steaks, Polish sausage, fruit in heavy cream, and green vegetables in butter. He uses coconut oil to fry onions for his cheeseburgers and eats fried shredded cheese as a snack. As a result, Naughton says that his energy level and mood have suffered no deleterious effects, despite him often working until 2 AM on a large programming project with a tight deadline. At the end of the month, his overall cholesterol has dropped from 222 to 209, with his LDL having dropped from 156 to 130 and his HDL having increased from 49 to 64.\n", "One prominent and very popular theory states that lifespan can be lengthened by a tight budget for food energy called caloric restriction. Caloric restriction observed in many animals (most notably mice and rats) shows a near doubling of life span from a very limited calorific intake. Support for the theory has been bolstered by several new studies linking lower basal metabolic rate to increased life expectancy. That is the key to why animals like giant tortoises can live so long. Studies of humans with life spans of at least 100 have shown a link to decreased thyroid activity, resulting in their lowered metabolic rate.\n", "A 2008 study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine showed that dieters who kept a daily food diary (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if a person records their eating, they are more aware of what they consume and therefore eat fewer calories.\n\nSection::::Possible weight loss effects of drinking water prior to meals.\n", "All the components in the body require various levels of energy to be maintained. Body fat requires much less energy than lean muscle, as lean muscle is much more metabolically active and therefore requires more energy expenditure to remain in homeostasis. If comparing two individuals, with all variables being equal, the person with more lean muscle mass will have a higher basal metabolic rate, and therefore, a lower metabolic age in comparison to those with the identical chronological age.\n", "While there are studies that show the health and medical benefits of weight loss, a study in 2005 of around 3000 Finns over an 18-year period showed that weight loss from dieting can result in increased mortality, while those who maintained their weight fared the best. Similar conclusion is drawn by other studies, and although other studies suggest that intentional weight loss has a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy, it is associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals and the slightly overweight but not obese. This may reflect the loss of subcutaneous fat and beneficial mass from organs and muscle in addition to visceral fat when there is a sudden and dramatic weight loss.\n", "Section::::Factors that affect the thermic effect of food.\n\nThe thermic effect of food is increased by both aerobic training of sufficient duration and intensity or by anaerobic weight training. However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of the meals ingested. Meal frequency has little to no effect on TEF; assuming total calorie intake for the days are equivalent.\n", "In a 2017 collaborative report on rhesus monkeys by scientists of the US National Institute on Aging and the University of Wisconsin, caloric restriction in the presence of adequate nutrition was effective in delaying the effects of aging. Older age of onset, female sex, lower body weight and fat mass, reduced food intake, diet quality, and lower fasting blood glucose levels were factors associated with fewer disorders of aging and with improved survival rates. Specifically, reduced food intake was beneficial in adult and older primates, but not in younger monkeys. The study indicated that caloric restriction provided health benefits with fewer age-related disorders in elderly monkeys and, because rhesus monkeys are genetically similar to humans, the benefits and mechanisms of caloric restriction may apply to human health during aging.\n", "Such epidemiological studies of body weight are not about caloric restriction as used in anti-aging studies; they are not about caloric intake to begin with, as body weight is influenced by many factors other than energy intake, Moreover, \"the quality of the diets consumed by the low-body mass index individuals are difficult to assess, and may lack nutrients important to longevity.\" Typical low-calorie diets rarely provide the high nutrient intakes that are a necessary feature of an anti-aging calorie restriction diet. As well, \"The lower-weight individuals in the studies are not a caloric restriction because their caloric intake reflects their individual ad libitum set-points and not a reduction from that set-point.\"\n", "Another recent study by Berry et al. compared shea butter (3% C18:0 on the 2-position) and interesterified shea butter (23% C18:0 on the 2-position), while keeping overall fatty acid composition of the diets constant. This study found no effects of interesterification on fasting levels of blood lipids, glucose and insulin. This is line with a number of other human intervention studies.\n", "According to the two-year study headed up by Unit Director Dr. Wayne Greenberg, Humphrey's weight loss on each of the three diets was approximately the same; however the nature of the actual body matter lost during each differed significantly. The vast majority of the weight lost on the high-protein diet was body fat and Humphrey's hunger was satisfied for longer periods between meals as well. On the high-fat regimen, about two-thirds of the weight lost was body fat with the rest being water, with an undesirable side effect of high blood cholesterol. On the carbohydrate-based diet, half of the weight lost consisted of body fat and the other half was water and muscle tissue. Greenberg noted at the end of the study that dieters who only use a scale as a means of determining weight loss cannot tell how much of what they lose is body fat and how much is water and muscle tissue.\n", "Consistent with this, dietary macronutrients differentially affect adipose and muscle LPL activity. After 16 days on a high-carbohydrate or a high-fat diet, LPL activity increased significantly in both tissues 6 hours after a meal of either composition, but there was a significantly greater rise in adipose tissue LPL in response to the high-carbohydrate diet compared to the high-fat diet. There was no difference between the two diets' effects on insulin sensitivity or fasting LPL activity in either tissue.\n", "The glycemic load is \"the mathematical product of the glycemic index and the carbohydrate amount\".\n\nIn a randomized controlled trial that compared four diets that varied in carbohydrate amount and glycemic index found complicated results:\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 and 2 were high carbohydrate (55% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 2 was low-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 and 4 were high protein (25% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 4 was low-glycemic index\n", "The weight of eating companions may also influence the volume of food consumed. Obese individuals have been found to eat significantly more in the presence of other obese individuals compared to normal-weight others, while normal-weight individuals' eating appears unaffected by the weight of eating companions.\n", "In a study with a middle-aged to elderly sample, personal recollection of maximum weight in their lifetime was recorded and an association with mortality was seen with 15% weight loss for the overweight. Moderate weight loss was associated with reduced cardiovascular risk amongst obese men. Intentional weight loss was not directly measured, but it was assumed that those that died within 3 years, due to disease etc., had not intended to lose weight. This may reflect the loss of subcutaneous fat and beneficial mass from organs and muscle in addition to visceral fat when there is a sudden and dramatic weight loss.\n", "The National Lipid Association recommends that people with familial hypercholesterolemia restrict intakes of total fat to 25–35% of energy intake, saturated fat to less than 7% of energy intake, and cholesterol to less than 200 mg per day. Changes in total fat intake in low calorie diets do not appear to affect blood cholesterol.\n", "As the BMR equations do not attempt to take into account body composition, identical results can be calculated for a very muscular person, and a very fat person, who are both the same height, weight, age and gender. As muscle and fat require differing amounts of calories to maintain, the TEE estimates will not be accurate for such cases.\n", "Speakman's work focuses on the causes and consequences of variation in energy balance, and in particular the factors that limit expenditure, the genetic and environmental drivers of obesity and the energetic contribution to ageing. He is an internationally recognised expert in the use of isotope methodologies to measure energy demands and has used these methods on a wide range of wild animals, model species and humans.\n\nDuring the mid-1980s and early 1990s, Speakman made many contributions to the development of the DLW method, culminating in the book \"Doubly labelled water: theory and practice\", \n", "One 2007 study has questioned the value of using glycemic load as a basis for weight-loss programmes. Das et al. conducted a study on 36 healthy, overweight adults, using a randomised test to measure the efficacy of two diets, one with a high glycemic load and one with a low GL. The study concluded that there is no statistically significant difference between the outcome of the two diets.\n", "Weight gain has a latency period. The effect that eating has on weight gain can vary greatly depending on the following factors: energy (calorie) density of foods, exercise regimen, amount of water intake, amount of salt contained in the food, time of day eaten, age of individual, individual's country of origin, individual's overall stress level, and amount of water retention in ankles/feet. Typical latency periods vary from three days to two weeks after ingestion.\n", "Some research suggests that metabolically healthy obese individuals are at an increased risk of several adverse outcomes, including type 2 diabetes, depressive symptoms, and cardiovascular events. Other research also suggests that although MHO individuals display a favorable metabolic profile, this does not necessarily translate into a decrease in mortality. Research to date has produced conflicting results with respect to cardiovascular disease and mortality. MHO individuals are at a higher risk of cardiovascular disease compared to metabolically healthy non-obese individuals, but they are also at a lower risk thereof than individuals who are both unhealthy and obese. A 2016 meta-analysis found that MHO individuals were not at an increased risk of all-cause mortality (but were at an increased risk of cardiovascular events). The relatively low risk of cardiovascular disease among people with MHO relative to metabolically unhealthy obese people has been attributed to differences in white adipose tissue function between the two groups.\n", "A 2009 review found that existing limited evidence suggested that encouraging water consumption and substituting energy-free beverages for energy-containing beverages (i.e., reducing caloric intake) may facilitate weight management. A 2009 article found that drinking 500 ml of water prior to meals for a 12-week period resulted in increased long-term weight reduction. (References given in main article.)\n\nSection::::Fasting.\n", "Results: In a sample of 2,002 older people, ages 65+, 84% were ambitious snackers. Nonsnackers ingested an average of 1,466 kilocalories daily while snackers ingested an average of 1,718 kcal. The US Department of Agriculture’s MyPyramid states that the recommended consumption of energy for older adults is 1,600 kcal. The study shows that, “In this age group, snacking contributed approximately a quarter of their daily energy and carbohydrate intakes and a fifth of their daily fat intake”. Adding healthful snacking to the dietary behavior of older adults in Zizza, Tayie, and Lino’s study proved to increase their total energy intake preventing inadequate diets.\n" ]

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[ "In many cases, training tasks are successful in teaching non-conserving children to correctly complete conservation tasks. Children as young as four years of age can be trained to conserve using operant training; this involves repeating conservation tasks and reinforcing correct responses while correcting incorrect responses. The effects of training on one conservation task (such as conservation of liquid) often transfer to other conservation tasks.\n\nSection::::In connection with education.\n", "An additional strategy to water conservation is practicing sustainable methods of utilizing groundwater resources. Groundwater flows due to gravity and eventually discharges into streams. Excess pumping of groundwater leads to a decrease in groundwater levels and if continued it can exhaust the resource. Ground and surface waters are connected and overuse of groundwater can reduce and, in extreme examples, diminish the water supply of lakes, rivers, and streams. In coastal regions, over pumping groundwater can increase saltwater intrusion which results in the contamination of groundwater water supply. Sustainable use of groundwater is essential in water conservation.\n", "Water is also at the heart of adaptation to climate change, serving as the crucial link between the climate system, human society and the environment. Without proper water governance, there is likely to be increased competition for water between sectors and an escalation of water crises of various kinds, triggering emergencies in a range of water-dependent sectors. By 2025, 1.8 billion people are expected to be living in conditions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under water stress conditions.\n", "Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world's wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.\n", "Water covers the largest percentage of our planet’s surface and it is vital for our survival. However, many areas still suffer from absence of drinking water. The Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) refers that “Today 2.5 billion people, including almost one billion children, live without even basic sanitation. Every 20 seconds, a child dies as a result of poor sanitation. That's 1.5 million preventable deaths each year.”\n", "Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the “Water footprint of products” section above), and much “green water’ is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of “dedicated water use” in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc.\n", "Section::::Effects on climate.\n\nThe water cycle is powered from solar energy. 86% of the global evaporation occurs from the oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling. Without the cooling, the effect of evaporation on the greenhouse effect would lead to a much higher surface temperature of , and a warmer planet.\n\nAquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of water in the hydrosphere, and has been postulated to be a contributor to sea-level rise.\n\nSection::::Effects on biogeochemical cycling.\n", "The report's authors forecast that the need for water would double within 50 years, due to global population rise, more people choosing to eat a diet of meat and vegetables rather than primarily consuming cereals, and climate change. Generally, about one litre of liquid water gets converted to water vapour to produce one calorie of food. We each consume between 2,000 and 5,000 liters of water every day, depending on our diet and how the food is produced. This is far more than the two to five litres we drink every day. A heavy meat diet requires much more than a vegetarian diet, because water is used to grow food for the animals as well as being used directly to support the livestock. Economic growth fuels changes in diets; for example, per capita meat demand in China has quadrupled over the last 30 years, and milk and egg products are becoming increasingly popular in India. Growing cities, expanding industry and biofuels are increasingly competing for water with an expanding agriculture.\n", "Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.\n", "Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream, and water retained in a river to maintain waterway health would not be available to water abstractors downstream.\n\nSection::::Water stress.\n\nThe concept of water stress is relatively simple: According to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, it applies to situations where there is not enough water for all uses, whether agricultural, industrial or domestic.\n", "Another strategy in water conservation is protecting groundwater resources. When precipitation occurs, some infiltrates the soil and goes underground. Water in this saturation zone is called groundwater. Contamination of groundwater causes the groundwater water supply to not be able to be used as a resource of fresh drinking water and the natural regeneration of contaminated groundwater can take years to replenish. Some examples of potential sources of groundwater contamination include storage tanks, septic systems, uncontrolled hazardous waste, landfills, atmospheric contaminants, chemicals, and road salts. Contamination of groundwater decreases the replenishment of available freshwater so taking preventative measures by protecting groundwater resources from contamination is an important aspect of water conservation.\n", "Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should be primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation accounts for 70% of the world's fresh water use. The agricultural sector of most countries is important both economically and politically, and water subsidies are common. Conservation advocates have urged removal of all subsidies to force farmers to grow more water-efficient crops and adopt less wasteful irrigation techniques.\n", "The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing countries and significant proportions in more economically developed countries (in the United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawn for use is for irrigation).\n", "\"\"Where there’s water, there’s carbon – and quite a bit of it. Every bath, flush or glug has CO2 built into it, thanks to all the processes it takes to get it to the tap. So using less water is good news for the planet. It’s good news for us too, because it’s our job to keep supplies flowing to over 6 million customers in this dry region.\"\"\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Beyond the use of certain technologies, Sustainable Design in Water Management also consists very importantly in correct implementation of concepts. Among one of these principal concepts is the fact normally in developed countries 100% of water destined for consumption, that is not necessarily for drinking purposes, is of potable water quality. This concept of differentiating qualities of water for different purposes has been called \"fit-for-purpose\". This more rational use of water achieves several economies, that are not only related to water itself, but also the consumption of energy, as to achieve water of drinking quality can be extremely energy intensive for several reasons.\n", "Section::::Water Reuse.\n\nWater shortage has become an increasingly difficult problem to manage. More than 40% of the world's population live in a region where the demand for water exceeds its supply. The imbalance between supply and demand, along with persisting issues such as climate change and population growth, has made water reuse a necessary method for conserving water. There are a variety of methods used in the treatment of waste water to ensure that it is safe to use for irrigation of food crops and/or drinking water.\n", "Much effort in water resource management is directed at optimizing the use of water and in minimizing the environmental impact of water use on the natural environment. The observation of water as an integral part of the ecosystem is based on integrated water resource management, where the quantity and quality of the ecosystem help to determine the nature of the natural resources.\n", "In the same report, it is indicated that in 1998, 2.2 million people died from diarrhoeal diseases. In 2004, the UK's WaterAid charity reported that one child died every 15 seconds from water-linked diseases.\n\nAccording to Alliance 21 “All levels of water supply management are necessary and independent. The integrated approach to the catchment areas must take into account the needs of irrigation and those of towns, jointly and not separately as is often seen to be the case...The governance of a water supply must be guided by the principles of sustainable development.”\n", "Section::::Requirement to offset biodiversity.:Compensatory mitigation in the US.\n\nNo Net Loss policy (and consequently, biodiversity offsetting) has its origin in US legislation, specifically in the Water Act from the 1970s. This piece of legislation required 'no net loss of wetland acreage and function', leading eventually to the creation of mitigation banks, where wetland credits are bought and sold.\n\nThe US also has a Conservation Banking policy in which credits representing areas of habitat for protected fauna species are traded.\n\nIn the US, offsetting tends to be called 'compensatory mitigation'.\n\nSection::::Requirement to offset biodiversity.:Offsetting in Australia.\n", "Currently, societies respond to water-resource depletion by shifting management objectives from location and developing new supplies to augmenting conserving and reallocation of existing supplies. There are two different perspectives to groundwater depletion, the first is that depletion is considered literally and simply as a reduction in the volume of water in the saturated zone, regardless of water quality considerations. A second perspective views depletion as a reduction in the usable volume of fresh groundwater in storage.\n", "Greywater, including water from washing machines, sinks, showers, and baths may be reused in landscape irrigation and toilets as a method of water conservation. Likewise, rainwater harvesting from storm-water runoff is also a sustainable method to conserve water use in a sustainable shelter. Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems replicate the natural systems that clean water in wildlife and implement them in a city's drainage system so as to minimize contaminated water and unnatural rates of runoff into the environment.\n\nSee related articles in: LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)\n\nSection::::Power.\n", "A fundamental component to water conservation strategy is communication and education outreach of different water programs. Developing communication that educates science to land managers, policy makers, farmers, and the general public is another important strategy utilized in water conservation. Communication of the science of how water systems work is an important aspect when creating a management plan to conserve that system and is often used for ensuring the right management plan to be put into action.\n\nSection::::Social solutions.\n", "Section::::Freshwater withdrawal by country.:United States.\n\nThe United States has about 5% of the world's population, yet it uses almost as much water as India (~1/5 of world) or China (1/5 of world) because substantial amounts of water are used to grow food exported to the rest of the world. The United States agricultural sector consumes more water than the industrial sector, though substantial quantities of water are withdrawn (but not consumed) for power plant cooling systems. 40 out of 50 state water managers expect some degree of water stress in their state in the next 10 years.\n", "A common method of water sequestrations is rainwater harvesting, which incorporates the collection and storage of rain. Primarily, the rain is obtained from a roof, and stored on the ground in catchment tanks. Water sequestration varies based on extent, cost, and complexity. A simple method involves a single barrel at the bottom of a downspout, while a more complex method involves multiple tanks. It is highly sustainable to use stored water in place of purified water for activities such as irrigation and flushing toilets. Additionally, using stored rainwater reduces the amount of runoff pollution, picked up from roofs and pavements that would normally enter streams through storm drains. The following equation can be used to estimate annual water supply:\n", "Human impact: Groundwater is an important source of water for drinking and irrigation of crops. Over 1 billion people in Asia and 65% of the public water sources in Europe source 100% of their water from groundwater. Irrigation is a massive use of groundwater with 80% of the world's groundwater used for agricultural production.\n" ]

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[ "Products\n\nBULLET::::- 100 ml / 3.4 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 50 ml / 1.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 30 ml / 1.0 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 15 ml / 0.5 oz\n\nSection::::Related products.:Heat Kissed.\n", "BULLET::::- Cláudio Mamberti as colonel João Libório\n\nBULLET::::- Germano Haiut as Ademar Albuquerque\n\nBULLET::::- Zuleica Ferreira as Maria Bonita\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- Products:\n\nBULLET::::- 100 ml / 3.4 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 50 ml / 1.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 30 ml / 1.0 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 15 ml / 0.5 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Sensual Body Lotion 200ml / 6.7 oz\n\nSection::::Related products.:Heat: The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour.\n", "Products\n\nBULLET::::- 50 ml/ 1.7 oz\n\nSection::::Related products.:Heat Rush.\n", "Section::::Promotion.:Commercial.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Supercritical fluid extraction\": A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material.\n", "BULLET::::- Products:\n\nBULLET::::- 100 ml/ 3.4 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 50 ml/ 1.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 30 ml/ 1.0 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 15 ml/ 0.5 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Body Lotion 200 ml/ 6.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Shower Gel 200 ml/ 6.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Sparkling Body Mist 125 ml/ 4.2 oz\n\nSection::::Promotion.\n", "Section::::Later.\n\nIn 2008, Chandler Burr published a book, \"The Perfect Scent: A Year Behind the Scenes of the Perfume Industry in Paris and New York\", which chronicled the development of Lovely, comparing it to the development of Hermès fragrance by Jean-Claude Ellena, Un Jardin sur Le Nil.\n\nParker later released a flanker to the Lovely pillar fragrance, entitled Lovely Sheer. Created by the same perfumers who worked on the original fragrance (Gavarry and le Guernec), Lovely Sheer has notes of mandarin, bergamot, orange flower absolute, gardenia water, pink pepper, blonde woods, vetiver, musk and amber.\n", "BULLET::::- parfum or extrait, in English known as perfume extract, pure perfume, or simply perfume: 15–40% aromatic compounds (IFRA: typically ~20%);\n\nBULLET::::- esprit de parfum (ESdP): 15–30% aromatic compounds, a seldom used strength concentration in between EdP and perfume;\n\nBULLET::::- eau de parfum (EdP) or parfum de toilette (PdT) (The strength usually sold as \"perfume\"): 10–20% aromatic compounds (typically ~15%); sometimes called \"eau de perfume\" or \"millésime\"; parfum de toilette is a less common term, most popular in the 1980s, that is generally analogous to eau de parfum;\n", "Lovely (perfume)\n\nLovely is a 2005 perfume released by Sarah Jessica Parker. Its development was the subject of a 2008 book by then-\"New York Times\" perfume critic Chandler Burr called \"The Perfect Scent: A Year Behind the Scenes of the Perfume Industry in Paris and New York\".\n\nSection::::Product development.\n", "BULLET::::- eau de toilette (EdT): 5–15% aromatic compounds (typically ~10%); This is the staple for most masculine perfumes.\n\nBULLET::::- eau de Cologne (EdC): often simply called cologne: 3–8% aromatic compounds (typically ~5%); see below for more information on the confusing nature of the term \"cologne\";\n\nBULLET::::- eau fraiche: products sold as \"splashes\", \"mists\", \"veils\" and other imprecise terms. Generally these products contain 3% or less aromatic compounds and are diluted with water rather than oil or alcohol.\n", "Released in September 2010, Tempt, Tease and Touch are available in black, pink, and silver or grey flacons respectively; the products were available exclusively at The Perfume Shop at the time of their release before being distributed to selected retailers later. They were sold in 4.3 fluid ounce bottles, with a retail price in the UK of £19.99, and also packaged with a 5.1 oz. container of shimmering body gel as part of a gift set. In 2010, they were featured on a list compiled by \"Glamour\" magazine of the most popular celebrity-endorsed perfumes.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Concept and creation.\n", "BULLET::::- Products:\n\nBULLET::::- 100 ml / 3.4 oz\n\nBULLET::::- 30ml / 1.0 oz\n\nSection::::Related products.:Heat Wild Orchid.\n", "In 2002, the House of Jean Patou created \"Enjoy\", a contemporary take on \"Joy\" meant for younger women. \n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "An example of this technique is a particular cake mix advertisement from Betty Crocker in which it would appear the chocolate icing on the heel of the cake has been painted to look like female genitalia. Amongst millions who viewed the commercial, very few will have noticed anything unusual; however, while this detail might not have been consciously perceived, it would have been interpreted sexually at the subconscious level. This advertisement, directed at women, puts an emphasis on the sense of touch by using words such as \"moist\", and on the whole the ad creates a subconscious association between the product and sexual pleasure.\n", "Section::::Related products.:\"Heat\": Limited edition CD.\n", "Woodbury's Facial Soap, a woman's beauty bar, was almost discontinued in 1911. The soap's sales decline was reversed, however, with ads containing images of romantic couples and promises of love and intimacy for those using the brand. Jovan Musk Oil, introduced in 1971, was promoted with sexual entendre and descriptions of the fragrance's sexual attraction properties. As a result, Jovane, Inc.'s revenue grew from $1.5 million in 1971 to $77 million by 1978.\n\nSection::::History.:KamaSutra condoms in India.\n", "The fragrance's commercial, directed by director Jake Nava and released in December 2009, spawned controversy for its sexually explicit imagery, and was only allowed nighttime broadcast in the United Kingdom. Macy's sold US$3 million worth of Heat between early February and early March 2010. It received mixed reviews from critics, and it was nominated at several fragrance award ceremonies.\n", "BULLET::::- Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through \"solvent extraction\" using volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids.\n\nBULLET::::- Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through \"distillation\" or \"expression\" and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called \"expression oils\".\n", "Solid perfume is used either by rubbing a finger or dipping a cotton swab against it and then onto the skin. Sometimes solid perfume can take more time for the deeper notes to come out than a spray perfume.\n\nThe latest solid perfumes are designed as handbag aromas, so a compact way of making perfume more portable.\n\nHistorically, ointment-like unguents have been used as a type of solid perfume since Egyptian times.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Mandy Aftel, \"Scents & Sensibilities: Creating Solid Perfumes for Well-Being\", Gibbs Smith, 2005,\n", "The exclusive promotional video for \"I Still Love U\" features Perfume dressed in white against a white background, singing to the camera entirely in a one-shot, profile-height video. The video features a very low depth of field, significantly blurring anything too close to the foreground or background. As they sit down for the final minute or so of the video, the girls start to break down laughing from pain as they receive foot massages off screen; all of them try hard to, and eventually regain, their composure. Their laughter can be heard as the screen cuts to black.\n", "BULLET::::- Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the essential oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Two Tempting!\" 5 mL Fragrance Roller Ball and Lip Gloss Duo\n\nBULLET::::- 8ml Lip Gloss (tube format, available with gift set editions)\n\nSection::::Flanker fragrances.\n\nSection::::Flanker fragrances.:Curious: In Control.\n", "Section::::Release.:Products.\n\nElixir was produced in the following range: \n\nBULLET::::- Eau de toilette spray - 15 ml/0.5 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Eau de toilette spray - 30 ml/1 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Eau de toilette spray - 50 ml/1.7 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Deodorant spray - 150 ml/5.1 oz\n\nBULLET::::- Body lotion - 101 ml/3.4 oz (available only in gift sets)\n\nBULLET::::- Lip balm - 15.7 ml/0.53 oz (available only in gift sets)\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- Peter Gallagher as Guido, Lorenzo's live-in boyfriend\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Goldblum as Jamie, talent scout for the Fantasia firm and Camille's recent hook-up\n\nBULLET::::- Jared Harris as Anthony, a fashion photographer\n\nBULLET::::- Mariel Hemingway as Leese Hotton, a famous actress Anthony is charged to shoot for the cover of \"A Magazine\"\n\nBULLET::::- Leslie Mann as Camille, a talented designer working for Roberta Colaredo's atelier\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Sorvino as Lorenzo Mancini\n\nBULLET::::- Rita Wilson as Roberta Colaredo\n\nSection::::Additional Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Morena Baccarin as Monica, Roberta's assistant\n\nBULLET::::- Angela Bettis as Wilemina, Janice's assistant\n\nBULLET::::- Coolio as T, an associate of J.B.\n" ]

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[ "Of the four billion air passengers in 2017, over 650 million flew long-haul between 2,000 and 7,000 miles, including 72 million in Business- and first-class, reaching 128 million by 2025: Spike projects 13 million would be interested in supersonic transport then.\n\nIn October 2018, the reauthorization of the FAA planned noise standards for supersonic transports, giving developers a regulatory certainty for their designs, mostly their engine choice.\n", "BULLET::::- Flying a modified Yakovlev Yak-3U powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-2000 engine, William Whiteside sets an official international speed record for piston-engined aircraft in the under-3,000 kg (6,615-pound) category, reaching 655 km/hr (407 mph) over a 3-km (1.863-mile) course at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah in the United States, greatly exceeding the previous record of 491 km/hr (305 mph) set in 2002 by Jim Wright.\n\nBULLET::::- 11 October\n", "Working since 2003 and having reduced its target from Mach 1.6 to 1.4, Aerion seems more realistic for Leeham analyst Bjorn Fehrm and wants to enter service in 2025, while Boom and Spike are more ambitious for introduction two years before – but those timelines seems difficult without engine selection – and speed with at least Mach 2 needed for airlines to cut one day off transatlantic and two days off transpacific trips.\n\nRules for supersonic flight-testing authorization in the U.S and noise certification will be proposed by the FAA by early 2019.\n", "BULLET::::- Two-seater and four-seater flying at 250 km/h with old generation engines can burn 25 to 40 liters per flight hour, 3 to 5 liters per 100 passenger km.\n\nBULLET::::- The Sikorsky S-76C++ twin turbine helicopter gets about at and carries 12 for about 19.8 passenger-miles per gallon (11.9 L per 100 passenger km).\n\nSection::::Water transport means.\n\nSection::::Water transport means.:Ships.\n\nSection::::Water transport means.:Ships.:Queen Elizabeth.\n", "BULLET::::- The Spike S-512 is a self-funded twinjet design aiming to cruise at Mach 1.6 over water for 6,200 nmi with 22 passengers in a windowless cabin, with unspecified 20,000 lbf engines. A SX-1.2-scale model should have made its maiden flight in September 2017 before a manned testbed in 2019 and the prototype in 2021, with market availability for 2023.\n", "The fastest transatlantic flight was done by a Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird in 1 hour 56 minutes in 1974. The fastest time for an airliner is 2 hours 53 minutes by the Concorde in 1996. The fastest time for a subsonic airliner is 5 hours 1 minute in a Vickers VC10 , however a Boeing 787 did the flight in 5 hours 13 minutes but over a longer distance in 2018.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Transatlantic crossing\n\nBULLET::::- Transatlantic communications cable\n\nBULLET::::- Transatlantic relations\n\nBULLET::::- Transatlantic tunnel\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- the Boom XB-1 Baby Boom third-scale testbed should fly in 2018 as the powerplant is selected for a 45/55-seat trijet airliner reaching Mach 2.2 over water for 9,000 nmi with one stop for a business-class fare. Aiming for 2023 deliveries, it received 10 commitments from Virgin and 15 from an undisclosed European airline in 2016, totalling 76 from five airlines by June 2017;\n", "The British company Reaction Engines Limited, with 50% EU money, has been engaged in a research programme called \"LAPCAT\", which examined a design for a hydrogen-fueled plane carrying 300 passengers called the \"A2\", potentially capable of flying at Mach 5+ nonstop from Brussels to Sydney in 4.6 hours. The follow-on research effort, \"LAPCAT II\" began in 2008 and was to last four years.\n\nSection::::Hypersonic transport.:Boeing Hypersonic airliner.\n\nBoeing unveiled at the AIAA 2018 conference a passenger transport.\n\nCrossing the Atlantic in 2 hours or the Pacific in 3 at would enable same-day return flights, increasing airlines' asset utilization.\n", "BULLET::::- The fastest civilian airplane currently flying: the Cessna Citation X, an American business jet, capable of Mach 0.935 (over 600 mph at cruising altitude). Its rival, the American Gulfstream G650 business jet, can reach Mach 0.925\n\nBULLET::::- The fastest airliner currently flying is the Boeing 747, quoted as being capable of cruising over Mach 0.885 (over 550 mph). Previously, the fastest were the troubled, short-lived Russian (Soviet Union) Tupolev Tu-144 SST (Mach 2.35) and the French/British \"Concorde\" (Mach 2.23, normally cruising at Mach 2) . Before them, the Convair 990 Coronado jet airliner of the 1960s flew at over 600 mph.\n\nSection::::Propulsion.\n", "BULLET::::- the Aerion AS2 is 12-seat trijet, with a range of 4,750 nmi at Mach 1.4 over water or 5,300 nmi at Mach 0.95 over land, although “boomless” Mach 1.1 flight is possible. Backed by Airbus and with 20 launch orders from Flexjet, First deliveries were pushed back from 2023 by two years when GE Aviation was selected in May 2017 for a joint engine study;\n", "BULLET::::- The Ilyushin Il-118, an upgrade to the four-turboprop Ilyushin Il-18 airliner; proposed in 1984, the aircraft would instead be powered by two D-236 propfans, with the eight-bladed front propeller on each engine rotating at a speed of 1,100 rpm and the six-bladed back propeller turning at 1,000 rpm to lower noise and vibration\n\nBULLET::::- A re-engined Antonov An-124, with the four Progress D-18T turbofans being replaced by Kuznetsov NK-62 propfans\n\nSection::::Development.:1970s–1980s.:Decline.\n", "BULLET::::- The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration announced the three competing designs submitted to it by airplane manufacturers for a supersonic passenger airliner. Boeing's proposal, the Boeing 733, proposed to carry 150 passengers at a speed of Mach 2.7; Lockheed Corporation offered the Lockheed L-2000 that would carry 218 passengers at Mach 3.0; and North American Aviation presented the North American NAC-60 to take 167 passengers at Mach 2.65.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- 10 August 1938: The first non-stop flight from Berlin to New York was with a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 that flew Staaken to Floyd Bennett in 24 hours, 56 minutes and did the return flight three days later in 19 hours, 47 minutes.\n\nSection::::Notable transatlantic flights of the 21st century.\n", "Several manufacturers believe that many of these concerns can be successfully addressed at a smaller scale. In addition, it is believed that small groups of high-value passengers (such as executives or heads of state) will find value in higher speed transport.\n\nCurrent and former proposals for SSBJs include:\n\nBULLET::::- Aerion SBJ\n\nBULLET::::- Aerion AS2\n\nBULLET::::- HyperMach SonicStar\n\nBULLET::::- SAI Quiet Supersonic Transport\n\nBULLET::::- Spike S-512\n\nBULLET::::- Sukhoi-Gulfstream S-21\n\nBULLET::::- Tupolev Tu-444\n\nSeveral companies, including Gulfstream Aerospace, continue to work on technologies intended to reduce or mitigate sonic booms. An example is the Quiet Spike.\n", "BULLET::::- Loening, Grover. \"Our Wings Grow Faster: In These Personal Episodes of a Lifetime in Aviation May Be Found an Historical and Pictorial Record Showing How We So Quickly Stepped Into This Air Age - and Through What Kind of Difficulties and Developments We Had to Pass to Get There\". Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1935.\n\nBULLET::::- Loening, Grover. \"Takeoff Into Greatness: How American Aviation Grew So Big So Fast\". New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1968.\n\nBULLET::::- Loening, Grover. \"Conquering Wing\". Philadelphia: Chilton Book Company, 1970.\n", "Section::::Challenges of supersonic passenger flight.:Environmental impact.\n\nThe International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) estimates a SST would burn 5 to 7 times as much fuel per passenger.\n\nThe ICCT shows that a New York to London supersonic flight would consume more than twice as much fuel per passenger than in subsonic business-class, six times as much as for economy class, and three times as much as subsonic business for Los Angeles to Sydney.\n\nDesigners can either meet existing environmental standards with advanced technology or lobby policymakers to establish new standards for SSTs.\n", "BULLET::::- Increase engine power. More powerful engines can improve an airplane's acceleration and reduce its takeoff run. More powerful engines are generally larger and heavier and use more fuel during cruise, however, increasing the fuel load needed to reach the same destination. The added weight of the fuel and engines may negate the potential performance gain, and the added cost of the extra fuel may constrain the profitability of a commercial aircraft. On the other hand, replacing an older, less efficient engine with a newer engine of more advanced design can increase both power output and efficiency while sometimes even decreasing weight. In this situation, the only real disadvantage is the cost of the upgrade.\n", "BULLET::::- 25–30% from second-generation core concepts in 2026\n\nBULLET::::- 10–25% from Hybrid Wing Body in 2026\n\nBULLET::::- 5–10% from airframe morphing in 2027\n\nBULLET::::- 10–15% from truss or strut-braced wing design in 2028\n\nBULLET::::- 10–20% by flying without landing gear in 2032\n\nToday's tube-and-wing configuration could remain in use until the 2030s due to drag reductions from active flutter suppression for slender flexible-wings and natural and hybrid laminar flow.\n", "BULLET::::- The United States Department of Justice confirms that it is investigating whether large airlines in the United States have colluded to keep air fares high by limiting routes and affordable seats. Delta Air Lines, Southwest Airlines, American Airlines, and United Airlines confirm that they are among the airlines under investigation. Air fares in the United States are at a 12-year high even though airlines have saved billions of dollars in fuels costs thanks to historically low jet fuel prices.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 July\n", "BULLET::::- An Airbus A321 operating as US Airways Flight 1939 – commemorating the year of the airline's founding – lands before dawn at the airline's hub in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, completing a journey begun from Philadelphia on 16 October that stopped at all of US Airways' other hubs – at Charlotte, North Carolina; Phoenix, Arizona; and San Francisco, California. When it lands, the 76-year history of US Airways – which earlier had done business as All American Aviation, Allegheny Airlines, and USAir – comes to an end as it completes its merger with American Airlines. The merger leaves the United States with just four major domestic airlines – American, Delta Air Lines, Southwest Airlines, and United Airlines – down from ten in 2001; the four control 87 percent of the U.S. domestic market.\n", "BULLET::::- airBaltic becomes the world's first airline to accept bitcoin as payment for online bookings.\n\nBULLET::::- 23 July\n", "BULLET::::- At Centennial Airport in Denver, Colorado, Boom Technology unveils the engineering design for its XB-1 Baby Boom supersonic technology demonstrator aircraft, a scaled-down version of a 45-passenger supersonic airliner it hopes to produce and place in service by 2023. The Baby Boom is expected to make its first flight in 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- 16 November\n", "BULLET::::- Air India Express Flight 812, operated by Boeing 737–800 VT-AXV crashed at Mangalore International Airport with the loss of 162 lives.\n\nBULLET::::- 26 May\n\nBULLET::::- Iraqi Airways ceases operations.\n\nBULLET::::- Launched from a B-52H Stratofortress over the Pacific Ocean, the Boeing X-51A Waverider makes a successful first flight, reaching nearly Mach 5. It is the first time in history that an aircraft flies powered by a practical thermally balanced hydrocarbon-fueled scramjet engine.\n\nBULLET::::- 28 May\n", "For the October 2017 NBAA show, the five G500s were completing their campaign with 995 flights and 3,690h - 10h 19min for the longest - the first delivery schedule was maintained as certification was pushed until early 2018.\n\nMach 0.85 range for the G500 was extended by 200 nmi to 5,200 nmi/9,630 km and by 600 nmi/1,111 km to 4,400 nmi/8,149 km at Mach 0.90.\n" ]

[ "As technology advances, commercial airplanes should have gotten much faster by now." ]

[ "In order for commercial airplanes to become faster, they would have to consume much more fuel, which is one of the most expensive costs to airplanes, making it infeasible for planes to be significantly faster currently. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "As technology advances, commercial airplanes should have gotten much faster by now.", "As technology advances, commercial airplanes should have gotten much faster by now." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "In order for commercial airplanes to become faster, they would have to consume much more fuel, which is one of the most expensive costs to airplanes, making it infeasible for planes to be significantly faster currently. ", "In order for commercial airplanes to become faster, they would have to consume much more fuel, which is one of the most expensive costs to airplanes, making it infeasible for planes to be significantly faster currently. " ]

[ "Temperate weather: Although rainy and windy, the islands of Orkney are blessed with a surprisingly temperate climate, providing the perfect environment for whisky casks to quietly mature at an even pace, without being exposed to extremes in temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- Independent Bottlings from Douglas Laing, Gordon & MacPhail, Duncan Taylor, Hunter Laing, Mackillop's Choice and others.\n\nSection::::Previous Bottlings.\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu 18 Years Old 43% : Highland Distillers\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu 10 Years Old 40% : Highland Distillers\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu No Age Statement 40% : Highland Distillers\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon & MacPhail : Tamdhu 8 years Macphail's Collection 40%\n\nBULLET::::- Dewar Rattray: Tamdhu 1990 Cask Strength 62.9%\n\nBULLET::::- Signatory Vintage : Tamdhu 1994 Collection Cask Strength 61%.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ian MacLeod Distillers, current owners\n\nBULLET::::- Highland Distillers, previous owners\n\nBULLET::::- Edrington Group and William Grant & Sons, owners of Highland Distillers\n", "BULLET::::- Bushmills 16 year single malt – Malt whiskeys aged at least 16 years in American bourbon barrels or Spanish Oloroso sherry butts are mixed together before finishing in Port pipes for a few months.\n\nBULLET::::- Bushmills 21 year single malt – A limited number of 21 year bottles are made each year. After 19 years, bourbon-barrel-aged and sherry-cask-aged malt whiskeys are combined, which is followed by two years of finishing in Madeira drums.\n", "The selection of casks can affect the character of the final whisky. Outside of the United States, the most common practice is to reuse casks that previously contained American whiskey, as US law requires several types of distilled spirits to be aged in new oak casks. To ensure continuity of supply of used oak casks some Scottish distilling groups own oak forests in the US and rent the new barrels to bourbon producers for first fill use. Bourbon casks impart a characteristic vanilla flavour to the whisky.\n", "Whiskies do not mature in the bottle, only in the cask, so the \"age\" of a whisky is only the time between distillation and bottling. This reflects how much the cask has interacted with the whisky, changing its chemical makeup and taste. Whiskies that have been bottled for many years may have a rarity value, but are not \"older\" and not necessarily \"better\" than a more recent whisky that matured in wood for a similar time. After a decade or two, additional aging in a barrel does not necessarily improve a whisky. \n", "Sherry-seasoned oak casks: Between 60-80% of a whisky’s flavor comes the cask in which it matures. Highland Park uses casks made of either American or European oak. These are built by hand in Spain, filled with Oloroso Sherry and left to season for two years. The casks are then emptied and sent to Orkney where they are filled with the new make spirit and left to mature for at least a decade – and up to five in the case of Highland Park 50 Year Old.\n\nSection::::Character.\n", "In December 2004, Beer Hunter's launched the first Finnish malt whisky: the Old Buck. Old Buck second release was chosen by Jim Murray as the \"European Mainland Whisky of the Year\" in his \"Whisky Bible 2009\". Old Buck is a very small batch whisky, each batch usually contains 60-150 bottles per batch. In their first 13 years of whisky making, they have only made 4000 liters of whisky at the restaurant brewery. Their pot still has a capacity of 150 liters. \n", "On 11 March 2010, Gordon & MacPhail made history by launching Mortlach 70 Years Old Speyside Single Malt Scotch Whisky, the world’s oldest bottled single malt whisky.\n\nOn 8 March 2011, Gordon & MacPhail released the 2nd in the Generations series by launching Glenlivet 1940 70 Years Old.\n\nOn 20 September 2012 Gordon & MacPhail released Generations Glenlivet 1940 70 Years Old (Release 2). This second, and final, release from Cask 339 created worldwide interest, with a number of these bottles distributed as far as Australia through Alba Whisky\n\nSection::::The Shop.\n", "BULLET::::- Teeling Single Grain, matured in Californian cabernet sauvignon barrels\n\nBULLET::::- Teeling Single Malt, vatted from whiskey finished in five different types of wine cask (Sherry, Port, Madeira, White Burgundy, Cabernet Sauvignon)\n\nBULLET::::- Teeling Single Pot Still, produced from a mash bill of 50% malted and 50% unmalted barley, and aged for three years in ex-Muscat barrels\n\nBULLET::::- Teeling The Revival 13-year-old, matured in ex-Bourbon casks for 12 years, and finished in an ex-Calvados cask for 1 year\n\nBULLET::::- Teeling Vintage Reserve 24-year-old Single Malt\n\nBULLET::::- Teeling Vintage Reserve 33-year-old Single Malt\n", "At this stage more water is added to reduce the concentration of alcohol from 75% to 64%. Each oak cask is handmade and therefore unique, so each must be weighed before and after filling to determine how much spirit is in each. Each cask is stencilled with the name, year, cask number and number of litres. The casks are then laid aside in the warehouse for a minimum of three years when it can be used for blending. But for the malt whisky range it is matured for 8, 10, 12, 15 or 21 years or longer for very special bottlings.\n", "The distillery has two wash stills with a capacity of about 16,500 liter and two spirit stills with 15,000 liters. With these capacities the Aberfeldy distillery lies in the middle of the range of pot still sizes.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nAberfeldy 12 years old\n\nAberfeldy 18 years old\n\nAberfeldy 21 years old\n\nWhisky from the distillery is also independently bottled by bottlers including That Boutique-y Whisky Company, Gordon & MacPhail and WM Cadenhead.\n\nSection::::Reviews and Accolades.\n", "Whisky started being produced in Sweden in 1955 by the now defunct \"Skeppets whisky\" brand. Their last bottle was sold in 1971. In 1999 Mackmyra Whisky was founded and is today the largest producer and has won several awards including European Whisky of the Year in Jim Murray's 2011 Whisky Bible and the International Wine & Spirits Competition (IWSC) 2012 Award for Best European Spirits Producer of 2012.\n\nSection::::Types.:Taiwanese.\n", "BULLET::::- Springbank Single Malt is the most popular variety, bearing the name of the distillery itself. Its standard bottling is a 10-year-old is medium-peated and distilled two and a half times. The standard 10-year-old bottling is available at 46% volume. They also produce a cask-strength 12-year bottling, as well as 15-year, 18-year, and 21-year bottlings. The distillery also releases wine-cask matured editions on a regular basis.\n", "McDowell's No.1 is largest selling umbrella spirits brand in the world. It sold over 13.5 million cases in 2003-04, 6.07 million cases in 2005, and 8.65 million cases in 2006. The McDowell's No.1 of a \n\nbrand had sales of 27.5 million cases in 2007-08, McDowell's No.1 sold 14.3 million cases of whisky, 13.8 million cases of rum and 11.7 million of brandy in 2010.\n", "The whisky comes in a variety of ages, including a 10, 12, 15, 16, 18 and a rare 30-year-old 1970 vintage malt, as well as a cask strength release, A'bunadh, with no age statement. Most of the variants are aged in American ex-bourbon casks, a standard for many single malts. Aberlour also releases a range of malts that, after aging in bourbon casks, are finished in casks previously used to mature varieties of fortified wines or sherries, a method applied to appeal particularly to the French market.\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n", "The journey of this vintage began on 29th October 1979, when the spirit was put into bespoke bourbon barrels. After a 29-year maturation, it was transferred to Matusalem oloroso sherry butts from Jerez de la Frontera for the final two years.\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 Matusalem\n\nAfter an initial period of 22 years in American white oak ex-bourbon casks, the 1981 Matusalem is aged for six years in Matusalem oloroso sherry butts from Gonzalez Byass.\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 Amoroso\n", "BULLET::::- Launched in March 2013: Springbank distillery 17 Year Old Burns Malt 1998 Vintage, Bunnahabhain 23 Year Old Burns Malt 1989 Vintage, Braes of Glenlivet 23 Year Old Burns Malt 1989 Vintage, Dailuaine 20 Year Old Burns Malt 1992 Vintage, Longmorn distillery 20 Year Old Burns Malt 1992 Vintage and from the demolished Speyside Caperdonich distillery 17 Year Old Burns Malt 1995 Vintage.\n\nBULLET::::- Tomatin (whisky distillery) 12 Year Old Burns Malt 2001 vintage bottled April 2013.\n\nBULLET::::- Glenrothes Distillery 25 Year Old Burns Malt 1988 vintage bottled July 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Midleton Dair Ghaelach, 57.9% ABV, 15-22 year old pot still whiskey matured in bourbon barrels, and finished for a year in virgin Irish oak barrels (a first for Irish whiskey)\n\nRecently, a Midleton single pot still variant was released as an ongoing bottling to celebrate the career of Barry Crockett, the former Master Distiller at Midleton. Crockett who retired after 47 years at the Midleton distilleries helped to formulate the whiskey himself:\n\nBULLET::::- Midleton Barry Crockett Legacy Single Pot Still, 46% ABV, matured mainly in Bourbon barrels, with a portion matured in virgin American Oak barrels.\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n", "Section::::Distilleries.\n\nDistilleries owned by William Grant & Sons:\n\nBULLET::::- Glenfiddich Distillery (b. 1887)\n\nBULLET::::- Balvenie Distillery (b. 1892)\n\nBULLET::::- Girvan Grain Distillery (b. 1964)\n\nBULLET::::- Kininvie Distillery (1990-2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Ailsa Bay Distillery (b. 2007)\n\nBULLET::::- Tullamore Distillery (Ireland) (b. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- Sacred Old Tom Gin, 48%. Made with extra Juniper, Liquorice Root & vacuum distilled sweet Spanish Orange peels.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Christmas Pudding Gin, 40%. Made with juniper and real Christmas puddings, cooked to Ian's Great Aunt Nellie's recipe.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Organic Sloe Gin, 28.8%. Sloe Berries rested in Sacred Gin for two and a half years, with extra distilled Juniper added before bottling.\n\nSection::::Products.:Whisky.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Peated English Whisky, 48%. Peated single malt spirit distilled in Norfolk, aged in ex-bourbon casks for 3 years, followed by a two year finish in Pedro Ximenez casks in London.\n", "In 2017 Ian MacLeod released Tamdhu 50. It is a 50 year old bottling from a first-fill European oak sherry butt (cask 4678). It was distilled on 2 November 1963 and bottled March 2017. It had an out-turn of 100 bottles.\n\nSection::::Current Bottlings.\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu 10 Years Old 40% : Ian MacLeod\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu Batch Strength No. 001 58.8% : Ian MacLeod\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu Batch Strength No. 002 58.5% : Ian MacLeod\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu Limited Edition 10 Years Old 46% : Ian MacLeod\n\nBULLET::::- Tamdhu Limited Edition 50 Years Old 55.6% : Ian MacLeod\n", "The \"new-make spirit\", or unaged whisky, is then placed in oak casks to mature. By law, all Scotch whisky must be aged for a minimum of three years in oak casks, though many single malts are matured for much longer. The whisky continues to develop and change as it spends time in the wood, and maturation periods of twenty years or more are not uncommon. During the time it spends in the wood, a significant percentage of each cask's content will evaporate. The lost product is known as the angel's share.\n\nSection::::Production.:Maturation.:Reused casks.\n", "These bottlings are only available through the travel retail market, such as airports and ferries.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Glenlivet 12 Year Old First Fill\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Glenlivet 15 Year Old\"\n\nOther products\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glenlivet 70yo 1940/2010 (45.9%, Gordon & MacPhail, Generations, sherry butt, C#339, 100 Bts.)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glenlivet Alpha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glenlivet Cipher\"\n\nSection::::Awards and reviews.\n", "BULLET::::- Bernheim Original wheat whiskey (Heaven Hill) says that a small batch would involve \"typically no more than 100\" barrels.\n\nBULLET::::- Elijah Craig bourbon (Heaven Hill) has a brand expression that it describes on its label as \"a true 'Small Batch' Bourbon before the term even existed\" that is produced with \"200 barrels or less\". The batch size for the brand was increased from 100 to 200 barrels in January 2016 when the brand expression's 12-year age statement was also dropped.\n\nSection::::Brands that bottle from small batches.\n", "They also produce a very small selection of George Dickel Hand Selected Barrel aged at 9 years, solely produced for barrel purchasing members.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]

[ "If aged alcohol brands sell inventory that needs to be stored for a minimum of 10 years before its sold, they should not be able to maintain inventory. " ]

[ "Alcohol brands can use multiple tactics to preserve or obtain new inventory, they can also sell alcohol that requires less aging to be sold." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If aged alcohol brands sell inventory that needs to be stored for a minimum of 10 years before its sold, they should not be able to maintain inventory. ", "If aged alcohol brands sell inventory that needs to be stored for a minimum of 10 years before its sold, they should not be able to maintain inventory. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Alcohol brands can use multiple tactics to preserve or obtain new inventory, they can also sell alcohol that requires less aging to be sold.", "Alcohol brands can use multiple tactics to preserve or obtain new inventory, they can also sell alcohol that requires less aging to be sold." ]

[ "BULLET::::- \"Head toss:\" This behavior, shown by every observed dog, is a prompt for attention, food or a sign of frustration, expressed in varying degrees depending on the level of arousal. In the complete expression, the head is swept to one side, nose rotated through a 90° arc to midline, then rapidly returned to the starting position. The entire sequence takes 1–2 seconds. The mildest expression is a slight flick of the head to the side and back. During this behavior, the characteristic contrasting black and white chin markings are displayed.\n", "Section::::Visual capacity of the horse.:Visual acuity and sensitivity to motion.\n\nThe horse has a \"visual streak\", or an area within the retina, linear in shape, with a high concentration of ganglion cells (up to 6100 cells/mm in the visual streak compared to the 150 and 200 cells/mm in the peripheral area). Horses have better acuity when the objects they are looking at fall in this region. They therefore will tilt or raise their heads, to help place the objects within the area of the visual streak.\n", "Due to the nature of a horse's vision, head position may indicate where the animal is focusing attention. To focus on a distant object, a horse will raise its head. To focus on an object close by, and especially on the ground, the horse will lower its nose and carry its head in a near-vertical position. Eyes rolled to the point that the white of the eye is visible often indicates fear or anger.\n", "A puppy face or a puppy dog face is a facial expression that humans make that is based on canine expressions. In dogs and other animals, the look is expressed when the head is tilted down and the eyes are looking up. Usually, the animal looks like it is about to cry. This gesture is sometimes performed by children in order to persuade their parents to do something special for them. Humans often open their eyes a little wide, pinch and/or raise the eyebrows, and stick the bottom lip out, while tilting their entire head a little downward and looking upwards at the person to whom they have aimed the gesture. Often, the head is also tilted a little sideways.\n", "Section::::Other animals.\n\nIn veterinary literature usually only the lateral bend of head and neck is termed torticollis, whereas the analogon to the rotatory torticollis in humans is called a head tilt.\n\nThe most frequently encountered form of torticollis in domestic pets is the head tilt, but occasionally a lateral bend of the head and neck to one side is encountered.\n\nSection::::Other animals.:Head tilt.\n\nCauses for a head tilt in domestic animals are either diseases of the central or peripheral vestibular system or relieving posture due to neck pain.\n\nKnown causes for head tilt in domestic animals include:\n", "Section::::Release and reception.\n", "The dog can turn his head slightly to one side, turn the head completely over to the side, or turn completely around so that the back and tail is facing whoever the dog is calming. This is one of the signals seen most of the time in dogs.\n", "The position and movement, or lack thereof, of a dog's head can indicate a variety of emotional states. If the head is stationary, the main identifying difference is whether the head is upright or lowered. An upright head signifies attentiveness, dominance, or aggression, while a lowered head signifies fear or submission. A moving head may indicate that a dog is feeling playful. Another common position is a tilted head. While the reason for this head positioning has not been determined, it has been suggested that this behaviour shows that a dog is trying to listen more effectively or is anticipating a reward.\n", "Thyroid Cartilage Control: This figure demonstrates control of the position or \"tilt\" of the thyroid cartilage through engagement or disengagement of the cricothyroid muscle. The speaker or singer can tilt the thyroid cartilage by adopting the posture of crying or sobbing, or making a soft whimpering noise, like a small dog whining. In Estill Voice training, it is proposed that the position of the thyroid cartilage influences not only pitch but also the quality and intensity of the sound produced.\n", "A dog communicates by altering the position of its head. When the head is held in an erect position this could indicate that is approachable, attentive, curious, or aggressive. Turning the head away may indicate fear, but is also recognized as a calming signal. A dominant dog will display an upright posture and/or stiff legs. The head can be held in a high position convey being approachable, alert, aggressive, or displaying dominance.\n\nSection::::Eyes.\n", "Horses have relatively poor \"accommodation\" (change focus, done by changing the shape of the lens, to sharply see objects near and far), as they have weak ciliary muscles. However, this does not usually place them at a disadvantage, as accommodation is often used when focusing with high acuity on things up close, and horses rarely need to do so. It has been thought that, instead, the horse often tilts its head slightly to focus on things without the benefit of a high degree of accommodation, however more recent evidence shows that the head movements are linked to the horse's use of its binocular field rather than to focus requirements.\n", "Section::::In humans.\n\nLordosis behavior became secondary in hominidae and is non-functional in humans. There is no human analogue to the lordosis reflex, although lordosis-like positions can be observed in women being mounted from behind. \n", "Fang et al. (2005) provided fMRI evidence on the tilt aftereffect: after long-term adaptation to an oriented grating, the fMRI response in the human V1, V2, V3/VP, V3A and V4 to a test grating was proportional to the relative orientation between the adapted and test grating.\n\nSection::::Similarities between the TI and TAE.\n", "On the other hand, the veterinarian may also perform clinical diagnosis based on the posture, activity state, rest state and frequency of the puppy when he or she is sick. According to these clinical manifestations, it can be judged as primary head tremor or idiopathic head tremor. And based on these can draw a diagnostic method.\n", "Cats, like rats, are nocturnal animals, sensitive to tactual cues from their vibrissae. But the cat, as a predator, must rely more on its sight. Kittens were observed to have excellent depth-discrimination. At four weeks, the earliest age that a kitten can skillfully move about, they preferred the shallow side of the cliff. When placed on the glass over the deep side, they either freeze or circle backward until they reach the shallow side of the cliff.\n\nSection::::The study in different species.:Turtles.\n", "Tripod stance\n\nA tripod stance is a behaviour in which quadruped animals rear up on their hind legs and use their tail to support this position. Several animals use this behaviour to improve observation or surveillance, and during feeding, grooming, thermoregulation, or fighting.\n\nSection::::In mammals.\n\nThe common dwarf mongoose (\"Helogale parvula\") adopts a tripod stance when being vigilant for predators. In a similar mammal, the thirteen-lined ground squirrel\n", "BULLET::::- A non-conscious reaction is seen in the human proprioceptive reflex, or righting reflex—in the event that the body tilts in any direction, the person will cock their head back to level the eyes against the horizon. This is seen even in infants as soon as they gain control of their neck muscles. This control comes from the cerebellum, the part of the brain affecting balance.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n", "A similar condition to BPPV may occur in dogs and other mammals, but the term \"vertigo\" cannot be applied because it refers to subjective perception. Terminology is not standardized for this condition.\n\nA common vestibular pathology of dogs and cats is colloquially known as \"old dog vestibular disease\", or more formally idiopathic peripheral vestibular disease, which causes sudden episode of loss of balance, circling, head tilt, and other signs. This condition is very rare in young dogs but fairly common in geriatric animals, and may affect cats of any age.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nPetroglyphs often depict the Marquesan Dog in exaggerated forms. Millerstrom noted that these representations deviated from the typical characteristics of the Polynesian dog and wondered if they were meant to be realistic. She stated: \n\nThe Marquesan dogs' images show that the necks and the bodies are exaggerated in length. The tails are long and curved over the back while the ears and muzzle may be pointed, square or rounded. The legs are short and in one case from Hatiheu Valley the paws were pointed in the wrong direction...\n", "The ears of a dog can express a variety of emotions based on their position or the direction they are facing. Ear positions are similar to head positions with respect to the feelings they display. Ears that are upright and facing forward indicate dominance or aggression, while ears that are pulled back and facing downward indicate fear or submission. Unfortunately, not all dogs are able to communicate with their ears. Breeds with drooping ears, cropped ears, or ears that are permanently erect are mostly or completely unable to use their ears to display emotions.\n\nSection::::Tail.\n", "It is to correct perspective using a general projective transformation tool, correcting vertical tilt (converging verticals) by stretching out the top; this is the \"Distort Transform\" in Photoshop, and the \"perspective tool\" in GIMP. However, this introduces vertical distortion – objects appear squat (vertically compressed, horizontally extended) – unless the vertical dimension is also stretched. This effect is minor for small angles, and can be corrected by hand, manually stretching the vertical dimension until the proportions look right, but is automatically done by specialized perspective transform tools.\n", "Lordosis behavior\n\nLordosis behavior, also known as mammalian lordosis (Greek lordōsis, from \"lordos\" \"bent backward\") or presenting, is the naturally occurring body posture for sexual receptivity to copulation present in most mammals including rodents, elephants, and cats. The primary characteristics of the behavior are a lowering of the forelimbs but with the rear limbs extended and hips raised, ventral arching of the spine and a raising, or sideward displacement, of the tail. During lordosis, the spine curves dorsoventrally so that its apex points towards the abdomen.\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nAfter determining down from up visually or with their vestibular apparatus (in the inner ear), cats manage to twist themselves to face downward without ever changing their net angular momentum. They are able to accomplish this with these key steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. Bend in the middle so that the front half of their body rotates about a different axis from the rear half.\n", "While the long neck has traditionally been interpreted as a feeding adaptation, it was also suggested that the oversized neck of \"Diplodocus\" and its relatives may have been primarily a sexual display, with any other feeding benefits coming second. A 2011 study refuted this idea in detail.\n", "This communication can occur between dogs, or during a dog-human interaction. Such movements primarily involve the tail, the ears, and the head/body. Tail-wagging is a common tail movement used by dogs to communicate. Additionally, ear flattening or heightening are typical movements made using the ears. In terms of the head/body, it is of interest to study turning of the head, as well as the overall posture of the dog.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "With fever, the body's core temperature rises to a higher temperature through the action of the part of the brain that controls the body temperature; with hyperthermia, the body temperature is raised without the influence of the heat control centers.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hypothermia.\n\nIn hypothermia, body temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In humans, this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body's core temperature drops by below normal temperature.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Basal body temperature.\n", "Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more. A raised temperature is not always a fever. For example, the temperature of a healthy person rises when he or she exercises, but this is not considered a fever, as the set point is normal. On the other hand, a \"normal\" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person. For example, medically frail elderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a \"normal\" temperature of may represent a clinically significant fever.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Types.\n", "Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between . The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold. This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure. This is more common in young children. Fevers do not typically go higher than .\n", "Chills is a feeling of coldness occurring during a high fever, but sometimes is also a common symptom which occurs alone in specific people. It occurs during fever due to the release of cytokines and prostaglandins as part of the inflammatory response, which increases the set point for body temperature in the hypothalamus. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold or chills until the new set point is reached. Shivering also occurs along with chills because the patient's body produces heat during muscle contraction in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point. When it does not accompany a high fever, it is normally a light chill. Sometimes a chill of medium power and short duration may occur during a scare, especially in scares of fear, commonly interpreted like or confused by trembling.\n", "A fever occurs when the core temperature is set higher, through the action of the pre-optic region of the anterior hypothalamus. For example, in response to a bacterial or viral infection, certain white blood cells within the blood will release pyrogens which have a direct effect on the anterior hypothalamus, causing body temperature to rise, much like raising the temperature setting on a thermostat.\n\nIn contrast, hyperthermia occurs when the body temperature rises without a change in the heat control centers.\n", "BULLET::::- HEAT repeat domain, a solenoid protein domain found in a number of cytoplasmic proteins\n\nBULLET::::- Heat vs. cold, the sensation of temperatures above and below body temperature in Thermoception\n\nSection::::Science.:Healthcare.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a body temperature above the normal range in response to internal physiological conditions, such as an infection\n\nBULLET::::- Heat illness or heat-related illness, a spectrum of mild to severe acute medical problems caused by environmental exposure to heat:\n", "Infections are the most common cause of fevers, but as the temperature rises other causes become more common. Infections commonly associated with hyperpyrexia include roseola, measles and enteroviral infections. Immediate aggressive cooling to less than has been found to improve survival. Hyperpyrexia differs from hyperthermia in that in hyperpyrexia the body's temperature regulation mechanism sets the body temperature above the normal temperature, then generates heat to achieve this temperature, while in hyperthermia the body temperature rises above its set point due to an outside source.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Hyperthermia.\n", "A wide range for normal temperatures has been found. Central temperatures, such as rectal temperatures, are more accurate than peripheral temperatures.\n\nFever is generally agreed to be present if the elevated temperature is caused by a raised set point and:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal) is at or over\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the mouth (oral) is at or over\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature under the arm (axillary) or in the ear (tympanic) is at or over\n", "Temperature depression (hypothermia) also needs to be evaluated. It is also noteworthy to review the trend of the patient's temperature. A fever of 38 °C is not necessarily indicate an ominous sign if the patient's previous temperature has been higher.\n\nSection::::Primary vital signs.:Pulse.\n", "A temperature \"setpoint\" is the level at which the body attempts to maintain its temperature. When the setpoint is raised, the result is a fever. Most fevers are caused by infectious disease and can be lowered, if desired, with antipyretic medications.\n\nAn early morning temperature higher than or a late afternoon temperature higher than is normally considered a fever, assuming that the temperature is elevated due to a change in the hypothalamus's setpoint. Lower thresholds are sometimes appropriate for elderly people. The normal daily temperature variation is typically , but can be greater among people recovering from a fever.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nHyperthermia is generally diagnosed by the combination of unexpectedly high body temperature and a history that supports hyperthermia instead of a fever. Most commonly this means that the elevated temperature has occurred in a hot, humid environment (heat stroke) or in someone taking a drug for which hyperthermia is a known side effect (drug-induced hyperthermia). The presence of signs and symptoms related to hyperthermia syndromes, such as extrapyramidal symptoms characteristic of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and the absence of signs and symptoms more commonly related to infection-related fevers, are also considered in making the diagnosis.\n", "Despite all this, diagnosis may only be suggested by the therapy chosen. When a patient recovers after discontinuing medication it likely was drug fever, when antibiotics or antimycotics work it probably was infection. Empirical therapeutic trials should be used in those patients in which other techniques have failed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n\nIn 1961 Petersdorf and Beeson suggested the following criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F) on several occasions\n\nBULLET::::- Persisting without diagnosis for at least 3 weeks\n\nBULLET::::- At least 1 week's investigation in hospital\n\nA new definition which includes the outpatient setting (which reflects current medical practice) is broader, stipulating:\n", "In many respects, the hypothalamus works like a thermostat. When the set point is raised, the body increases its temperature through both active generation of heat and retention of heat. Peripheral vasoconstriction both reduces heat loss through the skin and causes the person to feel cold. Norepinephrine increases thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and muscle contraction through shivering raises the metabolic rate. If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new set point in the hypothalamus, then shivering begins in order to use muscle movements to produce more heat. When the hypothalamic set point moves back to baseline either spontaneously or with medication, the reverse of these processes (vasodilation, end of shivering and nonshivering heat production) and sweating are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.\n", "An organism at optimum temperature is considered \"afebrile\" or \"apyrexic\", meaning \"without fever\". If temperature is raised, but the setpoint is not raised, then the result is hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hyperthermia.\n", "\"Febricula\" is an old term for a low-grade fever, especially if the cause is unknown, no other symptoms are present, and the patient recovers fully in less than a week.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Hyperpyrexia.\n", "The normal human body temperature is often stated as . Hyperthermia and fever, are defined as a temperature of greater than .\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSigns and symptoms vary depending on the degree of hypothermia, and may be divided by the three stages of severity. Infants with hypothermia may feel cold when touched, with bright red skin and an unusual lack of energy.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Mild.\n", "Symptoms of an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" are actually quite vague and similar to the signs that can indicate other illnesses or diseases, so it is relatively difficult to identify when only looking at symptoms. However, in several cases, these infections result after an individual's immune system has been weakened, so it is likely to occur in recovering or ill patients. Most patients, after receiving treatment for another disease or during recovery from surgery, experience chills and increase in body temperature. While these symptoms could mean a variety of things, it is clear that the patient's recovery is halted and that there is an infection of some sort. In an example where a woman developed an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" from a case of sinusitis, she experienced the same chills and elevated temperature, but also nasal discharge containing pus, right facial pain, and a fever.\n", "Remittent fever\n\nRemittent Fever is a type or pattern of fever in which temperature does not touch the baseline and remains above normal throughout the day. Daily variation in temperature is more than 1°C in 24 hours, which is also the main difference as compared to continuous fever. Fever due to most infectious diseases is remittent. Diagnosis is based upon clinical history, blood tests, blood culture and chest X-ray.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nExamples of remittent fever are as following.\n\nBULLET::::- Infective endocarditis\n\nBULLET::::- Typhoid\n\nBULLET::::- Brucellosis\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Hyperthermia is an example of a high temperature that is not a fever. It occurs from a number of causes including heatstroke, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, malignant hyperthermia, stimulants such as substituted amphetamines and cocaine, idiosyncratic drug reactions, and serotonin syndrome.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n\nFever is a common symptom of many medical conditions:\n\nBULLET::::- Infectious disease, e.g., influenza, primary HIV infection, malaria, Ebola, infectious mononucleosis, gastroenteritis, Lyme disease, Dengue\n\nBULLET::::- Various skin inflammations, e.g., boils, abscess\n\nBULLET::::- Immunological diseases, e.g., lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, inflammatory bowel diseases, Kawasaki disease, Still disease, Horton disease, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, autoimmune hepatitis, relapsing polychondritis\n", "Changes to the normal human body temperature may result in discomfort. The most common such change is a fever, a temporary elevation of the body's thermoregulatory set-point, typically by about 1–2 °C (1.8–3.6 °F). Hyperthermia is an acute condition caused by the body absorbing more heat than it can dissipate, whereas hypothermia is a condition in which the body's core temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism, and which is caused by the body's inability to replenish the heat that is being lost to the environment.\n", "Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever. For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5 °C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such as \"Beauveria bassiana\" and \"Metarhizium acridum\". Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasite \"Ascosphaera apis\".\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhoades, R. and Pflanzer, R. Human physiology, third edition, chapter 27 \"Regulation of body temperature\", p. 820 \"Clinical focus: pathogenesis of fever\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever and Taking Your Child's Temperature\n", "This contrasts with hyperthermia, in which the normal setting remains, and the body overheats through undesirable retention of excess heat or over-production of heat. Hyperthermia is usually the result of an excessively hot environment (heat stroke) or an adverse reaction to drugs. Fever can be differentiated from hyperthermia by the circumstances surrounding it and its response to anti-pyretic medications.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Pyrogens.\n", "The earliest signs may include: masseter muscle contracture following administration of succinylcholine, a rise in end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration (despite increased minute ventilation), unexplained tachycardia, and muscle rigidity. Despite the name, elevation of body temperature is often a late sign, but may appear early in severe cases. Respiratory acidosis is universally present and many patients have developed metabolic acidosis at the time of diagnosis. A fast rate of breathing (in a spontaneously breathing patient), cyanosis, hypertension, abnormal heart rhythms, and high blood potassium may also be seen. Core body temperatures should be measured in any patient undergoing general anesthesia longer than 30 minutes.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Hypothalamus.\n\nThe brain ultimately orchestrates heat effector mechanisms via the autonomic nervous system or primary motor center for shivering. These may be:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased heat production by increased muscle tone, shivering and hormones like epinephrine (adrenaline)\n\nBULLET::::- Prevention of heat loss, such as vasoconstriction.\n\nIn infants, the autonomic nervous system may also activate brown adipose tissue to produce heat (non-exercise-associated thermogenesis, also known as non-shivering thermogenesis). Increased heart rate and vasoconstriction contribute to increased blood pressure in fever.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Usefulness.\n", "The pattern of temperature changes may occasionally hint at the diagnosis:\n\nBULLET::::- Continuous fever: Temperature remains above normal throughout the day and does not fluctuate more than in 24 hours, \"e.g.\" lobar pneumonia, typhoid, meningitis, urinary tract infection, or typhus. Typhoid fever may show a specific fever pattern (\"Wunderlich curve\" of typhoid fever), with a slow stepwise increase and a high plateau. (Drops due to fever-reducing drugs are excluded.)\n\nBULLET::::- Intermittent fever: The temperature elevation is present only for a certain period, later cycling back to normal, \"e.g.\" malaria, kala-azar, pyaemia, or sepsis. Following are its types:\n" ]

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[ "Another factor, affecting only non-crystalline amorphous sugar candies, is the glass transition process. This can cause amorphous candies to lose their intended texture.\n\nSection::::Art and literature.\n", "Candies spoil more quickly if they have different amounts of water in different parts of the candy (for example, a candy that combines marshmallow and nougat), or if they are stored in high-moisture environments. This process is due to the effects of water activity, which results in the transfer of unwanted water from a high-moisture environment into a low-moisture candy, rendering it rubbery, or the loss of desirable water from a high-moisture candy into a dry environment, rendering the candy dry and brittle.\n", "Candies spoil more quickly if they have different amounts of water in different parts of the candy (for example, a candy that combines marshmallow and nougat), or if they are stored in high-moisture environments. This process is due to the effects of water activity, which results in the transfer of unwanted water from a high-moisture environment into a low-moisture candy, rendering it rubbery, or the loss of desirable water from a high-moisture candy into a dry environment, rendering the candy dry and brittle.\n", "Traditionally, a mixture of sugar and water is heated to the hard crack stage corresponding to a temperature of approximately , although some recipes also call for ingredients such as corn syrup and salt in the first step. Nuts are mixed with the caramelized sugar. At this point spices, leavening agents, and often peanut butter or butter are added. The hot candy is poured out onto a flat surface for cooling, traditionally a granite or marble slab. The hot candy may be troweled to uniform thickness. When the brittle cools, it is broken into pieces.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Almond Roca\n", "Because of its high sugar concentration, bacteria are not usually able to grow in candy. As a result, the shelf life is longer for candy than for many other foods. Most candies can be safely stored in their original packaging at room temperature in a dry, dark cupboard for months or years. As a rule, the softer the candy or the damper the storage area, the sooner it goes stale.\n", "One of the most important attributes of fudge is its texture. The end-point temperature separates hard caramel from fudge. The higher the peak temperature, the more sugar is dissolved and the more water is evaporated, resulting in a higher sugar-to-water ratio. Before the availability of cheap and accurate thermometers, cooks would use the ice water test, also known as the cold water test, to determine the saturation of the confection. Fudge is made at the \"soft ball\" stage, which varies by altitude and ambient humidity from to . Butter is added, and then the fudge is cooled and beaten until it is thick and small sugar crystals have formed. The warm fudge is sometimes poured onto a marble slab to be cooled and shaped.\n", "In commercial operations, the gelatin is simply cooked with the sugar syrup, rather than being added later after the syrup has cooled. In this case, kinetics play an important role, with both time and temperature factoring in. If the gelatin was added at the beginning of a batch that was then cooked to 112–116 °C in 20–30 minutes, a significant amount of gelatin would break down. The marshmallow would have reduced springiness from that loss of gelatin. But since the time the syrup spends at elevated temperature in modern cookers is so short, there is little to no degradation of the gelatin.\n", "In 1967 a woman accidentally created the recipe; she tried to cook chocolate but added too much sugar, which liquefied the mixture into a syrup. To remedy this, the woman tried to make the savour less strong by adding some biscuits, so she broke them into pieces, mixed them with the syrup and when it cooled, the first Tinginys was created. Later modifications occurred, such as letting the mixture cool down and rolling it on a plastic bag, and then cutting it into pieces. People decided to call it \"lazy\" because it was very easy and quick to prepare.\n", "Poured fondant is formed by supersaturating water with sucrose. More than twice as much sugar dissolves in water at the boiling point as at room temperature. After the sucrose dissolves, if the solution is left to cool undisturbed, the sugar remains dissolved in a supersaturated solution until nucleation occurs. While the solution is supersaturated, if a cook puts a seed crystal (undissolved sucrose) into the mix, or agitates the solution, the dissolved sucrose crystallizes to form large, crunchy crystals (which is how rock candy is made). However, if the cook lets the solution cool undisturbed and then stirs it vigorously, it forms many tiny crystals, resulting in a smooth-textured fondant.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Baked goods and confectioneries.\n\nCakes are considered to be intermediate moisture foods because of their moisture content (18-28%), and have low enough water activity that preserve the safety and quality. Some examples of baked goods and confectionery that come under this category are fruit cakes, pie fillings, candies, marshmallows, jams, pizza crust. Tutti Fruiti is a candy-like product that can be made from a variety of fruit, most commonly papaya. Raw pieces of unripe papaya are boiled and layered with sucrose until reaching 68 degrees brix. The solution is then air dried until a moisture content of 25.7% is reached.\n", "The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, and lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to about until final processing.\n", "The final texture of sugar candy depends primarily on the sugar concentration. As the syrup is heated, it boils, water evaporates, the sugar concentration increases and the boiling point rises. A given temperature corresponds to a particular sugar concentration. These are called sugar stages. In general, higher temperatures and greater sugar concentrations result in hard, brittle candies, and lower temperatures result in softer candies. Once the syrup reaches or higher, the sucrose molecules break down into many simpler sugars, creating an amber-colored substance known as caramel. This should not be confused with caramel candy, although it is the candy's main flavoring.\n", "Brittle (food)\n\nBrittle is a type of confection consisting of flat broken pieces of hard sugar candy embedded with nuts such as pecans, almonds, or peanuts. It has many variations around the world, such as pasteli in Greece, \"croquant\" in France, gozinaki in Georgia, \"gachak\" in Indian Punjab, chikki in other parts of India, \"kotkoti\" in Bangladesh , Huasheng tang(花生糖) in China , Thua Tat (\n", "Section::::Hard Water becomes Soft Water.\n", "Shelf life is largely determined by the amount of water present in the candy and the storage conditions. High-sugar candies, such as hard candies, can have a shelf life of many years if kept covered in a dry environment. Spoilage for low-moisture candies tends to involve a loss of shape, color, texture and flavor, rather than the growth of dangerous microbes. Impermeable packaging can reduce spoilage due to storage conditions.\n", "According to Larousse Gastronomique, langoustine are delicate and need to be poached only for a few seconds in court-bouillon. When very fresh they have a slightly sweet flavour that is lost when they are frozen. They can be eaten plain, accompanied by melted butter.\n", "The baked biscuits are hard, and are packed away to ripen for two or four weeks. During this time, they become tender.\n", "Rice Krispies\n\nRice Krispies (also known as Rice Bubbles in Australia and New Zealand) is a breakfast cereal marketed by Kellogg's in 1927 and released to the public in 1928. Rice Krispies are made of crisped rice (rice and sugar paste that is formed into rice shapes or \"berries\", cooked, dried and toasted), and expand forming very thin and hollowed out walls that are crunchy and crisp. When milk is added to the cereal the walls tend to collapse, creating the \"Snap, crackle and pop\" sounds.\n", "Chewing gum is rather shelf stable because of its non-reactive nature and low moisture content. The water activity of chewing gum ranges from 0.40 to 0.65. The moisture content of chewing gum ranges from three to six percent. In fact, chewing gum retains its quality for so long that, in most countries, it is not required by law to be labeled with an expiration date. If chewing gum remains in a stable environment, over time the gum may become brittle or lose some of its flavor, but it will never be unsafe to eat. If chewing gum is exposed to moisture, over time water migration may occur, making the gum soggy. In lollipops with a gum center, water migration can lead to the end of the product's shelf life, causing the exterior hard candy shell to soften and the interior gum center to harden.\n", "When beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted: soft, firm, and stiff peaks.\n\nEgg whites and sugar are both hygroscopic (water-attracting) chemicals. Consequently, meringue becomes soggy when refrigerated or stored in a high-humidity environment. This quality also explains the problem called \"weeping\" or \"sweating\", in which beads of moisture form on all surfaces of the meringue. Sweating is a particular problem for French meringues in which the granulated sugar is inadequately dissolved in the egg whites, and for high-moisture pie fillings.\n\nSection::::Compound interactions.\n", "Shelf life is largely determined by the amount of water present in the candy and the storage conditions. High-sugar candies, such as boiled candies, can have a shelf life of many years if kept covered in a dry environment. Spoilage of low-moisture candies tends to involve a loss of shape, color, texture, and flavor, rather than the growth of dangerous microbes. Impermeable packaging can reduce spoilage due to storage conditions.\n", "In the 1980s, a machine that made triangular onigiri was devised. Rather than rolling the filling inside, the flavoring was put into a hole in the onigiri and the hole was hidden by nori. Since the onigiri made by this machine came with nori already applied to the rice ball, over time the nori became moist and sticky, clinging to the rice. \n", "Shelf life considerations with most candies are focused on appearance, taste, and texture, rather than about the potential for food poisoning; that is, old candy may not look appealing or taste very good, even though it is very unlikely to make the eater sick. Candy can be made unsafe by storing it badly, such as in a wet, moldy area. Typical recommendations are these:\n\nBULLET::::- Hard candy may last indefinitely in good storage conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Dark chocolate lasts up to two years.\n\nBULLET::::- Milk chocolates and caramels usually become stale after about one year.\n", "Crowdie is now usually made from pasteurised milk in which most of the bacteria have been killed, so lactic acid is added to the milk to begin the souring process.\n", "BULLET::::- Moisture expansion of the body. Porous bodies swell slightly due to absorption of moisture. Where glazes are in only slight compression this can be sufficient to bring them into tension. The problem results in delayed or secondary crazing, which occurs over a period of time after the ware has been produced.\n\nBULLET::::- Glazing too thickly. This is a common cause of crazing. Glazes, which should be craze resistant, can craze if applied too thickly. This is because the further the glaze surface is away from the body the lower the compression acting on it.\n" ]

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[ "Nucleocosmochronology has been employed to determine the age of the Sun ( billion years) and of the Galactic thin disk ( billion years), among others. It has also been used to estimate the age of the Milky Way itself, as exemplified by a recent study of Cayrel's Star in the Galactic halo, which due to its low metallicity, is believed to have formed early in the history of the Galaxy. Limiting factors in its precision are the quality of observations of faint stars and the uncertainty of the primordial abundances of r-process elements.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Astrochemistry\n\nBULLET::::- Geochronology\n", "When a cluster of stars is formed at about the same time, the main sequence lifespan of these stars will depend on their individual masses. The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first, followed in sequence by stars of ever lower masses. The position where stars in the cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the turnoff point. By knowing the main sequence lifespan of stars at this point, it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nSection::::Further reading.:General.\n\nBULLET::::- Kippenhahn, Rudolf, \"100 Billion Suns\", Basic Books, New York, 1983.\n", "At the beginning of the solar system, there were several relatively short-lived radionuclides like Al, Fe, Mn, and I present within the solar nebula. These radionuclides—possibly produced by the explosion of a supernova—are extinct today, but their decay products can be detected in very old material, such as that which constitutes meteorites. By measuring the decay products of extinct radionuclides with a mass spectrometer and using isochronplots, it is possible to determine relative ages of different events in the early history of the solar system. Dating methods based on extinct radionuclides can also be calibrated with the U-Pb method to give absolute ages. Thus both the approximate age and a high time resolution can be obtained. Generally a shorter half-life leads to a higher time resolution at the expense of timescale.\n", "In addition, knowing the age of one member of a star system can help determine the age of that system. In a star system, stars almost always form at the same time as each other, and given the age of one star, the age of all of the others can be known.\n", "Section::::Stellar age estimation of stars.\n", "Section::::Membership in a star cluster or system.\n", "Section::::Specific subfields.:Solar astronomy.\n\nAt a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the Sun, a typical main-sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2 V, and about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) old. The Sun is not considered a variable star, but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot cycle. This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number. Sunspots are regions of lower-than- average temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity.\n", "Along with other factors, the presence of a protoplanetary disk sets a maximum limit on the age of stars. Stars with protoplanetary disks are typically young, having moved onto the main sequence only a relatively short time ago. Over time, this disk would coalesce to form planets, with leftover material being deposited into various asteroid belts and other similar locations. However, the presence of pulsar planets complicates this method as a determinant of age.\n\nSection::::Gyrochronology.\n", "Exceptional stellar properties which allow for an estimation of age are not confined to advanced evolutionary stages. When a roughly solar-mass star exhibitis T Tauri variability, astronomers can locate the age of the star as being before the beginning of the main sequence phase of the star's life. Additionally, more massive pre-main-sequence stars could be Herbig Ae/Be stars. If a red dwarf star is emitting immense stellar flares and x-rays, the star can be calculated to be in an early stage of its main-sequence lifetime, after which it will become less variable and become stable.\n", "While uniform density is not correct, one can get a rough order of magnitude estimate of the expected age of our star by inserting known values for the mass and radius of the Sun, and then dividing by the known luminosity of the Sun (note that this will involve another approximation, as the power output of the Sun has not always been constant):\n", "Gyro-chronology is a method used to determine the age of field stars by measuring their rotation rate, and then comparing this rate with the rotation rate of the Sun, which serves as a precalibrated clock for this measurement. This method has been seen as a more accurate method for the determination of stellar ages than other methods for field stars.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Gyrochronology\n\nBULLET::::- Stellar evolution\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Red Dwarf Stars from UniverseToday\n\nBULLET::::- What is a Binary Star? from UniverseToday\n\nBULLET::::- Review Article:Protoplanetary Disks and their Evolution from Astrobites\n", "However, this method does not work for galaxies. These units are much larger, and are not merely a one-off creation of stars which allows their age to be determined in this fashion. The creation of stars in a galaxy takes place over billions of years, even though star production may long since have ceased (see elliptical galaxy). The oldest stars in a galaxy can only set a minimum age for the galaxy (when star formation began) but by no means determine the actual age.\n\nSection::::Presence of a protoplanetary disk.\n", "The exact timings of the first stars, galaxies, supermassive black holes, and quasars, and the start and end timings and progression of the period known as reionization, are still being actively researched, with new findings published periodically. As of 2019, the earliest confirmed galaxies date from around 380–400 million years (for example GN-z11), suggesting surprisingly fast gas cloud condensation and stellar birth rates, and observations of the Lyman-alpha forest and other changes to the light from ancient objects allows the timing for reionization, and its eventual end, to be narrowed down. But these are all still areas of active research.\n", "Section::::Luminosity increase and the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.\n", "The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars.\n", "As stars grow older, their luminosity increases at an appreciable rate. Given the mass of the star, one can use this rate of increase in luminosity in order to determine the age of the star. This method only works for calculating stellar age on the main sequence, because in advanced evolutionary stages of the star, such as the red giant stage, the standard relationship for the determination of age no longer holds. However, when one can observe a red giant star with a known mass, one can calculate the main-sequence lifetime, and thus the minimum age of star is known given that it is in an advanced stage of its evolution. As the star spends only about 1% of its total lifetime as a red giant, this is an accurate method of determining age.\n", "Distances to astronomical objects may be determined through parallax measurements, use of standard references such as cepheid variables or Type Ia supernovas, or redshift measurement. Spectroscopic redshift measurement is preferred, while photometric redshift measurement is also used to identify candidate high redshift sources. The symbol \"z\" represents redshift.\n\nSection::::List of objects by year of discovery that turned out to be most distant.\n", "Apart from the Planck satellite, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) was instrumental in establishing an accurate age of the universe, though other measurements must be folded in to gain an accurate number. CMB measurements are very good at constraining the matter content Ω and curvature parameter Ω. It is not as sensitive to Ω directly, partly because the cosmological constant becomes important only at low redshift. The most accurate determinations of the Hubble parameter \"H\" come from Type Ia supernovae. Combining these measurements leads to the generally accepted value for the age of the universe quoted above.\n", "However, in the 1960s and onwards, new developments in the theory of stellar evolution enabled age estimates for large star clusters called globular clusters: these generally gave age estimates of around 15 billion years, with substantial scatter. Further revisions of the Hubble constant by Sandage and Gustav Tammann in the 1970s gave values around 50–60 (km/s)/Mpc, and an inverse of 16-20 billion years, consistent with globular cluster ages.\n\nSection::::1975–1990.\n", "Membership in a star cluster or star system permits an assignment of rough ages to a large number of stars present within. When one can determine the age of stars through other methods, such as the ones listed above, one can identify the age of all of the bodies in a system. This is especially useful in clusters of stars which exhibit a large amount of variety in their stellar masses, evolutionary stages, and classifications. While not \"entirely\" independent of the properties of the stars in the cluster, system, or other reasonably-sized association of stars, an astronomer would only need a representative sample of stars to determine the age of the cluster, rather than painstakingly finding the age of every star in the cluster through other properties.\n", "As well as the scenarios of supermassive stars violently casting off their outer layers before their deaths, other examples can be found of the properties of stars which illustrate their age. For example, Cepheid variables have a characteristic pattern in their lightcurves, the rate of repetition of which is dependent on the luminosity of the star. Since Cepheid variables are a relatively short evolutionary stage in the lifecycle of stars, and knowing the mass of the star allows for the star to be tracked in its evolutionary path, one can estimate the age of the Cepheid variable.\n", "Reported in March 2016, \"Spitzer\" and \"Hubble\" were used to discover the most distant-known galaxy, GN-z11. This object was seen as it appeared 13.4 billion years ago. (List of the most distant astronomical objects)\n\nSection::::Successors to GO instruments.\n", "BULLET::::- 200 million years: HD 140283, the \"Methuselah\" Star, formed, the unconfirmed oldest star observed in the Universe. Because it is a Population II star, some suggestions have been raised that second generation star formation may have begun very early on. The oldest-known star (confirmed) – SMSS J031300.36-670839.3, forms.\n", "However, observation and discovery of extragalactic supernovae are now far more common. The first such observation was of SN 1885A in the Andromeda Galaxy. Today, amateur and professional astronomers are finding several hundred every year, some when near maximum brightness, others on old astronomical photographs or plates. American astronomers Rudolph Minkowski and Fritz Zwicky developed the modern supernova classification scheme beginning in 1941. During the 1960s, astronomers found that the maximum intensities of supernovae could be used as standard candles, hence indicators of astronomical distances. Some of the most distant supernovae observed in 2003, appeared dimmer than expected. This supports the view that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. Techniques were developed for reconstructing supernovae events that have no written records of being observed. The date of the Cassiopeia A supernova event was determined from light echoes off nebulae, while the age of supernova remnant RX J0852.0-4622 was estimated from temperature measurements and the gamma ray emissions from the radioactive decay of titanium-44.\n", "Receiving light and other signals from distant astronomical sources can even take much longer. For example, it has taken 13 billion (13) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images. Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger, due to the finite speed of light, allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars, of galaxies, and of the universe itself.\n" ]

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[ "The aviation travel industry is affected by the severity of fog conditions. Even though modern auto-landing computers can put an aircraft down without the aid of a pilot, personnel manning an airport control tower must be able to see if aircraft are sitting on the runway awaiting takeoff. Safe operations are difficult in thick fog, and civilian airports may forbid takeoffs and landings until conditions improve.\n", "An experimental FIDO system was first tested at Moody Down, Hampshire, on 4 November 1942 and 200 yards of dense fog was successfully cleared to a height of 80 feet. The first full scale FIDO system was installed in January 1943 and an aircraft reportedly piloted by Air Vice Marshall D. C. T. Bennet successfully landed between the flames, although not in fog conditions.\n", "Two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo, and passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land, some are capable of take-off and landing on ice, snow, and calm water.\n", "Properly equipped aircraft are able to fly through snowstorms under Instrument flight rules. Prior to takeoff, during snowstorms they require deicing fluid to prevent accumulation and freezing of snow and other precipitation on wings and fuselages, which may compromise the safety of the aircraft and its occupants. In flight, aircraft rely on a variety of mechanisms to avoid rime and other types of icing in clouds, these include pulsing pneumatic boots, electro-thermal areas that generate heat, and fluid deicers that bleed onto the surface.\n\nSection::::Effects on human activity.:Transportation.:Rail.\n", "Section::::Modern methods.:International use.\n", "BULLET::::- Put the aircraft into a heated hangar until snow and ice have melted\n\nBULLET::::- Position aircraft towards the sun to maximize heating up of snow and ice covered surfaces. In practice this method is limited to thin contamination, by the time and weather conditions.\n", "Aircraft usually land at an airport on a firm runway or helicopter landing pad, generally constructed of asphalt concrete, concrete, gravel or grass. Aircraft equipped with pontoons (floatplane) or with a boat hull-shaped fuselage (a flying boat) are able to land on water. Aircraft also sometimes use skis to land on snow or ice.\n", "Most STOL aircraft can land either on- or off-airport. Typical off-airport landing areas include snow or ice (using skis), fields or gravel riverbanks (often using special fat, low-pressure tundra tires), and water (using floats): these areas are often extremely short and obstructed by tall trees or hills. Wheel skis and amphibious floats combine wheels with skis or floats, allowing the choice of landing on snow/water or a prepared runway.\n\nSection::::STOL kits.\n\nA number of aircraft modification companies offer STOL kits for improving short field performance.\n", "On 26 March 2016, Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) began to fly from Copenhagen to Vágar, the first airline other than Atlantic to do so in many years. SAS has had trouble with fog landings which caused cancellations. But in February 2019 SAS started using the Required Navigation Performance procedure, which allows landings in more fog, but requires special onboard equipment, pilot training and approval from the aviation administration. Atlantic Airways began using the system in 2012 as first airline in Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- Canadian Pacific Airlines Flight 402 — The plane was on landing phase at Tokyo International Airport in fog. However, the plane was descending below the glide slope (similar to Asiana Airlines Flight 214). The plane then hit approach lights and struck a seawall. Only 8 people survived the crash.\n", "Weather reports for LaGuardia showed that on the night of the accident, all taxiways were coated with a thin covering of snow. Runway 13 was also covered with a thin layer of wet snow, although it had been plowed, treated with urea and it had been sanded.\n", "Section::::History.:The GAC era.\n", "Section::::Proposed technology.\n\nA poor safety record for small aircraft operating from general aviation airports, restricted airspace capacity, and weather complications were seen as the greatest barriers to the expanded use of small aircraft and community airports for public transportation. The SATS Project (2001-2006), conducted by NASA and partners in the National Consortium for Aviation Mobility (NCAM) proved the viability of technical capabilities in the following four areas:\n\nBULLET::::- High-volume operations at airports without control towers or terminal radar facilities\n\nBULLET::::- Technologies enabling safe landings at more airports in almost all weather conditions\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Vestfoldfly.\n", "Section::::Scotland.\n\nIn Scotland with islands, there are some airports with very short runways, but still having scheduled flights. Examples include Colonsay Airport (1,644 ft /501 m), Foula Airfield (1,252 ft / 382 m) and Westray Airport (1,729 ft / 527 m). They are usually flown with the small special aircraft Britten-Norman Islander.\n\nSection::::Norway and Greenland.\n", "With a gravel kit modification the 737-200 can use unimproved or unpaved landing strips, such as gravel runways, that other similarly-sized jet aircraft cannot. Gravel-kitted 737-200 Combis are currently used by Canadian North, First Air, Air Inuit, Nolinor and Air North in northern Canada. For many years, Alaska Airlines made use of gravel-kitted 737-200s to serve Alaska's many unimproved runways across the state.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early years.\n", "Zurich Airport was in dense fog when the plane was due to take off at 06:00 UTC. At 06:04 the flight was allowed to taxi to runway 34 behind an escorting vehicle. At 06:05 the crew reported that they would taxi halfway down runway 34 to inspect the fog and then return to the take off point. This was done using high engine power in order to disperse the fog. Around 06:12 the aircraft returned to runway 34 and was allowed to take off, which it did 06:13, and started to climb to flight level 150, its cruising height.\n", "There was poor visibility around Rockland on the night of the crash. Fog was extremely common at Knox County Regional Airport because of its position on a peninsula in Penobscot Bay. The weather observer at the airport used markers to the north and west of the airport to determine visibility, but approaches were from the south to the airport's Runway 3. The approach path was over the Atlantic Ocean, and fog is often thicker over the sea than over land.\n\nSection::::Airport and weather.:Approach.\n", "300 people were employed.\n\nSection::::Accidents and incidents.\n", "V/STOL was developed to allow fast jets to be operated from clearings in forests, from very short runways, and from small aircraft carriers that would previously only have been able to carry helicopters.\n\nThe main advantage of V/STOL aircraft is closer basing to the enemy, which reduces response time and tanker support requirements. In the case of the Falklands War, it also permitted high performance fighter air cover and ground attack without a large aircraft carrier equipped with a catapult.\n\nThe latest V/STOL aircraft is the F-35B, which is expected to enter service in 2016.\n", "BULLET::::- 1 Bombardier Learjet 55C\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Bombardier Learjet 60\n\nBULLET::::- 4 BAe Jetstream 31\n\nBULLET::::- 1 BAe Jetstream 32\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Hawker Beechcraft 750\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Let L-410 Turbolet\n\nSection::::Accidents and incidents.\n\nBULLET::::- On 13 February 2013, a Jetstream belonging to Avies landed at Pajala with two wheels outside the paved runway. No damage to the aircraft.\n", "The idea of designing a UAV that could remain in the air for a long time has been around for decades, but only became an operational reality in the 21st century. Endurance UAVs for low-altitude and high-altitude operation, the latter sometimes referred to as \"high-altitude long-endurance (HALE)\" UAVs, are now in full service.\n\nOn August 21, 1998, an AAI Aerosonde named \"Laima\" becomes the first UAV to cross the Atlantic Ocean, completing the flight in 26 hours.\n\nSection::::War on Terror.:Beamed power UAV experiments.\n", "Aircraft deicing vehicles have also improved since the accident, usually consisting of a large tanker truck, containing the concentrated de-icing fluid, with a water feed to dilute the fluid according to the ambient temperature. The vehicle also normally has a cherry picker crane, allowing the operator to spray the entire aircraft in as little time as possible; an entire Boeing 737 can be treated in under 10 minutes by a single de-icing vehicle. Airport runways are also deiced by sprayers fitted with long spraying arms. These arms are wide enough to cross the entire runway, and allow de-icing of the entire airstrip to take place in a single pass, reducing the length of time that the runway is unavailable.\n", "BULLET::::- On October 19, 2013, a SkyJet aircraft, on a flight chartered by Alphaland Corporation to bring tourists to Balesin Island, overshot the runway of E. L. Tordesillas Airport in Balesin. No injuries were reported but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Modern day planes are able to land even in thick fog." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Some aircraft and some airports don’t have the systems required to land in a thick fog." ]

[ "Section::::Functions.:Excretion.\n\nWaste products excreted from the fetus such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine are transferred to the maternal blood by diffusion across the placenta.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Immunity.\n", "The fluid is absorbed through the fetal tissue and skin. After the 15th-25th week of pregnancy when the keratinization of an embryo's skin occurs, the fluid is primarily absorbed by the fetal gut.\n\nSection::::Development.:Contents.\n\nAt first, amniotic fluid is mainly water with electrolytes, but by about the 12-14th week the liquid also contains proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and phospholipids, and urea, all of which aid in the growth of the fetus.\n\nSection::::Development.:Volume.\n", "The circulatory system of the mother is not directly connected to that of the fetus, so the placenta functions as the respiratory center for the fetus as well as a site of filtration for plasma nutrients and wastes. Water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and inorganic salts freely diffuse across the placenta along with oxygen. The uterine arteries carry blood to the placenta, and the blood permeates the sponge-like material there. Oxygen then diffuses from the placenta to the chorionic villus, an alveolus-like structure, where it is then carried to the umbilical vein.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Before birth.\n", "Upon delivery, the exposed bladder is irrigated and a non-adherent film is placed to prevent as much contact with the external environment as possible. In the event the child was not born at a medical center with an appropriate exstrophy support team then transfer will likely follow. Upon transfer, or for those infants born at a medical center able to care for bladder exstrophy, imaging may take place in the first few hours of life prior to the child undergoing surgery.\n", "The amniotic fluid allows the free movements of the fetus during the later stages of pregnancy, and also protects it by diminishing the risk of injury from without. It contains less than two percent solids, consisting of urea and other extractives, inorganic salts, a small amount of protein, and frequently a trace of sugar. That some of the liquor amnii is swallowed by the fetus is proved by the fact that epidermal debris and hairs have been found among the contents of the fetal alimentary canal.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Constipation is another GI symptom that is commonly encountered during pregnancy. It is associated with the narrowing of the colon as it gets pushed by the growing uterus found adjacent it leading to mechanical blockade. Reduced motility in the entire GI system as well as increased absorption of water during pregnancy are thought to be contributing factors.\n", "The volume of amniotic fluid increases with the growth of fetus. From the 10th to the 20th week it increases from 25ml to 400ml approximately. Approximately in the 10th-11th week the breathing and swallowing of the fetus slightly decrease the amount of fluid, but neither urination nor swallowing contributes significantly to fluid quantity changes, until the 25th week, when keratinization of skin is complete. Then the relationship between fluid and fetal growth stops. It reaches a plateau of 800ml by the 28-week gestational age. The amount of fluid declines to roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks. There is about 500 cc to1L of amniotic fluid at birth.\n", "A common technique used in many undeveloped nations involves holding the child by the backs of the thighs, above the ground, facing outward, in order to urinate.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Fetal urination.\n\nThe fetus urinates hourly and produces most of the amniotic fluid in the second and third trimester of pregnancy. The amniotic fluid is then recycled by fetal swallowing.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Urination after injury.\n", "3. To check the color of the fluid. If there is a suspicion of the presence of meconium (the contents of the baby's bowel), certain preparations must be made. Suctioning must be set up and more personnel are required to be in attendance.\n", "Pregnancy alters the vaginal microbiota with a reduction in species/genus diversity.\n\nPhysiological hydronephrosis may appear from six weeks.\n\nSection::::Gastrointestinal.\n", "Peristalsis of the foetal intestines is present as early as 8 weeks gestation and the anal sphincter develops at about 20–22 weeks. The early control mechanisms of the anal sphincter are not well understood, however there is evidence that the foetus does defecate routinely into the amniotic cavity even in the absence of distress. The presence of fetal intestinal enzymes have been found in the amniotic fluid of women who are as early as 14–22 weeks pregnant. Thus, suggesting there is free passage of the intestinal contents into the amniotic fluid. \n", "Over the first 5–7 days following birth, the body weight of a term neonate decreases by 3–7%, and is largely a result of the resorption and urination of the fluid that initially fills the lungs, in addition to a delay of often a few days before breastfeeding becomes effective. After the first week, healthy term neonates should gain 10–20 grams/day.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics of newborn.:Head.\n", "The digestive system starts to develop from the third week and by the twelfth week, the organs have correctly positioned themselves.\n\nSection::::Development of organs and organ systems.:Respiratory system.\n", "\"Artificial supply and disposal\" have the potential advantage of allowing the fetus to develop in an environment that is not influenced by the presence of disease, environmental pollutants, alcohol, or drugs which a human may have in the circulatory system. There is no risk of an immune reaction towards the embryo or fetus that could otherwise arise from insufficient gestational immune tolerance. Some individual functions of an artificial supplier and disposer include:\n\nBULLET::::- Waste disposal may be performed through dialysis.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Collection.\n\nAmniotic fluid is removed from the mother by an amniocentesis procedure, where a long needle is inserted through the abdomen into the amniotic sac, using ultrasound guidance such that the fetus is not harmed. \n\nAmniocentesis is an abnormal procedure, and is only performed if there is a suspicion of health defects in the fetus, or if an early delivery of the fetus may be necessary, since there can be complications from the procedure. If warranted, fluid is collected between 16–42 weeks of fetal development, and 20-30ml of fluid are removed.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Analysis.\n", "Sometimes, a child is born with no rupture of the amniotic sac (no rupture of membranes). In such cases, the child may still be entirely within the sac once born; such a birth is known as an en-caul birth.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nWhen the amniotic sac ruptures, production of prostaglandins increases and the cushioning between the fetus and uterus is decreased, both of which are processes that increase the frequency and intensity of contractions.\n", "Monitoring is clinical, although serial supine and left lateral decubitus abdominal X-rays should be performed every six hours.\n\nAs an infant recovers from NEC, feeds are gradually introduced. \"Trophic feeds\" or low-volume feeds (<20 ml/kg/day) are usually initiated first. How and what to feed are determined by the extent of bowel involved, the need for surgical intervention and the infant's clinical appearance.\n", "4. To avoid having the baby aspirate the contents of the amniotic sac at the moment of birth. Most often, the amniotic sac will break of its own accord, most often by the beginning of the second stage of labor. If it remains intact, it is sure to break with maternal pushing efforts. But in a rare case, the baby can be born with an intact bag that must be quickly broken to allow the baby to breathe.\n", "Amniotic fluid is present from the formation of the gestational sac. Amniotic fluid is in the amniotic sac. It is generated from maternal plasma, and passes through the fetal membranes by osmotic and hydrostatic forces. When fetal kidneys begin to function in about week 16, fetal urine also contributes to the fluid. In earlier times, it was believed that the amniotic fluid was composed entirely of fetal urine.\n", "Section::::Management.:Before 24 weeks.\n\nBefore 24 weeks, a fetus is not viable meaning it cannot live outside the mother. In this case, either watchful waiting at home or an induction of labor done.\n", "The pelvic floor muscles play an important role in helping pass a bowel movement. Injury to those muscles by some of the above risk factors (examples- delivering a large child, lengthy second stage of labor, forceps delivery) can result in constipation. Enemas may be administered during labor and these can also alter bowel movements in the days after giving birth. However, there is insufficient evidence to make conclusions about the effectiveness and safety of laxatives in this group of people.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Obstructed defecation\n\nBULLET::::- Rectal tenesmus\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Constipation - Introduction (UK NHS site)\n", "During the third stage of labor, while the infant is being born, the vagina undergoes significant changes. A gush of blood from the vagina may be seen right before the baby is born. Lacerations to the vagina that can occur during birth vary in depth, severity and the amount of adjacent tissue involvement. The laceration can be so extensive as to involve the rectum and anus. This event can be especially distressing to a new mother. When this occurs, fecal incontinence develops and stool can leave through the vagina. Close to 85% of spontaneous vaginal births develop some form of tearing. Out of these, 60–70% require suturing. Lacerations from labor do not always occur.\n", "Leaking or rupture of membranes may be caused by a gush of fluid or a slow constant trickle of fluid. This is due to a tear in the membrane. Premature rupture of membranes can also result in low amniotic fluid levels.\n\nBULLET::::- Placental problems\n\nPlacental problems may cause low amniotic fluid. If the placenta is not providing enough blood and nutrients to the baby, then the baby may stop recycling fluid.\n\nBULLET::::- Birth defects\n", "Input and output (I & O) is the measure of food and fluids that enter and exit the body. Certain patients with the need are placed on I & O, and if so, their urinary output is measured.\n\nWith self-toileting patients on I & O, or those who are assisted to a regular toilet or portable commode, a receptacle is placed in the toilet bowl that catches all urine that is put out by the patient. This, in turn, is measured by the nursing staff and recorded prior to its disposal.\n", "In the fetus the ileum is connected to the navel by the vitelline duct. In roughly 2−4% of humans, this duct fails to close during the first seven weeks after birth, leaving a remnant called Meckel's diverticulum.\n\nSection::::Function.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Urine and feces are both contained while in the womb." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Urine is recycled by the fetus. Feces goes to the colon." ]

[ "There are several case reports of spontaneous regressions from cancer occurring after a fever brought on by infection, suggesting a possible causal connection. If this coincidence in time would be a causal connection, it should as well precipitate as prophylactic effect, i.e. feverish infections should lower the risk to develop cancer later. This could be confirmed by collecting epidemiological studies.\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n\nBULLET::::- Rohdenburg (1918) summarized 185 spontaneous regressions\n\nBULLET::::- Fauvet reported 202 cases between 1960–1964\n\nBULLET::::- Boyd reported 98 cases in 1966\n\nBULLET::::- Everson and Cole described 176 cases between 1900–1960\n\nBULLET::::- Challis summarized 489 cases between 1900–1987\n", "Conversely, immunity acquired by American students while living in Mexico disappeared, in one study, as quickly as eight weeks after cessation of exposure.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Sanitation.\n", "Consider an example regarding reinstatement: say you learned an aversion to mangos because you got sick after eating one on a trip. Extinction of the aversion would result if you have frequent instances of eating bits of mangos without getting sick on many occasions. Reinstatement suggests that if you became sick again for some reason, the aversion to mangos would return even if your illness had nothing to do with eating mangos. In this example, after extinction, presentation of the US (the experience of being sick) brings about the conditioned behaviour to be aversive to mangos.\n\nSection::::Context-dependent extinction phenomena.:Retrieval cues.\n", "The Roman Historian Flavius Josephus writing in the first century described classic symptoms of the syndrome among survivors of the siege of Jerusalem. He described the death of those who overindulged in food after famine, whereas those who ate at a more restrained pace survived.\n\nIn his 5th century BC work 'On Fleshes' (\"De Carnibus\"), Hippocrates writes, \"if a person goes\n\nseven days without eating or drinking anything, in this period most die; but there are some who survive that time\n", "BULLET::::2. during initial HAART immune recovery, with pro-inflammatory signaling by antigen-presenting cells without an effector response; and\n\nBULLET::::3. at IRIS, a cytokine storm with a predominant type-1 helper T-cell interferon-gamma response.\n\nThree clinical predictors of cryptococcal-related paradoxical IRIS risk include:\n\nBULLET::::1. lack of initial CSF pleocytosis (i.e. low CSF white blood cell count);\n\nBULLET::::2. elevated C-reactive protein;\n\nBULLET::::3. failure to sterilize the CSF before immune recovery.\n", "Other research groups have looked at other times in treatment - e.g. 3 months, 6 months, one year, or end of current treatment (two years) and these can predict outcome also.\n\nThere are also a few scientific studies, showing that level of MRD after bone marrow transplant, shows the risk of relapsing.\n\nSection::::Significance.:Monitoring people for early signs of recurring leukaemia.\n", "BULLET::::- Wearing a surgical mask\n\nBULLET::::- Avoiding contact with bodily fluids\n\nBULLET::::- Washing the personal items of someone with SARS in hot, soapy water (eating utensils, dishes, bedding, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- Keeping children with symptoms home from school\n\nBULLET::::- Simple hygiene measures\n\nBULLET::::- Isolating oneself as much as possible to minimise the chances of transmission of the virus\n", "Acute exacerbations can be partially prevented. Some infections can be prevented by vaccination against pathogens such as influenza and \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\". Regular medication use can prevent some COPD exacerbations; long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonists (LABAs), long-acting anticholinergics, inhaled corticosteroids and low-dose theophylline have all been shown to reduce the frequency of COPD exacerbations. Other methods of prevention include:\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking cessation and avoiding dust, passive smoking, and other inhaled irritants\n\nBULLET::::- Yearly influenza and 5-year pneumococcal vaccinations\n\nBULLET::::- Regular exercise, appropriate rest, and healthy nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Avoiding people currently infected with e.g. cold and influenza\n", "Another possible use is to identify if or when someone starts to relapse, early, before symptoms come back. This would mean regular blood or marrow samples. This is being explored mainly in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), where one can study the leukaemia in blood, which is easier to sample regularly than bone marrow. The molecular tests can show tumour levels starting to rise, very early, possibly months before symptoms recur. Starting treatment early might be useful: the patient will be healthier; fewer leukaemic cells to deal with; the cells may be amenable to treatment, since at clinical relapse they have often become more resistant to drugs used.\n", "Far East scarlet-like fever usually becomes apparent five to 10 days after exposure and typically lasts one to three weeks without treatment. In complex cases or those involving immunocompromised patients, antibiotics may be necessary for resolution; ampicillin, aminoglycosides, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, or a cephalosporin may all be effective.\n\nThe recently described syndrome \"Izumi-fever\" has been linked to infection with \"Y. pseudotuberculosis\".\n", "Despite all this, diagnosis may only be suggested by the therapy chosen. When a patient recovers after discontinuing medication it likely was drug fever, when antibiotics or antimycotics work it probably was infection. Empirical therapeutic trials should be used in those patients in which other techniques have failed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n\nIn 1961 Petersdorf and Beeson suggested the following criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F) on several occasions\n\nBULLET::::- Persisting without diagnosis for at least 3 weeks\n\nBULLET::::- At least 1 week's investigation in hospital\n\nA new definition which includes the outpatient setting (which reflects current medical practice) is broader, stipulating:\n", "A subsequent paper examined the proportion of patients who could be classified as recovered after the trial. A patient was considered recovered if they obtained a specified threshold score on the fatigue and physical function self-report scales, if they rated their health as \"much better\" or \"very much better\", and if they also failed to meet the authors' case definition of CFS. According to the primary measures of recovery reported in the paper, 22% recovered after CBT, 22% after GET, but only 8% after APT and 7% after SMC.\n", "Clinical signs and history of previous outbreaks may be suggestive of IHN. Staphylococcal agglutination, virus neutralisation (VN), indirect fluorescent antibody testing, ELISA, PCR, and DNA probe technology techniques can be used to confirm diagnosis. The gold standard is virus neutralisation. Alternatively, the identification of degeneration and necrosis of granular cells in the lamina propria, stratum compactum, and stratum granulosum of the gastrointestinal tract on histopathology can be used to diagnose infection.\n\nSection::::Treatment and control.\n\nNo treatment had yet proven to be effective. To prevent the disease, strict isolation, hygiene, and testing procedures should be in place.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The duration of infectivity is also unknown so it is unclear how long people must be isolated, but current recommendations are for 24 hours after resolution of symptoms. In the SARS outbreak the virus was not cultured from people after the resolution of their symptoms.\n\nIt is believed that the existing SARS research may provide a useful template for developing vaccines and therapeutics against a MERS-CoV infection. Vaccine candidates are currently awaiting clinical trials.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nNeither the combination of antivirals and interferons (ribavirin + interferon alfa-2a or interferon alfa-2b) nor corticosteroids improved outcomes.\n", "In healthy patients, 95–99% recover with no long-lasting effects, and antiviral treatment is not warranted. Age and comorbid conditions can result in a more prolonged and severe illness. Certain patients warrant hospitalization, especially those who present with clinical signs of ascites, peripheral edema, and hepatic encephalopathy, and laboratory signs of hypoglycemia, prolonged prothrombin time, low serum albumin, and very high serum bilirubin.\n", "According to two researchers, Nesse and Williams, diarrhea may function as an evolved expulsion defense mechanism. As a result, if it is stopped, there might be a delay in recovery. They cite in support of this argument research published in 1973 that found that treating \"Shigella\" with the anti-diarrhea drug (Co-phenotrope, Lomotil) caused people to stay feverish twice as long as those not so treated. The researchers indeed themselves observed that: \"Lomotil may be contraindicated in shigellosis. Diarrhea may represent a defense mechanism\".\n\nSection::::Diagnostic approach.\n\nThe following types of diarrhea may indicate further investigation is needed:\n\nBULLET::::- In infants\n", "It is important to realize that syphilis can recur. An individual who has had the disease once, even if it has been treated, does not prevent the person from experiencing recurrence of syphilis. Individuals can be re-infected, and because syphilis sores can be hidden, it may not be obvious that the individual is infected with syphilis. In these cases, it is vital to become tested and treated immediately to reduce spread of the infection.\n", "A detailed clinical history and physical remain the most reliable tool to recognize a potential periprosthetic infection. In some cases the classic signs of fever, chills, painful joint, and a draining sinus may be present, and diagnostic studies are simply done to confirm the diagnosis. In reality though, most patients do not present with those clinical signs, and in fact the clinical presentation may overlap with other complications such as aseptic loosening and pain. In those cases diagnostic tests can be useful in confirming or excluding infection.\n", "A 2014 review in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" had recommended that all people admitted to intensive care units during influenza outbreaks with a diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia receive oseltamivir until the absence of influenza infection is established by PCR testing.\n", "A systematic review described improvement and occupational outcomes of people with CFS found that \"the median full recovery rate was 5% (range 0–31%) and the median proportion of patients who improved during follow-up was 39.5% (range 8–63%). Return to work at follow-up ranged from 8 to 30% in the three studies that considered this outcome.\" ... \"In five studies, a worsening of symptoms during the period of follow-up was reported in between 5 and 20% of patients.\" A good outcome was associated with less fatigue severity at baseline. Other factors were occasionally, but not consistently, related to outcome, including age at onset (5 of 16 studies), and attributing illness to a psychological cause and/or having a sense of control over symptoms (4 of 16 studies). Another review found that children have a better prognosis than adults, with 54–94% having recovered by follow-up compared to less than 10% of adults returning to pre-illness levels of functioning.\n", "Origin of antiviral resistance\n\nThe genetic makeup of viruses is constantly changing, which can cause a virus to become resistant to currently available treatments. Viruses can become resistant through spontaneous or intermittent mechanisms throughout the course of an antiviral treatment. Immunocompromised patients, more often than immunocompetent patients, hospitalized with pneumonia are at the highest risk of developing oseltamivir resistance during treatment. Subsequent to exposure to someone else with the flu, those who received oseltamivir for \"post-exposure prophylaxis\" are also at higher risk of resistance.\n", "The specific combination of fever and cough has been found to be the best predictor; diagnostic accuracy increases with a body temperature above 38°C (100.4°F). Two decision analysis studies suggest that \"during local outbreaks\" of influenza, the prevalence will be over 70%. Even in the absence of a local outbreak, diagnosis may be justified in the elderly during the influenza season as long as the prevalence is over 15%.\n", "Treatment options are limited, and usually include lifelong immunoglobulin replacement therapy. This therapy is thought to help reduce bacterial infections. This treatment alone is not wholly effective, and many people still experience other symptoms like lung disease and noninfectious inflammatory symptoms.\n", "While most infections clear up spontaneously, treatment with tetracycline or doxycycline appears to reduce the symptomatic duration and reduce the likelihood of chronic infection. A combination of erythromycin and rifampin is highly effective in curing the disease, and vaccination with Q-VAX vaccine (CSL) is effective for prevention of it.\n", "Overall, studies have demonstrated that maintaining a sense of hope during a period of recovery from illness is beneficial. A sense of hopelessness during the recovery period has, in many instances, resulted in adverse health conditions for the patient (i.e. depression and anxiety following the recovery process). Additionally, having a greater amount of hope before and during cognitive therapy has led to decreased PTSD-related depression symptoms in war veterans. Hope has also been found to be associated with more positive perceptions of subjective health. However, reviews of research literature have noted that the connections between hope and symptom severity in other mental health disorders are less clear, such as in cases of individuals with schizophrenia.\n" ]

[ "Getting sick after being sick already is hard." ]

[ "You can get sick again you just wont have as many symptoms." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Getting sick after being sick already is hard.", "Getting sick after being sick already is hard." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "You can get sick again you just wont have as many symptoms.", "You can get sick again you just wont have as many symptoms. " ]

[ "The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied. Without the application of preservatives and stabilizers, the fats in meat may also begin to rapidly decompose after cooking or processing, leading to an objectionable taste known as warmed over flavor.\n", "Section::::Potential solutions.:Abbatoir chilling conditions.\n\nQuickly chilling pork and poultry meat, in order to bring the muscle temperature down to an acceptable level, will reduce myofibril glycolysis and stop muscle metabolism. Slower chilling results in a lower pH, lighter colored meat, and greater yield losses after cooking. \n", "BULLET::::- Vitamin B (Thiamin): A vitamin loss of 25 percent is normal. Thiamin is easily soluble in water and is destroyed by heat.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin B (Riboflavin): Not much research has been done to see how much freezing affects Riboflavin levels. Studies that have been performed are inconclusive; one study found an 18 percent vitamin loss in green vegetables, while another determined a 4 percent loss. It is commonly accepted that the loss of Riboflavin has to do with the preparation for freezing rather than the actual freezing process itself.\n", "Since the main method of microbial decontamination for freeze drying is the low temperature dehydration process, spoilage organisms and pathogens resistant to these conditions can remain in the product. Although microbial growth is inhibited by the low moisture conditions, it can still survive in the food product. An example of this is a hepatitis A outbreak that occurred in the United States in 2016, associated with frozen strawberries. If the product is not properly packaged and/or stored, the product can absorb moisture, allowing the once inhibited pathogens to begin reproducing as well.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Cost.\n", "BULLET::::- All meat (including pork) can be safely prepared by cooking to an internal temperature of or higher for 15 seconds or more.\n\nBULLET::::- Wild game: Wild game meat must be cooked thoroughly (see meat preparation above) Freezing wild game does not kill all trichinosis larval worms, because the worm species that typically infests wild game can resist freezing.\n", "This meat is comparable in appearance, texture, and composition to meat trimmings and similar meat products derived by hand.\n\nUSDA regulations for procurement of frozen fresh ground beef products state that \"Beef that is mechanically separated from bone with automatic deboning systems, advanced lean (meat) recovery (AMR) systems or powered knives, will not be allowed\".\n\nSection::::Regulation in the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- at room temperature; this is dangerous since the outside may be defrosted while the inside remains frozen\n\nBULLET::::- in a refrigerator\n\nBULLET::::- in a microwave oven\n\nBULLET::::- wrapped in plastic and placed in cold water or under cold running water\n\nPeople sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by the freezing process.\n\nSection::::Quality.\n", "Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n", "Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (–1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.\n", "In the Netherlands, for example, the law states that poultry must be stunned for 4 seconds minimum with an average current of 100 mA, which leads to systematic understunning.\n", "These processes have the advantage that preparation and cooking of meals is not tied to the times when the food is to be served, enabling staff and equipment to be used more efficiently. A properly managed operation is capable of supplying high quality meals economically despite high initial equipment costs. There are potential problems; careful attention has to be paid to hygiene, as there are a number of points in the process where food pathogens can gain access. This requires careful attention to both the control of the process and to staff training.\n\nSection::::Scientific use.\n", "Snap freezing\n\nSnap freezing (or cook-chill or blast freezing) is the process of rapid cooling of a substance for the purpose of preservation. It is widely used in the culinary and scientific industries.\n\nSection::::Culinary uses.\n\nCooked meals can be preserved by rapid freezing after cooking is almost complete. The main target group for these products are those with little time for cooking such as schools, prisons, and hospitals.\n", "Chicken can be cooked or reheated from the frozen state, but it will take approximately one and a half times as long to cook, and any wrapping or absorbent paper should be discarded. There are three generally accepted safe methods of reheating frozen chicken: in the refrigerator, in cold water, or using a microwave oven. These methods are endorsed by the FDA as safe, as they minimize the risk of bacterial growth. Bacteria survives but does not grow in freezing temperatures. However, if frozen cooked foods are not defrosted properly and are not reheated to temperatures that kill bacteria, chances of getting a foodborne illness greatly increase.\n", "Section::::Predisposing factors.\n\nSection::::Predisposing factors.:Stress.\n\nAcute stress immediately prior to slaughter may result in the abnormal Ca2+ diffusion seen in PSE postmortem muscle. This in turn will induce the increase in glycolysis and cause the decline in pH. Stressful conditions may include handling, transportation, loading and unloading from a truck, mixing with unfamiliar animals and individuals, entering an unfamiliar facility, and stunning.\n", "Section::::Infection.\n\nThe organisms spoiling meat may infect the animal either while still alive (\"endogenous disease\") or may contaminate the meat after its slaughter (\"exogenous\n\ndisease\"). There are numerous diseases that humans may contract from endogenously infected meat, such as anthrax, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis, listeriosis, trichinosis or taeniasis.\n", "Section::::Controlling the porous structure.:Morphological instabilities.\n", "Time and temperature control plays a critical role in food safety. To prevent time-temperature abuse, the amount of time food spends in the danger zone must be minimized. A logarithmic relationship exists between microbial cell death and temperature: a significantly large number of cells may survive slightly lower temperatures. In addition to reducing the time spent in the danger zone, foods should be moved through the danger zone as few times as possible when reheating or cooling.\n\nFoods that are potentially hazardous inside the danger zone:\n\nBULLET::::- Meat: beef, poultry, pork, seafood\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs and other protein-rich foods\n", "The kind of environment in which this occurs means that pathogens can spread easily, both during slaughter and transport. For the animals it means increased cruelty because of long journeys to slaughterhouses, inadequate stunning, and violence from stressed workers. For the workers, it means low wages, a noisy and highly stressful working environment, and long shifts spent making high-speed repetitive movements with dangerous equipment and frightened animals. For the consumer, it severs the relationship between the animals and the end product on the supermarket shelf. \n\nSection::::Accompanying events.\n", "Due to the fact that raw diets do not exposure the meat to any high temperatures, the chance of the maillard reaction happening is greatly decrease. This means that the amino groups of the amino acids in the meat will be unbound and nutritionally available to the dog for use. However, the risk assumed by not cooking or processing meat is an increased chance of bacterial infections to the pet or the owner handling the food.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "livestock species also is prohibited if it contains CNS material.\n", "On December 5, 2007, Sveriges Television in its weekly investigatory documentary program \"Uppdrag granskning\" (literally: \"Mission: Investigation\") aired a number of secretly recorded video tapes of employees at four featured Maxi ICA Hypermarkets relabeling out-of-date ground meat, as well as grinding down other forms of meat past their 'best before' date to make ground meat (mince). In a video sequence viewers could watch an ICA employee picking up out-of-date pork chops from the floor, repacking and relabeling them. This could lead to infections such as Escherichia coli, Trichinellosis or Streptococcus suis.\n", "Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs.\n\nSection::::Production.:Slaughter.:Negative effects on slaughterhouse workers.\n", "There are many federal laws and programs in place to attempt to lower the rates of food borne infection. They cover a wide variety of issues, including regulation of meat production (with specific quality standards) and programs to help educate the public about food safety. One such program, The National Food Safety Initiative (FSI) was launched in 1997 and focused on “improving data on pathogens, coordinating regulatory responses, consumer educational efforts and behavioral surveillance.” Industry efforts to lessen the spread of disease include milk pasteurization, “sanitary controls” on farms, and the development of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP). The Critical Control Point, or CCP, according to a study published in the \"Journal of Food Safety\" in 2004, is “a point, step, or procedure in a food process at which control can be applied, and as a result, a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels.” Food “processors must use CCP critical limits that have been scientifically validated” to prevent the growth of pathogens. Specifically for meat, since pathogens grow in warmer temperatures, the CCP is related to the time and temperature meat is allowed to remain. As of 2004, the maximum “regulatory limit” for poultry during production was 13 degrees Celsius.\n", "The risks of FFP include disease transmission, anaphylactoid reactions, and excessive intravascular volume (transfusion associated circulatory overload (TACO)), as well as transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI). Risks of transfusion transmitted infections are similar to that of whole blood and red blood cells.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n\nFFP is made by centrifugation of whole blood or apheresis device followed by freezing and preservation.\n\nSection::::Frequency of use.\n", "It is safe to freeze chicken directly in its original packaging, but this type of wrap is permeable to air and quality may diminish over time. Therefore, for prolonged storage, it is recommended to overwrap these packages. It is recommended to freeze unopened vacuum packages as is. If a package has accidentally been torn or has opened while food is in the freezer, the food is still safe to use, but it is still recommended to overwrap or rewrap it. Chicken should be away from other foods, so if they begin to thaw, their juices won't drip onto other foods. If previously frozen chicken is purchased at a retail store, it can be refrozen if it has been handled properly.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Mozilla Location Service - an open service which lets devices determine their location based on network infrastructure like WiFi access points and cell towers\n\nBULLET::::- CellMapper - cellular coverage and tower map\n\nBULLET::::- OpenCellID - an open source project, aiming to create a complete database of Cell IDs worldwide, with their locations\n\nBULLET::::- cellidfinder - Find the coordinates of any known CellID.\n\nBULLET::::- Navizon - cloud service with API to locate wireless devices using a global database of WiFi access points and Cell-ID locations\n", "Base station survey data can be used to further narrow the past locations of a cellular device if used in conjunction with historical cell site location information (\"HCSLI\") obtained from a wireless carrier. HCSLI includes a list of all cell sites and sectors accessed by a cellular device, and the date and time each access was made. Law enforcement will often obtain HCSLI from wireless carriers in order to determine where a particular cell phone was located in the past. Once this information is obtained, law enforcement will use a map of cell site locations to determine the past geographical locations of the cellular device.\n", "As the phone user moves from one cell area to another cell while a call is in progress, the mobile station will search for a new channel to attach to in order not to drop the call. Once a new channel is found, the network will command the mobile unit to switch to the new channel and at the same time switch the call onto the new channel.\n", "Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.\n\nThe movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.\n", "The technology of locating is based on measuring power levels and antenna patterns and uses the concept that a powered mobile phone always communicates wirelessly with one of the closest base stations, so knowledge of the location of the base station implies the cell phone is nearby.\n", "Once the SIM card is loaded into the phone and the phone is powered on, it will search for the nearest mobile phone mast (also called a Base Transceiver Station/BTS) with the strongest signal in the operator's frequency band. If a mast can be successfully contacted, then there is said to be coverage in the area. The phone then identifies itself to the network through the control channel. Once this is successfully completed, the phone is said to be attached to the network.\n", "When a mobile is \"searching\", it is attempting to find pilot signals on the network by tuning to particular radio frequencies, and performing a cross-correlation across all possible PN phases. A strong correlation peak result indicates the proximity of a BTS.\n", "Consider the case of a taxi company, where each radio has a manually operated channel selector knob to tune to different frequencies. As drivers move around, they change from channel to channel. The drivers are aware of which frequency approximately covers some area. When they do not receive a signal from the transmitter, they try other channels until finding one that works. The taxi drivers only speak one at a time when invited by the base station operator. This is a form of time-division multiple access (TDMA).\n", "In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately , while in rural areas, the range could be as much as . It is possible that in clear open areas, a user may receive signals from a cell site away. \n", "Section::::Mobile phone network.:Small cells.\n\nSmall cells, which have a smaller coverage area than base stations, are categorised as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Microcell, less than 2 kilometres\n\nBULLET::::- Picocell, less than 200 metres\n\nBULLET::::- Femtocell, around 10 metres\n\nSection::::Mobile phone network.:Cellular handover in mobile phone networks.\n", "Evidential and technical challenges exist. for example, cell site analysis following from the use of a mobile phone usage coverage, is not an exact science. Consequently, whilst it is possible to determine roughly the cell site zone from which a call was made or received, it is not yet possible to say with any degree of certainty, that a mobile phone call emanated from a specific location e.g. a residential address.\n", "In order to route calls to a phone, the cell towers listen for a signal sent from the phone and negotiate which tower is best able to communicate with the phone. As the phone changes location, the antenna towers monitor the signal, and the phone is \"roamed\" to an adjacent tower as appropriate. By comparing the relative signal strength from multiple antenna towers, a general location of a phone can be roughly determined. Other means make use of the antenna pattern, which supports angular determination and phase discrimination.\n", "If there is no ongoing communication or the communication can be interrupted, it is possible for the mobile unit to spontaneously move from one cell to another and then notify the base station with the strongest signal.\n\nSection::::Mobile phone network.:Cellular frequency choice in mobile phone networks.\n", "In November 2014, the Wall Street Journal reported that the Technical Operations Group of the U.S. Marshals utilizes spy devices, known as \"dirtboxes\", to mimic powerful cell tower signals. Such devices are designed to cause mobile phones to switch over to the tower, as it is the strongest signal within reach. The devices are placed on airplanes to effectively create a \"dragnet\", gathering data about phones as the planes travel above populated areas.\n\nSection::::Employment.:Off-grid systems.\n", "A valid CID ranges from 0 to 65535 (2 − 1) on GSM and CDMA networks and from 0 to 268,435,455 (2 − 1) on UMTS and LTE networks.\n\nSection::::Cell ID databases and services.\n\nA number of commercial and public Cell ID databases and services are available:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Base transceiver station\n\nBULLET::::- Field test mode\n\nBULLET::::- E-CellID\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Combain Positioning Service - cloud service with API to locate wireless devices based on Cell-ID and Wi-Fi\n\nBULLET::::- LocationAPI by Unwired Labs - Location as an API service to locate devices with WiFi, Cell towers & IP\n", "Section::::Operation.:Range.:Practical Example of Range.\n\nBULLET::::- 3G/4G/5G (FR1) Mobile base station tower: it is technically possible to cover up to 50 km-150 km. (Macrocell)\n\nBULLET::::- 5G (FR2) Mobile base station: the distances between the 5G base-station is about 250-300 m, due to the use of millimetre waves.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Channel reuse.\n", "Specialized calculation models exist to plan the location of a new cell tower, taking into account local conditions and radio equipment parameters, as well as consideration that mobile radio signals have line-of-sight propagation, unless reflection occurs.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cel-Fi\n\nBULLET::::- Cell network\n\nBULLET::::- Cell phone\n\nBULLET::::- Cellular repeater\n\nBULLET::::- Dropped call\n\nBULLET::::- Dead zone (cell phone)\n\nBULLET::::- Field strength in free space\n\nBULLET::::- Field strength meter\n\nBULLET::::- Received signal strength indication\n\nBULLET::::- S meter\n\nBULLET::::- Signal (electrical engineering)\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile phone signal\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile coverage\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The most direct way to find more about what is happening in the MoLo space is to check out the websites of the MoLo service providers and see what they are offering. There are many of them. Almost all mobile carriers have mobile local search offerings, including Verizon Wireless, AT&T, Vodafone, T-Mobile, Sprint Nextel, Orange SA and so on.\n", "Cell phones are programmed to constantly search for the strongest signal emitted from cell phone towers in the area. Over the course of the day, most cell phones connect and reconnect to multiple towers in an attempt to connect to the strongest, fastest, or closest signal. Because of the way they are designed, the signals that the Stingray emits are far stronger than those coming from surrounding towers. For this reason, all cell phones in the vicinity connect to the Stingray regardless of the cell phone owner’s knowledge. From there, the stingray is capable of locating the device, interfering with the device, and collecting personal data from the device.\n", "With control plane locating, sometimes referred to as positioning, the mobile phone service provider gets the location based on the radio signal delay of the closest cell-phone towers (for phones without GPS features) which can be quite slow as it uses the 'voice control' channel. In the UK, networks do not use trilateration; LBS services use a single base station, with a \"radius\" of inaccuracy, to determine a phone's location. This technique was the basis of the E-911 mandate and is still used to locate cellphones as a safety measure. Newer phones and PDAs typically have an integrated A-GPS chip.\n", "Section::::Operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Range.\n\nThe working range of a cell site (the range which mobile devices connects reliably to the cell site) is not a fixed figure. It will depend on a number of factors, including, but not limited to: \n\nBULLET::::- Height of antenna over surrounding terrain (Line-of-sight propagation).\n\nBULLET::::- The frequency of signal in use.\n\nBULLET::::- The transmitter's rated power.\n\nBULLET::::- The required uplink/downlink data rate of the subscriber's device\n\nBULLET::::- The directional characteristics of the site antenna array.\n\nBULLET::::- Reflection and absorption of radio energy by buildings or vegetation.\n", "In passive mode, the StingRay operates either as a digital analyzer, which receives and analyzes signals being transmitted by cellular devices and/or wireless carrier cell sites or as a radio jamming device, which transmits signals that block communications between cellular devices and wireless carrier cell sites. By \"passive mode,\" it is meant that the StingRay does not mimic a wireless carrier cell site or communicate directly with cellular devices.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Passive capabilities.:Base station (cell site) surveys.\n", "The next diagram illustrates where a given TETRA radio cell initial selection. The initial cell selection is performed by procedures located in the MLE and in the MAC. When the cell selection is made, and possible registration is performed, the \"mobile station\" (MS) is said to be attached to the cell. The mobile is allowed to initially select any suitable cell that has a positive C1 value; i.e., the received signal level is greater than the \"minimum receive level for access\" parameter.\n", "The LAI is broadcast regularly through a broadcast control channel (BCCH). A mobile station (e.g. cell phone) recognizes the LAI and stores it in the SIM Card. If the mobile station is moving and notices a change of LAI, it will issue a location update request, thereby informing the mobile provider of its new LAI. This allows the provider to locate the mobile station in case of an incoming call.\n", "BULLET::::- location signature uses \"fingerprinting\" to store and recall patterns (such as multipath) which mobile phone signals are known to exhibit at different locations in each cell\n\nThe first two depend on a line-of-sight, which can be difficult or impossible in mountainous terrain or around skyscrapers. Location signatures actually work \"better\" in these conditions however. TDMA and GSM networks such as Cingular and T-Mobile use TDOA.\n\nCDMA networks such as Verizon Wireless and Sprint PCS tend to use handset-based radiolocation technologies, which are technically more similar to radionavigation. GPS is one of those technologies.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Languages and tools.\n\nMost commercial computer and video games are written primarily in C++, C, and some assembly language. Many games, especially those with complex interactive gameplay mechanics, tax hardware to its limit. As such, highly optimized code is required for these games to run at an acceptable frame rate. Because of this, compiled code is typically used for performance-critical components, such as visual rendering and physics calculations. Almost all PC games also use either the DirectX, OpenGL APIs or some wrapper library to interface with hardware devices.\n", "For instance, a successful x86-to-x64 static recompilation was generated for the procedural terrain generator of the video game \"Cube World\" in 2014.\n\nAnother example is the NES-to-x86 statically recompiled version of the videogame \"Super Mario Bros.\" which was generated under usage of LLVM in 2013.\n\nIn 2004 Scott Elliott and Phillip R. Hutchinson at Nintendo developed a tool to generate \"C\" code from Game Boy binary that could then be compiled for a new platform and linked against a hardware library for use in airline entertainment systems.\n", "The PPU is controlled via eight registers visible in the CPU's address space in the addresses $2000 through $2007. All data and information is passed to the PPU through these, except the raw tile data (there are exceptions, as some games had RAM instead of ROM to store the tile data, and the tiles had to be written each time), which is hardwired to the PPU's address space. The PPU uses the tile graphics data together with information stored by the program in the PPU's RAM, such as color and position, to render the final graphical output to the screen.\n", "BULLET::::- Rasterizer – creates fragments and interpolates per-vertex constants such as texture coordinates and color\n\nBULLET::::- Texture unit – read-only memory interface\n\nBULLET::::- Framebuffer – write-only memory interface\n\nIn fact, a program can substitute a write only texture for output instead of the framebuffer. This is done either through Render to Texture (RTT), Render-To-Backbuffer-Copy-To-Texture (RTBCTT), or the more recent stream-out.\n\nSection::::Stream processing.:GPU programming concepts.:Textures as stream.\n", "Honeywell provided a program called the Liberator for their Honeywell 200 series of computers; it could translate programs for the IBM 1400 series of computers into programs for the Honeywell 200 series.\n\nIn 2014, an ARM architecture version of the 1998 video game \"StarCraft\" was generated by static recompilation and additional reverse engineering of the original x86 version.\n\nThe Pandora handheld community was capable of developing the required tools on their own and achieving such translations successfully several times.\n", "More modern screen scraping techniques include capturing the bitmap data from the screen and running it through an OCR engine, or for some specialised automated testing systems, matching the screen's bitmap data against expected results. This can be combined in the case of GUI applications, with querying the graphical controls by programmatically obtaining references to their underlying programming objects. A sequence of screens is automatically captured and converted into a database.\n", "Real-time applications, such as video games, usually implement per-pixel lighting through the use of pixel shaders, allowing the GPU hardware to process the effect. The scene to be rendered is first rasterized onto a number of buffers storing different types of data to be used in rendering the scene, such as depth, normal direction, and diffuse color. Then, the data is passed into a shader and used to compute the final appearance of the scene, pixel-by-pixel.\n", "BULLET::::- Pawn language is used to write gaming logics, which reacts to events occurring in the actual WowCube console or in the emulator, and responding, in its turn, with a sequence of commands on visualizing the changes in the game environment.\n\nBULLET::::- Visual Studio Code IDE is used to edit the game code in the Pawn language and execute it in the software emulator. The code for the 3D viewer of the WowCube, which is written in the Processing language, can be also edited.\n\nSection::::Similar gadgets.\n", "Pixel operations are possible using the GRAPHIC GET|SET PIXEL statements, in a manner similar to GetPixel/SetPixel of the GDI API. GRAPHIC GET BITS allows the entire bitmap to be loaded into a dynamic string. This can be manipulated either as a string or by mapping an array onto it. It can be placed back into the GRAPHIC target by GRAPHIC SET BITS.\n\nSection::::Programming language.:Object-oriented programming.:Graphics.:Complementarity of GRAPHIC statements and the Windows GDI API.\n", "Some graphics systems let the software perform its memory accesses so that they stay at the same time point relative to the display hardware's refresh cycle, known as raster interrupt or racing the beam. In this case, the software writes to the areas of the display that have just been updated, staying \"just\" behind the monitor's active refresh point. This allows for copy routines or rendering engines with less predictable throughput, as long as the rendering engine can \"catch up\" with the monitor's active refresh point when it falls behind.\n", "Dedicated antialiasing hardware used to perform hardware-based antialiasing methods like MSAA is contained in ROPs.\n\nAll data rendered has to travel through the ROP in order to be written to the framebuffer, from there it can be transmitted to the display.\n\nTherefore, the ROP is where the GPU's output is assembled into a bitmapped image ready for display.\n", "Windows Color System features a \"Color Infrastructure and Translation Engine\" (CITE) at its core. It is backed up by a color processing pipeline that supports bit-depths more than 32 bits per pixel, multiple color channels (more than three), alternative color spaces and high dynamic range coloring, using a technology named \"Kyuanos\" developed by Canon. The color processing pipeline allows device developers to add their own gamut mapping algorithm into the pipeline to customize the color response of the device. The new pipeline also supports floating point calculations to minimize round-off errors, which are inherent in integer processing. Once the color pipeline finishes processing the colors, the CITE engine applies a color translation according to a color profile, specific to a device to ensure the output color matches to what is expected.\n", "BULLET::::- If a tessellation shader is in the graphic processing unit and active, the geometries in the scene can be subdivided.\n\nBULLET::::- The calculated geometry is triangulated (subdivided into triangles).\n\nBULLET::::- Triangles are broken down into fragment quads (one fragment quad is a 2 × 2 fragment primitive).\n\nBULLET::::- Fragment quads are modified according to the fragment shader.\n\nBULLET::::- The depth test is performed, fragments that pass will get written to the screen and might get blended into the frame buffer.\n", "BULLET::::- The swrast, softpipe, & LLVMpipe renderers inside Mesa work as a shim at the system level to emulate an OpenGL 1.4–3.2 hardware device.\n\nBULLET::::- WARP, provided since Windows Vista by Microsoft, which works at the system level to provide fast D3D 9.1 and above emulation. This is in addition to the extremely slow software-based reference rasterizer Microsoft has always provided to developers.\n\nBULLET::::- The Apple software renderer in CGL, provided in Mac OS X by Apple, which works at the system level to provide fast OpenGL 1.1–4.1 emulation.\n\nSection::::Pre-rendering.\n", "As noted above, some games (mostly early MMC1 titles such as \"Legend of Zelda\" and \"Castlevania\") store their graphics data in the main PRG ROM. These have a CHR RAM chip instead of a ROM and pass the data from the PRG ROM to the CHR RAM, the main purpose of this being to produce animated background tiles. The arrival of the MMC3 mapper in 1988 eliminated the need for this as animated tiles could now be banked from the CHR ROM on the fly. The PPU can access up to 8 KB of CHR ROM or RAM at once.\n", "Code generation is the process of generating executable code (e.g. SQL, Python, R, or other executable instructions) that will transform the data based on the desired and defined data mapping rules. Typically, the data transformation technologies generate this code based on the definitions or metadata defined by the developers.\n\nCode execution is the step whereby the generated code is executed against the data to create the desired output. The executed code may be tightly integrated into the transformation tool, or it may require separate steps by the developer to manually execute the generated code.\n", "Each Player is 8 bits (pixels) wide. Where a bit is set, a pixel is displayed in the color assigned to the color register associated to the Player. Where a bit is not set the Player object is transparent, showing Players, Missiles, Playfield pixels, or the background color. Pixel output begins at the horizontal position specified by the Player's HPOS value with the highest bit output first.\n\nSection::::Registers.:Player/Missile Graphics Patterns.:GRAFM $D011 Write.\n\nGraphics pattern for all Missiles\n", "Creating a 3D image for display consists of a series of steps. First, the objects to be displayed are loaded into memory from individual \"models\". The system then applies mathematical functions to transform the models into a common coordinate system, the \"world view\". From this world view, a series of polygons (typically triangles) is created that approximates the original models as seen from a particular viewpoint, the \"camera\". Next, a compositing system produces an image by rendering the triangles and applying \"textures\" to the outside. Textures are small images that are painted onto the triangles to produce realism. The resulting image is then combined with various special effects, and moved into a frame buffer, which video hardware then scans to produce the displayed image. This basic conceptual layout is known as the \"display pipeline\".\n", "Some programs will set the pixel colors directly, but most will rely on some 2D graphics library or the machine's graphics card, which usually implement the following operations:\n\nBULLET::::- paste a given image at a specified offset onto the canvas;\n\nBULLET::::- write a string of characters with a specified font, at a given position and angle;\n\nBULLET::::- paint a simple geometric shape, such as a triangle defined by three corners, or a circle with given center and radius;\n\nBULLET::::- draw a line segment, arc, or simple curve with a \"virtual pen\" of given width.\n\nSection::::Using homogeneous coordinates.:Extended color models.\n", "The memory address that contains a given pixel is given by:\n\nThis code would set the correct pixel in that byte:\n", "The fourth type of light transport technique, radiosity is not usually implemented as a rendering technique, but instead calculates the passage of light as it leaves the light source and illuminates surfaces. These surfaces are usually rendered to the display using one of the other three techniques.\n\nMost advanced software combines two or more of the techniques to obtain good-enough results at reasonable cost.\n", "In 1994, the Mach64 accelerator debuted, powering the Graphics Xpression and Graphics Pro Turbo, offering hardware support for YUV-to-RGB color space conversion in addition to hardware zoom; early techniques of hardware-based video acceleration.\n", "On modern hardware, most of the geometry computation steps are performed in the vertex shader. This is, in principle, freely programmable, but generally performs at least the transformation of the points and the illumination calculation. For the DirectX programming interface, the use of a custom vertex shader is necessary from version 10, while older versions still have a standard shader.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Rasterisation.\n\nThe rasterisation step is the final step before the fragment shader pipeline that all primitives are rasterized with Pixel pipeline. In the rasterisation step, discrete fragments are created from continuous primitives.\n", "BULLET::::- Motion capture data import\n\nBULLET::::- Proprietary game data export\n\nBULLET::::- Scene meta-data for production tracking\n\nBULLET::::- Geometry creation/modification\n\nBULLET::::- Custom primitives\n\nBULLET::::- Third-party renderer specific data type (e.g., RenderMan sub-divisional surfaces)\n\nBULLET::::- Modeling tools not offered in the base package\n\nBULLET::::- Animation tools\n\nBULLET::::- Muscle simulators\n\nBULLET::::- Rigging/setup controls\n\nBULLET::::- Crowd AI behavior\n\nBULLET::::- Lighting /rendering tools\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic creation of common complex shader setups\n\nBULLET::::- Pre- and post-render effects\n\nBULLET::::- Making calls to third-party renderers\n\nBULLET::::- Dynamics\n\nBULLET::::- Custom particle behavior\n\nBULLET::::- Simulated object emergent flocking and swarming\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic algorithms\n\nBULLET::::- Cloth simulation\n", "Code in the per_pixel section of MilkDrop is not actually re-evaluated at every pixel as the name would suggest, rather the screen is divided into a grid and the code is evaluated at each grid point. The pixels in-between these points interpolate their values from the surrounding four points on the grid. The size of the grid is 32×24 by default, but can be set higher or lower by the user. Per_Pixel equations allow the preset author to alter some of MilkDrop's parameters differently in certain areas of the screen based upon x and y values, distance from the center of the screen, and the angle.\n" ]

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[ "There are two types of mechanisms that can impede crack propagation and contribute to toughness, intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms. Intrinsic mechanisms produce resistance ahead of the crack and extrinsic mechanisms create resistance behind the crack tip in the crack wake. Extrinsic mechanisms are said to contribute to crack-tip shielding which reduces the local stress intensity experienced by the crack. An important difference is that intrinsic mechanisms can impede crack initiation and propagation while extrinsic mechanisms can only inhibit crack propagation. \n\nSection::::Bone fracture.:Bone characterization.:Intrinsic mechanisms.\n", "The need to build structures with integrity goes back as far as recorded history. Houses needed to be able to support their own weight, plus the weight of the inhabitants. Castles needed to be fortified to withstand assaults from invaders. Tools needed to be strong and tough enough to do their jobs. However, the science of fracture mechanics as it exists today was not developed until the 1920s, when Alan Arnold Griffith studied the brittle fracture of glass.\n", "Extrinsic toughening mechanisms are more well elucidated than intrinsic mechanisms. While the length-scale of intrinsic mechanisms are in the nanometers, the length scale of extrinsic mechanisms are along the micron/micrometer scale. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of bone have allowed imaging of extrinsic mechanisms such as crack bridging (by collagen fibers, or by un-cracked \"ligaments\"), crack deflection, and micro-cracking. Crack bridging by un-cracked ligaments and crack deflection are the major contributors to crack-shielding while crack bridging by collagen fibers and micro-cracking are minor contributors to crack-shielding. \n\nSection::::Bone fracture.:Bone characterization.:Extrinsic mechanisms.:Crack bridging.\n", "Various mechanisms for fractures of the capitate have been postulated. Adler et al. described three mechanisms—the first is direct trauma to the dorsal surface of the bone, the second is fall on the palm with the wrist in forced extension and the third is fall on the forcefully flexed hand; the second being the most frequent and the third rarest.\n", "The hierarchical structure of bone provides it with toughness, the ability to resist crack initiation, propagation, and fracture, as well as strength, the resistance to inelastic deformation. Early analysis of bone material properties, specifically resistance to crack growth, concentrated on yielding a single value for the critical stress-intensity factor, formula_1, and the critical strain-energy release rate, formula_2. While this method yielded important insights into bone behavior, it did not lend insight to crack propagation like the resistance curve. \n", "Fracture in bone could occur because of an acute injury (monotonic loading) or fatigue (cyclic loading). Generally, bone can withstand physiological loading conditions, but aging and diseases like osteoporosis that compromise the hierarchical structure of bone can contribute to bone breakage. Furthermore, the analysis of bone fracture is complicated by the bone remodeling response, where there is a competition between microcrack accumulation and the remodeling rate. If the remodeling rate is slower than the rate microcracks accumulate, bone fracture can occur. \n\nFurthermore, the orientation and location of the crack matters because bone is anisotropic.\n\nSection::::Bone fracture.:Bone characterization.\n", "Crack deflection and twist occurs due to osteons, the structural unit of cortical bone. Osteons have a cylindrical structure and are approximately 0.2 mm in diameter. As the crack tip reaches an osteon, crack propagation is deflected along the lateral surface of the osteon slowing crack growth. Because osteons are larger scale, than both collagen fibers and uncracked \"ligaments, crack deflection through osteons are one of the major toughening mechanisms of bone. \n\nSection::::Bone fracture.:Bone characterization.:Extrinsic mechanisms.:Micro-cracking.\n", "As the name suggests, microcracking is the formation of cracks on the micron scale of various orientations and sizes. The formation of microcracks before and in the wake of the crack tip can delay crack propagation. Since bone often remodels both its trabecular and cortical structure to optimize strength in the longitudinal direction, the formation of microcracks in human bone are also formed longitudinally. This directionally in human bone contrasts with the more random orientation in bovine bone and lends to longitudinal bone toughness in humans. \n", "Uncracked ligament bridging is one of the larger contributors to crack-shielding because the \"ligaments\" are on the length-scale of hundreds of micrometers in contrast to tens of nanometers. The formation of these ligaments are attributed to non-uniform advancement of the crack front or several microcracks semi-linked together forming bridges of uncracked material. \n\nSection::::Bone fracture.:Bone characterization.:Extrinsic mechanisms.:Crack deflection.\n", "\"The hands were in all appearance perfect, even to the nails and fingers , not discoloured. The face perfect the ears and top of the nose, all the teeth were perfectly white, all the skin (not) discoloured. By my pressing my hand on any part of this body, it felt quite elastic.\"\n\nSection::::Reactions.\n\nGalway historian Ronnie O'Gorman writes that:\n", "Similar to traits on a genetic level, aspects of organs can also be subject to co-adaptation. For example, slender bones can have similar performance in regards to bearing daily loads as thicker bones, due to slender bones having more mineralized tissue. This means that slenderness and the level of mineralization have probably been co-adapted. However, due to being harder than thick bones, slender bones are generally less pliant and more prone to breakage, especially when subjected to more extreme load conditions.\n", "Evidence of perimortal fractures (or fractures inflicted on a fresh corpse) can be distinguished in unhealed metal blade injuries to the bones. Living or freshly dead bones are somewhat resilient, so metal blade injuries to bone will generate a linear cut with relatively clean edges rather than irregular shattering. Archaeologists have tried using the microscopic parallel scratch marks on cut bones in order to estimate the trajectory of the blade that caused the injury.\n\nSection::::Diet and dental health.\n\nSection::::Diet and dental health.:Caries.\n", "There are many different methods of shaping stone into useful tools. Early knappers could have used simple hammers made of wood or antler to shape stone tools. The factors that contribute to the knapping results are varied, but the EPA (exterior platform angle) indeed influences many attributes, such as length, thickness and termination of flakes.\n", "An ancient example of alternating courses of headers and stretchers, is found on Malta. The ruins of the Ggantija Temple on the island of Gozo consist of two temples and a surrounding wall dating back to the Neolithic Age (3600–250 BCE); some stones are as long as 5 meters weighing over 50 tonnes.\n\nSection::::Load-bearing bonds.:One stretching course per heading course.:English cross bond.\n", "Since the physical material properties of bone (as a material) are not altered in the different bone types of the body, this difference in modelling threshold results in an increased bone mass and bone strength and hence in an increased safety factor (relation between fracture load and typical loads) for the skull compared to the tibia. A lower modeling threshold means that the same typical daily forces result in a ‘thicker’ and hence stronger bone at the skull.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Living bones are subject to Wolff's law, which states that bones are physically affected and remodeled by physical activity or inactivity. Increases in mechanical stress tend to produce bones that are thicker and stronger. Disruptions in homeostasis caused by nutritional deficiency or disease or profound inactivity/disuse/disability can lead to bone loss. While the acquisition of bipedal locomotion and body mass appear to determine the size and shape of children's bones, activity during the adolescent growth period seems to exert a greater influence on the size and shape of adult bones than exercise later in life.\n", "BULLET::::- Adapted State:br strain between ca. 800μStrain and ca. 1500μStrain: Remodeling (bone repair) Bone mass and bone strength stays constant (homeostasis: bone resorption=bone formation)\n\nBULLET::::- Overload:br Strain circa 1500μStrain: Modeling (bone growth) bone mass and bone strength is increased\n\nBULLET::::- Fracture:br Strain circa 15000μStrain: maximum elastically deformation exceeded – bone fracture.\n\nAccording to this a typical bone, e.g. the tibia has a security margin of about 5 to 7 between typical load (2000 to 3000 μStrain) and fracture load (about 15000μStrain).\n", "In 1891, the Wisconsin Supreme Court came to a similar result in \"Vosburg v. Putney\". In that case, a boy threw a small kick at another from across the aisle in the classroom. It turned out that the victim had an unknown microbial condition that was irritated, and resulted in him entirely losing the use of his leg. No one could have predicted the level of injury. Nevertheless, the court found that the kicking was unlawful because it violated the \"order and decorum of the classroom\", and the perpetrator was therefore fully liable for the injury.\n", "The extrinsic mechanism of crack bridging is when material spans in the crack wake behind the crack reducing the stress intensity factor. The stress intensity experienced at the crack tip, formula_3, is decreased by the stress intensity of bridging, formula_4.\n\nformula_5\n\nwhere formula_6is the applied stress intensity factor. \n\nCrack bridging can occur by two mechanisms of different length scales. \n\nBULLET::::- Crack Bridging by Collagen Fibers\n", "Over several millennia, architects and builders in particular, learned how to put together carefully shaped wood beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious devices such as the capitals, arches, cupolas, trusses and the flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals.\n", "The words \"cancellous\" and \"trabecular\" refer to the tiny lattice-shaped units (trabeculae) that form the tissue. It was first illustrated accurately in the engravings of Crisóstomo Martinez.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Bone marrow.\n", "Section::::Types of sport injury.:Hard tissue injuries.\n\nTypes of hard tissue injuries can include dental and bone injuries and are less frequent than soft tissue injuries in sport, but are often more serious. Hard tissue injuries to teeth and bones can occur with contusions, such as Battle sign, which indicates basilar skull fracture, and so-called raccoon eyes, which indicate mid-face fractures. However, tooth fractures are the most common type of tooth injury, and can be categorized as crown infractions, enamel-only fracture, enamel-dentin fractures, and fractures that extend through the enamel and dentin into the pulp which are defined below.\n", "Bone is not uniformly solid, but consists of a flexible matrix (about 30%) and bound minerals (about 70%) which are intricately woven and endlessly remodeled by a group of specialized bone cells. Their unique composition and design allows bones to be relatively hard and strong, while remaining lightweight.\n", "The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.\n", "The compressive strength of trabecular bone is also very important because it is believed that the inside failure of trabecular bone arise from compressive stress. On the stress-strain curves for both trabecular bone and cortical bone with different apparent density, there are three stage in stress-strain curve. The first one is linear region where individual trabecula bend and compress as the bulk tissue is compressed. The second stage is after yielding, trabecular bonds start to fracture and the third stage is the stiffening stage. Typically, lower density trabecular areas have more deformed stage before stiffening than higher density specimens.\n" ]

[ "Bones should not be able to break through hard surfaces such as brick when they are typically known to break easily." ]

[ "Bones can be very strong when the force is along the bone. If you apply a force horizontal to a bone it will break. Breaking bricks relies on this and other techniques including stiffening your muscles. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Bones should not be able to break through hard surfaces such as brick when they are typically known to break easily.", "Bones break so easily." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Bones can be very strong when the force is along the bone. If you apply a force horizontal to a bone it will break. Breaking bricks relies on this and other techniques including stiffening your muscles. ", "Bones can be very strong when the force is along the bone. If you apply a force horizontal to a bone it will break. Breaking bricks relies on this and other techniques including stiffening your muscles. " ]

[ "Reuse of older software is popular among retrocomputing. Most of the time, emulators are used to run older software from other platforms, or other operating systems.\n\nSometimes, older operating systems such as DOS are reused for computing roles that don't demand lots of computing power. However, the widespread of availability of secondhand Windows XP computers at extreme low prices has largely supplanted immediate opportunities for using DOS on some repurposing applications, especially since something like USB isn't found on most pre-Windows XP computers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bag for life\n\nBULLET::::- Code reuse\n\nBULLET::::- Computer recycling\n\nBULLET::::- Freecycling\n\nBULLET::::- Micro-sustainability\n", "Software companies sometimes deliberately drop support for older technologies as a calculated attempt to force users to purchase new products to replace those made obsolete. Most proprietary software will ultimately reach an end-of-life point - usually because the cost of support exceeds the revenue generated by supporting the old version - at which the supplier will cease updates and support. As free software and open source software can always be updated and maintained by somebody else, the user is not at the sole mercy of a proprietary vendor. Software that is abandoned by the manufacturer with regard to manufacturer support is sometimes called \"abandonware\".\n", "For users of technologies that have been withdrawn from the market, there is a choice between maintaining their software support environments in some form of emulation, or switching to other supported products, possibly losing capabilities unique to their original solution. \n", "BULLET::::- If legacy software runs on only antiquated hardware, the cost of maintaining the system may eventually outweigh the cost of replacing both the software and hardware unless some form of emulation or backward compatibility allows the software to run on new hardware.\n", "The characteristic that distinguishes software product lines from previous efforts is predictive versus opportunistic software reuse. Rather than put general software components into a library in the hope that opportunities for reuse will arise, software product lines only call for software artifacts to be created when reuse is predicted in one or more products in a well defined product line.\n", "The migration of installed software from an old PC to a new PC can be done with a software migration tool. Migration is also used to refer simply to the process of moving data from one storage device to another.\n\nSection::::Articles, papers and books.\n\nSection::::Articles, papers and books.:Creating reusable software.\n\nDue to the evolution of technology today some companies or groups of people don’t know the importance of legacy systems.\n", "Section::::Scavenged and \"cannibalized\" systems.\n\nMany amateur-built computers are built primarily from used or \"spare\" parts. It's sometimes necessary to build a computer that will run an obsolete operating system or proprietary software for which updates are no longer available, and which will not run properly on a current platform. Economic reasons may also require an individual to build a new computer from used parts, especially among youth or in developing countries where the cost of new equipment places it out of reach of average people.\n\nSection::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n", "BULLET::::- A great deal of documentation may describe the current behavior and would be expensive to change. In addition, it is essentially impossible to recall all copies of the existing documentation, so users are likely to continue to refer to obsolete manuals.\n", "Doing away with older, usually more bulky ports and devices allows a legacy-free PC to be much more compact than earlier systems and many fall into the nettop or All in One form factor. Netbooks and Ultrabooks could also be considered a portable form of a legacy-free PC. Legacy-free PCs can be more difficult to upgrade than a traditional beige box PC, and are more typically expected to be replaced completely when they become obsolete. Many legacy-free PCs include modern devices that may be used to replace ones omitted, such as a memory card reader replacing the floppy drive.\n", "CorVision still exists in a handful of companies that have not yet found the time or money to upgrade their existing mainframe systems. As CorVision runs on the VMS environment it is very stable but the search for CorVision developers and contractors to support these ageing systems is a problem. Since around 1999, companies have started appearing offering conversion tools to convert BUILDER code to compiled Visual Basic and Java.\n", "However, with the development of mass market software for the new age of microcomputers in the 1980s came new forms of software distribution first cartridges, then cassette tapes, then floppy disks, then (in the 1990s and later) optical media, the internet and flash drives. This meant that software deployment could be left to the customer. However, it was also increasingly recognised over time that configurability of the software by the customer was important, and that this should ideally have a user-friendly interface (rather than, for example, requiring the customer to edit registry entries on Windows).\n", "From November 1999 to July 2000, Dell's WebPC was an early less-successful Wintel legacy-free PC.\n\nSection::::History.:2000s.\n\nMore legacy-free PCs were introduced around 2000 after the prevalence of USB and broadband internet made many of the older ports and devices obsolete. They largely took the form of low-end, consumer systems with the motivation of making computers less expensive, easier to use, and more stable and manageable. The Dell Studio Hybrid, Asus Eee Box and MSI Wind PC are examples of later, more-successful Intel-based legacy-free PCs.\n", "UsedSoft purchases and sells standard computer programs that have already been used by other users. Since it does not suffer from wear, contrary to other products, software retains the same quality as brand new products. Licenses on the used market are available for around 30 percent below the price on new software.\n\nUsedSoft also purchases used software. That means companies can turn software they no longer require (due to system changes, reduction of workstations, etc.) into liquidity. Such purchases are subject to notarial monitoring.\n", "BULLET::::- Software Composition – It is extremely rare that developers create 100% original code these days in anything built after 2010. They are often using 3rd party and open source frameworks and software components to gain efficiency, speed, and reusability. This introduces two risks: 1.) vulnerabilities within the 3rd party code, and 2.) open source licensing risk.\n", "Abandonware advocates also frequently cite historical preservation as a reason for trading abandoned software. Older computer media are fragile and prone to rapid deterioration, necessitating transfer of these materials to more modern, stable media and generation of many copies to ensure the software will not simply disappear. Users of still-functional older computer systems argue for the need of abandonware because re-release of software by copyright holders will most likely target modern systems or incompatible media instead, preventing legal purchase of compatible software.\n", "After expiry, users cannot download any software until they renew; however, they do not lose the use of released (non-beta) software that is already downloaded, nor is it necessary to renew immediately. Renewals add a year of access from the date of renewal, not the expiry date.\n", "In 2010 Computer History Museum began with the preservation of source code of important software, beginning with Apple's MacPaint 1.3. In 2012 the APL programming language followed. Adobe Systems, Inc. donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code to the collection in February 2013. The source code is made available to the public under an own non-commercial license. On March 25, 2014, Microsoft followed with the donation of MS-DOS variants as well as Word for Windows 1.1a under their own license. On October 21, 2014, Xerox Alto's source code and other resources followed.\n", "Large companies commonly develop custom software for critical functions, including content management, inventory management, customer management, human resource management, or otherwise to fill the gaps present in existing software packages. In many cases, such software is legacy software, developed before COTS or free software packages offering the required functionality with an acceptable level of quality or functionality became available or widely-known. For example, the BBC spent a great deal of money on a project to develop its own custom digital media production and management software, but the project experienced troubles, and after many years of development, was cancelled. A key stated reason for the project cancellation was that it had become clear that commercial off-the-shelf software existed that was, by that point, adequate to the BBC's needs and available for a small fraction of the price.\n", "The Internet Archive has created an archive of what it describes as \"vintage software\", as a way to preserve them. The project advocated for an exemption from the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act to permit them to bypass copy protection, which was approved in 2003 for a period of three years. The exemption was renewed in 2006, and , has been indefinitely extended pending further rulemakings. The Archive does not offer this software for download, as the exemption is solely \"for the purpose of preservation or archival reproduction of published digital works by a library or archive.\" Nevertheless, in 2013 the Internet Archive began to provide antique games as browser-playable emulation via MESS, for instance the Atari 2600 game \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\". Since 23 December 2014 the Internet Archive presents via a browser based DOSBox emulation thousands of archived DOS/PC games for \"\"scholarship and research purposes only\"\".\n", "Technologies offered by the legacy system vendors – These technologies provide an upgrade path for those too timid or wise to jump head-first into the latest wave of IT offerings. Legacy system vendors offer these technologies for one simple reason: to provide an upgrade path for system modernization that does not necessitate leaving the comfort of the “mainframe womb.” Although these technologies can provide a smoother road toward a modern system, they often result in an acceptable solution that falls short of the ideal.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- System migration\n\nBULLET::::- Data migration\n\nSection::::Available Tools.\n", "For the preservation of software as digital content, a specific challenge is the typically non-availability of the source code as commercial software is normally distributed only in compiled binary form. Without the source code an adaption (Porting) on modern computing hardware or operating system is most often impossible, therefore the original hardware and software context needs to be emulated. Another potential challenge for software preservation can be the copyright which prohibits often the bypassing of copy protection mechanisms (Digital Millennium Copyright Act) in case software has become an orphaned work (Abandonware). An exemption from the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act to permit to bypass copy protection was approved in 2003 for a period of 3 years to the Internet Archive who created an archive of \"vintage software\", as a way to preserve them. The exemption was renewed in 2006, and , has been indefinitely extended pending further rulemakings \"for the purpose of preservation or archival reproduction of published digital works by a library or archive.\"\n", "Often new PCs come with pre-installed software which the manufacturer was paid to include but is of dubious value to the purchaser. Most of these programs are included without the user's knowledge, and have no instructions on how to opt-out or remove them.\n", "Remastering centers around the reputation of a product, and so the distribution process requires an official, sanctioned version. This differs from the attitude in much free software in the many cases where the name of the product is \"cheap\" because plentiful and stable, where no guarantees or liabilities are offered, and where permission is inherently granted to redistribution any modified version under any name.\n", "Open source software is often cited as solution for preventing digital obsolescence. With the available source code the implementation and functionality is transparent and adaptions to modern not obsolete hardware platforms is always possible. Also, there is in general a strong cross-platform culture in the open source software ecosystem, which makes the systems and software more future proof.\n", "Where it is impossible to replace legacy systems through the practice of application retirement, it is still possible to enhance (or \"re-face\") them. Most development often goes into adding new interfaces to a legacy system. The most prominent technique is to provide a Web-based interface to a terminal-based mainframe application. This may reduce staff productivity due to slower response times and slower mouse-based operator actions, yet it is often seen as an \"upgrade\", because the interface style is familiar to unskilled users and is easy for them to use. John McCormick discusses such strategies that involve middleware.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Dimetrodon\n\nBULLET::::- Edaphosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sigillaria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cordaites\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lepidodendron\"\n\nTriassic\n\nBULLET::::- Saltoposuchus\n\nBULLET::::- Plateosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Podokesaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Cynognathus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Araucarioxylon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bjuvia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wielandiella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macrotaeniopteris\"\n\nJurassic\n\nBULLET::::- Camptosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Compsognathus\n\nBULLET::::- Allosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Archaeopteryx\n\nBULLET::::- Stegosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Rhamphorhynchus\n\nBULLET::::- Apatosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Williamsonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cycadeoidea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Araucarites\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Matonidium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neocalamites\"\n\nCretaceous\n\nBULLET::::- Edmontosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Ankylosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Tyrannosaurus\n\nBULLET::::- Pteranodon\n\nBULLET::::- Cimolestes\n\nBULLET::::- Triceratops\n\nBULLET::::- Struthiomimus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ginkgo\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sabalites\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Palmetto\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pandanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Araliopsoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cornus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Magnolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dryophyllum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salix\"\n\nSection::::Impact.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Social behavior.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Defense.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Growth and ontogeny.\n", "Section::::Paleoecology.\n\nSection::::Paleoecology.:Habitat.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Head crests.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Individual variation.\n\nUnlike almost all other dinosaur groups, skulls are the most commonly preserved elements of ceratopsian skeletons and many species are known only from skulls. There is a great deal of variation between and even within ceratopsian species. Complete growth series from embryo to adult are known for \"Psittacosaurus\" and \"Protoceratops\", allowing the study of ontogenetic variation in these species. Significant sexual dimorphism has been noted in \"Protoceratops\" and several ceratopsids.\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Ecological role.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Early interpretations.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Brain and senses.\n", "Section::::Classification.\n", "The following is based on the second edition of \"The Dinosauria\", a compilation of articles by experts in the field that provided the most comprehensive coverage of Dinosauria available when it was first published in 1990. The second edition updates and revises that work. \n", "Section::::Classification.\n", "Section::::Classification.\n", "BULLET::::- Archosaurs split into three main groups in the Triassic: ornithodirans, from which dinosaurs evolved, remained committed to rapid growth; crocodilians' ancestors adopted more typical \"reptilian\" slow growth rates; and most other Triassic archosaurs had intermediate growth rates.\n\nSection::::Metabolism.:Metabolic rate, blood pressure and flow.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Brain and senses.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Reproduction.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Diet.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Daily activity patterns.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Distinguishing anatomical features.\n\nWhile recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed-upon list of dinosaurs' distinguishing features, nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral archosaurian skeleton, or are clear descendants of older dinosaurs showing these modifications. Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical for Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to their descendants. Such modifications, originating in the most recent common ancestor of a certain taxonomic group, are called the synapomorphies of such a group.\n", "Section::::Palaeobiology.:Body size.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Life history.\n", "Section::::Metabolism.:Bone structure.\n", "Section::::Systematics and classification.\n", "Section::::Classification.\n\nDinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side.\n" ]

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[ "The dessert is commonly made by taking a scoop of ice cream frozen well below the temperature at which ice cream is generally kept, possibly coating it in raw egg, rolling it in cornflakes or cookie crumbs, and briefly deep frying it. The extremely low temperature of the ice cream prevents it from melting while being fried. It may be sprinkled with cinnamon and sugar and a touch of peppermint, though whipped cream or honey may be used as well.\n", "The process to create this frozen dessert takes an average of two minutes. The flavored milk-based liquid is poured onto the ice pan where it is chopped and manipulated until the liquid becomes a cream. Other required ingredients are added and the mixture is chopped and probed until a creamy texture has formed. The mixture is spread in a thin layer across the pan, then starting on one side the ice cream or gelato is rolled into its cylinder shape with the use of a spatula. The rolls are placed in an ice cream cup and decorated with any desired toppings.\n", "Section::::Preparation.\n\nThe product is made with a milk base combined with various fresh ingredients and different toppings served alongside this dessert. The main ingredients include the liquid base, which is commonly milk or soy milk and comes in generic flavours, such as vanilla, chocolate, coffee, and strawberry. The base flavour could be left as is, or extra ingredients can be added, such as fruit, cookies, chocolate, and brownies. These ingredients plus extract powder or syrups are used to create the flavour. \n\nSection::::Process.\n", "In 2010 Melt was featured on two national food-themed television shows: The Food Network's Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives with Guy Fieri, which aired February 8, 2010, The Travel Channel's Man v. Food with Adam Richman, which aired June 22, 2010. It has been featured in Cheese Paradise on the Travel channel, which aired in 2013.\n\nIn 2011 Melt was also featured on the Food Network show \"The Best Thing I Ever Ate\", in the messy food themed episode for their \"Godfather\" lasagna grilled cheese sandwich.\n\nSection::::Locations.\n\nSection::::Locations.:Main locations.\n\nBULLET::::- Lakewood, opened in September 2006, at 14718 Detroit Avenue.\n", "Creaming, in this sense, is the technique of softening solid fat, like shortening or butter, into a smooth mass and then blending it with other ingredients. The technique is most often used in making buttercream, cake batter or cookie dough. The dry ingredients are mixed or beaten with the softened fat until it becomes light and fluffy and increased in volume, due to the incorporation of tiny air bubbles. These air bubbles, locked into the semi-solid fat, remain in the final batter and expand as the item is baked, serving as a form of leavening agent.\n\nSection::::Poaching.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nThis frozen dessert originated in Thailand under the name \"Thai rolled ice cream\" or \"stir-fried ice cream\" (I-Tim-Pad).\n", "There are conflicting stories about the dessert's origin. Some claim that it was first served during the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, where the ice cream sundae was also invented. Though in 1894, a Philadelphia company was given credit for its invention describing: \"A small, solid [cake] of the ice cream is enveloped in a thin sheet of pie crust and then dipped into boiling lard or butter to cook the outside to a crisp. Served immediately, the ice cream is found to be as solidly frozen as it was first prepared.\" A third claim, beginning in the 1960s proposes that fried ice cream was invented by Japanese tempura restaurants. \n", "Borden's Eagle Brand sweetened condensed milk has noted that ice cream could be made quite simply at home with their product, cream, and various simple flavorings, being ready to serve after as little as four hours.\n", "In the US, soft serve ice cream is not sold prepackaged in supermarkets, but is common at fairs, carnivals, amusement parks, restaurants (especially fast food and buffet), and specialty shops. All ice cream must be frozen quickly to avoid crystallization. With soft serve, this is accomplished by a special machine that holds pre-mixed product at a very low, but non-frozen temperature, at the point of sale.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A common recipe is equal parts (typically 0.3 litres) of heavy cream (not whipped), sugar and golden syrup (or Swedish light syrup, \"ljus sirap\"). It is also common to add a few tablespoons of butter. One may also add 5 or 10 grams (1-2 tsp) of vanilla sugar or about 0.1 kg of peeled and finely chopped almonds. Put all the ingredients except for the almonds in a heavy based saucepan and stir until the sugar has melted. Simmer until a few drops of the mix poured into cold water can be rolled into a chewy or hard ball. Then add the almonds and pour the mixture in waxed paper cups and leave to cool. Even though the recipe is easy, the process of simmering can take up to 1.5 hours.\n", "Over Memorial Day weekend of 1934, Tom Carvel, the founder of the Carvel brand and franchise, suffered a flat tire in his ice cream truck in Hartsdale, New York. He pulled into a parking lot and began selling his melting ice cream to vacationers driving by. Within two days he had sold his entire supply of ice cream and concluded that both a fixed location and soft (as opposed to hard) frozen desserts were potentially good business ideas. In 1936, Carvel opened his first store on the original broken down truck site and developed a secret soft serve ice cream formula as well as patented super low temperature ice cream machines.\n", "The continuous freeze method of producing ice cream is nearly obsolete along the east coast. Although popular in some parts of the Midwest, particularly Milwaukee, the custard-like continuous freeze ice cream is a rarity in Virginia and most of the U.S. In this method, the ice cream is frozen and mixed at the same time, with little air added during this process. The more popular soft-serve method of production churns the ice cream, then adds a substantial amount of air while it is being frozen. The soft serve method allows for larger batches to be made at one time and produces a lighter, air-filled consistency. Bigger ice cream chains such as Dairy Queen use this soft serve method.\n", "Makers produce the effect by drizzling melted chocolate into plain milk ice cream towards the end of the churning process; chocolate solidifies immediately coming in contact with the cold ice cream, and is then broken up and incorporated into the ice cream with a spatula. This process creates the shreds of chocolate that give stracciatella its name. (\"Straciatella\" in Italian means \"little shred\".) While straciatella ice cream traditionally involves milk ice cream and milk chocolate, modern variations can also be made with vanilla and dark chocolate.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "The ice cream consisted of not only their blue moon flavor, but also a mint flavor and a vanilla flavor. It took months of planning and preparation. The dessert consisted of nine hundred gallons of ice cream, eight hundred pounds of chocolate syrup, six hundred containers of whipped cream, and some two thousand Michigan maraschino cherries. It was on Ludington's main street of Ludington Avenue from Park Ave to Harrison St. The previous world record length for an ice cream dessert was 1,957 feet (596.5 meters) set in 2015.\n", "Blumenthal has since updated his recipe to include a ten-hour period of soaking the bacon in a vacuum-packed bag prior to baking. He has also changed the presentation so that the unfrozen ice cream is injected into empty egg shells, then dramatically scrambled at the customer's table in liquid nitrogen, giving the impression of cooking.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "\"Mrs Marshall's Cookery Book,\" published in 1888, endorsed serving ice cream in cones, but the idea predated that. Agnes Marshall was a celebrated cookery writer of her day and helped to popularise ice cream. She patented and manufactured an ice cream maker and was the first person to suggest using liquefied gases to freeze ice cream after seeing a demonstration at the Royal Institution.\n", "In the United States, celebrity chef Paula Deen has published a recipe for fried butter balls. The recipe uses a blend of cream cheese and butter that is frozen, coated, frozen again, and then deep-fried. The cooking time in this recipe is short, for only ten to fifteen seconds, whereupon the product attains a \"light golden\" color.\n\nSection::::Fried butter.\n", "In a typical assembly, the cake component is baked in the normal way, cut to shape if necessary, and then frozen. Ice cream is shaped in a mold as appropriate, and these components are then assembled while frozen. Whipped cream is often used for frosting, as a complement to the two other textures, and because many typical frostings will not adhere successfully to frozen cake. The whole cake is then kept frozen until prior to serving, when it is allowed to thaw until it can be easily sliced but not so much as to melt the ice cream.\n", "Some forms of soft serve, like many other processed foods, have palm oil.\n\nAll ice cream must be frozen quickly to avoid crystallization. With soft serve, this is accomplished by a special machine at the point of sale. Pre-mixed product (see definitions below) is introduced to the storage chamber of the machine where it is kept at . When product is drawn from the draw valve, fresh mix combined with the targeted quantity of air is introduced to the freezing chamber either by gravity or pump. It is then churned and quick frozen and stored until required.\n", "Section::::Recipes.:Heston Blumenthal variation.\n\nBlumenthal's recipe uses ice cream without flavouring, but which tastes of egg. In the recipe featured in \"The Big Fat Duck Cookbook\", the bacon is lightly roasted with the fat on, then infused in milk for 10 hours. The infused mix is precisely heated with egg and sugar to overcook the eggs, increasing the \"eggy\" flavour, then sieved, put through a food processor, churned and frozen. The ice cream is served with caramelised French toast, a tomato compote, a slice of pancetta hardened with maple syrup, and tea jelly.\n", "Take Tin Ice-Pots, fill them with any Sort of Cream you like, either plain or sweeten’d, or Fruit in it; shut your Pots very close; to six Pots you must allow eighteen or twenty Pound of Ice, breaking the Ice very small; there will be some great Pieces, which lay at the Bottom and Top: You must have a Pail, and lay some Straw at the Bottom; then lay in your Ice, and put in amongst it a Pound of Bay-Salt; set in your Pots of Cream, and lay Ice and Salt between every Pot, that they may not touch; but the Ice must lie round them on every Side; lay a good deal of Ice on the Top, cover the Pail with Straw, set it in a Cellar where no Sun or Light comes, it will be froze in four Hours, but it may stand longer; then take it out just as you use it; hold it in your Hand and it will slip out. When you wou’d freeze any Sort of Fruit, either Cherries, Raspberries, Currants, or Strawberries, fill your Tin-Pots with the Fruit, but as hollow as you can; put to them Lemmonade, made with Spring-Water and Lemmon-Juice sweeten’d; put enough in the Pots to make the Fruit hang together, and put them in Ice as you do Cream.\n", "Deep-fried Mars bar\n\nA deep-fried Mars bar is an ordinary Mars bar normally fried in a type of batter commonly used for deep-frying fish, sausages, and other battered products. The chocolate bar is typically chilled before battering to prevent it from melting into the frying fat, despite a cold Mars bar being able to fracture when heated.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nBruce Reed got his start with the ice cream business in the 1950s, when, as a child, he helped out his parents at their diner, Jerry's Curb Service, in Bridgewater, Pennsylvania, a small town located 27 miles northwest of Pittsburgh. It was through this experience that Reed would learn from his dad the secrets to the restaurant business.\n", "In modern times, a common method for producing ice cream at home is to use an ice cream maker, an electrical device that churns the ice cream mixture while cooled inside a household freezer. Some more expensive models have an inbuilt freezing element. A newer method is to add liquid nitrogen to the mixture while stirring it using a spoon or spatula for a few seconds; a similar technique, advocated by Heston Blumenthal as ideal for home cooks, is to add dry ice to the mixture while stirring for a few minutes. Some ice cream recipes call for making a custard, folding in whipped cream, and immediately freezing the mixture. Another method is to use a pre-frozen solution of salt and water, which gradually melts as the ice cream freezes.\n", "Layne returns home with a plan. He begs his wife to take their children away to their grandmother's house for one day while he fixes things. After they leave, he tests the garden devices with a remote, then uses ice cream from a bucket in the freezer to create a shape. He wraps the treat with one of Buster's wrappers that Layne had thrown away.\n" ]

[ "If you deep fry ice cream, it will melt." ]

[ "The ice cream is frozen extremely cold. It softens up a little but is still plenty cold." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If you deep fry ice cream, it will melt." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The ice cream is frozen extremely cold. It softens up a little but is still plenty cold." ]

[ "Popcorn will pop when freshly harvested, but not well; its high moisture content leads to poor expansion and chewy pieces of popcorn. Kernels with a high moisture content are also susceptible to mold when stored. For these reasons, popcorn growers and distributors dry the kernels until they reach the moisture level at which they expand the most. This differs by variety and conditions, but is generally in the range of 14–15% moisture by weight. If the kernels are over-dried, the expansion rate will suffer and the percentage of kernels that pop will decline.\n", "BULLET::::- Some varieties of maize (usually called corn in North America) are dried to produce popcorn. Popcorn kernels with a high moisture content will pop when freshly harvested, but not well, and are also susceptible to mold when stored. So, popcorn growers and distributors dry the kernels until they reach the moisture level at which they expand (pop) the most when cooked. Dried maize left on the ear is also used for decorative purposes.\n\nSection::::Fungi.\n\nBULLET::::- Baker's yeast\n", "When the popcorn has finished popping, sometimes unpopped kernels remain. Known in the popcorn industry as \"old maids\", these kernels fail to pop because they do not have enough moisture to create enough steam for an explosion. Re-hydrating prior to popping usually results in eliminating the unpopped kernels.\n", "In 2003, Market Square Food Company Inc., based in Highland Park, Illinois, began purchasing raw popcorn from K&K Popcorn and popping it. The company would then package the popcorn under the label, \"The World's Tiniest Popcorn We Think.\" Market Square's popcorn went on sale in Iowa in December 2003, and was available in four flavors. Stores also continued to sell K&K's un-popped popcorn, which at that time was made without preservatives, as well as artificial colors and flavors.\n", "Section::::Home media.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dark corn syrup\" is a combination of corn syrup and molasses (or Refiners' syrup), caramel color and flavor, salt, and the preservative sodium benzoate. Dark corn syrup is a warm brown color and tastes much stronger than light corn syrup. Molasses in dark corn syrup enhances its flavor and color.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "CFOH + ·OH → CFO· + HO\n\nCFO·→ CF· + CFO\n\nIn Cycle B:\n\nCFOH → CFCFO + HF\n\nCFCFO + HO → CFCOO + HF + H\n\nCFCFO +·OH → CFOH·\n\nCFOH· → CFCOO· + HF\n\nIn Cycle C:\n\nCF· + O → CFOO·\n\nCFOO· + RCOO· → CFO· + RCO· + O\n\nCFO· → CF· + CFO\n\nCOF + HO → CO + 2HF\n\nIn cycle D, volatile fluorinated organic contaminants are released.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys collinus\" - Cooper's popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys diffusus\" - San Francisco popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys distantiflorus\" - California popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys figuratus\" - fragrant popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys fulvus\" - fulvous popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys glyptocarpus\" - sculptured popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys greenei\" - Greene's popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys hirtus\" - rough popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys hispidus\" - Cascade popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys humistratus\" - dwarf popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys infectivus\" - dye popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys jonesii\" - Mojave popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys kingii\" - Great Basin popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys leptocladus\" - finebranched popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys mollis\" - soft popcornflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plagiobothrys nothofulvus\" - rusty popcornflower\n", "Since 1854, the ancestors of Richard Kelty (1936-2015) had been growing a heirloom popcorn variety out of small kernels, whose hulls would disintegrate after being popped, resulting in a richer taste. The popcorn had been introduced to the Kelty family by Native Americans, who shared it with them. The Kelty family had never sold the popcorn, which was only grown for personal consumption.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nThere are various types of cornmeal:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blue cornmeal\" is light blue or violet in color. It is ground from whole blue corn and has a sweet flavor. The cornmeal consists of dried corn kernels that have been ground into a fine or medium texture.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Steel-ground yellow cornmeal\", which is common mostly in the United States, has the husk and germ of the maize kernel almost completely removed. It is conserved for about a year if stored in an airtight container in a cool, dry place.\n", "Corn on the cob is normally eaten while still warm. It is often seasoned with salt and buttered before serving. Some diners use specialized skewers, thrust into the ends of the cob, to hold the ear while eating without touching the hot and sticky kernels.\n\nWithin a day of corn being picked it starts converting sugar into starch, which results in reduction in the level of natural sweetness. Corn should be cooked and served the same day it has been harvested, as it takes only a single day for corn to lose up to 25% of its sweetness.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Section::::Formulation.\n\nDry popcorn seasoning may be finely granulated to enable even dispersion when placed upon popcorn. Common homemade popcorn seasoning ingredients include salt and melted butter.\n\nSection::::Use in foods.\n\nSome oils used to cook popcorn contain popcorn seasonings mixed within the oil, and may be referred to as popcorn seasoning oils or liquid popcorn seasoning.\n\nSection::::Commercial applications.\n\nPopcorn seasoning is sometimes used within machines that are utilized to produce large quantities of popcorn for consumer purchase.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- as Lorenzo\n\nBULLET::::- as Duilio\n\nBULLET::::- Alba Mottura as Cecilia\n\nBULLET::::- Egidio Termine as Bruno\n\nBULLET::::- Mattia Pinoli as Grandpa\n\nBULLET::::- Paolo Garlato as Father\n\nBULLET::::- Elena Barbalich as Adalgisa\n\nBULLET::::- Elisabetta Barbini as Grandma\n\nBULLET::::- Marina Vlady as Stepmother\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Pop Weaver, the flagship brand, has a moderate sodium content. Weaver is one of the few companies that use canola oil, a healthier alternative to soybean, coconut, and sunflower oils, in its products. Flavors for microwave oven products include Butter, Light Butter, Extra Butter, Kettle Corn, Caramel, Cinnamon Roll, Jalapeño Cheddar and Parmesan and Herb. Flavors for concession sale include Weaver Gold, Caramel & Sweet, Premium Hybrid Yellow, Candy cane flavor, Almond, and chocolate dipped. Flavors for pre-popped include Caramel Corn with Peanuts and Dash of Salt.\n\nSection::::Products.:Trail's End.\n", "Charles Cretors took his new popcorn wagon to the Midway of Chicago's Columbian Exposition in 1893 and introduced the new corn product. After a trial period where Cretors gave away samples of his new popcorn product, people lined up to purchase bags of the hot, buttered popcorn. The smell of roasting peanuts and of hot buttered corn being popped in its seasoning before the buyers' attracted attention and sales.\n\nSection::::History.:1900s through 1930s.\n", "The whole dried corn kernel contains a nutritious germ and a thin seed coat that provides some fiber.\n\nBULLET::::1. The germ contains oil that is exposed by grinding, thus whole-grain cornmeal and grits turn rancid quickly at room temperature and should be refrigerated.\n\nBULLET::::2. Whole-grain cornmeal and grits require extended cooking times as seen in the following cooking directions for whole-grain grits;\n", "Cave popcorn can also form by evaporation in which case it is chalky and white like edible popcorn. In the right conditions, evaporative cave popcorn may grow on the windward side of the surface to which it is attached or appear on the edges of projecting surfaces.\n\nSection::::On manmade structures (outside the cave environment).\n", "Each kernel of popcorn contains a certain amount of moisture and oil. Unlike most other grains, the outer hull of the popcorn kernel is both strong and impervious to moisture and the starch inside consists almost entirely of a hard type.\n", "Popcorn, Indiana's ready-to-eat popcorns are free from trans fats, gluten, preservatives, and genetically modified foods (GMOS). Most products are cholesterol-free, and some flavors are available in an organic variety. The products are also produced without artificial colors. There are two main types of products from Popcorn, Indiana: Classic Popcorn and Drizzlecorn. Popcorn, Indiana's products are also certified by the Whole Grains Council. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "As the oil and the water within the kernel are heated, they turn the moisture in the kernel into pressurized steam. Under these conditions, the starch inside the kernel gelatinizes, softens, and becomes pliable. The internal pressure of the entrapped steam continues to increase until the breaking point of the hull is reached: a pressure of approximately and a temperature of . The hull thereupon ruptures rapidly and explodes, causing a sudden drop in pressure inside the kernel and a corresponding rapid expansion of the steam, which expands the starch and proteins of the endosperm into airy foam. As the foam rapidly cools, the starch and protein polymers set into the familiar crispy puff. Special varieties are grown to give improved popping yield. Though the kernels of some wild types will pop, the cultivated strain is \"Zea mays everta,\" which is a special kind of flint corn.\n", "BULLET::::- 2013: Popcorn, a turkey from Badger, Minnesota. Popcorn won an online contest over its identically sized stablemate Caramel, which was also spared. Popcorn died of heatstroke in summer 2014. Caramel survived much longer; it outlived one of the next year's turkeys and did not die until October 2015, spending most of its two years of life at Morven Park as the companion of a brown heritage turkey named Franklin.\n", "Tiny but Mighty Popcorn\n\nTiny but Mighty Popcorn is an American brand of heirloom popcorn, introduced in 1981, when Iowa farmer Richard Kelty founded K&K Popcorn. Iowa farmers Gene and Lynn Mealhow later purchased the company in 1999, and subsequently renamed it.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Kelty family.\n", "BULLET::::- †\"Ptychocarpus unitus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Ptylopora\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites chapelensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites compactus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites flavus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites glaber\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites grandivermiculatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites minutus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatisporites obesus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatosporites\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatosporites compactus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatosporites glaber\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatosporites granifer\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctatosporites minutus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctospirifer\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Punctospirifer kentuckensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Pustulatisporites\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Pycnoblattina\" –\n\nSection::::Q.\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Quasillinites\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Quasillinites diversiformis\"\n\nSection::::R.\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia abdita\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia aculeata\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia aculeolata\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia crinita\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia crocea\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia rubida\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Raistrickia subcrinita\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Rectifenestella\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Rectifenestella tenax\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Reticulatia\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Reticulatia huecoensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Reticulatisporites\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Reticulatisporites muricatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Reticulitriletes\"\n", "The corn grown by Kelty was never hybridized or genetically modified. Kelty's stalks would reach a height of four to five feet. Each kernel was capable of producing four to six stalks with three to four ears of corn each, unlike field corn. Each ear of corn was grown to be less than three inches long. The characteristics of Kelty's popcorn were created through open pollination, seed selection, and roguing.\n\nSection::::History.:Mealhow purchase.\n", "Section::::Safety issues.:Environmental impacts.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In approximately 1 in 2,000 infants, there is enough variation in the appearance of the external genitalia to merit hesitation about appropriate assignment by the physician involved. Typical examples would be an unusually prominent clitoris in an otherwise apparently typical girl, or complete cryptorchidism in an otherwise apparently typical boy. In most of these cases, a sex is tentatively assigned and the parents told that tests will be performed to confirm the apparent sex. Typical tests in this situation might include a pelvic ultrasound to determine the presence of a uterus, a testosterone or 17α-hydroxyprogesterone level, and/or a karyotype. In some of these cases a pediatric endocrinologist is consulted to confirm the tentative sex assignment. The expected assignment is usually confirmed within hours to a few days in these cases.\n", "BULLET::::- Raise most ambiguous XY infants with testes as male unless the external genitalia are more female than male, marked androgen insensitivity is present, and testes are absent or non-functional. Raise as male any XY infant with unambiguous micropenis. Raise as male any XY infant with functional testes and normal androgen sensitivity but atypically formed or absent penis.\n\nBULLET::::- Raise infants with mixed gonadal tissue, true hermaphroditism, or other chromosome anomalies as the sex most consistent with external genitalia, since gonads are usually nonfunctional.\n", "Section::::In humans.:Samples per child.\n\nThe number of samples (ejaculates) required to give rise to a child varies substantially from person to person, as well as from clinic to clinic. However, the following equations generalize the main factors involved:\n\nFor intracervical insemination:\n\nBULLET::::- \"N\" is how many children a single sample can give rise to.\n\nBULLET::::- \"V\" is the volume of a sample (ejaculate), usually between 1.0 mL and 6.5 mL\n\nBULLET::::- \"c\" is the concentration of motile sperm in a sample \"after freezing and thawing\", approximately 5–20 million per ml but varies substantially\n", "There is also a \"hybrid bicornuate uterus:\" External fundal depressions of variable depths associated with a septate uterus can be seen by laparoscopy, indicating the coexistence of the two anomalies. These cases are candidates for hysteroscopic metroplasty under appropriate sonographic and/or laparoscopic monitoring.\n\nAn \"obstructed bicornuate uterus\" showing uni or bilateral obstruction might also be possible. The unilateral obstruction is more difficult to diagnose than the bilateral obstructive. A delay in the diagnosis can be problematic and compromise the reproductive abilities of those cases.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In a much smaller proportion of cases, the process of assignment is more complex, and involves both \"determining\" what the biological elements of characteristic sex may be and \"choosing\" the best sex assignment for the purposes of rearing the child. Approximately 1 in 20,000 infants is born with enough ambiguity that assignment becomes a more drawn-out process of multiple tests and intensive education of the parents about sexual differentiation. In some of these cases, it is clear that the child will face physical difficulties or social stigma as they grow up, and deciding upon the sex of assignment involves weighing the advantages and disadvantages of either assignment.\n", "Sex assignment\n\nSex assignment (sometimes known as gender assignment) is the determination of an infant's sex at birth. In the majority of births, a relative, midwife, nurse or physician inspects the genitalia when the baby is delivered, and sex and gender are assigned, without the expectation of ambiguity. Assignment may also be done prior to birth through prenatal sex discernment.\n", "Observation or recognition of an infant's sex may be complicated in the case of intersex infants and children, and in cases of early trauma. In such cases, sex assignment is generally taken to require medical treatment to confirm that assignment, but this is disputed in part due to the human rights implications of such treatment.\n", "Section::::Indications and applications.:Sex discernment.\n\nPreimplantation genetic diagnosis provides a method of prenatal sex discernment even before implantation, and may therefore be termed \"preimplantation sex discernment\". Potential applications of preimplantation sex discernment include:\n\nBULLET::::- A complement to specific gene testing for monogenic disorders, which can be very useful for genetic diseases whose presentation is linked to the sex, such as, for example, X-linked diseases.\n\nBULLET::::- Ability to prepare for any sex-dependent aspects of parenting.\n", "A doctor or WHNP takes a medical history and gives a physical examination. They can also carry out some basic tests on both partners to see if there is an identifiable reason for not having achieved a pregnancy. If necessary, they refer patients to a fertility clinic or local hospital for more specialized tests. The results of these tests help determine the best fertility treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "An important category of septate uterus is the hybrid type a variant that may be misdiagnosed as bicornuate uterus when seen by laparoscopy Professor El Saman From Egypt was the first to describe this anomaly and warned gynecologist about this common misdiagnosis, whenever there is a uterine fundus depression on laparoscopy gynecologists should compare the depth of this depression with the depth of the dividing internal interface. Hybrid septate uterus benefit from hysteroscopic metroplasty under laparoscopic control.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "Previously, a bicornuate uterus was thought to be associated with infertility, but recent studies have not confirmed such an association.\n\nSection::::Cause.:By location.:Cervical factors.\n\nBULLET::::- Cervical stenosis\n\nBULLET::::- Antisperm antibodies\n\nBULLET::::- Non-receptive cervical mucus\n\nSection::::Cause.:By location.:Vaginal factors.\n\nBULLET::::- Vaginismus\n\nBULLET::::- Vaginal obstruction\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnosis of infertility begins with a medical history and physical exam. The healthcare provider may order tests, including the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Lab tests\n\nBULLET::::- Hormone testing, to measure levels of female hormones at certain times during a menstrual cycle.\n\nBULLET::::- Day 2 or 3 measure of FSH and estrogen, to assess ovarian reserve.\n", "In other cases, sex of a fetus is determined by environmental variables (such as temperature). The details of some sex-determination systems are not yet fully understood. Hopes for future fetal biological system analysis include complete-reproduction-system initialized signals that can be measured during pregnancies to more accurately determine whether a determined sex of a fetus is male, or female. Such analysis of biological systems could also signal whether the fetus is hermaphrodite, which includes total or partial of both male and female reproduction organs.\n", "When predicting the likely effects (if any) of CPM detected in the first trimester, several potentially interactive factors may be playing a role, including:\n", "Other scholars question whether birth sex ratio outside 103–107 can be due to natural reasons. William James and others suggest that conventional assumptions have been:\n\nBULLET::::- there are equal numbers of X and Y chromosomes in mammalian sperms\n\nBULLET::::- X and Y stand equal chance of achieving conception\n\nBULLET::::- therefore equal number of male and female zygotes are formed, and that\n\nBULLET::::- therefore any variation of sex ratio at birth is due to sex selection between conception and birth.\n", "Prenatal sex discernment\n\nPrenatal sex discernment is the prenatal testing for discerning the sex of a fetus before birth.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nPrenatal sex discernment can be performed by preimplantation genetic diagnosis before conception, but this method may not always be classified as \"prenatal sex discernment\" because it's performed even before implantation.\n", "The analysis of cffDNA from a sample of maternal plasma allows for prenatal sex discernment. Applications of prenatal sex discernment include:\n\nBULLET::::- Disease testing: Whether the sex of the fetus is male or female allows the determination of the risk of a particular X-linked recessive genetic disorder in a particular pregnancy, especially where the mother is a genetic carrier of the disorder.\n\nBULLET::::- Preparation, for any sex-dependent aspects of parenting.\n", "Section::::Assignment in cases of infants with intersex traits, or cases of trauma.:History.\n", "The following causes of infertility may only be found in females.\n\nFor a woman to conceive, certain things have to happen: vaginal intercourse must take place around the time when an egg is released from her ovary; the system that produces eggs has to be working at optimum levels; and her hormones must be balanced.\n", "Section::::Artificial insemination.\n\nThere are a number of methods of artificial insemination. Various devices may be used including:\n\nSection::::Artificial insemination.:Conception cap.\n", "In the case of heterosexual couples who are finding it difficult to conceive, before artificial insemination is turned to as the solution, doctors will require an examination of both the male and female involved in order to remove any and all physical hindrances that are preventing them from naturally achieving a pregnancy. The couple is also given a fertility test to determine the motility, number, and viability of the male's sperm and the success of the female's ovulation. From these tests, the doctor may or may not recommend a form of artificial insemination.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Preparations.\n", "James' hypothesis is supported by historical birth sex ratio data before technologies for ultrasonographic sex-screening were discovered and commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, as well by reverse abnormal sex ratios currently observed in Africa. Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, witnessed birth sex ratios below 100, that is more girls are born than boys. Angola, Botswana and Namibia have reported birth sex ratios between 94 and 99, which is quite different than the presumed 104 to 106 as natural human birth sex ratio.\n", "Some methods of NFP track biological signs of fertility. When used outside of the Catholic concept of NFP, these methods are often referred to simply as \"fertility awareness-based methods\" rather than NFP. The three primary signs of a woman's fertility are her basal body temperature (BBT), her cervical mucus, and her cervical position. Computerized fertility monitors, such as Lady-Comp, may track basal body temperatures, hormonal levels in urine, changes in electrical resistance of a woman's saliva, or a mixture of these symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::3. There has been discussion, understanding, and declared intentions between the parties about the day-to-day care, guardianship, and adoption of any resulting child, and any ongoing contact; and\n\nBULLET::::4. Each party has received independent medical advice; and\n\nBULLET::::5. Each party has received independent legal advice; and\n\nBULLET::::6. Each party has received counselling in accord with the current Fertility Services Standard;\n", "Section::::Clinical presentations and diagnosis.\n\nPatients who have not reached puberty are asymptomatic and diagnosis is difficult at this stage as the vagina and uterus are not fully developed. Estrogenization during puberty will increase the size of the uterus and allow for accurate evaluation. Symptomatic patients will present with pain at the uterus area due to infections or abnormal vaginal bleeding with cyclical pelvic pain. \n\nSection::::Clinical presentations and diagnosis.:Clinical presentations of Septate uterus.\n", "The earliest post-implantation test, cell free fetal DNA testing, involves taking a blood sample from the mother and isolating the small amount of fetal DNA that can be found within it. When performed after week seven of pregnancy, this method is about 98% accurate.\n" ]

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[ "In order to verify whether the body of a woman entombed near Sweyn II of Denmark in Roskilde Cathedral is that of his mother Estrid, mtDNA from pulp of teeth from each of the two bodies was extracted and analysed. The king was assigned to mtDNA haplogroup H and the woman was assigned to mtDNA haplogroup H5a. Based on the observation of two HVR1 sequence differences, it was concluded that it is highly unlikely that the woman was the king's mother.\n\nSection::::Ancient samples.:Tutankhamun.\n", "Sponsored mainly by Ericsson, ABB and the Swedish Postal Service, the account was published by Ristesson Ent in Ludvika and Los Angeles. A fictional chronicler called \"Erik, Son of Riste\" relates the factual story, which is followed by fact boxes about each of the 66 monarchs covered and a number of ancestry charts. Illustrations (if not otherwise noted in the book) are portrait drawings by the author made from the 1960s to the 1990s, and 3 differently sorted lists of persons are included as well as an appended text rendition in Swedish.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard III: Solving a 500 Year Old Cold Case (TEDx Leicester)\n\nBULLET::::- Richard III – The DNA Analysis & Conclusion (University of Leicester)\n\nBULLET::::- Richard III: The Resolution of A 500-Year-Old Cold Case (Irving K. Barber Learning Centre Lecture, UBC)\n\nBULLET::::- Richard III: The King in the Car Park\n\nSection::::Career and research.:Current projects.\n\nThe following is a list of projects Dr. King is either heading or is involved with:\n\nBULLET::::- The King's DNA: whole genome sequencing of Richard III\n\nBULLET::::- What's in a Name? Applying Patrilineal Surnames to Forensics, Population History, and Genetic Epidemiology\n", "BULLET::::- \"The file of the United Services' Institute,\" accompanied by the directive, \"read what Bellew says,\" refers, no doubt, to an 1879 lecture on \"Kafristan [sic] and the Kafirs\" by Surgeon Major Henry Walter Bellew (1834–1892). This account, like Wood's, was based largely on second-hand native travellers' accounts and \"some brief notices of this people and country scattered about in the works of different native historians,\" for, as he noted, \"up to the present time we have no account of this country and its inhabitants by any European traveler who has himself visited them.\" The 29-page survey of history, manners and customs, was as \"sketchy and inaccurate\" as the narrator suggests, Bellew ackowledging that \"of the religion of the Kafirs we know very little,\" but noting that \"the Kafir women have a world wide reputation of being very beautiful creatures.\"\n", "There remains a factual question as to whether the number of each candidate's royal ancestors or percentage of \"royal blood\" can be accurately estimated without being able to trace every branch of the candidate's family tree for an indefinite length. However, the relevance of such descent is also questioned due to the relatively small degree of inheritance a person receives from such distant ancestors. For instance, a person ten generations removed from a royal ancestor would have less than one thousandth of that ancestor's DNA and this amount would be halved with each subsequent generation. Thus, even if being a twenty-seventh generation descendant of King John could confer some advantage on a presidential contender, it is unclear how it would have any measurable effect.\n", "On 5 February 2013 Professor Caroline Wilkinson of the University of Dundee conducted a facial reconstruction of Richard III, commissioned by the Richard III Society, based on 3D mappings of his skull. The face is described as \"warm, young, earnest and rather serious\". On 11 February 2014 the University of Leicester announced the project to sequence the entire genome of Richard III and one of his living relatives, Michael Ibsen, whose mitochondrial DNA confirmed the identification of the excavated remains. Richard III thus became the first ancient person of known historical identity to have their genome sequenced.\n", "Section::::Essex.\n", "Mercian Archaeological Services CIC Volunteers and staff excavated 15 test pits in Kings Clipstone, during February 2013.\n", "In 2004, the British historian John Ashdown-Hill had used genealogical research to trace matrilineal descendants of Anne of York, Richard's elder sister. A British-born woman who emigrated to Canada after the Second World War, Joy Ibsen (), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line. Joy Ibsen's mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J, which by deduction, should also be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III. Joy Ibsen died in 2008. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the research team on 24 August 2012. His mitochondrial DNA passed down the direct maternal line was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation site and used to identify King Richard.\n", "In their fully elaborated forms as preserved in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicles\" and the \"Textus Roffensis\", they continue the pedigrees back to the biblical patriarchs Noah and Adam. They also served as the basis for pedigrees that would be developed in 13th century Iceland for the Scandinavian royalty.\n\nSection::::Documentary tradition.\n\nThe Anglo-Saxons, uniquely among the early Germanic peoples, preserved royal genealogies. The earliest source for these genealogies is Bede, who in his \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\" (completed in or before 731) said of the founders of the Kingdom of Kent:\n", "As for descendants of genealogical documented lineages, various estimated figures have been proposed. For instance, Mark Humphrys, a professor of computer science at Dublin City University in Ireland, and genealogy enthusiast, estimate the people of provable genealogical ancestry from medieval monarchs to millions. In any case, the percentage of genealogical descendants are bound to increase with time; not only with every new generation but also due to more extensive combination of individual efforts in genealogy software, including international services available online.\n", "In Ireland, population genetic studies, including surname studies, have been undertaken by a team under Dan Bradley. Databases on Britain and Ireland, as well as on various surnames, are being built up from personal DNA tests, for example at FamilyTree DNA. A widely reported article in this area was , which provided Y DNA evidence that in some cases Irish surname groups were highly dominated by single male lines, presumed to be those of dynastic founders, such as Niall of the Nine Hostages.\n", "Between 1903 and 1911, the Melville Henry Massue produced volumes titled \"The Blood Royal of Britain\" - which attempted to name all the then-living descendants of King Edward III of England (1312–1377) - were published. He gave up the exercise after publishing the names of about 40,000 living people, but his own estimate was that the total of those of royal descent who could be proved and named if he completed his work at that time was 100,000 people. His work, however, was heavily dependent upon those whose names were readily ascertainable from works of genealogical reference, such as Burke's Peerage and Landed Gentry.\n", "Much information about the royal family is compiled only in the authorized companion book \"Roger Zelazny's Visual Guide to Castle Amber\". Some personal colors and offspring are identified only there.\n", "The text continues on the \"back\" (verso) of the Palermo Stone, cataloguing events during the reigns of pharaohs down to Neferirkare Kakai, third ruler of the Fifth Dynasty. From the surviving fragments it is unclear whether the Royal Annals originally continued beyond this point in time. Where a king is named, the name of his mother is also recorded, such as Betrest mother of the First Dynasty king Semerkhet and Meresankh I mother of the Fourth Dynasty king Seneferu.\n", "On 11 August 2009 archaeologists announced that they had discovered a royal tomb from the early Bronze Age at Forteviot. Along with the remains of the ancient ruler were found burial treasures which include a bronze and gold dagger, a wooden bowl and a leather bag. Archaeologists from Glasgow University and Aberdeen University continue to investigate the finds.\n\nSection::::The Pictish Palace of Forteviot.\n", "Research on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was conducted in the American AFDIL and in European GMI laboratories. In comparison with the previous analyses mtDNA in the area of Alexandra Fyodorovna, positions 16519C, 524.1A and 524.2C were added. The mtDNA of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, a great-nephew of the last Tsarina, was used by forensic scientists to identify her body and those of her children.\n\nSection::::Killing of other Romanovs.\n", "Ryholt is also a specialist on Demotic papyri and literature and has authored numerous books and articles about this subject. In 2011 he discovered the identity the famous sage king Nechepsos .\n\nSince 2013 he directs a project on ancient ink as technology.\n\nHe has also written a book on antiquities trade with Fredrik Norland Hagen.\n\nSection::::Second Intermediate Period.\n", "BULLET::::- James Anderson, \"Royal Genealogies\" (1732). This book was based on a work of Johann Hübner, but with Anderson's additions. The king-list is Table 499, attributed to Boece and Buchanan.\n\nBULLET::::- Francis Nichols, \"The British Compendium\" (1741)\n\nBULLET::::- William Guthrie.\n", "BULLET::::- whether King Sverre was son of King Sigurd II of Norway,\n\nBULLET::::- whether Haakon IV of Norway was son of King Haakon III\n\nEach of them came from \"nowhere\" and won the kingdom, the three latter claiming to be hitherto unknown natural sons of an earlier king.\n", "BULLET::::- Woolf, Alex, \"Pictish matriliny reconsidered\" in \"The Innes Review\", Volume XLIV, Number 2 (Autumn 1998). ISSN 0020-157X\n\nBULLET::::- Woolf, Alex, \"Ungus (Onuist), son of Uurgust\" in M. Lynch (2002).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Norway book : \"Jomsvikingslaget i oppklarende lys\", informs the Pictish kings escaped to the coast of Norway, instead of being murdered at Scone\n\nBULLET::::- CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork\n", "BULLET::::- Line of succession to the Swedish Throne\n\nBULLET::::- List of Swedes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Swedish consorts\n\nBULLET::::- List of Swedish governments\n\nBULLET::::- List of Swedish military commanders\n\nBULLET::::- List of Swedish politicians\n\nBULLET::::- Politics of Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- Prime Minister of Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- Provinces of Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- Realm of Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- Riksdag, Riksdag of the Estates\n\nBULLET::::- Royal mottos of Swedish monarchs\n\nBULLET::::- Swedish monarchs family tree\n\nBULLET::::- List of Danish monarchs\n\nBULLET::::- List of Norwegian monarchs\n\nBULLET::::- List of Estonian rulers\n\nBULLET::::- List of Finnish rulers\n\nBULLET::::- List of Greenlandic rulers\n\nBULLET::::- List of rulers of Iceland\n", "As of January 2018, the database had information on more than 3 million people and 177,000 family names.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Circle system.\n\nSome individuals in the database have their name succeeded by a coloured circle that defines them as descendants of the different kings that constitute a reference for the corresponding nationality. This principle applies to all sites and thus:\n\nBULLET::::- A green circle identifies the descendants of Ferdinand I, King of Castile and León (Spanish monarch)\n\nBULLET::::- A yellow circle identifies the descendants of Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor (German monarch)\n", "Regnal lists were kept in early medieval Ireland, Pictland and Anglo-Saxon England. The historian David Dumville regarded them as more reliable than genealogies because they can be manipulated \"in a smaller variety of ways than a genealogy\". For example, some genealogies may have been fabricated from pre-existing regnal lists. In early medieval Wales, the regnal list was unknown and one copyist, confronted with a mere list of Roman emperors, converted it into a pedigree.\n", "In April 2011, Channel 4's Time Team filmed an episode of the long running archaeological television programme at King John's Palace. A number of evaluation trenches and areas were opened to test anomalies identified by Gaunt in 2010. The excavation was directed by Professor Mick Aston. On site experts included Paul Blinkhorn and David Budge (pottery), Andy Gaunt (landscape archaeology), David Crook (historian), Dr Naomi Sykes (zooarchaeology), Alex Rowson (researcher), James Wright (buildings) and regular members of Time Team. The project design for the programme was written by Jim Mower and James Wright. A report was generated by Wessex Archaeology.\n" ]

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[ "For ideal cases, =0 and the created foam is dependent on the change in chemical potential of the solute. During foaming, the solute experiences a change in chemical potential as it goes from the bulk solution to the foam surface. In this case, the following equation can be applied where is the activity of the surfactant, is the gas constant, and is the absolute temperature:\n\nThe Enrichment ratio demonstrates how effective the foaming is in extracting the protein from the solution into the foam, the higher the number the better the affinity the protein has for the foam state.\n\nformula_5\n", "Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n", "As in many chemical processes, there are competing considerations of recovery (i.e. the percentage of target surfactant that reports to the overhead foamate stream) and enrichment (i.e. the ratio of surfactant concentration in the foamate to the concentration in the feed). A crude method of moving upon the enrichment-recovery spectrum is to control the gas rate to the column. A higher gas rate will mean higher recovery but lower enrichment.\n\nFoam fractionation proceeds via two mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::1. The target molecule adsorbs to a bubble surface, and\n", "There are two types of foam that can form from this process. They are wet foam (or \"kugelschaum\") and dry foam (or \"polyederschaum\"). Wet foam tends to form at the lower portion of the foam column, while dry foam tends to form at the upper portion. The wet foam is more spherical and viscous, and the dry foam tends to be larger in diameter and less viscous. Wet foam forms closer to the originating liquid, while dry foam develops at the outer boundaries. As such, what most people usually understand as foam is actually only dry foam.\n", "BULLET::::2. The foam autogenously provides the packing within the column.\n\nJust as in gas-liquid absorption, the adoption of reflux at the top of the column can engender multiple equilibrium stages within the column. However, if one can control the rate at which the bubble size changes with height in the column, either by coalescence or Ostwald ripening, one can engineer an internal source of reflux within the column.\n", "BULLET::::2. The bubbles form a foam which travels up a column and is discharged to the foamate stream of foam fractionation.\n\nThe rate at which certain non-ionic molecules can adsorb to bubble surface can be estimated by solving the Ward-Tordai equation. The enrichment and recovery depend on the hydrodynamic condition of the rising foam, which is a complex system dependent upon bubble size distribution, stress state at the gas-liquid interface, rate of bubble coalescence, gas rate \"inter alia\". The hydrodynamic condition is described by the Hydrodynamic Theory of Rising Foam.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The setup for continuous foam separation consists of securing a column at the top of the container of solution that is to be foamed. Air or a specific gas is dispersed in the solution through a sparger. A collecting column at the top collects the foam being produced. The foam is then collected and collapsed in another container.\n\nIn the continuous foam separation process a continuous gas line is fed into the solution, therefore causing continuous foaming to occur. Continuous foam separation may not be as efficient in separating solutes as opposed to separating a fixed amount of solution.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Foam\n\nFoam is an object formed by trapping pockets of gas in a liquid or solid.\n\nA bath sponge and the head on a glass of beer are examples of foams. In most foams, the volume of gas is large, with thin films of liquid or solid separating the regions of gas. Soap foams are also known as suds.\n", "The nucleation reaction can start with any heterogeneous surface, such as rock salt, but Mentos have been found to work better than most. Tonya Coffey, a physicist at Appalachian State University, found that the aspartame in diet drinks lowers the surface tension in the water and causes a bigger reaction, but that caffeine does not accelerate the process. It has also been shown that a wide variety of beverage additives such as sugars, citric acid, and natural flavors can also enhance fountain heights. In some cases, dissolved solids that increase the surface tension of water (such as sugars) also increase fountain heights. These results suggest that additives serve to enhance geyser heights not by decreasing surface tension, but rather by decreasing bubble coalescence. Decreased bubble coalescence leads to smaller bubble sizes and greater foaming ability in water. Thus, the geyser reaction will still work even using sugared drinks, but diet is commonly used both for the sake of a larger geyser as well as to avoid having to clean up a sugary soda mess.\n", "with velocity in units of centimeters per second. ρ and ρ is the density for a gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm and ῃ and ῃ is the viscosity of the gas and liquid g/cm·s and g is the acceleration in units of cm/s.\n\nHowever, since the density and viscosity of a liquid is much greater than the gas, the density and viscosity of the gas can be neglected, which yields the new equation for velocity of bubbles rising as:\n\nHowever, through experiments it has been shown that a more accurate model for bubbles rising is:\n", "For the Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solution—so the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.\n", "When protein concentrations are increased to their maximum value the foaming powers and foam formation are generally increased. Often to compare foaming properties of various proteins, the foaming power at a specific protein concentration is determined.\n\nA protein will always have certain stresses that it must overcome, such as gravitational and mechanical; it is the protein's ability to stabilize foam against these stresses that determines the foam's stability. The foam's stability is usually expressed as the time required for 50% of the liquid to drain from foam (a 50% reduction in foam volume).\n", "At equilibrium, the difference in capillary pressure must be balanced by the difference in hydrostatic pressure. Hence,\n", "Section::::Foam types.\n\nCAFS is able to deliver a range of useful foam consistencies, labeled from type 1 (very dry) to type 5 (wet), which are controlled by the air-to-solution ratio, and, to a lesser extent, by the concentrate-to-water percentage. Type 1 and 2 foams have long drain times, meaning the bubbles do not burst and give up their water quickly, and long duration. Wet foams, such as type 4 and 5, drain more quickly in the presence of heat. \n", "The basic requirements for formation of foam are an abundance of gas, water, a surfactant, and energy. The steam wand of an espresso machine supplies energy, in the form of heat, and gas, in the form of steam. The other two components, water and surfactants, are naturally occurring ingredients of milk. Varying the balance of these factors affects the size of bubbles, the foam dissipation rate, and the volume of foam.\n", "Section::::Speed of sound.\n\nThe acoustical property of the speed of sound through a foam is of interest when analyzing failures of hydraulic components. The analysis involves calculating total hydraulic cycles to fatigue failure. The speed of sound in a foam is determined by the mechanical properties of the gas creating the foam: oxygen, nitrogen, or combinations.\n", "Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:\n\nBULLET::::- Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n", "Section::::Background.:Theory.\n\nSection::::Background.:Theory.:Young-Laplace equation.\n\nAs vapor bubbles form in a liquid solvent, interfacial tension causes a pressure difference, Δ\"p\", across the surface given by the Young-Laplace equation. The pressure is greater on the concave side of the liquid lamellae (the inside of the bubble) with radius, R, dependent on the pressure differential. For spherical bubbles in a wet foam and standard surface tension , the equation for the change in pressure is as follows:\n", "As contaminants', or surfactants', concentration in the bulk decreases, the surface concentration increases; this increases surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface. Surface tension describes how difficult it is to extend the area of a surface. If surface tension is high, there is a large free energy required to increase the surface area. The surface of the bubbles will contract due to this increased surface tension. This contraction encourages the formation of a foam.\n\nSection::::Background.:Surface chemistry.:Foams.\n\nSection::::Background.:Surface chemistry.:Foams.:Definition.\n", "Section::::Defoaming.\n", "Several conditions are needed to produce foam: there must be mechanical work, surface active components (surfactants) that reduce the surface tension, and the formation of foam faster than its breakdown.\n\nTo create foam, work (W) is needed to increase the surface area (ΔA):\n\nwhere γ is the surface tension.\n", "The absence of oil (or the significantly lower oil content compared to traditionally brewed coffee) makes the system more stable and the bubbles do not collapse with the same ease as in cream. Soon after the foam is created, a process of thickening takes place where water molecules are constantly pushed out of the frothy mixture. The water is pushed out due to drainage occurring due to pressure differentials along the foam septum. Higher viscosity will retard the phenomenon, and that is the reason that the addition of sugar will create a better foam. The phenomenon continues until bubbles come very close together and the foam almost solidifies. This process can take between 2 minutes to 10 minutes and depends strongly on the agitation process during mixing. As the bubbles come closer together they will slowly start to coalesce and create bigger bubbles. According to the Laplace pressure equation, variation in bubble size will result in faster collapsing of the bubbles since the bigger bubbles will consume the smaller ones. Hand-mixers create smaller and more uniformly sized bubbles. The smaller bubble size reduces the bubble pressure gradient and forms a much longer lasting foam.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.\n\nFoamed concrete typically consists of a slurry of cement or fly ash and sand and water, although some suppliers recommend pure cement and water with the foaming agent for very lightweight mixes. This slurry is further mixed with a synthetic aerated foam in a concrete mixing plant. The foam is created using a foaming agent, mixed with water and air from a generator. The foaming agent used must be able to produce air bubbles with a high level of stability, resistant to the physical and chemical processes of mixing, placing and hardening.\n", "Section::::Workshops.\n", "BULLET::::- Low-expansion foams such as AFFF, have an expansion rate less than 20 times are low-viscosity, mobile, and can quickly cover large areas.\n\nBULLET::::- Medium-expansion foams have an expansion ratio of 20–100.\n\nBULLET::::- High-expansion foams have an expansion ratio over 200–1000 and are suitable for enclosed spaces such as hangars, where quick filling is needed.\n" ]

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[ "The Kingdom of England was formed in the mid 9th Century; for example, Alfred the Great issued laws as \"King of the West Saxons\", and what is now recognised as England came about in 927 AD when the last of the Heptarchy kingdoms fell under the rule of the \"King of the English\", Athelstan. On 14 October 1066, King Harold II of England was killed while leading his men in the Battle of Hastings against Duke William of Normandy. The event completely changed the course of English history. Until 1066, England was ruled by monarchs that were elected by the \"witan\", (meaning \"wise\"). There were various elements of democracy at a local level too, known as folkmoot.\n", "On 12 July 927, the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were united by Æthelstan (r. 927–939) to form the Kingdom of England. In 1016, the kingdom became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The Norman conquest of England in 1066 led to the transfer of the English capital city and chief royal residence from the Anglo-Saxon one at Winchester to Westminster, and the City of London quickly established itself as England's largest and principal commercial centre.\n", "In 1066, William of Normandy brought a feudal system, where he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics before making laws. In 1215, the tenants-in-chief secured the Magna Carta from King John, which established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council, which slowly developed into a parliament.\n", "Section::::Pre-Civil War England.\n\nSection::::Pre-Civil War England.:Before the Norman Conquest.\n", "Section::::Pre-Civil War England.:The Normans.\n", "Kingdom of England\n\nThe Kingdom of England (Anglo-Norman and ) was a sovereign state on the island of Great Britain from 927, when it emerged from various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 1707, when it united with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.\n", "In 1066, William of Normandy introduced what, in later centuries, became referred to as a feudal system, by which he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief (a person who held land) and ecclesiastics before making laws. In 1215, the tenants-in-chief secured Magna Carta from King John, which established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council, which gradually developed into a parliament.\n", "The British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo-Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century. England was conquered by the Normans in 1066, after which Wales too gradually came under control of Anglo-Normans. The process was completed in the 13th century when the Principality of Wales became a client state of the English kingdom. Meanwhile, \"Magna Carta\" began a process of reducing the English monarch's political powers. From 1603, the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married them, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch was the nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.\n", "The new power of the monarch was given a basis by the notion of the divine right of kings to rule over their subjects. James I was a major proponent of this idea and wrote extensively on it.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Development of the English coronation.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Anglo-Saxon England.\n\nThe kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general. The English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE.\n", "At the same time the Council of Wales was created in 1472, a Council of the North was set up for the northern counties of England. After falling into disuse, it was re-established in 1537 and abolished in 1641. A very short-lived Council of the West also existed for the West Country between 1537 and 1540.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of English monarchs\n\nBULLET::::- English colonial empire\n\nBULLET::::- English Army\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Navy\n\nBULLET::::- Privy Council of England\n\nBULLET::::- Crown Jewels of England\n\nBULLET::::- England and Wales\n\nBULLET::::- Anglo-Norman language\n\nBULLET::::- Middle English language\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "Section::::Kingship.:British monarch.\n", "At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of Britannia, a former province of the Roman Empire. The local economy had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and villas. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Germanic immigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers during the 5th century, establishing small farms and settlements, and their language, Old English, swiftly spread as people switched from British Celtic and British Latin to the language of this new elite. New political and social identities emerged, including an Anglian culture in the east of England and a Saxon culture in the south, with local groups establishing \"regiones\", small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals. By the 7th century, some rulers, including those of Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, and Kent, had begun to term themselves kings, living in \"villae regales\", royal centres, and collecting tribute from the surrounding \"regiones\"; these kingdoms are often referred to as the Heptarchy.\n", "Section::::Political history.:House of Plantagenet.:Henry III (1216–72).:Second Barons War and the establishment of Parliament.\n", "Section::::History.:Norman conquest.\n", "The first Stuart monarch, James VI and I, created a vision of a centralised state, run by a monarch whose authority came from God and where the function of Parliament, bishops or elders was to obey. His successors ruled without Parliament for long periods, using the Royal Prerogative instead; legislation passed in this way could be withdrawn as and when the king decided.\n", "The English Throne is one of the oldest continuing hereditary monarchies in the world. In much the same sense as The Crown, the Throne of England becomes an abstract metonymic concept that represents the legal authority for the existence of the government. It evolved naturally as a separation of the literal throne and property of the nation-state from the person and personal property of the monarch.\n", "Section::::History.:Personal union and republican phase.\n", "Section::::Reign.:King of the English.\n", "The Early medieval period saw a series of invasions of Britain by the Germanic-speaking Saxons, beginning in the 5th century. Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were formed and, through wars with British states, gradually came to cover the territory of present-day England. Around 600, seven principal kingdoms had emerged, beginning the so-called period of the Heptarchy. During that period, the Anglo-Saxon states were Christianised (the conversion of the British ones had begun much earlier). In the 9th century, Vikings from Denmark and Norway conquered most of England. Only the Kingdom of Wessex under Alfred the Great survived and even managed to re-conquer and unify England for much of the 10th century, before a new series of Danish raids in the late 10th century and early 11th century culminated in the wholesale subjugation of England to Denmark under Canute the Great. Danish rule was overthrown and the local House of Wessex was restored to power under Edward the Confessor for about two decades until his death in 1066.\n", "Section::::14th century.\n\nThe reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307) was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially sanctioned Parliaments of England (such as his Model Parliament). He conquered Wales and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of the Kingdom of Scotland, though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign.\n", "From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its successor state the United Kingdom, functioned in effect as a constitutional monarchy. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.\n\nSection::::Name.\n\nThe Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the \"Engle\" or the \"Angelcynn\", originally names of the Angles. They called their land \"Engla land\", meaning \"land of the English\", \n", "Section::::England under the Plantagenets.:Henry III.\n\nJohn's son, Henry III, was only 9 years old when he became king (1216–1272). He spent much of his reign fighting the barons over the Magna Carta and the royal rights, and was eventually forced to call the first \"parliament\" in 1264. He was also unsuccessful on the Continent, where he endeavoured to re-establish English control over Normandy, Anjou, and Aquitaine.\n", "BULLET::::- Jeudwine, John Wynne. (1912). \"The First Twelve Centuries of British Story: A Slight Sketch and Criticism of the Social and Political Conditions in the British Islands (herein Called Britain) from the Year 56 B.C. to the Accession of Henry II to the Throne of England in 1154 A.D.\" London: Longmans, Green. OCLC 1356980\n\nBULLET::::- Russell, John. (1844). \"History of England: With Separate Historical Sketches of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland; from the Invasion of Julius Cæsar Until the Accession of Queen Victoria to the British Throne.\" Philadelphia: Hogan & Thompson. OCLC 31202216\n" ]

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[ "Irritation of nerve endings within the nasal passages or airways, can induce a cough reflex and sneezing. These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from the trachea or nose, respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed. During coughing, contraction of the smooth muscle in the airway walls narrows the trachea by pulling the ends of the cartilage plates together and by pushing soft tissue into the lumen. This increases the expired airflow rate to dislodge and remove any irritant particle or mucus.\n", "The most important role of the larynx is its protecting function; the prevention of foreign objects from entering the lungs by coughing and other reflexive actions. A cough is initiated by a deep inhalation through the vocal folds, followed by the elevation of the larynx and the tight adduction (closing) of the vocal folds. The forced expiration that follows, assisted by tissue recoil and the muscles of expiration, blows the vocal folds apart, and the high pressure expels the irritating object out of the throat. Throat clearing is less violent than coughing, but is a similar increased respiratory effort countered by the tightening of the laryngeal musculature. Both coughing and throat clearing are predictable and necessary actions because they clear the respiratory passageway, but both place the vocal folds under significant strain.\n", "Coughing is a mechanism of the body that is essential to normal physiological function of clearing the throat which involves a reflex of the afferent sensory limb, central processing centre of the brain and the efferent limb. In conjunction to the components of the body that are involved, sensory receptors are also used. These receptors include rapidly adapting receptors which respond to mechanical stimuli, slowly adapting receptors and nociceptors which respond to chemical stimuli such as hormones in the body. To start the reflex, the afferent impulses are transmitted to the medulla of the brain this involves the stimulus which is then interpreted. The efferent impulses are then triggered by the medulla causing the signal to travel down the larynx and bronchial tree. This then triggers a cascade of events that involve the intercostal muscles, abdominal wall, diaphragm and pelvic floor which in conjunction together create the reflex known as coughing.\n", "BULLET::::- The abdominal muscles contract to accentuate the action of the relaxing diaphragm; simultaneously, the other expiratory muscles contract. These actions increase the pressure of air within the lungs.\n\nBULLET::::- The vocal cords relax and the glottis opens, releasing air at over 100 mph.\n\nBULLET::::- The bronchi and non-cartilaginous portions of the trachea collapse to form slits through which the air is forced, which clears out any irritants attached to the respiratory lining.\n", "Coughing may also be used for social reasons, such as coughing before giving a speech. Coughing is not always involuntary, and can be used in social situations. Coughing can be used to attract attention, release internal psychological tension, or become a maladaptive displacement behavior. It is believed that the frequency of such coughing increases in environments vulnerable to psychological tension and social conflict. In such environments, coughing may become one of many displacement behaviors or defense mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Post-viral cough.\n\nA post-viral cough is a lingering cough that follows a viral respiratory tract infection, such as a common cold or flu and lasting up to eight weeks. Post-viral cough is a clinically recognized condition represented within the European medical literature.Patients usually experience repeated episodes of post-viral cough. The heightened sensitivity in the respiratory tract is demonstrated by inhalation cough challenge\n\nSection::::Cancer.\n\nRarely persistent throat irritation and hoarseness may also be from a more serious disorder like cancer.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of a throat irritation include a physical exam and throat culture.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The efferent neural pathway then follows, with relevant signals transmitted back from the cerebral cortex and medulla via the vagus and superior laryngeal nerves to the glottis, external intercostals, diaphragm, and other major inspiratory and expiratory muscles. The mechanism of a cough is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Diaphragm (innervated by phrenic nerve) and external intercostal muscles (innervated by segmental intercostal nerves) contract, creating a negative pressure around the lung.\n\nBULLET::::- Air rushes into the lungs in order to equalise the pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- The glottis closes (muscles innervated by recurrent laryngeal nerve) and the vocal cords contract to shut the larynx.\n", "Frequent coughing usually indicates the presence of a disease. Many viruses and bacteria benefit, from an evolutionary perspective, by causing the host to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, irregular coughing is caused by a respiratory tract infection but can also be triggered by choking, smoking, air pollution, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, post-nasal drip, chronic bronchitis, lung tumors, heart failure and medications such as ACE inhibitors.\n", "Cough\n\nA cough is a sudden, and often repetitively occurring, protective reflex which helps to clear the large breathing passages from fluids, irritants, foreign particles and microbes. The cough reflex consists of three phases: an inhalation, a forced exhalation against a closed glottis, and a violent release of air from the lungs following opening of the glottis, usually accompanied by a distinctive sound.\n", "The cough reflex has both sensory (afferent) mainly via the vagus nerve and motor (efferent) components. Pulmonary irritant receptors (cough receptors) in the epithelium of the respiratory tract are sensitive to both mechanical and chemical stimuli. The bronchi and trachea are so sensitive to light touch that slight amounts of foreign matter or other causes of irritation initiate the cough reflex. The larynx and carina are especially sensitive. Terminal bronchioles and even the alveoli are sensitive to chemical stimuli such as sulfur dioxide gas or chlorine gas. Rapidly moving air usually carries with it any foreign matter that is present in the bronchi or trachea. Stimulation of the cough receptors by dust or other foreign particles produces a cough, which is necessary to remove the foreign material from the respiratory tract before it reaches the lungs.\n", "Hair in the nostrils plays a protective role, trapping particulate matter such as dust. The cough reflex expels all irritants within the mucous membrane to the outside. The airways of the lungs contain rings of muscle. When the passageways are irritated by some allergen, these muscles can constrict.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nThe respiratory tract is a common site for infections.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Infection.\n\nUpper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world.\n", "Should food or liquid enter the airway due to the epiglottis failing to close properly, the cough reflex may occur to protect the respiratory system and expel material from the airway. Where there is impairment in laryngeal vestibule sensation, silent aspiration (entry of material to the airway that does not result in a cough reflex) may occur.\n\nSection::::Function.:Speech sounds.\n\nIn some languages, the epiglottis is used to produce epiglottal consonant speech sounds, though this sound-type is rather rare.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Inflammation.\n", "Stimulation of the auricular branch of the vagus nerve supplying the ear may also elicit a cough. This is known as Arnold's reflex. Respiratory muscle weakness, tracheostomy, or vocal cord pathology (including paralysis or anesthesia) may prevent effective clearing of the airways.\n\nSection::::Dysfunction.\n", "Bubbles may be trapped in the lung capillaries, temporarily blocking them. If this is severe, the symptom called \"chokes\" may occur.\n", "Since both the digestive system and the respiratory system are connected by the pharynx, there are many problems and diseases that occur when the body is unable to regulate passage of food and air into the appropriate tracts. Perhaps the most preventable cause of damage to these reflexes originates from smoking. One study has shown that, when compared to non-smokers, the threshold volumes (in other words the lowest volume at which one of these reflexes is triggered) for both the pharyngo-upper esophageal sphincter contractile reflex and reflexive pharyngeal swallowing is increased.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Retching, also known as dry heaving\n", "In addition, a soft, moist cough may be seen, most commonly in association with exercise or eating. This cough may be productive, with expectoration of thick, viscous sputum.\n\nThere may also be an audible wheeze.\n\nIn chronic cases, a \"heave line\" may be visible on the ventral abdomen. This is caused by hypertrophy of the extrinsic respiratory muscles.\n", "Situated above the larynx, the epiglottis acts as a flap which closes off the trachea during the act of swallowing to direct food into the esophagus. If food or liquid does enter the trachea and contacts the vocal folds it causes a cough reflex to expel the matter in order to prevent pulmonary aspiration.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Variations.\n", "Section::::Special situations.\n\nSection::::Special situations.:Emergencies.\n", "The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. Since oxygen is exchanged at the alveoli-capillary membrane, nitrogen is a major component for the alveoli's state of inflation. If a large volume of nitrogen in the lungs is replaced with oxygen, the oxygen may subsequently be absorbed into the blood, reducing the volume of the alveoli, resulting in a form of alveolar collapse known as absorption atelectasis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Absorption (resorption) atelectasis.:Compression (relaxation) atelectasis.\n", "BULLET::::- It has been proposed that a narrowing at the laryngeal inlet during the state of high airflow (e.g. when running fast), can act to cause a pressure drop across the larynx which then acts to 'pull' the laryngeal structures together. The Bernoulli principle states that increasing airflow through a tube creates increasing negative pressures within that tube.\n", "In the case of upstream air pressure at atmospheric pressure and vacuum conditions downstream of an orifice, both the air velocity and the mass flow rate becomes choked or limited when sonic velocity is reached through the orifice.\n\nSection::::The flow pattern.\n", "A situation can be considered where (1) the vocal fold valve is closed separating the supraglottal cavity from the subglottal cavity, (2) the mouth is open and, therefore, supraglottal air pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, and (3) the lungs are contracted resulting in a subglottal pressure that has increased to a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. If the vocal fold valve is subsequently opened, the previously two separate cavities become one unified cavity although the cavities will still be aerodynamically isolated because the glottic valve between them is relatively small and constrictive. Pascal's Law states that the pressure within a system must be equal throughout the system. When the subglottal pressure is greater than supraglottal pressure, there is a pressure inequality in the unified cavity. Since pressure is a force applied to a surface area by definition and a force is the product of mass and acceleration according to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the pressure inequality will be resolved by having part of the mass in air molecules found in the subglottal cavity move to the supraglottal cavity. This movement of mass is airflow. The airflow will continue until a pressure equilibrium is reached. Similarly, in an ejective consonant with a glottalic airstream mechanism, the lips or the tongue (i.e., the buccal or lingual valve) are initially closed and the closed glottis (the laryngeal piston) is raised decreasing the oral cavity volume behind the valve closure and increasing the pressure compared to the volume and pressure at a resting state. When the closed valve is opened, airflow will result from the cavity behind the initial closure outward until intraoral pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. That is, air will flow from a cavity of higher pressure to a cavity of lower pressure until the equilibrium point; the pressure as potential energy is, thus, converted into airflow as kinetic energy.\n", "A foreign body can sometimes be suspected, for example if the cough started suddenly when the patient was eating. Rarely, sutures left behind inside the airway branches can cause coughing. A cough can be triggered by dryness from mouth breathing or recurrent aspiration of food into the windpipe in people with swallowing difficulties.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor.\n", "During swallowing, elevation of the posterior portion of the tongue levers (inverts) the epiglottis over the glottis' opening to prevent swallowed material from entering the larynx which leads to the lungs, and provides a path for a food or liquid bolus to \"slide\" into the esophagus; the hyo-laryngeal complex is also pulled upwards to assist this process. Stimulation of the larynx by aspirated food or liquid produces a strong cough reflex to protect the lungs.\n", "A diagnosis is usually made on the basis of the classical clinical signs of \"gaping\". Subclinical infections with few worms may be confirmed at necropsy by finding copulating worms in the trachea and also by finding the characteristic eggs in the feces of infected birds. Examination of the tracheas of infected birds shows that the mucous membrane is extensively irritated and inflamed. Coughing is apparently the result of this irritation to the mucous lining.\n\nSection::::Control and treatment.\n\nSection::::Control and treatment.:Prevention.\n" ]

[ "Coughing tears up your throat." ]

[ "Coughing irritates your through from the vibrations of quick are. It is not torn. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Coughing tears up your throat." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Coughing irritates your through from the vibrations of quick are. It is not torn. " ]

[ "A boat displaces its weight in water, regardless whether it is made of wood, steel, fiberglass, or even concrete. If weight is added to the boat, the volume of the hull drawn below the waterline will increase to keep the balance above and below the surface equal. Boats have a natural or designed level of buoyancy. Exceeding it will cause the boat first to ride lower in the water, second to take on water more readily than when properly loaded, and ultimately, if overloaded by any combination of structure, cargo, and water, sink.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Fluids are the easiest thing to shift, and the most dangerous due to the free surface effect. As a boat rolls, liquids tend to shift towards the lowest part of the vessel. This is the free surface effect. When this happens more weight is now being thrown towards the low side and will cause a more severe roll or potential capsize. To minimize/reduce this risk, tanks are built in sections split up by perforated panels. These panels prevent sloshing, but still allow liquid to transfer keeping the levels amount the tank equal. \n\nSection::::Ships.:Design.:Bilges.\n", "BULLET::::- In heavy seas, water flowing over or crashing down onto the weather deck applies (possibly immense) loads on the deck and transverse loads on the superstructure or other deck features such as coamings and hatches.\n\nIf the ship's structure, equipment, and cargo are distributed unevenly there may be large point loads into the structure, and if they are distributed differently from the distribution of buoyancy from displaced water then there are bending forces on the hull.\n\nWhen ships are drydocked, and when they are being built, they are supported on regularly spaced posts on their bottoms.\n", "Stability is also lost in flooding when, for example, an empty tank is filled with seawater. The lost buoyancy of the tank results in that section of the ship lowering into the water slightly. This creates a list unless the tank is on the centerline of the vessel.\n\nIn stability calculations, when a tank is filled, its contents are assumed to be lost and replaced by seawater. If these contents are lighter than seawater, (light oil for example) then buoyancy is lost and the section lowers slightly in the water accordingly.\n", "In operation, a boat is navigated into the carrying frame, which has been lowered into the water. The boat is secured to the cradle, possibly by raising slings under the hull using hydraulics, and the cradle is hauled out of the water and up the hill with a cable. At the top of the slope, the cradle is lowered into the upper waterway, and the boat released. As the boat is not floating, Archimedes' principle does not apply, so the weight lifted or lowered by the device varies – making counterbalancing (by dead weights or a second boat carriage) more difficult.\n", "Primary strength loads calculations usually total up the ships weight and buoyancy along the hull, dividing the hull into manageable lengthwise sections such as one compartment, arbitrary ten foot segments, or some such manageable subdivision. For each loading condition, the displaced water weight or buoyancy is calculated for that hull section based on the displaced volume of water within that hull section. The weight of the hull is similarly calculated for that length, and the weight of equipment and systems. Cargo weight is then added in to that section depending on the loading conditions being checked.\n", "Deadweight tonnage is a measure of a vessel's weight carrying capacity, and does not include the weight of the ship itself. It should not be confused with displacement (weight of water displaced), which includes the ship's own weight, nor other volume or capacity measures such as gross tonnage or net tonnage (or their more archaic forms gross register tonnage or net register tonnage).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Before LB.\n\nDSB had taken over from DFDS in 1888, and had from 1892 a solid income in its transportation of trains (passenger train during day time and goods train during the night).\n", "Section::::Description.:Measures of size.\n\nBecause of changes in historic measurement systems, it is impossible to make meaningful and accurate comparisons of ship sizes over time beyond length. Three alternative forms of measurement are ship \"volume\", \"weight\", and weight of water it \"displaces\". A fourth, \"deadweight tonnage\" (DWT), is a measure of how much mass a ship can safely carry, and is thus more relevant to measuring cargo vessels than passenger ships.\n", "In addition, United States Coast Guard rules apply to vessels operating in U.S. ports and in U.S. waters. Generally these Coast Guard rules concern a minimum metacentric height or a minimum righting moment. Because different countries may have different requirements for the minimum metacentric height, most ships are now fitted with stability computers that calculate this distance on the fly based on the cargo or crew loading. There are many commercially available computer programs used for this task.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Free surface effect\n\nBULLET::::- Stabilization at zero speed\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Rose\n\nBULLET::::- Kronan (ship)\n\nBULLET::::- SS Eastland\n", "A pontoon vessel such as a catamaran floats in a level position when the center of gravity of the entire vessel (including its load) is above the center of buoyancy. This is the opposite of the case in a traditional or displacement hull vessel, which derives positive stability from having its center of buoyancy above the center of gravity. If the pontoon vessel tips, it will remain stable as long as the center of gravity does not move further to the side than the center of buoyancy is moved by the change in the depth (and displacement) of each pontoon. Under these conditions a \"righting force\" (a turning moment) acts on the vessel to push it back toward the level position.\n", "Stability conditions\n\nThe Stability conditions of watercraft are the various standard loading configurations to which a ship, boat, or offshore platform may be subjected. They are recognized by classification societies such as Det Norske Veritas, Lloyd's Register and American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). Classification societies follow rules and guidelines laid down by International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) conventions, the International Maritime Organization and laws of the country under which the vessel is flagged, such as the Code of Federal Regulations.\n\nStability is normally broken into two distinct types: Intact and Damaged\n\nSection::::Intact stability.\n", "As the schooner construction methods in Bodrum are observed, it is seen that the basic construction approach has not generally been subject to great change. Other than the use of electrical equipment, laminated materials, high power engines and similar high technology products, the schooner construction starts with the construction of the iron spine and continues with the use of traditional weights. The only dimension that changed in the weight usage is the use of heavy metals in the vessels constructed with high quality using high technology instead of stone used as ballast in the traditional method. Although the essence of the weight changes, the spine still filled in with the traditional method form the basis of both the balance of the vessel and the construction of the ribs, frame and curves.\n", "To design a boat to deal with loads such that they do not shift in the modern world is rather simple. Most loads are in containers measuring 1/2, 1 or 2 TEUs, which are locked to each other and the deck with twist-locks, and occasionally reinforce the structures with steel cables. When containers become an issue with the stability of the boat, for example all the containers broke free and are hanging over the side shifting the center of mass, most ships will cut the containers loose and add extra ballast water to compensate. If objects fall around in containers, it isn’t a huge deal unless they knock the container free, as container ships carry thousands of containers so having a couple with shifting loads, isn’t a big deal. It also makes it easier if loads are shifting inside because the container itself will contain loads and make it so they can only shift a few feet.\n", "Lift and dump capacities of hydraulic hooklift hoists typically range from . Generally a hoist is capable of lifting (off the ground) and dumping (onto the ground) the same maximum capacity, although there can be exceptions where short wheel bases are involved.\n", "Intact stability calculations are relatively straightforward and involve taking all the centers of mass of objects on the vessel which are then computed/calculated to identify the center of gravity of the vessel, and the center of buoyancy of the hull. Cargo arrangements and loadings, crane operations, and the design sea states are usually taken into account. The diagram at the right shows the center of gravity is well above the center of buoyancy, yet the ship remains stable. The ship is stable because as it begins to heel, one side of the hull begins to rise from the water and the other side begins to submerge. This causes the center of buoyancy to shift toward the side that is lower in the water. The job of the naval architect is to make sure that the center of buoyancy shifts outboard of the center of gravity as the ship heels. A line drawn from the center of buoyancy in a slightly heeled condition vertically will intersect the centerline at a point called the metacenter. As long as the metacenter is further above the keel than the center of gravity, the ship is stable in an upright condition.\n", "In order to be acceptable to classification societies such as the Bureau Veritas, American Bureau of Shipping, Lloyd's Register of Ships, Korean Register of Shipping and Det Norske Veritas, the blueprints of the ship must be provided for independent review by the classification society. Calculations must also be provided which follow a structure outlined in the regulations for the country in which the ship intends to be flagged.\n", "For a ship to float, its weight must be less than that of the water displaced by the ship's hull. There are many types of hulls, from logs lashed together to form a raft to the advanced hulls of America's Cup sailboats. A vessel may have a single hull (called a monohull design), two in the case of catamarans, or three in the case of trimarans. Vessels with more than three hulls are rare, but some experiments have been conducted with designs such as pentamarans. Multiple hulls are generally parallel to each other and connected by rigid arms.\n", "Semi-submersible heavy-lift ships have a long and low well deck between a forward pilot house and an aft machinery space. In superficial appearance, it is somewhat similar to a dry bulk carrier or some forms of oil tanker. Its ballast tanks can be flooded to lower the well deck below the water's surface, allowing oil platforms, other vessels, or other floating cargo to be moved into position for loading (float-on/float-off). The tanks are then pumped out, and the well deck rises to shoulder the load. To balance the cargo, the various tanks can be pumped unevenly.\n", "Since 1 April 2006, the International Association of Classification Societies has adopted the \"Common Structural Rules.\" The rules apply to bulk carriers more than 90 meters in length and require that scantlings' calculations take into account items such as the effect of corrosion, the harsh conditions often found in the North Atlantic, and dynamic stresses during loading. The rules also establish margins for corrosion, from 0.5 to 0.9 mm.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "The use of different measuring systems on either side of the vessel caused its mass to be distributed asymmetrically, heavier to port. During construction both Swedish feet and Amsterdam feet were in use by different teams. Archaeologists have found four rulers used by the workmen who built the ship. Two were calibrated in Swedish feet, which had 12 inches, while the other two measured Amsterdam feet, which had 11 inches.\n", "Section::::Intact stability.:Intact conditions.:Full load departure or full displacement.\n\nAlong with all the Lightship loads, the vessel has all systems charged meaning that all fresh water, cooling, lubricating, hydraulic and fuel service header tanks, piping and equipment systems are filled with their normal operating fluids. Crew and effects are at their normal values. Consumables (provisions, potable water and fuel) are at 100% capacity. Ammunition and/or cargo is at maximum capacity. The vessel is at its limiting draft or legal load line.\n\nSection::::Intact stability.:Intact conditions.:Standard condition.\n", "Some reaction ferries operate using an overhead cable suspended from towers anchored on either bank of the river. Others use a floating cable attached to a single anchorage that may be on one bank or mid-channel. Where an overhead cable is used a \"traveller\" is usually installed on the cable and the ferry is attached to the traveller by a bridle cable. To operate the ferry either the bridle cable is adjusted or a rudder is used, causing the ferry to be angled into the current, and the force of the current moves the ferry across the river. \n", "Section::::Calculated stability conditions.\n\nWhen a hull is designed, stability calculations are performed for the intact and damaged states of the vessel. Ships are usually designed to slightly exceed the stability requirements (below), as they are usually tested for this by a classification society.\n\nSection::::Calculated stability conditions.:Intact stability.\n", "Stable floating objects have a natural rolling frequency, just like a weight on a spring, where the frequency is increased as the spring gets stiffer. In a boat, the equivalent of the spring stiffness is the distance called \"GM\" or \"metacentric height\", being the distance between two points: \"G\" the centre of gravity of the boat and \"M\", which is a point called the metacentre.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Examples.:Perishable food.\n\nSupermarkets sell food staples such as bananas or milk at less than the cost at which they were purchased in order to draw customers to their business. These items are typically strategically placed far from the entrances of the store to enhance this effect. In the case of milk, supermarket chains often refuse to pay market rates to avoid making a loss.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Diapers/nappies.\n", "BULLET::::- Some loss leader items, such as fruits, vegetables and pastries, are perishable and cannot be easily stockpiled by customers.\n", "Some examples of typical loss leaders include milk, eggs, rice, and other inexpensive items that grocers would not want to sell without the customer making other purchases. While some customers may have the discipline to only buy the loss leaders, the loss leader strategy works because a customer who goes into a grocery store to buy an inexpensive bread or milk item may decide to buy other grocery items.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Record albums.\n", "In a supermarket (like the TPS) customers (processes) buy what they need when they need it. Since the system is self-service the sales effort (materials management) is reduced. The shelves are refilled as products are sold (parts withdrawn) on the assumption that what has sold will sell again which makes it easy to see how much has been used and to avoid overstocking. The most important feature of a supermarket system is that stocking is triggered by actual demand. In the TPS this signal triggers the 'pull' system of production.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Free-market economists argue that the profit motive, coupled with competition, actually reduces the final price of an item for consumption, rather than raising it. They argue that businesses profit by selling a good at a lower price and at a greater volume than the competition. Economist Thomas Sowell uses supermarkets as an example to illustrate this point: “It has been estimated that a supermarket makes a clear profit of about a penny on a dollar of sales. If that sounds pretty skimpy, remember that it is collecting that penny on every dollar at several cash registers simultaneously and, in many cases, around the clock.”\n", "Retail stores can throw away large quantities of food. Usually, this consists of items that have reached either their best before, sell-by or use-by dates. Food that passed the best before, and sell-by date, and even some food that passed the use-by date is still edible at the time of disposal, but stores have widely varying policies to handle the excess food. Some stores put effort into preventing access to poor or homeless people while others work with charitable organizations to distribute food.\n", "Retailers also contribute to waste as a result of their contractual arrangements with suppliers. Failure to supply agreed quantities renders farmers or processors liable to have their contracts cancelled. As a consequence, they plan to produce more than actually required to meet the contract, to have a margin of error. Surplus production is often simply disposed of. Some grocery stores donate leftover food (for example, deli foods and bread past their expiration date) to homeless shelters or charity kitchens.\n\nSection::::Notable grocers.\n\nBULLET::::- Clarence Saunders (grocer)\n\nBULLET::::- Sir John Cohen\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Thomas Lipton\n", "Section::::History.:Store closures and sale to Strack and Van Til families and Indiana Grocery Group.\n", "Certain types of retail operations, particularly stores, may have very low profit margins on sales, and relatively moderate leverage. In contrast, though, groceries may have very high turnover, selling a significant multiple of their assets per year. The ROE of such firms may be particularly dependent on performance of this metric, and hence asset turnover may be studied extremely carefully for signs of under-, or, over-performance. For example, same store sales of many retailers is considered important as an indication that the firm is deriving greater profits from existing stores (rather than showing improved performance by continually opening stores).\n", "Retail stores throw away large quantities of food. Usually, this consists of items that have reached either their best before, sell-by or use-by dates. Food that has passed the best before, and sell-by date, and even some food that passed the use-by date is still edible at the time of disposal, but stores have widely varying policies to handle the excess food. Some stores put effort into preventing access to poor or homeless people, while others work with charitable organizations to distribute food. Retailers also contribute to waste as a result of their contractual arrangements with suppliers. Failure to supply agreed quantities renders farmers or processors liable to have their contracts cancelled. As a consequence, they plan to produce more than actually required to meet the contract, to have a margin of error. Surplus production is often simply disposed of.\n", "Where the market value of goods has declined for whatever reasons, the business may choose to value its inventory at the lower of cost or market value, also known as \"net realizable value\". This may be recorded by accruing an expense (\"i.e.\", creating an inventory reserve) for declines due to obsolescence, etc. Current period net income as well as net inventory value at the end of the period is reduced for the decline in value.\n", "Free market economists counter that the profit motive, coupled with competition, actually reduces the final price of an item for consumption, rather than raising it. They argue that businesses profit by selling a good at a lower price and at a greater volume than the competition. Economist Thomas Sowell uses supermarkets as an example to illustrate this point: \"It has been estimated that a supermarket makes a clear profit of about a penny on a dollar of sales. If that sounds pretty skimpy, remember that it is collecting that penny on every dollar at several cash registers simultaneously and, in many cases, around the clock\".\n", "As of 2011, 1.3 billion tons of food, about one third of the global food production, are lost or wasted annually. The USDA estimates that 27% of food is lost annually. In developing and developed countries which operate either commercial or industrial agriculture, food waste can occur at most stages of the food industry and in significant amounts.\n", "BULLET::::- Lamonts: In August 1989, Northern Pacific sold the chain to Scottsdale, Arizona-based Aris Corporation for $135 million. Lamonts filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in January 1995 and once more in January 2000. In April 2000, California-based Gottschalks purchased Lamonts' store leases for $19 million. The $19 million deal did not include Lamonts inventory, which was sold off. Gottschalks eventually filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and liquidated in mid-2009 during the Late-2000s recession.\n", "Theory of storage\n\nThe Theory of Storage describes features observed in commodity markets:\n\nWhen available supplies of the commodity in question are high, and the working inventories of commercial consumers of that commodity are accordingly held to a minimum,\n\nBULLET::::- Futures prices tend to be in contango\n\nBULLET::::- The volatility of spot and futures prices tend to be low, and futures premiums rise to the full cost of storage\n\nWhen supplies are tight, and purchasing managers build production inventory levels to ensure availability,\n\nBULLET::::- Futures prices tend toward backwardation\n", "At the retail marketing stage losses can be significant, particularly in poorer countries. Poor-quality markets often provide little protection for the produce against the elements, leading to rapid produce deterioration. Sorting of produce to separate the saleable from the unsaleable can result in high percentages being discarded, and there can be high weight loss from the trimming of leafy vegetables. Arrival of fresh supplies in a market may lead to some existing, older stock being discarded, or sold at very low prices.\n\nSection::::Avoiding loss.\n", "Conversely, if a firm decides that its current level of inventories is unjustifiably high—some of the inventories are taking up costly warehouse space while exceeding what is needed to prevent stock-outs—then it will engage in a negative flow of intended inventory investment. It does this by deliberately producing less than what it expects to sell.\n", "Supermarkets General cut its losses in fiscal year 1994 (ending January 29, 1994, which the company defined as 1993) to $17 million (excluding extraordinary items and accounting changes) on net sales of $4.21 billion. It had its first profitable year in fiscal year 1995 (ended January 28, 1995) since fiscal year 1987, earning $10 million (not counting a $13 million credit for prior losses) on $4.21 billion in net sales. Pathmark sales were $3.84 billion and $3.79 in fiscal 1994 and 1995 respectively.\n", "Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations.\n\nSection::::Food marketing.:Prices.\n", "Section::::Case studies.:New York City.\n", "BULLET::::- June 1991: 51 Osco Drug stores in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming sold to Pay Less Drug Stores, at that time a division of Kmart Corp., for $60 million.\n\nBULLET::::- June 1991: 152 unit Alpha Beta chain sold to the Yucaipa Companies for $251 million.\n", "BULLET::::- November 1994, the Star Market grocery division, fifth in market share in the Greater Boston area, consisting of 33 food stores in Massachusetts and Rhode Island was sold to \"Investcorp Bank\", an international investment bank for $288 million in cash and the assumption of substantially all of its outstanding liabilities. American Stores deemed Star Market expendable because the company wanted to focus on markets where it held first or second place in market share.\n\nBULLET::::- January 1995, the company sold 45 ACME Markets located in New York and northern Pennsylvania to the Penn Traffic Company for $94 million.\n\nSection::::History.:1990s.:Acquisitions.\n", "BULLET::::- High margin items are often slow sellers and thus produce low profits\n\nBULLET::::- High profit products often have low margin, high volume sales but also high inventory levels that prevent other products from being displayed and sold\n\nRetailers usually drive their business based on sales or margin. In a retailer where budgets and bonuses are based on sales, employees often achieve that by lowering the margin or putting too much stock in their stores. A high GMROII indicates a good balance of sales, margin, and inventory cost.\n\nSection::::Average GMROII.\n", "Post-harvest losses (vegetables)\n\nThe post-harvest sector includes all points in the value chain from production in the field to the food being placed on a plate for consumption. Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing.\n", "On May 15, 2017, Jewel-Osco made a bid to purchase all 19 Strack & Van Til grocery stores for $100 million. The Jewel-Osco bid was ultimately unsuccessful and the stores were sold in the bankruptcy auction to the Strack and Van Til families and the Indiana Grocery Group.\n\nSection::::Past ventures.\n" ]

[ "Most grocery store stock never gets purchased.", "Fully stocked grocery stores are destined to fail." ]

[ "The stocking of shelves is done almost entirely at night, and being fully stocked can lead to customers purchasing more than they need.", "Grocery stores restock most of their products at night so that customers have a full stock to choose from the next day." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Most grocery store stock never gets purchased.", "Fully stocked grocery stores are destined to fail." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The stocking of shelves is done almost entirely at night, and being fully stocked can lead to customers purchasing more than they need.", "Grocery stores restock most of their products at night so that customers have a full stock to choose from the next day." ]

[ "Cellulosic biofuel production typically already creates sugar as an intermediate product. There are edible calories in leaves, but there is too much dietary fiber, so solutions include making tea, chewing and not swallowing the solids, and making leaf protein concentrate. Biomass can be predigested by bacteria so that animals that are poor at digesting cellulose can derive nutrition, such as rats and possibly chickens.\n", "It is argued that commodity speculators are increasing the cost of food. As the real estate bubble in the United States was collapsing, it is said that trillions of dollars moved to invest in food and primary commodities, causing the 2007–2008 food price crisis.\n\nThe use of biofuels as a replacement for traditional fuels raises the price of food. The United Nations special rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler proposes that agricultural waste, such as corn cobs and banana leaves, rather than crops themselves be used as fuel.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Agricultural productivity.\n", "Other enzyme companies, such as Dyadic International, are developing genetically engineered fungi which would produce large volumes of cellulase, xylanase and hemicellulase enzymes, which can be used to convert agricultural residues such as corn stover, distiller grains, wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse and energy crops such as switchgrass into fermentable sugars which may be used to produce cellulosic ethanol.\n", "Ethanol produced from the sugar in sugarcane is a popular fuel in Brazil. The cellulose-rich bagasse is being widely investigated for its potential for producing commercial quantities of cellulosic ethanol. For example, until May 2015 BP was operating a cellulosic ethanol demonstration plant based on cellulosic materials in Jennings, Louisiana.\n\nBagasse's potential for advanced biofuels has been shown by several researchers. However, the compatibility with conventional fuels and suitability of these crude fuels in conventional engines have yet to be proven.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Pulp, paper, board and feed.\n", "High population pressure and lack of land, problems with deforestation resulting in lack of firewood, and overgrazing on communal grazing all result in intense cultivation of tree lucerne on 1 hectare plots for a variety of reasons. The low-protein calorie intake of small-scale subsistence farmers stuck in a soil poverty cycle (unable to afford fertilizer for higher crop yields and unable to fallow land) can be addressed by tree lucerne as a nitrogen fixing tree. The key challenge of dirt poor subsistence farmers is that the soil nutrients are leached from their soil by tropical rain and year on year production without fallowing. The lack of soil nitrogen is the main production constraint, with these countries unable to produce their own nitrogen fertilizers and thus financially unable to replace lost soil nitrogen leached by rain and extracted by continuous production. This leads to severe soil poverty and a cycle of low harvest yields.\n", "Additionally, with the aim of solving food and health issues, THP has initiated a partnership with Catholic Relief Services (CRS) to address the adverse impact of disease on crops that ultimately threaten food security. The staple food crop of Uganda is cassava, of which production is greatly constrained by pests and diseases, especially the African cassava mosaic virus. The partnership enabled the education of Ugandan farmers through grants of laptops with inbuilt training courses on group management, cassava multiplication, pests and diseases. Farmers were also taught on and given access to disease-free high-yielding cassava variety MH97/2961. This arrangement has improved household incomes and food security for a total of 1,455 partners in the last three years.\n", "BULLET::::2. growing legume crops and forages such as peanuts or alfalfa that form symbioses with nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia\n\nBULLET::::3. industrial production of nitrogen by the Haber process uses hydrogen, which is currently derived from natural gas (but this hydrogen could instead be made by electrolysis of water using renewable electricity, or\n\nBULLET::::4. genetically engineering (non-legume) crops to form nitrogen-fixing symbioses or fix nitrogen without microbial symbionts.\n\nThe last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only gradually becoming feasible. Sustainable options for replacing other nutrient inputs such as phosphorus and potassium are more limited.\n", "In 2010, a genetically engineered yeast strain was developed to produce its own cellulose-digesting enzymes. Assuming this technology can be scaled to industrial levels, it would eliminate one or more steps of cellulolysis, reducing both the time required and costs of production.\n", "A 2002 study by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization predicts that world food production will be in excess of the needs of the human population by the year 2030; however, that source also states that hundreds of millions will remain hungry (presumably due to economic realities and political issues).\n", "New food technologies can also offer solutions to malnutrition. According to the WHO (World Health Organization) approximately 30% of the global population is malnourished. It is suggested that by 2020 the whole European Union will consume less food than China and India together.\n\nSection::::Respirable food.\n\nHarvard University professor David Edwards has invented a device called 'Le Whiff'. It helps to spray chocolate. Later this device was developed and on American market it appeared as 'Le Whaf'. Ten minutes of usage of such device provides 200 calories.\n\nSection::::Printed food.\n", "An alternative is rock phosphate, a natural source already in some soils. In India, there are almost 260 million tons of rock phosphate. However, rock phosphate is a non-renewable resource and it is being depleted by mining for agricultural use: reserves are expected to be exhausted in 50–100 years; peak phosphorus will occur in about 2030. This is expected to increase food prices as phosphate fertilizer costs increase.\n", "In December 2013, Renmatix and Virent announced a strategic collaboration to convert affordable cellulosic sugars to renewable chemicals and bio-based packaging materials.\n\nIn March 2015, French Energy Group, Total S.A. entered a joint development agreement (JDA) with Renmatix to use the Plantrose technology to extract second-generation sugars from biomass and develop sustainable and profitable biomolecules for products of interest.\n\nBiotechnology Penetration in the Chemical Industry\n\nWorld Biobased Market Penetration 2010-2025\n", "From 2000 to 2003 the horticulturist Jean Kiala was taught by \"Romain Wiels\", an agronomist and former colonial of the Congo. This wise man told in his practice lessons about his experiences in the Congo; and about the possible potential of these plants in the food and pharmaceutical industry. In the winter of 2012, nine years after his last classes with agronomist Romain Wiels, Jean Kiala came back in contact with his old teacher. While talking about his project, agronomist Romain Wiels told him about his old friend Prof. Jean DeClerck and the Treculia trees.\n\nSection::::History.:Sint-Pieters-Leeuw 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- Energy crops: The major combustible component of non-food energy crops is cellulose, with lignin second. Non-food energy crops produce more usable energy than edible energy crops (which have a large starch component), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water resources. Typical non-food energy crops include industrial hemp (though outlawed in some countries), switchgrass, \"Miscanthus\", \"Salix\" (willow), and \"Populus\" (poplar) species.\n\nBULLET::::- Biofuel: TU-103, a strain of \"Clostridium\" bacteria found in zebra waste, can convert nearly any form of cellulose into butanol fuel.\n", "Cellulosic sugars are used as renewable resources for biochemical and biofuels industries and can be used to produce intermediates by fermentative processes. The availability of industrial sugars from renewable resources, in sufficient quantities and at a favorable cost enables the products to be cost-competitive to fossil fuel based products.\n\nA 2012 study by Nexant estimates that in the future, it will be possible and potentially economically viable to produce any type of sugar-based chemical product from biomass due to developments in cellulosic processing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Food growing is the first thing you do when you come down out of the trees. The question is, how come the United States can grow food and you can't?\"– speaking to Third World countries about global famine\n\nBULLET::::- \"The central conservative truth is that it is culture, not politics, that determines the success of a society. The central liberal truth is that politics can change a culture and save it from itself.\"\n", "Research on this approach is being undertaken internationally, with major efforts ongoing in Brazil, China and India.\n\nSection::::Uses.:High-income countries.\n\nResearchers at the University of Warwick have been looking for ways to boost the low selenium levels in British grains, and have been working to help develop a grain to be used in making bread biofortified with selenium.\n\nSection::::Problems.\n\nSome people, while not opposed to biofortification itself, are critical of genetically modified foods, including biofortified ones such as golden rice.\n", "In April 2012, World Vision Australia – in partnership with the World Agroforestry Center and World Vision East Africa – held an international conference in Nairobi called \"Beating Famine\" to analyse and plan how to improve food security for the world's poor through the use of FMNR and Evergreen Agriculture. The conference was attended by more than 200 participants, including world leaders in sustainable agriculture, five East African ministers of agriculture and the environment, ambassadors, and other government representatives from Africa, Europe, and Australia, and leaders from non-government and international organisations.\n\nTwo major outcomes of the conference were:\n", "Fortunately, in 1998 the \"Project LUC\", (Limburg University Centre), led by Professor Hugo Gevaerts was created. This project devoted much attention to the popularization of this \"miracle plant\" under the Agro-forestry project.\n\nSection::::Prehistory.:Lubumbashi - Kinshasa, 2004.\n\nIn 2004, the Foundation Maisha planted, in cooperation with researchers from the Universities of Kisangani and Leuven K.U.L (Belgium), the Treculia Africana tree in Lubumbashi to nourish the street children. Later also, the Université de Kinshasa planted trees on their University Campus.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In the first quarter of 2013, American Process Inc. announced the start-up of cellulosic sugar production using their patented AVAP® technology at their demonstration plant in Thomaston, GA. The AVAP process uses ethanol and sulfur dioxide (SO2) to fractionate biomass into its pure components: cellulose, hemicellulose sugars and lignin. \n\nIn early 2013 GranBio, a Brazilian pioneer in biofuels and biochemicals, completed the acquisition of an equity investment in API.\n\nSince that time, API has fermented both five-carbon and six-carbon sugars into high value bio-chemicals and biofuels in partnership with fermentation companies throughout the world.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "In 1978 Father Jaqcues Bijttebier wroted an article \"\"Essais de panification avec des farines \"non panifiables\"\", about his bake tests using Treculia flour. In the 1980s Prof. Hugo Gevaerts was teaching at the Faculty of Science in Kisangani, where he met Prof. Jean DeClerck. He told Prof. Jean DeClerck about agro-breeding programs and the remaining work to do. While their contact was growing, they met Father Jaqcues Bijttebier, who talked about a tree that could be a solution to malnutrition. In 1992, Father Jacques Bijttebier published a paper in which he describes the properties and nutritional value of this plant. Father Jacques Bijttebier died, at the age of 66, on May 27, 1993 in Leuven (Belgium).\n", "Biomass (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignocellulose) contain vast amounts of fermentable sugars. These sugars may be produced from a wide variety of feedstocks and can be converted into a multitude of biochemical, biofuel, and polymer products by either biological or chemical routes.\n\nSection::::Industrial use.\n\nIn January 2012, BASF invested in Pennsylvania-based Renmatix to produce low-cost, large volume quantities of industrial sugar from lignocellulosic biomass (wood, cane bagasse or straw). Renmatix is currently the only commercial player utilizing supercritical hydrolysis as a route to cellulosic sugar production.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nThe Unifine mill has not proven suitable for grinding harder materials such as gravel, or producing mineral powder for the mining industry or large scale powder-making that the roller mill system dominates. However, in the agricultural industry, where all the nutritional elements of the soft raw materials are desired in the end product, pulverizing it into powder in a single pass by the Unifine Mill has proven to be cost effective and less invasive. In addition to grains, a variety of agricultural products have been efficiently processed using this method including legumes and grapefruit rinds.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Appreciation for this plant as a fruit tree really started thanks to Project Rotary International \"Project Agro-forestry 3-H\", an initiative of Professors Jean DeClerck (formerly a visiting professor at the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Kisangani), Jean LeJoly, (Professor at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, Laboratoire de Botanique), and Hugo Gevaerts, (former dean of the Faculté des Sciences, UNIKIS and professor at the Limburg University Centre). These three professors have, together with their colleagues from the University of Kisangani, (Leopold Ndjele, Valentin Kamabu and Jean-Pierre Mate), been inspired by the important results of the work of Father Bijtebier to encourage that this tree be adopted by the population of Kisangani. This project, Agro-forestry 3-H, ran from 1995 to 1998. In this period several plantations were laid out and there were thousands of plants distributed to the population. Various wars of recent years have prevented the normal development of this project.\n", "For millennia spirulina had been a food staple for natives of Lake Chad and also for the Aztecs but Hills funded much of the early experimentation needed for its successful modern day mass cultivation, described in Dr Nakamura's book \"Spirulina: Food for a Hungry World\".\n" ]

[ "World hunger is due to the scarcity of food.", "Having more food would end world hunger." ]

[ "World hunger is due to lack of food distribution.", "World hunger is due to things other than lack of supply of food including lack of willingness to distribute it to certain areas. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "World hunger is due to the scarcity of food.", "Having more food would end world hunger." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "World hunger is due to lack of food distribution.", "World hunger is due to things other than lack of supply of food including lack of willingness to distribute it to certain areas. " ]

[ "BULLET::::- Veena Sood - Dr. Reese\n\nBULLET::::- Craig Erickson - Officer Alvin\n\nBULLET::::- John Hainsworth - Cormac Leith\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- William B. Davis as Peter Milbank, Hudson's father\n\nBULLET::::- Brian George as Dr. Richmond\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Gunton as Dr. Townsend\n\nBULLET::::- Keegan Connor Tracy as Mt. Sinai Nurse\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nAlthough the film is set in Los Angeles, the film was shot on location in Vancouver and other locations in British Columbia's Lower Mainland, including Coquitlam, Port Coquitlam, Maple Ridge, Pitt Meadows, and Langley.\n\nSection::::Soundtrack.\n\nThe music was composed by Ryan Shore. The soundtrack includes songs by The Dandy Warhols, Ivy, Iron & Wine, Elliott Smith, Blondie, and Doves.\n", "Nociceptors are responsible for processing pain and temperature changes. The burning pain and irritation experienced after eating a chili pepper (due to its main ingredient, capsaicin), the cold sensation experienced after ingesting a chemical such as menthol or icillin, as well as the common sensation of pain are all a result of neurons with these receptors.\n\nProblems with mechanoreceptors lead to disorders such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Neuropathic pain - a severe pain condition resulting from a damaged sensory nerve\n", "Pain-temperature information is sent to the VPL (body) and VPM (face) of the thalamus (the same nuclei which receive touch-position information). From the thalamus, pain-temperature and touch-position information is projected onto SI.\n", "At the hospital, Darren Richmond (Billy Campbell) tells Dr. Alex Madigan (Andrew Airlie) that he felt the warm sunlight on his legs. The doctor calls it \"phantom pain\" and leaves. Jamie Wright (Eric Ladin) and Richmond watch television as Mayor Lesley Adams (Tom Butler) tells reporters that Richmond's involvement in the Larsen murder remains suspicious. Neurologist Andre Newman (Sean Devine) arrives to poke Richmond's leg. Richmond feels nothing but later insists on attending a future fundraiser. Jamie promises to tell the organization that Richmond will be attending. After Richmond realizes that a nurse (Lilli Clark) has changed his urinary catheter and he did not feel it, he sticks a campaign pin into his thigh and does not feel it either. At the campaign office, Gwen Eaton (Kristin Lehman) tells her father (Alan Dale) that she wants to work for Senator Farrelly in Washington, D.C. He then makes a call on her behalf.\n", "The distribution of blood flow to the tissues is variable and subject to a variety of influences. When the flow is locally high, that area is dominated by perfusion, and by diffusion when the flow is low. The distribution of flow is controlled by the mean arterial pressure and the local vascular resistance, and the arterial pressure depends on cardiac output and the total vascular resistance. Basic vascular resistance is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, and metabolites, temperature, and local and systemic hormones have secondary and often localised effects, which can vary considerably with circumstances. Peripheral vasoconstriction in cold water decreases overall heat loss without increasing oxygen consumption until shivering begins, at which point oxygen consumption will rise, though the vasoconstriction can persist.\n", "There are several mechanisms of nerve injury including mechanical lesions, ischemia, immunologic attack, metabolic disorder, toxic agents, and exposure to radiation. The most common mechanism of injury is nerve compression in which external pressure causes decreased blood flow to the nerve and deformation of the nerve fibers. Repeated or prolonged compression of the nerve results in ischemia and ultimately edema above and below the source of the pressure (I). The thinning of myelin sheaths or focal demyelination are the main consequences of the injury that lead to conduction blockage.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Seddon classification.\n", "Numb (2015 film)\n\nNumb is a 2015 Canadian thriller from director Jason R. Goode, and produced by Jenkinson/Goode Productions\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nA husband and wife in need of money meet up with two hitchhikers. After finding GPS coordinates that appear to lead to the location of stolen gold they all go into the harsh winter conditions to find the treasure.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Jamie Bamber - Will\n\nBULLET::::- Marie Avgeropoulos - Cheryl\n\nBULLET::::- Aleks Paunovic- Lee\n\nBULLET::::- Stefanie von Pfetten - Dawn\n\nBULLET::::- Colin Cunningham - Loner\n\nBULLET::::- Paul McGillion - Pete\n\nBULLET::::- Gina Chiarelli - Officer Stevens\n", "The film was distributed in Canada by A71 Entertainment. It had a successful theatrical release, initially as part of the Canadian Indie Film Series with screenings in 16 Landmark Cinemas across Canada, before platforming to additional weekly stints in theatres across Canada. \"Numb\" is distributed in the US by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, and has been released in 40+ international territories (including UK, Germany, Japan, Middle East, Spain, etc. etc.).\n", "The two basic types of sensation are touch-position and pain-temperature. Touch-position input comes to attention immediately, but pain-temperature input reaches the level of consciousness after a delay; when a person steps on a pin, the awareness of stepping on something is immediate but the pain associated with it is delayed.\n", "Numb\n\nNumb may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Having deficient psychological or physical sensation, see hypoesthesia\n\nBULLET::::- NUMB (gene), a human gene\n\nBULLET::::- \"Numb\" (2007 film), a 2007 film starring Matthew Perry\n\nBULLET::::- \"Numb\" (2015 film), a Canadian film\n\nBULLET::::- Northwestern University Wildcat Marching Band, or NUMB\n\nBULLET::::- \"Numb\" (\"The Killing\"), an episode of the American television drama series \"The Killing\"\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- Numb (band), a Canadian industrial band\n\nSection::::Music.:Albums.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Numb\" (Hammerbox album), 1993\n\nBULLET::::- \"Numb\" (Linea 77 album), 2003\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Numb E.P.\", a 1996 EP by Baboon\n\nSection::::Music.:Songs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Numb\" (August Alsina song), 2013\n", "Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex.\n\nSection::::Function.:Summary.\n\nThe complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward processing of touch-position information) reflects a phylogenetically older, more primitive sensory system. The detailed information received from peripheral touch-position receptors is superimposed on a background of awareness, memory and emotions partially set by peripheral pain-temperature receptors.\n", "BULLET::::- In the book, \"Pop Goes the Weasel\", he tells Alex he had fallen in love with the newly deceased Nina Childs, before she had died. Her death causes him great pain and he vows vengeance against the one who killed her. The killer is revealed to be Geoffrey Shafer, who manages to escape at the end of the novel. By \"London Bridges\", Shafer resurfaces and is killed by Alex, avenging Nina's death for John, similar to what John did for Alex in the novel \"Cross\".\n", "This is explained by the anatomy of the brainstem. In the medulla, the ascending spinothalamic tract (which carries pain-temperature information from the opposite side of the body) is adjacent to the ascending spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve (which carries pain-temperature information from the same side of the face). A stroke which cuts off the blood supply to this area (for example, a clot in the posterior inferior cerebellar artery) destroys both tracts simultaneously. The result is a loss of pain-temperature (but not touch-position) sensation in a \"checkerboard\" pattern (ipsilateral face, contralateral body), facilitating diagnosis.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Trigeminovascular system\n", "\"Numb\" premiered in the Midnight Passion selection at the Busan International Film Festival in 2015, before unspooling as the Closing Gala at the 2015 Whistler Film Festival It went on to play the high-profile Shanghai and Beijing International Film Festivals, amongst others.\n", "The distribution of blood flow to the tissues is variable and subject to a variety of influences. When the flow is locally high, that area is dominated by perfusion, and by diffusion when the flow is low. The distribution of flow is controlled by the mean arterial pressure and the local vascular resistance, and the arterial pressure depends on cardiac output and the total vascular resistance. Basic vascular resistance is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, and metabolites, temperature, and local and systemic hormones have secondary and often localised effects, which can vary considerably with circumstances. Peripheral vasoconstriction in cold water decreases overall heat loss without increasing oxygen consumption until shivering begins, at which point oxygen consumption will rise, though the vasoconstriction can persist.\n", "The hunting reaction is one out of four possible responses to immersion of the finger in cold water. The other responses observed in the fingers after immersion in cold water are a continuous state of vasoconstriction, slow steady and continuous rewarming and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of the vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water can be classified as the hunting reaction.\n", "Sensory pathways from the periphery to the cortex are separate for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations. All sensory information is sent to specific nuclei in the thalamus. Thalamic nuclei, in turn, send information to specific areas in the cerebral cortex. Each pathway consists of three bundles of nerve fibers connected in series:\n", "BULLET::::- Hyperalgesia - an increased sensitivity to pain caused by sensory ion channel, TRPM8, which is typically responds to temperatures between 23 and 26 degrees, and provides the cooling sensation associated with menthol and icillin\n\nBULLET::::- Phantom limb syndrome - a sensory system disorder where pain or movement is experienced in a limb that does not exist\n\nSection::::Types and function.:Internal.\n\nInternal receptors that respond to changes inside the body are known as interoceptors.\n\nSection::::Types and function.:Internal.:Blood.\n", "A case of scorpion sting to the palm of the hand of a scuba diver occurred while trying on a wetsuit on the Osa Peninsula. Symptoms reported include localized pain for several hours with severity decreasing after the first hour. Localized tingling sensation was reported as well. Treatment several hours after envenomation with Therapik, a toxin-denaturing device utilizing heat, resulted in complete resolution of symptoms. (Feb 19,2016)\n\nSection::::Similar species.\n", "Classification of nerve damage was well-defined by Sir Herbert Seddon and Sunderland in a system that remains in use. The adjacent table details the forms (neurapraxia, axonotmesis and neurotmesis) and degrees of nerve injury that occur as a result of exposure to various temperatures.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "TRPM8 is an ion channel, upon activation it allows the entry of Na and Ca ions to the cell that leads to depolarization and the generation of an action potential. The signal is conducted from primary afferents (type C- and A-delta) eventually leading to the sensation of cold and cold pain.\n\nThe TRPM8 protein is expressed in sensory neurons, and it is activated by cold temperatures and cooling agents, such as menthol and icilin whereas WS-12 and CPS-369 are the most selective agonists of TRPM8.\n", "BULLET::::- Paresthesia (altered sensation) - A person may complain of \"pins & needles\", numbness, and a tingling sensation. This may progress to loss of sensation (anesthesia) if no intervention is made.\n\nBULLET::::- Uncommon\n\nBULLET::::- Paralysis - Paralysis of the limb is a rare, late finding. It may indicate both a nerve or muscular lesion.\n", "\"Numb\" received mixed reviews and currently has a 50% score on Rotten Tomatoes. Justin Chang, writing in \"Variety\", praised the film for \"Admirably avoiding cheap 'gotcha' scares\" but criticised the lack of \"mounting suspense and tension over the long haul\". Ken Eisner praised the film's twists and impressive handling by director Jason R. Goode and writer Andre Harden, although he had some criticism of the lack of character development given to the female characters. Jill Wilson states that the film \"can’t decide if it’s a winter-survival movie or a buried-treasure movie\" being better at the former than the latter.\n" ]

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[ "Low-power laptops use low-power processors and graphics chips, and therefore often struggle to play video at full frame rates. It isn't desirable or practical to port a full operating system onto a VideoCore chip, so only the video decoding need be offloaded onto a video accelerator board (e.g. using the BCM70015 chip).\n\nBlu-ray players can also use it as a low-power video accelerator.\n\nNoting that VideoCore chips were usually used with ARM-based chips, the latest chips have VideoCore and ARM processors.\n\nSection::::Linux support.\n", "Mobile multimedia devices require a lot of high-speed video processing, but at low power for long battery life. The ARM processor core has a high IPS per watt figure (and thus dominates the mobile phone market), but requires video acceleration coprocessors and display controllers for a complete system. The amount of data passing between these chips at high speed results in higher power consumption. \n", "For some low-power mobile CPUs there is limited video decoding support, while none of the desktop CPUs have this limitation.\n\nSection::::Generations.:Haswell.\n\nOn 12 September 2012, Haswell CPUs were announced, with four models of integrated GPUs:\n", "Bandwidth and latency improvements through shared virtual memory (SVM) in OpenCL 2.0\n\nDynamic parallelism for more efficient execution and control through support for device enqueue in OpenCL 2.0\n\nSection::::PowerVR Graphics.:Series8XE (Rogue).\n\nPowerVR Series8XE GPUs support OpenGL ES 3.2 and Vulkan 1.x and are available in 1, 2, 4 and 8 pixel/clock configurations , enabling the latest games and apps and further driving down the cost of high quality UIs on cost sensitive devices.\n", "On October 23, 2013, Ittiam demonstrated its low power HEVC decoder optimized for ARM Mali™ GPU Compute and ARM® Cortex®-A processor at ARM TechCon 2013. Ittiam’s HEVC decoder has been designed to take advantage of the full capabilities of mobile SoCs, it harnesses the great computational power and energy efficiency of GPUs to reduce the battery drain.\n", "In addition, individual devices may have their own arbitrary limitations beyond transmission speed. For example, NVIDIA Kepler GK104 GPUs (such as the GeForce GTX 680 and 770) support \"DisplayPort 1.2\" with the HBR2 transmission mode, but are limited to 540Mpx/s, only of the maximum possible with HBR2. Consequently, certain devices may have limitations that differ from those listed in the following tables.\n\nTo support a particular format, the source and display devices must both support the required transmission mode, and the DisplayPort cable must also be capable of handling the required bandwidth of that transmission mode. (See: Cables and connectors)\n", "The basic components of laptops function identically to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they were miniaturized and adapted to mobile use, although desktop systems increasingly use the same smaller, lower-power parts which were originally developed for mobile use. The design restrictions on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components, although that difference has increasingly narrowed.\n", "Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the OQO UMPC is also a PDA-sized tablet PC; the Apple eMate had the clamshell form factor of a laptop, but ran PDA software. The HP Omnibook line of laptops included some devices small more enough to be called ultra mobile PCs. The hardware of the Nokia 770 internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the Zaurus 6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it does not have PIM software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications.\n", "PowerVR Series7XT Plus GPUs are an evolution of the Series7XT family and add specific features designed to accelerate computer vision on mobile and embedded devices, including new INT16 and INT8 data paths that boost performance by up to 4x for OpenVX kernels. Further improvements in shared virtual memory also enable OpenCL 2.0 support. The GT7600 Plus is used in the Apple iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus models (released in 2016) as well as the Apple iPad model (released in 2018).\n\nPowerVR Series 7XT Plus GPUs were announced on International CES, Las Vegas – 6 January 2016.\n", "Most desktop computers design power and cooling systems around the worst-case CPU power dissipation at the maximum frequency, maximum workload, and worst-case environment.\n\nTo reduce weight and cost, many laptop computers systems choose to use a much lighter, lower-cost cooling system designed around a much lower Thermal Design Power, that is somewhat above expected maximum frequency, typical workload, and typical environment.\n\nTypically such systems reduce (throttle) the clock rate when the CPU die temperature gets too hot, reducing the power dissipated to a level that the cooling system can handle.\n\nSection::::Electronics.:Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Transmeta\n\nBULLET::::- Acorn RISC Machine (ARM)\n", "BULLET::::- GPU usage by codec — some codecs can drastically increase their performance by taking advantage of GPU resources.\n\nSo, for example, codec A (being optimized for memory usage – i.e., uses less memory) may, on modern computers (which are typically not memory-limited), give slower performance than codec B. Meanwhile, the same pair of codecs may give opposite results if running on an older computer with reduced memory (or cache) resources.\n\nSection::::Performance comparison.:Profiles support.\n", "Section::::Fourth generation (Touch Bar and USB-C).:Heat decreasing performance.\n\nThermal throttling drew widespread attention when YouTuber Dave Lee posted a video of a MacBook Pro running Adobe Premiere that was throttled below the CPU's 2.9GHz base clock speed.\n", "PowerVR Series6XT GPUs aims at reducing power consumption further through die area and performance optimization providing a boost of up to 50% compared to Series6 GPUs. Those chips sport PVR3C triple compression system-level optimizations and Ultra HD deep color. The Apple iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus and iPod Touch (6th generation) with the A8 SoC feature the quad-core GX6450. An unannounced 8 cluster variant was used in the Apple A8X SoC for their iPad Air 2 model (released in 2014). The MediaTek MT8173 and Renesas R-Car H3 SoCs use Series6XT GPUs.\n", "Section::::Computer types.:Mobile devices.\n\nMobile devices usually have no discrete cooling systems, as mobile CPU and GPU chips are designed for maximum power efficiency due to the constraints of the device's battery. Some higher performance devices may include a heat spreader that aids in transferring heat to the external case of a phone or tablet.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- CPU power dissipation\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal design power\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal management of electronic devices and systems\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- CPU Cooler Rules of Thumb\n\nBULLET::::- Submersion Cooling Patent Application\n", "\"PC Magazine\" said \"the Core i9 processor Apple chose to use inside the MacBook Pro (i9-8950K) has a base clock frequency of 2.9GHz, which is capable of bursting up to 4.8GHz when necessary. However, testing carried out by YouTuber Dave Lee showed that the Core i9 couldn't even maintain 2.9GHz, let alone 4.8GHz. And it ended up running at 2.2GHz due to the heat generated inside the chassis forcing it to throttle. Lee found the 2018 i9 MacBook Pro was slower than the 2017 MacBook Pro and stated, \"This isn't a problem with Intel's Core i9, it's Apple's thermal solution.\" When Lee put the i9 MacBook Pro inside a freezer, the render times were over 8 minutes shorter.\n", "These GPU can be used in either single-core or multi-core configurations.\n\nSection::::PowerVR Graphics.:Series5XE (SGX).\n\nIntroduced in 2014, the PowerVR GX5300 GPU is based on the SGX architecture and is the world’s smallest Android-capable graphics core, with substantial improvements in efficiency, providing an ideal low-power solution for entry-level smartphones, wearables, IoT and other small footprint embedded applications, including enterprise devices such as printers.\n\nSection::::PowerVR Graphics.:Series6 (Rogue).\n", "Section::::Devices.:Version support.:OpenCL 2.1 support.\n\nBULLET::::- (2018+) Support backported to Intel 5th and 6th gen processors (Broadwell, Skylake)\n\nBULLET::::- (2017+) Intel 7th and 8th gen processors (Kaby Lake, Coffee Lake (Desktop) or Cannon Lake (mobile))\n\nBULLET::::- Khronos: with Driver Update all Hardware with 2.0 support possible\n\nSection::::Devices.:Version support.:OpenCL 2.0 support.\n\nBULLET::::- (2011+) AMD GCN GPU's (HD 7700+/HD 8000/Rx 200/Rx 300/Rx 400/Rx 500-Series), some GCN 1st Gen only 1.2 with some Extensions\n\nBULLET::::- (2013+) AMD GCN APU's (Jaguar, Steamroller, Puma, Excavator & Zen-based)\n\nBULLET::::- (2014+) Intel 5th & 6th gen processors (Broadwell, Skylake)\n\nBULLET::::- (2015+) Qualcomm Adreno 5xx series\n", "For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users. Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be disadvantaged when dealing with a higher-end database, maths, engineering, financial software, virtualization, etc. This is because laptops use the mobile versions of processors to conserve power, and these lag behind desktop chips when it comes to performance. Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.\n", "Apple A5 - SGX543MP2 (two cores) \n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPad 2 (MP2@250 MHz)\n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPad Mini (MP2@250 MHz)\n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPhone 4S (MP2@200 MHz)\n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPod Touch (5th generation)(MP2@200 MHz)\n\nBULLET::::- Apple TV (3rd generation) (MP2@250 MHz)\n\nApple A5X - SGX543MP4 (four cores) @250 MHz\n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPad (3rd generation)\n\nApple A6 - SGX543MP3 (three cores) @325 MHz\n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPhone 5\n\nApple A6X - SGX554MP4 (four cores) @280 MHz \n\nBULLET::::- Apple iPad (4th generation)\n\nAllwinner Allwinner A31 - SGX544MP2 (two cores) @355 MHz \n\nBULLET::::- Iben L1 Gaming Tablet\n\nAllwinner Allwinner A31s - SGX544MP2 (two cores) @355 MHz \n\nBULLET::::- JXD S7800a\n", "The fact that OpenCL allows workloads to be shared by CPU and GPU, executing the same programs, means that programmers can exploit both by dividing work among the devices. This leads to the problem of deciding how to partition the work, because the relative speeds of operations differ among the devices. Machine learning has been suggested to solve this problem: Grewe and O'Boyle describe a system of support vector machines trained on compile-time features of program that can decide the device partitioning problem statically, without actually running the programs to measure their performance.\n", "BULLET::::- (2009+) AMD TeraScale 2 & 3 GPU's (RV8xx, RV9xx in HD 5000, 6000 & 7000 Series)\n\nBULLET::::- (2011+) AMD TeraScale APU's (K10, Bobcat & Piledriver-based)\n\nBULLET::::- (2012+) Nvidia Kepler, Maxwell, Pascal, Volta and Turing GPU's (GeForce 600, 700, 800, 900 & 10-series, Quadro K-, M- & P-series, Tesla K-, M- & P-series)\n\nBULLET::::- (2012+) Intel 3rd & 4th gen processors (Ivy Bridge, Haswell)\n\nBULLET::::- (2013+) Qualcomm Adreno 4xx series\n\nBULLET::::- (2013+) ARM Mali Midgard 3rd gen (T760)\n\nBULLET::::- (2015+) ARM Mali Midgard 4th gen (T8xx)\n\nSection::::Devices.:Version support.:OpenCL 1.1 support.\n\nBULLET::::- (2008+) some AMD TeraScale 1 GPU's (RV7xx in HD4000-series)\n", "In a low power state, each CPU would have only consumed about 5 Watts (or even less when switching to even lower power states), making for 10 Watts needing to be cooled. But when run in full power mode (as to circumvent the cache problem), each CPU does consume about 50 Watts making for a total of 100 Watts—essentially the upper limit for which the cooling system was designed, making the fans run at full speed, even when the machine is mostly idle.\n", "PowerVR Series7XT GPUs are available in configurations ranging from two to 16 clusters, offering dramatically scalable performance from 100 GFLOPS to 1.5 TFLOPS. The GT7600 is used in the Apple iPhone 6s and iPhone 6s Plus models (released in 2015) as well as the Apple iPhone SE model (released in 2016) and the Apple iPad model (released in 2017) respectively. An unannounced 12 cluster variant was used in the Apple A9X SoC for their iPad Pro models (released in 2015).\n\nPowerVR Series 7XT GPUs were unveiled on 10 November 2014.\n\nSection::::PowerVR Graphics.:Series7XT Plus (Rogue).\n", "BULLET::::- The application allows you to watch 4K video files on iPhone 6, though developers state that the highest resolution supported by iPhone`s screen is 1080p (iPhone 6 Plus, iPhone 6S Plus). While testing WALTR 1.0.2 for Mac, devs tried to put 4K video from Samsung Smart TV demos into an iPhone. To everyone's surprise, iPhone played it back easily and without any difficulties. Since Apple TV uses chips from the iPhone, it was likely that the next generation of Apple TV is going to support 4K resolution.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Data compression\n\nBULLET::::- Ripping\n\nBULLET::::- Video codec\n", "High Efficiency Video Coding implementations and products\n\nHigh Efficiency Video Coding implementations and products covers the implementations and products of High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC).\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:2012.\n\nOn February 29, 2012, at the 2012 Mobile World Congress, Qualcomm demonstrated a HEVC decoder running on an Android tablet, with a Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 dual-core processor running at 1.5 GHz, showing H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and HEVC versions of the same video content playing side by side. In this demonstration HEVC reportedly showed almost a 50% bit rate reduction compared with H.264/MPEG-4 AVC.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "\"We’ve had a few problems,” said Newey after the Pacific Grand Prix. “Mainly, it is a grip problem in the slow corners. In medium- and high-speed ones, it is pretty good.\" Paddy Lowe, who had left Williams for McLaren in 1994, said in 2014, \"Aerodynamic experimentation in those days was not sophisticated enough to understand the ride height sensitivity of aero. In the windtunnel now we run ride height sweeps, steer sweeps, roll sweeps, and yaw sweeps, plus a load more. Back then, if a typical model was running different front and rear ride heights in a straight line, you were at the leading edge of sophistication.\n", "Section::::Test drive.\n\nDuring one of the test drives in the Netherlands the Nuna 3 achieved a speed of 130 km/h. On the first day of the race the car achieved a top speed of 140 km/h. For comparison, the Sunraycer (the first winner of the Solar Challenge race) attained a top speed of 109 km/h in 1987.\n\nSection::::Important opponents.\n", "Electrathon racing started in England, spread to Australia, and arrived in the United States in 1990. The basic format is to determine which car can travel the furthest in one hour within the limitations of battery weight and other factors mentioned above. Design teams must compromise speed in order to gain distance. Success requires efficiency of both the machine and driving technique.\n", "The current women's absolute record was set by Kitty O'Neil, in the jet-powered \"SMI Motivator\", set at the Alvord Desert in 1976. Held back by her contract with a sponsor and using only 60 percent of her car's power, O'Neil reached .\n\nSection::::Records.\n\nSection::::Records.:1963–present (jet and rocket propulsion).\n", "Turbocharging became increasingly popular in the 1980s, from relatively affordable coupes such as the 1980-1986 Renault Fuego and 1992-1996 Rover 220 Coupé Turbo, to expensive supercars such as the 1984-1987 Ferrari 288 GTO and 1987-1992 Ferrari F40.\n\nIn the late 1980s and early 1990s, several manufacturers developed supercars which competed for production car top speed records. These cars included the 1986-1993 Porsche 959, 1991-1995 Bugatti EB 110, 1992-1994 Jaguar XJ220 and 1993-1998 McLaren F1.\n", "Section::::Design issues with increasing speed.\n\nCompressibility is an important factor in aerodynamics. At low speeds, the compressibility of air is not significant in relation to aircraft design, but as the airflow nears and exceeds the speed of sound, a host of new aerodynamic effects become important in the design of aircraft. These effects, often several of them at a time, made it very difficult for World War II era aircraft to reach speeds much beyond 800 km/h (500 mph).\n", "The 1970s were also the start of fiber optics. In 1970 Corning Glass announced that it had created a glass fiber so clear that it could be used to communicate pulses of light. Soon after GTE and AT&T began experiments to transmit sound and image data using fiber optics, and transformed the communications industry. After 1973 both the United States and Europe turned away from the large and heavy mainstream automobiles, and towards lightweight, fuel-efficient and environmentally-conscious vehicles, already beginning to be produced by Japan. The Lotus Esprit was an example of a 1970s super car, producing high performance from a small engine. The Volkswagen Golf GTI of 1974 made the concept of a performance hatchback part of automotive mainstream thinking, though it had many precedents.\n", "Overall, there were a variety of powertrains and vehicle forms experimented with during this period, each with different advantages and disadvantages, range, reliability and speed. In terms of outright performance, different powertrains competed for the land speed record through the turn of the 20th century (see below), and it was not until 1924 onwards that internal combustion powertrains began to dominate this aspect.\n\nSection::::History.:Early land speed records.\n", "E0, developed in 1986, was the very first robot. It walked in a straight line on two feet, in a manner resembling human locomotion, taking around 5 seconds to complete a single step. Quickly engineers realised that in order to walk up slopes, the robot would need to travel faster. The model has 6 degrees of freedom: one in each groin, one in each knee and one in each ankle.\n\nSection::::Models.\n\nBULLET::::- E0 developed in 1986\n", "Better was to come for the TAG engines in 1984, with Lauda and Alain Prost winning 12 of the season's 16 races between them, easily winning McLaren the Constructors' Championship. The Drivers' Championship became a battle between Lauda and Prost, with the Austrian winning his third World Championship by only half a point from his teammate. Prost had won 7 races to Lauda's 5, but Lauda had more point scoring races and fewer retirements than the Frenchman, who was runner up in the championship for the second year in a row. The TAG engine's first win came in the opening race of the season in Brazil thanks to a brilliant drive from Alain Prost. Lauda won the next race at Kyalami, and by Round 11 in the Netherlands the team had wrapped up the Constructors' title. The Drivers' title wasn't decided until the final round in Portugal, with Prost winning his 7th race (a season record) not being enough to hold out Lauda whose 2nd place gave him 72 points in the championship to Prost's 71.5, the Frenchman having only being awarded 4.5 points instead of the usual 9 for his win in the rain shortened Monaco Grand Prix, and Lauda's better finishing record being the deciding factor.\n", "In addition, the team's aerodynamics and design specialists created and tested conceptual design schemes both in computer simulation software and in real-world wind tunnels. The team's plan was to arrive at a final design, which was to take the form of a feasibly marketable vehicle that could be brought to market in the near term.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "The aerodynamic drag is an important part of the total resistance. Important are the frontal surface and the streamline. Any deviation from the ideal streamline will cause turbulence, which costs energy. The ideal streamline is achieved in various stages:\n\nBULLET::::1. Through computer simulations of the design\n\nBULLET::::2. Through testing of a scale model in a wind tunnel. For example, liquid paints can be applied to see the flow of air over the surface. The photo shows is taken during one of those tests in the Low Speed Laboratory of the TU Delft.\n", "Thrust1\n\nThrust1 was a British-designed and built jet-propelled car. The car was designed and built by its driver Richard Noble, who later achieved the land speed record with his car \"Thrust2\".\n\n\"Thrust1\" itself was never intended to be a contender for the record. Noble's plan was for three cars: \"Thrust1\" \"to learn the ropes\", a second demonstration car to raise interest and the essential large-scale sponsorship, then \"Thrust3\" for an attempt on the record.\n\nSection::::Details.\n", "In addition to the new formula, 1938 brought other challenges, principally the death of Rosemeyer early in the year, in an attempt on the land speed record on a German \"autobahn\". Tazio Nuvolari joined the team, and won the Italian and Donington Grands Prix, in what was otherwise a thin year for the team, other than yet another European Mountain Championship for Stuck.\n\nIn 1939, as war clouds gathered over Europe, Nuvolari won the Yugoslavia Grand Prix in Belgrade, while Hermann P. Müller won the 1939 French Grand Prix.\n\nSection::::Second World War.\n", "BULLET::::- 7 July 1969 — The Aérotrain I80 prototype for 250 km/h is presented to the public.\n\nBULLET::::- September 1969 — Tests start with Aérotrain I80 on the Orléans test track. 250 km/h attained on 13 September.\n\nBULLET::::- 1969 — Construction of the Aérotrain S44. In tests from December 1969 to January 1972, it achieved 170 km/h on a 3 km-long test track.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 March 1970 — Release of a postage stamp honoring the Aérotrain.\n\nBULLET::::- 1970 — Rohr Industries starts the construction of the UTACV prototype in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- October 1973 — Reconstruction of the Aérotrain I80 for 350 km/h as the I80 HV.\n", "Zakspeed's plan for 1985 was more a toe in the water exercise. The team only raced in the rounds of the championship which were held in Europe. Zakspeed did not enter for the fly away races in Brazil, Canada, USA, South Africa and Australia.\n", "Section::::Racing history.\n\nAfter running two entries the previous season, for 1983 ATS reverted to a single entry driven by German Manfred Winkelhock. Winkelhock usually qualified well but the team suffered poor reliability. Schmid, a notoriously autocratic and difficult team owner, made a number of management decisions which impacted on the team's results.\n", "Elfriede Vey also achieved international success. On her first international start on the Herne Hill cycle track on July 20, 1957, she won over a distance of more than 3,500 meters in single-track pursuit. She took part in the road race in London the following day and took 10th place in a strong field of 35 participants. \n", "In 1982, Kyosho introduced the Akira Kogawa designed \"Scorpion\", a car dedicated for serious competition use as it was 200/400g lighter to its competitions that went on to become the 1985 ROAR Nationals champion. The car featured an aluminum ladder frame chassis\n", "It was the first mass-produced four-seat sports model to be designed in a wind tunnel. The resulting drag coefficient (Cd) factor of 0.32-0.35 depending on model and year. In October 1982, the turbo diesel model was classified as the fastest diesel car in the world, with a top speed of .\n", "BULLET::::- 23 December 1966 — An added rocket provides a combined power of , the Aérotrain 01 reached a speed of 303 km/h.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 November 1967 — Equipped with a jet engine, Aérotrain 01 reached a speed of 345 km/h.\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 — Construction of Aérotrain 02.\n\nBULLET::::- May 1967 — Tests start with Aérotrain 02 on the Gometz-le-Châtel trial track, 300 km/h is attained.\n\nBULLET::::- 22 January 1969 — With an added rocket, Aérotrain 02 reaches the record speed of 422 km/h.\n\nBULLET::::- 1969 — Construction of an experimental 18 km track between Ruan, to the north of Artenay, and Saran (Orléans) in the Loiret.\n", "In 1987 Röhrl set up a new record in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb for being the first driver to cover the 14.42 miles (19.99 km) long mountain track to the Pikes Peak in less than 11 minutes. In his 600 hp (440 kW) Audi Sport Quattro S1 E2 he did the famed American hillclimb in 10 minutes and 47.850 seconds to reach Pikes Peak on the road which at that time was mainly covered with gravel.\n", "In 1985, Sega released \"Hang-On\", a Grand Prix style motorbike racer. It used force feedback technology and was also one of the first arcade games to use 16-bit graphics and Sega's \"Super Scaler\" technology that allowed pseudo-3D sprite-scaling at high frame rates.\n", "Section::::Suspension system.\n\nEventually, the very advanced and complex suspension system was figured out by Lola and updates and chassis setup instructions tamed the beast. However, the US series ended in 1976, so little time was available to demonstrate the T400's full potential. In recent years sophisticated computer modeling has been used to further enhance the T400's chassis performance. Two of the 14 T400s were wrecked in accidents but the recent whereabouts of all twelve of the survivors are known.\n", "The first bench run took place in 1940, becoming the world's first turboprop engine to run. However, although the design was inherently sound, combustion problems were experienced which limited the output to around 400 bhp. There was nothing inherently wrong with the design, however, and continued work on the flame cans should have allowed it to develop to full power.\n" ]

[ "Getting to 400km/h is hard to achieve." ]

[ "It isn't so hard to achieve it is hard to control and keep safe to use as a vehicle." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Getting to 400km/h is hard to achieve." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It isn't so hard to achieve it is hard to control and keep safe to use as a vehicle." ]

[ "The secretion also loses its normal diurnal pattern of morning peak levels and evening and night time troughs. Nevertheless, secretion remains pulsatile and there is a marked variation in blood samples from the same individual.\n", "BULLET::::- Aspirin has been found to reduce the response probably through an action upon ACTH.\n\nSection::::Individual factors.\n\nBULLET::::- Morning types show a larger cortisol awakening response than evening types.\n\nBULLET::::- Those suffering fatigue show a low rise and flat plateau.\n\nBULLET::::- Those in pain: the response is reduced the more people are in pain.\n\nBULLET::::- The lower a person's socioeconomic status, the higher their response. This might link to the material hardship that occurs with low socioeconomic status.\n\nSection::::Stress.\n\nCortisol awakening response is larger for those:\n\nBULLET::::- Waking up to a working day compared to work-free weekend day.\n", "Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. The OPH distributed a questionnaire to patients seeking treatment for cough, sinus drip, sneezing, wheezing, chest congestion, swollen red and puffy eye(s) and sore throat. According to the study, state epidemiologists found no increase in the rate of New Orleans-area respiratory illnesses. Although rates were found to be no different in comparison to state and country rates, the study showed that people with chronic sinus or respiratory symptoms were more affected by the hurricane. \n", "The cause of morning sickness is unknown but may be related to changing levels of the hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin. Some have proposed that it may be useful from an evolutionary point of view. Diagnosis should only occur after other possible causes have been ruled out. Abdominal pain, fever, or headaches are typically not present in morning sickness.\n", "\"This established patient has had a fever with sore/scratchy throat and severe headache for the past three days. He has had a little nausea but no vomiting. He said his pain is relieved with cold drinks and ibuprofen.\n", "The most frequent presenting symptoms are headache, drowsiness, confusion, seizures, hemiparesis or speech difficulties together with fever with a rapidly progressive course. Headache is characteristically worse at night and in the morning, as the intracranial pressure naturally increases when in the supine position. This elevation similarly stimulates the medullary vomiting center and area postrema, leading to morning vomiting. \n", "Paroxysmal sneezing in morning, especially in morning while getting out of the bed. Excessive rhinorrhea - watering discharge from the nose when patient bends forward. Nasal obstruction - bilateral nasal stuffiness alternates from one site to other; this is more marked at night, when the dependent side of nose is often blocked. Postnasal drip.\n\nSection::::Presentation.:Complications.\n\nNonallergic rhinitis cases may subsequently develop polyps, turbinate hypertrophy and sinusitis.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Health care providers distinguish bacterial and viral sinusitis by watchful waiting. If a person has had sinusitis for fewer than 10 days without the symptoms becoming worse, then the infection is presumed to be viral. When symptoms last more than 10 days or get worse in that time, then the infection is considered bacterial sinusitis. Pain in the teeth and bad breath are also more indicative of bacterial disease.\n", "Among people who do use intravenous drugs and have a fever in the emergency department, there is about a 10% to 15% prevalence of endocarditis. This estimate is not substantially changed by whether the doctor believes the patient has a trivial explanation for their fever. Weisse found that 13% of 121 patients had endocarditis. Marantz also found a prevalence of endocarditis of 13% among such patients in the emergency department with fever. Samet found a 6% incidence among 283 such patients, but after excluding patients with initially apparent major illness to explain the fever (including 11 cases of manifest endocarditis), there was a 7% prevalence of endocarditis.\n", "In 1830 Smith published \"A Treatise on Fever\", which became a standard authority on the subject. In this book he established a direct connection between the impoverishment of the poor and epidemic fever. The underlying theory opposed contagion as a mechanism of spread of disease, and postulated no pathogen that was airborne; it argued that the exclusion of \"pure air\" could suffice to create mortal disease.\n\nSection::::Family.\n", "In 2017, Hoehn et al., in the USA, studied 50,707 patients who had undergone urgent colectomy. They found, on multivariate analysis, mortality was associated with patient age (10 years: OR = 1.31, p  0.01), severity of illness (extreme: OR = 34.68, p  0.01), insurance status (Medicaid: OR = 1.24, p  0.01; uninsured: OR = 1.40, p  0.01), and weekend admission (OR = 1.09, p = 0.04).\n\nSection::::Published research: Disease-specific (selected) patients: Specialist surgery.:Trauma and orthopaedics.\n", "Normally, the highest cortisol secretion happens in the second half of the night with peak cortisol production occurring in the early morning. Following this, cortisol levels decline throughout the day with lowest levels during the first half of the night. Cortisol awakening response is independent of this circadian variation in HPA axis activity; it is superimposed upon the daily rhythm of HPA axis activity; and it seems to be linked specifically to the event of awakening.\n\nCortisol awakening response provides an easy measure of the reactivity capacity of the HPA axis.\n\nSection::::Sleep factors.\n", "Many biographers believe Jefferson and Washington had a falling out over a letter Jefferson sent to Mazzei in Italy, which called Washington's administration \"Anglican, monarchical, and aristocratical\" as England and claimed that Washington had appointed as military officers \"all timid men that prefer the calm of despotism to the boisterous sea of liberty ... [I]t would give you a fever were I to name to you the apostates who have gone over to these heresies, men who were Samsons in the field and Solomons in the council, but who have had their heads shorn by the harlot England.\" The letter was eventually published overseas and then re-translated back into English by Noah Webster and published in the United States.\n", "Unexplained statements in the Hippocratic writings, Cleghorn argued, become clear in the light of clinical observations on the Mediterranean coasts, and the context that diseases, both acute and chronic, are there often modified by malarial fever. The pathology of enteric fever and acute pneumonia was unknown in at the time, but the book gives an account of the course of enteric fever complicated with tertian ague, with dysentery, and with pneumonia. His own misconceptions did not seriously cloud what he observed at the bedside. Four editions were published during the author's lifetime, and a fifth with some alterations in 1815.\n", "Section::::Characters.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Devi D..\n", "It is largely accepted by scholars that Maharitz underwent a change of heart in \"circa\" 1776 (between 1775–1779), whereas before this time he had adhered largely to Sephardic customs introduced in Yemen, but afterwards he had returned to fully embrace the earlier Yemenite traditions and liturgies that had been practised in Yemen.\n\nSection::::Persecution.\n", "Rabbi Yiḥyah Salaḥ (who is known by the acronym Maharitz) gives a most captivating account of these harrowing events borne by the Jews of Sana'a in the years leading up to their expulsion, as also when they left their city, based on a hand-written document preserved and copied down by subsequent generations. Some have judged the sum and bearing of these events as a mere microscopic example of the sufferings experienced by the Jewish inhabitants as a whole, in each and every city throughout Yemen. Thus, he gives the following account:\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "Section::::Physiological regulation.:Sleep and rest.\n\nThe immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α produced in response to infection, appear to also play a role in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Thus the immune response to infection may result in changes to the sleep cycle, including an increase in slow-wave sleep relative to REM sleep.\n", "According to numerous scholars, Dr. Benjamin Rush wrote to Richard Allen, a black preacher and leader of the Free African Society, appealing to him and his people for help. Rush believed that blacks might have immunity to the disease, as he had read accounts by another doctor of a yellow fever in epidemic in Charleston, in which they were reported as surviving at higher rates than whites. He appealed to Allen for aid in the epidemic.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Illness and death.:Reactions.\n", "compliance rate showed no difference between the split-night and the two-night protocols.\n", "In 130 CE the Jewish quarter was established in the city. A well-known travellers to Taiz was Ibn Battuta. In his travels he describes this city as \"one of the most beautiful and extensive cities of Yemen.\" He was invited to a banquet with the king, and received a warm welcome. \n\nSection::::History.:Medieval.\n", "Similarly, in 2012, in a study of 4616 AMI patients in Middle Eastern Countries, Al-Lawati et al. found no significant differences in 1-month (OR = 0.88; 95% CI 0.68-1.14) and 1-year mortality (OR = 0.88; 95% CI 0.70-1.10), respectively, between weekday and weekend admissions.\n", "In 1166 Maimonides went to Egypt and settled in Fustat, where he gained much renown as a physician, practising in the family of Saladin and in that of his vizier Ḳaḍi al-Faḍil al-Baisami, and Saladin's successors. The title \"Ra'is al-Umma\" or \"al-Millah\" (Head of the Nation or of the Faith), was bestowed upon him. In Fustat, he wrote his \"Mishneh Torah\" (1180) and \"The Guide for the Perplexed\". Some of his writings were later discovered among the manuscript fragments in the \"geniza\" (storeroom) of the Ben Ezra Synagogue, located in Fustat.\n", "I said to Irma: \"\"If you still get pains, it's really your own fault.\"\" She replied: \"\"If you only knew what pains I've got in my throat and stomach and abdomen—it's choking me.\"\" [...] I at once \"called in\" Dr. M. [who] looked quite different from usual; he was very pale, he walked with a limp and his chin was clean shaven. [...] My friend Leopold was [...] saying, \"\"She has a dull area down on the left.\"\" He also indicated that a portion of the skin of the left shoulder was infiltrated. (I noticed this, just as he did, in spite of her dress.) [...] M. said: \"\"There's no doubt it's an infection, but no matter, dysentery will supervene and the toxin will be eliminated.\"\n" ]

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[ "U.S. Supreme Court cases discussing the constitutionality of execution methods often involve testimony of medical professionals; one example of such a case being the 2008 \"Baze v. Rees\" case, which affirmed the constitutionality of the three-drug lethal injection protocol as a method of capital punishment, despite claims that the single drug used for animal euthanasia is more humane than the three-drug cocktail currently used.\n", "BULLET::::- Primary: Sodium thiopental, 5 grams, intravenous\n\nBULLET::::- Secondary: Midazolam, 10 mg, intramuscular, and hydromorphone, 40 mg, intramuscular\n\nIn the brief for the U.S. courts written by accessories, the State of Ohio implies that they were unable to find any physicians willing to participate in development of protocols for executions by lethal injection, as this would be a violation of medical ethics, such as the Geneva Promise, and such physicians would be thrown out of the medical community and shunned for engaging in such deeds, even if they could not lawfully be stripped of their license.\n", "One particular concern to opponents of physician participation in capital punishment is the role that health care providers have played in treating or reviving patients to render them fit for execution. In a 1995 Oklahoma case, death row inmate Robert Brecheen intentionally overdosed on sleeping pills hours before his scheduled lethal injection. He was immediately hospitalized and had his stomach pumped, before being returned to prison for his execution. In a similar 1999 case in Texas, David M. Long attempted suicide by drug overdose two days before his execution date and prison authorities flew him from an intensive care unit in Galveston, on a ventilator, accompanied by a full medical team, to the death chamber in Huntsville.\n", "Section::::Legal implications.\n\nSeveral states which practice capital punishment, such as Georgia and Oregon, have laws forbidding sanctions against medical professionals participating in executions. The North Carolina Supreme Court ruled 4-3 that the Medical Board cannot discipline doctors who participate in executions, stating that the statutes providing for lethal injection are superior to ethical guides.\n\nSection::::Proscription in the Hippocratic Oath.\n\nThe practice is proscribed in the Hippocratic Oath, an ethical guide for the medical profession, albeit with no legal or constitutional force, which states:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Carlo Musso\n\nBULLET::::- List of offenders executed in the United States in 2013\n", "In at least one case, the planned execution of Michael Morales, the execution warrant was stayed indefinitely due to the objection of the contacted physicians to participate.\n\nThe topic was the subject of a 1992 review by the American Medical Association, entitled \"Physician Participation in Capital Punishment\".\n\nSection::::Moral discussion.\n", "Section::::Botched executions.\n", "Possibly botched executions include those of Stanley Williams, Ángel Nieves Díaz, and others. The only execution by lethal injection which failed to kill the condemned prisoner in United States occurred on September 15, 2009 in Ohio, when executioners attempted and then aborted the execution of Romell Broom, leading to the implementation of a one-drug method. More than six decades earlier, on May 3, 1946, an unsuccessful attempt at the electrocution of Willie Francis, then aged 17, led to an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court to reject a second attempt at electrocuting Francis, which failed by a 5-4 vote in \"Francis v. Resweber\", resulting in Francis' successful electrocution just over a year later, on May 9, 1947.\n", "Participation of medical professionals in American executions\n\nParticipation of medical professionals in American executions is a controversial topic, due to its moral and legal implications. The practice is proscribed by the American Medical Association, as defined in its \"Code of Medical Ethics\". The American Society of Anesthesiologists endorses this position, stating that lethal injections \"can never conform to the science, art and\n\npractice of anesthesiology\".\n", "Some states specifically detail that participation in a lethal injection is not to be considered practicing medicine. For example, Delaware law reads \"the administration of the required lethal substance or substances required by this section shall not be construed to be the practice of medicine and any pharmacist or pharmaceutical supplier is authorized to dispense drugs to the Commissioner or the Commissioner's designee, without prescription, for carrying out the provisions of this section, notwithstanding any other provision of law\" (excerpt from Title 11, Chapter 42, § 4209). State law allows for the dispensing of the drugs/chemicals for lethal injection to the state's department of corrections without a prescription.\n", "Typically, most states do not require that physicians administer the drugs for lethal injection, but most states do require doctors, nurses or paramedics to prepare the substances before their application and to attest the inmate's death after it.\n", "In 2005, a six-month-old infant, Sun Hudson, with a uniformly fatal disease thanatophoric dysplasia, was the first patient in which \"a United States court has allowed life-sustaining treatment to be withdrawn from a pediatric patient over the objections of the child's parent\".\n\nSection::::Legislation and political movements.:Unsuccessful initiatives.\n", "The Ohio protocol, developed after the incomplete execution of Romell Broom, ensures the rapid and painless onset of anesthesia by only using sodium thiopental and eliminating the use of Pavulon and potassium as the second and third drugs, respectively. It also provides for a secondary fail-safe measure using intramuscular injection of midazolam and hydromorphone in the event intravenous administration of the sodium thiopental proves problematic. The first state to switch to use midazolam as the first drug in a new three-drug protocol was Florida on October 15, 2013. Then on November 14, 2013, Ohio made the same move.\n", "In 2010, the American Board of Anesthesiologists, a member board of the American Board of Medical Specialties, voted to revoke the certification of anesthesiologists who participate in executing a prisoner by lethal injection. Board secretary Mark A. Rockoff defended the organization's policy, stating that participation in executions \"puts anesthesiologists in an untenable position,\" and that physicians \"can assuredly provide effective anesthesia, but doing so in order to cause a patient's death is a violation of their fundamental duty as physicians to do no harm.\"\n", "In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of hydromorphone (a 333-fold lethal overdose for an opioid-naive person) and a supratherapeutic dose of midazolam as a backup means of carrying out executions when a suitable vein cannot be found for intravenous injection.\n\nLethal injection was held to be a constitutional method of execution by the U.S. Supreme Court in two cases: \"Baze v. Rees\" (2008) and \"Glossip v. Gross\" (2015).\n\nSection::::Methods.:Offender-selected methods.\n\nIn the following states, death row inmates with an execution warrant may choose to be executed by:\n", "In 2016, Pfizer joined over 20 American and European pharmaceutical manufacturers that had previously blocked the sale of their drugs for use in lethal injections, effectively closing the open market for FDA-approved manufacturers for any potential lethal execution drug. In the execution of Carey Dean Moore on August 14, 2018, the State of Nebraska used a novel drug cocktail comprising diazepam, fentanyl, cisatracurium, and potassium chloride, over the strong objections of the German pharmaceutical company Fresenius Kabi.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n\nSection::::Procedure.:Procedure in U.S. executions.\n", "The proposal was to allow terminally ill patients to be given lethal drugs. A terminally ill patient would be defined as a patient being given six months or fewer to live. The patient requesting the medication must be mentally capable to make medical decisions while consulting their respective doctors. Patients would be required to submit their request orally twice and witnessed in writing, and the initial verbal request must be fifteen days prior to the written request and second oral request. The patient's terminal diagnosis and capability to make health care decisions must be confirmed by a second doctor.\n", "Eleven states have switched, or have stated their intention to switch, to a one-drug lethal injection protocol. A one-drug method is using the single drug sodium thiopental to execute someone. The first state to switch to this method was Ohio, on December 8, 2009.\n\nIn 2011, after pressure by activist organizations, the manufacturers of sodium thiopental and pentobarbital halted the supply of the drugs to U.S. prisons performing lethal injections and required all resellers to do the same.\n\nSection::::Procedure.:Procedure in Chinese executions.\n", "According to the new lethal injection protocols section above, single-drug lethal injection is already in use, or intended, in 11 states.\n\nThe execution can be painlessly accomplished, without risk of consciousness, by the injection of a single large dose of a barbiturate. By this reasoning, the use of any other chemicals is entirely superfluous and only serves to unnecessarily increase the risk of pain during the execution. Another possibility would be I.V administration of a powerful and fast-acting opioid, such as sufentanyl, which would ensure comfort while killing via respiratory depression.\n", "The American Medical Association (AMA) believes that a physician's opinion on capital punishment is a personal decision. Since the AMA is founded on preserving life, they argue that a doctor \"should not be a participant\" in executions in any professional capacity with the exception of \"certifying death, provided that the condemned has been declared dead by another person\" and \"relieving the acute suffering of a condemned person while awaiting execution.\" The AMA, however, does not have the ability to enforce its prohibition of doctors from participation in lethal injection, as it does not have the authority to revoke medical licenses, as medical licensing is handled on the state level.\n", "By early 2014, a number of botched executions involving lethal injection, and a rising shortage of suitable drugs, had some U.S. states reconsidering lethal injection as a form of execution. Tennessee, which had previously offered inmates a choice between lethal injection and the electric chair, passed a law in May 2014 which gave the state the option to use the electric chair if lethal injection drugs are either unavailable or made unconstitutional. At the same time, Wyoming and Utah were considering the use of execution by firing squad in addition to other existing execution methods.\n", "Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, Death Penalty Information Center, Reprieve, and other anti-death-penalty groups have not proposed a lethal-injection protocol which they believe is less painful. Supporters of the death penalty argue that the lack of an alternative proposed protocol is a testament to the fact that the pain felt during the lethal injection protocol is not the issue. Instead, supporters argue that the issue is the continued existence of the death penalty, since if the only issue were the painfulness of the procedure, then Amnesty International, HRW, or the DPIC should have already proposed a less painful method.\n", "Since then, some states have used other anesthetics, such as pentobarbital, etomidate, or fast-acting benzodiazepines like midazolam. Many states have since bought lethal injection drugs from foreign furnishers, and most states have made it a criminal offense to reveal the identities of furnishers or execution team members. In November 2015, California adopted regulations allowing the state to use its own public compounding pharmacies to make the chemicals.\n", "Additionally, opponents argue that the method of administration is also flawed. They state that since the personnel administering the lethal injection lack expertise in anesthesia, the risk of failing to induce unconsciousness is greatly increased. In reference to this problem, Jay Chapman, the creator of the American method, said, \"It never occurred to me when we set this up that we'd have complete idiots administering the drugs.\" Also, they argue that the dose of sodium thiopental must be customized to each individual patient, not restricted to a set protocol. Finally, the remote administration results in an increased risk that insufficient amounts of the lethal injection drugs enter the bloodstream.\n", "In 1992, the group Californians against Human Suffering proposed Proposition 161 to allow patients with less than six months to live the right to receive a lethal prescription of barbiturates from a physician. This proposition offered more safeguards against abuse by physicians than Washington's Initiative 119, such as special protections for patients in nursing facilities. This measure failed to pass with 46 percent of the vote.\n", "In 2005, University of Miami researchers, in cooperation with the attorney representing death-row inmates from Virginia, published a research letter in the medical journal \"The Lancet\". The article presented protocol information from Texas, Virginia, and North and South Carolina, which showed that executioners had no anesthesia training, drugs were administered remotely with no monitoring for anesthesia, data were not recorded, and no peer review was done. Their analysis of toxicology reports from Arizona, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina showed that \"post mortem\" concentrations of thiopental in the blood were lower than that required for surgery in 43 of 49 executed inmates (88%); 21 (43%) inmates had concentrations consistent with awareness. This led the authors to conclude that a substantial probability existed that some of the inmates were aware and suffered extreme pain and distress during execution. The authors attributed the risk of consciousness among inmates to the lack of training and monitoring in the process, but carefully make no recommendations on how to alter the protocol or how to improve the process. Indeed, the authors conclude, \"because participation of doctors in protocol design or execution is ethically prohibited, adequate anesthesia cannot be certain. Therefore, to prevent unnecessary cruelty and suffering, cessation and public review of lethal injections is warranted.\"\n" ]

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[ "Shortly after the switch, Klein entered the qualifying for the 2013 French Open, but lost in straight sets in the First Round of qualification to French wildcard, Mathias Bourgue.\n\nSection::::Six-month ban.\n", "Another possible explanation concerns the existence of erectile tissue in the nose, which may become engorged during sexual arousal, triggering a sneeze.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nNasal decongestants may prevent sexually induced sneezing.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe phenomenon was noted as early as 1897 in 's remarks before the \"British Medical Association\" at a meeting in Montreal. It was later commented upon in print in 1901 in Gould and Pyle's \"Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine\":\n", "In 1990, after dancing with City Ballet for 13 years, Boos moved to Copenhagen to accept a position as guest teacher with the Royal Danish Ballet.\n\nSection::::Ballet master and répétiteur.\n", "Examples of preventive techniques are: the deep exhalation of the air in the lungs that would otherwise be used in the act of sneezing, holding the breath in while counting to ten or gently pinching the bridge of the nose for several seconds.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sneeze if You Need To!\" (\"Abe and the Amazing Promise\") – Bob needs to sneeze and visits the Sneeze Doctor (Larry) who tries multiple methods (potpourri, flowers, bright light, a bowling ball, and a toilet plunger) to get Bob to sneeze. Eventually a cat comes along, which makes Bob sneeze. He is relieved, but then starts sneezing uncontrollably. Meanwhile, the nurse (Mr. Lunt) shares trivia about sneezing.\n", "Reverse sneezing (also called backwards sneezing or inspiratory paroxysmal respiration) is a phenomenon observed in dogs, particularly in those with brachycephalic skulls. It is a fairly common respiratory event in dogs, but is rarely seen in cats. Its exact cause is unknown but may be due to nasal, pharyngeal, or sinus irritation (such as an allergy), the dog's attempt to remove mucus, or from overexcitement. It is characterized by rapid and repeated forced inhalation through the nose, accompanied by snorting or gagging sounds. Though it may be distressing to the animal, it is not known to be harmful. Most dogs are completely normal before and after episodes, and most will have repeat episodes of reverse sneezing throughout their lives.\n", "From February 2004, Bureau of Art - Performance submitted a statement for temporarily postponing his shows. In November 22nd, they made a new statement to related agencies and individuals not to use any song and performance of Bang Kieu at any cost. Following the statement, his citizenship was officially taken (it wasn't clear of who had made the decision and what is the citizenship).\n\nSection::::Career.:2004-now.\n", "Section::::Legal challenge and controversy.:On the annulment of the circular.\n", "Sneezing is not confined to humans or even mammals. Many animals including cats, dogs, chickens and iguanas sneeze. African wild dogs use sneezing as a form of communication, especially when considering a consensus in a pack on whether or not to hunt. Some breeds of dog are predisposed to reverse sneezing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhinitis\n\nBULLET::::- Sniffle\n\nBULLET::::- Seizure\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Cecil Adams (1987). \"If you hold your eyelids open while sneezing, will your eyes pop out?\". \"The Straight Dope\".\n\nBULLET::::- Barbara Mikkelson (2001). \"Bless You!\" \"Urban Legends Reference Pages\".\n", "In December 2010, Boozman voted against repealing Don't Ask, Don't Tell, claiming that the \"current policy has worked well\" and that \"we haven't had any significant problems with it.\" The vote passed by a margin of 250 - 175, and Don't Ask, Don't Tell was repealed.\n", "In Persian culture, sneezing sometimes is called \"sabr =صبر,\" meaning \"to wait or be patient.\" And when trying to do something or go somewhere and suddenly sneezing, one should stop or sit for a few minutes and then restart. By this act the \"bad thing\" passes and one will be saved.\n", "During the recovery phase intravenous fluids are discontinued to prevent a state of fluid overload. If fluid overload occurs and vital signs are stable, stopping further fluid may be all that is needed. If a person is outside of the critical phase, a loop diuretic such as furosemide may be used to eliminate excess fluid from the circulation.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "The campaign had been a successful program but in 2015 while in Mongu B-Flow and fellow Triple V members got some negative response as some fans ended up crashing B-Flow's car during the aftermath of the show.\n\nSection::::Young African leaders initiative.\n\nIn 2015 the United States Embassy in Zambia, selected B Flow to represent Zambia in President Obama's Young African Leaders Initiative ( Mandela Washington Fellowship ). He participated in the US government sponsored program for 3 months in different US cities.\n\nDuring the program United States President\n", "The urine sample is then sent to the laboratory for urinalysis and urine culture. \n\nSection::::Complications.\n\nIn children with full bladders verified by ultrasound, complications are rare. Small amounts of blood in the urine after the procedure is common and resolves quickly. \n\nLarge amounts of blood in the urine or infection of the abdominal wall puncture site are rare. Puncture of the bowel with the needle can occur if a loop of intestine overlays the bladder, but peritonitis is rare with such a small puncture. This can be avoided with use of ultrasound.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Clinical Urine Tests\n", "Although Ban repeatedly expressed his desires for running, a UN resolution in 1946 says \"a Secretary-General should refrain from accepting\" any Governmental position \"at any rate immediately on retirement.\" Exceptions to the rule have been made in past history with the 1986 election of Kurt Waldheim to the post of President of Austria, although the position is ceremonial in nature.\n", "After over a year without an appearance at international level, Diaby returned to the national team in September 2012 under new manager Didier Deschamps. In his first appearance since June 2011, he scored his first international goal in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Finland.\n\nSection::::Style of play.\n", "But in his own country, Peeters faced problems. Until 1973, publications on birth control were liable to fall foul of Belgian law, which considered them obscene. In Belgium, Peeters had to keep quiet about his work.\n", "On March 17, 2012, Buakaw's sponsor Yokkao Boxing announced that he would return to training.It was at this time that they began referring to him as Buakaw Banchamek. He had resumed training at the \"newly-built\" Banchamek gym (named after him), as of March 22, 2012. He was scheduled to fight Mickael Cornubet at ThaiFight on April 17, 2012.\n", "Breathe from the lower abdomen. As you exhale, the lower abdomen goes in; as you inhale the lower abdomen goes out. This breathing technique is almost the same throughout all different meditations with few exceptions. It is important to do this in a natural way, not tensing or forcing the stomach muscles. Before long, you will feel any stress-related tension in your chest fall away as the fire energy descends and the water energy rises. This process is called \"suseunghwagang\" (水昇火降).\n\nSection::::Method of Tae Eul Ju meditation.:Chanting.\n", "The function of sneezing is to expel mucus containing foreign particles or irritants and cleanse the nasal cavity. During a sneeze, the soft palate and palatine uvula depress while the back of the tongue elevates to partially close the passage to the mouth so that air ejected from the lungs may be expelled through the nose. Because the closing of the mouth is partial, a considerable amount of this air is usually also expelled from the mouth. The force and extent of the expulsion of the air through the nose varies.\n", "On July 12, 2012, Diaw re-signed with the Spurs to a reported two-year, $9.2 million deal. Diaw helped the Spurs reach the 2013 NBA Finals where they faced the Miami Heat. San Antonio lost the series in seven games.\n", "Section::::Professional career.\n", "In infants or young children with fever, laboratory analysis of the child's urine is needed to diagnose urinary tract infection. Children often are asymptomatic other than fever, or cannot describe the typical symptoms of pain or burning with urination. In children that cannot urinate on command, transurethral bladder catheterization is most often used. However, this method has high rates of sample contamination. Suprapubic aspiration has the lowest rates of contamination, but is often viewed as too invasive by practitioners and parents. In some children, urethral catheterization is not appropriate. In uncircumcised boys with tight phimosis or girls with labial adhesions, suprapubic aspiration is safe, fast, and likely to yield an uncontaminated urine specimen. \n", "Section::::Legal background.\n", "Time voiding while urinating and bladder training are techniques that use biofeedback. In time voiding, the patient fills in a chart of voiding and leaking. From the patterns that appear in the chart, the patient can plan to empty his or her bladder before he or she would otherwise leak. Biofeedback and muscle conditioning, known as bladder training, can alter the bladder's schedule for storing and emptying urine. These techniques are effective for urge and overflow incontinence\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Types of hot zones.:Biological.:Clean water.\n", "The downwelling of dense water at the thermal bar acts as a barrier to horizontal mixing. In spring, this concentrates warm water and suspended materials in the near shore waters around the edge of the lake. Satellite imagery has been used to identify thermal bars using their thermal characteristics as well as the concentration of suspended materials on their shoreward side, typically due to surface runoff to the lake.\n", "As the temperature continues to drop, the water on the surface may get cold enough to freeze and the lake/ocean begins to ice over. A new thermocline develops where the densest water () sinks to the bottom, and the less dense water (water that is approaching the freezing point) rises to the top. Once this new stratification establishes itself, it lasts until the water warms enough for the 'spring turnover,' which occurs after the ice melts and the surface water temperature rises to 4 °C. During this transition, a thermal bar may develop.\n", "During the process of lake stratification, shallow areas generally become stratified before deeper areas. In large lakes this condition may persist for weeks, during which a temperature front known as a thermal bar forms between the stratified and unstratified areas of the lake. The thermal bar generally forms parallel to shore and moves toward the lake center as deeper areas of the lake stratify. While thermal bars can form in both fall and spring, most studies of the thermal bar have investigated aspects of the feature in the spring, when the lake is warming up and the summer thermocline is beginning to form. \n", "Hope Spots\n\nHope Spots are ecologically unique areas of the ocean designated for protection under a global conservation campaign overseen by Mission Blue, a non-profit organization founded by Sylvia Earle with her 2009 TED prize wish.\n", "Thermal bar\n\nA thermal bar is a hydrodynamic feature that forms around the edges of holomictic lakes during the seasonal transition to stratified conditions, due to the shorter amount of time required for shallow areas of the lake to stratify.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Although a temporary seasonal feature, the thermal bar plays an important role in lake ecology by restricting mixing between coastal and offshore waters. This role is particularly evident during the spring runoff period when the retention of coastal waters may benefit aquatic organisms by providing warmer water temperatures and elevated nutrient concentrations, or may threaten coastal environments by retaining pollutants in coastal waters.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Water (molecule)#Density of water and ice\n\nBULLET::::- Limnology\n\nBULLET::::- Water\n\nBULLET::::- Aquatic ecology\n\nSection::::Additional references.\n", "The profundal zone is a deep zone of an inland body of freestanding water, such as a lake or pond, located below the range of effective light penetration. This is typically below the thermocline, the vertical zone in the water through which temperature drops rapidly. The temperature difference may be large enough to hamper mixing with the littoral zone in some seasons which causes a decrease in oxygen concentrations. The profundal is often defined, in accordance with Thienemann (1925), as the deepest, vegetation-free, and muddy zone of the lacustrine benthal. The profundal zone is often part of the aphotic zone.\n", "As seawater freezes in the polar oceans, salt brine concentrates are expelled from the sea ice, creating a downward flow of dense, extremely cold and saline water with a lower freezing point than the surrounding water. When this plume comes into contact with the neighboring ocean water, its extremely cold temperature causes ice to instantly form around the flow. This creates a hollow stalactite, or icicle, referred to as a brinicle.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "A water spot is an area of dried mineral deposits left on a surface after being allowed to air dry. Water quality, specifically the amount and type of minerals in the local water supply as measured by the total suspended solids or TSS test and other mineral levels such as sodium level, has a big effect on how severe water spots can be, for example on an automobile or dishes. Water spots can be avoided by drying after washing using a \"shammy\" cloth or towel for a car and a good drying cycle in a dishwasher, or by manual drying or good drainage after manually washing dishes.\n", "In scuba diving, a thermocline where water drops in temperature by a few degrees Celsius quite suddenly can sometimes be observed between two bodies of water, for example where colder upwelling water runs into a surface layer of warmer water. It gives the water an appearance of wrinkled glass that is often used to obscure bathroom windows and is caused by the altered refractive index of the cold or warm water column. These same schlieren can be observed when hot air rises off the tarmac at airports or desert roads and is the cause of mirages.\n\nSection::::Other water bodies.\n", "At the lake surface, the thermal bar may be visible as a foam line between the stratified water shoreward of the thermal bar and unstratified water on the offshore side. At this convergence, waters mix and sink when they reach the temperature of maximum density, roughly 4 degrees Celsius for freshwater, a process known as cabbeling.\n", "For the western Pacific, the mechanism for barrier layer formation is different. Along the equator, the eastern edge of the warm pool (typically 28C isotherm - see SST plot in the western Pacific) is a demarcation region between warm fresh water to the west and cold, salty, upwelled water in the central Pacific. A barrier layer is formed in the isothermal layer when salty water is subducted (i.e. a denser water mass moves below another) from the east into the warm pool due to local convergence or warm fresh water overrides denser water to the east. Here, weak winds, heavy precipitation, eastward advection of low salinity water, westward subduction of salty water and downwelling equatorial Kelvin or Rossby waves are factors that contribute to deep BLT formation.\n", "Limnetic zone\n\nThe limnetic zone is the open and well-lit area of a freestanding body of fresh water, such as a lake or pond.  Not included in this area is the littoral zone, which is the shallow, near-shore area of the water body. Together, these two zones comprise the photic zone.                 \n", "Thermocline\n\nA thermocline (also known as the thermal layer or the metalimnion in lakes) is a thin but distinct layer in a large body of fluid (e.g. water, as in an ocean or lake; or air, e.g. an atmosphere) in which temperature changes more rapidly with depth than it does in the layers above or below. In the ocean, the thermocline divides the upper mixed layer from the calm deep water below.\n", "Section::::Terrain features.\n\nSection::::Terrain features.:Hydrothermal vents.\n\nA rare but important terrain feature found in the abyssal and hadal zones is the hydrothermal vent. In contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 °C up to as high as 464 °C. Due to the high barometric pressure at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures.\n", "Thermoclines can also be observed in lakes. In colder climates, this leads to a phenomenon called stratification. During the summer, warm water, which is less dense, will sit on top of colder, denser, deeper water with a thermocline separating them. The warm layer is called the epilimnion and the cold layer is called the hypolimnion. Because the warm water is exposed to the sun during the day, a stable system exists and very little mixing of warm water and cold water occurs, particularly in calm weather.\n", "For the western Pacific, the mechanism for BLT formation is different. Along the equator, the eastern edge of the warm pool (typically 28C isotherm - see SST plot in the western Pacific) is a demarcation region between warm fresh water to the west and cold, salty, upwelled water in the central Pacific. A barrier layer is formed in the isothermal layer when salty water is subducted from the east into the warm pool due to local convergence and warm fresh water overrides denser water to the east. Here, weak winds, heavy precipitation, eastward advection of low salinity water, westward subduction of salty water and downwelling equatorial Kelvin or Rossby waves are factors that contribute to deep BLT formation.\n", "Since cold water can be found at depth in the oceans even in the tropics, ikaite can form at all latitudes. However, the presence of ikaite pseudomorphs can be used as a paleoclimate proxy or paleothermometry representing water near freezing conditions.\n\nSection::::Pseudomorphs.:Thinolite deposits.\n", "Hotspot volcanic island ridges are created by volcanic activity, erupting periodically, as the tectonic plates pass over a hotspot. In areas with volcanic activity and in the oceanic trenches there are hydrothermal vents – releasing high pressure and extremely hot water and chemicals into the typically freezing water around it.\n", "Hope Spots can be Marine Protected Areas (MPA) that need attention or new sites. They are chosen for their contributions to biodiversity, the carbon sink, and important habitat. Hope Spot status is intended to alleviate the pressures human resource extraction places on the ocean by making the site higher priority to become an MPA, where resource extraction, like fishing and drilling, may be forbidden under law.\n\nThere are 76 Hope Spots worldwide (as of September 9, 2016). An additional 22 nominations for Hope Spots are currently under consideration and three nominations have been deferred.\n", "Similarly, low pressure areas are formed in the oceanic circulation near the Polar regions were sea water is much warmer than the land. Such centers are the Icelandic Low, the Aleutian Low and numerous lows near the coast of Antarctica.\n", "Wash margin\n\nA wash margin or wash fringe () is an area of the shore on which material is deposited or washed up. It often runs along the margin of a waterbody and there can be several bands due to variations in water levels. As a result of the richness of nutrients that occur in such wash fringes, ruderal species frequently occur here, that, for example, on the Baltic Sea coast consist of grassleaf orache and sea kale.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- High water mark\n\nBULLET::::- Intertidal zone\n\nSection::::Literature.\n", "Section::::Important abiotic factors.:Temperature.\n\nTemperature is an important abiotic factor in lentic ecosystems because most of the biota are poikilothermic, where internal body temperatures are defined by the surrounding system. Water can be heated or cooled through radiation at the surface and conduction to or from the air and surrounding substrate. Shallow ponds often have a continuous temperature gradient from warmer waters at the surface to cooler waters at the bottom. In addition, temperature fluctuations can vary greatly in these systems, both diurnally and seasonally.\n", "One result of this stability is that as the summer wears on, there is less and less oxygen below the thermocline as the water below the thermocline never circulates to the surface and organisms in the water deplete the available oxygen. As winter approaches, the temperature of the surface water will drop as nighttime cooling dominates heat transfer. A point is reached where the density of the cooling surface water becomes greater than the density of the deep water and overturning begins as the dense surface water moves down under the influence of gravity. This process is aided by wind or any other process (currents for example) that agitates the water. This effect also occurs in Arctic and Antarctic waters, bringing water to the surface which, although low in oxygen, is higher in nutrients than the original surface water. This enriching of surface nutrients may produce blooms of phytoplankton, making these areas productive.\n" ]

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[ "An old-fashioned CD player reading subcode correctly sees a missing audio frame and interpolates any missing information that it cannot correct using information from neighbouring frames. Because these missing frames occur at points where the waveform was nearly a straight line anyway, this interpolation is very accurate and generally transparent to the user.\n\nWhat happens with computer drives is very specific to the hardware and firmware of the drive in question, assuming they have at least seen past the second data session and can play the audio session.\n", "According to the text file \"The Green Box\" by \"The Blue Buccaneer\" and \"The Tracker\", each of these frequencies should be sounded for at least 900 milliseconds. Each should also be preceded with a 2600 Hz \"wink\", or an MF \"8\" symbol (900 Hz + 1500 Hz), of about 90 ms in duration, followed by about 60 ms of silence. Most software green boxes emulate this rather than the MF symbols alone.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The WAV specification allows for not only a single, contiguous, array of audio samples, but also discrete blocks of samples and silence that are played in order. Most WAV files use a single array of data. The specification for the sample data is confused:\n\nThese productions are confused. Apparently codice_24 (undefined) and codice_25 (defined but not referenced) should be identical. Even if that problem is fixed, the productions then allow a codice_26 to contain a recursive codice_23 (which implies data interpretation problems). The specification should have been something like:\n\nto avoid the recursion.\n", "One problem that can occur with the codice_4 function above is that codice_3 might become very small but codice_1 and codice_2 still have differing first digits. This could result in the interval having insufficient precision to distinguish between all of the symbols in the alphabet. When this happens we need to fudge a little, output the first couple of digits even though we might be off by one, and re-adjust the range to give us as much room as possible. The decoder will be following the same steps so it will know when it needs to do this to keep in sync.\n", "The four drivers of the Marantz HD77s are a woofer, mid-range, tweeter and super tweeter. The given frequency responses are what the crossover circuit feed to each speaker, not what each speaker would respond to with no crossover circuit(full spectrum). The mid-range, tweeter and super tweeter have crossover controls for switching between a laboratory \"flat\" +/- 0db neutral response and a \"room EQ\" response. Tested frequency response is measured in an anechoic chamber from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, and displayed in a graph shown in original Marantz brochure. Crossover and frequency response are two different things. Crossover points are established for each driver and their specified frequency range. Without crossover points, the drivers would distort and likely overheat and burn out due to the production of the full spectrum of frequencies, with exception of the woofer which inherently struggle with higher frequencies. The drivers perform together to create a complete spectrum frequency response. \n", "Each DCT band is separately entropy coded to all other bands. These coefficients are transmitted in band-wise order, starting with the DC component, followed by the successive bands in order of low resolution to high, similar to wavelet decomposition. Following this convention assures that the receiver will always receive the maximum possible resolution for any bandpass pipe, enabling a no-buffering transmission protocol.\n\nSection::::Subjective quality metrics.\n", "The decoder uses an add-and-overlap strategy: each frame in the bitstream contains parameters for 32 ms, however, the next frame starts halfway through the current frame. By filtering the synthesized segments with a Hanning filter, adding two overlapping frames together will produce a smooth transition between the two. This also applies to the encoder because the short Fourier transform gives better results when the data is pre-processed with a Hanning filter.\n", "A quadrature decoder does not necessarily allow the counts to change for every incremental position change. When a decoder detects an incremental position change (due to a transition of A or B, but not both), it may allow the counts to change or it may inhibit counting, depending on the AB state transition and the decoder's \"clock multiplier\".\n", "MELPe is intended for the compression of speech. Given an audio input sampled at 8 kHz, the MELPe codec yields the following compression ratios over a 64 kbit/s μ-Law G.711 datastream, discounting the effects of protocol overhead:\n", "BULLET::::2. This excitation is output and simultaneously fed back into a delay line L samples long.\n", "At the end of each minute is the standard RAI time signal, as generated by INRiM (, National Institute of Metrology Research) and broadcast intermittently on Italian radio and television stations. The minute is announced with six 1000 Hz pips, 0.1 seconds each, at the beginning of seconds 54 through 58, a pause, and then a seventh pip beginning on the minute.\n", "BULLET::::- Radio Norway International (former international service of NRK): Ancient folk tune from the Hallingdal region and {\\set Staff.midiInstrument = #\"xylophone\" \\time 3/4 \\skip2 \\skip8 bes'8 bes'16 bes'16 d\"16 f\"16 es\"16 d\"16 es\"8 ~ es\"8 es\"8 d\"16 bes'8. c\"16 as'8. bes'4 ~ bes'2 r8 bes'8 bes'16 bes'16 d\"16 f\"16 es\"4. des\"8 ces\"8 bes'16 as'16 ges'4. ges'8 as'8 bes'16 des\"16 ces\"8 bes'4 as'8 ges'16 f'16 ges'16 f'16 es'16 f'16 ges'8 ~ ges'8 as'8 ges'16 f'16 ges'16 f'16 es'16 f'16 ges'8 ~ ges'8 f'8 es'8 des'8 es'2 bes2 \\skip4}\n\nBULLET::::- Radio Katowice: Sound of a hammer striking an anvil.\n", "Several approaches have been proposed for the solution of this problem but development is currently still very much in progress. Some of the more successful approaches are principal components analysis and independent component analysis, which work well when there are no delays or echoes present; that is, the problem is simplified a great deal. The field of computational auditory scene analysis attempts to achieve auditory source separation using an approach that is based on human hearing.\n", "The optional data byte contains four \"ancillary\" bits corresponding to the AES3 VUCP bits. However, the P (parity) bit is replaced by a B bit which is set on the first sample of each audio block, and clear at all other times. This serves the same function as the B (or Z) synchronization preamble.\n", "The manufacturer ID of codice_10 indicates a real-time universal message, the channel of codice_10 indicates it is a global broadcast. The following ID of codice_12 identifies this is a time code type message, and the second codice_12 indicates it is a full-time code message. The 4 bytes of time code follow. Although MIDI is generally little-endian, the 4 time code bytes follow in big-endian order, followed by a codice_14 \"end of exclusive\" byte.\n\nAfter a jump, the time clock stops until the first following quarter-frame message is received.\n\nSection::::Time code format.:Quarter-frame messages.\n", "In reality, dimensionless point sources and one-dimensional line sources cannot exist; however, calculations can be made based on these theoretical models for simplicity. Thus there is only a certain distance where a line source of a finite length will produce a sound pressure higher than an equally loud point source.\n", "Digital signal processing (DSP) operations can be performed in either fixed point or floating point precision. In either case, the precision of each operation is determined by the precision of the hardware operations used to perform each step of the processing and not the resolution of the input data. For example, on x86 processors, floating point operations are performed with single or double precision and fixed-point operations at 16-, 32- or 64-bit resolution. Consequently, all processing performed on Intel-based hardware will be performed with these constraints regardless of the source format.\n", "This continues until samples taken from the Sample N sample period form the input to the last set of filters. This is the furthest ambiguous range interval.\n\nThe outcome is that each ambiguous range will produce a separate spectrum corresponding with all of the Doppler frequencies at that range.\n\nThe digital filter produces as many frequency outputs as the number of transmit pulses used for sampling. Production of one FFT with 1024 frequency outputs requires 1024 transmit pulses for input.\n\nSection::::Detection.\n", "Three frequencies are required to confirm the origin of any detected signal on the sky. If the signal appears in the three instruments with the same amplitude, then it should correspond to the thermal perturbations of the Cosmic Microwave Background. This was the case in 1994, when a common signal between the three channels was detected, with a temperature of 30 microKelvins, or one part in 100,000 in the amplitude of 3 K (-270.15°C) of the background radiation. A galactic signal should have an amplitude ten times larger in the 10 GHz instrument than in the 33 GHz one.\n", "BULLET::::- NPO: First seven notes of \"Wilhelmus\", played on clarinet (Radio 1 and Radio 5), synthesizer (Radio 3), spinet (Radio 4) and carillon (Radio 2).\n\nBULLET::::- NRK P1: Motif from \"Sigurd Josarfal\" by Edward Grieg.\n", "In GM standard MIDI files, channel 10 is reserved for percussion instruments only. Notes recorded on channel 10 always produce percussion sounds when transmitted to a keyboard or synth module which uses the GM standard. Each of the 128 different possible note numbers correlate to a unique percussive instrument, but the sound's pitch is not relative to the note number.\n\nIf a MIDI file is programmed to the General MIDI protocol, then the results are predictable, but timbre and sound fidelity may vary depending on the quality of the GM synthesizer:\n\nBULLET::::- 35 Acoustic Bass Drum\n", "The illusion is likely to be a novel form of informational masking (broadly defined as a degradation of auditory detection or discrimination of a signal embedded in a context of other similar sounds). Illusory discontinuity cannot be explained by simultaneous masking, because it appears even if the noise is as far as one octave away.\n\nSection::::Relation to auditory stream segregation.\n\nIt has been suggested that illusory discontinuity is related to inability to segregate the ongoing sound from the interrupting noise, although more research is needed to prove this.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "S/PDIF is meant to be used for transmitting 20-bit audio data streams plus other related information. To transmit sources with less than 20 bits of sample accuracy, the superfluous bits will be set to zero. S/PDIF can also transport 24-bit samples by way of four extra bits; however, not all equipment supports this, and these extra bits may be ignored.\n", "The master must wait until it observes the clock line going high, and an additional minimal time (4 μs for standard 100 kbit/s I²C) before pulling the clock low again.\n", "A CTCSS decoder is based on a very narrow bandpass filter which passes the desired CTCSS tone. The filter's output is amplified and rectified, creating a DC voltage whenever the desired tone is present. The DC voltage is used to turn on, enable or unmute the receiver's speaker audio stages. When the tone is present, the receiver is unmuted, when it is not present the receiver is silent.\n" ]

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[ "Common examples include the parts of a spaceflight where the spacecraft is not undergoing propulsion and atmospheric effects are negligible, and a single celestial body overwhelmingly dominates the gravitational influence. Other common examples are the orbit of a moon around a planet, and of a planet around a star, and two stars orbiting each other (a binary star).\n\nSection::::Solution.\n", "When there are more than two gravitating bodies it is referred to as an n-body problem. Most n-body problems have no closed form solution, although some special cases have been formulated.\n\nSection::::Orbital perturbations.:Light radiation and stellar wind.\n\nFor smaller bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction of motion of the body, and over time can be significant. Of the planetary bodies, the motion of asteroids is particularly affected over large periods when the asteroids are rotating relative to the Sun.\n\nSection::::Strange orbits.\n", "BULLET::::- If the two planets are not in astrological aspect to one other (that is, the signs in which they are placed are not in sextile, trine, square or opposition angles to one another, the condition of mutual reception will be much less forceful, since there is no connection between the two planets in which this mutuality can be effected. Furthermore, if the aspect between the two signs is one of opposition, the planets will both be opposite their signs of rulership, which is the definition of being in detriment, and hence both will be too weak to be of much help to the other.\n", "Under the force of gravity, each member of a pair of such objects will orbit their mutual center of mass in an elliptical pattern, unless they are moving fast enough to escape one another entirely, in which case their paths will diverge along other planar conic sections. If one object is very much heavier than the other, it will move far less than the other with reference to the shared center of mass. The mutual center of mass may even be inside the larger object.\n", "BULLET::::- If one of the planets is in a sign of its detriment or fall, it is not likely to have the resources to be of much assistance to the planet it rules;\n", "From the perspective of Earth, the only types of asteroids that can transit the Sun are those with orbits that take them between the two bodies. These include Aten asteroids (including Apohele asteroids and the hypothetical Vulcanoid asteroids) and some Apollo asteroids (perhaps including quasi-satellites of Earth). Unfortunately, observations of such transits are difficult because all of these asteroids are only a few kilometres in diameter at most, so that their angular diameter is too tiny to observe against the Sun.\n", "It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way–Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed.\n", "Section::::Orbital perturbations.:Multiple gravitating bodies.\n\nThe effects of other gravitating bodies can be significant. For example, the orbit of the Moon cannot be accurately described without allowing for the action of the Sun's gravity as well as the Earth's. One approximate result is that bodies will usually have reasonably stable orbits around a heavier planet or moon, in spite of these perturbations, provided they are orbiting well within the heavier body's Hill sphere.\n", "Exciting the oscillations of the eccentricities of the giant planets requires encounters between planets. Jupiter and Saturn have modest eccentricities that oscillate out of phase, with Jupiter reaching maximum eccentricity when Saturn reaches its minimum and vice versa. A smooth migration of the giant planets without resonance crossings results in very small eccentricities. Resonance crossings excite their mean eccentricities, with the 2:1 resonance crossing reproducing Jupiter's current eccentricity, but these do not generate the oscillations in their eccentricities. Recreating both requires either a combination of resonance crossings and an encounter between Saturn and an ice giant, or multiple encounters of an ice giant with one or both gas giants.\n", "BULLET::::1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.\n\nBULLET::::2. A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.\n\nBULLET::::3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.\n", "The nature of the instability mechanism is responsible for the lack of a correlation between the distance to the inner edge of the planetesimal belt and the timing of the instability. If the inner edge of the planetesimal disk is close the migration of the planets occurs at a faster rate. More secular resonance crossings occur but since less time is spent in each one only the strongest can break the quadruple resonance. The reverse is true for a more distant planetesimal belt. As a result of the conflict between these factors the timing and the occurrence of the instability is fairly independent of the distance to the inner edge of the planetesimal belt.\n", "Most multiple-star systems are organized in what is called a \"hierarchical system\": the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system's center of mass. Each of these smaller groups must also be hierarchical, which means that they must be divided into smaller subgroups which themselves are hierarchical, and so on. Each level of the hierarchy can be treated as a \"two-body problem\" by considering close pairs as if they were a single star. In these systems there is little interaction between the orbits and the stars' motion will continue to approximate stable Keplerian orbits around the system's center of mass, unlike the unstable trapezia systems or the even more complex dynamics of the large number of stars in star clusters and galaxies.\n", "The behavior of the orbits of other objects varies with their initial orbits. Stable orbits exist for aligned objects with small eccentricities. Although objects in these orbits have high perihelia and have yet to be observed, they may have been captured at the same time as Planet Nine due to perturbations from a passing star. Aligned objects with lower perihelia are only temporarily stable, their orbits precess until parts of the orbits are tangent to that of Planet Nine, leading to frequent close encounters. After crossing this region the perihelia of their orbits decline, causing them to encounter the other planets, leading to their ejection.\n", "A somewhat different, but equivalent, view of the situation may be noted by considering conservation of energy. It is a theorem of classical mechanics that a body moving in a time-independent potential field will have its total energy, \"E = T + V\", conserved, where \"E\" is total energy, \"T\" is kinetic energy (always non-negative) and \"V\" is potential energy, which is negative. It is apparent then, since \"V = -GM/R\" near a gravitating body of mass \"M\" and orbital radius \"R\", that seen from a \"stationary\" frame, V will be increasing for the region behind M, and decreasing for the region in front of it. However, orbits with lower total energy have shorter periods, and so a body moving slowly on the forward side of a planet will lose energy, fall into a shorter-period orbit, and thus slowly move away, or be \"repelled\" from it. Bodies moving slowly on the trailing side of the planet will gain energy, rise to a higher, slower, orbit, and thereby fall behind, similarly repelled. Thus a small body can move back and forth between a leading and a trailing position, never approaching too close to the planet that dominates the region.\n", "In rare cases, one planet can pass in front of another. If the nearer planet appears smaller than the more distant one, the event is called a \"mutual planetary transit\".\n\nSection::::Outside the Solar System.\n\nExoplanet Detection\n", "Mutual occultations or transits of planets are extremely rare. The most recent event occurred on 3 January 1818, and the next will occur on 22 November 2065. Both involve the same two planets: Venus and Jupiter.\n\nSection::::Mutual planetary occultations and transits.:Historical observations.\n", "their interaction with the planet is strong enough that a deviation from Kepler's laws is noticeable after just one orbit.\n\nSection::::System characteristics.:Co-planarity.\n", "Gravitational encounters can also lead to the capture of planets with sizable ecccentricities in resonances. In the Grand tack hypothesis the migration of Jupiter is halted and reversed when it captured Saturn in an outer resonance. The halting of Jupiter's and Saturn's migration and the capture of Uranus and Neptune in further resonances may have prevented the formation of a compact system of super-earths similar to many of those found by Kepler. The outward migration of planets can also result in the capture of planetesimals in resonance with the outer planet; for example the plutinos in the Kuiper belt. \n", "Trojan objects orbit 60° ahead of () or behind () a more massive object, both in orbit around an even more massive central object. The best known example are the asteroids that orbit ahead of or behind Jupiter around the Sun. Trojan objects do not orbit exactly at one of either Lagrangian points, but do remain relatively close to it, appearing to slowly orbit it. In technical terms, they librate around formula_3 = (±60°, ±60°). The point around which they librate is the same, irrespective of their mass or orbital eccentricity.\n\nSection::::Trojans.:Trojan minor planets.\n", "With the dim planets Uranus, Neptune and dwarf planet Pluto the visibility of such an event is difficult, because of the low elongation from Sun.\n\nTriple conjunctions of Mercury and Venus with the exterior planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and dwarf planet Pluto happen relatively frequently (approximately once in 10 years).\n\nDuring the movement in their inferior conjunction loop Mercury and Venus are always involved in triple conjunctions with some stars. Triple conjunctions with bright stars are as frequent as with exterior planets.\n\nSection::::Between two exterior planets.\n", "Binary objects such as Patroclus-Menoetius would be separated due to the collisions if the instability was late. Patroclus and Menoetius are a pair of ~100 km objects orbiting with a separation of 680 km and relative velocities of ~11 m/s. While this binary remains in a massive planetesimal disk it is vulnerable to being separated due to collision. Roughly ~90% of similar binaries are separated per hundred million years in simulations and after 400 million years its survival probabilities falls to 7 × 10. The presence of Patroclus-Menoetius among the Jupiter Trojans requires that the giant planet instability occurred within 100 million years of the formation of the Solar System.\n", "Synchronous orbits can only exist for bodies that have a fixed surface (e.g. moons, rocky planets). Without such a surface (e.g. gas giants, black holes) there is no fixed point an orbit can be said to synchronise with. No synchronous orbit exists if the body rotates so slowly that the orbit would be outside its Hill sphere, or so quickly that it would be inside the body. Large bodies held together by gravity cannot rotate that quickly, since they would fly apart, so the last condition only applies to small bodies held together by other forces, e.g. smaller asteroids. Most inner moons of planets have synchronous rotation, so their synchronous orbits are, in practice, limited to their leading and trailing ( and ) Lagrange points, as well as the and Lagrange points, assuming they do not fall within the body of the moon. Objects with chaotic rotations, such as exhibited by Hyperion, are also problematic, as their synchronous orbits change unpredictably.\n", "In contrast, the outer natural satellites of the giant planets (irregular satellites) are too far away to have become locked. For example, Jupiter's Himalia, Saturn's Phoebe, and Neptune's Nereid have rotation periods in the range of ten hours, whereas their orbital periods are hundreds of days.\n\nSection::::Satellites of satellites.\n\nNo \"moons of moons\" or subsatellites (natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of a planet) are currently known . In most cases, the tidal effects of the planet would make such a system unstable.\n", "However, the probability of a seeing a transiting planet is low because it is dependent on the alignment of the three objects in a nearly perfectly straight line. Many parameters can be determined by about a planet and its host star based on the transit\n\nSection::::In the Solar System.\n", "Some astronomers counter this opinion by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Although Jupiter does coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the Trojan asteroids), these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Earth accretes or ejects near-Earth asteroids on million-year time scales, thereby clearing its orbit. Similarly, Pluto may cross the orbit of Neptune, but Neptune long ago locked Pluto and its attendant Kuiper belt objects, called plutinos, into a 3:2 resonance (i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits). Since the orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, Neptune is therefore gravitationally dominant.\n" ]

[ "When two planets get near each other, their orbits are unaffected." ]

[ "When two planets get near each other, their orbits are affected, but the change is small compared to human existence." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "When two planets get near each other, their orbits are unaffected." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "When two planets get near each other, their orbits are affected, but the change is small compared to human existence." ]

[ "BULLET::::- †\"Ailuropoda wulingshanensis\" (late Pliocene - early Pleistocene)\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Ailuropoda baconi\" (Woodward 1915) (Pleistocene)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ailuropoda melanoleuca\" (giant panda)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis\"\n\nSection::::Other pandas.\n\nFormerly, the red, or lesser, panda (\"Ailurus fulgens\") was considered closely related to giant pandas. It is no longer considered a bear, however, and is now classified as the sole living representative of a different carnivore family (Ailuridae).\n", "BULLET::::- Ussuri dhole, \"Cuon alpinus alpinus\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- Tien Shan dhole, \"Cuon alpinus hesperius\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Ursidae (bears)\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Ursus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian brown bear, \"Ursus arctos arctos\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Himalayan brown bear, \"Ursus arctos isabellinus\" CR\n\nBULLET::::- Ussuri brown bear, \"Ursus arctos lasiotus\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- Tibetan blue bear, \"Ursus arctos pruinosus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Asiatic black bear, \"Ursus thibetanus\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Helarctos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sun bear, \"Helarctos malayanus\" DD\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Ailuropoda\"\n\nBULLET::::- Giant panda, \"Ailuropoda melanoleuca\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Mustelidae (mustelids)\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Mustela\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mountain weasel, \"Mustela altaica\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Stoat, \"Mustela erminea\" LR/lc\n", "Section::::\"Mo\" giant panda.\n\nChinese texts have described the \"mo\" \"giant panda\" for over two millennia.\n\nSection::::\"Mo\" giant panda.:\"Erya\".\n\nThe circa 4th or 3rd century BCE \"Erya\" lexicon section \"shou\" (獸 \"beasts\") defines \"mo\" (貘, \"giant panda\") as a \"baibao\" (白豹, \"white leopard\"). The snow leopard (\"Panthera uncia\") is an alternate identification of this \"white leopard\" (Read 1931, no. 352). The \"Erya\" commentary by Guo Pu (276-324) says the \"mo\", \n", "Despite the similarities between how Guo Pu's \"Erya\" commentary above describes the \"mo\" (貘, \"panda\"), and his descriptions of the \"mo\" (㹮, \"panda\") on Lai Mountain and \"mengbao\" (猛豹, \"ferocious leopard\") on South Mountain; he plainly does not identify the thin-furred \"mengbao\" or \"menghu\" as the black and white panda, but rather as another metal-eating animal from Shu that resembled the bear (Harper 2013: 221).\n\nSection::::\"Mo\" giant panda.:\"Shuowen jiezi\".\n", "BULLET::::- Styan's red panda \"A. f. styani\" lives in the east-north-eastern part of its range, in southern China and northern Burma.\n\n\"A. f. styani\" has been described by Thomas in 1902 based on one skull from a specimen collected in Sichuan. Pocock distinguished \"A. f. styani\" from \"A. f. fulgens\" by its longer winter coat and greater blackness of the pelage, bigger skull, more strongly curved forehead, and more robust teeth. His description is based on skulls and skins collected in Sichuan, Myitkyina close to the border of Yunnan, and Upper Burma.\n", "Despite the shared name, habitat type, and diet, as well as a unique enlarged bone called the \"pseudo thumb\" (which helps them grip the bamboo shoots they eat) the giant panda and red panda are only distantly related.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.:Etymology.\n\nThe word \"panda\" was borrowed into English from French, but no conclusive explanation of the origin of the French word \"panda\" has been found. The closest candidate is the Nepali word \"ponya,\" possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the red panda, which is native to Nepal. The Western world originally applied this name to the red panda.\n", "BULLET::::- Zeren, \"Procapra gutturosa\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Goa, \"Procapra picticaudata\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Przewalski's gazelle, \"Procapra przewalskii\" CR\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Saiga\"\n\nBULLET::::- Saiga antelope, \"Saiga tatarica\" CR\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Bovinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Bos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gaur, \"Bos frontalis\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Yak, \"Bos grunniens\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Bubalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Water buffalo, \"Bubalus bubalis\" Domesticated\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Caprinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Budorcas\"\n\nBULLET::::- Takin, \"Budorcas taxicolor\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Capra\"\n\nBULLET::::- Siberian ibex, \"Capra sibrica\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Hemitragus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Himalayan tahr, \"Hemitragus jemlahicus\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Nemorhaedus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mainland serow, \"Nemorhaedus sumatraensis\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Red goral, \"Nemorhaedus baileyi\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Long-tailed goral, \"Nemorhaedus caudatus\" VU\n", "BULLET::::- Taipei Zoo, Taipei, Taiwan – home to Tuan Tuan (M) and Yuan Yuan (F), and their offspring Yuan Zai (F).\n\nBULLET::::- Chiang Mai Zoo, Chiang Mai, Thailand – home to Chuang Chuang (M), Lin Hui (F), and Lin Bing, a female cub born 27 May 2009.\n", "Section::::Qinling panda, \"Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis\" (2005).\n\nIn 2005 it was announced that research had concluded that the giant panda (\"Ailuropoda melanoleuca\") population in Qinling Mountains, China, was sufficiently different from other pandas to warrant the creation of a new subspecies, \"Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis\". Among other differences the Qinling panda has brown colouration replacing the familiar black and white fur of typical giant pandas.\n\nSection::::\"Cat-fox\" (2006).\n", "BULLET::::- The Qinling panda, \"A. m. qinlingensis\" is restricted to the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi at elevations of 1,300–3,000 m. The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan giant pandas is replaced with a dark brown versus light brown pattern. The skull of \"A. m. qinlingensis\" is smaller than its relatives, and it has larger molars.\n", "BULLET::::- Pygmy slow loris, \"Nycticebus pygmaeus\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Bengal slow loris, \"Nycticebus bengalensis\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Suborder: Haplorhini\n\nBULLET::::- Infraorder: Simiiformes\n\nBULLET::::- Parvorder: Catarrhini\n\nBULLET::::- Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys)\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Macaca\"\n\nBULLET::::- Stump-tailed macaque, \"Macaca arctoides\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Assam macaque, \"Macaca assamensis\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Rhesus macaque, \"Macaca mulatta\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Tibetan macaque, \"Macaca thibetana\" LR/cd\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Colobinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Semnopithecus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nepal gray langur, \"Semnopithecus schistaceus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Trachypithecus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Francois' langur, \"Trachypithecus francoisi\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Bonneted langur, \"Trachypithecus pileatus\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- White-headed langur, \"Trachypithecus poliocephalus\" CR\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Rhinopithecus\"\n", "In Taiwan, another popular name for panda is the inverted \"dàmāoxióng\" ( \"giant cat bear\"), though many encyclopediae and dictionaries in Taiwan still use the \"bear cat\" form as the correct name. Some linguists argue, in this construction, \"bear\" instead of \"cat\" is the base noun, making this name more grammatically and logically correct, which may have led to the popular choice despite official writings. This name did not gain its popularity until 1988, when a private zoo in Tainan painted a sun bear black and white and created the Tainan fake panda incident.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.:Subspecies.\n", "Section::::Physical description.\n", "BULLET::::- Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta – home of Lun Lun (F), Yang Yang (M), Xi Lan (M), and Po (F), born 3 November 2010 and twin female cubs Mei Huan and Mei Lun, born 15 July 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Memphis Zoo, Memphis – home of Ya Ya (F) and Le Le (M)\n", "BULLET::::- Gansu pika, \"Ochotona cansus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Black-lipped pika, \"Ochotona curzoniae\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Daurian pika, \"Ochotona dauurica\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese red pika, \"Ochotona erythrotis\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Forrest's pika, \"Ochotona forresti\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Gaoligong pika, \"Ochotona gaoligongensis\" DD\n\nBULLET::::- Glover's pika, \"Ochotona gloveri\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Himalayan pika, \"Ochotona himalayana\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ochotona huanglongensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern pika, \"Ochotona hyperborea\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Ili pika, \"Ochotona iliensis\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Koslov's pika, \"Ochotona koslowi\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- Ladak pika, \"Ochotona ladacensis\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Large-eared pika, \"Ochotona macrotis\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Muli pika, \"Ochotona muliensis\" DD\n\nBULLET::::- Nubra pika, \"Ochotona nubrica\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Pallas's pika, \"Ochotona pallasi\" LR/lc\n", "BULLET::::- Small Asian mongoose, \"Herpestes javanicus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Crab-eating mongoose, \"Herpestes urva\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Suborder: Caniformia\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Ailuridae (lesser panda)\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Ailurus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red panda, \"Ailurus fulgens\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Canidae (dogs, foxes)\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Vulpes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red fox, \"Vulpes vulpes\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Corsac fox, \"Vulpes corsac\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Tibetan fox, \"Vulpes ferrilata\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Nyctereutes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Raccoon dog, \"Nyctereutes procyonoides\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Canis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Himalayan wolf, \"Canis himalayensis\" CR\n\nBULLET::::- Tibetan wolf, \"Canis lupus filchneri\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Mongolian wolf, \"Canis lupus chanco\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian wolf, \"Canis lupus lupus\" LC\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Cuon\"\n", "Section::::Attacks.\n\nSection::::Attacks.:East Asian Nations (2009-2011).\n", "Section::::Editions.\n", "The giant panda has some additional Chinese names. Ancient myths that pandas can eat iron and copper led to the appellation \"shítiěshòu\" (食鐵獸, iron-eating beast). The Chinese variety spoken in the main panda habitat of Sichuan has names of \"huaxiong\" (花熊, \"flowery bear\") and \"baixiong\" (白熊, \"white bear\", reiterating \"whiteness\" mentioned above), which is now the usual Chinese name for the \"polar bear\" (Harper 2013: 191).\n", "The c. 3rd or 2nd century BCE \"Shanhai Jing\" (Classic of Mountains and Seas) mytho-geography does not directly mention \"mo\" (貘), but says one mountain has panda-like \"mengbao\" (猛豹, \"ferocious leopards\"), and Guo Pu's 4th century CE commentary to another mountain says it was the habitat of \"mo\" (㹮) pandas.\n", "BULLET::::- Greater stripe-backed shrew, \"Sorex cylindricauda\" EN\n\nBULLET::::- Siberian large-toothed shrew, \"Sorex daphaenodon\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese highland shrew, \"Sorex excelsus\" DD\n\nBULLET::::- Slender shrew, \"Sorex gracillimus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Taiga shrew, \"Sorex isodon\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Kozlov's shrew, \"Sorex kozlovi\" CR\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian least shrew, \"Sorex minutissimus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian pygmy shrew, \"Sorex minutus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Ussuri shrew, \"Sorex mirabilis\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese shrew, \"Sorex sinalis\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Tibetan shrew, \"Sorex thibetanus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Tundra shrew, \"Sorex tundrensis\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Talpidae (moles)\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Scalopinae\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe: Scalopini\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Scapanulus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gansu mole, \"Scapanulus oweni\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Talpinae\n", "Section::::\"Mo\" giant panda.:\"Shenyi jing\".\n", "BULLET::::- Gobi jerboa, \"Allactaga bullata\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Small five-toed jerboa, \"Allactaga elater\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Mongolian five-toed jerboa, \"Allactaga sibirica\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Pygeretmus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dwarf fat-tailed jerboa, \"Pygeretmus pumilio\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Cardiocraniinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Cardiocranius\"\n\nBULLET::::- Five-toed pygmy jerboa, \"Cardiocranius paradoxus\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Salpingotus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Thick-tailed pygmy jerboa, \"Salpingotus crassicauda\" VU\n\nBULLET::::- Kozlov's pygmy jerboa, \"Salpingotus kozlovi\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Dipodinae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Dipus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern three-toed jerboa, \"Dipus sagitta\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Stylodipus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Andrews's three-toed jerboa, \"Stylodipus andrewsi\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Mongolian three-toed jerboa, \"Stylodipus sungorus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Thick-tailed three-toed jerboa, \"Stylodipus telum\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Subfamily: Euchoreutinae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pallipes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster palparis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster panda\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster parvoclava\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster patula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pedania\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pedunculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pellucida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster penicillata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster petiola\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pictipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pilosella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster plebeja\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster plilcnemis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster princeps\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pubescens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pubicornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster puella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pumila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pusilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster pyragra\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster radialis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster recurva\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster roederi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster rubida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster rufa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster ruficesta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster rufirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster rufithorax\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster salina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster salvia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster schaefferi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptogaster schoutedeni\"\n", "BULLET::::- Diadem roundleaf bat, \"Hipposideros diadema\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Fulvus roundleaf bat, \"Hipposideros fulvus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Intermediate roundleaf bat, \"Hipposideros larvatus\" LR/lc\n\nBULLET::::- Pratt's roundleaf bat, \"Hipposideros pratti\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser great leaf-nosed bat, \"Hipposideros turpis\" EN\n\nSection::::Subclass: Theria.:Infraclass: Eutheria.:Order: Pholidota (pangolins).\n\nThe order Philodota comprises the eight species of pangolin. Pangolins are anteaters and have the powerful claws, elongated snout and long tongue seen in the other unrelated anteater species.\n\nBULLET::::- Family: Manidae\n\nBULLET::::- Genus: \"Manis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sunda pangolin, \"Manis javanica\" LR/nt\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese pangolin, \"Manis pentadactyla\" LR/nt\n\nSection::::Subclass: Theria.:Infraclass: Eutheria.:Order: Cetacea (whales).\n" ]

[]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- General Motors with SAIC Motor, formerly known as Shanghai General Motors Company Ltd. Makes numerous cars in China in four factories, especially Buick, but also some Chevrolet and Cadillac models. In November 2018, the company announced new Chevrolet models for the Chinese market, including an extended-wheelbase Malibu XL, a new Chevy SUV concept a new Monza.\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Group ChinaThe numerous VW and Audi cars manufactured in China are made under two joint-venture partnerships: FAW-Volkswagenand SAIC Volkswagen.\n", "Chinese requited Joint Ventures are a mechanism for forced technology transfer. In many cases, technology transfers are effectively required by China's Foreign direct investment (FDI) regime, which closes off important sectors of the economy to foreign firms. In order to gain access to these sectors, China forces foreign firms to enter into Joint ventures with Chinese entities they do not have any connection.\n", "Jaguar Land Rover operates a joint venture with Chery. A news report in July 2018 suggested that the company was considering increasing their investment to create a new model for China; a late October report about the Jaguar Land Rover turnaround plan, however, did not outline any plan to proceed with this concept.\n", "BULLET::::- During the term of the venture, the foreign participant can recover his investment, provided the contract prescribes that and all fixed assets will become the property of the Chinese participant on termination of the JV.\n\nBULLET::::- Foreign partners can often obtain the desired level of control by negotiating management, voting, and staffing rights into a CJV's articles; since control does not have to be allocated according to equity stakes.\n\nConvenience and flexibility are the characteristics of this type of investment. It is therefore easier to find co-operative partners and to reach an agreement.\n", "There is another advantage: the percentage of the CJV owned by each partner can change throughout the JV's life, giving the option to the foreign investor, by holding higher equity, obtains a faster rate of return with the concurrent wish of the Chinese partner of a later larger role of maintaining long-term control.\n", "BULLET::::- Chery, a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer based in Anhui. They were the tenth biggest manufacturer in 2017. They have a foreign joint venture with Jaguar Land Rover for the production of Jaguarand Land Rovercars in China.\n\nBULLET::::- Brilliance Auto, is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer based in Shenyang. They were the ninth biggest manufacturer in 2017. They have a foreign joint venture with BMW and also sells passenger vehicles under their own brand Brilliance and are expected to make 520,000 cars in China during 2019.\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Motor Cohas a joint venture with Guangzhou Automobile Group (GAC Group)\n", "BULLET::::- Greely-Volvo, Geely,is the biggest privately-owned automobile manufacturer and seventh biggest manufacturer overall in China. Their flagship brand Geely Auto became the top Chinese car brand in 2017. Currently one of the fastest growing automotive groups in the world, Geely is known for their ownership of Swedish luxury car brand, Volvo. In China, their passenger car brands include Geely Auto, Volvo Cars, and Lynk & Co. The entire VolvoCars company has been owned by the Chinese company Geely since 2010 and manufactures most of the XC60 vehicles in China for export\n\nSection::::Joint ventures in different jurisdictions.:India.\n", "BULLET::::- GAC(Guangzhou Automobile Group), ia a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer headquartered in Guangzhou. They were the sixth biggest manufacturer in 2017, manufacturing over 2 million vehicles in 2017. GAC sells passenger cars under the Trumpchi brand. In China, they are more known for their foreign joint-venture with Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota.\n", "Until recently, no guidelines existed on how foreign investment was to be handled due to the restrictive nature of China toward foreign investors. Following the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, initiatives in foreign trade began to be applied, and law applicable to foreign direct investment was made clear in 1979, while the first Sino-foreign equity venture took place in 2001. The corpus of the law has improved since then.\n", "The EJV Law is between a Chinese partner and a foreign company. It is incorporated in both Chinese (official) and in English (with equal validity), with limited liability. Prior to China's entry into WTO – and thus the WFOEs – EJVs predominated. In the EJV mode, the partners share profits, losses and risk in equal proportion to their respective contributions to the venture's registered capital. These escalate upwardly in the same proportion as the increase in registered capital.\n", "BULLET::::- Daimler AG and BYD Auto have a joint venture called Denza, both companies hold a 50-50% stake.\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor and Nissan have a 50-50% joint venture called Dongfeng Motor Company.\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor and PSA Group have a 50-50% joint venture called Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroen,\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor has a 50-50% joint venture with Honda called Dongfeng Honda,\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor has a joint venture with AB Volvo called Dongfeng Nissan-Diesel,\n\nBULLET::::- Dongfeng Motor has a 50-50% joint venture with Renault named Dongfeng Renault in Wuhan, which was founded in the end of 2013\n", "Companies with foreign partners can carry out manufacturing and sales operations in China and can sell through their own sales network. Foreign-Sino companies have export rights which are not available to wholly Chinese companies, as China desires to import foreign technology by encouraging JVs and the latest technologies.\n\nUnder Chinese law, foreign enterprises are divided into several basic categories. Of these, five will be described or mentioned here: three relate to industry and services and two as vehicles for foreign investment.\n", "The total amount of the investor's assets during the year preceding the application to do business in China has to be no less than US$400 million within the territory of China. The paid-in capital contribution has to exceed $10 million. Furthermore, more than 3 project proposals of the investor's intended investment projects must have been approved. The shares subscribed and held by foreign Investment Companies by Foreign Investors (ICFI) should be 25%. The investment firm can be established as an EJV\n\nSection::::Joint ventures in different jurisdictions.:China.:List of prominent joint ventures in China.\n\nBULLET::::- AMD-Chinese\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei-Symantec\n", "Nissan and Dongfeng have a long-standing relationship. Early on, the Chinese company produced diesel-powered Nissan trucks built from complete knock-down kits, and Nissan lent Dongfeng technical assistance. When the Chinese State began allowing foreign automakers market access through joint ventures, Nissan chose Dongfeng. It remains the only Chinese partner of Nissan although each foreign automaker is allowed two.\n\nAs an example of the extensive and comprehensive nature of Nissan's technical assistance to the Chinese company, in 2011 nearly 70% of products Dongfeng manufactured were connected in some way to Nissan.\n\nSection::::Joint ventures.:Dongfeng Nissan.:Dongfeng Motor Co., Ltd..\n", "Companies from other countries with joint manufacturing ventures in China include Luxgen, Daimler-Benz, General Motors. The latter makes numerous cars in China in four factories, especially Buick, but also some Chevrolet and Cadillac models, in a 50/50 joint-venture with SAIC Motor, formerly known as Shanghai General Motors Company Ltd. In November 2018, the company announced new Chevrolet models for the Chinese market, including an extended-wheelbase Malibu XL, a new Chevy SUV concept a new Monza.\n", "With changes in the law, it becomes possible to merge with a Chinese company for a quick start. A foreign investor does not need to set up a new corporation in China. Instead, the investor uses the Chinese partner's business license, under a contractual arrangement. Under the CJV, however, the land stays in the possession of the Chinese partner.\n", "BULLET::::- FAW Group has a 50-50 joint venture with Toyota called Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor and both companies also have another joint venture called Ranz.\n\nBULLET::::- General Motors and Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC), both have two joint ventures in Shanghai General Motors and SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile. Both also hold an equal 50% stake in General Motors India Private Limited.\n\nBULLET::::- General Motors and UzAvtosanoat have a joint venture called GM Uzbekistan, UzAvtosanoat owns 75% and General Motors owns 25%.\n", "BULLET::::- between US$3 million and US$10 million, minimum equity must be US$2.1 million and at least 50% of the investment;\n\nBULLET::::- between US$10 million and US$30 million, minimum equity must be US$5 million and at least 40% of the investment;\n\nBULLET::::- more than US$30 million, minimum equity must be US$12 million and at least 1/3 of the investment.\n\nThere are also intermediary levels.\n\nThe foreign investment in the total project must be at least 25%. No minimum investment is set for the Chinese partner. The timing of investments must be mentioned in the Agreement and failure to invest in the indicated time, draws a penalty.\n", "As of 2010, Beijing Benz, a BAIC joint venture with German automaker Daimler AG, makes the Mercedes-Benz C-Class and E-Class models for sale in China and seeks to make more of the models it sells in China locally.\n\nSection::::Joint ventures.:Current joint ventures.:Beijing Foton Daimler.\n\nBeijing Foton Daimler Automobile Co., Ltd. is a joint venture between Daimler and a BAIC subsidiary, Foton Motor, which makes commercial trucks.\n\nSection::::Joint ventures.:Former joint ventures.\n\nSection::::Joint ventures.:Former joint ventures.:Beijing Jeep.\n", "Dongfeng is the Chinese partner in many joint ventures that make trucks and cars.\n\nSection::::Joint ventures.:Dana.\n\nDongfeng established its joint venture with American parts-maker Dana Holding Corporation, Dongfeng Dana Axle Co, c. 2005. As of 2011, Dana and Dongfeng both have 50% ownership of this joint venture.\n\nSection::::Joint ventures.:DFSK (Sokon).\n", "BULLET::::- Pollution in China\n\nBULLET::::- Renewable electricity\n\nBULLET::::- Renewable energy in China\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Anderson, Greg, \"Designated Drivers: How China Plans to Dominate the Global Auto Industry\", book talk at the USC U.S.-China Institute, 2012.\n\nBULLET::::- China Association of Automobile Manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- Statistical Information Network of China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (in Chinese)\n\nBULLET::::- China Society of Automotive Engineering\n\nBULLET::::- China Automotive Technology and Research Center\n\nBULLET::::- China Council for the Promotion of International Trade Branch of the automotive industry\n\nBULLET::::- China National Automotive Industry International\n\nBULLET::::- China Corp. 2015 - Auto IndustryDCA Chine-AnalysePublished May, 2015\n", "BULLET::::- The PRC is opening up the domestic market in mainland China as a result of its open door policy, which is further accelerated by its commitments when entering the World Trade Organization. Therefore, the PRC can foresee that world class competitors are now competing for business in the Chinese market, and so the PRC is seeking to equip the domestic firms and their management with international experience so that they can take the competition to the home markets of the foreign nations and so that they can compete better at mainland China's own domestic market.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Changan Automobile has a joint venture with Suzuki (Changan Suzuki), both hold a 50-50% stake,\n\nBULLET::::- Changan Automobile has a 50-50% joint venture with Mazda (Changan Mazda).\n\nBULLET::::- Changan Automobile and Ford have a 50-50% joint venture called Changan Ford.\n\nBULLET::::- Changan Automobile and JMCG have a joint venture called Jiangling Motor Holding.\n\nBULLET::::- Chery has a joint venture with Tata Motors called Chery Jaguar Land Rover, both companies hold a 50-50% stake.\n\nBULLET::::- Chery and Israel Corporation has a joint venture called Qoros, both companies hold a 50-50% stake.\n", "The Wall Street Journal reported that the government of China will be forcing foreign carmakers to disclose their electric vehicle technology secrets before the vehicles are allowed to be sold in China. The current Chinese automotive policy states that a foreign carmaker must form a joint-venture with a Chinese carmaker if the former plans to sell its electric vehicles there, with the Chinese carmaker owning 51% of the joint venture.\n\nDue to this supposed threat by the Chinese government, Toyota postponed the launch of the current-generation Prius until they learn more about the plan.\n", "There is basic law of the PRC concerning enterprises with sole foreign investment controls, WFOEs. China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) around 2001 has had profound effects on foreign investment. Not being a JV, they are considered here only in comparison or contrast.\n\nTo implement WTO commitments, China publishes from time to time updated versions of its \"Catalogs Investments\" (affecting ventures) prohibited, restricted.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- MultiMediaCard\n\nBULLET::::- Secure Digital\n\nBULLET::::- Memory Stick, and xD-Picture Card.\n\nA new generation of memory card formats, including RS-MMC, miniSD and microSD, feature extremely small form factors. For example, the microSD card has an area of just over 1.5 cm, with a thickness of less than 1 mm.\n\nNAND flash has achieved significant levels of memory density as a result of several major technologies that were commercialized during the late 2000s to early 2010s.\n", "BULLET::::- Some vendors produced SDSC cards above 1GB before the SDA had standardized a method of doing so.\n\nSection::::Markets.\n\nSecure Digital cards are used in many consumer electronic devices, and have become a widespread means of storing several gigabytes of data in a small size. Devices in which the user may remove and replace cards often, such as digital cameras, camcorders, and video game consoles, tend to use full-sized cards. Devices in which small size is paramount, such as mobile phones, tend to use microSD cards.\n", "BULLET::::- As of 2006, Microdrive's capacity advantages were exceeded by CompactFlash cards (which are the same size and are often compatible with each other), and USB flash drives. As of 5 July 2015, 512 GB CF cards are available, offering 42 times the storage space of the largest Microdrive.\n", "Nanodot technology could potentially store over one hundred times more data than today’s hard drives. The nanodots can be thought of as tiny magnets which can switch polarity to represent a binary digit. Hard drives typically magnetize areas 200-250 nm long to store individual bits (as of 2006), while nanodots can be 50 nm in diameter or smaller. Thus nanodot-based storage could offer considerably higher information density than existing hard drives. Nanodots could also lead to ultrafast memory.\n\nSection::::Battery.\n", "The average hard drives contain the specific parts:\n\nBULLET::::- Disk case - This is a rectangular shaped disk case (the main part of the drive) which contains all the components screwed together.\n\nBULLET::::- Disk platter – This is the actual disk where the user’s data is recorded on. Consists of patterns on which the computer navigates through the data using the principle of magnetic flux.\n\nBULLET::::- Spindle – This component holds the magnetic platters together and is responsible for spinning the disk platter when required.\n", "BULLET::::- 15x20, about the size of a large master bedroom, and\n\nBULLET::::- 20x20, about the size of a two-car garage.\n", "Storage density also has a strong effect on the price of memory, although in this case the reasons are not so obvious.\n", "There are two broad classes of mass storage: local data in devices such as smartphones or computers, and enterprise servers and data centers for the cloud. For local storage, SSDs are on the way to replacing HDDs. Considering the mobile segment from phones to notebooks, the majority of systems today is based on NAND Flash. As for Enterprise and data centers, storage tiers have established using a mix of SSD and HDD. \n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "Mechanically addressed systems use a contact structure (\"head\") to read and write on a designated storage medium. Since circuitry layout is not a key factor for data density, the amount of storage is typically much larger than for electrically addressed systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Read/Write Arm – This component acts as the navigator. It navigates through the magnetic patterns looking for the particular data.\n\nSSD, regarded as the future of data storage, is a technology recently available to the consumers. However expensive, these state of the art drives are considerably smaller. Data on such drives is statically twice as safer i.e. such drives crash less.\n", "The notion of \"large\" amounts of data is of course highly dependent on the time frame and the market segment, as mass storage device capacity has increased by many orders of magnitude since the beginnings of computer technology in the late 1940s and continues to grow; however, in any time frame, common mass storage devices have tended to be much larger and at the same time much slower than common realizations of contemporaneous primary storage technology. The term \"mass storage\" was used in the PC marketplace for devices far smaller than devices that were not considered mass storage in the mainframe marketplace.\n", "Since 1956 the principle of storing information via magnetic domains has not changed much. As time progressed HDD drives were able to store more information than the original and the parts became much smaller, but the moving parts that are used in HDD drives were here to stay until nanoionic technologies began to be utilized in hard drives.\n", "BULLET::::- 2.5-inch hard disk drives often consume less power than larger ones. Low capacity solid-state drives have no moving parts and consume less power than hard disks. Also, memory may use more power than hard disks. Large caches, which are used to avoid hitting the memory wall, may also consume a large amount of power.\n\nSection::::Characteristics of storage.:Security.\n\nFull disk encryption, volume and virtual disk encryption, andor file/folder encryption is readily available for most storage devices.\n", "With recently demonstrated technology using DNA computing for storage, one yottabyte of capacity would require a volume between 0.003 and 1 cubic metre, depending on number of redundant backup copies desired and the storage density: \"Our genetic code packs billions of gigabytes into a single gram\". DNA is much more advanced technology than microSDXC cards (for this application) and accompanied by uncertain costs, but this suggests potential information density.\n", "The iPod mini, Nokia N91, iriver H10 (5 or 6 GB model), PalmOne LifeDrive, and Rio Carbon used a Microdrive to store data.\n\nSection::::Compared to other portable storage.\n\nBULLET::::- CompactFlash cards that use flash memory are more rugged than some hard drive solutions because they are solid-state. (See also Reliability above.) Separately, CompactFlash cards are thicker than other card formats, which may render them less susceptible to breakage from harsh treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Being mechanical devices they are more sensitive to physical shock and temperature changes than flash memory, though in practice they are very robust and manufacturers have added several features to the more recent models to improve reliability. For example, a microdrive will generally not survive a 4-foot (1.2-meter) drop onto a hard surface whereas CF cards can survive much higher falls.\n", "BULLET::::- Only high capacity models are manufactured, as it is not profitable to make low-capacity Microdrives. At the end of 2005 only capacities above 2 GB are manufactured while 256 MB and 512 MB CompactFlash cards were still in production. Lower capacities are still readily available second hand on eBay but these are usually the same price as CF cards of the same size.\n", "Many hard drives (often referred to by the trademarked name \"Microdrive\") typically spin at 3600 RPM, so rotational latency is a consideration, as is spin-up from standby or idle. Seagate's 8 GB ST68022CF drive spins up fully within a few revolutions but current drawn can reach up to 350 milliamps and runs at 40-50 mA mean current. Its average seek time is 8 ms and can sustain 9 MB/s read and write, and has an interface speed of 33 MB/s. Hitachi's 4 GB Microdrive is 12 ms seek, sustained 6 MB/s.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Capacities and compatibility.\n", "Robotic-access storage devices may have a number of slots, each holding individual media, and usually one or more picking robots that traverse the slots and load media to built-in drives. The arrangement of the slots and picking devices affects performance. Important characteristics of such storage are possible expansion options: adding slots, modules, drives, robots. Tape libraries may have from 10 to more than 100,000 slots, and provide terabytes or petabytes of near-line information. Optical jukeboxes are somewhat smaller solutions, up to 1,000 slots.\n", "The capacity of the device may be expanded using the empty drive bay which can house an off-the-shelf Serial ATA hard drive. The maximum expanded capacity of MV1 (first-generation) devices is approximately 1.2TB due to memory limitations.\n\nOne of the advantages of the system is that if the primary drive is lost (which includes some system software which works in conjunction with the firmware) the system can be restored onto a replacement SATA hard drive using HP's nasrecovery software.\n", "Mass storage devices are characterized by:\n\nBULLET::::- Sustainable transfer speed\n\nBULLET::::- Seek time\n\nBULLET::::- Cost\n\nBULLET::::- Capacity\n\nSection::::Storage media.\n", "BULLET::::- Enhanced data security because all data can be maintained in the datacenter and can more easily be saved to a mass storage device, so if the access device is stolen or destroyed the data is not compromised\n\nBULLET::::- Reduced Total Cost of Ownership due to consolidation, standardization, and more redundancy\n", "As of July 2012, there are no known manufacturers of 1-inch form-factor harddisk drives. Hitachi had also stopped production of its trademarked Microdrive product.\n\nSection::::Microdrive models by timeline.\n\nDate of release of large sizes.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Until 2006, Microdrives had higher capacity than CompactFlash cards.\n\nBULLET::::- Microdrives allow more write cycles, making them suitable for use as swapspace in embedded applications.\n", "BULLET::::- 45 nm — the average half-pitch of a memory cell manufactured at around the 2007–2008 time frame.\n\nBULLET::::- 50 nm — upper size for airborne virus particles\n\nBULLET::::- 50 nm — flying height of the head of a hard disk\n\nBULLET::::- 65 nm — the average half-pitch of a memory cell manufactured at around the 2005–2006 time frame.\n\nBULLET::::- 90 nm — the average half-pitch of a memory cell manufactured at around the 2002–2003 time frame.\n\nBULLET::::- (ranges from 7 to 3000 nanometres)\n\nSection::::100 nanometres.\n\nLengths between 10 and 10 m (100 nm and 1 µm).\n", "Section::::Technology.:First devices.\n\nThe earliest generation millipede devices used probes 10 nanometers in diameter and 70 nanometers in length, producing pits about 40 nm in diameter on fields 92 µm x 92 µm. Arranged in a 32 x 32 grid, the resulting 3 mm x 3 mm chip stores 500 megabits of data or 62.5 MB, resulting in an areal density, the number of bits per square inch, on the order of 200 Gbit/in². IBM initially demonstrated this device in 2003, planning to introduce it commercially in 2005. By that point hard drives were approaching 150 Gbit/in², and have since surpassed it.\n" ]

[ "Because hard drives are much larger than MicroSD cards, MicroSD cards shouldn't be able to carry as much storage." ]

[ "Due to MicroSD cards having a slower transfer speed, they are able to carry much more storage for their small size." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Because hard drives are much larger than MicroSD cards, MicroSD cards shouldn't be able to carry as much storage.", "Because hard drives are much larger than MicroSD cards, MicroSD cards shouldn't be able to carry as much storage." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Due to MicroSD cards having a slower transfer speed, they are able to carry much more storage for their small size.", "Due to MicroSD cards having a slower transfer speed, they are able to carry much more storage for their small size." ]

[ "BULLET::::- In 2013, YouTube user goodlittlebuddy's slowed-down version of \"Jolene\" rose to internet fame. The song was played at 33RPM instead of 45RPM, which represents a 25% slow down from the original. This version was featured during season one of the NBC television series \"The Blacklist\".\n\nBULLET::::- In March 2015, the song was parodied in the fourth episode of \"Community\" by changing the lyrics from \"Jolene\" to \"Gay dean\".\n", "Section::::Music video.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "Some extreme examples required smaller grooving than standard 7-inch such as the single \"Montana\" by John Linnell (of the band They Might Be Giants) which was in the shape of the United States. This record was problematic because record players whose tonearms returned automatically after the record finished playing often did just that before the needle actually reached the song.\n", "Section::::Differences from the Floyd Rose Original.\n", "BULLET::::- The Kidsongs singers include this song in their 1986 video, \"What I Want to Be\".\n\nBULLET::::- Rockapella sang their own version of the song on February 9, 2016 in honor of Valentine's Day.\n\nBULLET::::- In the DreamWorks Animation movie \"Madagascar\", the song was used twice – the first was in normal speed when Alex the lion is tranquilised at Grand Central Station, then again at a faster speed when he is tranquilised again before being placed in a box.\n", "The song's music video was watched 38 million times on YouTube within 24 hours of its release, becoming one of the world's all-time most-viewed music videos in 24 hours, and the only one on the list not accompanied by an album release. The video was watched 100 million times on YouTube in less than 12 days.\n", "Changing the frame rate is possible using the -ofps or -speed options and by using the framestep filter for skipping frames. Reducing the frame rate can be used to create fast-motion \"speed\" effects which are sometimes seen in films.\n", "BULLET::::- The Slippery Snowland levels originally had the song Jingle Bells, but for legal reasons One Reality had Neurotech change the song. (Trivia added by One Reality)\n\nBULLET::::- The Elf on the Slippery Snowland levels originally was Santa Claus, but One Reality had Neurotech change it because if played by a child, shooting Santa wasn't cool. (Trivia added by One Reality)\n", "Section::::Reception.:Response from Baio.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Chart performance.\n", "BULLET::::- The version presented here has studio chatter at the beginning and end of the song. When the song was released as a bonus track on the 1994 Rhino remaster of \"Changes\", the opening and closing dialogue was removed, and the song fades out at the end, whereas the version presented here does not fade. The Moog does not appear in the 1994 version until after the bridge, whereas the Moog can be heard throughout the version presented here.\n", "Section::::Studio version.\n", "When the music video for the song was leaked online, Keith Girard of celebrity gossip site The Improper wrote that the music video for \"Slow Down\" had elements of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. Keith says that \"Selena Gomez’s new video for song “Slow Down” contains some eerie parallels to the death of Princess Diana. Selena races through the Paris streets in a vintage Mercedes similar to Diana’s on the night she was killed in a car crash.\" Caroline Bologna of Hollywood.com picked up on the matter on the same day and mentioned how the footage of the vintage car speeding through tunnels is similar to the princess' death.\n", "BULLET::::- In season 3, the words \"Fast Track\" flew in onto the screen as computerized ribbons in various shades of blue and white filled the screen. The ribbons would dissipate to reveal the screen setup for the Fast Track (see below), and the \"Fast Track\" text would fly out.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "BULLET::::238. Pilbeam and His Band With Specialty Dance by the Misses Tosch (1927) jazzy version of \"Ain't She Sweet?\" (?Arnold Pilbeam, father of Nova Pilbeam). See Chili Bouchier entry and Mark Griver entry (above) which feature same song.\n\nBULLET::::239. Pipe Down (1929) comedy short released by Ellbee Pictures\n\nBULLET::::240. Plastigrams (1924) 1922 experimental 3-D film by Frederick Ives and Jacob Leventhal, re-released with Phonofilm soundtrack on 22 September 1924\n\nBULLET::::241. President Calvin Coolidge, Taken on the White House Grounds (1924) filmed 11 August 1924\n\nBULLET::::242. Punch and Judy (1928)\n", "BULLET::::10. \"Ice Ice Baby\"\n\nBULLET::::11. \"Kiss Him Goodbye (Na Na Na, Hey Hey)\"\n\nBULLET::::12. \"Copa Banana\"\n\nBULLET::::13. \"Go Froggy Go\"\n\nBULLET::::14. \"Rock Steady\"\n\nBULLET::::15. \"Super Crazy Sounds\"\n\nBULLET::::16. \"Cotton Eyed Joe\"\n\nBULLET::::17. \"Blue (Da Ba Dee)\"\n\nBULLET::::18. \"Living on Video\"\n\nBULLET::::19. \"Everytime We Touch\"\n\nBULLET::::20. \"Axel F\"\n\nBULLET::::21. \"Last Christmas\"\n\nBULLET::::22. \"Popcorn\"\n\nBULLET::::23. \"In the 80's \"\n\nBULLET::::24. \"Axel F\" (Video)\n\nBULLET::::25. \"Popcorn\" (Video)\n\nBULLET::::26. \"We Are The Champions (Ding A Dang Dong)\" (Video)\n\nBULLET::::27. \"Axel F\" (New Version) (Video)\n\nBULLET::::28. \"Crazy Frog In The House\" (Knight Rider) (Video)\n\nBULLET::::29. \"Last Christmas\" (Video)\n\nBULLET::::30. \"Photo Gallery\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "This problem is primarily seen at slower tape transport. If the tape is moving at high speed, the previously recorded sounds will quickly move away from the record head and avoid self-erasure. At slower speeds there isn't enough time for this to happen.\n\nSection::::Cross-field.\n", "BULLET::::- Searching for \"let's go caroling\" or \"let's go carolling\" on Google Now will result in an extra card which displays a list of Christmas carols. The phone will play the music and show the words if one of them is selected.\n\nBULLET::::- On YouTube Creator Studio, swiping down the screen repeatedly will show a cat at the top of the screen.\n\nBULLET::::- Entering the tabview on the Google Chrome App and swiping up on a tab five times will cause the tab do a backflip.\n", "BULLET::::- Ross Bagdasarian, aka David Seville, recorded his voice at one-half normal speed, raising its pitch a full octave when played back at normal speed, to create the early rock and roll novelty song \"Witch Doctor\". He later used the same technique, plus overdubbing his voice three times, to create Alvin and the Chipmunks. Numerous other creators of novelty, comedy, and children's records, such as Sheb Wooley, Sascha Burland, and Ray Stevens have since used this process.\n", "Three songs using a sped-up recording technique became #1 hits in the United States in 1958-59: David Seville's \"Witch Doctor\" and Ragtime Cowboy Joe, Sheb Wooley's \"The Purple People Eater\", and Seville's \"The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late)\", which used a speeded-up voice technique to simulate three chipmunks' voices. The technique (which Dickie Goodman had also used on \"The Flying Saucer\") would inspire a number of other knockoffs, including The Nutty Squirrels and Russ Regan's one-off group Dancer, Prancer and Nervous.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "An aircheck of New York City radio station WABC from November 9, 1965 reveals disc jockey Dan Ingram doing a segment of his afternoon drive time show, during which he noted that a record he was playing (Jonathan King's \"Everyone's Gone to the Moon\") sounded slow, as did the subsequent jingles played during a commercial break. Ingram quipped that the King record \"was in the key of R.\" The station's music playback equipment used AC motors whose speed was dependent on the frequency of the powerline, normally 60 Hz. Comparisons of segments of the hit songs played at the time of the broadcast, minutes before the blackout happened, in this aircheck, as compared to the same song recordings played at normal speed reveal that approximately six minutes before blackout the line frequency was 56 Hz, and just two minutes before the blackout that frequency dropped to 51 Hz. As Si Zentner's recording of \"(Up a) Lazy River\" plays in the background – again at a slower-than-normal tempo – Ingram mentions that the lights in the studio are dimming, then suggests that the electricity itself is slowing down, adding, \"I didn't know that could happen\". When the station's \"Action Central News\" report comes on at 5:25 pm ET, the staff remains oblivious to the impending blackout. The lead story is still Roger Allen LaPorte's self-immolation at United Nations Headquarters earlier that day to protest American military involvement in the Vietnam War; a taped sound bite with the attending physician plays noticeably slower and lower than usual. The newscast gradually fizzles out as power is lost by the time newscaster Bill Rice starts delivering the second story about New Jersey Senator Clifford P. Case's comments on his home state's recent gubernatorial election.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Faster\" than a bullet\" (a cork fired from a toy pop gun)\n\nBULLET::::- \"More \"powerful\" than a speeding locomotive\" (a recycled clip from \"Hare Trigger\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Able to leap the \"tallest\" building\" (the depicted tall building called the \"McKimson Associates\" building [sic], with Stupor Duck's cape catching on the flagpole at the very top, causing Daffy to nearly choke)\n\nAfter the parodied introduction, the film proceeds to the story:\n" ]

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