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[ "During the 2016 Build keynote, Microsoft announced an update to the WNS and the Windows 10 Operating System that will allow for Android and iOS devices to forward push notifications received to Windows 10 to be viewed and discarded.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Architecture.\n", "November 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Notification Service would be expanded to make use of the Universal Windows Platform architecture, allowing for push data to be sent to Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Xbox, as well as other supported platforms using universal API calls and POST requests.\n", "During the 2015 Build keynote, Microsoft announced a Universal Windows Platform bridge that would allow Android and iOS software to be ported to Windows 10 Mobile and published to the Windows Store. In August 2015, A version of the Microsoft Android bridge toolset was reported to be leaked and available on the internet along with its documentation. The leaked toolset required developers to register and use the WNS to send notification data to ported applications, and would not allow for Google Cloud Messaging to be used instead. Microsoft later discontinued the Android bridge project in favor of continuing support for iOS application porting instead.\n", "In 2015, Microsoft announced that the WNS would be expanded to utilize the Universal Windows Platform architecture, allowing for push data to be sent to Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Xbox, as well as other supported platforms using universal API calls and POST requests.\n", "Windows Push Notification Service\n\nWindows Push Notification Service (commonly referred to as Windows Notification Service or WNS) is a notification service developed by Microsoft for all devices running Microsoft Windows platforms. It allows for developers to send push data (\"toast\" and \"tile\" updates) to Windows and Universal Windows Platform applications which implement the feature. Designed as a successor to the Microsoft Push Notification Service, it was first supported on Windows 8 and subsequently on Windows Phone 8.1 upon its release.\n\nSection::::Technical details.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Design and compatibility.\n", "The Windows Push Notification Service (WNS) was designed as a successor to the Microsoft Push Notification Service (MPNS), which was only supported natively on the Windows Phone 8 Operating System. Developers can still use the MPNS on apps that are installed on newer versions of Windows Mobile (Windows Phone 8 or Windows Phone 8.1), but only if the Windows application was already registered to use the MPNS and has been converted to a Microsoft Silverlight application and modified to re-target the new platform.\n", "The 'Later' (Response Point 2.0) release was originally expected to include:\n\nBULLET::::- Also-ring\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic backup\n\nBULLET::::- Busy Lamp Field (the lights indicating which phones are being used)\n\nBULLET::::- Branch offices\n\nBULLET::::- Conferencing\n\nBULLET::::- Dial plan\n\nBULLET::::- International\n\nBULLET::::- Key-system-like experience\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Outlook add-in\n\nBULLET::::- Remote web admin\n\nBULLET::::- Soft phone\n\nBULLET::::- Speech/blue-btn enhancements\n\nSection::::Discontinued.\n\nOn May 14, 2010, Microsoft officially announced that it was discontinuing Response Point, citing lack of demand for Response Point phones.\n", "Section::::Technical details.:Architecture.\n", "Section::::Skype Mobile.\n\nSkype has mobile applications for most mobile operating systems and comes pre-installed on Windows Phone 8.1 and Windows RT 8.1, Skype Mobile is popular among enterprises who use it for business communications but has been criticized for its lackluster and whimsical video quality, in 2014 Microsoft started improving on the quality Skype's mobile applications and fixed a notification bug that would notify users on various devices they've signed into with their Skype account even if they are actively using it on one of their devices.\n", "Section::::Technical details.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Implementation.\n", "Windows Mobile 5.0 included Microsoft Exchange Server \"push\" functionality improvements that worked with Exchange 2003 SP2. The \"push\" functionality also required vendor/device support With AKU2 software upgrades all WM 5.0 devices supported DirectPush.\n", "Real-time push notifications may raise privacy issues since they can be used to bind virtual identities of social network pseudonyms to the real identities of the smartphone owners.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- BlazeDS\n\nBULLET::::- BOSH\n\nBULLET::::- Channel Definition Format\n\nBULLET::::- Client–server model\n\nBULLET::::- Comet\n\nBULLET::::- File transfer\n\nBULLET::::- GraniteDS\n\nBULLET::::- Lightstreamer\n\nBULLET::::- Pull technology\n\nBULLET::::- Push Access Protocol\n\nBULLET::::- Push e-mail\n\nBULLET::::- HTTP/2\n\nBULLET::::- SQL Server Notification Services\n\nBULLET::::- Streaming media\n\nBULLET::::- WebSocket\n\nBULLET::::- WebSub\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- W3C Push Workshop. A 1997 workshop that discussed push technology and some early examples thereof\n", "Section::::Examples.:Push notification.\n\nA push notification is a message that is \"pushed\" from backend server or application to user interface, e.g. (but not limited to) mobile applications and desktop applications. Push notifications were first introduced by Apple in 2009.\n\nIn 2010 Google released its own service, Google Cloud to Device Messaging. (It has since been replaced by Google Cloud Messaging and then Firebase Cloud Messaging.)\n", "Push notifications are mainly divided into 2 approaches, local notifications and remote notifications. For local notifications, the application schedules the notification with the local device's OS, or, alternatively, sets as a timer in the application itself if it is able to continuously run in the background. When the event's scheduled time is reached, or the event's programmed condition is met, the message is displayed in the application's user interface.\n", "Software updates are delivered to Windows Phone users via Microsoft Update, as is the case with other Windows operating systems. Microsoft initially had the intention to directly update any phone running Windows Phone instead of relying on OEMs or wireless carriers, but on January 6, 2012, Microsoft changed their policy to let carriers decide if an update will be delivered.\n", "Microsoft Push Notification Service (commonly referred to as MPNS) is a mobile service developed by Microsoft. It allows for developers to send push data from servers to Windows Phone applications. The MPNS is natively supported on applications that target the Windows Phone 8 Operating System. Microsoft announced the Windows Notification Service for Windows 8 and Windows Phone 8.1 in 2011, effectively replacing the MPNS with this service. The MPNS can be used on applications that are installed on Windows Phone 8.1 if the source code is migrated to a Microsoft Silverlight application, modified to target Windows Phone 8.1, and was already registered to use the MPNS before the upgrade.\n", "On 13 May 2015 Microsoft added support for the HTC One (M8) for Windows devices in version 2.0.3 while earlier the Windows Phone Recovery Tool exclusively worked with Microsoft/Nokia Lumia devices. In September 2015 Microsoft updated the Windows Phone Recovery Tool which renamed it to the Windows Device Recovery Tool alongside several minor fixes such as improved support features, and some accessibility improvements. In November 2015 Microsoft added additional support for another non-Microsoft made Windows mobile device, the \"LG Lancet\".\n", "The advantage of this solution is that the mobile app does not need to run at all on the device, consuming no additional battery power, and is still able to receive incoming calls. The media of the call (audio and video) are still transferred directly to the mobile app, for lowest latency and security - no extra relaying is done. Using push notifications doesn't require any support on the SIP server side and uses only SIP protocol standard.\n", "In January 2019, Microsoft announced that support for Windows 10 Mobile would end on December 10, 2019, and that Windows 10 Mobile users should migrate to iOS or Android phones.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Development.\n", "Charms have been removed; their functionality in universal apps is accessed from an \"App commands\" menu on their title bar. In its place is Action Center, which displays notifications and settings toggles. It is accessed by clicking an icon in the notification area, or dragging from the right of the screen. Notifications can be synced between multiple devices. The Settings app (formerly PC Settings) was refreshed and now includes more options that were previously exclusive to the desktop Control Panel.\n", "BULLET::::- The Photos app loses the ability to view photos from Facebook, Flickr or SkyDrive. Instead, each service provider is expected to create its own app;\n\nBULLET::::- The Messaging app, which was interoperable with Windows Live Messenger and Facebook Chat, is deprecated in favour of a Skype app that is not compatible with Facebook Chat;\n\nBULLET::::- The Calendar app can only connect to Microsoft services such as Outlook.com and Microsoft Exchange, with support for Google Calendar removed.\n", "Windows Phone was succeeded by Windows 10 Mobile in 2015; it emphasizes a larger amount of integration and unification with its PC counterpart—including a new, unified application ecosystem, along with an expansion of its scope to include small-screened tablets.\n\nOn October 8, 2017, Joe Belfiore announced that work on Windows 10 Mobile was drawing to a close due to lack of market penetration and resultant lack of interest from app developers.\n", "Starting with Windows Phone 8.1, several hardware buttons that were previously required on Windows Phone are no longer a requirement for device manufacturers, a move that was made in order to allow OEMs to develop devices that can run both WP and Android; the HTC One (M8) for Windows is an example of such a device.\n", "The architecture of the Windows Push Notification Service is similar to that of its predecessor, in that it consists of servers and interfaces that generate, maintain, store, and authenticate unique identifiers (called \"Channel URI Identifiers\") for all devices that register to use the service. When a device enrolls to receive data and notification information using the WNS, it first sends a device registration request to WNS network. The WNS network acknowledges the request, and responds with the device's unique \"Channel URI Identifier\". Typically, the device will then send its identifier to a server owned by the developer so that it can be stored and used for sending notifications. When the app developer wishes to transmit a notification or other WNS data to the device, it will transmit a POST request to the WNS network. The network will acknowledge and authenticate the request. If the authentication succeeds, the data to be transmitted is enqueued and then sent to the device from the WNS network using the \"Channel URI Identifier\".\n", "WP now supports on-screen buttons that OEMs can use to replace the capacitive \"back, \"Windows\", and \"search\" buttons that have been required for devices running the OS since 2010. The new on-screen buttons can be hidden by swiping them to the side of the screen.\n\nWindows Phone device manufacturers are also no longer required to include a physical camera button on the side of the phone.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "Microsoft can't and shouldn't want to disable support for Windows Mobile. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Microsoft doesn't want to support Windows Mobile for reasons only known to them." ]

[ "BULLET::::- B.C. (or BC) – meaning \"Before Christ\". Used for years before AD 1, counting backwards so the year \"n\" BC is \"n\" years before AD 1. Thus there is no year 0.\n", "BULLET::::- Part 8: list (fasti) of the Roman consuls to AD 354 br At AD 1: \"Hoc cons. dominus Iesus Christus natus est VIII kal. Ian. d. Ven. luna xv.\" – \"When these [Caesare and Paulo] were consuls, Lord Jesus Christ was born 8 days before the kalends of January [December 25] on the day of Venus Moon 15\" – is a historical reference\n\nBULLET::::- Part 9: the dates of Easter from AD 312 to 411\n\nBULLET::::- Part 10: list of the prefects of the city of Rome from 254 to 354 AD\n", "Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the \"AD\" abbreviation before the year number. However, BC is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2020, but 68 BC), which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in \"fourth century AD\" or \"second millennium AD\" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Because BC is the English abbreviation for \"Before Christ\", it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means \"After Death\", i.e., after the death of Jesus. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would neither be included in the BC nor the AD time scales.\n", "The traditional date for the founding of Rome, 21 April 753 BC, is due to Marcus Terentius Varro (First Century BC). Varro may have used the consular list (with its mistakes) and called the year of the first consuls \"\"ab urbe condita\" 245,\" accepting the 244-year interval from Dionysius of Halicarnassus for the kings after the foundation of Rome. The correctness of this calculation has not been confirmed, but it is still used worldwide.\n", "The original form of the fasti is thought to have consisted of four large tablets, each of which was several feet high. The first ran to 390 BC, the second to 293, the third to 154, and the fourth to 9 BC, with the remaining years to AD 14 in the margin. The fasti include a number of notes, indicating when the office-holders mentioned resigned, died, or were killed during their years of office; and they provide additional information, such as the years in which important wars began, the reasons for the nomination of dictators, the number of the \"lustrum\" taken by the censors, and the number of years since the founding of Rome, according to the era of Cato, given every ten years. Cato placed the founding of Rome one year later than Varro, so the years given in the fasti appear later than the dates given in the columns on the left.\n", "Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:\n\nBULLET::::- In modern times, incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity.\n\nBULLET::::- The civil or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August (30 August in the year before a Julian leap year).\n\nBULLET::::- There were inaccuracies in the lists of consuls.\n", "BULLET::::- 5 BC – Guangwu, Emperor of China (d. AD 57)\n\nBULLET::::- 4 BC – Herod Philip II, tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis\n\nBULLET::::- 3 BC\n\nBULLET::::- Seneca the Younger, Roman statesman (d. AD 65)\n\nBULLET::::- Servius Sulpicius Galba, Roman general and emperor (d. AD 69)\n\nBULLET::::- 1 BC\n\nBULLET::::- Ptolemy of Mauretania, client king of Mauretania (d. AD 40)\n\nBULLET::::- St. Matthew, Figure of early Christianity, specifically an Apostle\n\nBULLET::::- \"date unknown\"\n\nBULLET::::- John the Baptist, Jewish religious teacher\n\nBULLET::::- Jesus, Jewish teacher and central figure of Christianity (6 BC? – AD 30)\n\nSection::::Deaths.\n", "This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with \"AD\" counting years from the start of this epoch, and \"BC\" denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800.\n", "In his Easter table, the year AD 532 was equated with the 248th regnal year of Diocletian. The table counted the years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on 20 November AD 284, or as stated by Dionysius: \"\"sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare\"\" (\"but rather we choose to name the times of the years from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ\"). Blackburn and Holford-Strevens review interpretations of Dionysius which place the Incarnation in 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1. \n", "BULLET::::- Ariobarzan of Atropatene, Client King of Armenia, r. 1 BC – AD 2\n\nBULLET::::- Chend Di, Emperor of Han Dynasty China, r. 32–7 BC\n\nBULLET::::- Ai Di, Emperor of Han Dynasty China, r. 7–1 BC\n\nBULLET::::- Ping Di, Emperor of Han Dynasty China, r. 1 BC – AD 5\n\nBULLET::::- Wang Mang, Chinese statesman and future emperor of China\n\nBULLET::::- Dong Xian, Han Dynasty Chinese official under Emperor Ai of Han\n\nBULLET::::- Antiochus III, King of Commagene, r. 12 BC – AD 17\n\nBULLET::::- Arminius, Germanic war chief (18/17 BC – AD 21)\n", "Thonemann would go so far as to alter the date recommended by the editors of an inscription set up in a former pirate community in Cilicia from 84 BC to 87 BC, requiring a totally different political situation. In 84 the inscription addresses Quaestor pro Praetore Lucullus, commander of the victorious Roman fleet poised offshore. In 87 it must strangely be addressed to an as yet unvictorious Quaestor commanding nothing and without a commander in Central Greece, and be coming from a unit of pirates that had allied itself with Mithridates. Any change in chronology must consider the implied concomitant adjustments to the matrix of events, not just the rank of one magistrate.\n", "However the text is preserved in an Armenian translation where many of the numerals are corrupt. The fall of Troy is 1184 BC, but the editors, Petermann and Karst, highlight that the end-date of the 167th Olympiad (109 BC) is contradicted by George Syncellus, who quotes Julius Africanus, and suggest that the end-date should read \"217th Olympiad\", a change of one character in Armenian.\n", "BULLET::::- 187 BC – Antiochus III the Great, Seleucid king of the Hellenistic Syrian Empire from 223 BC, who has rebuilt the empire in the East but failed in his attempt to challenge Roman ascendancy in Greece and Anatolia (b. c. 241 BC)\n\nBULLET::::- 186 BC – Li Cang, Marquis of Dai, buried in one of Mawangdui\n\nBULLET::::- 185 BC – Brhadrata, Indian emperor, last ruler of the Indian Mauryan dynasty (from 197 BC)\n\nBULLET::::- 184 BC\n", "BULLET::::- 47 BC: Year of six kings in Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka\n\nBULLET::::- 46 BC: Julius Caesar takes control of Africa at the Battle of Thapsus.\n\nBULLET::::- 46 BC: China abandons control of Hainan as a cost-cutting measure.\n\nBULLET::::- 45 BC: Julius Caesar wins the Battle of Munda, regaining control of Hispania and ending the Roman Civil War.\n\nBULLET::::- 44 BC: Julius Caesar named \"Dictator perpetuo\"\n\nBULLET::::- 44 BC: Julius Caesar re-founds Carthage and Corinth as Roman colonies.\n\nBULLET::::- 44 BC: Assassination of Julius Caesar on the Ides of March.\n", "BULLET::::- Philip the Arab is recognized by the Roman Senate as new Roman Emperor with the honorific \"Augustus\". He nominates his son Philippus, age 6, with the title of \"Caesar\" and heir to the throne; gives his brother Priscus supreme power (\"rector Orientis\") in the Eastern provinces; and begins construction of the city of Shahba (Syria) in the province of his birth.\n\nBULLET::::- The vassal Upper Mesopotamian kingdom of Osroene is absorbed into the Roman Empire, its last ruler being Abgar (XI) Farhat Bar Ma’nu.\n\nSection::::Events.:By place.:China.\n", "\"1776\" supposes George Washington and Frederick the Great are transposed to ancient Rome's Crisis of the Third Century, \"By Any Other Name\" takes place in several different time frames including a transposition of the Assiti themselves into Elizabethan England, and \"Time Spike\" involves transpositions of various populations into the unpopulated late Cretaceous era (145–66 million years ago).\n", "The Varronian Chronology also claims that for five years, 375-371 BC, civil unrest and anarchy in Rome prevented any magistrates from being elected, and in four years, 333, 324, 309 and 301 BC, a dictator, rather than two consuls, was elected to govern Rome for an entire year (the normal maximum term for a dictator was six months). Historians now believe both the lengthy anarchy and the dictator years to be unhistorical. It is likely that Roman scholars who knew that the Gallic Sack and the Peace of Antalicidas were supposed to be synchronous discovered that their list of magistrates, due to errors in transmission, fell short. They then invented an extended anarchy and dictator years to pad out their chronologies to the desired length. By adopting both the anarchy and dictator years the Varronian Chronology has thereby corrected the same problem twice and ended up being too long. Despite these acknowledged errors, academic literature continues, by old convention, to number years according to the Varronian Chronology; this is therefore also the convention adopted in this article.\n", "Years are given cardinal numbers, using inclusive counting (AD 1 is the \"first\" year of the Anno Domini era, immediately preceded by 1 BC, the \"first\" year preceding the Anno Domini era, there is no \"zeroth\" year).\n\nThus, the year 1 BC of the proleptic Julian calendar is a leap year.\n", "This would move the starting date back three years to 8 BC, and from the lunar synchronism back to 26 January (Julian). But since the corresponding Roman date in the inscription is 24 January, this must be according to the incorrect calendar which in 8 BC Augustus had ordered to be corrected by the omission of leap days. As the authors of the previous paper point out, with the correct four-year cycle being used in Egypt and the three-year cycle abolished in Rome it is unlikely that Augustus would have ordered the three-year cycle to be introduced in Asia.\n\nSection::::Month names.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Elagabalus\" (\"Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus P.F. Aug.\"; b. Varius Avitus Bassianus), 218– 222\n\nBULLET::::- Alexander Severus (\"Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Severus Alexander P.F. Aug.\"; b. Bassianus Alexianus), 222– 235\n\nSection::::Severan dynasty (restored).:Dynastic relationships.\n", "Feeney argues that the multiple scheme is evidence that the fasti were Augustan rather than republican. The kings are given precedence at the top and the AUC at the left as though they were superimposed on a formerly republican fasti. Moreover, the 5-year \"lustra\" date to 28 BC when the temple of Mars Ultor (\"Mars the Avenger\"), the imperial god, was constructed and took precedence over the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline. After that time the emperor must be one of the censors, who now presided over banging in the yearly nail at Mars Ultor instead of Jupiter (the setting of this nail marked the transition of the year).\n", "0s BC\n\nThis article concerns the period between 9 BC and 1 BC, the last nine years of the Before Christ era.\n\nThis is a list of events occurring in the 0s BC ordered by year. (1 BC DEC 31, YB0)\n\nSection::::Significant people.\n\nBULLET::::- Tigranes IV, King of Armenia, r. 12–1 BC\n\nBULLET::::- Erato, Queen of Armenia, 8–5 BC, 2 BC – AD 2, AD 6–11\n\nBULLET::::- Artavasdes III, King of Armenia, r. 5–2 BC\n\nBULLET::::- Jesus Christ, founding figure of Christianity, (ca. 4 BC–ca. AD 33)\n", "Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the \"Anno Domini\" system.\n", "The continuity of names from the Roman to the Gregorian calendar can lead to the mistaken belief that Roman dates correspond to Julian or Gregorian ones. In fact, the essentially complete list of Roman consuls allows general certainty of years back to the establishment of the republic but the uncertainty as to the end of lunar dating and the irregularity of Roman intercalation means that dates which can be independently verified are invariably weeks to months outside of their \"proper\" place. Two astronomical events dated by Livy show the calendar 4 months out of alignment with the Julian date in 190 and 2 months out of alignment in 168. Thus, \"the year of the consulship of Publius Cornelius Sciopio Africanus and Publius Licinius Crassus\" (usually given as \"205\") actually began on 15March 205 and ended on 14March 204 according to the Roman calendar but may have begun as early as November or December 206 owing to its misalignment. Even following the establishment of the Julian calendar, the leap years were not applied correctly by the Roman priests, meaning dates are a few days out of their \"proper\" place until a few decades into Augustus's reign.\n", "Ralph Novak states that the Delphi inscription clearly indicates that Gallio did not assume office any earlier than the spring of 50, adds that he may have served one or two years, and uses that to compute date ranges. Working from a date prior to August AD 52 for the Gallio inscription, Novak considers the possibility that Gallio served for two years and calculates a possible range for Gallio's term of office from late spring of AD 50 to early summer of AD 54 depending on whether the inscription reflects a date late in Gallio's consulship or early. Slingerland accepts a wide date range for Paul's trial similar to that of Novak for Gallio's consulship and states that Paul could have arrived in Corinth up to 18 months earlier than the earliest possible start of Gallio's term of office or a short time before the end of Gallio's latest date.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Reaction flasks, which are usually spherical (i.e. round-bottom flask) and are accompanied by their necks, at the ends of which are ground glass joints to quickly and tightly connect to the rest of the apparatus (such as a reflux condenser or dropping funnel). The reaction flask is usually made of thick glass and they can tolerate large pressure differences, with the result that you can keep two both in a reaction under vacuum, and pressure, sometimes simultaneously. Some varieties are:\n", "BULLET::::- Multiple neck flasks, which can have two to five, or less commonly, six necks, each topped by ground glass connections are used in more complex reactions that require the controlled mixing of multiple reagents.\n\nBULLET::::- Schlenk flask is a spherical flask with a ground glass opening and a hose outlet with a vacuum stopcock. The tap makes it easy to connect the flask to a vacuum-nitrogen line through the hose and carrying out the reaction either in vacuum or in atmosphere nitrogen\n", "BULLET::::- Reagent flasks are usually a flat-bottomed flask, which can thus be conveniently placed on the table or in a cabinet. These flasks cannot withstand too much pressure or temperature differences, due to the stresses which arise in a flat bottom, these flasks are usually made of weaker glass than reaction flasks. Certain types of flasks are supplied with a ground glass stopper in them, and others that are threaded neck and closes with an appropriate nut or automatic dispenser, these flasks are available in two standard shapes:\n", "BULLET::::- Culture flasks for growing cells are designed to improve aeration by including baffles that aid in mixing when placed on a shaker table.\n\nBULLET::::- Beaker (glassware)\n\nMany of these flasks can be wrapped in a protective outer layer of glass, leaving a gap between the inner and outer walls. These are called \"jacketed flasks\"; they are often used in a reaction using a cooling fluid. \n\nSection::::Legal issues.\n", "BULLET::::- Dewar flask is a double-walled flask having a near-vacuum between the two walls. These come in a variety of shapes and sizes; some are large and tube-like, others are shaped like regular flasks.\n\nBULLET::::- Evaporating flasks (for rotary evaporator) centered, pear shaped, with socket or with flange.\n\nBULLET::::- Powder flasks, for drying of powdered substances, pear shaped, with socket\n\nBULLET::::- Retorts are simplified distillation apparatuses, with long, down turned necks, and round bases. They have largely been replaced by condensers.\n", "BULLET::::- Distillation flasks, which are intended to contain mixtures, which are subject to distillation, as well as to receive the products of distillation, distillation flasks are available in various shapes. Similar to the reaction flask, the distillation flasks usually have only one narrow neck and a ground glass joint and are made of thinner glass than the reaction flask, so that it is easier to heat. They are sometimes spherical, test tube shaped, or pear-shaped, also known as a Kjeldahl Flask, due to its use with Kjeldahl bulbs.\n", "The specific requirement that components in the solution being fractionated (divided into component fractions) have differing boiling points, and the varying demands of heat exchange for the various chemical processes using condensers have led to design of very wide varieties of types, with a general design theme being creative ways in which:\n\nBULLET::::- the surface area for vapor-liquid interaction and heat exchange can be increased (which leads to an increased number of theoretical plates, a metric related to an apparatus' efficiency in separating components with smaller differences in boiling point), and\n", "Fractional distillation in a laboratory makes use of common laboratory glassware and apparatuses, typically including a Bunsen burner, a round-bottomed flask and a condenser, as well as the single-purpose fractionating column.\n\nSection::::Laboratory setup.:Apparatus.\n\nBULLET::::- heat source, such as a hot plate with a bath\n\nBULLET::::- distilling flask, typically a round-bottom flask\n\nBULLET::::- receiving flask, often also a round-bottom flask\n\nBULLET::::- fractionating column\n\nBULLET::::- distillation head\n\nBULLET::::- thermometer and adapter if needed\n\nBULLET::::- condenser, such as a Liebig condenser or Allihn condenser\n\nBULLET::::- vacuum adapter (only required if performing vacuum distillation; not used in image to the right)\n", "Flasks can be used for making solutions or for holding, containing, collecting, or sometimes volumetrically measuring chemicals, samples, solutions, etc. for chemical reactions or other processes such as mixing, heating, cooling, dissolving, precipitation, boiling (as in distillation), or analysis.\n\nSection::::List of flasks.\n\nThere are several types of laboratory flasks, all of which have different functions within the laboratory. Flasks, because of their use, can be divided into:\n", "Vacuum flasks are used domestically, to keep beverages hot or cold for extended periods of time, and for many purposes in industry.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The industrial Dewar flask is the base for a device used to passively insulate medical shipments. Most vaccines are sensitive to heat and require a cold chain system to keep them at stable, near freezing temperatures. The Arktek device uses eight one-litre ice blocks to hold vaccines at under 10 °C.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "BULLET::::- Round-bottom flasks are shaped like a tube emerging from the top of a sphere. The flasks are often long neck; sometimes they have the incision on the neck, which precisely defines the volume of flask. They can be used in distillations, or in the heating a product. These types of flask are alternatively called Florence flasks.\n\nBULLET::::- Flasks with flat bottom.\n\nBULLET::::- Cassia flasks, for the analysis of essential oils and aldehyde determination, approx. 100 ml, neck graduated 0 - 6 : 0,1 ml.\n", "Extremely large or long vacuum flasks sometimes cannot fully support the inner flask from the neck alone, so additional support is provided by \"spacers\" between the interior and exterior shell. These spacers act as a thermal bridge and partially reduce the insulating properties of the flask around the area where the spacer contacts the interior surface.\n", "Practically, in modern milliliter to liter-scale laboratory operations involving condensers, pieces of apparatus are often held together tightly by complementary, tapered inner and outer joints ground to produce very tight fits (augmented as necessary by PTFE rings or sleeves), or uniquely formulated greases or waxes; increasingly, other means of joint glass, such as threaded fittings with adapters, are used, some of which are also used across the range of process scales.\n\nSection::::Examples of processes.\n", "Schlenk flasks are round-bottomed, while Schlenk tubes are elongated. They may be purchased off-the-shelf from laboratory suppliers or made from round-bottom flasks or glass tubing by a skilled glassblower.\n\nSection::::Evacuating a Schlenk flask.\n", "These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled containers with a high vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into the liquid. Typical laboratory Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected in a metal outer container. Dewar flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid helium have another double-walled container filled with liquid nitrogen. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first liquefied hydrogen. Thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing.\n", "The condenser known as the Liebig type, a most basic circulating fluid-cooled design, was invented by several investigators working independently; however, the earliest laboratory condenser was invented in 1771 by the Swedish-German chemist Christian Weigel (1748–1831). Weigel’s condenser consisted of two coaxial tin tubes, which were joined at their lower ends and open at their upper ends. Cold water entered, via an inlet, the lower end of this jacket and spilled out of the jacket’s open upper end. A glass tube carrying vapors from a distillation flask passed through the inner tin tube, not in contact with the cooling water. Weigel subsequently replaced the inner tin tube with a glass tube, and he devised a clamp to hold the condenser. In 1791, the German chemist Johann Friedrich August Göttling (1753–1809), who was a former student of Weigel, sealed both ends of Weigel's condenser. The German chemist Justus Liebig (1803–1873) eliminated the inner wall of Weigel’s condenser, placing, in direct contact with the jacket’s cooling water, the glass tube carrying vapors from the distillation flask. He also replaced, with glass, the outer metal wall of Weigel’s condenser. And he used rubber hoses, instead of metal tubes, to convey water to and from the condenser.\n", "Vacuum flasks have been used to house standard cells and ovenized Zener diodes, along with their printed circuit board, in precision voltage-regulating devices used as electrical standards. The flask helped with controlling the Zener temperature over a long time span and was used to reduce variations of the output voltage of the Zener standard owing to temperature fluctuation to within a few parts per million.\n", "Flask\n\nFlask may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Laboratory flask, laboratory glassware for holding larger volumes than simple test tubes\n\nBULLET::::- Erlenmeyer flask, a widely used type of laboratory flask which features a flat bottom, a conical body, and a cylindrical neck\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum flask, a container designed to keep warm drinks warm and refrigerated drinks cold\n\nBULLET::::- Hip flask, a small container used to carry a small amount of liquid\n\nBULLET::::- Flask (casting) a container without a top or bottom, with sides only, used to hold molding sand\n\nBULLET::::- Flask (web framework), a web framework for the Python programming language\n", "Designing and maintaining systems and processes using condensers requires that the heat of the entering vapor never overwhelm the ability of the chosen condenser and cooling mechanism; as well, the thermal gradients and material flows established are critical aspects, and as processes scale from laboratory to pilot plant and beyond, the design of condenser systems becomes a precise engineering science.\n", "Cryostat\n\nA cryostat (from \"cryo\" meaning cold and \"stat\" meaning stable) is a device used to maintain low cryogenic temperatures of samples or devices mounted within the cryostat. Low temperatures may be maintained within a cryostat by using various refrigeration methods, most commonly using cryogenic fluid bath such as liquid helium. Hence it is usually assembled into a vessel, similar in construction to a vacuum flask or Dewar. Cryostats have numerous applications within science, engineering, and medicine.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Closed-cycle cryostats.\n", "In simplest form, a condenser can consist of a single tube of glass or metal, where the flow of outside air produces the cooling. In a further simple form, condensers consist of concentric glass tubes, with the tube through which the hot gases begin to pass running the length of the apparatus. The second tube defines an outer chamber through which air, water, or other cooling fluids can pass to reduce the temperature of the gasses to afford the condensation; hence, the outer tube (or, as designs become more complex, outer cooling chamber) has an inlet and an outlet to allow the cooling fluid to enter and exit.\n", "Depending on the application (chemical components being separated, and the required operating temperature) and the scale of the process (from very few microliters to process scales involving many liters), different types of condensers and means of cooling are used. Alongside the temperature differential and heat capacities of the cooling fluids (such as air, water, aqueous organic cosolvents), the size of the cooling surface and the way in which gas (vapor) and condensing liquid states come into contact are critical in the choice or design of a condenser system. Since at least the 19th century, scientists have sought creative designs to maximize the surface area of vapor-liquid contact and heat exchange. Many types of laboratory condensers—simpler Liebig and Allihn, coiled Graham types, simple and Dimroth types of cold finger condensers, etc.—now common, have evolved to meet the practical need of larger cooling surfaces and controlled boiling and condensation in various procedures involving distillation, and a further very wide array of materials for packing simpler condensers to increase surface area (such as glass, ceramic, and metal beads, rings, wool) have been studied and applied.\n", "For setting up the apparatus, she wrote, \"The liquid to be evaporated was contained in a small silver flask, connected with which was a spiral coil of silver tubing 18 feet in length. Both flask and spiral were within the calorimeter, and the water-vapour, after passing through the spiral, emerged from the apparatus at the temperature of the calorimeter. Surrounding the flask, and between it and the spiral, a coil of platinum-silver wire was arranged and flask, spiral, and coil were entirely immersed in a certain singularly limpid oil consisting of hydrocarbons only.\n", "BULLET::::- ways in which to control common difficulties experienced in real distillations (such as flooding and channeling, see below).\n" ]

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[ "Sometimes famous authors will ghostwrite for other celebrities as well, such as when H. P. Lovecraft ghostwrote \"Imprisoned with the Pharaohs\" (also known as \"Under the Pyramids\") for Harry Houdini in \"Weird Tales\" in the 1920s.\n\nSection::::Types.:Religious.\n", "A recent availability also exists, of outsourcing many kinds of jobs, including ghostwriting, to offshore locations like India, China, and the Philippines where the customer can save money. Outsourced ghostwriters, whose quality levels vary widely, complete 200-page books for fees ranging between $3000 and $5000, or $12–$18 per page. The true tests of credibility—the writer's track record, and samples of his or her craft—become even more important in these instances, when the writer comes from a culture and first language that are entirely different from the client's.\n", "D.J. MacHale, who wrote the pilot episode, stated: \"If memory serves, Ghostwriter was supposed to be an ancestor of Jamal's, who was an escaped slave from the south who educated himself and learned the value of reading.\"\n\nAccording to producer and writer Kermit Frazier, \"“Ghostwriter was a runaway slave during the Civil War. He was killed by slave catchers and their dogs as he was teaching other runaway slaves how to read in the woods. His soul was kept in the book and released once Jamal discovered the book.” \n\nSection::::The Ghostwriter team.\n", "Additionally, publishers use ghostwriters to write new books for established series where the \"author\" is a pseudonym. For example, the purported authors of the Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys mysteries, \"Carolyn Keene\" and \"Franklin W. Dixon\", respectively, are actually pseudonyms for a series of ghostwriters who write books in the same style using a template of basic information about the book's characters and their fictional universe (names, dates, speech patterns), and about the tone and style that are expected in the book (for more information, see the articles on pseudonyms or pen names). In addition, ghostwriters are often given copies of several of the previous books in the series to help them match the style.\n", "Usually, there is a confidentiality clause in the contract between the ghostwriter and the credited author that obligates the former to remain anonymous. Sometimes the ghostwriter is acknowledged by the author or publisher for his or her writing services, euphemistically called a \"researcher\" or \"research assistant\", but often the ghostwriter is not credited.\n", "Ghost-authorship also applies to the visual arts, most commonly paintings. The extent of the master artist's contribution varies widely, as little as composition adjustments and corrective brush strokes, or as much as entire works. A common practice is the use of art instruction class milieu in which the master artist makes significant contributions to the work of the student who then signs that work as his or her own. Services addressing complete works have historically been highly confidential. Less prevalent are advertised commercial services which may use the term \"vanity artwork\" as suggestive of \"vanity publishing\".\n\nSection::::Types.:As blacklisting countermeasure.\n", "On the upper end of the spectrum, with celebrities that can all but guarantee a publisher large sales, the fees can be much higher. In 2001, the \"New York Times\" stated that the fee that the ghostwriter for Hillary Clinton's memoirs would receive was probably about $500,000 of her book's $8 million advance, which \"is near the top of flat fees paid to collaborators\".\n", "For nonfiction books, the ghostwriter may be credited as a \"contributor\" or a \"research assistant\". In other cases, the ghostwriter receives no official credit for writing a book or article; in cases where the credited author or the publisher or both wish to conceal the ghostwriter's role, the ghostwriter may be asked to sign a nondisclosure contract that legally forbids any mention of the writer's role in a project. Some have made the distinction between \"author\" and \"writer\", as ghostwriter Kevin Anderson explains in a \"Washington Post\" interview: \"A ghostwriter is an interpreter and a translator, not an author, which is why our clients deserve full credit for authoring their books.\"\n", "Section::::Types.:Fiction.\n\nGhostwriters are employed by fiction publishers for several reasons. In some cases, publishers use ghostwriters to increase the number of books that can be published each year by a well-known, highly marketable author. Ghostwriters are mostly used to pen fiction works for well-known \"name\" authors in genres such as detective fiction, mysteries, and teen fiction.\n", "In some cases, such as with some \"how-to\" books, diet guides, or cookbooks, a book will be entirely written by a ghostwriter, and the celebrity (e.g., a well-known musician or sports star) will be credited as author. Publishing companies use this strategy to increase the marketability of a book by associating it with a celebrity or well-known figure. In several countries before elections, candidates commission ghostwriters to produce autobiographies for them so as to gain visibility and exposure. Two of John F. Kennedy's books are almost entirely credited to ghostwriters. Donald Trump's famous was produced by a ghostwriter. Several of Hillary Clinton's books were also produced by ghostwriters.\n", "The estate of romance novelist V. C. Andrews hired ghostwriter Andrew Neiderman to continue writing novels after her death, under her name and in a similar style to her original works. Many of action writer Tom Clancy's books from the 2000s bear the names of two people on their covers, with Clancy's name in larger print and the other author's name in smaller print. Various books bearing Clancy's name were written by different authors under the same pseudonym. The first two books in the \"Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell\" franchise were written by Raymond Benson under the pseudonym David Michaels.\n", "Ghostwriters are hired for numerous reasons. In many cases, celebrities or public figures do not have the time, discipline, or writing skills to write and research a several hundred page autobiography or \"how-to\" book. Even if a celebrity or public figure has the writing skills to pen a short article, they may not know how to structure and edit a several hundred page book so that it is captivating and well-paced. In other cases, publishers use ghostwriters to increase the number of books that can be published each year under the name of well-known, highly marketable authors, or to quickly release a topical book that ties in with a recent or upcoming newsworthy event.\n", "BULLET::::- Calvin Ferguson (Wil Horneff in \"Ghost Story\", Joey Shea thereafter) is a narcissistic peer of Alex, Jamal, Lenni, Rob, and later Tina at Hurston Middle School, serving as the Ghostwriter Team's enemy. Calvin is jealous of the team's numerous successes in solving their neighborhood's crimes since \"Ghost Story\", and is determined to learn their secret, even emulating their investigative methods.\n\nBULLET::::- Jeffrey Baxter (Jon Hershfield), Calvin Ferguson's friend.\n", "In some cases, ghostwriters are allowed to share credit. For example, a common method is to put the client/author's name on a book cover as the main byline (by \"Author's Name\") and then to put the ghostwriter's name underneath it (as told to \"Ghostwriter's Name\"). Sometimes this is done in lieu of pay or in order to decrease the amount of payment to the book ghostwriter for whom the credit has its own intrinsic value. Also, the ghostwriter can be cited as a co-author of a book, or listed in the movie or film credits when having ghostwritten the script or screenplay for film production.\n", "Ghostwriters are widely used by celebrities and public figures who wish to publish their autobiographies or memoirs. The degree of involvement of the ghostwriter in nonfiction writing projects ranges from minor to substantial. Various sources explain the role of the ghostwriter and how competent writers can get this kind of work. In some cases, a ghostwriter may be called in just to clean up, edit, and polish a rough draft of an autobiography or a \"how-to\" book. In other cases, the ghostwriter will write an entire book or article based on information, stories, notes, an outline, or interview sessions with the celebrity or public figure. The credited author also indicates to the ghostwriter what type of style, tone, or \"voice\" they want in the book.\n", "Some websites, including blogs, are ghostwritten, because not all authors have the information technology skills or the time to dedicate to running a website. Nonetheless, the style, tone and content is modeled on that of the credited author. Many website ghostwriters are freelance but some are freelancers who work under contract, as with radio presenters and television presenters. Occasionally a \"house pseudonym\", or collective name is used by the author of the website.\n", "\"Ghostwriter\" producer and writer Kermit Frazier revealed in a 2010 interview that Ghostwriter was the ghost of a runaway slave during the American Civil War. He taught other slaves how to read and write and was killed by slave catchers and their dogs. His soul was kept in the book that Jamal first discovered in the pilot episode, and when Jamal opened the book he was freed.\n\nSection::::Radio series.\n", "The practice is also common in television, as composers listed on cue sheets are entitled to music royalties every time an episode or theme score appears on television. A 1998 investigation by \"The Hollywood Reporter\" revealed that it was especially prevalent among animation companies such as Saban Entertainment, DiC, Ruby-Spears Productions and Hanna-Barbera, which often listed company executives as musicians for the purpose of royalties. Several composers later filed a multimillion-dollar lawsuit against Saban Entertainment president Haim Saban, for allegedly taking ownership and credit for their musical compositions.\n\nSection::::Types.:Music.:Popular music.\n", "Ghostwriting (or simply \"ghosting\") also occurs in other creative fields. Composers have long hired ghostwriters to help them to write musical pieces and songs; Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is an example of a well-known composer who was paid to ghostwrite music for wealthy patrons. Ghosting also occurs in popular music. A pop music ghostwriter writes lyrics and a melody in the style of the credited musician. In hip hop music, the increasing use of ghostwriters by high-profile hip-hop stars has led to controversy. In the visual arts, it is not uncommon in either fine art or commercial art such as comics for a number of assistants to do work on a piece that is credited to a single artist; Andy Warhol engaged in this practice, supervising an assembly line silk screen process for his artwork. However, when credit is established for the writer, the acknowledgement of their contribution is public domain and the writer in question would not be considered a ghostwriter.\n", "Section::::Remuneration and credit.\n", "In countries where the freedom of speech is not upheld and authors that have somehow displeased the ruling regime are \"blacklisted\" (i.e. forbidden from having their works published), the blacklisted authors or composers may ghostwrite material for other authors or composers who are in the good graces of the regime. Some blacklisted communist sympathisers have won Academy Awards, for example:\n\nBULLET::::- Carl Foreman and Michael Wilson for \"Bridge on the River Kwai\" (credited to Pierre Boulle, who wrote the novel).\n\nBULLET::::- Dalton Trumbo for \"Roman Holiday\" (credited to Ian McLellan Hunter).\n\nSection::::In culture.\n\nMovies and novels about ghostwriters include:\n", "Ghostwriter\n\nA ghostwriter is hired to write literary or journalistic works, speeches, or other texts that are officially credited to another person as the author. Celebrities, executives, participants in timely news stories, and political leaders often hire ghostwriters to draft or edit autobiographies, memoirs, magazine articles, or other written material. In music, ghostwriters are often used to write songs, lyrics, and instrumental pieces. Screenplay authors can also use ghostwriters to either edit or rewrite their scripts to improve them. \n", "Some celebrities, CEOs, or public figures set up blog websites—sometimes as a marketing, public relations, or lobbying tool. However, since these individuals are typically too busy to write their blog posts, they hire discreet ghostwriters to post to the blog under the celebrity or CEO's name. As with nonfiction ghostwriting, the blog ghostwriter models their writing style, content and tone on that of the credited author. This goes for social media as well. Many public figures have ghostwriters at least partially handle their Facebook and Twitter accounts, among others.\n\nSection::::Types.:Music.\n\nSection::::Types.:Music.:Classical music and film scores.\n", "Musical ghostwriting also occurs in popular music. When a record company wants to market an inexperienced young singer as a singer-songwriter, or help a veteran bandleader coping with writer's block (or a lack of motivation to finish the next album), an experienced songwriter may be discreetly brought in to help. In other cases, a ghostwriter writes lyrics and a melody in the style of the credited musician, with little or no input from the credited musician. A ghostwriter providing this type of service may be thanked, without reference to the service provided, in the album credits, or they may be a true 'ghost', with no acknowledgement in the album.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n" ]

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[ "A reduction in visual acuity in a 'red eye' is indicative of serious ocular disease, such as keratitis, iridocyclitis, and glaucoma, and never occurs in simple conjunctivitis without accompanying corneal involvement.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Ciliary flush.\n\nCiliary flush is usually present in eyes with corneal inflammation, iridocyclitis or acute glaucoma, though not simple conjunctivitis.\n\nA ciliary flush is a ring of red or violet spreading out from around the cornea of the eye.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Corneal abnormalities.\n", "Though uncommon, some patients may experience pain. Most patients will only experience this in one eye (unilateral), though possible for the condition to be seen in both (bilateral, BARN). If the first eye is left without treatment, some cases have shown the disease progressing to the other eye in a month's time. Further progressed stages of the disease can cause blindness in the eye experiencing ARN. Though the disease may be present itself, the inflammation of the retina may not been visualized for decades after the initial signs.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Of the many causes, conjunctivitis is the most common. Others include:\n\n\"Usually nonurgent\"\n\nBULLET::::- blepharitis - a usually chronic inflammation of the eyelids with scaling, sometimes resolving spontaneously\n\nBULLET::::- subconjunctival hemorrhage - a sometimes dramatic, but usually harmless, bleeding underneath the conjunctiva most often from spontaneous rupture of the small, fragile blood vessels, commonly from a cough or sneeze\n", "Frequent use of blue light-emitting devices has also been linked to cataracts and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Computer vision syndrome, or digital eyestrain, has been identified by the American Optometric Association as a cause of headaches, blurred vision, and muscle pain. The Mayo Clinic states that \"people who look at screens two or more hours every day are at greatest risk of this condition.\"\n\nSection::::Protection against vision damage.\n", "BULLET::::- With Optic Coherence Tomography: OCT of the retinal layer yields different results for PPMS and RRMS\n", "In the presence of a \"red eye\", a shallow anterior chamber may indicate acute glaucoma, which requires immediate attention.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Abnormal intraocular pressure.\n\nIntraocular pressure should be measured as part of the routine eye examination.\n\nIt is usually only elevated by iridocyclitis or acute-closure glaucoma, but not by relatively benign conditions.\n\nIn iritis and traumatic perforating ocular injuries, the intraocular pressure is usually low.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Severe pain.\n\nThose with conjunctivitis may report mild irritation or scratchiness, but never extreme pain, which is an indicator of more serious disease such as keratitis, corneal ulceration, iridocyclitis, or acute glaucoma.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.\n\nOptic nerve damage is progressive and insidious. Eventually 75% of patients will develop some peripheral field defects. These can include nasal step defects, enlarged blind spots, arcuate scotomas, sectoral field loss and altitudinal defects. Clinical symptoms correlate to visibility of the drusen. Central vision loss is a rare complication of bleeding from peripapillar choroidal neovascular membranes. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION) is a potential complication.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Red eye, swelling of the conjunctiva, and watering of the eyes are symptoms common to all forms of conjunctivitis. However, the pupils should be normally reactive, and the visual acuity normal.\n\nConjunctivitis is identified by irritation and redness of the conjunctiva. Except in obvious pyogenic or toxic/chemical conjunctivitis, a slit lamp (biomicroscope) is needed to confirm the diagnosis. Examination of the eyelid conjunctiva is usually more diagnostic than examination of the scleral conjunctiva.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Viral.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nSymptoms of entropion include:\n\nBULLET::::- Redness and pain around the eye\n\nBULLET::::- Sensitivity to light and wind\n\nBULLET::::- Sagging skin around the eye\n\nBULLET::::- Epiphora\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased vision, especially if the cornea is damaged\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Congenital\n\nBULLET::::- Aging creating loose skin and stretched and loose ligaments and muscles (senile entropion).\n\nBULLET::::- Scarring (mechanical entropion)\n\nBULLET::::- Spasm\n\nBULLET::::- An eye infection called trachoma is still common in North Africa and South Asia and this can cause scarring of the inner eyelid, which may cause friction and entropion.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Although the exact cause is not known at this time, it is suspected that microgravity-induced cephalad fluid shift and comparable physiological changes play a significant role in these changes. Other contributing factors may include pockets of increased CO and an increase in sodium intake. It seems unlikely that resistive or aerobic exercise are contributing factors, but they may be potential countermeasures to reduce intraocular pressure (IOP) or intracranial pressure (ICP) in-flight.\n\nSection::::Causes and current studies.\n", "If left untreated, patients ultimately develop late sequel, which may include optic atrophy, retinal arterial narrowing, diffuse retinal pigment epithelial changes, and an abnormal electroretinogram. The late findings of this condition are often misinterpreted as unilateral retinitis pigmentosa.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::- iritis - together with the ciliary body and choroid, the iris makes up the uvea, part of the middle, pigmented, structures of the eye. Inflammation of this layer (uveitis) requires urgent control and is estimated to be responsible for 10% of blindness in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- scleritis - a serious inflammatory condition, often painful, that can result in permanent vision loss, and without an identifiable cause in half of those presenting with it. About 30-40% have an underlying systemic autoimmune condition.\n", "Section::::Causes and current studies.:Exercise.\n", "The cornea is required to be transparent to transmit light to the retina. Because of injury, infection or inflammation, an area of opacity may develop which can be seen with a penlight or ophthalmoscope. In rare instances, this opacity is congenital. In some, there is a family history of corneal growth disorders which may be progressive with age. Much more commonly, misuse of contact lenses may be a precipitating factor. Whichever, it is always potentially serious and sometimes necessitates urgent treatment and corneal opacities are the fourth leading cause of blindness. \n", "An orange color is not as close to white. It doesn't activate the retina as much as yellow. Orange's complement is blue, which is that much closer to white than was violet. A red color is halfway between white and black. Red's complement is green which is also halfway between white and black. With red and green, the retina's qualitatively divided activity consists of two equal halves.\n", "When the eyes dry out or become fatigued due to reading on a computer screen, it can be an indication of Computer Vision Syndrome. Computer Vision Syndrome can be prevented by taking regular breaks, focusing on objects far from the screen, having a well-lit workplace, or using a blink reminder application such as EyeLeo or VisionProtect. Studies suggest that adults can learn to maintain a healthy blinking rate while reading or looking at a computer screen using biofeedback.\n", "Opacities may be keratic, that is, due to the deposition of inflammatory cells, hazy, usually from corneal edema, or they may be localized in the case of corneal ulcer or keratitis.\n\nCorneal epithelial disruptions may be detected with fluorescein staining of the eye, and careful observation with cobalt-blue light.\n\nCorneal epithelial disruptions would stain green, which represents some injury of the corneal epithelium.\n\nThese types of disruptions may be due to corneal inflammations or physical trauma to the cornea, such as a foreign body.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Pupillary abnormalities.\n", "A Pacific University research study of 36 participants found significant differences in irritation or burning of the eyes, tearing, or watery eyes, dry eyes, and tired eyes, that were each improved by amber colored lenses versus placebo lenses, but in a follow-up study in 2008, the same team was not able to reproduce the results of the first study.\n", "A number of computer and smartphone applications, such as f.lux, redshift and Night Shift adjust the computer video color temperature, reducing the amount of blue light emitted by the screen, particularly at night.\n\nDry eye is a symptom that is targeted in the therapy of CVS. The use of over-the-counter artificial-tear solutions can reduce the effects of dry eye in CVS. Prior to using artificial tear solutions, it is necessary to check if dry eye is the actual cause of the problem (measured by a tear meniscus test) or whether there are no actual symptoms of dry eye at all.\n", "BULLET::::- Retinoblastoma - Strabismus (crossed eyes), a whitish or yellowish glow through the pupil, decreasing/loss of vision, sometimes the eye may be red and painful. Retinoblastoma can occur in one or both eyes. This tumor occurs in babies and young children. It is called RB for short. Check photographs, normal healthy eyes would have the red eye reflex, but a white/yellow dot instead of the red eye reflex can indicate a tumor or some other kind of eye disease. Any photos of a child/children which have a white/yellow dot instead of the red eye reflex should be evaluated by an eye doctor.\n", "Although the user has two eyes, one eye is predominantly used. The other eye is used to make corrections and provide additional spatial information. It is recommended to wear a monocular HMD over the dominant eye.\n\nSection::::Peripheral Perception.\n\nWhile most of these factors mentioned above become problematic when both eyes are covered with displays, a single display resting in the Peripheral Vision can be considered to be unproblematic, since it does not permanently influence the perceived picture of the real world.\n", "Entropion has also been seen in cat breeds. Typically it is secondary to trauma, or infection leading to chronic eyelid changes. It is also seen secondary to enophthalmos. Congenital cases are also seen with the brachicephalic breeds being over represented.\n", "Pain, visual loss, relapse, and steroid response are typical of CRION. Ocular pain is typical, although there are some cases with no reported pain. Bilateral severe visual loss (simultaneous or sequential) usually occurs, but there are reports of unilateral visual loss. Patients can have an associated relative afferent pupillary defect. CRION is associated with at least one relapse, and up to 18 relapses have been reported in an individual. Interval between episodes can range from days to over a decade. Symptoms will improve with corticosteroids, and recurrence characteristically occurs after reducing or stopping steroids.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "Approximately two-thirds of the population are right-eye dominant and one-third left-eye dominant; however, in a small portion of the population neither eye is dominant. Dominance does appear to change depending upon direction of gaze due to image size changes on the retinas. There also appears to be a higher prevalence of left-eye dominance in those with Williams–Beuren syndrome, and possibly in migraine sufferers as well. Eye dominance has been categorized as \"weak\" or \"strong\"; highly profound cases are sometimes caused by amblyopia or strabismus.\n", "Section::::Development.:Plasticity.\n\nSection::::Development.:Plasticity.:Sensitive periods.\n\nAlthough the ocular dominance columns are formed before birth, there is a period after birth—formerly called a \"critical period\" and now called a \"sensitive period\"—when the ocular dominance columns may be modified by activity dependent plasticity. This plasticity is so strong that if the signals from both eyes are blocked the ocular dominance columns will completely . Similarly, if one eye is closed (\"monocular deprivation\"), removed(\"enucleation\"), or silenced during the sensitive period, the size of the columns corresponding to the removed eye shrink dramatically.\n\nSection::::Development.:Models.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Injury.:Chemical injury.\n\nThe sclera is highly resistant to injury from brief exposure to toxic chemicals. The reflexive production of tears at the onset of chemical exposure tends to quickly wash away such irritants, preventing further harm. Acids with a pH below 2.5 are the source of greatest acidic burn risk, with sulfuric acid, the kind present in car batteries and therefore commonly available, being among the most dangerous in this regard. However, acid burns, even severe ones, seldom result in loss of the eye.\n", "The hazards of solutions of acetic acid depend on the concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of acetic acid solutions:\n\nConcentrated acetic acid can be ignited only with difficulty at standard temperature and pressure, but becomes a flammable risk in temperatures greater than , and can form explosive mixtures with air at higher temperatures (explosive limits: 5.4–16%).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acetic acid (data page)\n\nBULLET::::- Acetyl group, the CH-CO– group\n\nBULLET::::- Acids in wine\n\nBULLET::::- Acetate\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- National Pollutant Inventory – Acetic acid fact sheet\n\nBULLET::::- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards\n", "Section::::Health effects and safety.\n\nConcentrated acetic acid is corrosive to skin. These burns or blisters may not appear until hours after exposure.\n\nProlonged inhalation exposure (eight hours) to acetic acid vapours at 10 ppm can produce some irritation of eyes, nose, and throat; at 100 ppm marked lung irritation and possible damage to lungs, eyes, and skin may result. Vapour concentrations of 1,000 ppm cause marked irritation of eyes, nose and upper respiratory tract and cannot be tolerated. These predictions were based on animal experiments and industrial exposure.\n", "Chemical burn\n\nA chemical burn occurs when living tissue is exposed to a corrosive substance (such as a strong acid, base) or a cytotoxic agent (such as mustard gas, lewisite or arsenic). Chemical burns follow standard burn classification and may cause extensive tissue damage. The main types of irritant and/or corrosive products are: acids, bases, oxidizers / reducing agents, solvents, and alkylants. Additionally, chemical burns can be caused by some types of cytotoxic chemical weapons, e.g., vesicants such as mustard gas and Lewisite, or urticants such as phosgene oxime.\n\nChemical burns may:\n\nBULLET::::- need no source of heat,\n", "These problems are exacerbated by a lack of knowledge of how to treat burns: many victims applied oil to the acid, rather than rinsing thoroughly and completely with water for 30 minutes or longer to neutralize the acid. Such home remedies only serve to increase the severity of damage, as they do not counteract the acidity.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment for burn victims remains inadequate in many developing nations where incidence is high. Medical underfunding has resulted in very few burn centers available for victims in countries such as Uganda, Bangladesh, and Cambodia. For example, Uganda has one specialized burn center in the entire nation, which opened in 2003; likewise, Cambodia has only one burn facility for victims, and scholars estimate that only 30% of the Bangladeshi community has access to health care.\n", "India's top court ruled that authorities must regulate the sale of acid. The Supreme Court's ruling on July 16, 2013, came after an incident in which four sisters suffered severe burns after being attacked with acid by two men on a motorbike. Acid which is designed to clean rusted tools is often used in the attacks can be bought across the counter. But the judges said the buyer of such acids should in future have to provide a photo identity card to any retailer when they make a purchase. The retailers must register the name and address of the buyer. In 2013, section 326 A of Indian Penal Code was enacted by the Indian Parliament to ensure enhanced punishment for acid throwing.\n", "The original Baux score was the addition of two factors, the first being the total body surface area affected by burning (usually estimated using the Wallace rule of nines, or calculated using a Lund and Browder chart) and the second being the age of the patient.\n\nThe score is expressed as:\n\nThe score is a comparative indicator of burn severity, with a score over 140 considered as being unsurvivable, depending on the available treatment resources.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Modified method.\n", "Burns can be classified by depth, mechanism of injury, extent, and associated injuries. The most commonly used classification is based on the depth of injury. The depth of a burn is usually determined via examination, although a biopsy may also be used. It may be difficult to accurately determine the depth of a burn on a single examination and repeated examinations over a few days may be necessary. In those who have a headache or are dizzy and have a fire-related burn, carbon monoxide poisoning should be considered. Cyanide poisoning should also be considered.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Size.\n", "The ACCA directly impacts the criminal aspect of acid attacks, and allows for the death penalty or a level of punishment corresponding to the area of the body affected. If the attack results in a loss of hearing or sight or damages the victim's face, breasts, or sex organs then the perpetrator faces either the death penalty or life sentencing. If any other part of the body is maimed, then the criminal faces 7–14 years of imprisonment in addition to a fine of US$700. Additionally, throwing or attempting to throw acid without causing any physical or mental harm is punishable by this law and could result in a prison term of 3–7 years along with a US$700 fine. Furthermore, conspirators that aid in such attacks assume the same liability as those actually committing the crime.\n", "The exact symptoms of a chemical burn depend on the chemical involved. Symptoms include itching, bleaching or darkening of skin, burning sensations, trouble breathing, coughing blood and/or tissue necrosis. Common sources of chemical burns include sulfuric acid (HSO), hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), lime (CaO), silver nitrate (AgNO), and hydrogen peroxide (HO). Effects depend on the substance; hydrogen peroxide removes a bleached layer of skin, while nitric acid causes a characteristic color change to yellow in the skin, and silver nitrate produces noticeable black stains. Chemical burns may occur through direct contact on body surfaces, including skin and eyes, via inhalation, and/or by ingestion. Lipophilic substances that diffuse efficiently in human tissue, e.g., hydrofluoric acid, sulfur mustard, and dimethyl sulfate, may not react immediately, but instead produce the burns and inflammation hours after the contact. Chemical fabrication, mining, medicine, and related professional fields are examples of occupations where chemical burns may occur. Hydrofluoric acid leaches into the bloodstream and reacts with calcium and magnesium, and the resulting salts can cause cardiac arrest after eating through skin.\n", "Section::::Portrayals in media.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saving Face\" – A 2012 documentary film by Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy and Daniel Junge that follows Pakistani/British plastic surgeon Dr. Mohammad Jawad to his native Pakistan to aid women who were victims of acid attacks, and examines the Pakistani parliament's exercise in banning the act of acid burning. The film won the 2012 Academy Award for best Documentary Short.\n", "BULLET::::- Open flames. This varies from a lit cigarette to welding activity.\n\nBULLET::::- Mechanically generated impact sparks. For example, a hammer blow on a rusty steel surface compared to a hammer blow on a flint stone. The speed and impact angle (between surface and hammer) are important; a 90 degree blow on a surface is relatively harmless.\n", "Recent analysis of mortality in burn units worldwide has shown that for well performing units the LD50 (the point at which 50% of patients would be expected to die) for major burns has significantly improved and the best units have a modified Baux score of 130-140. This means that all burns in children (except 100% TBSA full-thickness burns) should be considered survivable injuries and actively treated.\n\nSection::::Efficacy.\n", "Section 336B of Pakistan Penal Code states: \"Whoever causes hurt by corrosive substance shall be punished with imprisonment for life or imprisonment of either description which shall not be less than fourteen years and a minimum fine of one million rupees.\" Additionally, section 299 defines \"Qisas\" and states: \"\"Qisas\" means punishment by causing similar hurt at the same part of the body of the convict as he has caused to the victim or by causing his death if he has committed qatl-iamd (intentional manslaughter) in exercise of the right of the victim or a Wali (the guardian of the victim).\"\n", "In the early 20th century, picric acid was stocked in pharmacies as an antiseptic and as a treatment for burns, malaria, herpes, and smallpox. Picric acid-soaked gauze was also commonly stocked in first aid kits from that period as a burn treatment. It was most notably used for the treatment of burns suffered by victims of the Hindenburg disaster in 1937. Picric acid was also used as a treatment for trench foot suffered by soldiers stationed on the Western Front during World War I.\n", "BULLET::::- Ms Bharti Telemedia Limited vs Chief Secretory on 30 January, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- State Of Maharashtra vs Bharat Shanti Lal Shah & Ors on 1 September, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- The Gujarat University vs Krishna Ranganath Mudholkar And ... on 21 February, 1962\n\nBULLET::::- Zameer Ahmed Latifur Rehman ... vs State Of Maharashtra & Ors on 23 April, 2010\n", "Sometimes, the word \"cauterize\" is used. This is known in English since 1541, and is derived via Medieval French \"cauteriser\" from Late Latin \"cauterizare\" \"to burn or brand with a hot iron\", itself from Greek καυτηριάζειν, \"kauteriazein\", from καυτήρ \"kauter\" \"burning or branding iron\", from καίειν \"kaiein\" \"to burn\". However \"cauterization\" is now generally understood to mean a medical process – specifically to stop bleeding.\n\nSection::::Historical use.\n\nSection::::Historical use.:Marking the rightless.\n\nThe origin may be the ancient treatment of a slave (often without legal rights) as livestock.\n", "BULLET::::- It is important to remember that Registry findings alone can't tell if exposure to burn pits, dust storms, or other hazards caused these health conditions.\n\n2. Report on Data from the Airborne Hazards and Open Burn Pit (AH&OBP) Registry, April 2015\n\nSection::::The Iraq and Afghanistan U.S. military burn pit operation scandal.:Proposed Health Tracking.\n", "Some corrosives possess other chemical properties which may extend their corrosive effects on living tissue. For example, sulfuric acid (HSO) at a high concentration is also a strong dehydrating agent, capable of dehydrating carbohydrates and liberating extra heat. This results in secondary thermal burns in addition to the chemical burns and may speed up its decomposing reactions on the contact surface. Some corrosives, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, are strong oxidizing agents as well, which significantly contributes to the extra damage caused. Hydrofluoric acid does not necessarily cause noticeable damage upon contact, but produces tissue damage and toxicity after being painlessly absorbed. Zinc chloride solutions are capable of destroying cellulose and corroding through paper and silk since the zinc cations in the solutions specifically attack hydroxyl groups, acting as a Lewis acid. This effect is not restricted to acids; so strong a base as calcium oxide, which has a strong affinity for water (forming calcium hydroxide, itself a strong and corrosive base), also releases heat capable of contributing thermal burns as well as delivering the corrosive effects of a strong alkali to moist flesh.\n", "For a burn to be classified as electrical, electricity must be the direct cause. For example, burning a finger on a hot electric steam iron would be thermal, not electrical. According to Joule's first law: electricity passing through resistance creates heat, so there is no current entering the body in this type of burn. Likewise, a fire that is ruled to be \"electrical\" in origin, does not necessarily mean that any injuries or deaths are due to electrical burns. Unless someone was injured at the exact moment that the fire began, it is unlikely that any \"electrical\" burns would occur.\n", "The Brønsted–Lowry model calls hydrogen-containing substances (like HCl) acids. Thus, some substances, which many chemists considered to be acids, such as SO or BCl, are excluded from this classification due to lack of hydrogen. Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in 1938, \"To restrict the group of acids to those substances that contain hydrogen interferes as seriously with the systematic understanding of chemistry as would the restriction of the term oxidizing agent to substances containing oxygen.\" Furthermore, KOH and KNH are not considered Brønsted bases, but rather salts containing the bases OH and .\n\nSection::::Acid–base definitions.:Lewis definition.\n", "If there is sufficient evidence of a connection between exposure to burn pits and subsequent illness and disability, it might serve as the basis for congressional enactment of a \"presumption of service connection\" similar to that in place for exposure to Agent Orange.\n", "Police in India are also known to use acid on individuals, particularly on their eyes, causing blindness to the victims. A well known such case is the Bhagalpur blindings, where police blinded 31 individuals under trial (or convicted criminals, according to some versions) by pouring acid into their eyes. The incident was widely discussed, debated and acutely criticized by several human rights organizations. The Bhagalpur blinding case had made criminal jurisprudence history by becoming the first in which the Indian Supreme Court ordered compensation for violation of basic human rights.\n\nSection::::By country.:South Asia.:Pakistan.\n", "Low concentrations cause prickling sensations on the skin, but high concentrations or prolonged exposure to field concentrations can cause severe irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, and mild cough and moderate contact dermatitis can result. Liquid CSA causes acid burns of skin and exposure of eyes can lead to severe eye damage.\n\nAffected body parts should be washed with water and then with sodium bicarbonate solution. The burns are then treated like thermal burns. The skin burns heal readily, while cornea burns can result in residual scarring.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nThe cost of scoliosis involves both monetary losses and lifestyle limitations that increase with severity. Respiratory deficiencies may also arise from thoracic deformities and cause abnormal breathing. This directly affects exercise and work capacity, decreasing the overall quality of life.\n\nIn the health care system of the United States, the average hospital cost for cases involving surgical procedures was $30,000 to $60,000 per person in 2010. As of 2006, the cost of bracing has been published as up to $5,000 during rapid growth periods, when braces must be consistently replaced across multiple follow-ups.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::7. Overbite in mm\n\nBULLET::::8. Mandibular protrusion in mm\n\nBULLET::::9. Open bite in mm\n\nBULLET::::10. Ectopic eruption\n\nBULLET::::11. Anterior crowding\n\nBULLET::::12. Labiolingual spread\n\nBULLET::::13. Posterior unilateral Crossbite\n\nOnce this is completed and all the checks are done, the scores are added up. If the patient does not score 26 or above they may still be eligible under the EPSDT (Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnostic and Treatment) exception, if medical necessity is documented.\n\nSection::::Orthodontic indices.:Peer Assessment Rating Index (PAR).\n", "Bracing is a common strategy recommended by an occupational therapist, in particular, for individuals engaging in sports and exercise. An OT is responsible for educating an individual on the advantages and disadvantages of different braces, proper ways to wear the brace, and the day-to-day care of the brace.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "In order for a brace to be effective, it must be worn every day for the required amount of time. Patients are given a brace schedule determined by their physical therapist that explains the amount of time the brace must be worn daily. A brace's effectiveness increases with adherence to the bracing schedule. Patients that do not follow their bracing schedule are more likely to have their symptoms progress. Research has demonstrated that when braces are used as prescribed with full compliance, they are successful at preventing spondylolysis progression.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "BULLET::::7. Overbite in mm\n\nBULLET::::8. Mandibular protrusion in mm\n\nBULLET::::9. Open bite in mm\n\nBULLET::::10. Ectopic eruption\n\nBULLET::::11. Anterior crowding\n\nBULLET::::12. Labiolingual spread\n\nBULLET::::13. Posterior unilateral Crossbite\n\nOnce this is completed and all the checks are done, the scores are added up. If the patient does not score 26 or above they may still be eligible under the EPSDT (Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnostic and Treatment) exception, if medical necessity is documented.\n\nSection::::Peer Assessment Rating Index (PAR).\n", "Rigid braces are also used for the correction of scoliosis in the growing children and adolescents. These braces are very specific in nature and are used until the adolescent has finished growing (usually to about 16 years of age). Use of a brace does not always control the scoliosis curvature. Indeed, the curvature in very aggressive scoliosis can continue to progress despite bracing. Typically in such circumstances, surgery to correct the scoliosis could eventually be necessary despite many years of bracing. However, the brace may replace the need for surgery and this is always preferred if possible.\n", "\"Overbite\" may also be used commonly to refer to Class II malocclusion or retrognathia, though this usage can be considered incorrect. This is where the mesiobuccal cusp of the maxillary first molar is situated anterior to the buccal groove of the mandibular first molar; in other words, the mandible (lower jaw) appears too far behind the maxilla. A person presenting with Class II malocclusion may exhibit excessive overbite as well, or may have the opposite problem, which is referred to as openbite (or apertognathia). In the case of apertognathia, the teeth do not overlap enough or at all—the upper teeth protrude past the lower teeth.\n", "Assessing a patient for vertical and horizontal excess:\n", "Initial appliances formed in 1980s irritated patient's tongues and had higher breakage rate. However, different companies made the bracket profile smaller and smoother which allowed less irritation to soft tissues around the bracket. However, the same problems still persisted over the years and treatment approach presently is to inform the patient that irritation and speech impairment will improve in 2–3 weeks after the bracket placement.\n\nA systematic review and a meta-analysis published in 2016 stated that lingual braces cause greater amount of pain in tongue, problem maintaining oral hygiene and problems with speech and eating difficulties.\n\nSection::::Treatment effects.\n", "Section::::Treatment effects.:Intrusion of anterior teeth.\n\nLingual brackets are located more closely to the center of resistance of a tooth than brackets placed on a buccal surface of a tooth. Thus when a patient bites down, the biting forces are directed through the center of resistance of those anterior teeth. Thus the light continuous forces directed towards the upper lingual brackets may induce slight intrusion of the upper anterior teeth. However, forces that are felt on the anterior teeth seem to be minimal, in milligrams. An optimum force needed to intrude teeth is 30-40g.\n\nSection::::Treatment effects.:Bite plane effect.\n", "Section::::Changing human dentition.\n", "Long-term complications can include periodontal complications such as bone loss on the second molar following wisdom teeth removal. Bone loss as a complication after wisdom teeth removal is uncommon in the young but present in 43% of those of 25 years of age or older. Injury to the inferior alveolar nerve resulting in numbness or partial numbness of the lower lip and chin has reported rates that vary widely from 0.04% to 5%. The largest study is from a survey of 535 oral and maxillofacial surgeons in California, where a rate of 1:2,500 was reported.\n", "An advantage of the lingual brackets over the buccal brackets is the less decalcification marks on the buccal side of the teeth which is more visible to the naked eye. Patients with poor oral hygiene can have increased white spot lesions which present themselves buccaly and can stay there post-orthodontically if proper oral hygiene is not maintained.\n\nSection::::Design.:Disadvantages.\n", "Edentulous patients with sufficient amount of bony ridge on their jaws can opt for implant supported overdenture. This type of over denture gains support from both the dental implants and intraoral tissues. Having implant-supported overdenture provides better stability of prosthesis and reduce bone resorption. However, a conventional complete denture can be considered as an alternative due to less treatment time needed.\n\nSection::::Types.:Types of Attachment System.\n", "Section::::Stability and relapse.\n\nSection::::Stability and relapse.:Surgery vs. non-surgery.\n\nGeoffrey Greenlee and others published a meta-analysis in 2011 which concluded that patients with orthognathic surgical correction of open bite had 82% stability in comparison to non-surgical correction of open bite which had 75% of stability after 1or more year of treatment. Both the groups started with 2-3mm of open bite initially.\n\nSection::::Stability and relapse.:Molar intrusion.\n", "Scoliosis braces are usually comfortable, especially when well designed and well fitted, also after the 7- to 10-day break-in period. A well fitted and functioning scoliosis brace provides comfort when it is supporting the deformity and redirecting the body into a more corrected and normal physiological position.\n\nEvidence supports that bracing prevents worsening of disease, but whether it changes quality of life, appearance, or back pain is unclear.\n\nSection::::Management.:Surgery.\n", "The skeletal features and growth patterns associated with hypodontia are unknown although there is some evidence to suggest that the cranio-facial features of individuals with missing teeth are different from those with a full natural dentition. Patients with hypodontia commonly present with a smaller lower anterior face height and lip protrusion which are linked with lower mandibular plane angles. Smaller lengths of maxilla and mandible and a Class III skeletal base are also associated with hypodontia. The tendency of the patient to have these skeletal effects becomes more significant as the severity of agenesis increases, especially when more than one type of tooth is missing. Patients may appear over-closed due to the short face height and large freeway space associated with hypodontia.\n", "Section::::Post-treatment.:Headgear.\n\nHeadgear needs to be worn between 12–22 hours each day to be effective in correcting the overbite, typically for 12 to 18 months depending on the severity of the overbite, how much it is worn and what growth stage the patient is in. Typically the prescribed daily wear time will be between 14 and 16 hours a day and is frequently used post primary treatment phase to maintain the position of the jaw and arch.\n\nOrthodontic headgear will usually consist of three major components:\n", "Section::::Open bite correction.:Permanent dentition.\n\nCorrection of open bite in permanent dentition may involve extrusion of the anterior teeth or intrusion of the posterior teeth. This decision depends on the incisor show on smiling for a patient. If a patient has normal incisor show at rest smile, than molar intrusion may be done in these type of faces. Extrusion of anterior teeth in these patients will lead to excessive gummy smile which in some cases is not desirable. If a patient does not have a normal incisor show at rest and smile, then anterior extrusion may be done in these patients.\n", "The brace for scoliosis is a rigid plastic brace and must be worn a minimum of 18 out of 24 hours per day. Ongoing brace adjustments will needed and are necessary to maximize the scoliosis correction. If you are required to wear a brace to treat ongoing adolescent scoliosis, it will be necessary to visit the clinic or doctor or orthotist every few months. In a few circumstances, very restrictive braces that utilize thigh cuff extensions to control the pelvis are sometimes needed and this type of brace is worn to treat a very specific situation, such as a patient who has undergone pelvic fusion where the bone quality is at risk or questionable.\n", "Section::::Complications and risks.\n\nExperiencing some pain following fitting and activation of fixed orthodontic braces is very common and several methods have been suggested to tackle this.\n\nThe dental displacement obtained with the orthodontic appliance determines in most cases some degree of root resorption. Only in a few cases is this side effect large enough to be considered real clinical damage to the tooth. In rare cases, the teeth may fall out or have to be extracted due to root resorption.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient.\n", "Section::::Bracing for scoliosis.:Boston brace.\n", "Although most studies arrive at the conclusion of negative long-term outcomes e.g. increased pocketing and attachment loss after surgery, it is clear that early removal (before 25 years old), good post-operative hygiene and plaque control, and lack of pre-existing periodontal pathology before surgery are the most crucial factors that minimise the probability of adverse post-surgical outcomes.\n", "Section::::Transition into complete dentures.:Overdentures.\n\nAn overdenture is a prosthesis that fits over retained roots or implants in the jaws. Compared to conventional complete dentures, it provides a greater level of stability and support for the prosthesis. The mandibular (lower) jaw has a significantly less surface area compared to the maxillary (upper) jaw, hence retention of a lower prosthesis is much more reduced. Consequently, mandibular overdentures are much more commonly prescribed than maxillary ones, where the palate often provides enough support for the plate.\n\nSection::::Transition into complete dentures.:Overdentures.:Tooth supported.\n" ]

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[ "In general relativity, light follows the curvature of spacetime, hence when light passes around a massive object, it is bent. This means that the light from an object on the other side will be bent towards an observer's eye, just like an ordinary lens. In General Relativity the speed of light depends on the gravitational potential (aka the metric) and this bending can be viewed as a consequence of the light traveling along a gradient in light speed.\n", "We may understand the smaller light bending as follows. The Fierz-Pauli massive graviton, due to the broken diffeomorphism invariance, propagates three extra degrees of freedom compared to the massless graviton of linearized general relativity. These three degrees of freedom package themselves into a vector field, which is irrelevant for our purposes, and a scalar field. This scalar mode exerts an extra attraction in the massive case compared to the massless case. Hence, if one wants measurements of the force exerted between nonrelativistic masses to agree, the coupling constant of the massive theory should be smaller than that of the massless theory. But light bending is blind to the scalar sector, because the stress-energy tensor of light is traceless. Hence, provided the two theories agree on the force between nonrelativistic probes, the massive theory would predict a smaller light bending than the massless one.\n", "This and related predictions follow from the fact that light follows what is called a light-like or null geodesic—a generalization of the straight lines along which light travels in classical physics. Such geodesics are the generalization of the invariance of lightspeed in special relativity. As one examines suitable model spacetimes (either the exterior Schwarzschild solution or, for more than a single mass, the post-Newtonian expansion), several effects of gravity on light propagation emerge. Although the bending of light can also be derived by extending the universality of free fall to light, the angle of deflection resulting from such calculations is only half the value given by general relativity.\n", "This equation is the only place where the metric (and thus gravity) enters into the theory of electromagnetism. Furthermore, the equation is invariant under a change of scale, that is, multiplying the metric by a constant has no effect on this equation. Consequently, gravity can only affect electromagnetism by changing the speed of light relative to the global coordinate system being used. Light is only deflected by gravity because it is slower when near to massive bodies. So it is as if gravity increased the index of refraction of space near massive bodies.\n", "Henry Cavendish in 1784 (in an unpublished manuscript) and Johann Georg von Soldner in 1801 (published in 1804) had pointed out that Newtonian gravity predicts that starlight will bend around a massive object as had already been supposed by Isaac Newton in 1704 in his Queries No.1 in his book Opticks. The same value as Soldner's was calculated by Einstein in 1911 based on the equivalence principle alone. However, Einstein noted in 1915, in the process of completing general relativity, that his (and thus Soldner's) 1911-result is only half of the correct value. Einstein became the first to calculate the correct value for light bending.\n", "In the 1970s Hendrik van Dam and Martinus J. G. Veltman and, independently, Valentin I. Zakharov discovered a peculiar property of Fierz-Pauli massive gravity: its predictions do not uniformly reduce to those of general relativity in the limit formula_13. In particular, while at small scales (shorter than the Compton wavelength of the graviton mass), Newton's gravitational law is recovered, the bending of light is only three quarters of the result Albert Einstein obtained in general relativity. This is known as the \"vDVZ discontinuity\".\n", "BULLET::::- The theory's prediction of frame dragging was consistent with the recent Gravity Probe B results.\n\nBULLET::::- General relativity predicts that light should lose its energy when traveling away from massive bodies through gravitational redshift. This was verified on earth and in the solar system around 1960.\n\nSection::::History of gravitational theory.:Gravity and quantum mechanics.\n", "Section::::Geometry and gravitation.:Sources of gravity.\n\nIn Newton's description of gravity, the gravitational force is caused by matter. More precisely, it is caused by a specific property of material objects: their mass. In Einstein's theory and related theories of gravitation, curvature at every point in spacetime is also caused by whatever matter is present. Here, too, mass is a key property in determining the gravitational influence of matter. But in a relativistic theory of gravity, mass cannot be the only source of gravity. Relativity links mass with energy, and energy with momentum.\n", "Weak gravitational lensing investigates minute distortions of galaxies, using statistical analyses from vast galaxy surveys. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, the mean distribution of dark matter can be characterized. The mass-to-light ratios correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements. Dark matter does not bend light itself; mass (in this case the mass of the dark matter) bends spacetime. Light follows the curvature of spacetime, resulting in the lensing effect.\n\nSection::::Observational evidence.:Cosmic microwave background.\n", "Since it is apparent that in the descent [along the arc] there is more impediment acquired, it is clear that gravity is diminished on this account. But because this comes about by reason of the position of heavy bodies, let it be called a positional gravity [i.e. \"gravitas secundum situm\"]\n", "Gravitational lens\n\nA gravitational lens is a distribution of matter (such as a cluster of galaxies) between a distant light source and an observer, that is capable of bending the light from the source as the light travels towards the observer. This effect is known as gravitational lensing, and the amount of bending is one of the predictions of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. (Classical physics also predicts the bending of light, but only half that predicted by general relativity.)\n", "Minimal coupling of general relativity with scalar fields allows solutions like traversable wormholes stabilized by exotic matter of negative energy density. Moreover, Modified Newtonian Dynamics as well as some bimetric theories of gravity consider invisible negative mass in cosmology as an alternative interpretation to dark matter, which classically has a positive mass.\n\nAs the presence of exotic matter would bend spacetime and light differently than positive mass, a Japanese team at the Hirosaki University proposed to use \"negative\" weak gravitational lensing related to such negative mass.\n", "A common analogy involves the way that a dip in a flat sheet of rubber, caused by a heavy object sitting on it, influences the path taken by small objects rolling nearby, causing them to deviate inward from the path they would have followed had the heavy object been absent. Of course, in general relativity, both the small and large objects mutually influence the curvature of spacetime.\n\nThe attractive force of gravity created by matter is due to a negative curvature of spacetime, represented in the rubber sheet analogy by the negatively curved (trumpet-bell-like) dip in the sheet.\n", "Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity (proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915) which describes gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a black hole, from which nothing—not even light—can escape once past the black hole's event horizon. However, for most applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes gravity as a force which causes any two bodies to be attracted to each other, with the force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.\n", "For an elliptical orbit, \"u\" and \"u\" represent the inverses of the longest and shortest distances, respectively. These can be expressed in terms of the ellipse's semi-major axis \"A\" and its orbital eccentricity \"e\",\n\ngiving\n\nSubstituting the definition of \"r\" gives the final equation\n\nSection::::Bending of light by gravity.\n\nIn the limit as the particle mass \"m\" goes to zero (or, equivalently if the light is heading directly toward the central mass, as the length-scale \"a\" goes to infinity), the equation for the orbit becomes\n", "Einstein's theory of General Relativity makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of space-time, such as that light bends in a gravitational field, and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field. Arthur Eddington's observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse supported General Relativity rather than Newtonian gravitation.\n\nSection::::Elements of the scientific method.:Experiments.\n", "where \"r\" is the distance of the L point from the smaller object, \"R\" is the distance between the two main objects, and \"M\" and \"M\" are the masses of the large and small object, respectively. Solving this for \"r\" involves solving a quintic function, but if the mass of the smaller object (\"M\") is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (\"M\") then and are at approximately equal distances \"r\" from the smaller object, equal to the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:\n", "In general relativity, gravity has curvature effects on the four dimensions of the universe. A common analogy is placing a heavy object on a stretched out rubber sheet, causing the sheet to bend downward. This curves the coordinate system around the object, much like an object in the universe curves the coordinate system it sits in. The mathematics here are conceptually more complex than on Earth, as it results in four dimensions of curved coordinates instead of three as used to describe a curved 2D surface.\n\nSection::::Parallel transport.\n\nSection::::Parallel transport.:The interval in a high-dimensional space.\n", "where formula_5 is a Christoffel symbol. Since general relativity describes four-dimensional spacetime, this represents four equations, with each one describing the second derivative of a coordinate with respect to proper time. In the case of flat space in Cartesian coordinates, we have formula_6, so this equation reduces to the special relativity form.\n\nSection::::Classical mechanics and special relativity.:Gravitation.\n\nFor gravitation, the relationship between Newton's theory of gravity and general relativity is governed by the correspondence principle: General relativity must produce the same results as gravity does for the cases where Newtonian physics has been shown to be accurate.\n", "Around a spherically symmetric object, the Newtonian theory of gravity predicts that objects will be physically accelerated towards the center on the object by the rule\n\nwhere \"G\" is Newton's Gravitational constant, \"M\" is the mass of the gravitating object, \"r\" is the distance to the gravitation object, and formula_8 is a unit vector identifying the direction to the massive object.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "As a consequence, for example, within a shell of uniform thickness and density there is \"no net\" gravitational acceleration anywhere within the hollow sphere.\n", "The most spectacular of Einstein's predictions was his calculation that the curvature terms in the spatial components of the spacetime interval could be measured in the bending of light around a massive body. Light has a slope of ±1 on a spacetime diagram. Its movement in space is equal to its movement in time. For the weak field expression of the invariant interval, Einstein calculated an exactly equal but opposite sign curvature in its spatial components.\n", "Since then, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory that best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space-time – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the \"ballistic trajectory\" of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as \"gravitational force\".\n", "Section::::History of gravitational theory.\n\nSection::::History of gravitational theory.:Greco-Roman world.\n\nArchimedes discovered the center of gravity of a triangle. He also postulated that if the centers of gravity of two equal weights wasn't the same, it would be located in the middle of the line that joins them.\n\nThe Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius in \"De Architectura\" postulated that gravity of an object didn't depend on weight but its \"nature\".\n\nSection::::History of gravitational theory.:Ancient India.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Gravity bends light." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Light continues to travel straight but can appear to bend due to the way gravity bends space-time." ]

[ "The work needed to move the body over a small distance \"dr\" against this force is therefore given by\n\nwhere the minus sign indicates the force acts in the opposite sense of formula_34.\n\nThe total work needed to move the body from the surface \"r\" of the gravitating body to infinity is then\n\nThis is the minimal required kinetic energy to be able to reach infinity, so the escape velocity \"v\" satisfies\n\nwhich results in\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Black hole – an object with an escape velocity greater than the speed of light\n\nBULLET::::- Characteristic energy (C)\n", "Consider the case of a vehicle that starts at rest and coasts down a mountain road, the work-energy principle helps compute the minimum distance that the vehicle travels to reach a velocity \"V\", of say 60 mph (88 fps). Rolling resistance and air drag will slow the vehicle down so the actual distance will be greater than if these forces are neglected.\n", "In the case of an increase in speed from 0 to \"v\" with constant acceleration within a distance of \"s\" this acceleration is v/(2s).\n\nPreparing an object for g-tolerance (not getting damaged when subjected to a high g-force) is called g-hardening. This may apply to, e.g., instruments in a projectile shot by a gun.\n\nSection::::Human tolerance.\n\nHuman tolerances depend on the magnitude of the g-force, the length of time it is applied, the direction it acts, the location of application, and the posture of the body.\n", "Section::::Forces.\n\nThe forces that bear on the vehicle in this context are illustrated in the following figure.\n\nA vehicle's motion at speed \"v\" along a circular path embodies centripetal acceleration of magnitude \"v\"/\"R\" toward the center of the circle, the curvature of that path being 1/\"R\" where \"R\" is the radius of the circle. This centripetal acceleration is produced by horizontal forces applied by the rails to the wheels of the vehicle, directed toward the center, and having sum equal to \"Mv\"/\"R\" where \"M\" is the mass of the vehicle.\n", "Section::::Mechanics.\n", "Section::::Thompson coupling.\n", "Since the total force opposing the vehicle's motion (at constant speed) multiplied by the distance through which the vehicle travels represents the work that the vehicle's engine must perform, the study of fuel economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of distance traveled) requires a detailed analysis of the forces that oppose a vehicle's motion. In terms of physics, Force = rate at which the amount of work generated (energy delivered) varies with the distance traveled, or:\n", "It follows that if a rod is accelerated by some external force applied anywhere along its length, the elements of matter in various different places in the rod cannot all feel the same magnitude of acceleration if the rod is not to extend without bound and ultimately break. In other words, an accelerated rod which does not break must sustain stresses which vary along its length. Furthermore, in any thought experiment with time varying forces, whether we \"kick\" an object or try to accelerate it gradually, we cannot avoid the problem of avoiding mechanical models which are inconsistent with relativistic kinematics (because distant parts of the body respond too quickly to an applied force).\n", "The power needed to propel a car at any given set of conditions and speed is straightforward to calculate, based primarily on the total weight and the vehicle's speed. These produce two primary forces slowing the car: rolling resistance and air drag. The former varies roughly with the speed of the vehicle, while the latter varies with the square of the speed. Calculating these from first principles is generally difficult due to a variety of real-world factors, so this is often measured directly in wind tunnels and similar systems.\n", "Let's solve for that first term on the right since at low speeds its spacelike components represent the coordinate acceleration. More generally, when that first term goes to zero the object's coordinate acceleration goes to zero. This yields...\n", "Section::::Fault tolerance.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "BULLET::::- BBC News - How the dead have helped the living\n\nBULLET::::- How Force, Power, Torque and Energy Work - Howstuffworks.com\n\nBULLET::::- British TV 'Fifth Gear' programme. How a badly repaired Ford Focus crumple zone fails to work in a crash test.\n\nBULLET::::- British TV 'Fifth Gear' programme. Renault Modus small car with 5 star NCAP rating vs 1990 Volvo 940GLE head on crash test. \n\nBULLET::::- Mythbusters - Car crash force \n\nBULLET::::- Béla Barényi – a history of safety - Mercedes-Benz original\n", "BULLET::::- The power output of a car cannot be 700 kJ, since the unit \"joules\" is a measure of energy, not power (energy per unit time). This is a basic application of dimensional analysis.\n\nBULLET::::- When determining physical properties, comparing to known or similar substances will often yield insight on whether or not the result is reasonable. For instance, most metals sink in water, so the density of most metal should be greater than that of water (~).\n\nBULLET::::- Fermi estimates will often provide insight on the order of magnitude of an expected value.\n\nSection::::Software development.\n", "Section::::Dependence on applied torque.:Pneumatic tires.\n\nRolling resistance greatly increases with applied torque. At high torques, which apply a tangential force to the road of about half the weight of the vehicle, the rolling resistance may triple (a 200% increase). This is in part due to a slip of about 5%. The rolling resistance increase with applied torque is not linear, but increases at a faster rate as the torque becomes higher.\n\nSection::::Dependence on wheel load.\n\nSection::::Dependence on wheel load.:Railroad steel wheels.\n", "In order to determine the distance along the road assume the downgrade is 6%, which is a steep road. This means the altitude decreases 6 feet for every 100 feet traveled—for angles this small the sin and tan functions are approximately equal. Therefore, the distance \"s\" in feet down a 6% grade to reach the velocity \"V\" is at least\n\nThis formula uses the fact that the weight of the vehicle is .\n\nSection::::Work of forces acting on a rigid body.\n", "BULLET::::- No feedback to the driver - apparent feedback is entirely artificial and bears no relation to the actual forces on the front wheels from the vehicle's inertia and the roadway\n\nBULLET::::- Driver must survey visual cues to determine approach of roadholding limit\n\nBULLET::::- Requires familiarization - novices find DIRAVI too fast and sensitive\n\nBULLET::::- Cannot allow both hands to leave steering wheel when navigating curves - because of rapid self centering\n", "The previous PDE is one equation with two unknowns, so another equation is needed to form a well-posed problem. Such an extra equation is typically needed in continuum mechanics and typically comes from experiments. For car traffic it is well established that cars typically travel at a speed depending upon density, formula_14 for some experimentally determined function formula_15 that is a decreasing function of density. For example, experiments in the Lincoln Tunnel found that a good fit (except at low density) is obtained by formula_16 (km/hr for density in cars/km).\n", "Section::::Effects of impact drive.\n", "In the fifth case, critical speed \"V\" applies when road curvature is the factor limiting safe speed. A vehicle which exceeds this speed will slide out of its lane. Critical speed is a function of curve radius \"r\", superelevation or banking \"e\", and friction coefficient \"μ\"; the constant \"g\" again is the acceleration of gravity. However, most motorists will not tolerate a lateral acceleration exceeding 0.3g (\"μ\" = 0.3) above which many will panic. Hence, critical speed may not resemble loss of control speed. Attenuated \"side\" friction coefficients are often used for computing critical speed. The formula is frequently approximated without the denominator for low angle banking which may be suitable for nearly all situations except the tightest radius of highway onramps. The principle of critical speed is often applied to the problem of traffic calming, where curvature is both used to govern maximum road speed, and used in traffic circles as a device to force drivers to obey their duty to slow down when approaching an intersection.\n", "Here \"a\" is an acceleration due to proper forces and \"a\" is, by default, a geometric acceleration that we see applied to the object because of our coordinate system choice. At low speeds these accelerations combine to generate a coordinate acceleration like a=dx/d\"t\", while for unidirectional motion \"at any speed\" \"a\"'s magnitude is that of proper acceleration \"α\" as in the section above where \"α\" = \"γ\"\"a\" when \"a\" is zero. In general expressing these accelerations and forces can be complicated.\n", "Section::::Forces.:Example.\n\nTaking an example, a curve with curvature 1.0 degree per 100 ft chord (radius 1,746.40 m = 5,729.65 ft), gauge_se = 1511.3 mm (59.5 inches), and super_el = 152.4 mm (6.0 inches) will have\n\nIf a vehicle traverses that curve at a speed of 55.880 m/s (= 201.17 km/h = 125 mph), then the cant deficiency will be\n", "Neff: Yeah, I was, but I'm sort of getting over the idea,\n\nDietrichson: There's a speed limit in this state, Mr. Neff, 45 miles an hour.br\n\nNeff: How fast was I going officer?br\n\nDietrichson: I'd say around 90.br\n\nNeff: Suppose you get down off your motorcycle and give me a ticket?br\n\nDietrichson: Suppose I let you off with a warning this time?br\n\nNeff: Suppose it doesn't take?br\n\nDietrichson: Suppose I have to whack you over the knuckles?br\n\nNeff: Suppose I bust out crying and put my head on your shoulder?br\n\nDietrichson: Suppose you try putting it on my husband's shoulder?br\n", "For a given curve radius and bank angle (i.e., superelevation) the speed V that satisfies the balance equation is called the balancing speed and is given by\n", "BULLET::::- Line of action, pressure line : Line along which the force between two meshing gear teeth is directed. It has the same direction as the force vector. In general, the line of action changes from moment to moment during the period of engagement of a pair of teeth. For involute gears, however, the tooth-to-tooth force is always directed along the same line—that is, the line of action is constant. This implies that for involute gears the path of contact is also a straight line, coincident with the line of action—as is indeed the case.\n" ]

[ "I should not feel pain during a car collision due to it not following Newton's law of force. (Constant Speed = Zero Force)" ]

[ "The pain is not caused by current speed or acceleration, it is due to change in momentum, when momentum is changed, it causes impulse. The impulse that is transferred to your body is the pain you feel." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "I should not feel pain during a car collision due to it not following Newton's law of force. (Constant Speed = Zero Force)", "I should not feel pain during a car collision due to it not following Newton's law of force. (Constant Speed = Zero Force)" ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The pain is not caused by current speed or acceleration, it is due to change in momentum, when momentum is changed, it causes impulse. The impulse that is transferred to your body is the pain you feel.", "The pain is not caused by current speed or acceleration, it is due to change in momentum, when momentum is changed, it causes impulse. The impulse that is transferred to your body is the pain you feel." ]

[ "BULLET::::- Distortion: Overdriven transformers can add ringing distortion to the audio signal. Low cost transformers are prone to distortion at higher power levels, especially with regard to low frequency response. Low level signals can fail to energize a poorly designed transformer core enough to prevent higher than normal amounts of harmonic distortion.\n\nBULLET::::- Variation: Unit-to-unit variation can be observed in poorly made transformers.\n", "Section::::Load impedance and amplifiers.:Damping issues.\n", "In many compressors the attack and release times are adjustable by the user. Some compressors, however, have the attack and release times determined by the circuit design and these cannot be adjusted by the user. Sometimes the attack and release times are \"automatic\" or \"program dependent\", meaning that the behavior may change dependent on the input signal.\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Soft and hard knees.\n", "The traditional alternative to constant-voltage speaker systems are low impedance speaker systems (commonly referred to as \"8-ohm speaker systems\" in spite of the fact that their impedance may not be 8 ohms), in which the amplifier and speaker are directly coupled without the use of transformers. The disadvantages relative to constant-voltage systems are that speaker cables need to be shorter or larger diameter and that more amplifiers are needed if different listening levels are desired at different locations.\n", "Another control a compressor might offer is hard knee or soft knee selection. This controls whether the bend in the response curve between below threshold and above threshold is abrupt (hard) or gradual (soft). A soft knee slowly increases the compression ratio as the level increases and eventually reaches the compression ratio set by the user. A soft knee reduces the potentially audible transition from uncompressed to compressed, and is especially applicable for higher ratio settings where the changeover at the threshold would be more noticeable.\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Peak vs RMS sensing.\n", "Section::::Higher power levels.\n\nSection::::Higher power levels.:High voltage.\n\nHigh-voltage constant-voltage systems can be designed to use 140-, 200- and 210-volt lines, depending on the transformers selected and the amplifier connection topology. Such high voltage systems have been used in locations where small diameter wire is already in place, where long distance wire runs are involved and at especially loud installations such as Daytona International Speedway and the Indianapolis Motor Speedway prior to its redesign in 2003. Safety considerations in such high voltages require speaker line installation within conduit in most of the world.\n\nSection::::Higher power levels.:High current.\n", "A mid-range driver is called upon to handle the most significant part of the audible sound spectrum, the region where the most fundamentals emitted by musical instruments and, most importantly, the human voice, lie. This region contains most sounds which are the most familiar to the human ear, and where discrepancies from faithful reproduction are most easily observed. It is therefore paramount that a mid-range driver of good quality be capable of low-distortion reproduction.\n", "This is the minimum value in the impedance vs. frequency relationship, which can sometimes be slightly higher than the DC resistance of the voice coil, i.e., as measured by an ohmmeter. Minimum impedance is significant because the lower the impedance, the higher the current must be at the same drive voltage. The output devices of an amplifier are rated for a certain maximum current level, and when this is exceeded the device(s) sometimes, more or less promptly, fail.\n\nSection::::Load impedance and amplifiers.:Nominal impedance.\n", "There are also mechanical changes which occur in the moving components during use. In this case, however, most of the changes seem to occur early in the life of the driver, and are almost certainly due to relaxation in flexing mechanical parts of the driver (e.g., surround, spider, etc.). Several studies have been published documenting substantial changes in the T/S parameters over the first few hours of use, some parameters changing as much as 15%+ over these initial periods. The proprietor of the firm GR Research has publicly reported several such investigations of several manufacturers' drivers. Other studies suggest little change, or reversible changes after only the first few minutes. This variability is largely related to the particular characteristics of specific materials, and reputable manufacturers attempt to take them into account. While there are a great many anecdotal reports of the audible effects of such changes in published speaker reviews, the relationship of such early changes to subjective sound quality reports is not completely clear. Some changes early in driver life are complementary (such as a reduction in Fs accompanied by a rise in Vas) and result in minimal net changes (small fractions of a dB) in frequency response. If the performance of speaker system is critical, as with high order (complex) or heavily equalized systems, it is sensible to measure T/S parameters after a period of run-in (some hours, typically, using program material), and to model the effects of normal parameter changes on driver performance.\n", "Section::::Consumer models.:Volume.\n\nMost headphone amplifiers support a higher voltage output and therefore higher power (volume) levels. Whereas most portable electronics are powered by a 1.8, 2.5 or 3.3 Vpp supply, many headphone amplifiers use 10, 18 or 24 Vpp supplies, allowing 5-20 dB higher volume. If a pair of headphones is too quiet, adding an amplifier that can output higher voltage/power will increase its volume.\n\nSection::::Consumer models.:Output impedance.\n", "With advances in power semiconductors, it became possible to output high voltage directly from the output stage of the amplifier. For example, in 1967 Crown International introduced the DC300 amplifier, which is capable of directly driving 70-volt lines, as well as traditional speaker loads, thanks to its overall power of 500W. In 1987, Crown introduced the Macrotech 2400, capable of driving 100-volt lines directly. Since then, further developments in high-power amplifier technology have widened the choices. Many manufacturers make amplifiers capable of direct connection to a high-impedance constant-voltage speaker line. High-voltage audio amplifiers have almost become a one chip solution. For example, National Semiconductor's LME49810 (and similar products LME49811 and LME49830) can output 100 V peak to peak signals, but have relatively low current output, so a standard circuit includes a Darlington or FET discrete output stage.\n", "Section::::System design.:Enclosures.\n\nMost loudspeaker systems consist of drivers mounted in an enclosure, or cabinet. The role of the enclosure is to prevent sound waves emanating from the back of a driver from interfering destructively with those from the front. The sound waves emitted from the back are 180° out of phase with those emitted forward, so without an enclosure they typically cause cancellations which significantly degrade the level and quality of sound at low frequencies.\n", "Since multiple speakers will inevitably radiate very highly correlated content, a moving listener may experience a phasing effect that affects the perceived timbre and can upset localisation. Phasing artefacts are most prominent in dry rooms on very precisely calibrated systems. They can be reduced by adding height speakers, which tend to smoothen the effect, or tuned to a subjective minimum by introducing staggered delays to the speakers, with the understanding that this may adversely affect low-frequency localisation if overdone.\n", "It is the case that a \"stereo system\" with external speaker attached by long leads to the main unit (holding the audio electronics) can be troubled by EMC problems which are caused by the speaker leads acting as a dipole antenna.\n\nOne method of curing this is to add a ferrite choke to the speaker leads close to where they enter the main unit.\n\nSection::::Audio equipment.:Rectification in the audio equipment.\n", "Measurements can be deceiving; high or low figures of certain technical characteristics do not necessarily offer a good representation of how the equipment sounds to each person. For example, some valve (vacuum tube) amplifiers produce greater amounts of total harmonic distortion, but this type of distortion (2nd harmonic) is not as disturbing to the ear as the higher order distortions produced by poorly designed transistor equipment.\n", "Threshold timing behavior is subject to attack and release settings (see below). When the signal level goes above threshold, compressor operation is delayed by the \"attack\" setting. For an amount of time determined by the \"release\" after the input signal has fallen below the threshold, the compressor continues to apply dynamic range compression.\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Ratio.\n\nThe amount of gain reduction is determined by ratio: a ratio of 4:1 means that if input level is 4 dB over the threshold, the output signal level is reduced to 1 dB over the threshold. The gain and output level has been reduced by 3 dB.\n", "Power-valve distortion can also be produced in a dedicated rackmount valve power amp. A modular rackmount setup often involves a rackmount preamp, a rackmount valve power amp, and a rackmount dummy load to attenuate the output to desired volume levels. Some effects pedals internally produce power-valve distortion, including an optional dummy load for use as a power-valve distortion pedal. Such effects units can use a preamp valve such as the 12AX7 in a power-valve circuit configuration (as in the Stephenson's Stage Hog), or use a conventional power valve, such as the EL84 (as in the H&K Crunch Master compact tabletop unit). However, because these are usually placed before the pre-amplifier in the signal chain, they contribute to the overall tone in a different way. Power amplifier distortion may damage speakers.\n", "Section::::Problems.\n\nAlthough digital speakers can function, there are various problems with this design which make it impractical for any normal uses at present.\n\nSection::::Problems.:Size.\n\nFor the number of bits required for high quality sound reproduction, the size of the system becomes impractically large. For example, for a 16-bit system with the same bit depth as the 16-bit audio CD standard, starting with a 0.5 cm² driver for the least significant bit would require a total area for the driver array of 32,000 cm², or over 34 square feet (3.2 m²).\n\nSection::::Problems.:Ultrasonic output.\n", "Ideally, cancellation of even-order distortion is perfect, but it the real world it is not, even with closely matched valves. PP OPTs usually have a gap to prevent saturation, though less than required by a single-ended circuit.\n\nSince the 1950s the vast majority of high-quality valve amplifiers, and almost all higher-power valve amplifiers have been of the push–pull type.\n", "BULLET::::- Maximum sound pressure level – The highest output the loudspeaker can manage, short of damage or not exceeding a particular distortion level. Manufacturers often use this rating in marketing material—commonly without reference to frequency range or distortion level.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers.\n", "When the power delivered to a guitar speaker approaches its maximum rated power, the speaker's performance degrades, causing the speaker to \"break up\", adding further distortion and colouration to the signal. Some speakers are designed to have lots of clean headroom, while others are designed to break up early to deliver grit and growl.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Amp modeling for distortion emulation.\n", "Limited-range drivers, also used alone, are typically found in computers, toys, and clock radios. These drivers are less elaborate and less expensive than wide-range drivers, and they may be severely compromised to fit into very small mounting locations. In these applications, sound quality is a low priority. The human ear is remarkably tolerant of poor sound quality, and the distortion inherent in limited-range drivers may enhance their output at high frequencies, increasing clarity when listening to spoken word material.\n\nSection::::Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers.:Driver types.:Subwoofer.\n", "Large amounts of global negative feedback are not available in tube circuits, due to phase shift in the output transformer, and lack of sufficient gain without large numbers of tubes. With lower feedback, distortion is higher and predominantly of low order. The onset of clipping is also gradual. Large amounts of feedback, allowed by transformerless circuits with many active devices, leads to numerically lower distortion but with more high harmonics, and harder transition to clipping. As input increases, the feedback uses the extra gain to ensure that the output follows it accurately until the amplifier has no more gain to give and the output saturates.\n", "The variation in loudspeaker impedance is a consideration in audio amplifier design. Among other things, amplifiers designed to cope with such variations are more reliable. There are two main factors to consider when matching a speaker to an amplifier.\n\nSection::::Load impedance and amplifiers.:Minimum impedance.\n", "Tube amplifiers have sufficiently higher output impedances that they normally included multi-tap output transformers to better match to the driver impedance. Sixteen ohm drivers (or loudspeakers systems) would be connected to the 16-ohm tap, 8 ohm to the 8 ohm tap, etc.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The process may involve finding a film distributor. A film's marketing may involve the film being shown at a film festival or trade show to attract distributor attention and, if successful, may then be released through a chosen distributor.\n\nSection::::Film.:Delayed release.\n\nA delayed release or late release in the film industry refers to the relatively late release of a film to the public. A release can be postponed due to the sometimes difficult transition of the production or post-production to the sales and distribution phase of the film production cycle. \n", "Since the advent of home video in the early 1980s, most major films have followed a pattern of having several distinct release windows. A film may first be released to a few select cinemas, or if it tests well enough, may go directly into wide release. Next, it is released, normally at different times several weeks (or months) apart, into different market segments like rental, retail, pay-per-view, in-flight entertainment, cable, satellite, or free-to-air broadcast television. The distribution rights for the film are also usually sold for worldwide distribution. The distributor and the production company share profits and manage losses.\n", "On February 21, The \"Charlotte Observer\" hosted the next in a series of premieres. The cast and filmmakers then toured 44 more cities where newspapers such as \"The Miami Herald\", \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\", \"The Houston Chronicle\", \"The Detroit Free Press\" and \"The Chicago Sun-Times\" hosted a premiere in their city to benefit a local non-profit. The premiere tour included Kentucky's Paramount Arts Center Theatre. The eighty-year-old historically preserved Paramount is considered a crown jewel of America's remaining original grand film houses and seats 1,400. Friday, April 13, 2012 \"Deadline\" opened in theaters nationwide.\n", "Section::::Release.:Pre-release.\n", "Radius-TWC announced a release date in the United States of February 13, 2015, simultaneously releasing it in select theatres and on VOD. It was previously set for release in the United Kingdom on December 12, 2014, but was later pushed back to February 6, in line with its US release. Icon Film Distribution then pushed the release date back indefinitely, and they have not yet announced a new date.\n\nSection::::Release.:Box office.\n", "At the end of the day, the director approves the next day's shooting schedule and a daily progress report is sent to the production office. This includes the report sheets from continuity, sound, and camera teams. Call sheets are distributed to the cast and crew to tell them when and where to turn up the next shooting day. Later on, the director, producer, other department heads, and, sometimes, the cast, may gather to watch that day or yesterday's footage, called \"dailies\", and review their work.\n", "The purpose is often used to gauge the appeal of specialty films, like documentaries, independent films and art films. A common practice by film studios is to give highly anticipated and critically acclaimed films a limited release on or before December 31 in Los Angeles County, California to qualify for Academy Award nominations (as by its rules). Highly anticipated documentaries also receive limited releases at the same time in New York City, as the rules for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature mandate releases in both locations. The films are almost always released to a wider audience in January or February of the following year.\n", "The Academy Awards occur every late February and films that win awards typically see a boost in sales. To take advantage of this, the studios release films they deem \"Oscar worthy\" in the fall, before the eligibility cut-off, so that the films remain fresh in the memories of critics and Academy members right before the Awards, increasing their chances of being nominated.\n\nSection::::Campaigning.\n", "To be eligible for award consideration, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences requires that a film be shown in a theater in Los Angeles County, California, for at least seven consecutive days during which it is advertised in print media. Studios hoping to position a film for some nominations usually satisfy that minimum requirement, then ease them into wide release from then until the nominations and/or awards ceremony. The flexibility this marketing strategy requires means that screens be available, and studios limit their releases of new films during this time to that end. As critic Ty Burr explained in a 2013 \"New York Times Magazine\" article on the mediocrity of new releases in the first month of the year: \"[T]he studios ... know our attention is elsewhere.\"\n", "\"Deadline\" was shot in the Nashville, Tennessee area. Sites include the Rippavilla Plantation, in Spring Hill and at the Gannett-owned newspaper \"The Tennessean\".\n\nSection::::Release.\n\n\"Deadline\" premiered in Nashville, hosted by \"The Tennessean\" on Wednesday, February 15. Over 1,000 turned out for the premiere at the Regal Green Hills Theater, which included a red carpet event with the cast and filmmakers.\n", "Due to several factors a film release can be delayed: \n\nBULLET::::1. Problems during post-production of an artistic nature.\n\nBULLET::::2. Political problems regarding the film.\n\nBULLET::::3. Economic problems relating to limitations in the film budget.\n\nThese problems can be resolved by overcoming artistic problems, making politically correct or commercially successful changes to the film/or relieving budgetary problems.\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nIn the music industry, a release usually is a creative output from an artist, available for sale or distribution; a broad term covering the many different formats music can be released in, and different forms of pieces (singles, albums, extended plays, etc.).\n", "In filmmaking and video production, pre-production formally begins once a project has been greenlit. At this stage, finalizing preparations for production go into effect. Financing will generally be confirmed and many of the key elements such as principal cast members, director and cinematographer are set. By the end of pre-production, the screenplay is usually finalized and satisfactory to all the financiers and other stakeholders.\n", "The standard release routine for a movie is regulated by a business model called \"release windows\". The release windows system was first conceived in the early 1980s, on the brink of the VHS home video market, as a strategy to keep different instances of a movie from competing with each other, allowing the movie to take advantage of different markets (cinema, home video, TV, etc.) at different times.\n\nIn the standard process, a movie is first released through movie theaters (theatrical window), then, after approximately 16 and one-half weeks,\n", "Scorsese brokered several distribution deals when he attended the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. In July 2014, Paramount Pictures acquired distribution rights for the United States and optimistically eyed a late 2015 release. Discussing the film in March 2016, Winkler revealed the film was in the editing process and that the film would release \"at the end of the year\", confirming a 2016 release date. In August 2016, Scorsese stated the film would be completed in October, and the 2016 release of the film depended on Paramount. Paramount Pictures released the first trailer for the film on November 22, 2016.\n", "Film distributors usually release a film with a launch party, a red-carpet premiere, press releases, interviews with the press, press preview screenings, and film festival screenings. Most films are also promoted with their own special website separate from those of the production company or distributor. For major films, key personnel are often contractually required to participate in promotional tours in which they appear at premieres and festivals, and sit for interviews with many TV, print, and online journalists. The largest productions may require more than one promotional tour, in order to rejuvenate audience demand at each release window.\n", "The release date for \"The Losers\" was changed on two occasions; it was originally delayed to June 2010—as it roughly coincided with the release of \"Clash of the Titans\" (2010)—ultimately reverting to an April release. This occurrence was partially attributed to investment purposes as well as to accommodate reshoots for the film—although reshoots were not needed for the film. \"So I think the marketing department decided, 'Let's maybe move to the June date,' but then the April date opened up again and they went back to it. I'm not quite sure how the science of these things work, that's not really my department and I trust the marketing at Warner Bros. to make the best decision for the movie.\"\n", "Section::::Front.\n\nThe very top lists the production company name, production title, director, producers, unit production managers, assistant directors, the total number of scheduled production days, and the current production day. Below this, the majority of the DPR combines information from several different forms on one page for easy reading:\n\nBULLET::::- The script notes from the script supervisor. This details what scenes and pages were completed or were failed to be completed that day, as well as the official lunch time.\n", "Section::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- January\n\nBULLET::::- February\n\nBULLET::::- March\n\nBULLET::::- May\n\nBULLET::::- June\n\nBULLET::::- July\n\nBULLET::::- September\n\nBULLET::::- October\n\nBULLET::::- November\n\nBULLET::::- December\n\nSection::::2010 films.\n\nThe tables list films that were released sometime in 2010:\n\nBULLET::::- W: Wide release (600 or more theaters)\n\nBULLET::::- L: Limited release in select cities (fewer than 600 theaters)\n\nBULLET::::- R: Re-release of previously released film\n\nBULLET::::- ‡: Films that achieved wide-release status after initial release\n\nSection::::2010 films.:Lists of films released in 2010.\n\nBULLET::::- American films\n\nBULLET::::- Argentine films\n\nBULLET::::- Australian films\n\nBULLET::::- Bollywood films\n\nBULLET::::- British films\n\nBULLET::::- Egyptian films\n\nBULLET::::- French films\n", "During pre-production, the script is broken down into individual scenes storyboards and all the locations, props, cast members, costumes, special effects and visual effects are identified. An extremely detailed \"schedule\" is produced and arrangements are made for the necessary elements to be available to the film-makers at the appropriate times. Sets are constructed, the crew is hired, financial arrangements are put in place and a start date for the beginning of principal photography is set. At some point in pre-production there will be a read-through of the script which is usually attended by all cast members with speaking parts, the director, all heads of departments, financiers, producers, and publicists.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sleepless in Seattle\" (1993)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Someone Like You\" (2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Untamed Heart\" (1993)\n\nBULLET::::- \"When Harry Met Sally\" (1989)\n\nBULLET::::- \"While You Were Sleeping\" (1995)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yolki\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yolki 2\" (2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yolki 3\" (2013)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yolki 1914\" (2014)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yolki 5\" (2016)\n\nSection::::Science fiction.\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1996)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Doctor Who\" (1996)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Snowpiercer\" (2013)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Strange Days\" (1995)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Time Machine\" (1960)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The End of Evangelion\" (1997)\n\nSection::::Thriller.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bitter Moon\" (1992)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Night Train to Paris\" (1964)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Survivor\" (2015)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Taboo\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Under Suspicion\" (2000)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- New Year's Eve\n", "In October 2009, the film was originally scheduled to be released in 2011, by March 2010, the Australian media company Village Roadshow was set to release the film in Australia in November 2010. It was released in the United States on November 19, 2010.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical response.\n", "Principal photography on the film began in May 2016 in Budapest, Hungary and lasted over the course of 27 nights. By September 2016, post production was near completion and a rough cut was screened at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival for potential international buyers.\n\nSection::::Production.:Distribution.\n\nHighland Film Group attended the 2017 Cannes Film Festival for selling distribution rights for the film. On 24 January 2018, RLJE Films acquired distribution rights in the United States. Initially, in September 2016, Icon Film Distribution acquired distribution rights for the United Kingdom and Ireland. However, in February 2018, Arrow Films overtook distribution rights.\n", "Paramount partnered with the American Pie Council (APC) in promoting the film, and the APC produced materials promoting both the film and National Pie Day (January 23, eight days before the film's general American release).\n\nSection::::Music.\n", "\"Due Date\" grossed $100.5 million in the U.S. and Canada and $111.2 million in other territories for a total of $211.8 million worldwide, against a production budget of $65 million.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Brittany Murphy as Alice Evans\n\nBULLET::::- Thora Birch as Lucy Woods\n\nBULLET::::- Tammy Blanchard as Rebecca\n\nBULLET::::- Marc Blucas as David Woods\n\nBULLET::::- Claudia Troll as David's Mother\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Piscitelli as Ben\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nStarting in June 2008, the independently-financed film began principal photography in Louisiana. It was the first English-language feature financed by KRU Studios, and was originally scheduled for a mid-2009 release. KRU handled post-production, visual effects and distribution in Asia.\n\nSection::::Release.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Many \"Heliconius\" butterflies also use their proboscis to feed on pollen; in these species only 20% of the amino acids used in reproduction come from larval feeding, which allow them to develop more quickly as caterpillars, and gives them a longer lifespan of several months as adults.\n", "When the larva is fully grown, hormones such as prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) are produced. At this point the larva stops feeding, and begins \"wandering\" in the quest for a suitable pupation site, often the underside of a leaf or other concealed location. There it spins a button of silk which it uses to fasten its body to the surface and moults for a final time. While some caterpillars spin a cocoon to protect the pupa, most species do not. The naked pupa, often known as a chrysalis, usually hangs head down from the cremaster, a spiny pad at the posterior end, but in some species a silken girdle may be spun to keep the pupa in a head-up position. Most of the tissues and cells of the larva are broken down inside the pupa, as the constituent material is rebuilt into the imago. The structure of the transforming insect is visible from the exterior, with the wings folded flat on the ventral surface and the two halves of the proboscis, with the antennae and the legs between them.\n", "As in many other insects, the lift generated by butterflies is more than can be accounted for by steady-state, non-transitory aerodynamics. Studies using \"Vanessa atalanta\" in a wind tunnel show that they use a wide variety of aerodynamic mechanisms to generate force. These include wake capture, vortices at the wing edge, rotational mechanisms and the Weis-Fogh 'clap-and-fling' mechanism. Butterflies are able to change from one mode to another rapidly.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Ecology.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Ecology.:Parasitoids, predators, and pathogens.\n", "Section::::Food resources.:Adults.\n\n\"J. evagoras\" adult females can increase both their fecundity and longevity by feeding on flowers with a higher concentration of sugar in their nectar. Higher sugar levels can increase a female butterfly’s lifespan from four to twenty-eight days and allow her to lay up to three times as many eggs. The presence of sugar and amino acids both stimulate females to feed more frequently, but amino acids do not affect fecundity or longevity.\n\nSection::::Parental care.\n\nSection::::Parental care.:Oviposition.\n", "After that one week, butterfly pushes the pupa from inside until it splits open and the butterfly can slowly emerge. Initially, it has soft, crumpled wings. After resting on the leaf for a short time, the painted lady carefully unfolds its wings to let them dry.\n\nThe painted lady's life span is about two weeks after it emerges from its chrysalis. During this time, a female painted lady finds a mate, reproduces and lays eggs to restart the life cycle.\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "The pupae of hesperiid have the same basic structure as the larvae—a head, three thoracic segments, and ten abdominal segments. The last abdominal segment is modified into the cremaster which is used to cement the pupa to the nest. Before an adult butterfly emerges from the pupa, the legs, wing, and antennae of the butterfly can be seen in the pupa; these are cemented to the body.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Adult.\n", "In Mumbai she works for a Fashion House. She stays with her friends Piya, who works as an accountant in the same Fashion House, and with Carol, who is an owner of a Spa.\n", "The life cycle of \"I. eumerus\" is dependent on a butterfly, the mountain Alcon blue (\"Phengaris rebeli\"), the larvae of which trick ants in the species \"Myrmica schencki\" into carrying the larvae into their nest and caring for them as if they were ant larvae. The adult female wasp seeks out a nest of these ants; it seems to be able to tell by smell whether there are larvae of the butterfly present in the nest and if there are, it attempts to enter. The ants attack the intruder, but the wasp produces a pheromone that causes the ants to become confused and attack each other. This gives the wasp the chance to search out the butterfly larvae and lay an egg in each one. Afterwards the ants continue to feed and look after the butterfly larvae which in due course pupate. The wasp eggs hatch and the wasp larvae feed on the butterfly larvae from the inside, eventually pupating inside the butterfly pupae.\n", "The abdomen consists of ten segments and contains the gut and genital organs. The front eight segments have spiracles and the terminal segment is modified for reproduction. The male has a pair of clasping organs attached to a ring structure, and during copulation, a tubular structure is extruded and inserted into the female's vagina. A spermatophore is deposited in the female, following which the sperm make their way to a seminal receptacle where they are stored for later use. In both sexes, the genitalia are adorned with various spines, teeth, scales and bristles, which act to prevent the butterfly from mating with an insect of another species. After it emerges from its pupal stage, a butterfly cannot fly until the wings are unfolded. A newly emerged butterfly needs to spend some time inflating its wings with hemolymph and letting them dry, during which time it is extremely vulnerable to predators.\n", "The English naturalist Thomas Belt observed how a \"Polistes carnifex\" wasp which had found a large caterpillar, chewed it up and made half of it into a macerated ball. Picking this up, it hovered for a few seconds and then circled several times round the place among the dense foliage where the other half of the caterpillar lay. It then flew off but returned a couple of minutes later and quickly located the correct hole among the leaves. Making its way in among the foliage, it could not at first find the exact leaf on which the caterpillar lay. After several fruitless hunts interspersed with short circling flights, it finally located the dismembered prey and flew off with its trophy. Belt marvelled that the insect could use a mental process so similar to that a human might have used to remember the specific location of its prey.\n", "Section::::Reproduction and life cycle.:Life cycle.:Pupa.\n\nThe pupae are dark yellow brown to red brown and are formed in the leaf litter, gravel, or rocks lying near the soil surface. The larvae do not spin a cocoon but rather gather some silk around them simply to attach themselves to the surroundings. When ready to emerge, newly developed butterflies have two tiny hooks to assist in emerging from where they were pupating.\n\nSection::::Reproduction and life cycle.:Life cycle.:Adult.\n", "Butterfly Storage\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Setting.\n\n\"Butterfly Storage\" is set in a futuristic reality in which the government's Death Bureau agency job is to collect, freeze and manage the souls of the deceased (which leave the human body in the form of a butterfly) before they disappear for good, 49 days after their host death. Using the butterflies, the family of the deceased can come in contact with their loved ones in the form of a 3D hologram.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Plot.\n", "Caterpillars are very fast eaters; they will spend their time eating or resting before they resume their eating again. Once a sufficient size has been attained, they will attach themselves to any available structure with their silky threads. They will then stay still until they become pupae. This will take about a day.\n", "Some larvae, especially those of the Lycaenidae, form mutual associations with ants. They communicate with the ants using vibrations that are transmitted through the substrate as well as using chemical signals. The ants provide some degree of protection to these larvae and they in turn gather honeydew secretions. Large blue (\"Phengaris arion\") caterpillars trick \"Myrmica\" ants into taking them back to the ant colony where they feed on the ant eggs and larvae in a parasitic relationship.\n", "Nearly all butterflies are diurnal, have relatively bright colours, and hold their wings vertically above their bodies when at rest, unlike the majority of moths which fly by night, are often cryptically coloured (well camouflaged), and either hold their wings flat (touching the surface on which the moth is standing) or fold them closely over their bodies. Some day-flying moths, such as the hummingbird hawk-moth, are exceptions to these rules.\n", "The thorax of the butterfly is devoted to locomotion. Each of the three thoracic segments has two legs (among nymphalids, the first pair is reduced and the insects walk on four legs). The second and third segments of the thorax bear the wings. The leading edges of the forewings have thick veins to strengthen them, and the hindwings are smaller and more rounded and have fewer stiffening veins. The forewings and hindwings are not hooked together (as they are in moths) but are coordinated by the friction of their overlapping parts. The front two segments have a pair of spiracles which are used in respiration.\n", "In some species, larvae are attended and protected by ants while feeding on the host plant, and the ants receive sugar-rich honeydew from them, throughout the larval life, and in some species during the pupal stage. In other species, only the first few instars are spent on the plant, and the remainder of the larval lifespan is spent as a predator within the ant nest. It becomes a parasite, feeding on ant regurgitations, or a predator on the ant larvae. The caterpillars pupate inside the ants' nest and the ants continue to look after the pupae. Just before the adults emerge, the wings of the butterfly inside the pupal case detach from it, and the pupa becomes silvery. The adult butterfly emerges from the pupa after three to four weeks, still inside the ant nest. The butterfly must crawl out of the ant nest before it can expand its wings.\n", "According to research from 2008, adult \"Manduca sexta\" is able to retain behavior learned as a caterpillar. Another caterpillar, the ornate moth caterpillar, is able to carry toxins that it acquires from its diet through metamorphosis and into adulthood, where the toxins still serve for protection against predators.\n\nMany observations have indicated that programmed cell death plays a considerable role during physiological processes of multicellular organisms, particularly during embryogenesis and metamorphosis.\n\nBelow are the sequence of the metamorphosis of the butterfly (illustrated)br\n\n1 – The larva of a butterfly br\n", "Worker ants in \"F. rufa\" have been observed to practice parental care or perform cocoon nursing. A worker ant goes through a sensitive phase, where it becomes accustomed to a chemical stimulus emitted by the cocoon. The sensitive phase occurs at an early and specific period. An experiment was conducted by Moli et al. to test how worker ants react to different types of cocoon: homospecific and heterospecific cocoons. If the worker ant is brought up in the absence of cocoons, it will show neither recognition nor nursing behaviour. Both types of cocoons are opened up by the workers and devoured for nutrients. When accustomed to only the homospecific cocoons, the workers collect both types of cocoons, but only place and protect the homospecific cocoons. The heterospecific cocoons are neglected and abandoned in the nest and eaten. Lastly, if heterospecific cocoons were injected with extract from the homospecific cocoons, the workers tend to both types of cocoons equally. This demonstrates that a chemical stimulus from the cocoons seems to be of paramount importance in prompting adoption behaviour in worker ants. However, the specific chemical / stimulus has not been identified.\n", "Caterpillars mature through a series of developmental stages known as instars. Near the end of each stage, the larva undergoes a process called apolysis, mediated by the release of a series of neurohormones. During this phase, the cuticle, a tough outer layer made of a mixture of chitin and specialized proteins, is released from the softer epidermis beneath, and the epidermis begins to form a new cuticle. At the end of each instar, the larva moults, the old cuticle splits and the new cuticle expands, rapidly hardening and developing pigment. Development of butterfly wing patterns begins by the last larval instar.\n", "Morphos have a very distinctive, slow, bouncy flight pattern due to the wing area being enormous relative to the body size.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.\n\nThe entire lifecycle of the morpho butterfly, from egg to death, is about 115 days.\n", "As the butterfly rests, it can sit in four different positions depending on the current situation. These positions include:\n\nBULLET::::- If the sun is shining, the butterfly will open and relax its wings\n\nBULLET::::- If danger approaches while in the sunlight the butterfly will open its wings further revealing eyespots on its hindwings\n\nBULLET::::- If the sun is not shining the butterfly will close its wings\n\nBULLET::::- If danger approaches while there is no sunlight the butterfly will raise its frontwings revealing hidden eyespots\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Caterpillars have short antennae and several simple eyes. The mouthparts are adapted for chewing with powerful mandibles and a pair of maxillae, each with a segmented palp. Adjoining these is the labium-hypopharynx which houses a tubular spinneret which is able to extrude silk. Caterpillars such as those in the genus \"Calpodes\" (family Hesperiidae) have a specialized tracheal system on the 8th segment that function as a primitive lung. Butterfly caterpillars have three pairs of true legs on the thoracic segments and up to six pairs of prolegs arising from the abdominal segments. These prolegs have rings of tiny hooks called crochets that are engaged hydrostatically and help the caterpillar grip the substrate. The epidermis bears tufts of setae, the position and number of which help in identifying the species. There is also decoration in the form of hairs, wart-like protuberances, horn-like protuberances and spines. Internally, most of the body cavity is taken up by the gut, but there may also be large silk glands, and special glands which secrete distasteful or toxic substances. The developing wings are present in later stage instars and the gonads start development in the egg stage.\n", "As in all insects, the body is divided into three sections: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The thorax is composed of three segments, each with a pair of legs. In most families of butterfly the antennae are clubbed, unlike those of moths which may be threadlike or feathery. The long proboscis can be coiled when not in use for sipping nectar from flowers.\n", "BULLET::::- Joel Shoemaker of \"School Library Journal\" described the main characters of \"The Patron Saint of Butterflies\" by writing that both girls \"occasionally seem wise beyond their years;\" however, he noted, \"readers will nevertheless cheer them on as they ponder the limits of faith and duty.\"\n" ]

[ "A butterfly must learn how to use its wings before flying out of the cocoon.", "A butterfly knows how to use all of its body parts and wings seconds after leaving the cocoon." ]

[ "A butterfly being about to fly is wired right into their nervous system like a human heart knows to beat.", "Instinct allows a butterfly to successfully use its body parts and wings after leaving the cocoon, not learned knowledge." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "A butterfly must learn how to use its wings before flying out of the cocoon.", "A butterfly knows how to use all of its body parts and wings seconds after leaving the cocoon." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "A butterfly being about to fly is wired right into their nervous system like a human heart knows to beat.", "Instinct allows a butterfly to successfully use its body parts and wings after leaving the cocoon, not learned knowledge." ]

[ "The original release of XACT was in 2002 and shipped as part of the Xbox SDK only and was originally called the \"Xbox Audio Creation Tool.\" It was designed to allow sound designers and composers for the original Xbox console to have access and control of the powerful MCPx audio chip in the console, which previously could only be accessed through program code, via Xbox extensions to DirectSound. XACT was the first widely available game audio tool that allowed a sound designer to run a tool connected to a running game and modify the sounds in real time, as the game was running, and support easy streaming of audio data from the console hard drive.\n", "SpectraLayers is an audio editor first developed by Divide Frame and published by Sony originally as SpectraLayers Pro in July 2012. \n\nSpectraLayers Pro 2, released in July 2013, improved speed and added features like Spectral Casting/Molding, markers and metadata support, and non-linear scales. \n\nSpectraLayers Pro 3, released in January 2015 further improved performance, also adding 24-bit/192kHz audio support, and redesigning many UI components. \n", "Other external products that use X-Fi name include USB-based Sound Blaster X-Fi HD, Sound Blaster X-Fi Surround 5.1 Pro, and Sound Blaster X-Fi Go! Pro, Their internal hardware components are different for various usages and needs for gaming, surround, or audiophile standards.\n\nSection::::X-Fi features.\n", "In February 2018 the VocalFusion Stereo Dev Kit for Amazon AVS was announced at Mobile World Congress 2018, and qualified by Amazon for the Alexa Voice Service.\n\nSection::::Digital audio.\n\nXMOS multicore microcontrollers are used extensively by multinational companies such as Audio Partnership, Cambridge Audio, FiiO Electronics Technology, Meridian Audio, Native Instruments, Oppo Digital, Sennheiser and Sony to implement USB Audio 2.0 interfaces in their products.\n\nIn December 2014, AVnu Alliance, the industry consortium driving open standards-based deterministic networking through certification, announced XMOS as the first available AVnu-certified Audio Video Bridging (AVB) and Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) audio endpoint reference platform.\n", "Each Cowon player is equipped with a set of software sound enhancement technologies collectively referred to as JetEffect. The latest version of JetEffect, JetEffect 5, was introduced with the release of the Cowon Z2 Plenue.\n\nJetEffect competes with products such as Sony's DSEE, Samsung's DNSe and the SRS technologies found in products by iriver and Samsung, as well as in products by HTC and HP, where they are branded as \"Beats Audio\".\n\nSection::::Products.:JetEffect.:Features.\n\nIn its latest iteration, JetEffect contains the following sound effects and enhancements:\n\nBULLET::::- Five-band equalizer\n\nBULLET::::- BBE+\n\nBULLET::::- BBE+\n\nBULLET::::- BBE Mach3Bass\n\nBULLET::::- BBE 3D Surround\n", "A project for an \"Acxel II\" was started in 2008 by a Quebec based company, Idarca-Audio Inc. The Acxel II was designed by Pierre Guilmette, and was an evolution of the original Acxel, with many new features, in particular additional signal processing and higher overall performance. Idarca-Audio was bankrupted in 2010, before they could ship any units, due to lack of funding.\n", "X-Fi MB is a software solution that enables basic X-Fi features on computers with integrated audio into an X-Fi device. It requires some degree of driver support from the audio hardware manufacturer. X-Fi MB is commonly bundled with motherboards and computer systems, and is comparable to an X-Fi XtremeAudio. Bundled with some Asus and ASRock motherboards, the X-Fi MB is sold as X-Fi Supreme FX and is actually a standard Analog Devices integrated HD audio codec paired with X-Fi MB. The X-Fi features are implemented entirely in the software. Other hardware vendors sell the X-Fi MB solution simply as Sound Blaster X-Fi Integrated Sound.\n", "In August 2006, Cowon released the iAUDIO T2. The T2 was a necklace type audio player. It featured a color screen, though it did not support video or photo viewing. Features included FM radio, voice recording and Cowon's traditional wide codec support: the T2 supported MP3, WMA, Ogg, and WAV audio files.\n\nFLAC was supported up to firmware 1.20, but not by later versions. Firmware 1.20 is no longer available for download from Cowon.\n\nSection::::Products.:iAUDIO F2.\n", "GameCODA\n\nGameCODA is an audio middleware product by Sensaura designed for game developers to create realistic sound environments in video games. It allows development for the following platforms: PC, Xbox/Xbox 360, Sony PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube. It uses several environmental audio technologies developed by Sensaura.\n\nSection::::CAGE Producer.\n", "BULLET::::- For the PCIe X-Fi cards, remote control support requires a USB receiver and is sold separately.\n\nBULLET::::- The Titanium HD lacks analog surround sound outputs.\n\nSection::::X-Fi line-up.:X-Fi Xtreme Audio.\n", "Neon was the first available VST Instrument (included with Cubase VST 3.7). It was a 16-voice, 2-oscillator virtual analog synthesizer. The VST interface specification was updated to version 2.4 in 2006. Changes included the ability to process audio with 64-bit precision.\n\nVST 3.0 came out in 2008. Changes included:\n\nBULLET::::- Audio Inputs for VST Instruments\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple MIDI inputs/outputs\n\nBULLET::::- Optional SKI (Steinberg Kernel Interface) integration\n", "BULLET::::- The I/O Drive Box is an internal 5 drive with analog and digital I/O audio jacks and volume control knobs. Also bundled with the remote control.\n\nBULLET::::- Cards with UAA support (CA0112, integrated in CA20K2 for Titanium cards) can perform basic functions with just the supplied Windows driver.\n\nBULLET::::- All Creative cards have 3x 1/8 inch jacks for analog headphone/speaker output (2 of them are 4-segment-jacks for a total of 7.1 sound output), some partner's cards such as AUDIOTRAK Prodigy 7.1e and Auzentech BRAVURA and Forte have separated headphone output.\n", "Inspired by the movie theater sound system Sensurround, EOR technology developer Larry Shultz, then Aura's VP of Audio and Video Technologies, fantasized about what it would be like if a person could \"feel\" the video game, and not just hear it. Shultz, along with Cipora Lavut and Jeff Bluen, led a dedicated team at Aura in inventing the Interactor.\n", "FFADO\n\nFree FireWire Audio Drivers (FFADO) is a project to provide open-source drivers for FireWire sound interfaces on Linux. The project began as FreeBoB, a driver specifically for FireWire audio devices based on technology made by BridgeCo, which use an interface named BeBoB The current version allows such devices to be accessed via the JACK Audio Connection Kit (JACK).\n", "By the time Mackie introduced the Baby HUI in August 2002, the protocol was also supported by DAWs including Digital Performer and Nuendo, making them cross-compatible with HUI-compatible hardware controllers. Other DAWs to support HUI protocol include Logic Pro, REAPER, and Cakewalk Sonar.\n\nSection::::History.:Mackie Control Universal (MCU).\n\nIn 2003, the Mackie Control Universal (MCU) protocol was introduced, combining together functionality from Mackie Control, Logic Control and HUI into a single protocol. DAWs which support MCU (in addition to those which support HUI) include Ableton Live, Studio One, Cubase, and Reason.\n", "ECMA-407\n\nECMA-407 is the world's first approved international 3D audio standard for the unrestricted delivery of channel-based, object-based and scene-based signals up to NHK 22.2 developed by Ecma TC32-TG22 in close cooperation with France Télévisions, Radio France, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne and McGill University in Montreal.\n", "Later, under the XNA initiative, it was re-written to work on both Windows and Xbox and renamed the \"Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool and included as part of the DirectX SDK.\n\nSupport for XACT has been carried over from DirectX to XNA. The \"XACT Audio Authoring Tool\" is also available in XNA Game Studio. With the release of Windows SDK for Windows 8 Developer Preview, XACT is no longer supported on Windows.\n", "TuxGuitar\n\nTuxGuitar is a free and open-source tablature editor, which includes features such as tablature editing, score editing, and import and export of Guitar Pro gp3, gp4, and gp5 files. In addition, TuxGuitar's tablature and staff interfaces function as basic MIDI editors.\n\nTuxGuitar's mascot and namesake is Tux, the penguin mascot of many games and programs originally designed for Linux.\n\nThe program is written in the Java programming language and is released under version 2.1 of the GNU Lesser General Public License.\n", "Asus released its first sound card, the Xonar DX, in February 2008. The Xonar DX was able to emulate the EAX 5.0 effects through the ASUS GX software while also supporting Open AL and DTS-connect. In July 2008 ASUS launched the Xonar D1, which offered largely similar features to the Xonar DX but connected to the motherboard through the PCI interface instead of the PCI-E x1 connection of the Xonar DX. ASUS then released the Xonar HDAV 1.3, which was the first solution enabling loss-less HD audio bit streaming to AV receivers.\n", "Section::::History.:X-Fi USB products.\n\nIn addition to PCI and PCIe internal sound cards, Creative also released an external USB-based solution (named X-Mod) in November 2006. X-Mod is listed in the same category as the rest of the X-Fi lineup, but is only a stereo device, marketed to improve music playing from laptop computers, and with lower specifications than the internal offerings.\n", "BULLET::::- Alligator: A triple filtered gate, sometimes known as a \"trance gate\". Alligator splits an incoming signal into three signals, which are then gated and filtered using lowpass, bandpass and highpass filters on each respective channel. Alligator also is capable of adding delay, distortion, phasing and stereo panning effects to each channel, and each of the filters can be modulated with a filter envelope embedded in the unit.\n\nBULLET::::- Pulveriser: A multi-purpose piece of virtual hardware that combines compression, distortion, filters, tremolo, parallel signal processing and an envelope follower.\n", "BULLET::::- Roku SoundBridge: a network audio player, supports playback of AAC encoded files\n\nBULLET::::- Squeezebox: network audio player (made by Slim Devices, a Logitech company) that supports playback of AAC files\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation 3: supports encoding and decoding of AAC files\n\nBULLET::::- Xbox 360: supports streaming of AAC through the Zune software, and of supported iPods connected through the USB port\n", "Sound Blaster X-Fi\n\nSound Blaster X-Fi is a lineup of sound cards in Creative Technology's Sound Blaster series.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe series was launched in August 2005 as a lineup of PCI sound cards, which served as the introduction for their X-Fi audio processing chip, with models ranging from \"XtremeMusic\" (lower end), to \"Platinum\", \"Fatal1ty FPS\", and \"Elite Pro\" (top of the range).\n", "The first beta version of the HAVi standard version 1.0 was published in December 1998 while the final 1.0 version was released in December 1999. The current version of the specification is 1.1 (HAVi, Inc., 2001b) and it was published in May 15, 2001.\n\nSection::::Content protection.\n", "EAX is a library of extensions to Microsoft's DirectSound3D, itself an extension to DirectSound introduced with DirectX 3 in 1996 with the intention to standardize 3D audio for Microsoft Windows, adding environmental audio presets to DS3D's audio positioning. Ergo, the aim of EAX has nothing to do with 3D audio positioning, this is usually done by a sound library like DirectSound3D or OpenAL. Rather, EAX can be seen as a library of sound effects written and compiled to be executed on a DSP instead of the CPU, often called \"hardware-accelerated\".\n" ]

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[ "Some of the most varied colors at sunset can be found in the opposite or eastern sky after the Sun has set during twilight. Depending on weather conditions and the types of clouds present, these colors have a wide spectrum, and can produce unusual results.\n\nSection::::Names of compass points.\n", "Section::::Day lighting.\n\nAs the Sun crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow or white depending on its position. The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.\n", "Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persist continuously for 24 hours.\n\nSection::::Colors.\n\nAs a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere to an observer, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles, changing the final color of the beam the viewer sees.\n\nBecause the shorter wavelength components, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, these colors are preferentially removed from the beam.\n", "Locations further north than the Arctic Circle and further south than the Antarctic Circle experience no full sunset or sunrise on at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persists continuously for 24 hours.\n\nSunset creates unique atmospheric conditions such as the often intense orange and red colors of the Sun and the surrounding sky.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "The greater the distance in the atmosphere through which the sunlight travels, the greater this effect, which is why the sun looks orange or red at dawn and sundown when the sunlight is travelling very obliquely through the atmosphere — progressively more of the blues and greens are removed from the direct rays, giving an orange or red appearance to the sun; and the sky appears pink — because the blues and greens are scattered over such long paths that they are highly attenuated before arriving at the observer, resulting in characteristic pink skies at dawn and sunset.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "Likewise, the same phenomenon exists in the Southern Hemisphere, but with the respective dates reversed, with the earliest sunsets occurring some time before June 21 in winter, and latest sunsets occurring some time after December 21 in summer, again depending on one's southern latitude. For a few weeks surrounding both solstices, both sunrise and sunset get slightly later each day. Even on the equator, sunrise and sunset shift several minutes back and forth through the year, along with solar noon. These effects are plotted by an analemma.\n", "The time of sunset varies throughout the year, and is determined by the viewer's position on Earth, specified by longitude and latitude, and elevation. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer's latitude (connected with the Earth's slower movement around the aphelion around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth's faster movement near its perihelion, which occurs around January 3).\n", "As solar energy strikes the Earth's surface each morning, a shallow layer of air directly above the ground is heated by conduction. Heat exchange between this shallow layer of warm air and the cooler air above is very inefficient. On a warm summer's day, for example, air temperatures may vary by from just above the ground to waist height. Incoming solar radiation exceeds outgoing heat energy for many hours after noon and equilibrium is usually reached from 3–5 p.m. but this may be affected by a variety of different things such as large bodies of water, soil type and cover, wind, cloud cover/water vapor, and moisture on the ground.\n", "After the sun has also set for these altitudes at the end of nautical twilight, the intensity of light emanating from earlier mentioned lines decreases, until the oxygen-green remains as the dominant source.\n\nWhen astronomical darkness has set in, the green 557.7 nm oxygen line is dominant, and atmospheric scattering of starlight occurs.\n\nDifferential refraction causes different parts of the spectrum to dominate, producing a golden hour and a blue hour.\n\nSection::::Relative contributions.\n", "Sunset is distinct from twilight, which is divided into three stages, the first being \"civil\" twilight, which begins once the Sun has disappeared below the horizon, and continues until it descends to 6 degrees below the horizon; the second phase is \"nautical\" twilight, between 6 and 12 degrees below the horizon; and the third is \"astronomical\" twilight, which is the period when the Sun is between 12 and 18 degrees below the horizon. \"Dusk\" is at the very end of astronomical twilight, and is the darkest moment of twilight just before night. Night occurs when the Sun reaches 18 degrees below the horizon and no longer illuminates the sky.\n", "On Mars, the setting Sun appears about two-thirds the size it appears on Earth because of its greater distance from the Sun, but some Martian sunsets last significantly longer and appear far redder than is typical on Earth.\n", "Section::::Historical view.\n\nThe 16th-century astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to present to the world a detailed and eventually widely accepted mathematical model supporting the premise that the Earth is moving and the Sun actually stays still, despite the impression from our point of view of a moving Sun.\n\nSection::::Planets.\n\nSunsets on other planets appear different because of differences in the distance of the planet from the Sun and non-existent or differing atmospheric compositions.\n\nSection::::Planets.:Mars.\n", "I use color in my painting in different ways. Neutral colors and brilliant colors will create different moods. You can take the same motif, the same subject, at different times of the day or different times of the year. Some days it will appear to be very contrasty and brilliant, and the colors will be bright. Another day fog will roll over the scene or it will be early morning or later in the afternoon or evening. Then everything will meld together and you will not have this powerful effect of contrast, and a different, softer mood will prevail.”\n", "None of these points is exactly at one of the ends of the analemma, where the Sun is at a solstice. As seen from northern middle latitudes, as the diagram shows, the earliest sunset occurs some time before the December solstice – typically a week or two before it – and the latest sunrise happens a week or two after the solstice. Thus, the darkest evening occurs in early to mid-December, but the mornings keep getting darker until about the New Year.\n", "Sunrise occurs at around 7:29am on December 21 and 5:19am on June 21. Sunset occurs at around 5:25pm on December 21 and 7:41pm on June 21 (all UTC-7).\n\nSection::::Geography.:Cityscape.\n\nSection::::Geography.:Cityscape.:Neighborhoods.\n", "Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air. Sometimes just before sunrise or after sunset a green flash can be seen.\n", "Sunset (color)\n\nThe color \"sunset\" is a pale tint of orange. It is a representation of the average color of clouds when the sunlight from a sunset is reflected from them.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"sunset\" as a color name in English was in 1916.\n\nSection::::Variations of sunset.\n\nSection::::Variations of sunset.:Sunglow.\n\nThe color sunglow is displayed at right.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"sunglow\" as a color name in English was in 1924. The Crayola crayon color was formulated in 1990.\n\nSection::::Variations of sunset.:Sunray.\n\nAt right is displayed the color sunray.\n", "The sky's brightness varies greatly over the day, and the primary cause differs as well. During daytime, when the Sun is above the horizon, the direct scattering of sunlight is the overwhelmingly dominant source of light. During twilight (the duration after sunset or before sunrise until or since, respectively, the full darkness of night), the situation is more complicated, and a further differentiation is required.\n", "The colors of the Martian sunset differ from those on Earth. Mars has a thin atmosphere, lacking oxygen and nitrogen, so the light scattering is not dominated by a Rayleigh Scattering process. Instead, the air is full of red dust, blown into the atmosphere by high winds, so its sky color is mainly determined by a Mie Scattering process. One study also reported that Martian dust high in the atmosphere can reflect sunlight up to two hours after the Sun has set, casting a diffuse glow across the surface of Mars.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Afterglow\n\nBULLET::::- Analemma\n", "BULLET::::- 1868 — Pierre Janssen and Norman Lockyer discover an unidentified yellow line in solar prominence spectra and suggest it comes from a new element which they name \"helium\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1893 — Edward Maunder discovers the 1645-1715 Maunder sunspot minimum\n\nSection::::20th century.\n\nBULLET::::- 1904 — Edward Maunder plots the first sunspot \"butterfly diagram\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1906 — Karl Schwarzschild explains solar limb darkening\n\nBULLET::::- 1908 — George Hale discovers the Zeeman splitting of spectral lines from sunspots\n\nBULLET::::- 1925 — Cecilia Payne proposes hydrogen is the dominant element of the Sun, not iron\n", "Neglecting atmospheric refraction and the Sun's non-zero size, whenever and wherever sunset occurs, it is always in the northwest quadrant from the March equinox to the September equinox, and in the southwest quadrant from the September equinox to the March equinox. Sunsets occur almost exactly due west on the equinoxes for all viewers on Earth. Exact calculations of the azimuths of sunset on other dates are complex, but they can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by using the analemma.\n", "In the region within either polar circle, the variation in daylight hours is so extreme that part of summer sees a period without night intervening between consecutive days, while part of winter sees a period without daytime intervening between consecutive nights.\n\nSection::::On other celestial bodies.\n", "Natural daylight has a high color temperature (approximately 5000-5800 K). Visible light color varies according to the weather and the angle of the Sun, and specific quantities of light (measured in lumens) stimulate photosynthesis. The axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around the sun. During half of the year the north pole is tilted towards sun so the northern hemisphere gets nearly direct sunlight and the southern hemisphere gets oblique sunlight that must travel through more atmosphere before it reaches the Earth's surface. In the other half of the year, this is reversed. Although the color spectrum of visible light that the sun emits does not change, the quantity (more during the summer and less in winter) and quality of light reaching the Earth's surface do. Some supplemental LED grow lights in vertical greenhouses produce a combination of only red and blue wavelengths. The color rendering index facilitates comparison of how closely the light matches the natural color of regular sunlight.\n", "Plants that open their flowers during the daytime are described as diurnal, while those that bloom during nighttime are nocturnal. The timing of flower opening is often related to the time at which preferred pollinators are foraging. For example, sunflowers open during the day to attract bees, whereas the night-blooming cereus opens at night to attract large sphinx moths.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n", "Generating accurate true-color images from Mars's surface is surprisingly complicated. To give but one aspect to consider, there is the Purkinje effect: the human eye's response to color depends on the level of ambient light; red objects appear to darken faster than blue objects as the level of illumination goes down. There is much variation in the color of the sky as reproduced in published images, since many of those images have used filters to maximize their scientific value and are not trying to show true color. For many years, the sky on Mars was thought to be more pinkish than it is now believed to be.\n" ]

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[ "Also, a continuation of the movie \"Highway 35\" called \"Hot Wheels AcceleRacers\" was created, taking place two years after the events of \"Highway 35\". It is featured in four movies and many short segments where the drivers (old ones, gangs, like Teku, Metal Maniacs, the evil Racing Drones, and the stealthy Silencerz). All of the shorts and previews of the movies were placed on a temporary website that was deleted shortly after the last movie.\n\nSection::::History.:2007 and 2008.\n", "The stunt was also used by the character Bumblebee in the 2007 \"Transformers\" film, in a scene just before the robot changes the exterior disguise from the 1976 Chevrolet Camaro to the 2009 Camaro. In the movie, Bumblebee's retro look is insulted by Mikaela Banes, and Bumblebee stops to eject her and Sam Witwicky from the car. Bumblebee then drives off and skis on two wheels past a 2009 Camaro that drives by and scans it. Bumblebee then returns moments later to Sam and Mikaela, surprising the two, as the newer version of the car.\n", "BULLET::::- Original air date: March 24, 2010\n\nThis episode was Jessi Combs's final appearance as a member of the Build Team.\n\nSection::::Episode 139 – \"Dive to Survive\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: March 31, 2010\n\nKari Byron returns to the series as of this episode.\n\nSection::::Episode 140 – \"Spy Car Escape\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: April 7, 2010\n\nSection::::Episode 140 – \"Spy Car Escape\".:Spy Car Escape.\n\nBased on countless car chase scenes from spy movies, the MythBusters try to test whether a pursuing car can be stopped or eluded using...\n", "This task force used a modified 1994 Flame Red Dodge Viper RT/10 Roadster sports car that could, at the flip of a secret switch, transform from a muscle car into an armored machine known as \"Defender\". The \"Defender\" was an invention of technological specialist Julian Wilkes (played by Dorian Harewood), who was paralyzed during a shootout between police and criminals. The project was delayed by numerous setbacks, mainly because regular drivers were unable to handle this deadly machine. A precision driver was needed for this car.\n", "For the film's chase sequences, the filmmakers decided against the use of computer-generated imagery, instead employing practical effects, which required the cast to receive extensive driving lessons. All of the exotic cars seen in the film (with the exception of the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren 722 roadster) were kit car replicas.\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Section::::Hollywood Stunt Driver (2008–2013).:Plot.:Introduction.\n", "The second revision will be run by Showtime FMX and feature motorcycle and car stunts.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In \"Model Spy,\" an SPV is requisitioned by Captain Blue (as Adam Swenson) to hunt down Captain Black and his hostage Henri Verdain. Captain Scarlet (as Paul Metcalfe) is picked up by Captain Blue and both force Black into a tunnel, where he is compelled to dispose of Verdain before making good his escape with his Mysteron powers. The SPV was stored in a hidden garage adjacent to a casino.\n", "Section::::Hollywood Stunt Driver (2008–2013).:Plot.:Finale.\n", "As the WB era rolled on, finding the cars became difficult: Piper Cubs were hired to perform aerial searches for 1968 and 1969 Chargers amongst the populace; the jumped cars were now no longer scrapped after one jump if deemed salvageable, and were repaired and used until they could no longer function; and, as last resort, miniature radio-controlled models were also brought in toward the end of the series to replace most of the big jump stunts, thereby saving more cars—something that proved unpopular with many episode directors (including Tom Wopat) who felt that the models did not look realistic. By this time, there was also a rivalry for \"TV's greatest car\" with the \"Knight Rider\" series, leading to the models being used more and more for greater jumps to try to out-do that series. Taking full control also saved some money, as now WB had the ability to buy cars, recondition them, and use them without paying daily rental fees.\n", "Section::::Hollywood Stunt Driver (2008–2013).:Plot.:Scene 2.\n", "Section::::Hollywood Stunt Driver (2008–2013).:Plot.:Scene 1.\n", "While the Pursuit Special did not appear in \"Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome\", the vehicle returned for the fourth film in the franchise, \"\". Miller stated, \"all the vehicles are kind of hybrid, cobbled together, from the wrecks of the past.\" The vehicle only features briefly in the film; it is captured along with Max in the opening sequence, and is shown being repaired by a group of Immortan Joe's followers. It returns in the final battle, driven by one of the War Boys, only to be crushed between two larger vehicles. When asked in an interview with \"The Hollywood Reporter\" if \"Fury Road\" is a reboot or sequel, George Miller implied that it may not be, saying that \"the films are loosely connected.\" However, the to the film, for which Miller received a story credit, places it after \"Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome\".\n", "The carjacking issue in South Africa was depicted in the film \"Tsotsi\", which won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 2005. \n\nIn the late 1990s and early 2000s, several new, unconventional anti-carjacking systems designed to harm the attacker were developed and marketed in South Africa, where carjacking had become endemic. Among these was the now defunct Blaster, a small flame-thrower that could be mounted to the underside of a vehicle.\n\nSection::::Incidents by country.:United States.\n\nSection::::Incidents by country.:United States.:Federal Anti-Car Theft Act of 1992.\n", "Section::::Similar stunt shows.\n", "In the pilot episode, \"The Mysterons,\" Captain Blue requisitions an SPV from a gas station, where it is hidden inside a fake truck. The station attendant comments that it must be a challenge to drive backwards. Captain Blue's evident expertise in driving SPVs is revealed in this episode; by contrast, Captain Scarlet himself is only moderately skilled at handling SPVs, as he tends to crash them in several episodes.\n", "\"Cars 2\" is the twelfth film from Pixar. The story is about Lightning McQueen competing in the first World Grand Prix, a three-part race set in Japan, Italy and England that will determine the world's fastest racecar. His rival in the race is Italian Formula One car, Francesco Bernoulli (John Turturro). Along the way, Mater is mistaken for a spy by British spycar, Finn McMissile (Michael Caine) and falls in love with McMissile's assistant Holley Shiftwell (Emily Mortimer).\n", "The Pursuit Special returns in \"Mad Max: Fury Road\". (The movie never explains its reappearance; however, the \"Fury Road\" comic series (set just before the movie) includes a story arc where Max gathers parts to rebuild the vehicle before the events of \"Fury Road\".) The car is shown very briefly in the movie, having been driven by Max before it is destroyed by Immortan Joe's men. It is then repaired by Joe's War Boys, taken back to bare metal, giving it a silver appearance. It is then redubbed the 'Razor Cola' and used as one of their vehicles. It is destroyed by being crushed between two larger trucks.\n", "In \"Mad Max 2\", set roughly five years after the events of the previous film, the Pursuit Special has suffered from the effects of the desert: it loses the front end early in the first chase sequence of the film (as Max forcefully rear-ends a raider vehicle), the car is rusty, and the tires appear to be in a poor state. The car itself has been modified, presumably by Max: the rear window and the boot lid have been removed to make room for two huge fuel tanks. (With a capacity of over of petrol, these would have significantly improved the vehicle's endurance.) The car only appears at the beginning of the movie, where Max escapes a group of raiders, then rescues a mortally wounded member of an oil rig settlement; and then again later, when it is destroyed during Max's failed attempt to escape the settlement.\n", "Inspired by a scene in the film \"Date Night\", in which a taxicab and sports sedan stuck together by their front bumpers perform a series of maneuvers in city streets. The Build Team obtained two cars similar to those used in the scene, tore off their front bumpers, and built a hitch to hold them together nose-to-nose. Driving at , with Tory in the cab and Grant and Kari in the sedan, they tested the cars' ability to...\n\nSection::::Episode 182 – \"Swinging Pirates\".\n\nBULLET::::- Original air date: April 15, 2012\n\nSection::::Episode 182 – \"Swinging Pirates\".:Pirate Swing.\n", "Hal Needham, a stunt car driver, performed the very first car stunt using a black powder cannon charge to help flip the car without ramps in this film. The climactic car chase seen on the beach, near the end of the movie, was first practiced on the back lots of LA, and on the second practice run, the car was unknowingly overcharged, and Needham was nearly killed. Gary McLarty performed the stunt for the film.\n\nWhile filming the beach scenes in 1973, the crew stayed at the Polynesian Hotel (The \"Poly\") in Ocean Shores.\n\nSection::::Novelization.\n", "In March 2007, Eddie Griffin participated in a charity race at Irwindale Speedway to promote the film, using an Enzo owned by Sadek. During a practice run, Griffin lost control of the Enzo and crashed into a concrete barrier. He walked away unharmed, but the US$1.5 million supercar was badly damaged. Griffin went on to lash at reporters who claimed the crash was a publicity stunt.\n\nSection::::Box office and reception.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n\nDummyland is a fictional world inhabited only by living crash dummies. Many make a living testing cars, just like the real ones.\n", "The device was controversial in South Africa, with some (including the Automobile Association of South Africa [AA]) speculating that the device might cause more carjackers to simply murder drivers with gunfire as a precautionary measure before approaching the vehicle, a tactic which was already fairly common.\n", "Hot-wiring\n\nHot-wiring is the process of bypassing a motor vehicle's ignition interlock and thus starting it without the key. It is often utilized during a vehicle theft. However, a legitimate vehicle owner who has lost their vehicle key may also implement this process.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n" ]

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[ "It has been suggested that energy intake also increases during conditions of extreme or prolonged cold temperatures. Relatedly, researchers have posited that reduced variability of ambient temperature indoors could be a mechanism driving obesity, as the percentage of US homes with air conditioning increased from 23 to 47 percent in recent decades. In addition, several human and animal studies have shown that temperatures above the thermoneutral zone significantly reduce food intake. However, overall there are few studies indicating altered energy intake in response to extreme ambient temperatures and the evidence is primarily anecdotal.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Lighting.\n", "Low-temperature cooking has been used for a long time; evidence of its use can be found in indigenous cultures. Samoans and Tongans slow-cook meat in large pits for celebrations and ceremonies. However, the technique was not scientifically examined until the 18th century, when Benjamin Thompson \"described how he had left a joint of meat in a drying oven overnight and was amazed when, the next morning, he found that the meat was tender and fully cooked.\" Professor Nicholas Kurti from the University of Oxford repeated these experiments in 1969, and showed that the temperature of Thompson's trial never exceeded 70 degrees Celsius.\n", "Decision-making is an important component of self-care that is affected by food deserts. People employ both rational and naturalistic decision-making processes on a routine basis. Naturalistic decisions occur in situations where time is limited, stakes are high, needed information is missing, the situation is ambiguous and the decision-maker is uncertain. Rational decisions are more likely when people have time to weigh options and consider the consequences.\n", "Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Starchiness.\n", "Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atwater system\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical energy\n\nBULLET::::- Food chain\n\nBULLET::::- Food composition\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by food energy intake\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition facts label\n\nBULLET::::- Table of food nutrients\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Energy expenditure increases when ambient temperature is above or below the thermal neutral zone (the range of ambient temperature in which energy expenditure is not required for homeothermy). \n", "Humans living on cooked diets spend only a fraction of their day chewing compared to other extant primates living on raw diets. American girls and boys spent on average 8 and 7 percent of their day chewing respectively, compared to chimpanzees who spend more than 6 hours a day chewing. This frees up time which can be used for hunting. A raw diet means hunting is constrained since time spent hunting is time not spent eating and chewing plant material, but cooking reduces the time required to get the day's energy requirements, allowing for more subsistence activities. Digestibility of cooked carbohydrates is approximately on average 30% higher than digestibility of non cooked carbohydrates. This increased energy intake, more free time and savings made on tissue used in the digestive system allowed for the selection of genes for larger brain size.\n", "In Sweden, lunch is usually a full hot meal, much as in Finland.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Feeding.\n", "Climate change plays an important role in urban food deserts because it directly affects accessibility. The main way that climate change affects food security and food deserts is that it reduces the production of food.With limited availability of a product the prices rise making it unavailable to those that cannot the rising prices. In Cape Town specifically supermarkets rely directly on fresh produce from the nearby farm area. Not only does climate change affect the production of food, but it can also damage capital assets that affect accessibility and utilization . Specifically in Cape Town the access to food deserts does not change the severity of food deserts. With limited diversity in their diets those that live in Cape Town are highly dependent on foods of low nutritional value and high calorific value. Utilizing the European or American definition of food deserts does not take into account the dynamic market of other cultures and countries.\n", "Outdoor cooking\n\nOutdoor cooking differs substantially from kitchen-based cooking, the most obvious difference being lack of an easily defined kitchen area. As a result, campers and backpackers have developed a significant body of techniques and specialized equipment for preparing food in outdoors environments. Such techniques have traditionally been associated with nomadic cultures such as the Berbers of North Africa, the Arab Beduins, the Plains Indians and pioneers of North America, and have been carried down to and refined in modern times for use during recreational outdoors pursuits.\n", "In a series of studies by Mori, Chaiken and Pliner, individuals were given an opportunity to snack while getting acquainted with a stranger. In the first study, both males and females tended to eat less while in the presence of an opposite-sex eating companion, and for females this effect was most pronounced when the companion was most desirable. It also seems that women may consume less in order to exude a feminine identity; in a second study, women who were made to believe that a male companion viewed them as masculine ate less than women who believed they were perceived as feminine.\n", "Thermoregulation in humans\n\nAs in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n", "Section::::Implications for self care.:Transportation and geography.\n\nPeople tend to make food choices based on what is available in their neighborhood. In food deserts there is often a high density of fast-food restaurants and corner stores that offer prepared foods.\n\nIn rural areas, food security is a major issue. Food security can imply either a complete lack of food, which contributes to undernourishment, or a lack of nutritious food, which contributes to over-nourishment.\n", "Section::::Australia.:Effects.\n", "Some wildlife, especially possums, currawongs and quolls have become to associate humans with food and are quite adept at stealing from tents, huts and packs. Although the vast majority of people are against feeding wildlife, during a Tasmanian study 7.4% of people eating lunch in national parks were observed to feed animals in addition to currawongs scavenging food after they left. It's recommended that bushwalkers suspend food from the roof within huts, and store food in rigid containers inside tents as eating human food has caused lumpy jaw in wildlife.\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "The next step would be to make some use of residual hot spots that occur in the wake of wildfires. For example, foods found in the wake of wildfires tend to be either burned or undercooked. This might have provided incentives to place undercooked foods on a hotspot or to pull food out of the fire if it was in danger of getting burned. This would require familiarity with fire and its behavior.\n", "One example is the Chaamba Arabs, who live in the Sahara Desert. They wear clothing that traps air in between skin and the clothes, preventing the high ambient air temperature from reaching the skin.\n\nSection::::Genetic adaptations.\n\nThere has been very little research done in the genetics behind adaptations to heat and cold stress. Data suggests that certain parts of the human genome have only been selected for recently. Research on gene-culture interaction has been successful in linking agriculture and lactose tolerance. However, most evidence of links between culture and selection has not been proven.\n", "Section::::Europe.\n\n\"European (non-UK) food access research also frequently highlights the problem of poverty in relation to accessing a healthy diet.\" French researches have noted that lower income consumers have a tendency to reach for more affordable items such as high caloric foods, (i.e. cereals, sweets, and added fats) instead of nutrient rich single source foods.\n\nSection::::Europe.:United Kingdom.\n", "A 2000 survey conducted on rural Eastern Cape, rural Western Cape and urban Cape Town assessed food insecurity to be 83, 69, and 81 percent, respectively. This survey took into account other urban African factors than distribution of market retailers such as supermarkets to include the tendency of residents to utilize formal food sources over informal like agriculture and local markets.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nSection::::Australia.:Socioeconomic Disparities.\n", "The origins of culinary began with primitive humans roughly 2 million years ago. There are various theories as to how early humans used fire to cook meat. According to anthropologist Richard Wrangham, author of \"Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human\", primitive humans simply tossed a raw hunk of meat into the flames and watching it sizzle. Another theory claims humans may first have savored roasted meat by chance when the flesh of a beast killed in a forest fire was found to be more appetizing and easier to chew and digest than the conventional raw meat.\n", "Studies have been conducted on the concept of delay of gratification to test whether or not people are capable of waiting to receive a reward in order to increase the value of the reward. In these experiments, participants can choose to either take the reward they are immediately presented with or can choose to wait a period of time to then receive a higher valued reward. Hot cognition would motivate people to immediately satisfy their craving for the present reward rather than waiting for a better reward.\n\nSection::::Assessment.:Hot function tasks.:Neutral versus negative syllogisms tasks.\n", "A 2012 lunchbox survey found almost 80 per cent of adults take a packed lunch to work, yet many fail to make sure it’s kept cool. About 17 per cent admitted they made no effort to put their lunch in a fridge at work, and 29 per cent don’t put them in coolers even if they’re working outside.\n\nSection::::Research topics and education.:Food safety risks.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.\n\nWhen humans are exposed to certain climates for extended periods of time, physiological changes occur to help the individual adapt to hot or cold climates. This helps the body conserve energy.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Cold.\n", "Observations from Sgt. H. B. Potter (Zululand, South Africa) show that this kind of development is still up to date as it is mentioned in \"The predatory transition from ape to man\" by Raymond Dart. He describes a pride of baboons that hunts antelopes. Indeed, he admits that this depends on seasonal circumstances, because nutrition was rare. Nevertheless, he proves explicit behavior.\n\nSection::::The predatory transition from ape to human.:The eating habits.\n" ]

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[ "In terms of specific ages, Steven Pinker and colleagues conducted a large-scale internet study aimed at measuring individual’s age, English proficiency, and amount of time spent practicing English. The findings suggest that the ability to learn a new language with fluency declines after age 18 and must begin by age 10. There are three main factors why our ability to acquire a new language declines after the age of 18. First, significant social changes usually occur at the age of 18. For example, during this period of time individuals may be heading off to college or entering the workforce. As a result, less time is dedicated towards learning a new language. Secondly, an individual’s primary language may impede the development of a newer language. The grammatical rules of our first language become more readily available in our minds as we are exposed to our first language in larger quantities. Lastly, our brains are still developing. In this case, learning becomes more difficult because the brain is undergoing significant changes during our late teenage years and early-20s.\n", "Learning a foreign language during adulthood means one is pursuing a higher value of himself by obtaining a new skill. At this stage, individuals have already developed study habit so that they own sufficient self-restrict ability to supervise themselves learning a language. However, at the same time, the life pressure is also a obstacle for adults.\n\nSection::::By Different Life Stage.:Elderly Education.\n\nCompared to other life stage, this period is the hardest one to learning a new language because of the gradually brain deterioration and memory-loss. Meanwhile, language education for seniors can slow down the degeneration of brain and active ageing.\n", "It is often assumed that young children learn languages more easily than adolescents and adults. However, the reverse is true; older learners are faster. The only exception to this rule is in pronunciation. Young children invariably learn to speak their second language with native-like pronunciation, whereas learners who start learning a language at an older age only rarely reach a native-like level.\n\nSection::::Second-language acquisition.:Intelligent people are better at learning languages.\n\nGeneral intelligence is actually quite a poor indicator of language-learning ability. Motivation, tolerance for ambiguity, and self-esteem are all better indicators of language-learning success.\n", "Section::::Factors.:Age of arrival.\n", "BULLET::::- Claim: \"The modern language is going downhill\". Purists opine that changes in the spoken language (e.g. new words, innovations in grammar, new pronunciation patterns) are generally regarded as being detrimental rather than just change.\n\nBULLET::::- In fact, living languages are not static. Their evolution is not just a modern phenomenon.\n\nOther beliefs may include:\n", "One explanation for this difference in proficiency between older learners and younger learners involves Universal Grammar. Universal Grammar is a debated theory that suggests that people have innate knowledge of universal linguistic principles that is present from birth. These principles guide children as they learn a language, but its parameters vary from language to language. The theory assumes that, while Universal Grammar remains into adulthood, the ability to reset the parameters set for each language is lost, making it more difficult to learn a new language proficiently. Since older learners would already have an established native language, the language acquisition process is much different for them, than young learners. The rules and principles that guide the use of the learners' native language plays a role in the way the second language is developed.\n", "Section::::Factors.:Frequency of use.\n\nFrequency of use has been shown to be an important factor in language attrition. Decline in use of a given language leads to gradual loss of that language.\n", "All available evidence on the age effect for L1 attrition therefore indicates that the development of susceptibility displays a curved, not a linear, function. This suggests that in native language learning there is indeed a Critical Period effect, and that full development of native language capacities necessitates exposure to L1 input for the entire duration of this CP.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Age effect.:L2 attrition.\n", "There is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the \"good language learner studies\" in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.\n", "Section::::Attrition.\n\nAttrition is the loss of proficiency in a language caused by a lack of exposure to or use of a language. It is a natural part of the language experience as it exists within a dynamic environment. As the environment changes, the language adapts. One way it does this is by using L1 as a tool to navigate the periods of change associated with acquisition and attrition. A learner's L2 is not suddenly lost with disuse, but its communicative functions are slowly replaced by those of the L1.\n", "So although it is often assumed that young children learn languages more easily than adolescents and adults, the reverse is in fact true; older learners are faster. The only exception to this rule is in pronunciation. Young children invariably learn to speak their second language with native-like pronunciation, whereas learners who start learning a language at an older age only rarely reach a native-like level.\n\nSection::::Language use.:Fluency in second-language acquisition.:Second-language acquisition in children.\n", "This does not mean it is impossible to learn another language once a person is past the critical period. Though vocabulary learning does not seem to be as sensitive to age, mastery of grammar and pronunciation of a language is not likely to be on par with the standard of a native speaker’s if it is learnt past the critical period. \n", "A German researcher, Schöpper-Grabe, once expressed that, \"Almost everybody who has learned a foreign language shares the experience of forgetting the acquired language skills once the period of formal instruction is over\" (Schöpper-Grabe 1998: 231). This relates to how second-language attrition can be defined as the \"non-pathological decrease in a language that had formerly been acquired by an individual\" (Köpke & Schmid 2004: 5) and described as the \"[…] loss of skills in the individual over time\" (de Bot & Weltens, 1995).\n", "These factors are similar to those that affect second language acquisition, and the two processes are sometimes compared. However, the overall impact of these factors is far less than that for second language acquisition.\n\nLanguage attrition results in a decrease of language proficiency. The current consensus is that it manifests itself first and most noticeably in speakers' vocabulary (in their lexical access and their mental lexicon), while grammatical and especially phonological representations appear more stable among speakers who emigrated after puberty.\n\nSection::::Study.\n", "Individual variation in second-language acquisition is the study of why some people learn a second language better than others. Unlike children who acquire a language, adults learning a second language rarely reach the same level of competence as native speakers of that language. Some may stop studying a language before they have fully internalized it, and others may stop improving despite living in a foreign country for many years. It also appears that children are more likely than adults to reach native-like competence in a second language. There have been many studies that have attempted to explain these phenomena.\n", "In addition, adult learners living in a foreign country may not have very high linguistic demands placed on them, for example if they are a low-level employee at a company. Without the incentive to develop high-level skills in their second language, learners may undergo \"language fossilisation\", or a plateau in their language level.\n\nClassroom instruction can be useful in both providing appropriate input for second-language learners, and for helping them overcome problems of fossilisation.\n\nSection::::Second-language acquisition.:Grammar study is detrimental to second-language acquisition.\n", "Based on the research in Ann Fathman's \"The Relationship between age and second language productive ability,\" there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but that the order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age.\n", "Although child learners more often acquire native-like proficiency, older child and adult learners often progress faster in the initial stages of learning. Older child and adult learners are quicker at acquiring the initial grammar knowledge than child learners, however, with enough time and exposure to the language, children surpass their older peers. Once surpassed, older learners often display clear language deficiencies compared to child learners. This has been attributed to having a solid grasp on the first language or mother tongue they were first immersed into. Having this cognitive ability already developed can aid the process of learning a second language since there is a better understanding of how language works. For this same reason interaction with family and further development of the first language is encouraged along with positive reinforcement. The exact language deficiencies that occur past a certain age are not unanimously agreed upon. Some believe that only pronunciation is affected, while others believe other abilities are affected as well. However, some differences that are generally agreed upon include older learners having a noticeable accent, a smaller vocabulary, and making several linguistic errors.\n", "In Hansen & Reetz-Kurashige (1999), Hansen cites her own research on L2-Hindi and Urdu attrition in young children. As young pre-school children in India and Pakistan, the subjects of her study were often judged to be native speakers of Hindi or Urdu; their mother was far less proficient. On return visits to their home country, the United States, both children appeared to lose all their L2 while the mother noticed no decline in her own L2 abilities. Twenty years later, those same young children as adults \"comprehend not a word from recordings of their own animated conversations in Hindi-Urdu; the mother still understands much of them\".\n", "Section::::Factors.:Age effect.:Critical period hypothesis.\n", "The term \"first language attrition\" (FLA) refers to the gradual decline in native language proficiency. As speakers use their L2 frequently and become proficient (or even dominant) in it, some aspects of the L1 can deteriorate or become subject to L2 influence.\n", "The learner's emotional state or affect can interfere with acquiring a new language because acquiring a new language inevitably involves practicing it in public and conversing with others. All these encompassed the possibility of making mistakes, resulting in embarrassment, and such anxiety can block the ability to receive and process new information. Thus, high self-consciousness and a reluctance to reveal their weaknesses and faults, coupled with feelings of vulnerability could greatly impede second language learning. Fear of embarrassment has been found to occur more in adults than children because adults are more self-conscious about speaking, making errors and are more easily demoralized by pronunciation difficulties. In addition, the Critical Period Hypothesis states that younger learners have certain advantages over older learners in language learning that allows them to learn L2 easily and quickly in comparison to older children. When the critical period is over, it is nearly impossible to reach native-like proficiency in one’s second language and even those who learn a language fluently are probably recognized as having an accent. Although they can achieve expertise in a written language, they face problems in spoken language. Hence, age can also be regarded as an influential factor determining the quality of second language learning.\n", "Over the years, many experimenters have tried to find evidence in support or against the critical periods for second language acquisition. Many have found evidence that young children acquire language more easily than adults, but there are also special cases of adults acquiring a second language with native-like proficiency. Thus it has been difficult for researchers to separate correlation from causation.\n", "Section::::Relationship between the first and second languages in the mind.:Effects on the L1.\n\nThe L1 can be enhanced by the use of an L2 - Cook mentions that \"extensive research into bilingual development shows overall that L2 user children have more precocious metalinguistic skills than their monolingual pairs\" (Cook 2003: 13).\n\nThe L1 can be harmed by the use of an L2 - He also mentions brings up the risk of L1 language attrition from the L2. When one language is less and less used, certain abilities are lost from inactivity.\n", "Critical period hypothesis\n\nThe critical period hypothesis is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.\n" ]

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[ "There are many species of bacteria and other microorganisms that live on or inside the healthy human body. In fact, 90% of the cells in (or on) a human body are microbes, by number (much less by mass or volume). Some of these symbionts are necessary for our health. Those that neither help nor harm humans are called commensal organisms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of organs of the human body\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrostatic weighing\n\nBULLET::::- Dietary element\n\nBULLET::::- Composition of blood\n\nBULLET::::- List of human blood components\n\nBULLET::::- Body composition\n\nBULLET::::- Abundance of elements in Earth's crust\n", "In a healthy placental microbiome, the diversity of the species and genera is extensive. A change in the composition of the microbiota in the placenta is associated with excess gestational weight gain, and pre-term birth.\n\nThe placental microbiota varies between low birth weight infants and those infants with normal birth weights.\n\nWhile bacteria are often found in the amniotic fluid of failed pregnancies, they are also found in particulate matter that is found in about 1% of healthy pregnancies.\n", "Populations of microbes (such as bacteria and yeasts) inhabit the skin and mucosal surfaces in various parts of the body. Their role forms part of normal, healthy human physiology, however if microbe numbers grow beyond their typical ranges (often due to a compromised immune system) or if microbes populate (such as through poor hygiene or injury) areas of the body normally not colonized or sterile (such as the blood, or the lower respiratory tract, or the abdominal cavity), disease can result (causing, respectively, bacteremia/sepsis, pneumonia, and peritonitis).\n", "Over the last few decades, research on the perinatal acquisition of microbiota in humans has expanded as a result of developments in DNA sequencing technology. Bacteria have been detected in umbilical cord blood, amniotic fluid, and fetal membranes of healthy, term babies. The meconium, an infant’s first bowel movement of digested amniotic fluid, has also been shown to contain a diverse community of microbes. These microbial communities consist of genera commonly found in the mouth and intestines, which may be transmitted to the uterus via the blood stream, and in the vagina, which may ascend through the cervix.\n", "Over 99% of the bacteria in the gut are anaerobes, but in the cecum, aerobic bacteria reach high densities. It is estimated that these gut flora have around a hundred times as many genes in total as there are in the human genome.\n", "Another aspect of bacteria is the generation of body odor. Sweat is odorless however several bacteria may consume it and create byproducts which may be considered putrid by man (as in contrast to flies, for example, that may find them attractive/appealing).\n\nSeveral examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Propionibacteria\" in adolescent and adult sebaceous glands can turn its amino acids into propionic acid.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\" creates body odor by breaking sweat into isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bacillus subtilis\" creates strong foot odor.\n\nSection::::Skin defenses.\n\nSection::::Skin defenses.:Antimicrobial peptides.\n", "The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation. Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 \"Exxon Valdez\" oil spill. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes. In the chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals.\n", "Section::::Interactions with other organisms.\n\nDespite their apparent simplicity, bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms. These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism, mutualism and commensalism. Due to their small size, commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface. However, their growth can be increased by warmth and sweat, and large populations of these organisms in humans are the cause of body odour.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other organisms.:Predators.\n", "Bifidobacterium\n\nBifidobacterium is a genus of gram-positive, nonmotile, often branched anaerobic bacteria. They are ubiquitous inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract, vagina and mouth (\"B. dentium\") of mammals, including humans. Bifidobacteria are one of the major genera of bacteria that make up the gastrointestinal tract microbiota in mammals. Some bifidobacteria are used as probiotics.\n\nBefore the 1960s, \"Bifidobacterium\" species were collectively referred to as \"\"Lactobacillus bifidus\"\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Unusual distributions of bacterial and fungal genera in the respiratory tract is observed in people with cystic fibrosis. Their bacterial flora often contains antibiotic-resistant and slow-growing bacteria, and the frequency of these pathogens changes in relation to age.\n\nSection::::Anatomical areas.:Biliary tract.\n", "Humans are colonized by many microorganisms; the traditional estimate is that the average human body is inhabited by ten times as many non-human cells as human cells, but more recent estimates have lowered that ratio to 3:1 or even to approximately the same number. Some microorganisms that colonize humans are commensal, meaning they co-exist without harming humans; others have a mutualistic relationship with their human hosts. Conversely, some non-pathogenic microorganisms can harm human hosts via the metabolites they produce, like trimethylamine, which the human body converts to trimethylamine N-oxide via FMO3-mediated oxidation. Certain microorganisms perform tasks that are known to be useful to the human host but the role of most of them is not well understood. Those that are expected to be present, and that under normal circumstances do not cause disease, are sometimes deemed \"normal flora\" or \"normal microbiota\".\n", "Section::::Common pollutants.:Other bacteria.\n\nThere are many bacteria of health significance found in indoor air and on indoor surfaces. The role of microbes in the indoor environment is increasingly studied using modern gene-based analysis of environmental samples. Currently efforts are under way to link microbial ecologists and indoor air scientists to forge new methods for analysis and to better interpret the results.\n\n\"There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the human flora as there are human cells in the body, with large numbers of bacteria on the skin and as gut flora.\"\n", "Gram positive bacteria are an increasingly important cause of bacteremia. Staphyloccocus, streptococcus, and enterococcus species are the most important and most common species of gram-positive bacteria that can enter the bloodstream. These bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the gastrointestinal tract.\n", "The ovarian follicle microbiome has been studied using standard culturing techniques. It has been associated with the outcomes of assisted reproductive technologies and birth outcomes. Positive outcomes are related to the presence of \"Lactobacilli spp\" while the presence of \"Propionibacterium\" and \"Actinomyces\" were related to negative outcomes. Also, the microbiome can vary from one ovary to the other. Studies are ongoing in the further identification of those bacteria present.\n\nSection::::Male reproductive tract.\n", "Section::::Anatomical areas.:Vagina.\n", "The skin acts as a barrier to deter the invasion of pathogenic microbes. The human skin contains microbes that reside either in or on the skin and can be residential or transient. Resident microorganism types vary in relation to skin type on the human body. A majority of microbes reside on superficial cells on the skin or prefer to associate with glands. These glands such as oil or sweat glands provide the microbes with water, amino acids, and fatty acids. In addition, resident bacteria that associated with oil glands are often Gram-positive and can be pathogenic.\n\nSection::::Anatomical areas.:Conjunctiva.\n", "The microbial composition of the gut microbiota varies across the digestive tract. In the stomach and small intestine, relatively few species of bacteria are generally present. The colon, in contrast, contains a densely-populated microbial ecosystem with up to 10 cells per gram of intestinal content. These bacteria represent between 300 and 1000 different species. However, 99% of the bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species. As a consequence of their abundance in the intestine, bacteria also make up to 60% of the dry mass of feces. Fungi, protists, archaea, and viruses are also present in the gut flora, but less is known about their activities.\n", "The environment present in the human mouth allows the growth of characteristic microorganisms found there. It provides a source of water and nutrients, as well as a moderate temperature. Resident microbes of the mouth adhere to the teeth and gums to resist mechanical flushing from the mouth to stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\"\n\nSection::::L.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lactobacillus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lactobacillus acidophilus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lactobacillus bulgaricus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lactobacillus casei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lactococcus lactis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Legionella pneumophila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Listeria monocytogenes\"\n\nSection::::M.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Methanobacterium extroquens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Microbacterium multiforme\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micrococcus luteus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moraxella catarrhalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium avium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium bovis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium diphtheriae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium intracellulare\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium leprae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium lepraemurium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium phlei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium smegmatis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma fermentans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma genitalium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma hominis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma penetrans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma mexican\"\n\nSection::::N.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neisseria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neisseria meningitidis\"\n\nSection::::P.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pasteurella\"\n", "Micrococci have been isolated from human skin, animal and dairy products, and beer. They are found in many other places in the environment, including water, dust, and soil. \"M. luteus\" on human skin transforms compounds in sweat into compounds with an unpleasant odor. Micrococci can grow well in environments with little water or high salt concentrations, including sportswear made with synthetic fabrics. Most are mesophiles; some, like \"Micrococcus antarcticus\" (found in Antarctica) are psychrophiles.\n", "These bacteria also produce large amounts of vitamins, especially vitamin K and biotin (a B vitamin), for absorption into the blood. Although this source of vitamins, in general, provides only a small part of the daily requirement, it makes a significant contribution when dietary vitamin intake is low. An individual who depends on absorption of vitamins formed by bacteria in the large intestine may become vitamin-deficient if treated with antibiotics that inhibit the vitamin producing species of bacteria as well as the intended disease-causing bacteria.\n", "The bacterial genus \"Pseudomonas\" includes the opportunistic human pathogen \"P. aeruginosa\", plant pathogenic bacteria, plant beneficial bacteria, ubiquitous soil bacteria with bioremediation capabilities and other species that cause spoilage of milk and dairy products. \"P. aeruginosa\" can cause chronic opportunistic infections that have become increasingly apparent in immunocompromised patients and the ageing population of industrialised societies. The genome sequences of several pseudomonads have become available in recent years and researchers are beginning to use the data to make new discoveries about this bacterium.\n\nSection::::\"Acinetobacter\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus aureus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus haemolyticus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Streptococcus viridans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichophyton spp\"\n\nCandida parapsilosis\n\nSection::::Skin.:Hair follicles.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus aureus\"\n\nSection::::External ear.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Corynebacterium spp\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus aureus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\"\n\nSection::::Mucous membranes.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chlamydia trachomatis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hemophilus influenzae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus aureus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\"\n\nSection::::Eye.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chlamydophila pneumoniae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haemophilus aegyptius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haemophilus influenzae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moraxella spp\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neisseria spp\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus aureus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Streptococcus viridians\"\n\nSection::::Vagina.\n", "Bacteriophages are among the best studied organisms in the natural world. This is because their molecular biology is relatively simple. Many molecular principles were first studied in bacteriophages prior to being found in higher organisms. Bacteriophages are ubiquitous. High numbers can be found in seawater and also in fermented foods such as yogurt or cheese. Bacteriophages are extremely specific in the bacteria they recognize. The recognition is often limited to specific strains of one species, in rare cases several strains of the same species or genus are recognized. With this fact in mind their potential in fighting unwanted bacteria has recently received increased attention.\n", "The largest number exist in the gut flora, and a large number on the skin. The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial, particularly in the gut flora. However, several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy, and bubonic plague. The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. In industry, bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills, the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation, the recovery of gold, palladium, copper and other metals in the mining sector, as well as in biotechnology, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Almost all Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Hungarian and Estonian have a distinctive moraic chroneme as a phoneme (also arguably called archiphoneme or epenthetic vowel/consonant). The etymology of the vocalic chroneme has been traced to a voiced velar fricative in the hypothetical Proto-Uralic language, such that becomes . For example, \"taka-\" \"back-\", \"takka\" \"fireplace\" and \"taakka\" \"burden\" are unrelated words. It is also grammatically important; the third person marker is a chroneme (\"menee\" \"s/he goes\"), and often in the spoken Finnish of the Helsinki area there are grammatical minimal pairs, e.g. nominative \"Stadi\" \"Helsinki\" vs. partitive \"Stadii\" \"at Helsinki\".\n", "Increased muscular activity results in the generation of heat as a byproduct. Most often, when the purpose of the muscle activity is to produce motion, the heat is wasted energy. In shivering, the heat is the main intended product and is utilized for warmth.\n", "Three Uralic phonemes have been posited to reflect PIE laryngeals. In post-vocalic positions both the post-alveolar fricatives that ever existed in Uralic are represented: firstly a possibly velar one, theoretically reconstructed much as the PIE laryngeals (conventionally marked *x), in the very oldest borrowings and secondly a grooved one (*š as in \"shoe\" becoming modern Finnic \"h\") in some younger ones. The velar plosive \"k\" is the third reflex and the only one found word-initially. In intervocalic position the reflex \"k\" is probably younger than either of the two former ones. The fact that Finno-Ugric may have plosive reflexes for PIE laryngeals is to be expected under well documented Finnic phonological behaviour and does not mean much for tracing the phonetic value of PIE laryngeals (cf. Finnish \"kansa\" 'people' PGmc *xansā 'company, troupe, party, crowd' (cf. German \"Hanse\"), Finnish \"kärsiä\" 'suffer, endure' PGmc *xarđia- 'endure' (cf. E. \"hard\"), Finnish \"pyrkiä\" PGmc. *wurk(i)ja- 'work, work for' etc.).\n", "BULLET::::- \"bb\" ~ \"pp\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"dd\" ~ \"tt\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"gg\" ~ \"kk\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"zz\" ~ \"cc\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"žž\" ~ \"čč\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sequences of two palatal stops: these are phonetically the same as the previous, but different orthographically.\n\nBULLET::::- \"ddj\" ~ \"dj\"\n\nSection::::Grammar.:Consonant gradation.:Quantity 2 ~ 1 alternations.\n", "Although standard and known elsewhere, the usage of verb compounds is particularly prevalent in Savo Finnish and a prolific source of creative expressions. The first verb is in the infinitive and indicates the action, and the second verb is declined and indicates the manner. For example, \"seistä toljotat\" \"you stand there gawking\" consists of words meaning \"to-stand you-gawk\".\n\nSection::::Features.:Northern Savonian dialects.\n", "This effect is more important to humans than what was initially thought. Linguists have pointed out that at least the English language has many false starts and extraneous sounds. The phonemic restoration effect is the brain's way of resolving those imperfections in our speech. Without this effect interfering with our language processing, there would be a greater need for much more accurate speech signals and human speech could require much more precision. For experiments, white noise is necessary because it takes the place of these imperfections in speech. One of the most important factors in language is continuity and in turn intelligibility.\n", "Section::::Phonology.\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Consonants.\n\nThe Proto-Samic consonant inventory is mostly faithfully retained from Proto-Uralic, and is considerably smaller than what is typically found in modern Sami languages. There were 16 contrastive consonants, most of which could however occur both short and geminate:\n\nStop and affricate consonants were split in three main allophones with respect to phonation:\n\nBULLET::::- Plain voiceless , , etc, occurred word-initially, adjacent to other voiceless consonants, and in the strong grade of single intervocalic consonants\n\nBULLET::::- Lax voiceless , , etc, occurred between voiced sounds\n\nBULLET::::- Preaspirated , , etc, occurred in geminates\n", "BULLET::::- Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), energy expended for everything that is not sleeping, eating or sports-like exercise.\n\nBULLET::::- Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT)\n\nSection::::Types.:Shivering.\n\nOne method to raise temperature is through shivering. It produces heat because the conversion of the chemical energy of ATP into kinetic energy causes almost all of the energy to show up as heat. Shivering is the process by which the body temperature of hibernating mammals (such as some bats and ground squirrels) is raised as these animals emerge from hibernation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Non-shivering.\n", "BULLET::::- plural markers -j (i) and -t (-d, -q) have a common origin (e.g. in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, Erzya, Samic languages, Samoyedic languages). Hungarian, however, has -i- before the possessive suffixes and -k elsewhere. The plural marker -k is also used in the Samic languages, but there is a regular merging of final -k and -t in Samic, so it can come from either ending.\n", "Shivering can also appear after surgery. This is known as postanesthetic shivering. \n\nIn humans, shivering can also be caused by mere cognition . This is known as psychogenic shivering .\n\nSection::::Shivering and the elderly.\n", "On the other hand, spoken language has its own features rarely or never found in formal language. Most importantly, there is very common external sandhi, and some assimilatory sound changes. (On the contrary, there is no vowel reduction.) In some variants (e.g. Vaasa, Kymenlaakso) of spoken Finnish \"-n kanssa\" is abbreviated into a clitic that is effectively a comitative case, e.g. \"-nkans\" or \"-nkaa\".\n\nSection::::Pronunciation.\n\nSection::::Pronunciation.:Reflexes of dental fricatives.\n", "BULLET::::- Some imperfective verbs are created from the stems of perfective verbs to denote repeated or habitual actions. These are considered separate lexemes. One example is as follows: to hide (perfective) = \"skryť\", to hide (habitual) = \"skrývať\".\n\nBULLET::::- Historically, two past tense forms were utilized. Both are formed analytically. The second of these, equivalent to the pluperfect, is not used in the modern language, being considered archaic and/or grammatically incorrect. Examples for two related verbs are as follows:\n", "BULLET::::- Palatalization of consonants; in this context, palatalization means a secondary articulation, where the middle of the tongue is tense. For example, pairs like – [n], or [c] – [t] are contrasted in Hungarian, as in \"hattyú\" \"swan\". Some Sami languages, for example Skolt Sami, distinguish three degrees: plain [l], palatalized , and palatal , where has a primary alveolar articulation, while has a primary palatal articulation. Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic, independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia-old Proto-Uralic. It is different from Slavic palatalization, which is of more recent origin. The Finnic languages have lost palatalization, but the eastern varieties have reacquired it, so Finnic palatalization (where extant) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic.\n", "Teething has not been shown to cause fever or diarrhea; however, the belief that teething causes fever is extremely common among parents. Whilst there is some evidence that teething can cause an elevated temperature, it does not cause fever (medically defined as rectal temperature greater than . One small 1992 study found a significant rise in temperature on the day of eruption of the first tooth. Another study in 2000 found \"mild temperature elevation\" but not fever over .\n", "Two examples of predator–prey signaling were found in caterpillars and ground squirrels. When physically disturbed, Lepidoptera larvae produce a clicking noise with their mandibles followed by an unpalatable oral secretion. Scientists believe this to be “acoustic aposematism” which has only been previously found in a controlled study with bats and tiger moths. While the defense mechanisms of ground squirrels to predatory rattlesnakes have been well studied (i.e. tail flagging), only recently have scientists discovered that these squirrels also employ a type of infrared heat signaling. By using robotic models of squirrels, the researchers found that when infrared radiation was added to tail flagging, rattlesnakes shifted from predatory to defensive behavior and were less likely to attack than when no radiation component was added.\n", "BULLET::::- leaf – leaves\n\nBULLET::::- wife – wives\n\nBULLET::::- wolf – wolves\n\nThe following mutations are optional:\n\nBULLET::::- bath () - baths ()\n\nBULLET::::- mouth () - mouths ()\n\nBULLET::::- oath () - oaths ()\n\nBULLET::::- path () - paths ()\n\nBULLET::::- youth () - youths ()\n\nBULLET::::- house () – houses ()\n\nSonorants () following aspirated fortis plosives (that is, in the onsets of stressed syllables unless preceded by ) are devoiced such as in \"please\", \"crack\", \"twin\", and \"pewter\".\n\nSection::::In other languages.\n\nSection::::In other languages.:Voicing assimilation.\n", "Shivering (also called shaking) is a bodily function in response to cold in warm-blooded animals. When the core body temperature drops, the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements, creating warmth by expending energy. Shivering can also be a response to a fever, as a person may feel cold. During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached. Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors. Rigors occur because the patient's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point.\n", "BULLET::::- United States Secretary of Commerce Robert P. Lamont issued a statement predicting that 1930 would mark \"a continuance of prosperity and progress.\" Secretary of the Treasuary Andrew W. Mellon likewise issued an optimistic statement: \"During the winter months there may be some slackness or unemployment, but hardly more than is usual at this season each year. I have every confidence that there will be a revival of activity in the spring and that during the coming year the country will make steady progress.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Born: Mies Bouwman, television presenter, in Amsterdam, Netherlands\n", "BULLET::::- Finnish \"kesä\" 'summer' < PFS *kesä PIE * () Balto-Slavic *eseni- 'autumn', Gothic \"asans\" 'summer'\n\nBULLET::::- Finnish \"kaski\" 'burnt-over clearing' < Proto-Finnic *kaski PIE/PreG *[] = *// Gmc. *askōn 'ashes'\n\nBULLET::::- Finnish \"koke-\" 'to perceive, sense' PreFi *koki- PIE *[] = *// Greek \"opsomai\" 'look, observe' (cognate to Lat. \"oculus\" 'eye')\n\nBULLET::::- Finnish \"kulke-\" 'to go, walk, wander' ~ Hungarian \"halad-\" 'to go, walk, proceed' PFU *kulki- PIE *kʷelH-e/o- Greek \"pelomai\" '(originally) to be moving', Sanskrit \"cárati\" 'goes, walks, wanders (about)', cognate Lat. \"colere\" 'to till, cultivate, inhabit'\n", "Teething may cause a slightly elevated temperature, but not rising into the fever range of greater than . Higher temperatures during teething are due to some form of infection, such as a herpes virus, initial infection of which is extremely widespread among children of teething age.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "This construction usually applies to only abstract concepts, and is not used for activities. For example, \"to sit\" would not use this construction. Instead, the simple present should be used (\"ég sit\").\n\nThe collective tenses are:\n\nBULLET::::- conditional\n\nBULLET::::- future\n\nBULLET::::- past\n\nBULLET::::- continuous\n\nBULLET::::- perfect\n\nBULLET::::- subjunctive\n\nBULLET::::- present\n\nBULLET::::- continuous\n\nBULLET::::- perfect\n\nBULLET::::- subjunctive\n\nSection::::Morphology.:Verbs.:Voice.\n", "BULLET::::- Phoneme deletion, also referred to as phoneme elision: e.g., \"Say \"coat\". Now say it again but don't say /k/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme segmentation with words or non-words: e.g., \"How many sounds can you hear in the word \"it\"?\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme reversal: e.g., \"Say \"na\" (as in \"nap\"). Now say na backwards\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme manipulation: e.g., \"Say \"dash\". Now say it again, but instead of /æ/ say /I/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spoonerism: e.g., \"felt made\" becomes \"melt fade\"\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "The Algic, Salishan, Wakashan, and Sumerian comparisons should be regarded as especially tentative because regular sound correspondences between these families and the more often accepted Dené–Caucasian families have not yet been reconstructed. To a lesser degree this also holds for the Na-Dené comparisons, where only a few sound correspondences have yet been published.\n\n/V/ means that the vowel in this position has not been successfully reconstructed. /K/ could have been any velar or uvular plosive, /S/ could have been any sibilant or assibilate.\n\nAll except Algic, Salishan and Wakashan are taken from Bengtson (2008).\n\nFootnotes:\n", "It can also occur with similar back-vowel verbs, e.g. \"csináltatok\" \"you [pl] did something\" or \"I have something done\".\n\n\"beszéltek\" can also have two interpretations (only indefinite forms involved, again):\n\nBULLET::::- \"you [pl] speak\": \"beszél\" + \"-tek\" (\"you [pl]\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"they spoke\": \"beszél\" + \"-t-\" (past) + \"-ek\" (\"they\")\n\nThis latter case is not possible with back-vowel verbs, due to the difference of the linking vowel: \"csináltok\" \"you [pl] do something\" vs. \"csináltak\" \"they did something\".\n", "BULLET::::- Ionic conductance noise: Ion channels in the membrane undergo spontaneous changes in conformation between different states and can open (or close) due to thermal fluctuations. The transmembrane embedded protein channels are made up of small subunits that undergo conformational changes and are affected by thermal fluctuations. When temperature drops below 33 °C, the rate at which the channel becomes active or inactive decreases. In contrast when the temperature is increased above 33 °C, the rate at which the channel becomes active or inactive increases.\n" ]

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[ "For example, a customer would usually pay interest to borrow from a bank, so they pay the bank an amount which is more than the amount they borrowed; or a customer may earn interest on their savings, and so they may withdraw more than they originally deposited. In the case of savings, the customer is the lender, and the bank plays the role of the borrower.\n", "Section::::Video game consoles.\n", "Section::::Products and services.:Current Account Switch Service.\n\nSince its launch in September 2013 more than five million UK current accounts have been switched, with the service reporting a seven-day switching success rate of 99.4 per cent.\n", "The service, which offers consumers, small businesses, trusts and small charities a way of switching current accounts, was created to increase competition, support the entry of new banks in the current account market place and give consumers greater choice when switching from one bank or building society current account to another. It is now offered by 47 high street banks and building societies – up from 33 at launch - giving almost total coverage of the current account market.\n", "The bank offered 8% savings interest and the first credit card in the UK which offered a 0% interest rate on both new purchases and balance transfers, with also an annual anniversary offer and as a result soon had more than two million customers enjoying these market-leading rates.\n", "A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities.\n", "Unlike memory management by paging, data is not exchanged with a mass storage device like disk storage. Data remains in quiescent storage in a memory area that is not currently accessible to the processor (although it may be accessible to the video display, DMA controller, or other subsystems of the computer).\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "Some banks offering OSA's may not have bank branches and a customer may deposit funds into their account by either ACH transfer, mailing in a cheque, or direct deposit. To withdraw money, customers can initiate an ACH transfer into another account or sometimes request a check from the bank in the desired amount.\n\nSection::::Changes in banking and investing.\n", "NS&I manages around £150 billion in savings. Funds from NS&I have historically been a relatively cheap source of government borrowing. The bank sets interest rates both to attract savers and provide low-cost finance for the government. 100% of savings are government guaranteed, with rules in place to ensure that it does not offer market-leading products that would stifle competition.\n\nSection::::Operations.\n", "Any cost or fees charged by the financial institution that maintains the account, whether as a single monthly maintenance charge or for each financial transaction, will depend on a variety of factors, including the country's regulations and overall interest rates for lending and saving, as well as the financial institution's size and number of channels of access offered. This is why a direct bank can afford to offer low-cost or free banking, as well as why in some countries, transaction fees do not exist but extremely high lending rates are the norm. This is the case in the United Kingdom, where they have had free banking since 1984 when the then Midland Bank, in a bid to grab market share, scrapped current account charges. It was so successful that all other banks had no choice but offer the same or continue losing customers. Free banking account holders are now charged only if they use an add-on service such as an overdraft.\n", "In May 2009, BankServ acquired the assets of Commerciant LP, a Houston-based technology company involved in wireless credit card processing. The company now offers a handheld terminal that can process credit card transactions on the spot over various mobile phone networks.\n", "Much of the following discussion relates to the UK personal current account market.\n\nSection::::Monthly account charges.\n\nBanks may charge their customers a fixed monthly charge for the provision of the account. In the UK, this was not common practice until the 1990s when banks began to introduce this type of bank charges as a means of product differentiation - often offering additional services bundled with the bank account itself (e.g. travel insurance, mobile phone insurance, preferential rates on other products).\n\nSection::::Charges for specific transactions.\n", "Cash Converters UK were the first to hold an online charity auction for the charity Dreams Come True.\n\nCash Converters charge a current rate of interest of 33% (35% in Victoria, Australia) per month, making their annual interest over 350% on the principal loan.\n\nCash Converters UK charge a flat fee of 32.5% on their Buybacks with an option to pay an extension fee after 28 days.\n\nSection::::International.:South Africa.\n", "Regulatory arbitrage can include restructuring a bank by outsourcing services such as IT. The outsourcing company takes over the installations, buying out the bank's assets and charges a periodic service fee back to the bank. This frees up cashflow usable for new lending by the bank. The bank will have higher IT costs, but counts on the multiplier effect of money creation and the interest rate spread to make it a profitable exercise.\n\nExample:\n", "In 2017 the Bank had more than 1.6 million active personal Customers and 13,000 corporate Customers who have 24/7 access to modern financial services thanks to the nationwide network of close to 360 branches and latest technologies (online, phone, mobile banking). The number of customers actively using e-banking exceeded 1.1 million in 2017 and was 17% higher than in the same period of 2016. Mobile banking as of end of September 2016 had 711 000 users (which means 39% growth y/y).\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Auto-sweep feature (sweep-in)\": The balance in excess of a stipulated amount is automatically transferred to a fixed deposit (FD) account for a default term of one year. By this transference, amounts in excess of a fixed limit can earn a substantially higher rate of return. FDs formed through auto sweep carry the interest rate on FD of one year, based upon the rate on the day of the auto sweep. Hence, the Flexi Fixed deposit scheme has two components: a savings and current account component, and a fixed deposit account component.\n", "Until the 1980s, most banks in the UK charged for all transactions. A number of newer entrants to the personal current account market took a \"no fees whilst in credit\" approach, leading very rapidly to a situation where no bank could compete with others without offering the same deal.\n", "There are various reasons for individual and corporate customers to choose banking with EMIs these days. The main ones include:\n", "In Iran, PLSAs are the most common form of savings account available to the public, as they are viewed to be in compliance with Islamic law which forbids one to earn guaranteed interest on assets. \"See Islamic banking\"\n\nSection::::Economics of prize linked savings.\n", "The original founding members of the new service were: Abbey (now Santander UK), Alliance and Leicester (now part of Santander UK), Barclays, Citi, Clydesdale and Yorkshire Banks, Co-operative Bank, HBOS, HSBC, Lloyds TSB, Nationwide Building Society, Northern Bank (Danske Bank), Northern Rock, and Royal Bank of Scotland Group (including NatWest and Ulster Bank).\n", "Abbey and Alliance & Leicester merged their membership under Santander UK in February 2011, Bank of Scotland merged their membership into Lloyds TSB in September 2011 and Northern Rock resigned from membership in October 2011. The ten remaining members became the initial shareholders of Faster Payments Scheme Limited in November 2011.\n\nIn December 2016, Metro Bank joined the system, the first High Street bank to do so since its inception.\n\nLater, in January 2017, Starling Bank joined the service as a direct partner – the first digital-only bank in the system's history.\n", "Most banks charge a separate, higher interest rate, and a cash advance fee (ranging from 1 to 5% of the amount of cash taken) on cash or cash-like transactions (called \"quasi-cash\" by many banks). These transactions are usually the ones for which the bank receives no transaction fee from the payee, such as cash from a bank or ATM, casino chips, and some payments to the government (and any transaction that looks in the bank's discretion like a cash swap, such as a payment on multiple invoices). In effect, the interest rate charged on purchases is subsidized by other profits to the bank.\n", "The advent of Internet banking at the end of the 20th century saw a new phase in savings banks with the online savings bank that paid higher levels of interest in return for clients only having access over the web.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn Europe, savings banks originated in the 19th or sometimes even the 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks were created on public initiative, while in others, socially committed individuals created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure.\n", "Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers in the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machines (ATMs).\n", "OSAs, combined with rising interest rates, have made cash an increasingly attractive investment option. They provide a relatively low risk option for investors looking for a place to park their money, especially in uncertain economic times. Inflation, stagflation, recessionary fears and stock market volatility are among the economic indicators that have encouraged more and more investors to consider cash as a way to balance their portfolios. In fact, more than 8.5 million customers signed up for OSAs with leading U.S. banks in 2005 alone, and some industry experts estimated the online savings account market would triple in size, from $250 billion to $400 billion by 2010. \n" ]

[ "If a bank gives money to a customer for switching banks, it can't make money", "Banks should not be able to be profitable on the business model of paying new bankers free money for joining their bank. " ]

[ "Banks expect to make more money from the switch than they are giving away.", "Banks will eventually make the free money back via monthly fees or loaning out the new banker's money to others." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If a bank gives money to a customer for switching banks, it can't make money", "Banks should not be able to be profitable on the business model of paying new bankers free money for joining their bank. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Banks expect to make more money from the switch than they are giving away.", "Banks will eventually make the free money back via monthly fees or loaning out the new banker's money to others." ]

[ "Section::::Production.\n\nIn 2013, world production of chicken eggs was 68.3 million tonnes. The largest four producers were China at 24.8 million of this total, the United States at 5.6 million, India at 3.8 million, and Japan at 2.5 million. A typical large egg factory ships a million dozen eggs per week.\n", "The company head office in the US is based in San Francisco with farm operations in various preferred US locations. Since 2012 the US brand has grown to supply over 4,000 retail outlets across the country including Wal-Mart, Kroger and Safeway stores and has since launched its free-range eggs in 6 count cartons into the market.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n\nSection::::Marketing.:Nice Pecks.\n\nInspired by an academic study showing that hens are calmer in the company of cockerels, but knowing that cockerels mixed with chickens result in fertilized eggs, the company created a pin-up calendar for hens in December 2012, 2013, and 2014.\n\nSection::::Marketing.:Pancake-omatic.\n", "Chickens and other egg-laying creatures are kept widely throughout the world and mass production of chicken eggs is a global industry. In 2009, an estimated 62.1 million metric tons of eggs were produced worldwide from a total laying flock of approximately 6.4 billion hens. There are issues of regional variation in demand and expectation, as well as current debates concerning methods of mass production. In 2012, the European Union banned battery husbandry of chickens.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "For the month of January 2019, the United States produced 9.41 billion eggs, with 8.2 billion for table consumption and 1.2 billion for raising chicks. Americans are projected to each consume 279 eggs in 2019, the highest since 1973, but less than the 405 eggs eaten per person in 1945.\n", "BULLET::::- H. L. White Collection, Melbourne, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- National Museum of Natural History (190,000 eggs), Washington DC, USA\n\nBULLET::::- Muséum de Toulouse (150,000 eggs), Toulouse France\n\nBULLET::::- San Bernardino County Museum (41,000 clutches with 135,000 eggs)\n\nBULLET::::- Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology (190,000 clutches with 800,000 eggs), California, USA\n\nBULLET::::- Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History (formerly the Museum of Comparative Oology) (11,000 egg sets from 1,300 species), Santa Barbara, California, USA\n\nSection::::Oologists and egg collectors.\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Bendire\n", "Poultry generally start with naturally (most species) or artificially (turkeys and Cornish-related chicken breeds) inseminated hens that lay eggs; the eggs are cleaned and shells are checked for soundness before being put into the incubators. Incubators control temperature and humidity, and turn the eggs until just before they hatch. Three days before the eggs are scheduled to hatch, they are moved into a hatcher unit, where they are no longer turned so the embryos have time to get properly oriented for their exit from the shell, and the temperature and humidity are optimum for hatching. Once the eggs hatch and the chicks are a few days old, they are often vaccinated.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nIn alchemy, the oil was traditionally extracted from the yolk by a fairly simple process, by which fifty eggs yielded approximately five ounces of oil. Modern methods of production include liquid–liquid extraction using common solvents such as hexane, petroleum ether, chloroform and ethanol. Unlike traditional egg oil produced by heat, solvent extracted product also contains immunoglobulins which are destroyed at higher temperatures. There are only a few commercial producers globally.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "The FDA Food Code has gained adoption by health jurisdictions throughout the U.S.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nAs distinct from whole shell eggs, “egg products” are defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture as “eggs that are removed from their shells for processing.\" The processing of egg products includes breaking eggs, filtering, mixing, stabilizing, blending, pasteurizing, cooling, freezing or drying, and packaging. This is done at U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)-inspected plants.\n", "Section::::Career.\n\nSection::::Career.:Egg distribution business.\n", "An egg mark may contain a number of information parts - in the EU only the producer code is required. Additional information may be printed along with the date of production being the most common to find. Other information may contain the method of production especially in the non-EU world where the numbered levels do not apply.\n", "A health issue associated with eggs is contamination by pathogenic bacteria, such as \"Salmonella enteritidis\". Contamination of eggs with other members of the genus \"Salmonella\" while exiting a female bird via the cloaca may occur, so care must be taken to prevent the egg shell from becoming contaminated with fecal matter. In commercial practice in the US, eggs are quickly washed with a sanitizing solution within minutes of being laid. The risk of infection from raw or undercooked eggs is dependent in part upon the sanitary conditions under which the hens are kept.\n", "BULLET::::- Make available the technology and information for increased production of eggs.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken, duck, and goose eggs. Smaller eggs, such as quail eggs, are used occasionally as a gourmet ingredient in Western countries. Eggs are a common everyday food in many parts of Asia, such as China and Thailand, with Asian production providing 59 percent of the world total in 2013.\n", "The largest bird eggs, from ostriches, tend to be used only as special luxury food. Gull eggs are considered a delicacy in England, as well as in some Scandinavian countries, particularly in Norway. In some African countries, guineafowl eggs often are seen in marketplaces, especially in the spring of each year. Pheasant eggs and emu eggs are edible, but less widely available, sometimes they are obtainable from farmers, poulterers, or luxury grocery stores. In many countries, wild bird eggs are protected by laws which prohibit the collecting or selling of them, or permit collection only during specific periods of the year.\n", "Most commercially farmed chicken eggs intended for human consumption are unfertilized, since the laying hens are kept without roosters. Fertile eggs may be eaten, with little nutritional difference when compared to the unfertilized. Fertile eggs will not contain a developed embryo, as refrigeration temperatures inhibit cellular growth for an extended period of time. Sometimes an embryo is allowed to develop, but eaten before hatching as with balut.\n\nSection::::Farming issues.:Grading by quality and size.\n", "Egg-laying chickens include the two groups, Bantams and Standards. Often raised as pets, Bantams are the smaller variety of chickens that require less space and feed. These smaller chickens provide smaller eggs, but still produce a large quantity of eggs. Standards rage from heavy to light breeds and produce the average sized eggs.\n\nSection::::Chick care.\n\nSection::::Chick care.:Purchasing chickens.\n\nChicken owners need to find a place to purchase chickens. Oftentimes, people purchase chickens at local feed stores, or through a hatchery.\n\nSection::::Chick care.:Creating a brooder.\n", "The Calf Cam and Chick Cam are at the South Mountain Creamery in Middletown, Maryland. The calves are dairy calves which at the right age will begin producing milk to be processed and distributed. The chicks at the correct age will produce eggs to be processed and distributed. These cams are operated and maintained by Animal Planet L!VE.\n", "Typically, genetic parents donate the eggs to a fertility clinic or where they are preserved by oocyte cryopreservation or embryo cryopreservation until a carrier is found for them. Typically the process of matching the embryo(s) with the prospective parents is conducted by the agency itself, at which time the clinic transfers ownership of the embryos to the prospective parents.\n", "In 1978, Burnbrae purchased Maple Lynn Foods Limited located outside London, Ontario in Strathroy. It operates a grading station which purchases, grades and markets eggs from many producers in the area. In 1981, Burnbrae built a plant in Mississauga. In Mississauga, the eggs are purchased for grading and distribution from producers in the western Ontario farm belt.\n", "In the United States, increased public concern for animal welfare has pushed various egg producers to promote eggs under a variety of standards. The most widespread standard in use is determined by United Egg Producers through their voluntary program of certification. The United Egg Producers program includes guidelines regarding housing, food, water, air, living space, beak trimming, molting, handling, and transportation, however, opponents such as The Humane Society have alleged UEP certification is misleading and allows a significant amount of unchecked animal cruelty. Other standards include \"Cage Free\", \"Natural\", \"Certified Humane\", and \"Certified Organic\". Of these standards, \"Certified Humane\", which carries requirements for stocking density and cage-free keeping and so on, and \"Certified Organic\", which requires hens to have outdoor access and to be fed only organic vegetarian feed and so on, are the most stringent.\n", "In late 1996 and early 1997 Burnbrae Farms expanded its operation into Manitoba with the purchase of a grading station and a further processing plant. In October 2001, Burnbrae Farms added a grading station in Calgary, Alberta. At Burnbrae Farms Winnipeg and Calgary, eggs are collected from local egg farmers, graded and delivered to stores from North Western Ontario (Thunder Bay) to British Columbia.\n\nIn 2006, Burnbrae Farms set up a facility in Brockville, Ontario dedicated to the production of cooked items like omelettes, hard boiled eggs and other egg products.\n", "Section::::Current status.\n\nToday, eggs are produced on large egg ranches on which environmental parameters are controlled. Chickens are exposed to artificial light cycles to stimulate egg production year-round. In addition, it is a common practice to induce molting through manipulation of light and the amount of food they receive in order to further increase egg size and production.\n", "Section::::Method.:Egg retrieval.\n\nThe eggs are retrieved from the patient using a transvaginal technique called transvaginal oocyte retrieval, involving an ultrasound-guided needle piercing the vaginal wall to reach the ovaries. Through this needle follicles can be aspirated, and the follicular fluid is passed to an embryologist to identify ova. It is common to remove between ten and thirty eggs. The retrieval procedure usually takes between 20 and 40 minutes, depending on the number of mature follicles, and is usually done under conscious sedation or general anaesthesia.\n\nSection::::Method.:Egg and sperm preparation.\n", "In the United States there are shows in many states where artists show their eggs and vendors of \"egging\" supplies can be found. Each year, the White House chooses a decorated egg from each state to display at easter.\n\nAnother type of egg decoration is egg shoeing, which requires goose eggs and miniature horse-shoes, made of iron or lead. The current world record of egg shoeing is 1119 shoes on a single ostrich egg.\n\nIn Australia, emu eggs are carved and the art created by them is known as kalti paarti carving.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Archibald James Campbell, author of \"Nests and eggs of Australian birds, including the geographical distribution of the species and popular observations thereon\" (Sheffield England, Pawson & Brailsford, 1900) Reissued 1974, by Wren, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- E. J. Court of Washington, DC\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Johnson Maynard, author of \"Eggs of North American birds\" (Boston: DeWolfe, Fiske & Co., 1890)\n\nBULLET::::- Francis Charles Robert Jourdain\n\nBULLET::::- Colin Watson\n\nSection::::Oology related publications.\n\nNumerous books, and at one point a journal, have been published on egg collecting and identification:\n" ]

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[ "Of those villages in England who still have shops, these days they are often a combination of services under one roof to increase the likelihood of profit and survival. Extra services may include a post office, private business services such as tearooms, cafes, and bed and breakfast accommodation; or state services such as libraries and General Practitioner (GP) or Dental clinics; and charity partners such as Women's Institute (WI) coffee mornings held on the day most elderly villagers might collect their weekly pensions.\n", "Via Trading began purchasing surplus inventory from retailers and wholesalers, but after realizing a void of good wholesale suppliers, the Stambouli brothers made a shift to the wholesale end of the business. Via Trading purchases large quantities of items at discount prices, similar to the business owners featured on A&E's Storage Wars, who purchase trailers of merchandise, and then resell the items at discount prices. Brandon Bernier of Storage Hunters purchased approximately $4,000 of merchandise from Via Trading in under 3 weeks in 2012.\n", "In September 2008, Microcosm opened a new retail store in the Buckman neighborhood of southeast Portland. There was a noticeable shift in the type of reading material offered, since most stock is \"hurts\" and \"remainders\" sold at half retail price or less. In January 2014 the store grew for a fourth time, moving to a new location on Williams Avenue in Portland, a few blocks from its former longtime location in Liberty Hall.\n", "Trades include silversmiths (generally part-time), tailors, cobblers and carpenters. Basketry is still practiced, but blacksmiths and those who dye cotton cloth, weave silk and make pottery have declined. Stores are mostly quite small, located in urban centers and are mostly owned by Indo-Pakistanis, Chinese and Malagasy from the highlands. There are also weekly markets where homegrown produce is sold and things like soap, cooking pots and other things can be purchased.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In an article picturing Safia Thomas standing outside her shop, and written a few months prior to the Economic crisis of 2008, the London \"Evening Standard\" stated that it was championing the capital's independent shops. With the world increasingly dominated by vast supermarkets and chain stores, London had lost over 7,000 individual or family-owned shops between 2002 and 2008 and small businesses were struggling to survive.\n\nSection::::Later life and work.\n", "However, many European cities (Rome, for example) are already so dense in population and buildings, large supermarkets, in the American sense, may not replace the neighbourhood grocer's shop. However, \"Metro\" shops have been appearing in town and city centres in many countries, leading to the decline of independent smaller shops. Large out-of-town supermarkets and hypermarkets, such as Tesco and Sainsbury's in the United Kingdom, have been steadily weakening trade from smaller shops. Many grocery chains like Spar or Mace are taking over the regular family business model.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.:Europe.\n", "As the name implies, a give-away shop provides goods for free. There are several different models of give-away shop in popular use. One is where goods are free to any shopper; an alternative is that shoppers must provide a product before they can take a product and a third variation is where consumers have the option of taking goods for free or paying any amount that they can afford. For example, Australia's restaurant group Lentil as Anything operates on a pay whatever you feel is right model.\n\nBULLET::::- Hawkers\n", "Other commercial activities equally dispersed into restaurants, hawker stalls, photo studios, workshops and convenient stores.\n\nSection::::Attractions.\n", "The range diversified in 1970 to include third-party items, and in 1972 starting with Ramsgate, superstores were added with a much larger range of materials. The initial phase used premises such as converted car sales showrooms, mostly in High Street locations. As the formula became increasingly popular with the public and Britain enjoyed a DIY boom in the '80s, new-builds were commissioned on trading estates where much larger premises could be built and garden centres could be incorporated. The High Street shops were gradually closed.\n", "BULLET::::- ShopRite Supermarkets, Inc. (Headquartered in Florida, New York and wholly owned by the Wakefern cooperative) – Operates 35 corporately owned-and-operated ShopRites (including those taken over from Big V Stores): Clark, New Jersey, Montague Township, New Jersey, and Spotswood, New Jersey. Albany, Bedford Hills, Colonie, Carmel, Chester, Croton, Ellenville, Fishkill, Hudson, Kingston, Liberty, Middletown (two), Monroe, Montgomery, Monticello, Scarsdale, White Plains, Newburgh, New Paltz, New Rochelle, North Greenbush, Peekskill, Thornwood, Vails Gate, Town of Poughkeepsie, Niskayuna, Slingerlands, Warwick, and Yonkers (two), New York\n\nBULLET::::- Sitar ShopRite - Operates the ShopRite of Carteret\n", "By the late 1980s, the number of Spec's stores increased from 16 to 42. In 1988, the company was recognized by \"Forbes\" as being one of the nation's 200 best-run small companies.\n", "For many years, Foodarama operated a very small ShopRite Garden Center on Route 130 in East Windsor, New Jersey. In 2004, with the construction of a massive Home Depot directly adjacent to the small store, a decision was made to close the store and Foodarama moved its garden center operations into a former Frank's Nursery & Crafts store. The store had operated as a Franks location for four years before the company was liquidated, and the large building combined of interior selling space with of covered outside selling area, for a total of . The ShopRite Garden Center closed in 2008.\n", "Stores tend to be very large in size and offer a wide range of products: stores may sell music, movies, portable and household electronics, furniture, hardware, books, clothes, groceries, gourmet food, cars and real estate.\n", "In 2010 in Oakland, California it was reported that abandoned industrial spaces previously occupied by large food producers were being inhabited by small specialty food companies.\n", "In the English-speaking Caribbean, hawkers are commonly referred to as higglers or informal commercial importers. They sell items in small roadside stands, public transit hubs, or other places where consumers would want items such as snacks, cigarettes, phone cards, or other less expensive items. Higglers often break larger items into small individual consumable portions for re-sale and use. Buying these items from more traditional vendors, farmers, or merchants for re-sale via their informal network in communities \n\nSection::::Regional.:Latin America and Caribbean.:Cuba.\n", "No specific financial package is available, however the fact that the brand and system is by now well-known and proven, along with the group’s reputation for honesty and fair dealing, increases investor confidence. The shop licensee pays for the franchise in two installments, and thereafter pays a levy of 1-2% on turnover. Some \"Länder\" offer financial incentives, and some local authorities may help, for instance with premises.\n\nSection::::Premises.\n", "\"The Portland Mercury\" has said the store \"has everything from new and used office furniture to tableware to new home furnishing to weird cheap plastic stuff. You will be amazed.\" In an article about Portland's best shopping destinations, the paper said of City Liquidators: \"Expect something weird, wonderful, and vast. It's great for furniture, Egyptian sarcophagi, Urkel dolls, office supplies, fabric, dishes, carpet, and so much more.\"\n", "One more related network in the U.S.A. is HomeGoods, which has existed since 1992 and specialises in selling products for the household: furniture, lighting, kitchen utilities, carpets and mats, textiles and deco products. As of 2018, there are more than 700 stores in different towns of the U.S.A.\n", "\"Kopi tiam\"s in Singapore are commonly found in almost all residential areas as well as some industrial and business districts in the country, numbering about 2,000 in total. Although most are an aggregate of small stalls or shops, some may be more reminiscent of food courts, although each stall has similar appearance and the same style of signage.\n", "The second half of the 20th century saw the steady decline of ironmongers’ shops. Although every small town in Britain used to have at least one, their fate has mirrored that of many traditional emporia. The number of ironmongers has fallen dramatically with the advent of DIY superstores that offer a complete range of ironmongery and associated products under one roof, and more recently the arrival of comprehensive mail order catalogues and internet suppliers.\n", "Unorganised retailing, on the other hand, refers to the traditional formats of low-cost retailing, for example, the local corner shops, owner manned general stores, paan/beedi shops, convenience stores, hand cart and pavement vendors, etc.\n\nOrganised retailing actively started with the entry of Shoppers Stop,Westside, Pantaloons, Pyramid - Crossroad, all being department store formats in the mid to late 90's and was absent in most rural and small towns of India till 2010. Supermarkets and similar organised retail accounted for just 4% of the market.\n", "Frequently, many antique shops will be clustered together in nearby locations; in the same town such as in many places in New England, on the same street such as on Portobello Road or Camden in London, or in an antique mall, especially if that antique dealer has another larger retail location outside the mall or has a large online shop.\n\nAntiques shops may specialize in some particular segment of the market such as antique furniture or jewelry, but many shops stock a wide variety of inventory. Some shops are online-only sellers; they have no physical retail location.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "In the 1970s, Modesta Gaisano established White Gold Department Store in Cebu City. After her death in 1981, her five sons - David, Stephen, Henry, Victor and John, pursued their respective business interests by operating their respective retail operations.\n\nVictor Gaisano and his wife, Sally, founded the Metro Retail Stores Group in 1982 with the establishment of the Metro Gaisano Department Store and Supermarket. The group expanded to major cities outside Cebu by opening stores in key cities in Central, Western and Eastern Visayas, as well as in Central Luzon, Metro Manila and South Luzon.\n", "Zilingo, a play on the word \"zillion,\" was established in 2015 by Ankiti Bose and Dhruv Kapoor. The idea came from when Bose was on holiday in Bangkok and noticed that many of the small and medium sized shops had no online presence. \n", "In 1981, Bob Page left his job as an auditor for the state of North Carolina to start a mail-order business selling antique china and glassware. Located first in his attic and then in 400 square feet on North Elm Street in Greensboro, North Carolina, Page's business included merchandise from flea markets and customer requests on index cards. In four years, the company went from $159,000 a year to nearly $4 million in sales. The company moved several times, each time to larger space, at Bessemer Avenue, Holbrook Street, and Gallimore Dairy Road.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Behavior.:Reproduction.\n", "Section::::Behavior.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Social behavior.\n", "With respect to these three different modes of life prevalent among raccoons, Hohmann called their social structure a \"three-class society\". Samuel I. Zeveloff, professor of zoology at Weber State University and author of the book \"Raccoons: A Natural History\", is more cautious in his interpretation and concludes at least the females are solitary most of the time and, according to Erik K. Fritzell's study in North Dakota in 1978, males in areas with low population densities are solitary as well.\n", "They prefer prey that is easier to catch, specifically fish, amphibians and bird eggs. When food is plentiful, raccoons can develop strong individual preferences for specific foods. In the northern parts of their range, raccoons go into a winter rest, reducing their activity drastically as long as a permanent snow cover makes searching for food impossible.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Dousing.\n", "Section::::Taxonomy.:Evolution.\n", "Section::::Health.\n", "Concerning the general behavior patterns of raccoons, Gehrt points out that \"typically you'll find 10 to 15 percent that will do the opposite\" of what is expected.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Diet.\n", "In Pacific Rim National Park Reserve, scat samples showed raccoons to make up 28% of the cougar's diet, harbor seals and blacktail deer 24% each, North American river otters 10%, California sea lion 7%, and American mink 4%; the remaining 3% were unidentified.\n", "Section::::Raccoons and humans.:Conflicts.\n", "Raccoon dogs adapt their diets to the season; in late autumn and winter, they feed mostly on rodents, carrion, and feces, while fruit, insects, and amphibians predominate in spring. In summer, they eat fewer rodents, and mainly target nesting birds and fruits, grains, and vegetables.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Vocalizations.\n", "They are \"one of the most vegetarian of all the ground squirrels\". In the early part of the season, they primarily eat succulent fresh vegetation. When the vegetation grows more tough, they are inclined to eat more grains and seeds. By the end of the season, they appear enormously fat. Examination of stomach contents from a group of 43 squirrels revealed vegetable matter in all cases. Nothing but vegetation was found in 86% of the stomachs, while 2% contained traces of other mammals and 14% contained insect remains.\n", "Scavengers of dead plant material include termites that build nests in grasslands and then collect dead plant material for consumption within the nest. The interaction between scavenging animals and humans is seen today most commonly in suburban settings with animals such as opossums, polecats and raccoons. In some African towns and villages, scavenging from hyenas is also common.\n", "The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has resulted in diverse reactions in humans, ranging from outrage at their presence to deliberate feeding. Some wildlife experts and most public authorities caution against feeding wild animals because they might become increasingly obtrusive and dependent on humans as a food source. Other experts challenge such arguments and give advice on feeding raccoons and other wildlife in their books. Raccoons without a fear of humans are a concern to those who attribute this trait to rabies, but scientists point out this behavior is much more likely to be a behavioral adjustment to living in habitats with regular contact to humans for many generations. Raccoons usually do not prey on domestic cats and dogs, but isolated cases of killings have been reported. Attacks on pets may also target their owners.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Diet.\n", "Educating the public about the dangers of contact with raccoons or their feces is the most important preventive step.\n", "Second, these animals are not tied to eating a specific type of food. For example, lynx do not thrive in human impacted environments because they rely so heavily on snowshoe hares. In contrast, raccoons have been very successful in urban landscapes because they can live in attics, chimneys, and even sewers, and can sustain themselves with food gained from trashcans and discarded litter. \n", "Though usually nocturnal, the raccoon is sometimes active in daylight to take advantage of available food sources. Its diet consists of about 40% invertebrates, 33% plant material and 27% vertebrates. Since its diet consists of such a variety of different foods, Zeveloff argues the raccoon \"may well be one of the world's most omnivorous animals\". While its diet in spring and early summer consists mostly of insects, worms, and other animals already available early in the year, it prefers fruits and nuts, such as acorns and walnuts, which emerge in late summer and autumn, and represent a rich calorie source for building up fat needed for winter. Contrary to popular belief, raccoons only occasionally eat active or large prey, such as birds and mammals.\n", "The crab-eating raccoon is solitary and nocturnal, primarily terrestrial but will spend a significant amount of time in trees. It is almost always found near streams, lakes, and rivers. In Panama and Costa Rica, where it is sympatric with the common raccoon, it will be strictly found in inland rivers and streams, while the common raccoon lives in mangrove forests. Less frequently, it will reside in evergreen forests or the plains, but are only rarely found in rainforests. Compared to the common raccoon, which thrives in urban environments and adapts quickly to the presence of humans, the crab-eating raccoon adapts less easily and is much less likely to be found in human environments.\n", "Section::::Feeding.\n\nPrevious theories suggested the tendency for this rattlesnake to climb into low bushes was connected to a dietary shift toward consuming birds. However, studies conducted from 2002 to 2004 revealed that stomach and fecal contents were 70% mammal (Santa Catalina deer mouse, \"Peromyscus slevini\") and 30% lizard species (Santa Catalina desert iguana, \"Dipsosaurus catalinensis\"; Santa Catalina side-blotched lizard, \"Uta squamata\"; and \"Sceloporus lineatulus\".) “We found no bird remains in scats or stomach contents of \"C. catalinensis\" in any year or season.”\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "In Western culture, several autobiographical novels about living with a raccoon have been written, mostly for children. The best-known is Sterling North's \"Rascal\", which recounts how he raised a kit during World War I. In recent years, anthropomorphic raccoons played main roles in the animated television series \"The Raccoons\", the computer-animated film \"Over the Hedge\", the live action film \"Guardians of the Galaxy\" (and the comics that it was based upon) and the video game series \"Sly Cooper\".\n\nSection::::Raccoons and humans.:Hunting and fur trade.\n", "Section::::Behavior.\n", "Section::::Description.:Senses.\n", "Section::::Range.\n\nSection::::Range.:Habitat.\n", "There is increasing evidence of altered nesting habitat with water rats using artificial shelters of drainage pipes, exhaust pipes in moored boats, and rubber tyres in human-modified areas. This occurs more frequently in high population density situations.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and life history.:Breeding and growth.\n", "Among all fruits and crops cultivated in agricultural areas, sweet corn in its milk stage is particularly popular among raccoons. In a two-year study by Purdue University researchers, published in 2004, raccoons were responsible for 87% of the damage to corn plants. Like other predators, raccoons searching for food can break into poultry houses to feed on chickens, ducks, their eggs, or food.\n\nSince raccoons in high mortality areas have a higher rate of reproduction, extensive hunting may not solve problems with raccoon populations. Older males also claim larger home ranges than younger ones, resulting in a lower population density.\n" ]

[ "Raccoons made a transition to human food waste." ]

[ "Raccoons didn't transition they just get whatever is available at the time. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Raccoons made a transition to human food waste." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Raccoons didn't transition they just get whatever is available at the time. " ]

[ "Most vibration / sound transfer from a room to the outside occurs through mechanical means. The vibration passes directly through the brick, woodwork and other solid structural elements. When it meets with an element such as a wall, ceiling, floor or window, which acts as a sounding board, the vibration is amplified and heard in the second space. A mechanical transmission is much faster, more efficient and may be more readily amplified than an airborne transmission of the same initial strength.\n", "Section::::Natural modes.\n\nThe sound wave has reflections at the walls, floor and ceiling of the room. The incident wave then has interference with the reflected one. This action creates standing waves that generate nodes and high pressure zones.\n", "The ultrasonic detector operates by the transmitter emitting an ultrasonic signal into the area to be protected. The sound waves are reflected by solid objects (such as the surrounding floor, walls and ceiling) and then detected by the receiver. Because ultrasonic waves are transmitted through air, then hard-surfaced objects tend to reflect most of the ultrasonic energy, while soft surfaces tend to absorb most energy.\n", "When sound from a loudspeaker collides with the walls of a room part of the sound's energy is reflected, part is transmitted, and part is absorbed into the walls. Just as the acoustic energy was transmitted through the air as pressure differentials (or deformations), the acoustic energy travels through the material which makes up the wall in the same manner. Deformation causes mechanical losses via conversion of part of the sound energy into heat, resulting in acoustic attenuation, mostly due to the wall's viscosity. Similar attenuation mechanisms apply for the air and any other medium through which sound travels.\n", "Pipework can operate as a conduit for noise to travel from one part of a building to another (a typical example of this can be seen with waste-water pipework routed within a building). Acoustic insulation can prevent this noise transfer by acting to damp the pipe wall and performing an acoustic decoupling function wherever the pipe passes through a fixed wall or floor and wherever the pipe is mechanically fixed.\n\nPipework can also radiate mechanical noise. In such circumstances, the breakout of noise from the pipe wall can be achieved by acoustic insulation incorporating a high-density sound barrier.\n", "Section::::Acoustic properties.\n", "Several different materials may be used for sound barriers. These materials can include masonry, earthwork (such as earth berm), steel, concrete, wood, plastics, insulating wool, or composites. Walls that are made of absorptive material mitigate sound differently than hard surfaces. It is now also possible to make noise barriers with active materials such as solar photovoltaic panels to generate electricity while also reducing traffic noise. \n", "If a specular reflection from a hard flat surface is giving a problematic echo then an acoustic diffuser may be applied to the surface. It will scatter sound in all directions. This is effective to eliminate pockets of noise in a room.\n\nSection::::Room within a room.\n\nA room within a room (RWAR) is one method of isolating sound and preventing it from transmitting to the outside world where it may be undesirable.\n", "Every location has a distinct presence created by the position of the microphone in relation to the space boundaries. A microphone placed in two different parts of the same room will record two distinct presences. This is because of the unique spatial relationship between the microphone and boundaries such as walls, ceilings, and floors, and other objects in a room.\n", "Open apertures, dispersion cylinders (large diameter and usually wall height), carefully sized and placed panels, and irregular room shapes are another way of either absorbing energy or breaking up resonant modes. For absorption, as with large foam wedges seen in anechoic chambers, the loss occurs ultimately through turbulence, as colliding air molecules convert some of their kinetic energy into heat. Damped panels, typically consisting of sheets of hardboard between glass fibre battens, have been used to absorb bass, by allowing movement of the surface panel and energy absorption by friction with the fibre battens.\n", "Micro perforated plate\n\nA micro perforated plate (MPP) is a device used to absorb sound, reducing its intensity. It consists of a thin flat plate, made from one of several different materials, with small holes punched in it. An MPP offers an alternative to traditional sound absorbers made from porous materials.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "The most common type of ceiling is the dropped ceiling, which is suspended from structural elements above. Panels of drywall are fastened either directly to the ceiling joists or to a few layers of moisture-proof plywood which are then attached to the joists. Pipework or ducts can be run in the gap above the ceiling, and insulation and fireproofing material can be placed here.\n", "The inherent functionality of a surface acoustic wave sensor can be extended by the deposition of a thin film of material across the delay line which is sensitive to the physical phenomena of interest. If a physical phenomenon causes a change in length or mass in the deposited thin film, the surface acoustic wave will be affected by the mechanisms mentioned above. Some extended functionality examples are listed below:\n\nSection::::Device Operation.:Extended Functionality.:Chemical Vapors.\n", "To get the desired RT60, several acoustics materials can be used as described in several books. A valuable simplification of the task was proposed by Oscar Bonello in 1979 It consists of using standard acoustic panels of 1 m hung from the walls of the room (only if the panels are parallel). These panels use a combination of three Helmholtz resonators and a wooden resonant panel. This system gives a large acoustic absorption at low frequencies (under 500 Hz) and reduces at high frequencies to compensate for the typical absorption by people, lateral surfaces, ceilings, etc.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic board\n", "Section::::Application.\n", "Section::::Types.:Translucent walls.\n\nWalls made of glass brick are translucent to transparent. Traditionally, they are hollow and grouted with a fine concrete grout, but some modern glass brick walls are solid cast glass grouted with a transparent glue. If the glue matches the refractive index of the glass, the wall can be fairly transparent.\n", "Section::::SAW devices.:Application in electronic components.\n\nThis kind of wave is commonly used in devices called \"SAW devices\" in electronic circuits. SAW devices are used as filters, oscillators and transformers, devices that are based on the transduction of acoustic waves. The transduction from electric energy to mechanical energy (in the form of SAWs) is accomplished by the use of piezoelectric materials.\n", "Price visited the Irvings and observed double walls of wooden panelling covering the interior rooms of the old stone farmhouse which featured considerable interior air space between stone and wood walls that \"makes the whole house one great speaking-tube, with walls like soundingboards. By speaking into one of the many apertures in the panels, it should be possible to convey the voice to various parts of the house.\" According to Richard Wiseman \"Price and Lambert were less than enthusiastic about the case, concluding that only the most credulous of individuals would be impressed with the evidence for Gef.\"\n", "Section::::Device Operation.:Inherent Functionality.:Mass.\n\nThe accumulation of mass on the surface of an acoustic wave sensor will affect the surface acoustic wave as it travels across the delay line. The velocity \"v\" of a wave traveling through a solid is proportional to the square root of product of the Young’s modulus \"E\" and the density formula_2 of the material.\n", "Price visited the Irvings and observed double walls of wooden panelling covering the interior rooms of the old stone farmhouse which featured considerable interior air space between stone and wood walls that \"makes the whole house one great speaking-tube, with walls like soundingboards. By speaking into one of the many apertures in the panels, it should be possible to convey the voice to various parts of the house.\" According to Richard Wiseman \"Price and Lambert were less than enthusiastic about the case, concluding that only the most credulous of individuals would be impressed with the evidence for Gef.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Diffraction is the change of a sound wave’s propagation to avoid obstacles. According to Huygens’ principle, when a sound wave is partially blocked by an obstacle, the remaining part that gets through acts as a source of secondary waves. For instance, if you are in a room and you shout with the door open, the people on either side of hallway will hear it. The sound waves that left the door become a source, then spread out in the hallway. The sounds from the surroundings might interfere with the acoustic space like the example given.\n\nSection::::Uses of acoustic space.\n", "A whispering gallery is most simply constructed in the form of a circular wall, and allows whispered communication from any part of the internal side of the circumference to any other part. The sound is carried by waves, known as whispering-gallery waves, that travel around the circumference clinging to the walls, an effect that was discovered in the whispering gallery of St Paul's Cathedral in London. The extent to which the sound travels at St Paul's can also be judged by clapping in the gallery, which produces four echoes. Other historical examples are the Gol Gumbaz mausoleum in Bijapur and the Echo Wall of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing. A hemispherical enclosure will also guide whispering gallery waves. The waves carry the words so that others will be able to hear them from the opposite side of the gallery.\n", "BULLET::::- Sound isolation: Noise isolation is isolating noise to prevent it from transferring out of one area, using barriers like deadening materials to trap sound and vibrational energy. Example: In home and office construction, many builders place sound-control barriers (such as fiberglass batting) in walls to deaden the transmission of noise through them.\n", "The calculation method used to produce the Sound Reduction Index takes into account the relative size of the tested rooms, and the size of the tested panel, and is therefore (theoretically) independent of these features, therefore a 1×1 panel of plasterboard (drywall) should have the same R as a 10×10 panel.\n\nSection::::Normalized Level Difference (D).\n", "A simple example of the operation of the principle can be seen when an open doorway connects two rooms and a sound is produced in a remote corner of one of them. A person in the other room will hear the sound as if it originated at the doorway. As far as the second room is concerned, the vibrating air in the doorway is the source of the sound.\n\nSection::::Mathematical expression of the principle.\n" ]

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[ "A hyper-vigilant state created in the midbrain may further contribute to hallucinations. More specifically, the emergency response is activated in the brain when individuals wake up paralyzed and feel vulnerable to attack. This helplessness can intensify the effects of the threat response well above the level typical of normal dreams, which could explain why such visions during sleep paralysis are so vivid. The threat-activated vigilance system is a protective mechanism that differentiates between dangerous situations and determines whether the fear response is appropriate.\n", "The hyper-vigilance response can lead to the creation of endogenous stimuli that contribute to the perceived threat. A similar process may explain hallucinations, with slight variations, in which an evil presence is perceived by the subject to be attempting to suffocate them, either by pressing heavily on the chest or by strangulation. A neurological explanation holds that this results from a combination of the threat vigilance activation system and the muscle paralysis associated with sleep paralysis that removes voluntary control of breathing. Several features of REM breathing patterns exacerbate the feeling of suffocation. These include shallow rapid breathing, hypercapnia, and slight blockage of the airway, which is a symptom prevalent in sleep apnea patients.\n", "Nightmare's realm is not part of The Mindscape, but the Sleepwalkers are aware of him and consider him an enemy. Because Sleepwalkers do not have to sleep, Nightmare has never been able to affect or dominate them. He sought to do this through the hero Sleepwalker, who had been connected into the brain of the human Rick Sheridan. Nightmare sent Sleepwalker back to his own realm, with a monitor to assure the hero Rick was not being tormented. Rick was being tormented, with the intent of driving Sleepwalker mad and thus giving Nightmare access to the minds of Sleepwalker's people. The hero was not fooled and sacrificed his return home in order to stop Nightmare.\n", "Sleep paralysis may include hypnagogic hallucinations, such as a supernatural creature suffocating or terrifying the individual, accompanied by a feeling of pressure on one's chest and difficulty breathing. Another example of a hallucination involves a menacing shadowy figure entering one's room or lurking outside one's window, while the subject is paralyzed. The content and interpretation of these hallucinations are driven by fear, somatic sensations, REM-induced sexual arousal, and REM mentation which are embedded in the sleeper's cultural narrative.\n", "BULLET::::- In Scandinavian folklore, sleep paralysis is caused by a mare, a supernatural creature related to incubi and succubi. The mare is a damned woman, who is cursed and her body is carried mysteriously during sleep and without her noticing. In this state, she visits villagers to sit on their rib cages while they are asleep, causing them to experience nightmares. The Swedish film \"Marianne\" examines the folklore surrounding sleep paralysis.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Documentary films.\n\n\"The Nightmare\" is a 2015 documentary that discusses the causes of sleep paralysis as seen through extensive interviews with participants, and the experiences are re-enacted by professional actors. In synopsis, it proposes that such cultural memes as alien abduction, the near death experience and shadow people can, in many cases, be attributed to sleep paralysis. The \"real-life\" horror film debuted at the Sundance Film Festival on January 26, 2015 and premiered in theatres on June 5, 2015.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep information and links from Stanford University\n", "BULLET::::- In Latvian folk culture sleep paralysis is called a torture or strangling by \"Lietuvēns\". It is thought to be a \"soul\" of a killed (strangled, drowned, hanged) person and attacks both people and domestic animals. When under attack, one must move the toe of the left foot to get rid of the attacker.\n\nSection::::Folklore.:Americas.\n\nBULLET::::- During the Salem witch trials several people reported night-time attacks by various alleged witches, including Bridget Bishop, that may have been caused by sleep paralysis.\n", "In the series \"Cinema of Fear\" from Mezco Toyz, a screen grab was included depicting the scene where Kristen is being eaten alive by the Freddy-snake in \"Dream Warriors\".\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Box office.\n", "Ernest Jones, author of \"On The Nightmare\", states that the characteristics of a nightmare are: “Intense or agonizing dread; the sense of oppression or of weight on the chest which dangerously threatens the continuation of breathing; and the dreamer’s conviction of being helpless or paralyzed.” Published in 1911, these characteristics lasted sixty years until American sleep researcher, Charles Fisher, and his colleagues recognized that they were too broad. Fisher concluded that distressing dreams in REM sleep will contain the feeling of weight on the chest and sense of helplessness, but the intense or agonizing dread is a characteristic of NREM dreams. These dreams are more commonly known as night terrors.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleep terrors (STs) potentially frightening parasomnia but are not REM based and there is a lack of awareness to surroundings, characteristic screams during STs.\n\nBULLET::::- Noctural panic attacks (NPAs) involves fear and acute distress but lacks paralysis and dream imagery\n\nBULLET::::- Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often includes scary imagery and anxiety but not limited to sleep-wake transitions\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "According to some scientists culture may be a major factor in shaping sleep paralysis. When sleep paralysis is interpreted through a particular cultural filter, it may take on greater salience. For example, if sleep paralysis is feared in a certain culture, this fear could lead to conditioned fear, and thus worsen the experience, in turn leading to higher rates. Consistent with this idea, high rates and long durations of immobility during sleep paralysis have been found in Egypt, where there are elaborate beliefs about sleep paralysis, involving malevolent spirit-like creatures, the \"Jinn.\"\n", "It can be difficult to differentiate between cataplexy brought on by narcolepsy and true sleep paralysis, because the two phenomena are physically indistinguishable. The best way to differentiate between the two is to note when the attacks occur most often. Narcolepsy attacks are more common when the individual is falling asleep; ISP and RISP attacks are more common upon awakening.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n\nSimilar conditions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Exploding head syndrome (EHS) potentially frightening parasomnia, the hallucinations are usually briefer always loud or jarring and there is no paralysis during EHS.\n\nBULLET::::- Nightmare disorder (ND); also REM-based parasomnia\n", "REM sleep physiology and somatic symptoms coupled with the awareness that one is paralyzed can generate a variety of psychological symptoms during sleep paralysis, including fear and worry that are aggravated by catastrophic cognitions about the attack. This can activate a fight-flight reaction and panic-like arousal. Consequently, when the person attempts to escape the paralysis, somatic symptoms and arousal are exacerbated, as an execution of motor programs in the absence of dampening proprioceptive feedback can lead to heightened sensations of bodily tightness and pressure, and even pain and spasms in limbs.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Most dreams in popular culture are, however, not symbolic, but straightforward and realistic depictions of their dreamer's fears and desires. Dream scenes may be indistinguishable from those set in the dreamer's real world, a narrative device that undermines the dreamer's and the audience's sense of security and allows horror film protagonists, such as those of \"Carrie\" (1976), \"Friday the 13th\" (1980) or \"An American Werewolf in London\" (1981) to be suddenly attacked by dark forces while resting in seemingly safe places.\n", "J. M. Barrie, the author of the Peter Pan stories, may have had sleep paralysis. He said of himself ‘In my early boyhood it was a sheet that tried to choke me in the night.’ He also described several incidents in the Peter Pan stories that indicate that he was familiar with an awareness of a loss of muscle tone whilst in a dream-like state. For example, Maimie is asleep but calls out ‘What was that...It is coming nearer! It is feeling your bed with its horns-it is boring for [into] you’. and when the Darling children were dreaming of flying, Barrie says ‘Nothing horrid was visible in the air, yet their progress had become slow and laboured, exactly as if they were pushing their way through hostile forces. Sometimes they hung in the air until Peter had beaten on it with his fists.’ Barrie describes many parasomnias and neurological symptoms in his books and uses them to explore the nature of consciousness from an experiential point of view.\n", "The intruder and incubus hallucinations highly correlate with one another, and moderately correlated with the third hallucination, vestibular-motor disorientation, also known as out-of-body experiences, which differ from the other two in not involving the threat-activated vigilance system.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Threat hyper-vigilance.\n", "This could explain why the REM and waking stages of sleep overlap during sleep paralysis, and definitely explains the muscle paralysis experienced on awakening. If the effects of sleep on neural populations cannot be counteracted, characteristics of REM sleep are retained upon awakening. Common consequences of sleep paralysis include headaches, muscle pains or weakness and/or paranoia. As the correlation with REM sleep suggests, the paralysis is not complete: use of EOG traces shows that eye movement is still possible during such episodes; however, the individual experiencing sleep paralysis is unable to speak.\n", "A study researching the causes of nightmares focuses on patients who have sleep apnea. The study was conducted to determine whether or not nightmares may be caused by sleep apnea, or being unable to breathe. In the nineteenth century, authors believed that nightmares were caused by not having enough oxygen, therefore it was believed that those with sleep apnea had more frequent nightmares than those without. The results actually showed that healthy people have more nightmares than the sleep apnea patients.\n", "Phillip is a patient at Westin Hills suffering from horrific nightmares that made him afraid to sleep. Phillip was very quick in connecting the dots from his own dreams with those of his fellow Westin Hills patients, and he was widely seen as a leader figure amongst the kids whose dreams were being haunted by Freddy Krueger. Phillip was susceptible to sleep-walking, and Freddy, eager to demoralize the kids by eliminating their leader, attacks Phillip in a dream by slicing open his skin and pulling out his tendons, using them like puppet-strings to manipulate his movements. Freddy leads Phillip to a high ledge in a tower and then severs the tendon-strings, allowing him to plummet to his death.\n", "Another major theory is that the neural functions that regulate sleep are out of balance in such a way that causes different sleep states to overlap. In this case, cholinergic sleep on neural populations are hyperactivated and the serotonergic sleep off neural populations are under-activated. As a result, the cells capable of sending the signals that would allow for complete arousal from the sleep state, the serotonergic neural populations, have difficulty in overcoming the signals sent by the cells that keep the brain in the sleep state. During normal REM sleep, the threshold for a stimulus to cause arousal is greatly elevated. Under normal conditions, medial and vestibular nuclei, cortical, thalamic, and cerebellar centers coordinate things such as head and eye movement, and orientation in space.\n", "Nancy is introduced to the rest of the patients: Phillip, a habitual sleepwalker; Kincaid, a tough kid from the streets who is prone to violence; Jennifer, a hopeful television actress; Will, who is confined to a wheelchair after a suicide attempt; Taryn, a former drug addict; and Joey, who is too traumatized to speak. Later, Kristen is again attacked in her dreams by Freddy and she unwittingly pulls Nancy into her dream; this allows both of them to escape. Kristen reveals that she has had the ability to pull people into her dreams since she was a little girl. Over the next two nights, Freddy throws Phillip off a roof in what looks like a suicide attempt and kills Jennifer by smashing her head into a television.\n", "The story of Kristen Parker would continue with 1988's \"\". This time, Kristen (Tuesday Knight) unwittingly releases Freddy, who immediately kills Kincaid and Joey. Before Freddy can kill Kristen, she transfers her dream powers to Alice Johnson (Lisa Wilcox), a friend from school. Alice begins inadvertently providing victims for Freddy when she begins pulling people into her dreams while she sleeps. Alice, who begins taking on traits of the friends who were murdered, confronts Freddy. She uses the power of the Dream Master to release all the souls Freddy has taken; they subsequently rip themselves from Freddy's body, killing him in the process.\n", "The events experienced during sleep paralysis are often unusual and terrifying, but are often dismissed as being a minor sleep disorder. Others are convinced the event was so unusual and unpleasant that the explanation must be equally unusual and unpleasant; they search for such an explanation.\n\nSection::::Skeptical perspectives.:False memory hypothesis.:Lucid dreams.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "Paralysis can occur in localised or generalised forms, or it may follow a certain pattern. Most paralyses caused by nervous-system damage (e.g., spinal cord injuries) are constant in nature; however, some forms of periodic paralysis, including sleep paralysis, are caused by other factors.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Biodiversity.:Microbial diversity surveys and species richness.\n", "Beers can be carbonated with CO or with other gases such as Nitrogen. These gases are not as soluble in water as carbon dioxide, so they form bubbles that do not grow through Ostwald ripening. This means that the beer has smaller bubbles and a more creamy and stable head. This less soluble gas gives the beer a different and flatter texture. In beer terms, the mouthfeel is smooth, not bubbly like beers with normal carbonation. Nitro beer could taste less acidic than normal beer.\n\nSection::::Storage and degradation.\n", "Due to the rise in water level, Big Soda Lake became a meromictic lake. The denser lower layer is colder and more saline, and no longer mixes with the surface layer at any time of year. It is completely depleted of oxygen below the chemocline boundary.\n", "The flavour of the whisky will linger on the palate and will change over time as the flavour decays in the mouth.\n\nSection::::Tasting notes.:Water.\n", "Section::::Post-bottling.\n", "Many soda lakes are strongly stratified, with well-oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and an anoxic lower layer (hypolimnion), without oxygen and often high concentrations of sulfide. Stratification can be permanent, or with seasonal mixing. The depth of the oxic/anoxic interface separating the two layers varies from a few centimeters to near the bottom sediments, depending on local conditions. In either case, it represents an important barrier, both physically and between strongly contrasting biochemical conditions.\n\nSection::::Biodiversity.\n", "Coca-Cola Bottling Plant (Cincinnati, Ohio)\n\nThe Coca-Cola Bottling Plant is a historic manufacturing facility in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Constructed in the 1930s in high Streamline Moderne style, it no longer produces beverages, but it has been named a historic site.\n\nSection::::Bottling plant.\n", "After mixing up the concentrate to the prescribed recipe (including all recommended safety precautions), the syrup is diluted 5:1 with (\"preferably sodium-free\") soda water to make the finished drink; at this dilution, the above combination of ingredients will yield approximately 24 litres of OpenCola.\n\nThe full recipe also includes instructions for home-made soda water produced from basic ingredients such as yeast and sugar in order to make the entire process open source, otherwise there would be a need to use commercially produced bottled or canned soda, or consumer carbonation machines with commercially manufactured carbon dioxide canisters.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "[This letter has been] inspired from what I have seen on the street these days: fans who have approached me, the people around me, and from my own personal experiences. I share the sadness that has been created in many by our separation. I, myself, am immersed in that state because few things have been so important to me in my life as Soda Stereo. Everyone knows that it is impossible to lead a band without a certain level of conflict. It is a fragile equilibrium in the war of ideas that very few are able to handle for fifteen years, as we proudly did [and maintained]. But, ultimately, different personal and musical misunderstandings began to compromise that equilibrium... excuses were generated for not confronting ourselves, excuses for a future group that we no longer believed in as we did in the past. To end for the sake of the band is, in its redundancy, to [give importance] to our mental health, and above all to show respect for all of our fans who have followed us for such a long time. Goodbye.\n", "A rich diversity of microbial life inhabit soda lakes, often in dense concentrations. This makes them unusually productive ecosystems and leads to permanent or seasonal \"algae blooms\" with visible colouration in many lakes. The colour varies between particular lakes, depending on their predominant life forms and can range from green to orange or red.\n", "The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. In the carbonization process water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Aftermath and legacy.:Taste test problems.\n", "Section::::Influences.\n\nThe main influence that Soda Stereo received during their career was of British rock. Among the most influential artists for the band sound are the Beatles and solo careers of George Harrison, Paul McCartney and John Lennon; the Police, the Cure, Television, Talking Heads, Elvis Costello, David Bowie, Virus, XTC, the Specials, Squeeze, Pink Floyd, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Queen (in 1997 band recorded tribute song \"Algún día\"), My Bloody Valentine and Cocteau Twins.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Soda Lake (San Bernardino County)\n\nSoda Lake (or Soda Dry Lake) is a dry lake at the terminus of the Mojave River in the Mojave Desert of San Bernardino County, California. The lake has standing water during wet periods, and water can be found beneath the surface.\n\nSoda Lake along with Silver Lake are what remains of the large, perennial, Holocene Lake Mojave. The waters of the lake, now with no outlet, evaporate and leave alkaline evaporites of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate.\n", "Coca-Cola Bottling Company of Cape Cod\n\nThe Coca-Cola Bottling Company of Cape Cod is a former bottler of Coca-Cola, Dr Pepper and Canada Dry soft drinks located in Sandwich, Massachusetts, United States. The company was bought out in 2000 by the Coca-Cola Bottling Company of Northern New England.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The recurring theme of TaB cola was conceived due to the hot pink color of the can. Nagy thought that hot pink was the most unnatural color of the spectrum, so Cross's constant consumption of the cola is intended to convey her mental status as robotic. The robots that Cross begins to hallucinate also reflect her resentment against the machine-like status society has relegated her to.\n", "It takes longer than a year for fruits to reach maturity. The fruit first shows signs of ripening by its bottommost scales becoming yellowed. As it ripens, the starch that was stored in the green fruit is converted to sugar, giving it its sweet flavor. This mechanism is comparable to how banana fruits ripen. The strong odor the fruit produces becomes noticeable when it is half-ripe. As time passes and the fruit continues to ripen, the odor becomes stronger. After it becomes fully ripe, however, the scent deteriorates quickly.\n", "The primary focus of both the campaign and the new packaging is the reformulated taste of the drink, proclaimed on the packaging as 'New - tastes nothing like the old one!'.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "On the same shelf as the can of salt is another can full of white grains. The doctors ask the chef what this is; he responds that this is saltpetre, used to preserve meats. Its main component is sodium nitrate. The chef also mentions that once, he accidentally refilled the salt can with saltpetre, before realising his mistake and replacing the saltpetre with the real salt.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Our debut was at a fashion show at the \"Disco Airport\" (Discothèque), which was close to where we practiced in Buenos Aires. Nobody gave us so much as a nod. The three of us played on a very deficient sound system. But we were happy, even though no one paid attention. We really looked like a punk group, we didn't know how to play and the sound was loud, even though it was just that.\n", "Section::::List of soda lakes.\n\nThe following table lists some examples of soda lakes by region, listing country, pH and salinity. NA indicates 'data not available':\n\nSection::::Industrial use.\n", "Section::::Background and release.\n", "It is dissolved in water to create a clear and odorless solution which is then drunk. While most consumers find the taste of macrogol itself to be very mild and unobjectionable, the electrolytes contained in formulations for purging and cleansing give the solution an extremely salty and bitter taste.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nBULLET::::- PEGylation\n" ]

[ "Soda loses taste after being out for some time." ]

[ "Soda just loses carbonation which is what makes soda satisfying to drink. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Soda loses taste after being out for some time." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Soda just loses carbonation which is what makes soda satisfying to drink. " ]

[ "\"Aliens\" demonstrated its capabilities with the M56 Smartgun, a handheld light machine gun. This weapon was connected to the user's Head-Up Display, showing where the weapon is aimed. It was also equipped with a motion-sensitive auto-tracking system, capable of autonomous and accurate targeting of moving objects (the real weapon was a MG42 with a Steadicam harness).\n", "Sega later produced gun games which resemble first-person light gun video games, but were in fact electro-mechanical games that used rear image projection in a manner similar to a zoetrope to produce moving animations on a screen. An early example of this was \"Duck Hunt\", which Sega released in 1969; it featured animated moving targets on a screen, printed out the player's score on a ticket, and had sound effects that were volume controllable.\n", "Section::::Use in video games.\n\nThe video game light gun is typically modeled on a ballistic weapon (usually a pistol) and is used for targeting objects on a video screen. With force feedback, the light gun can also simulate the recoil of the weapon. The first gun for a home console was in fact a big rifle, the Magnavox Odyssey's Shooting Gallery, which looked very lifelike and even needed to be \"cocked\" after each shot.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nMechanical gun games existed before the emergence of electronic video games, as far back as the 1920s. The first light guns appeared in the 1930s, with the Seeburg Ray-O-Lite. Games using this toy rifle were mechanical and the rifle fired beams of light at targets wired with sensors.\n", "Light guns are very popular in arcade games, but had not caught on as well in the home video game console market until after the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), Sega Master System (SMS), Mega Drive/Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) systems and Atari XEGS. Many home 'Pong' systems of the 1970s included a pistol or gun for shooting simple targets on screen. Nintendo's NES Zapper for the NES is the most popular example of the light gun, and \"Duck Hunt\" its most popular game.\n", "The original version of \"Wild Gunman\" is one of Nintendo's electro-mechanical arcade games created by Gunpei Yokoi and released in 1974. It consists of a light gun connected to a 16 mm projection screen. Full-motion video footage of an American Wild West gunslinger is projected onto the screen. When this enemy character's eyes flash, the player draws and fires the gun. If the player is fast enough, the projection changes to that of the shot gunman falling down; otherwise it shows the gunman drawing and firing his gun. A victorious player faces off against several more gunslinger opponents.\n", "In William Gibson's novel \"Neuromancer\", the character Molly Millions uses a flechette pistol.\n\nIn Neal Stephenson's novel \"Snowcrash\", characters use a modified version of a needle/railgun called Reason.\n\nIn Michael Moorcock's Jerry Cornelius stories, the title character uses a transistorized needlegun.\n\nIn Bungie's 1996 video game sequel, \"Marathon Infinity\", the KKV-7 10mm SMG Flechette makes its debut and introduces the player to an extreme rate of fire.\n", "In 2007, Nintendo released the Wii Zapper for the Wii, a peripheral which is actually a plastic shell that houses both the Wii Remote and nunchuk for gun-style video games. While it does not contain any traditional light gun technology, the peripheral makes use of the Wii Remote's built-in infrared tracking system to shoot targets that correspond on-screen. Its name is a reference to the classic NES Zapper for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Sony has also released attachments that house the PlayStation Move motion controller in the form of a pistol and rifle, the latter named the Sharp Shooter.\n", "Taito's first-person shooter arcade game \"Gun Buster\", released in August 1992, featured a unique control scheme where the player moves using an eight-direction joystick and takes aim using a mounted positional light gun. The player could turn left or right by moving the gun pointer to the left or right edges of the screen. However, the game lacked the ability to look up or down.\n", "Sometimes, the sensors are placed around the screen and the emitter on the gun, but calculations are similar.\n\nThe Wii Remote uses an infrared video camera in the handheld controller, rather than a simple sensor.\n\nThis family of methods are used for the Wii Remote, GunCon 3, and modern arcade light gun games.\n", "Section::::Development history.\n", "Throughout the 1970s, electro-mechanical arcade games were gradually replaced by electronic video games, following the release of \"Pong\" in 1972, with 1978's \"Space Invaders\" dealing a yet more powerful blow to the popularity of mechanical games. Light guns used in electronic video games work in the opposite manner to their mechanical counterparts: the sensor is in the gun and pulling the trigger allows it to receive light from the on-screen targets. Computer light pens had been used for practical purposes at MIT in the early 1960s, and the Magnavox Odyssey had a light gun accessory, in the production of which Nintendo was involved.\n", "A \"Zapper\" prototype was shown at E3 2006 featuring a shotgun-like design with a \"trigger hole\", as well as an analog stick built into the top of the handle. This made it similar to the Nunchuk attachment, but without the accelerometer and the second button. In this version, the \"gun barrel\" of the shell housed the Wii Remote and connected with its expansion port.\n", "Developed in the late 1960s, the Gunrunner was designed as an inexpensive aerial target, unguided and flying on a ballistic path, for use by the United States Army and United States Navy during the development and testing of the FIM-43 Redeye man-portable surface-to-air missile.\n", "A major revision was the Mark IIIB system which moved most of the electronics into a larger (quite heavy) two handled gun. The speaker, battery, display and CPU were all moved to the gun, leaving the front and back as sensor only areas. The strap based vest was retained.\n", "The toy, including the \"Star Trek\" version, was sold in Canada under the \"Grand Toys\" brand.\n\nSection::::Later models.\n\n In the 1990s, Chinese manufacturers produced a new batch of tracer guns based on the original models. Some simply had bright new colors and new names (e.g. \"HIT THE TARGET\"), but others sported new features. For example, the RFDS3816 \"Rapid Fire Disc Shooter\", distributed by MAGIC, had removable magazines; the DS3823 \"Disc Shooter\", by the same company, loaded from the left side instead of the right.\n\nSection::::Use in the game Assassin.\n", "The gun is driven by compressed air. In the 1970s, Goodyear Aerospace in Litchfield Park, Arizona, used a gun with a ceramic diaphragm to seal the compressed air at the back of the gun's barrel. To fire the gun, a needle struck and ruptured the diaphragm, allowing the compressed air to drive the chicken (in its container—a cylindrical cardboard ice cream carton) down the barrel. At the muzzle, a metal ring stopped the carton, but allowed the chicken to pass through. Cameras recorded the collision.\n", "Another notable example would be the smart pistols from the Titanfall video game series. In Titanfall 1, the Smart Pistol MK5, was a pistol that featured an autolock system that required the user to view a target for several seconds before locking. It was later preceded in Titanfall 2 with the Smart Pistol MK6.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Cameron, James - \"Aliens\" - 20th Century Fox, United States, 1986\n\nBULLET::::- Pondsmith, Michael - \"Cyberpunk 2020: The Roleplaying Game of the Dark Future\" - R. Talsorian Games, United States, 1990\n", "The Gamegun (styled GAMEGUN on its packaging) is the only light gun released for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer video game console. It was released in 1994 by American Laser Games, developers of full motion video-based shooter games. The Gamegun is styled exactly like the Peacekeeper Revolver, except with a notable color difference. The peripheral came in two versions: one player and two-player. The only difference between the two is that the two-player version, which was released in 1995, came with an attached y-connector end, allowing two players to plug in two light guns to play simultaneously. With the one player version, the gun could be daisy chained with a regular 3DO controller, allowing another player to use the gamepad at the same time.\n", "Yobo DC Lightgun has 3 modes of operation which are selected using a switch: \"Normal\" (single shot), \"AR\" (single shot with auto reload) and \"AF\" (automatic fire with automatic reload). It also has a vibration on/off switch. It looks like the original Dreamcast Gun but bulkier. There is an expansion slot. The gun features a D-pad with Start and B buttons above the grip along with the trigger.\n\nSection::::Unofficial light guns.:SRC DC Wireless Gun.\n", "Section::::Unofficial light guns.:DCX Blaster.\n\nThe DCX Blaster is an almost exact clone of the original Dreamcast Gun, except that it is painted black and has minor stylistic variations. It features a single expansion slot and is compatible in all regions. It has variable firing configurations which include manual-reload & triggered-fire, auto-reload & triggered-fire, and auto-reload & auto-fire.\n\nSection::::Unofficial light guns.:Hais DC Lightgun with Kick-Back.\n", "A distinct variation of an analog joystick is a positional gun, which works differently from a light gun. Instead of using light sensors, a positional gun is essentially an analog joystick mounted in a fixed location that records the position of the gun to determine where the player is aiming on the screen. It is often used for arcade gun games, with early examples including Sega's \"Sea Devil\" in 1972; Taito's \"Attack\" in 1976; \"Cross Fire\" in 1977; and Nintendo's \"Battle Shark\" in 1978.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nExperimental filmmaker Craig Baldwin's 1978 short \"Wild Gunman\" features footage from the original 1974 video game re-edited, sped up and slowed down to surreal effect. The game appears as an arcade machine in a scene in \"Back to the Future Part II\". On October 21, 2015, or \"\"Back to the Future\" Day,\" Nintendo re-released the game on the Wii U Virtual Console in honor of its appearance in the film.\n", "Other features of the game included obstacles between the characters which block shots, such as a cactus, and (in later levels) stagecoaches. The guns have limited ammunition, with each player given six bullets; a round ends if both players run out of ammo. Gunshots can also ricochet off the top or bottom edges of the playfield, allowing for indirect hits to be used as a possible strategy.\n\nSection::::Development and technology.\n", "Section::::Operational history.\n" ]

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[ "Salts are frequently used for de-icing, but salt solutions are not used for cooling systems because they can cause severe corrosion to metals. Instead, non-corrosive antifreezes are commonly used for critical de-icing, such as for aircraft wings.\n\nSection::::Automotive and internal combustion engine use.\n", "The second major application of salt is for de-icing and anti-icing of roads, both in grit bins and spread by winter service vehicles. In anticipation of snowfall, roads are optimally \"anti-iced\" with brine (concentrated solution of salt in water), which prevents bonding between the snow-ice and the road surface. This procedure obviates the heavy use of salt after the snowfall. For de-icing, mixtures of brine and salt are used, sometimes with additional agents such as calcium chloride and/or magnesium chloride. The use of salt or brine becomes ineffective below .\n", "The most common use of a frigorific mixture is to melt ice. When ammonium chloride salt is placed on ice when the ambient temperature is greater than −17.8 °C (0 °F), the salt melts some of the ice and the temperature drops to −17.8 °C. Since the mixture is colder than the ambient temperature, heat is absorbed and the temperature rises. This causes the salt to melt more of the ice to drive the temperature down again. The process continues until all of the salt is dissolved in the melted ice. If there is enough salt present, then all of the ice will be melted.\n", "Lord Chancellor Bacon, says Shachtman, who was advocating experimental science had in the publication \"Navum Organum\" published in the later part of 1620s had made an attempt to explain the artificial freezing experiment at Westminster Abbey, though he was not present during the demonstration, as \"Nitre (or rather its spirit) is very cold, and hence nitre or salt when added to snow or ice intensifies the cold of the latter, the nitre by adding to its own cold, but the salt by supplying activity to the cold snow.\" This explanation on the cold inducing aspects of nitre (now known as potassium nitrate) and salt was tried then by many scientists.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Road salt.:Substitution.\n\nSome agencies are substituting beer, molasses, and beet juice instead of road salt. Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt based solutions for de-icing.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Food industry and agriculture.\n\nMany microorganisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage.\n", "Freeze-thaw desalination uses freezing to remove fresh water from salt water. Salt water is sprayed during freezing conditions into a pad where an ice-pile builds up. When seasonal conditions warm, naturally desalinated melt water is recovered. This technique relies on extended periods of natural sub-freezing conditions.\n\nA different freeze-thaw method, not weather dependent and invented by Alexander Zarchin, freezes seawater in a vacuum. Under vacuum conditions the ice, desalinated, is melted and diverted for collection and the salt is collected.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Electrodialysis membrane.\n", "Sea salt may not be used, as it is too fine and dissolves too quickly, so all salt used in gritting comes from salt mines, a non-renewable source. As a result, some road maintenance agencies have networks of ice prediction stations, to prevent unnecessary gritting which not only wastes salt, but can damage the environment and disrupt traffic.\n", "Abbott describes the importance of water, providing information on cisterns and water purification methods. In regards to ice, he discusses the use of \"butter coolers\" and \"freezing vases\". For people who can not afford to buy a freezing vase, he lists methods to create cold temperatures without the use of ice. \"A cheap and powerful freezing mixture may be obtained by pulverising glauber salts finely, and placing it at the bottom of a glass vessel. Equal parts of sal-ammoniac and nitre are then to be finely powdered and mixed together, and subsequently added to the glauber salts, stirring the powder well together to dissolve the salts; a degree of cold will be produced frequently below zero of Fahrenheit.\"\n", "Some ice in the sea is frozen seawater. Other ice comes from glaciers, which come from compacted snow, and is thus fresh water ice. \n\nIf salt water ice is made on top of fresh water ice, if it melts, it may rapidly perforate the lower layers of the ice sheet. (Salt water melts at a lower temperature than fresh water does.) Some have speculated that river water could be used to thicken fresh water ice if this problem is deemed important.\n\nSection::::Stratospheric sulfate aerosols.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Desalination of seawater.\n", "A commonly used thermal salt is the eutectic mixture of 60% sodium nitrate and 40% potassium nitrate, which can be used as liquid between 260-550 °C. It has a heat of fusion of 161 J/g, and a heat capacity of 1.53 J/(g K).\n\nExperimental salts using lithium may have a melting point of 116 °C while still having a heat capacity of 1.54 J/(g K).\n\nSalts may cost $1,000 per ton, and a typical plant may use 30,000 tons of salt.\n\nRegular table salt has a melting point of 800 °C and a heat of fusion of 520 J/g.\n\nSection::::Ambient temperature molten salts.\n", "Fractional freezing can be used to desalinate sea water. In a process that naturally occurs with sea ice, frozen salt water, when partially melted, leaves behind ice that is of a much lower salt content. Because sodium chloride lowers the melting point of water, the salt in sea water tends to be forced out of pure water while freezing, called brine rejection. Large lakes of higher salinity water, called polynas, form in the middle of floes, and the water eventually sinks to the bottom. Likewise, the frozen water with the highest concentration of salt melts first. Either method decreases the salinity of the remaining frozen water, and after multiple runs the results can be drinkable.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Commercial applications.\n", "BULLET::::- Sodium chloride and water form a eutectic mixture whose eutectic point is −21.2 °C and 23.3% salt by mass. The eutectic nature of salt and water is exploited when salt is spread on roads to aid snow removal, or mixed with ice to produce low temperatures (for example, in traditional ice cream making).\n\nBULLET::::- Ethanol–water has an unusually biased eutectic point, i.e. it is close to pure ethanol, which sets the maximum proof obtainable by fractional freezing.\n", "Recently, organic compounds have been developed that reduce the environmental impact associated with salts and that have longer residual effects when spread on roadways, usually in conjunction with salt brines or solids. These compounds are generated as byproducts of agricultural operations, such as sugar beet refining or ethanol distillation. A mixture of some selection of these organic compounds with a combination of salts results in a substance that is both more easily spread and more effective at lower temperatures (−34 °C or −30 °F). \n", "The specific enthalpy of fusion (more commonly known as latent heat) of water is 333.55 kJ/kg at 0 °C: the same amount of energy is required to melt ice as to warm ice from −160 °C up to its melting point or to heat the same amount of water by about 80 °C. Of common substances, only that of ammonia is higher. This property confers resistance to melting on the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before and since the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was and still is in common use for retarding food spoilage.\n", "A familiar example of this is the use of an ice/rock-salt mixture to freeze ice cream. Adding salt lowers the freezing temperature of water, lowering the minimum temperature attainable with only ice.\n\nSection::::Mixed Solvent Cooling Baths.\n\nMixing solvents creates cooling baths with variable freezing points. Temperatures between approximately −78 °C and −17 °C can be maintained by placing coolant into a mixture of ethylene glycol and ethanol, while mixtures of methanol and water span the −128 °C to 0 °C temperature range., Dry ice sublimes at −78 °C, while liquid nitrogen is used for colder baths.\n", "Section::::Methods of refrigeration.:Non-cyclic refrigeration.\n\nThis refrigeration method cools a contained area by melting ice, or by sublimating dry ice. Perhaps the simplest example of this is a portable cooler, where items are put in it, then ice is poured over the top. Regular ice can maintain temperatures near, but not below the freezing point, unless salt is used to cool the ice down further (as in a traditional ice-cream maker). Dry ice can reliably bring the temperature well below water freezing point.\n\nSection::::Methods of refrigeration.:Cyclic refrigeration.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Heat transfer.\n", "In the late 19th century, the most common fluid for absorption cooling was a solution of ammonia and water. Today, the combination of lithium bromide and water is also in common use. One end of the system of expansion/condensation pipes is heated, and the other end gets cold enough to make ice. Originally, natural gas was used as a heat source in the late 19th century. Today, propane is used in recreational vehicle absorption chiller refrigerators. Hot water solar thermal energy collectors can also be used as the modern \"free energy\" heat source.\n", "A bath of ice and water will maintain a temperature 0 °C since the melting point of water is 0 °C. However, adding a salt such as sodium chloride will lower the temperature through the property of Freezing-point depression. Although the exact temperature can be hard to control, the weight ratio of salt to ice influences the temperature:\n\nBULLET::::- −10 °C can be achieved with a 1 to 2.5 ratio by weight of calcium chloride hexahydrate to ice.\n\nBULLET::::- −20 °C can be achieved with a 1 to 3 ratio by weight of sodium chloride to ice.\n", "At low temperatures (below ), black ice can form on roadways when the moisture from automobile exhaust condenses on the road surface. \n\nSuch conditions caused multiple accidents in Minnesota when the temperatures dipped below for a prolonged period of time in mid-December 2008. Salt's ineffectiveness at melting ice at these temperatures compounds the problem. Black ice may form even when the ambient temperature is several degrees above the freezing point of water , if the air warms suddenly after a prolonged cold spell that has left the surface of the roadway well below the freezing point temperature.\n", "Salt reduces the melting point of ice by freezing-point depression, causing it to melt at lower temperatures and run off to the edge of the road, while sand increases traction by increasing friction between car tires and roadways. The amount of salt dropped varies with the condition of the road; to prevent the formation of light ice, approximately is dropped, while thick snow can require up to of salt, independent of the volume of sand dropped. The grit is sometimes mixed with molasses to help adhesion to the road surface. However, the sweet molasses often attracts livestock, who lick the road.\n", "Molten salt reactor\n\nA molten salt reactor (MSR) is a class of nuclear fission reactor in which the primary nuclear reactor coolant and/or the fuel is a molten salt mixture. MSRs offer multiple advantages over conventional nuclear power plants, although for historical reasons, they have not been deployed.\n", "Salt extraction process\n\nThe salt extraction process is an electrolytic method which may be used to extract valuable metals from slag, low-grade ores, or other materials by using molten salts. This method was developed by S. Seetharaman, O. Grinder, L. Teng and X. Ge at the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden as part of a large Steel Eco-Cycle Project in 2005.\n\nSection::::Description.\n" ]

[ "Salt makes ice colder." ]

[ "Salt does not make ice colder, it just turns the ice into colder water." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Salt makes ice colder." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Salt does not make ice colder, it just turns the ice into colder water." ]

[ "Since before recorded history, a variety of oral hygiene measures have been used for teeth cleaning. This has been verified by various excavations done throughout the world, in which chew sticks, tree twigs, bird feathers, animal bones and porcupine quills have been found. In historic times, different forms of tooth cleaning tools have been used. Indian medicine (Ayurveda) has used the neem tree, or \"daatun\", and its products to create teeth cleaning twigs and similar products; a person chews one end of the neem twig until it somewhat resembles the bristles of a toothbrush, and then uses it to brush the teeth. In the Muslim world, the miswak, or \"siwak\", made from a twig or root, has antiseptic properties and has been widely used since the Islamic Golden Age. Rubbing baking soda or chalk against the teeth was also common; however, this can have negative side effects over time.\n", "17th century London's Peter de la Roche is believed to be one of the first 'operators for the teeth', men who advertised themselves as specialists in dental work. They were often professional goldsmiths, ivory turners or students of barber-surgeons.\n", "The rate of caries remained low through the Bronze Age and Iron Age, but sharply increased during the Middle Ages. Periodic increases in caries prevalence had been small in comparison to the 1000 AD increase, when sugar cane became more accessible to the Western world. Treatment consisted mainly of herbal remedies and charms, but sometimes also included bloodletting. The barber surgeons of the time provided services that included tooth extractions. Learning their training from apprenticeships, these health providers were quite successful in ending tooth pain and likely prevented systemic spread of infections in many cases. Among Roman Catholics, prayers to Saint Apollonia, the patroness of dentistry, were meant to heal pain derived from tooth infection.\n", "The earliest known person identified as a dental practitioner dates back to 2600BC, an Egyptian scribe states that he was ‘the greatest of those who deal with teeth ad of physicians’\n\nBULLET::::- 1500BC- Egyptian Ebers papyrus explains oral disease and offers prescription for strengthening teeth and gums\n\nBULLET::::- 9th century AD- The Arabs discussed the care of teeth rather than extractions and replacement. Mouth hygiene was established with a small wooden stick\n\nBULLET::::- Late 1400’s- The first tooth brush was invented by the Chinese\n", "As long ago as 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians constructed crude toothbrushes from twigs and leaves to clean their teeth. Similarly, other cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, and Indians cleaned their teeth with twigs. Some would fray one end of the twig so that it could penetrate between the teeth more effectively. The Arabs, especially after the rise of Islam, used Miswak, a kind of natural toothbrush.\n", "There is also evidence of caries increase in North American Indians after contact with colonizing Europeans. Before colonization, North American Indians subsisted on hunter-gatherer diets, but afterward there was a greater reliance on maize agriculture, which made these groups more susceptible to caries.\n", "Human beings recognized long ago the relationship between clean teeth and tooth decay and dental disease. The desire for clean teeth led individuals and later doctors and dentists to create teeth cleaning agents and tools. Tooth picks, toothbrushes and tooth powders were early inventions designed to satisfy the need to clean teeth. Cleaning agents for the teeth were often sold by doctors and early druggists. Figure 4 shows an early example ad for Rogers's Tooth Powder advertised in the Norwich Packet, May 6, 1800.\n", "In 1768 Ruspini became the author of a Treatise on Teeth. He wrote about many things that we now take for granted including the effect of too much sugar on the teeth, but he also wrote that sleeping with the head uncovered would result in dental disease. Also in 1768 Ruspini's first child was born. James Balden Ruspini who was soon followed by George Bartholomew Ruspini who both went on to become surgeon dentists. In all Ruspini had 9 children, four sons and five daughters.\n", "The predecessor of the toothbrush is the chew stick. Chew sticks were twigs with frayed ends used to brush the teeth while the other end was used as a toothpick. The earliest chew sticks were discovered in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 3500 BC, an Egyptian tomb dating from 3000 BC, and mentioned in Chinese records dating from 1600 BC. The Greeks and Romans used toothpicks to clean their teeth, and toothpick-like twigs have been excavated in Qin Dynasty tombs. Chew sticks remain common in Africa, the rural Southern United States, and in the Islamic world the use of chewing stick Miswak is considered a pious action and has been prescribed to be used before every prayer five times a day. Miswaks have been used by Muslims since 7th century.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1906 one of his followers Alfred C. Fones took a great interest into Smith’s theories and began to train his cousin, Irene Newman, to act as an apprentice, scaling and polishing teeth as well as giving instructions on how to keep their mouths clean with daily home care practices. She was then to become the first recognized dental hygienist.\n", "A Sumerian text from 5000 BC describes a \"tooth worm\" as the cause of caries. Evidence of this belief has also been found in India, Egypt, Japan, and China. Unearthed ancient skulls show evidence of primitive dental work. In Pakistan, teeth dating from around 5500 BC to 7000 BC show nearly perfect holes from primitive dental drills. The Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian text from 1550 BC, mentions diseases of teeth. During the Sargonid dynasty of Assyria during 668 to 626 BC, writings from the king's physician specify the need to extract a tooth due to spreading inflammation. In the Roman Empire, wider consumption of cooked foods led to a small increase in caries prevalence. The Greco-Roman civilization, in addition to the Egyptian, had treatments for pain resulting from caries.\n", "Tooth decay has been present throughout human history, from early hominids millions of years ago, to modern humans. The prevalence of caries increased dramatically in the 19th century, as the Industrial Revolution made certain items, such as refined sugar and flour, readily available. The diet of the “newly industrialized English working class” then became centered on bread, jam, and sweetened tea, greatly increasing both sugar consumption and caries.\n\nSection::::History.:Etymology and usage.\n", "A marble plaque in the church of St Mary the Virgin, Nottingham, records how he \"acquired a liberal and ample fortune by the profession of dentist. He died the 7th Novr 1785, aged 45 years\". His will had directed that his epitaph show his fortune had been acquired \"by tooth drawing\", but the family had found that too indelicate. As early as 1768, in what seems to have been the first English dental textbook, he had proclaimed the use of sugar as being bad for the teeth.\n", "Section::::Diet and dental health.\n\nDiet is an important area of study for bioarchaeologists because it can reveal many aspects of an individual and the population. The types of foods that were produced and eaten can yield information on how society was structured, on various settlement patterns, and on how healthy or unhealthy the population was.\n\nDiet is studied through a variety of methods. Bioarchaeologists can examine teeth and look for the presence or absence of dental caries (cavities), use tooth wear analysis, or they can use stable isotope analysis, specifically through carbon and nitrogen isotopes.\n\nSection::::Diet and dental health.:Dental caries.\n", "17th century London's Peter de la Roche is believed to be one of the first 'operators for the teeth', men who advertised themselves as specialists in dental work. They were often professional goldsmiths, ivory turners or students of barber-surgeons.\n", "Before he left for the US, Begg at one point drew a sketch of the aboriginal people of Australia and noticed that their incisors were completely worn down. A striking fact he observed was that these aboriginal people had no caries or periodontal disease in their teeth.\n", "During the European Age of Enlightenment, the belief that a \"tooth worm\" caused caries was also no longer accepted in the European medical community. Pierre Fauchard, known as the father of modern dentistry, was one of the first to reject the idea that worms caused tooth decay and noted that sugar was detrimental to the teeth and gingiva. In 1850, another sharp increase in the prevalence of caries occurred and is believed to be a result of widespread diet changes. Prior to this time, cervical caries was the most frequent type of caries, but increased availability of sugar cane, refined flour, bread, and sweetened tea corresponded with a greater number of pit and fissure caries.\n", "Known in all cultures, the toothpick is not just the oldest instrument for dental cleaning, but predates the arrival of early modern humans, for the skulls of Neanderthals, as well as Homo sapiens, show clear signs of teeth picked with a tool. Toothpicks made of bronze have been found as burial objects in prehistoric graves in Northern Italy and in the East Alps. In 1986, researchers in Florida discovered the 7500-year-old remains of ancient Native Americans and discovered small grooves between many of the molar teeth. One of the researchers, Justin Martin of Concordia University Wisconsin, said \"The enamel on teeth is quite tough, so they must have used the probes quite rigorously to make the grooves.\"\n", "Wooden full dentures were invented in Japan around the early 16th century. Softened bees wax was inserted into the patient's mouth to create an impression, which was then filled with harder bees wax. Wooden dentures were then meticulously carved based on that model. The earliest of these dentures were entirely wooden, but later versions used natural human teeth or sculpted pagodite, ivory, or animal horn for the teeth. These dentures were built with a broad base, exploiting the principles of adhesion to stay in place. This was an advanced technique for the era; it would not be replicated in the West until the late 18th century. Wooden dentures continued to be used in Japan until the Opening of Japan to the West in the 19th century.\n", "Many of the skulls examined by Lazer have teeth which show considerable wear compared to teeth today. Some are worn down to the gumline, exposing the nerve, which must have been a very painful condition. The wearing down of teeth was probably caused by traces of grit and stone in the bread which came from the millstone used to grind the wheat into flour. Some teeth have cavities and others have a heavy build-up of plaque which would have caused bad breath. There are signs of gum disease and abscesses related to decayed teeth. There is no sign of dental intervention such as extractions, fillings, crowns, or false teeth.\n", "Paré also introduced the lancing of infants' gums using a lancet during teething, in the belief that teeth were failing to emerge from the gums due to lack of a pathway, and that this failure was a cause of death. This belief and practice persisted for centuries, with some exceptions, until towards the end of the nineteenth century lancing became increasingly controversial and was then abandoned.\n", "Some traditional medicine used to treat teething pain has been found to be harmful due to high lead content, with effects including toxic encephalopathy. \"Surma\" or \"kohl\" has traditionally been used in the Middle East and Indian subcontinent as a teething powder, as have the Middle Eastern \"saoott\"/\"cebagin\". \"Santrinj\" - a 98% lead oxide product otherwise used as a paint primer - is also used in the Middle East as a home remedy for teething.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The earliest known mention of bad breath occurs in ancient Egypt, where detailed recipes for toothpaste are made before the Pyramids are built. The 1550 BC Ebers Papyrus describes tablets to cure bad breath based on incense, cinnamon, myrrh and honey. Hippocratic medicine advocated a mouthwash of red wine and spices to cure bad breath. Note that alcohol-containing mouthwashes are now thought to exacerbate bad breath as they dry the mouth, leading to increased microbial growth. The Hippocratic Corpus also describes a recipe based on marble powder for female bad breath sufferers. The Ancient Roman physician Pliny wrote about methods to sweeten the breath.\n", "Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities). An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago. Dentistry was practiced in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had an abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC.\n", "In 1820, Samuel Stockton, a goldsmith by trade, began manufacturing high-quality porcelain dentures mounted on 18-carat gold plates. Later dentures from the 1850s on were made of Vulcanite, a form of hardened rubber into which porcelain teeth were set. In the 20th century, acrylic resin and other plastics were used. In Britain, sequential Adult Dental Health Surveys revealed that in 1968 79% of those aged 65–74 had no natural teeth; by 1998, this proportion had fallen to 36%.\n\nSection::::History.:George Washington.\n" ]

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[ "On June 11, 2009, Washington, DC attorney Dwight H. Sullivan testified before a House Judiciary subcommittee that the costs, should HR 569 (111th Congress) be passed, would be approximately $1,000 per case.\n", "Civilians prosecuted in military courts have the same legal protections as those prosecuted in civilian courts. They are entitled to counsel, the charges are public, the sentencing guidelines are the same (with the exception that the death penalty can be imposed in a military court during wartime but never in a civilian court), and the Supreme Court ultimately may hear appeals. A military prosecutor formulates charges and conducts the investigation, and the first instance of appeal is in a court-martial, composed of two civilian and three military judges.\n\nSection::::Civil judicial procedures and remedies.\n", "The United States Congressional Budget Office (CBO) issued a cost estimate on October 22, 2008, regarding the Equal Justice for United States Military Personnel Act of 2007, S.2052, 110th Congress. The CBO estimated costs to be approximately $1 million a year if S.2052 was enacted which would include the workload of Department of Defense attorneys and Supreme Court clerks. Further it estimates a possible additional $1 million to $2 million in appropriated funds for the Department of Defense to defend a case in the Supreme Court if a servicemember petitioned the high court for a writ of certiorari. However, the CBO determined that by enacting S.2052 there would be no direct spending and it would impose no costs on local, state or tribal governments.\n", "To allow enemy combatancy to rest on so \"thin\" a reed would be inconsistent with this court's obligation; the court must and will grant their petitions and order their release. This is a unique case. Few if any others will be factually like it. Nobody should be lulled into a false sense that all of the ... cases will look like this one.\n\nOn October 28, 2009, President Obama signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2009, which amended the Military Commissions Act of 2006 and provided new rules for the handling of commission trials and commission defendants' rights.\n", "The court determined that since the alleged tortfeasors were civilian employees of the government, rather than military employees, judicial second-guessing of the civilian's conduct would not adversely affect military discipline.\n", "In 2002 the \"Army Times\" editorial board was critical of the Department of Defense (DoD) trying to prevent servicemembers from accessing the federal courts regarding military personnel issues. William J. Haynes II had submitted various proposals to Congress, in the DoD 2002 budget proposal, to not allow service members access to the federal courts to challenge military personnel issues such as promotions, retention actions, separations, retirement, enlistments and re-enlistments.\n", "Section::::Finland.:Administrative punishment.\n", "On October 27, 2008, the \"Press-Enterprise\" noted in an article that the cost to the average family if S.2052 was enacted would be $0.16. On the topic of costs related to an increase in workload, the American Bar Association stated in a letter to House leaders that \"to those that argue that permitting equal access to the courts will create workload problems, we emphatically respond that nothing is more important than the provision of fundamental due process to our service members.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ex parte Milligan\", Trying citizens in military courts is unconstitutional when civilian courts are still operating. Trial by military tribunal is constitutional only when there is no power left but the military, and the military may validly try criminals only as long as is absolutely necessary.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crandall v. Nevada\", Freedom of movement between states is a fundamental right; a state cannot inhibit people from leaving it by imposing a tax on doing so.\n", "In the circumstances considered here, the interests on both sides would be weighty. See Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 529 (plurality opinion) (\"It is beyond question that substantial interests lie on both sides of the scale in this case.\"). An individual's interest in avoiding erroneous deprivation of his life is \"uniquely compelling.\" See Ake v. Oklahoma, 470 U.S. 68, 178 (1985) (\"The private interest in the accuracy of a criminal proceeding that places an individual's life or liberty at risk is almost uniquely compelling.\"). No private interest is more substantial. At the same time, the government's interest in waging war, protecting its citizens, and removing the threat posed by members of enemy forces is also compelling. Cf. Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 531 (plurality opinion) (\"On the other side of the scale are the weighty and sensitive governmental interests in ensuring that those who have in fact fought with the enemy during a war do not return to battle against the United States.\"). As the Hamdi plurality observed, in the \"circumstances of war,\" \"the risk of erroneous deprivation of a citizen's liberty in the absence of sufficient process ... is very real,\" id. at 530 (plurality opinion), and, of course, the risk of an erroneous deprivation of a citizen's life is even more significant. But, \"the realities of combat\" render certain uses of force \"necessary and appropriate,\" including force against U.S. citizens who have joined enemy forces in the armed conflict against the US and whose activities pose an imminent threat of violent attack against the United States - and \"due process analysis need not blink at those realities.\" Id. at 531 (plurality opinion). These same realities must also be considered in assessing \"the burdens the Government would face in providing greater process\" to a member of enemy forces. Id. at 529, 531 (plurality opinion).\n", "The military has a jurisdiction to investigate all military crimes proper, and also a number of other crimes that have been specifically listed as belonging to the military jurisdiction. These include e.g. various types of murder, assault, theft, fraud, forgery, computer hacking and illegal divulging of classified information. However, they are only under military jurisdiction if the crime has been committed against another military person or against the Defence Forces.\n", "Section::::Finland.:Statistics.\n", "Section::::Congressional Budget Office costings.\n", "On 29 September 1994, some of the Turkish Navy sailors serving aboard \"Muavenet\" instituted legal action against the United States government. The action encompassed two wrongful death claims and 299 personal injury claims. On 20 February 1997, the U.S. Court of Appeals affirmed a lower court ruling against them. Their conclusion was that: This case presents a nonjusticiable political question because it would require a court to interject itself into military decision making and foreign policy, areas the Constitution has committed to coordinate branches of government.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "On October 6, 2008, the Congressional Research Service (CRS) issued a report entitled \"Supreme Court Appellate Jurisdiction Over Military Court Cases.\" The CRS report noted that under existing law the CAAF \"functions as a gatekeeper for military appellants' access to Supreme Court review.\" The report further noted that \"if the CAAF denies an appeal, the U.S. Supreme Court will typically lack the authority to review the decision. In contrast, criminal appellants in Article III courts have an automatic right of appeal to federal courts of appeals and then a right to petition the Supreme Court for review.\" On January 30, 2009, the CRS issued a second report also entitled \"Supreme Court Appellate Jurisdiction Over Military Court Case.\" This CRS report discusses HR 569 in the 111th Congress.\n", "The number of military crimes is yearly somewhat above 4,000. An absolute majority of these are handled by summary measures, i.e. by a punishments given by the military superiors. Only some 250 military crimes in a year end up for handling in district courts. The number of appeals is vanishingly small. In year 2014, courts of appeals handled only a total of 5 military criminal cases.\n\nSection::::Germany.\n\nMembers of any branch of the Bundeswehr, the German armed forces, are subject to the ordinary civil jurisdiction and unless otherwise stated all civil laws apply to soldiers as well.\n", "The sentences of the courts for military crimes are served in civilian prisons. An exception is formed by the disciplinary arrest, which may be sentenced for up to 30 days and is served in the detention facilities of the convict's garrison.\n", "Of all the legislative courts created by Congress, courts-martial have received the most deference from Article III courts. Under a standard of review known as the \"separate community\" or \"military deference\" doctrine, the courts have proclaimed the armed forces to be \"a specialized society separate from civilian society\" with unique needs. The Article III courts will not invalidate the balance reached by Congress as regards the administration of military justice unless the \"fundamental right\" being affected is \"extraordinarily weighty.\"\n", "In every case resulting in conviction, the convening authority (usually the same commander who ordered the trial to proceed and selected the members of the court-martial) must review the case and decide whether to approve the findings and sentence. Prior to 24 June 2014, federal law provided that a convening authority's discretion to modify a finding or sentence to the benefit of a convicted servicemember was a matter of command prerogative, and was final. Following 24 June 2014, the convening authority's right to grant a convicted service member relief has been significantly curtailed.\n", "As a result of CJFOs, in 2005, about 10 million people in the US owed in excess of $50 billion because of their involvement with the criminal justice system. However, a fraction of this debt is actually collected. For example, in 2014, the US Federal Government was owed over $100 billion of criminal debt, and during that year, federal judges imposed almost $14 billion in new CJFOs, but the government only collects about $4 billion per year.\n", "Carol Rosenberg, writing in the \"Miami Herald\", reported that the Obama Administration had proposed a change in where appeals of the rulings and verdicts of military commissions would be heard. \n\nThe proposed changes would have had them first heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, which Rosenberg noted was an experienced, respected 58-year-old institution. Under the current rules of the court, there is no appeal to rulings of the Court of Military Commission Review; under the proposed changes, appeals could ultimately have been taken to the United States Supreme Court.\n", "Section::::112th Congress.\n\nThe Equal Justice for Our Military Act of 2011 has been introduced in the House of Representatives as H.R. 3133 and in the Senate as S. 1664. Currently, no action has been taken on either bill.\n\nSection::::Congressional Research Service reports.\n", "Even where life and liberty are at stake, legislative courts are not required to grant all of the due process rights that are intrinsic to the Article III courts. The Supreme Court has, instead, only disturbed the statutory due process system of a given legislative court if the question concerns \"fundamental rights.\"\n", "In crimes where the military has jurisdiction, the military conducts the investigation. In non-trivial cases, this is done by the investigative section of Defence Command or by civilian police, but trivial cases are investigated by the defendant's own unit. The civilian police has always the right to take the case from the military.\n", "Section::::Service Civilian Court.\n\nThe Service Civilian Court replaces the three separate systems (for each of the armed services) of Standing Civilian Courts which were previously established in Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Cyprus.\n" ]

[ "Due to the military being funded by taxes, cases for crime in the military should be held in public court and not military." ]

[ "Due to the military holding laws that are specific to the military, the it is necessary to process criminal military cases in military court." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Due to the military being funded by taxes, cases for crime in the military should be held in public court and not military.", "Due to the military being funded by taxes, cases for crime in the military should be held in public court and not military." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Due to the military holding laws that are specific to the military, the it is necessary to process criminal military cases in military court.", "Due to the military holding laws that are specific to the military, the it is necessary to process criminal military cases in military court." ]

[ "One of the most important factors to consider when dealing with color calibration is having a valid source. If the color measuring source does not match the displays capabilities, the calibration will be ineffective and give false readings.\n\nThe main distorting factors on the input stage stem from the amplitude nonlinearity of the channel response(s), and in the case of a multidimensional datastream the non-ideal wavelength responses of the individual color separation filters (most commonly a color filter array (CFA)) in combination with the spectral power distribution of the scene illumination.\n", "To solve problems such as these, the HSL and HSV models scale the chroma so that it always fits into the range for every combination of hue and lightness or value, calling the new attribute \"saturation\" in both cases (fig. 14). To calculate either, simply divide the chroma by the maximum chroma for that value or lightness.\n", "In other research on the effects of wearing EnChroma glasses on red-green CVD, R. Mastey recruited 27 males: eight deuteranomalous, ten deuteranopic and nine protanopic, while E. J. Patterson recruited fifteen males: seven deuteranopic, six deuteranomalous, one protanomalous and one protanopic. For the research, the researchers used the Color Assessment and Diagnosis (CAD) test that provides chromatic discrimination thresholds.\n\nSection::::University experiments.:University of Otago.\n", "Each of the three types of cones in the retina of the eye contains a different type of photosensitive pigment, which is composed of a transmembrane protein called opsin and a light-sensitive molecule called 11-cis retinal. Each different pigment is especially sensitive to a certain wavelength of light (that is, the pigment is most likely to produce a cellular response when it is hit by a photon with the specific wavelength to which that pigment is most sensitive). The three types of cones are L, M, and S, which have pigments that respond best to light of long (especially 560 nm), medium (530 nm), and short (420 nm) wavelengths respectively.\n", "Although rg chromaticity contains less information than RGB or HSV color spaces, it has a number of useful properties for computer vision applications. Notably, where a scene viewed by a camera is not lit evenly – for example if lit by a spotlight – then an object of a given color will change in apparent color as it moves across the scene. Where color is being used to track an object in an RGB image, this can cause problems. The lack of intensity information in rg chromaticity images removes this problem, and the apparent color remains constant. Note that in the case where different parts of the image are lit by different colored light sources, problems can still emerge.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Stray light.\n\nThe ideal transfer function of such a monochromator is a triangular shape. The peak of the triangle is at the nominal wavelength selected. The intensity of the nearby colors then decreases linearly on either side of this peak until some cutoff value is reached, where the intensity stops decreasing. This is called the \"stray light\" level. The cutoff level is typically about one thousandth of the peak value, or 0.1%.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Spectral bandwidth.\n", "As an example, suppose that light in the orange range of wavelengths (approximately 577 nm to 597 nm) enters the eye and strikes the retina. Light of these wavelengths would activate both the medium and long wavelength cones of the retina, but not equally—the long-wavelength cells will respond more. The difference in the response can be detected by the brain, and this difference is the basis of our perception of orange. Thus, the orange appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously but to different degrees.\n", "The filters designed by the method have a spectral transmittance that can be essentially described as a multi-band filter, made up by a plurality of passbands interleaved with stopbands. This technology makes it possible to remove the overlapping of colours.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Lens material.\n", "Once the camera is sensitive to the full-spectrum, external filters can be used to selectively filter portions of the UV, visible and infrared to achieve various effects. For example, a standard red #25a can be used to include red light and infrared light together, yielding particularly strong two-toned color images of a reddish nature except where the infrared is high and shows as cyan. Another example, using UV/IR filters such as the 18A or U-330 yield a two or three toned image in which blues and yellows dominate. Less common filters have been claimed to give a variety of color effects ranging from diverse pastel foliage and deep blue skies to surrealistic effects of the sky and ground, though digital image processing is likely required to achieve the full effects. One issue with full-spectrum photography in either film or digital photography is the chromatic aberration produced by the wideband information. That is, different spectra, including the ultraviolet and infrared, will focus at different focal points, yielding blurry images and color edge effects, depending on the focal length used. There are specialized lenses such as the Nikon 105mm f4.5 UV-Nikkor which are designed to eliminate this chromatic aberration.\n", "Humans cannot see ultraviolet light directly because the lens of the eye blocks most light in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. The photoreceptor cells of the retina are sensitive to near ultraviolet light, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) see near ultraviolet light (down to 300 nm) as whitish blue, or for some wavelengths, whitish violet, probably because all three types of cones are roughly equally sensitive to ultraviolet light; however, blue cone cells are slightly more sensitive.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Optical filters.\n", "These types of color blindness can be inherited, resulting from alterations in cone pigments or in other proteins needed for the process of phototransduction:\n\nBULLET::::1. Anomalous trichromacy, when one of the three cone pigments is altered in its spectral sensitivity but trichromacy (distinguishing color by both the green-red and blue-yellow distinctions) is not fully impaired.\n\nBULLET::::2. Dichromacy, when one of the cone pigments is missing and colour is reduced to the green-red distinction only or the blue-yellow distinction only.\n\nBULLET::::3. Monochromacy, when two of the cones are not functional. Vision reduced to blacks, whites, and greys.\n", "Section::::Information flow and output distortion.\n\nInput data can come from device sources like digital cameras, image scanners or any other measuring devices. Those inputs can be either monochrome (in which case only the response curve needs to be calibrated, though in a few select cases one must also specify the color or spectral power distribution that that single channel corresponds to) or specified in multidimensional color - most commonly in the three channel RGB model. Input data is in most cases calibrated against a profile connection space (PCS).\n", "Sources that rely on fluorescence have a different emission spectrum shape than do thermal sources. Some wavelengths will be produced with greater amplitude than others. Fluorescent sources used for lighting, such as fluorescent lamps, white light emitting diodes, and metal halide lamps are intended to produce light at all wavelengths, but the distribution is different from thermal sources and so colors will appear different under these forms of lighting than under daylight; some colors may match under one light source that don't appear the same under another, a phenomenon called metamerism.\n", "Apochromatic designs require optical glasses with special dispersive properties to achieve three color crossings. This is usually achieved using costly fluoro-crown glasses, abnormal flint glasses, and even optically transparent liquids with highly unusual dispersive properties in the thin spaces between glass elements. The temperature dependence of glass and liquid index of refraction and dispersion must be accounted for during apochromat design to assure good optical performance over reasonable temperature ranges with only slight re-focusing. In some cases, apochromatic designs without anomalous dispersion glasses are possible.\n\nSection::::Usage in photography.\n", "Where light sources use an electric discharge through low pressure gas, the light spectrum may be quite discontinuous, with some wavelengths of light missing or at very low amplitude. Such light sources have a strong tint, such as low pressure sodium lamps, or neon lamps. These lamps are used more for their color effects than for general illumination. Some scientific instruments use discharge tubes to produce light that has only a few wavelengths in it, a so-called \"line spectrum\". A laser is a single-wavelength source, which would produce light of a very pure color.\n", "BULLET::::- Cone monochromacy (CM) is the condition of having both rods and cones, but only having one functioning type of cone. A cone monochromat can have good pattern vision at normal daylight levels, but will not be able to distinguish hues.\n\nIn humans, who have three types of cones, the short (S, or blue) wavelength sensitive, middle (M, or green) wavelength sensitive and long (L, or red) wavelength sensitive cones have three differing forms of cone monochromacy, named according to the single functioning cone class:\n", "One type of film etching creates lenses that deliberately exaggerate this aberration, separating the colors of an image into different convergence points in the visual field. It’s a patented process called ChromaDepth™. Glasses with ChromaDepth™ diffraction lenses create an artificial visual depth. “Warm” colors, toward the infrared end of the spectrum, appear closer, and ‘cool” colors toward the violet end appear further away.Any 2D media piece in colors can be given a 3D effect as long as the color spectrum is put into use with the foreground being in red, and the background in blue. From front to back the scheme follows the visible light spectrum, from red to orange, yellow, green and blue. This means any color is associated in a fixed fashion with a certain depth when viewing. As a result, ChromaDepth works best with artificially produced or enhanced pictures, since the color indicates the depth. (Natural images diminish the ChromaDepth™ effect because they reflect colors across the full spectrum, creating imaginary contours without explicit contrast. Artificially constructed or deliberately enhanced images exploit the forced color separation.) Unlike anaglyph images or polarization, creating real-life ChromaDepth pictures without manual enhancement is practically impossible, since cameras cannot portray true depth; most other 3D schemes use the concept of stereopsis. However, this also gives ChromaDepth images a distinct advantage: unlike stereopsis-based schemes that require two images, ChromaDepth contains depth information in one image, which eliminates the ghosting seen in other schemes when one attempts to view them without 3D glasses. Thus, ChromaDepth images can be viewed comfortably and legibly without glasses, even though the 3D effect will not be perceivable without them.\n", "Software can correct those distortions by warping the image with a reverse distortion. This involves determining which distorted pixel corresponds to each undistorted pixel, which is non-trivial due to the non-linearity of the distortion equation. Lateral chromatic aberration (purple/green fringing) can be significantly reduced by applying such warping for red, green and blue separately.\n", "Section::::Binary Liquid Crystal (LC).\n", "A \"shade\" is produced by \"dimming\" a hue. Painters refer to this as \"adding black\". In our illustration, one projector is set to full intensity, a second is set to some intensity between zero and full, and third is set to zero. \"Dimming\" is accomplished by decreasing each projector's intensity setting to the same fraction of its start setting.\n\nIn the shade example, with any fully shaded hue, that all three projectors are set to zero intensity, resulting in black.\n", "Similar colored fringing around highlights may also be caused by lens flare. Colored fringing around highlights or dark regions may be due to the receptors for different colors having differing dynamic range or sensitivity – therefore preserving detail in one or two color channels, while \"blowing out\" or failing to register, in the other channel or channels. On digital cameras, the particular demosaicing algorithm is likely to affect the apparent degree of this problem. Another cause of this fringing is chromatic aberration in the very small microlenses used to collect more light for each CCD pixel; since these lenses are tuned to correctly focus green light, the incorrect focusing of red and blue results in purple fringing around highlights. This is a uniform problem across the frame, and is more of a problem in CCDs with a very small pixel pitch such as those used in compact cameras. Some cameras, such as the Panasonic Lumix series and newer Nikon and Sony DSLRs, feature a processing step specifically designed to remove it.\n", "BULLET::::- Anomalous trichromacy is a common type of inherited color vision deficiency, occurring when one of the three cone pigments is altered in its spectral sensitivity.\n\nBULLET::::- Protanomaly is a mild color vision defect in which an altered spectral sensitivity of red retinal receptors (closer to green receptor response) results in poor red-green hue discrimination. It is hereditary, sex-linked, and present in 1% of males. In contrast to other defects, in this case the L-cone is present but malfunctioning, whereas in protanopia the L-cone is completely missing.\n", "A \"tint\" is produced by \"lightening\" a hue. Painters refer to this as \"adding white\". In our illustration, one projector is set to full intensity, a second is set to some intensity between zero and full, and third is set to zero. \"Lightening\" is accomplished by increasing each projector's intensity setting by the same fraction from its start setting to full.\n\nIn the tinting example, note that the third projector is now contributing. When the hue is fully lightened, all three projectors are each at full intensity, and the result is white.\n", "If light of low coherence (i.e., made up of many wavelengths) is used, a speckle pattern will not normally be observed, because the speckle patterns produced by individual wavelengths have different dimensions and will normally average one another out. However, speckle patterns can be observed in polychromatic light in some conditions.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Subjective speckles.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Using the 24-track technology available at the time, the \"opera\" section took about three weeks to finish. Producer Roy Thomas Baker said \"Every time Freddie came up with another 'Galileo', I would add another piece of tape to the reel.\" Baker recalls that they kept wearing out the tape, which meant having to do transfers.\n\nSection::::Composition and analysis.:Rock (4:07–4:54).\n", "After 20 seconds, the grand piano enters, the song modulates briefly to E major and Mercury's voice alternates with the other vocal parts. The narrator introduces himself as \"just a poor boy\" but declares that he \"needs no sympathy\" because he is \"easy come, easy go\" and then \"little high, little low\" (when heard in stereo, the words \"little high\" come from the left speaker whereas the \"little low\" comes from the right); chromatic side-slipping on \"easy come, easy go\" highlights the dream-like atmosphere. The end of this section is marked by the bass entrance and the cross-handed piano vamp in B.\n", "Section::::Composition and analysis.:Intro (0:00–0:49).\n\nThe song begins with a close five-part harmony a cappella introduction in B major—as evidenced by the presence of a V-I cadence (F7 - B) multi-track recordings of Mercury although the video has all four members lip-syncing this part. The lyrics question whether life is \"real\" or \"just fantasy caught in a landslide\" before concluding that there can be \"no escape from reality\".\n", "Section::::Composition and analysis.:Guitar solo (2:37–3:05).\n\nTowards the end of the ballad section, the band builds in intensity, incorporating a guitar solo (in E major) played and composed by May. The intensity continues to build, but once the bass line completes its descent establishing modulation to the new key (A major), the entire band cuts out abruptly at 3:03 except for quiet, staccato A major quaver (eighth-note) chords on the piano, marking the start of the \"Opera\" section.\n\nSection::::Composition and analysis.:Opera (3:05–4:07).\n", "On the original vinyl release, the songs were arranged into two tracks; on CD releases, the songs were indexed into four parts each, resulting in eight tracks. The sleeve artwork lists inaccurate track times, all rounded to even minutes.\n\nThe track 13 Angels Standing Guard 'round the Side of Your Bed was featured in Harmony Korine's movie Mister Lonely.\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- A Silver Mt. Zion\n\nBULLET::::- Thierry Amar – double bass, bass guitar, production\n\nBULLET::::- Efrim Menuck – piano, guitar, organ, vocals, radio, production\n\nBULLET::::- Sophie Trudeau – violin, vocals\n\nBULLET::::- Other musicians\n", "Baker recalled in 1999, \"'Bohemian Rhapsody' was totally insane, but we enjoyed every minute of it. It was basically a joke, but a successful joke. [Laughs]. We had to record it in three separate units. We did the whole beginning bit, then the whole middle bit and then the whole end. It was complete madness. The middle part started off being just a couple of seconds, but Freddie kept coming in with more \"Galileos\" and we kept on adding to the opera section, and it just got bigger and bigger. We never stopped laughing. That was at a time when rock bands were so intent on being heavy. This was not exactly a cool idea. It was very left of center.\"\n", "The operatic section leads into a rock interlude with a guitar riff written by Mercury. At 4:15, a quadruple-tracked Mercury (in stereo, the four parts are panned two on the left and two on the right) sings angry lyrics addressed to an unspecified \"you\", accusing them of betrayal and abuse and insisting \"can't do this to me, baby\", before the final lines conclude that the singer \"just gotta get right outta\" an unspecified \"here\". Three ascending guitar runs follow. Mercury then plays a similar B run on the piano, as the song builds up to the finale with a \"ritardando\".\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Composition and analysis.:Outro (4:54–5:55).\n", "Section::::Composition and analysis.:Ballad (0:49–2:37).\n", "About the studio and the live version: \"You could say that the CD –version is the light version of the actual extended work, with only melodic-tonal parts, call it the jeans version if you want, while the live-version is more a theatrical-dramatized concept, the orchestration –purely acoustic- is more complex in rhythm and tonality, there’s another sort of tension which needs more time to develop and to grow, so it is different as it is raising slower in its construction.\"\n\nSection::::Dedication.\n", "There is some music in the film that is not included on the soundtrack album: the love theme for Michael and Georgina, which is \"Fish Beach\" from \"Drowning by Numbers\", the song (\"Something Sometime Soon\") performed as a show in the restaurant, or a doubly pulsed variation of \"Memorial\" that occurs about halfway through the film. Edits of \"Memorial\" appear throughout the film, with the entire twelve-minute movement accompanying the final scene and end credits, but one variation is uniquely created for the film.\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Memorial\" – 12:07\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Miserere Paraphrase\" – 5:44\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Book Depository\" – 5:41\n", "John Ottman, a frequent collaborator of Singer, edited the film’s soundtrack. An official soundtrack album was released by Hollywood Records and Virgin EMI Records on CD, cassette, and digital formats on 19 October 2018. The album contains several Queen hits and 11 previously unreleased recordings, including five tracks from their 21-minute Live Aid performance in July 1985, which have never before been released in audio form. A vinyl release followed on 8 February 2019.\n\nSection::::Historical accuracy.\n", "The piano begins in B major along with the entrance of John Deacon's bass guitar, marking the onset of this section. After it plays twice, Mercury's vocals enter. Over the course of the section, the vocals evolve from a softly sung harmony to an impassioned solo performance by Mercury. The narrator explains to his mother that he has \"just killed a man,\" with \"a gun against his head\" and in doing so, has thrown his life away. This \"confessional\" section, Whiteley comments, is \"affirmative of the nurturant and life-giving force of the feminine and the need for absolution\". In the middle of the verse (1:17), Taylor's drums enter, and a descending chromatic run leads to a temporary modulation to E major (up one fourth). The narrator makes the second of several invocations to his \"mama\" in the new key, continuing the original theme. The narrator explains his regret over \"mak[ing] you cry\" and urging \"mama\" to \"carry on as if nothing really matters\". A brief, descending variation of the piano phrase connects to the second verse.\n", "BULLET::::- On \"Jamin-a\", he adds an oud part.\n\nBULLET::::- On \"Sidún\", he sits cross-legged on the stage floor and does not play. Again, his voice is not heard during the wordless vocalization section in the song.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prinçesa\" starts with a few guitar notes and a tapped count-in, in order to help De André start the song with its a cappella opening line.\n", "The first rhodes under the BMaj7 chord are played with Rice-Oxley's electric piano instrumentally. After 30 seconds, the bass and drums are added. Within 59 seconds, the shorter version appearing on the albums starts (running 19 seconds on that version). The weird intro of the drums was a particular reason for Rice-Oxley to include it on the album.\n\nChaplin vocals are then introduced, without drums for 16 beats. Clocking 3:27 on the video and 2:32 on the album, the song drastically changes its tone to introduce the chorus and the final part, converting automatically the song in a ballad.\n", "BULLET::::- \"II. Didacts and Narpets\" (Music: Lee/Lifeson, Lyrics: Peart) – 1:00\n\nBULLET::::- \"III. No One at the Bridge\" (Music: Lee/Lifeson, Lyrics: Peart) – 4:19\n\nBULLET::::- \"IV. Panacea\" (Music: Lee, Lyrics: Peart) – 3:14\n\nBULLET::::- \"V. Bacchus Plateau\" (Music: Lee, Lyrics: Peart) – 3:16\n\nBULLET::::- \"VI. The Fountain\" (Music: Lee/Lifeson, Lyrics: Peart)– 3:49\n\nHowever, unlike later extended songs such as \"Xanadu\", \"\", and \"La Villa Strangiato\", the sections do not segue seamlessly.\n", "The sound track uses text détourned from Isidore Isou's book \"Esthétique du cinéma\", John Ford's film \"Rio Grande\", work by James Joyce, and the French Civil Code. The time between speeches becomes increasingly long throughout the film, and it ends with a 24-minute sequence of silence and darkness.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Section::::Content.\n\nThe double album contains six tracks. Two versions of \"Jean-Pierre\", a long and a short one, are the bookends on the first record for two songs from \"The Man With the Horn\", \"Back-Seat Betty\" and \"Aïda\" (here called \"Fast Track\"). Two long tracks fill up the second record: the \"long vamp\" \"Kix\", and \"My Man's Gone Now\".\n", "May, Mercury, and Taylor reportedly sang their vocal parts continually for ten to twelve hours a day. The entire piece took three weeks to record, and in some sections featured 180 separate overdubs. Since the studios of the time only offered 24-track analog tape, it was necessary for the three to overdub themselves many times and \"bounce\" these down to successive sub-mixes. In the end, eighth-generation tapes were used. The various sections of tape containing the desired sub-mixes had to be spliced (cut and assembled in the correct sequence). May recalled placing a tape in front of the light and being able to see through it, as the tape had been used so many times. A similar story was told in 1977 by Taylor regarding the elaborate overdubs and sub-mixes for \"The March of The Black Queen\" for the album \"Queen II\". At that time, the band was using 16-track equipment.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nThe official soundtrack album, containing several Queen hits and 11 previously unreleased recordings, including five tracks from their 21-minute Live Aid performance in July 1985 which have never before been released in audio form, was on CD, cassette, and digital formats on 19 October 2018, and was later released on heavyweight vinyl on 8 February 2019. Hollywood Records released the album in the United States and Canada, while Virgin EMI Records handled the global release.\n\nSection::::Commercial performance.\n", "There is some music not included on the soundtrack album: the love theme for Michael and Georgina, which is \"Fish Beach\" from \"Drowning by Numbers\", the song performed as a show in the restaurant, sung by actress and singer Flavia Brilli, or a doubly pulsed variation of \"Memorial\" that occurs about halfway through the film. Edits of \"Memorial\" appear throughout the film, with the entire twelve-minute movement accompanying the final scene and end credits, but one variation is uniquely created for the film.\n", "That was kind of a last-minute deal. We went out and started playing it. Matt came in and we knocked it out in less than an hour. Ed, within a few days, had lyrics for it. I walked in one day and all the sudden the lyrics were over it!\n\nSection::::Lyrics.\n", "While the jams were improvised in 1998, it took until 2007 to release them, as the master tapes of the jams were somehow misplaced before they were delivered to Magna Carta. The recordings on the album (and \"the only remaining records of these sessions in existence\") were taken from Portnoy's 2-track stereo DAT.\n\nSmall clips from each song on the album can be found on Magna Carta's official LTE site here\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- Jordan Rudess - keyboards\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Levin - bass\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Portnoy - drums, percussion\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Brick - mastering\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Cubeta - engineer\n", "A rapid series of rhythmic and harmonic changes introduces a pseudo-operatic midsection, which contains the bulk of the elaborate vocal multi-tracking, depicting the narrator's descent into hell. While the underlying pulse of the song is maintained, the dynamics vary greatly from bar to bar, from only Mercury's voice accompanied by a piano to a multi-voice choir supported by drums, bass, piano, and timpani. The choir effect was created by having May, Mercury, and Taylor repeatedly sing their vocal parts, resulting in 180 separate overdubs. These overdubs were then combined into successive submixes. According to Roger Taylor, the voices of May, Mercury and himself combined created a wide vocal range: \"Brian could get down quite low, Freddie had a powerful voice through the middle, and I was good at the high stuff.\" The band wanted to create \"a wall of sound, that starts down and goes all the way up\". The band used the bell effect for lyrics \"Magnifico\" and \"Let me go\". Also, on \"Let him go\", Taylor singing the top section carries his note on further after the rest of the \"choir\" have stopped singing.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Applications.:Period of oscillation.\n\nThe period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the local strength of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, \"θ\", called the amplitude. It is independent of the mass of the bob. The true period \"T\" of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a complete cycle of an ideal simple gravity pendulum, can be written in several different forms (see Pendulum (mathematics) ), one example being the infinite series:\n", "For real pendulums, the period varies slightly with factors such as the buoyancy and viscous resistance of the air, the mass of the string or rod, the size and shape of the bob and how it is attached to the string, and flexibility and stretching of the string. In precision applications, corrections for these factors may need to be applied to eq. (1) to give the period accurately.\n\nSection::::Compound pendulum.\n", "Of course, the increase of formula_32 with amplitude is more apparent when formula_43, as has been observed in many experiments using either a rigid rod or a disc. As accurate timers and sensors are currently available even in introductory physics labs, the experimental errors found in ‘very large-angle’ experiments are already small enough for a comparison with the exact period and a very good agreement between theory and experiments in which friction is negligible has been found. Since this activity has been encouraged by many instructors, a simple approximate formula for the pendulum period valid for all possible amplitudes, to which experimental data could be compared, was sought. In 2008, Lima derived a weighted-average formula with this characteristic:\n", "BULLET::::- 1747: Daniel Bernoulli showed how to correct for the lengthening of the period due to a finite angle of swing \"θ\" by using the first order correction \"θ\"/16, giving the period of a pendulum with an extremely small swing.\n", "The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the local strength of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, \"θ\", called the amplitude. It is independent of the mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the period \"T\" of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a complete cycle, is:\n\nwhere formula_2 is the length of the pendulum and formula_3 is the local acceleration of gravity.\n", "Here is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind defined by\n\nFor comparison of the approximation to the full solution, consider the period of a pendulum of length 1 m on Earth ( = ) at initial angle 10 degrees is\n\nThe linear approximation gives\n\nThe difference between the two values, less than 0.2%, is much less than that caused by the variation of with geographical location.\n\nFrom here there are many ways to proceed to calculate the elliptic integral.\n\nSection::::Arbitrary-amplitude period.:Legendre polynomial solution for the elliptic integral.\n\nGiven and the Legendre polynomial solution for the elliptic integral:\n", "Therefore, the pendulum doesn't have to be adjustable at all, it can simply be a rod with two pivots. As long as each pivot is close to the center of oscillation of the other, so the two periods are close, the period \"T\" of the equivalent simple pendulum can be calculated with equation (2), and the gravity can be calculated from \"T\" and \"L\" with (1).\n", "A compound pendulum (or physical pendulum) is one where the rod is not massless, and may have extended size; that is, an arbitrarily shaped rigid body swinging by a pivot. In this case the pendulum's period depends on its moment of inertia around the pivot point.\n\nThe equation of torque gives:\n\nwhere:\n\nThe torque is generated by gravity so:\n\nwhere:\n\nHence, under the small-angle approximation ,\n\nwhere is the moment of inertia of the body about its center of mass.\n\nThe expression for is of the same form as the conventional simple pendulum and gives a period of\n", "Assuming no damping, the differential equation governing a simple pendulum of length formula_1, where formula_2 is the local acceleration due to local gravity and centrifugal acceleration, is\n\nIf the maximal displacement of the pendulum is small, we can use the approximation formula_4 and instead consider the equation\n\nThe solution to this equation is given by\n\nwhere formula_7 is the largest angle attained by the pendulum. The period, the time for one complete oscillation, is given by the expression\n\nwhich is a good approximation of the actual period when formula_7 is small.\n", "The length of the seconds pendulum is a function of the time lapse of half a cycle formula_10\n\nBeing formula_12 \n\ntherefore formula_13.\n", "Section::::Gravity-swing pendulum.\n\nThe pendulum swings with a period that varies with the square root of its effective length. For small swings the period \"T\", the time for one complete cycle (two swings), is\n", "Given the initial conditions and , the solution becomes\n\nThe motion is simple harmonic motion where is the amplitude of the oscillation (that is, the maximum angle between the rod of the pendulum and the vertical). The period of the motion, the time for a complete oscillation (outward and return) is\n\nwhich is known as Christiaan Huygens's law for the period. Note that under the small-angle approximation, the period is independent of the amplitude ; this is the property of isochronism that Galileo discovered.\n\nSection::::Small-angle approximation.:Rule of thumb for pendulum length.\n", "A rigid pendulum may also be made to have the required period, with a pivot near its center of gravity.\n\nThe Schuler period can be derived from the classic formula for the period of a pendulum:\n\nwhere L is the radius of the earth in meters and g is the local acceleration of gravity in metres per second per second.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "These clocks include a device at the top of the pendulum that slightly changes its effective length, so the speed of the clock varies. This device is driven by a simulation mechanism which moves to simulate the rate of change of the equation of time, rather than its actual value. For example, during the months of December and January, when the equation of time is decreasing so a sundial runs slower than usual, the mechanism makes the pendulum effectively longer than usual, so the clock runs slower and keeps pace with sundial time. At other times of the year, the pendulum is shortened, so the clock runs faster, again keeping pace with sundial time. This type of mechanism shows only solar (sundial) time. Clocks using it cannot easily be made to show mean time unless a separate clock mechanism, with its own pendulum, is included. There are some equation clocks in which this is done, but it requires the clock case to be very sturdy, to avoid coupling between the pendula. Another disadvantage of variable pendulum clocks is that the equation of time cannot be easily displayed.\n", "Because the acceleration of gravity is constant at a given point on Earth, the period of a simple pendulum at a given location depends only on its length. Additionally, gravity varies only slightly at different locations. Almost from the pendulum's discovery until the early 19th century, this property led scientists to suggest using a pendulum of a given period as a standard of length.\n", "amplitudes (i.e., unsuitable for small amplitudes). One of the better such formulae is that by Cromer, namely: formula_41.\n", "Section::::Use for time measurement.:Atmospheric pressure.\n\nThe effect of the surrounding air on a moving pendulum is complex and requires fluid mechanics to calculate precisely, but for most purposes its influence on the period can be accounted for by three effects:\n\nBULLET::::- By Archimedes' principle the effective weight of the bob is reduced by the buoyancy of the air it displaces, while the mass (inertia) remains the same, reducing the pendulum's acceleration during its swing and increasing the period. This depends on the air pressure and the density of the pendulum, but not its shape.\n", "\"ω\" is fixed by the pendulum's period, and \"M\" is limited by the load capacity and rigidity of the suspension. So the \"Q\" of clock pendulums is increased by minimizing frictional losses (\"Γ\"). Precision pendulums are suspended on low friction pivots consisting of triangular shaped 'knife' edges resting on agate plates. Around 99% of the energy loss in a freeswinging pendulum is due to air friction, so mounting a pendulum in a vacuum tank can increase the \"Q\", and thus the accuracy, by a factor of 100.\n", "Section::::Mathematical derivations.\n\nMost physics textbooks provide a simplified method of calculation of the bullet's velocity that uses the mass of the bullet and pendulum and the height of the pendulum's travel to calculate the amount of energy and momentum in the pendulum and bullet system. Robins' calculations were significantly more involved, and used a measure of the period of oscillation to determine the rotational inertia of the system.\n\nSection::::Mathematical derivations.:Simple derivation.\n\nWe begin with the motion of the bullet-pendulum system from the instant the pendulum is struck by the bullet.\n", "Since the speed of the pendulum bob is constant, it can be expressed as the circumference 2\"πr\" divided by the time \"t\" required for one revolution of the bob:\n\nSubstituting the right side of this equation for \"v\" in the previous equation, we find:\n\nUsing the trigonometric identity tan(\"θ\") = sin(\"θ\") / cos(\"θ\") and solving for \"t\", the time required for the bob to travel one revolution is\n", "The first pendulum to correct for this error was the \"mercury pendulum\" invented by George Graham in 1721, which was used in precision regulator clocks into the 20th century. These had a bob consisting of a container of the liquid metal mercury. An increase in temperature would cause the pendulum rod to expand, but the mercury in the container would also expand and its level would rise slightly in the container, moving the center of gravity of the pendulum up toward the pivot. By using the correct amount of mercury, the centre of gravity of the pendulum remained at a constant height, and thus its period remained constant, despite changes in temperature.\n", "The remaining equations of motion are written as\n\nThese last four equations are explicit formulae for the time evolution of the system given its current state. It is not possible to go further and integrate these equations analytically, to get formulae for and as functions of time. It is, however, possible to perform this integration numerically using the Runge Kutta method or similar techniques.\n\nSection::::Chaotic motion.\n", "A pendulum can be used to measure the acceleration of gravity \"g\" because for narrow swings its period of swing \"T\" depends only on \"g\" and its length \"L\":\n\nSo by measuring the length \"L\" and period \"T\" of a pendulum, \"g\" can be calculated.\n", "The period of a pendulum increases slightly with the width (amplitude) of its swing. The \"rate\" of error increases with amplitude, so when limited to small swings of a few degrees the pendulum is nearly \"isochronous\"; its period is independent of changes in amplitude. Therefore, the swing of the pendulum in clocks is limited to 2° to 4°.\n\nSection::::Gravity-swing pendulum.:Temperature compensation.\n", "A major source of error in pendulum clocks is thermal expansion; the pendulum rod changes in length slightly with changes in temperature, causing changes in the rate of the clock. An increase in temperature causes the rod to expand, making the pendulum longer, so its period increases and the clock loses time. Many older quality clocks used wooden pendulum rods to reduce this error, as wood expands less than metal.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Issues with reaching space.:G-forces.\n\nMany cargoes, particularly humans have a limiting g-force that they can survive. For humans this is about 3-6 g. Some launchers such as gun launchers would give accelerations in the hundred or thousands of g and thus are completely unsuitable.\n\nSection::::Issues with reaching space.:Reliability.\n\nLaunchers vary with respect to their reliability for achieving the mission.\n\nSection::::Issues with reaching space.:Safety.\n\nSafety is the probability of causing injury or loss of life. Unreliable launchers are not necessarily unsafe, whereas reliable launchers are usually, but not invariably safe.\n", "BULLET::::- Liquid propellants are subject to \"slosh\", which has frequently led to loss of control of the vehicle. This can be controlled with slosh baffles in the tanks as well as judicious control laws in the guidance system.\n\nBULLET::::- They can suffer from pogo oscillation where the rocket suffers from uncommanded cycles of acceleration.\n", "BULLET::::- coning: is a parasitic effect induced by two orthogonal rotations\n\nBULLET::::- sculling: is a parasitic effect induced by an acceleration orthogonal to a rotation\n\nBULLET::::- centrifugal accelerations effects.\n\nDecreasing these errors tends to push IMU designers to increase processing frequencies, which becomes easier using recent digital technologies. However developing algorithms able to cancel these errors requires deep inertial knowledge and strong intimacy with sensors/IMU design. \n\nOn the other side, if suspension is likely to enable IMU performance increase, it has a side effect on size and mass.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Attitude control\n\nBULLET::::- Dead reckoning\n", "BULLET::::- is accomplished by setting the spacecraft spinning, using the gyroscopic action of the rotating spacecraft mass as the stabilizing mechanism. Propulsion system thrusters are fired only occasionally to make desired changes in spin rate, or in the spin-stabilized attitude. If desired, the spinning may be stopped through the use of thrusters or by yo-yo de-spin. The Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 probes in the outer solar system are examples of spin-stabilized spacecraft.\n\nBULLET::::- is an alternative method of spacecraft attitude control in which the spacecraft is held fixed in the desired orientation without any rotation.\n", "BULLET::::- Drawbacks: High positioning force required, susceptible to binding if bending moments are present, high backlash.\n\nBULLET::::- Applications: Machine shop equipment (ex. mill and lathe tables).\n\nSection::::Position control methods.\n\nThe position of the moving platform relative to the fixed base is typically controlled by a linear actuator of some form, whether manual, motorized, or hydraulic/pneumatic. The most common method is to incorporate a lead screw passing through a lead nut in the platform. The rotation of such a lead screw may be controlled either manually or by a motor.\n\nSection::::Position control methods.:Manual.\n", "In the case of ballistic missiles, the altitudes involved have a significant effect as well, with part of the flight taking place in a near-vacuum well above a rotating earth, steadily moving the target from where it was at launch time.\n\nSection::::Forces acting on the projectile.:Stabilizing non-spherical projectiles during flight.\n\nTwo methods can be employed to stabilize non-spherical projectiles during flight:\n", "BULLET::::5. Directional Control (DCL): a comparison between the amount of movement demonstrated in the desired direction, i.e. towards the target, to the amount of external movement in the opposite direction of the target, expressed as a percentage\n\nSection::::Limits of Stability Testing.:Interpretation of LOS Results.\n", "BULLET::::- rapid escape systems such as ejection seats and launch escape systems\n\nBULLET::::- space probes\n\nSection::::Design.\n\nA rocket design can be as simple as a cardboard tube filled with black powder, but to make an efficient, accurate rocket or missile involves overcoming a number of difficult problems. The main difficulties include cooling the combustion chamber, pumping the fuel (in the case of a liquid fuel), and controlling and correcting the direction of motion.\n\nSection::::Design.:Components.\n", "BULLET::::- The vestibular system (motion and equilibrium system) - Due to the lack of gravity, all the movement of the astronauts changes, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.\n\nBULLET::::- The proprioception system (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) - As a result of the zero gravity, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles and there is no input to this system.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.:Mechanical hazards.\n", "BULLET::::- Liquid propellants often need ullage motors in zero-gravity or during staging to avoid sucking gas into engines at start up. They are also subject to vortexing within the tank, particularly towards the end of the burn, which can also result in gas being sucked into the engine or pump.\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid propellants can leak, especially hydrogen, possibly leading to the formation of an explosive mixture.\n", "BULLET::::- Pitch, yaw, or roll angle deviating too far from the programmed flight profile,\n\nBULLET::::- Pitch or yaw angle changing too rapidly,\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure in the engine's combustion chamber falling below a critical level,\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of electrical power for the flight control system, or\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of general electrical power (including power for the abort sensing system itself), which could indicate a catastrophic failure.\n", "Almost all sounding rockets use solid motors.\n\nBULLET::::- Astrobee\n\nBULLET::::- Black Brant\n\nBULLET::::- S-310, S-520\n\nBULLET::::- Terrier-Orion, Terrier-Malemute\n\nBULLET::::- VSB-30\n\nSection::::Use.:Missiles.\n\nDue to reliability, ease of storage and handling, solid rockets are used on missiles and ICBMs.\n\nBULLET::::- Air-to-air missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder\n\nBULLET::::- Ballistic missiles: Jericho, Sejjil\n\nBULLET::::- ICBMs: LGM-30 Minuteman, LGM-118 Peacekeeper, RT-2PM Topol, DF-41, Agni-V\n\nSection::::Use.:Orbital rockets.\n\nSolid rockets are suitable for launching small payloads to orbital velocities, especially if three or more stages are used. Many of these are based on repurposed ICBMs.\n\nBULLET::::- Scout\n\nBULLET::::- Athena\n\nBULLET::::- Mu\n\nBULLET::::- Pegasus\n\nBULLET::::- Taurus\n\nBULLET::::- Minotaur\n\nBULLET::::- Start-1\n", "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Loading suits.:Other loading suits.\n\nBULLET::::- DYNASUIT concept\n", "BULLET::::- Spacecraft orientation was handled by the forward RCS thrusters only (no Gemini OAMS)\n\nBULLET::::- Six solid propellant retrofire motors, used for deorbit or abort rockets in case of launch vehicle failure\n\nSection::::Gemini B.:Reentry module specifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Crew: 2\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum duration: 40 days\n\nBULLET::::- Length:\n\nBULLET::::- Diameter:\n\nBULLET::::- Cabin volume:\n\nBULLET::::- Gross mass:\n\nBULLET::::- RCS thrusters: 16 ×\n\nBULLET::::- RCS impulse: 283 seconds, total 90 kg·s\n\nBULLET::::- Electric system: 4.0 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Battery: 180.0 A·h\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reference\":\n\nSection::::Astronauts.\n\nBULLET::::- MOL Group 1 - November 1965\n\nBULLET::::- Michael J. Adams USAF (1930–1967) – killed on X-15 flight, 15 November 1967\n", "Rocket vehicles are often constructed in the archetypal tall thin \"rocket\" shape that takes off vertically, but there are actually many different types of rockets including:\n\nBULLET::::- tiny models such as balloon rockets, water rockets, skyrockets or small solid rockets that can be purchased at a hobby store\n\nBULLET::::- missiles\n\nBULLET::::- space rockets such as the enormous Saturn V used for the Apollo program\n\nBULLET::::- rocket cars\n\nBULLET::::- rocket bike\n\nBULLET::::- rocket-powered aircraft (including rocket assisted takeoff of conventional aircraft – RATO)\n\nBULLET::::- rocket sleds\n\nBULLET::::- rocket trains\n\nBULLET::::- rocket torpedoes\n\nBULLET::::- rocket-powered jet packs\n", "BULLET::::- Fewer handling and storage issues – Ingredients in solid rockets are often incompatible chemically and thermally. Repeated changes in temperature can cause distortion of the grain. Antioxidants and coatings are used to keep the grain from breaking down or decomposing.\n\nBULLET::::- More controllable – Stop/restart and throttling are all easily incorporated into most designs. Solid rockets rarely can be shut down easily and almost never have throttling or restart capabilities.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Disadvantages of hybrid rockets.\n\nHybrid rockets also exhibit some disadvantages when compared with liquid and solid rockets. These include:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rockets\" do not seek a target, so are very difficult to aim in \"Edge of Chaos\" with its Newtonian physics. However you can fit far more rockets into a launcher than you can missiles, and rockets possess similar power and range. They are best for attacking very slow or stationary targets from long range.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Disruptors\" are guided missiles which do not cause any damage, rather, they disable the target briefly. This can take them out of the fight long enough for you to escape, or simply leave them open to other attacks.\n", "Kinetic weapons have always been widespread in conventional warfare—bullets, arrows, swords, clubs, etc.—but the energy a projectile would gain while falling from orbit would make such a weapon rival all but the most powerful explosives. A direct hit would presumably destroy all but the most hardened targets without the need for nuclear weapons.\n", "All forms of projectile launchers are at least partially hybrid systems if launching to low Earth orbit, due to the requirement for orbit circularization, at a minimum entailing several percent of total delta-v to raise perigee (e.g. a tiny rocket burn), or in some concepts much more from a rocket thruster to ease ground accelerator development.\n", "BULLET::::- during an orbital maneuver in a spacecraft, or during the launch phase, when rocket engines provide thrust.\n", "BULLET::::- Angular momentum — In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted on by an external torque.\n", "The word \"gimbal\" began as a noun. Most modern dictionaries continue to list it as such. Lacking a convenient term to describe the swinging movement of a rocket engine, engineers began also using the word \"gimbal\" as a verb. When a thrust chamber is swung by an attached actuator, the movement is referred to as \"gimballed\" or \"gimballing\". Official rocket documentation reflects this usage.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Photography and imaging.\n\nGimbals are also used to mount everything from small camera lenses to large photographic telescopes.\n", "BULLET::::- Center of mass — In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero, or the point where if a force is applied it moves in the direction of the force without rotating. The distribution of mass is balanced around the center of mass and the average of the weighted position coordinates of the distributed mass defines its coordinates.\n", "BULLET::::- The orbital error resulted from an error in the thrust orientation of the main engine on the Fregat stage during its second powered phase.\n\nBULLET::::- This orientation error was the result of the loss of inertial reference for the stage.\n\nBULLET::::- This loss occurred when the stage's inertial system operated outside its authorized operating envelope, an excursion that was caused by the failure of two of Fregat's attitude control thrusters during the preceding ballistic phase.\n\nBULLET::::- This failure was due to a temporary interruption of the joint hydrazine propellant supply to these thrusters.\n", "If the engine kept pushing the nose straight up even as the rest of the rocket swung like a pendulum under it, the rocket would have a possibility to get pulled straight and be stable. However, the engines are fixed to the rest of the rocket, so when the rocket tilts, the engine won't apply an upward, stabilising force, but simply push forward in whatever direction the rocket happens to be pointing, not steering it one way or the other at all.\n" ]

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[ "Bullets spin to go on a straight path. Rockets do not go on a straight path." ]

[ "BULLET::::- Fortepiano – an early version of the piano invented ca. 1700, but did not become popular during Baroque era\n\nBULLET::::- Harpsichord\n\nBULLET::::- Organ\n\nSection::::Instruments.:Percussion.\n\nBULLET::::- Timpani\n\nBULLET::::- Tambourine\n\nBULLET::::- Castanets\n\nSection::::Styles and forms.\n\nSection::::Styles and forms.:Dance suite.\n", "Section::::Instrumentation.\n\nOne key distinction between Renaissance and Baroque instrumental music is in instrumentation; that is, the ways in which instruments are used or not used in a particular work. Closely tied to this concept is the idea of idiomatic writing, for if composers are unaware of or indifferent to the idiomatic capabilities of different instruments, then they will have little reason to specify which instruments they desire.\n\nSection::::Instrumentation.:Specified instrumentation.\n", "Howard Brown, while acknowledging the importance of vocal transcriptions in Renaissance instrumental repertoire, has identified six categories of specifically instrumental music in the sixteenth century:\n\nBULLET::::1. vocal music played on instruments\n\nBULLET::::2. settings of preexisting melodies, such as plainchant or popular songs\n\nBULLET::::3. variation sets\n\nBULLET::::4. ricercars, fantasias, and canzonas\n\nBULLET::::5. preludes, preambles, and toccatas\n\nBULLET::::6. music for solo voice and lute\n", "Section::::Instrument use and aesthetics.\n", "We have already noted some of the musical developments that helped to usher in the Baroque, but for further explanation of this transition, see antiphon, concertato, monody, madrigal, and opera, as well as the works given under \"Sources and further reading.\"\n\nFor a more thorough discussion of the transition to the Baroque specifically pertaining to instrument music, see \"Transition from Renaissance to Baroque in instrumental music\".\n\nSection::::Instruments.\n", "Section::::Problems inherent in assigning date ranges.\n\nPicking particular years for the beginning and end points of eras in European classical music is difficult for several reasons. First, these eras began and ended at different times in different locations. Second, works of particular styles can be found that were composed after the style was no longer popular or important. Third, the styles themselves overlap and absolute categorization is not possible in all cases. For example, a \"late Renaissance\" piece would likely be very similar to an \"early Baroque\" piece.\n", "In the years centering on 1600 in , several distinct shifts emerged in ways of thinking about the purposes, writing and performance of music. Partly these changes were \"revolutionary\", deliberately instigated by a group of intellectuals in Florence known as the Camerata, and partly they were \"evolutionary\", in that precursors of the new Baroque style can be found far back in the Renaissance, and the changes merely built on extant forms and practices. The transitions emanated from the cultural centers of northern Italy, then spread to Rome, France, Germany, and Spain, and lastly reached England. In terms of instrumental music, shifts in four discrete areas can be observed: idiomatic writing, texture, instrument use and orchestration.\n", "Section::::Late period (1530–1600).\n\nIn Venice, from about 1530 until around 1600, an impressive polychoral style developed, which gave Europe some of the grandest, most sonorous music composed up until that time, with multiple choirs of singers, brass and strings in different spatial locations in the Basilica San Marco di Venezia (see Venetian School). These multiple revolutions spread over Europe in the next several decades, beginning in Germany and then moving to Spain, France, and England somewhat later, demarcating the beginning of what we now know as the Baroque musical era.\n", "Section::::History.:Baroque.\n", "One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types of instruments used in Baroque ensembles were much less standardized. A Baroque ensemble could include one of several different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ or harpsichord), additional stringed chordal instruments (e.g., a lute), bowed strings, woodwinds, and brass instruments, and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo,(e.g., a cello, contrabass, viola, bassoon, serpent, etc.).\n", "In classical music, the term \"Baroque\" is used to describe the art music of Europe approximately between the years 1600 and 1750, with some of its most prominent composers including J. S. Bach and Antonio Vivaldi. Much of the instrumentation of baroque pop is akin to that of the late Baroque period or the early Classical period, chronologically defined as the period of European music from 1690 to 1760 and stylistically defined by balanced phrases, clarity and beauty, using string sections, woodwinds and brass instruments.\n", "Section::::Early and Baroque music.\n", "Section::::The popularisation of music.\n", "Section::::Baroque and classical airs.\n", "Thus, idiomatic instrumental effects were present in Renaissance performance, if not in writing. By the early Baroque, however, they had clearly found their way into writing when composers began specifying desired instrumentation, notably Claudio Monteverdi in his opera scores.\n\nSection::::Texture.\n\nAnother crucial distinction between Renaissance and Baroque writing is its texture: the shift from contrapuntal polyphony, in which all voices are theoretically equal, to monody and treble-bass polarity, along with the development of basso continuo. In this new style of writing, solo melody and bass line accompaniment were now the important lines, with the inner voices filling in harmonies.\n", "The Baroque period (about 1600 to 1750) introduced heavy use of counterpoint and basso continuo characteristics. Vocal and instrumental \"color\" became more important compared with the Renaissance style of music, and emphasized much of the volume, texture and pace of each piece.\n\nNotable musicians\n\nBULLET::::- George Frideric Handel\n\nBULLET::::- Johann Sebastian Bach\n\nBULLET::::- Antonio Vivaldi\n\nSection::::Musicians by era.:Classical.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "BULLET::::- Handel’s \"Messiah\", 1992: Best Performance of a Choral Work\n\nBULLET::::- Monteverdi’s \"Vespers of 1610\", 1998: Best Performance of a Choral Work\n\nBULLET::::- Bach’s \"Mass in B Minor\", 2000: Best Performance of a Choral Work\n\nNotable premiere recordings by Boston Baroque include:\n\nBULLET::::- First period instrument recording of Mozart's \"Requiem Mass in D minor\" in the completion by Robert D. Levin, in which Levin addresses the issues of instrumentation, grammar and structure raised by the traditional Sussmayr completion.\n", "The Baroque period is divided into three major phases: early, middle, and late. Although they overlap in time, they are conventionally dated from 1580 to 1630, from 1630 to 1680, and from 1680 to 1730.\n\nSection::::History.:Early baroque music (1580–1630).\n", "Section::::History.:Baroque.\n", "Section::::History.:Late baroque music (1680–1730).\n\nThe work of George Frideric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach and their contemporaries, including Domenico Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Georg Philipp Telemann, and others advanced the Baroque era to its climax. Through the work of Johann Fux, the Renaissance style of polyphony was made the basis for the study of composition for future musical eras. The composers of the late baroque had established their feats of composition long before the works of Johann Fux.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Composers.:Baroque era.\n", "BULLET::::- Modern world premiere of \"Der Stein der Weisen\" (\"The Philosopher's Stone\") in 1998, a Singspiel collaboratively written by members of Mozart's circle--with the likely participation of Mozart himself--which shed's new light on the composition of \"The Magic Flute\" one year later.\n\nBULLET::::- Boston's first complete cycle of the three surviving Monteverdi operas (semi-staged in 2001-2003) with new performing versions of \"L'incoronazione di Poppea\" and \"Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria\" written by Martin Pearlman.\n\nBULLET::::- Boston Baroque's European debut, performing Handel's Messiah in Kraków and Warsaw, Poland in 2003.\n", "BULLET::::- First period instrument recording of Luigi Cherubini's long neglected \"Requiem in C minor\", which premiered on January 21, 1817, in a memorial concert below the abbey church of St. Denis to commemorate the anniversary of the executions of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. Though held in the highest esteem by Beethoven, Brahms, Berlioz and Wagner, and performed widely in its own day, the piece fell into obscurity along with most of Cherubini's output by the end of the 19th century.\n\nBULLET::::- First period instrument recording of Mozart's Der Schauspieldirektor.\n\nSection::::Collaborations.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Hard drinking water may have moderate health benefits, but can pose critical problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and other equipment that handles water. In domestic settings, hard water is often indicated by a lack of foam formation when soap is agitated in water, and by the formation of limescale in kettles and water heaters. Wherever water hardness is a concern, water softening is commonly used to reduce hard water's adverse effects.\n\nSection::::Sources of hardness.\n", "Section::::Regional information.:In Ireland.\n\nThe EPA has published a standards handbook for the interpretation of water quality in Ireland in which definitions of water hardness are given.\n\nIn this section, reference to original EU documentation is given, which sets out no limit for hardness.\n\nIn turn, the handbook also gives no \"Recommended or Mandatory Limit Values\" for Hardness.\n", "Section::::Sources of hardness.:Permanent hardness.\n\nPermanent hardness (mineral content) are generally difficult to remove by boiling. If this occurs, it is usually caused by the presence of calcium sulfate/calcium chloride and/or magnesium sulfate/magnesium chloride in the water, which do not precipitate out as the temperature increases. Ions causing permanent hardness of water can be removed using a water softener, or ion exchange column.\n\nPermanent Hardness = Permanent Calcium Hardness + Permanent Magnesium Hardness.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Hardness of water is determined by the concentration of multivalent cations. Common cations for hardness include: Ca and Mg. Ions enter a water supply by leaching from minerals within an aquifer. Common calcium-containing minerals are calcite and gypsum. A common magnesium mineral is dolomite (contains calcium). Rainwater and distilled water are soft, as they contain fewer ions.\n\nAreas with complex geology can produce varying degrees of hardness of water over short distances.\n\nSection::::Health impacts.\n", "The handbooks does indicate that above the midpoint of the ranges defined as \"Moderately Hard\", effects are seen increasingly: \"The chief disadvantages of hard waters are that they neutralise the lathering power of soap... and, more important, that they can cause blockage of pipes and severely reduced boiler efficiency because of scale formation. These effects will increase as the hardness rises to and beyond 200 mg/l CaCO3.\"\n\nSection::::Regional information.:In the United States.\n", "Section::::Measurement.:Hard/soft classification.\n\nBecause it is the precise mixture of minerals dissolved in the water, together with the water's pH and temperature, that determine the behavior of the hardness, a single-number scale does not adequately describe hardness. However, the United States Geological Survey uses the following classification into hard and soft water,\n\nSeawater is considered to be very hard due to various dissolved salts. Typically seawater's hardness is in the range of 6630 ppm. In contrast, freshwater has hardness in the range of 15 - 375 ppm.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Indices.\n", "In the UK, water is regarded as soft if the hardness is less than 50 mg/l of calcium carbonate. Water containing more than 50 mg/l of calcium carbonate is termed hard water. In the United States soft water is classified as having less than 60 mg/l of calcium carbonate.\n", "Generally water is mostly hard in urban areas of England where soft water sources are unavailable. A number of cities built water supply sources in the 18th century as the industrial revolution and urban population burgeoned. Manchester was a notable such city in North West England and its wealthy corporation built a number of reservoirs at Thirlmere and Haweswater in the Lake District to the north. There is no exposure to limestone or chalk in their headwaters and consequently the water in Manchester is rated as 'very soft'. Similarly, tap water in Birmingham is also soft as it is sourced from the Elan Valley Reservoirs in Wales.\n", "The term may also be used to describe water that has been produced by a water softening process although such water is more correctly termed \"softened water\". In these cases the water may also contain elevated levels of sodium and bicarbonate ions.\n\nBecause soft water has few calcium ions, there is no inhibition of the lathering action of soaps and no soap scum is formed in normal washing. Similarly, soft water produces no calcium deposits in water heating systems. Water that isn't soft is referred to as hard water.\n", "Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing and may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchange system. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product, as well as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on concentration of calcium carbonate the water contains. Water is classified as soft if it contains less than 100 mg/l (UK) or less than 60 mg/l (US).\n", "Information from the British Drinking Water Inspectorate shows that drinking water in England is generally considered to be 'very hard', with most areas of England, particularly east of a line between the Severn and Tees estuaries, exhibiting above 200 ppm for the calcium carbonate equivalent. Water in London, for example, is mostly obtained from the River Thames and River Lea both of which derive significant proportion of their dry weather flow from springs in limestone and chalk aquifers. Wales, Devon, Cornwall and parts of North-West England are softer water areas, and range from 0 to 200 ppm. In the brewing industry in England and Wales, water is often deliberately hardened with gypsum in the process of Burtonisation.\n", "In the USA, due to ancient sea beds with high limestone (calcium carbonate) concentrations, as much as 85% of water is hard, and many need water softening treatment. Waters in Eastern and Southern Florida, North-western Texas, and the entirety of South Dakota are considered extremely hard; the metropolitan cities with hardest water include Indianapolis, Las Vegas, Minneapolis, Phoenix, San Antonio and Tampa. The only states with soft water are Mississippi and Maine.\n\nSection::::Sources of hardness.\n", "In practice, water with an LSI between -0.5 and +0.5 will not display enhanced mineral dissolving or scale forming properties. Water with an LSI below -0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased dissolving abilities while water with an LSI above +0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased scale forming properties.\n", "Washing soda (sodium carbonate - NaCO) is easily obtained and has long been used as a water softener for domestic laundry, in conjunction with the usual soap or detergent.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Health considerations.\n\nThe World Health Organization says that \"there does not appear to be any convincing evidence that water hardness causes adverse health effects in humans\". In fact, the United States National Research Council has found that hard water actually serves as a dietary supplement for calcium and magnesium.\n", "Specific chemical compounds are often taken out of tap water during the treatment process to adjust the pH or remove contaminants, and chlorine may be added to kill biological toxins. Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for the presence of various metal ions, often rendering the water \"soft\" or \"hard\".\n", "Water hardness is often not expressed as a molar concentration, but rather in various units, such as degrees of general hardness (dGH), German degrees (°dH), parts per million (ppm, mg/L, or American degrees), grains per gallon (gpg), English degrees (°e, e, or °Clark), or French degrees (°fH, °F or °HF; lowercase \"f\" is used to prevent confusion with degrees Fahrenheit). The table below shows conversion factors between the various units.\n", "A collection of data from the United States found that about half the water stations tested had hardness over 120 mg per litre of calcium carbonate equivalent, placing them in the categories \"hard\" or \"very hard\". The other half were classified as soft or moderately hard. More than 85% of American homes have hard water. The softest waters occur in parts of the New England, South Atlantic-Gulf, Pacific Northwest, and Hawaii regions. Moderately hard waters are common in many of the rivers of the Tennessee, Great Lakes, and Alaska regions. Hard and very hard waters are found in some of the streams in most of the regions throughout the country. The hardest waters (greater than 1,000 ppm) are in streams in Texas, New Mexico, Kansas, Arizona, Utah, parts of Colorado, southern Nevada, and southern California.\n", "The Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI) uses slightly different parameters to quantify the relationship between the saturation state of the water and the amount of limescale deposited.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Indices.:Other indices.\n\nOther indices include the Larson-Skold Index, the Stiff-Davis Index, and the Oddo-Tomson Index.\n\nSection::::Regional information.\n\nThe hardness of local water supplies depends on the source of water. Water in streams flowing over volcanic (igneous) rocks will be soft, while water from boreholes drilled into porous rock is normally very hard.\n\nSection::::Regional information.:In Australia.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Softening.\n\nIt is often desirable to soften hard water. Most detergents contain ingredients that counteract the effects of hard water on the surfactants. For this reason, water softening is often unnecessary. Where softening is practised, it is often recommended to soften only the water sent to domestic hot water systems so as to prevent or delay inefficiencies and damage due to scale formation in water heaters. A common method for water softening involves the use of ion exchange resins, which replace ions like Ca by twice the number of monocations such as sodium or potassium ions.\n", "Some studies have shown a weak inverse relationship between water hardness and cardiovascular disease in men, up to a level of 170 mg calcium carbonate per litre of water. The World Health Organization has reviewed the evidence and concluded the data was inadequate to allow for a recommendation for a level of hardness.\n\nRecommendations have been made for the maximum and minimum levels of calcium (40–80 ppm) and magnesium (20–30 ppm) in drinking water, and a total hardness expressed as the sum of the calcium and magnesium concentrations of 2–4 mmol/L.\n", "The LSI is temperature sensitive. The LSI becomes more positive as the water temperature increases. This has particular implications in situations where well water is used. The temperature of the water when it first exits the well is often significantly lower than the temperature inside the building served by the well or at the laboratory where the LSI measurement is made. This increase in temperature can cause scaling, especially in cases such as hot water heaters. Conversely, systems that reduce water temperature will have less scaling.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Indices.:Ryznar Stability Index (RSI).\n", "BULLET::::- For LSI 0, water is super saturated and tends to precipitate a scale layer of CaCO.\n\nBULLET::::- For LSI = 0, water is saturated (in equilibrium) with CaCO. A scale layer of CaCO is neither precipitated nor dissolved.\n\nBULLET::::- For LSI 0, water is under saturated and tends to dissolve solid CaCO.\n", "Other studies have shown weak correlations between cardiovascular health and water hardness.\n\nSome studies correlate domestic hard water usage with increased eczema in children.\n\nThe Softened-Water Eczema Trial (SWET), a multicenter randomized controlled trial of ion-exchange softeners for treating childhood eczema, was undertaken in 2008. However, no meaningful difference in symptom relief was found between children with access to a home water softener and those without.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "BULLET::::- mineral structures of various qualities (smoothness, uniformity, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- mixed structures combining inorganic and organic molecules on mineral structures\n\nBULLET::::- wrapper complex molecules and even microorganisms maintaining or optimizing their beneficial characteristics.\n", "Hard water\n\nHard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with \"soft water\"). Hard water is formed when water percolates through deposits of limestone, chalk or gypsum which are largely made up of calcium and magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates and sulfates.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Among human beings, the sense of sight is usually in charge of recognizing other members of the same species, with maybe the subconscious help of smell. In particular, the human brain has a disproportionate amount of processing power dedicated to finely analyze the features of a human face. This is why we are able to distinguish basically all six billions of human beings from each other (barring look-alikes), and a human being from a similar species like some anthropomorphic ape, with only a quick glance.\n", "Humans are distributed across the globe with the exception of Antarctica, and form a variable species. In adults, average weight varies from around 40 kilos for the smallest and most lightly built tropical people to around 80 kilos for the heavier northern peoples. Size also varies between the sexes, the sexual dimorphism in humans being more pronounced than that of chimpanzees, but less than the dimorphism found in gorillas. The colouration of skin, hair and eyes also varies considerably, with darker pigmentation domination in tropical climates and lighter in polar regions.\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic, ethnic affiliation, geographical ancestry.\n", "Human physical appearance\n\nHuman physical appearance is the outward phenotype or look of human beings.\n\nThere are infinite variations in human phenotypes, though society reduces the variability to distinct categories. Physical appearance of humans, in particular those attributes which are regarded as important for physical attractiveness, are believed by anthropologists to significantly affect the development of personality and social relations. Humans are acutely sensitive to their physical appearance. Some differences in human appearance are genetic, others are the result of age, lifestyle or disease, and many are the result of personal adornment.\n", "For humans, the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of the sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features.\n", "The more familiar a particular type of face (e.g. human or dog) is, the more susceptible one is to the face inversion effect for that face. This applies to both humans and other species. For example, older chimpanzees familiar with human faces experienced the face inversion effect when viewing human faces, but the same result did not occur for younger chimpanzees familiar with chimpanzee faces. The face inversion effect was also stronger for dog faces when they were viewed by dog experts. This evidence demonstrates that familiarity with a particular type of face develops over time and appears to be necessary for the face inversion effect to occur.\n", "Some people have linked some differences, with ethnicity, such as skeletal shape, prognathism or elongated stride. Different cultures place different degrees of emphasis on physical appearance and its importance to social status and other phenomena.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting physical appearance.\n\nVarious factors are considered relevant in relation to the physical appearance of humans.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting physical appearance.:Physiological differences.\n", "Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction and migration between populations (gene flow). Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species. However, even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype: for example, chimpanzees and humans differ in only about 5% of their genomes.\n\nSection::::Variation.:Mutation.\n", "Before Darwin, and before molecular biology, the father of modern taxonomy, Carl Linnaeus, organized natural objects into kinds, that we now know reflect their evolutionary relatedness. He sorted these kinds by morphology, the shape of the object. Animals such as monkeys, chimpanzees and orangutans resemble humans closely, so Linnaeus placed \"Homo sapiens\" together with other similar-looking organisms into the taxonomic order \"Primates\". Modern molecular biology reinforced humanity’s place within the Primate order. Humans and simians share the vast majority of their DNA, with chimpanzees sharing between 97-99% genetic identity with humans.\n\nSection::::Primatology in sociobiology.:From grooming to speaking.\n", "Neurobiologist Jenny Morton and her team have been able to teach sheep to choose a familiar face over unfamiliar one when presented with two photographs, which has led to the discovery that sheep can recognise human faces. Archerfish (distant relatives of humans) were able to differentiate between forty-four different human faces, which supports the theory that there is no need for a neocortex or a history of discerning human faces in order to do so. Pigeons were found to use the same parts of the brain as humans do to distinguish between happy and neutral faces or male and female faces.\n", "Section::::Ontogenetic allometry.\n\nMost organisms undergo allometric changes in shape as they grow and mature, while others engage in metamorphosis. Even \"reptiles\" (non-avian sauropsids, e.g., crocodilians, turtles, snakes, lizards), in which the offspring are often viewed as miniature adults, show a variety of ontogenetic changes in morphology and physiology.\n\nSection::::Anthropological application.\n\nComparing ourselves to others is something humans do all the time. \"In doing so we are acknowledging not so much our sameness to others\n", "Section::::Fictional look-alikes.:Musicals.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Woman in White\": a musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber and David Zippel, with book by Charlotte Jones, first produced in 2004, based on the novel \"The Woman in White\" by Wilkie Collins, and elements of \"The Signal-Man\" by Charles Dickens.\n\nSection::::Fictional look-alikes.:Video games.\n", "The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (American Association of Physical Anthropologists 1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ~90% of the variation in human head shapes occurs within continental groups, and ~10% separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002).\n", "4. \"Human identities and animals\". How humans use animals to identify themselves as humans or to distinguish between human groups has a fascinating geographical history. Brown and Rasmussen examine the issue of bestiality, Elder et al. explore how animals are used to discriminate against human groups, and Neo studies how ethnicity comes into play with pig production in Malaysia. Others such as Barua argue that the identities of animals may be cosmopolitan, constituted by the circulation of animals and their contact with divergent cultures. These are all excellent case studies.\n", "Section::::History and geographic distribution.:Distribution of variation.:Phenotypic variation.\n\nSub-Saharan Africa has the most human genetic diversity and the same has been shown to hold true for phenotypic variation in skull form. Phenotype is connected to genotype through gene expression. Genetic diversity decreases smoothly with migratory distance from that region, which many scientists believe to be the origin of modern humans, and that decrease is mirrored by a decrease in phenotypic variation. Skull measurements are an example of a physical attribute whose within-population variation decreases with distance from Africa.\n", "Every living organism (with the possible exception of RNA viruses) contains molecules of DNA, which carries genetic information. Genes are the pieces of DNA that carry this information, and they influence the properties of an organism. Genes determine an individual's general appearance and to some extent their behaviour. If two organisms are closely related, their DNA will be very similar. On the other hand, the more distantly related two organisms are, the more differences they will have. For example, brothers are closely related and have very similar DNA, while cousins share a more distant relationship and have far more differences in their DNA. Similarities in DNA are used to determine the relationships between species in much the same manner as they are used to show relationships between individuals. For example, comparing chimpanzees with gorillas and humans shows that there is as much as a 96 percent similarity between the DNA of humans and chimps. Comparisons of DNA indicate that humans and chimpanzees are more closely related to each other than either species is to gorillas.\n", "Section::::Ethnicity.\n\nDifferences in own- versus other-race face recognition and perceptual discrimination was first researched in 1914. Humans tend to perceive people of other races than their own to all look alike:\n\nOther things being equal, individuals of a given race are distinguishable from each other in proportion to our familiarity, to our contact with the race as whole. Thus, to the uninitiated American all Asiatics look alike, while to the Asiatics, all White men look alike.\n\nThis phenomenon is known mainly as the cross-race effect, but is also called the own-race effect, other-race effect, own race bias or interracial-face-recognition-deficit.\n", "Domestic animals show differences in physical appearance in comparison to its wild ancestors as it underwent some changes such as having floppier ears, bigger skulls, curlier tail and changes in coat colour or pattern, as noted in domestications of dogs and the experimental domesticated red fox in Russia by Dmitry Belyayev . Changes in physical appearance which is caused by selective breeding can be seen in pets such as koi fish and betta fishes which is bred for aesthetic purpose or dogs bred for extreme physical appearances (e.g. extremely short snouts in pugs or bulldog species, short limbs on dachunds, extremely small sizes in \"teacup dogs\"). Extreme physical appearances in selectively bred animals may cause health problems, which may cause wild ancestors to have longer natural lifespans. \n", "BULLET::::- Realization that in DNA there are multiple independent comparisons. Two techniques, mtDNA and hybridization converge on a single answer, chimps as a species are most closely related to humans.\n", "Since mutation rate is relatively constant, roughly one half of these changes occurred in the human lineage. Only a very tiny fraction of those fixed differences gave rise to the different phenotypes of humans and chimpanzees and finding those is a great challenge. The vast majority of the differences are neutral and do not affect the phenotype.\n\nMolecular evolution may act in different ways, through protein evolution, gene loss, differential gene regulation and RNA evolution. All are thought to have played some part in human evolution.\n\nSection::::Genetic differences between humans and other great apes.:Gene loss.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences in animals.\"\n\nBULLET::::2. The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among human beings.\n\nBULLET::::3. The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among the senses.\n", "Richard Jantz and Lee Meadows Jantz who are both directors at the Forensic Anthropology Center at the University of Tennessee said white American skulls of both sexes have become less neotenous since the mid-19th century.\n\nSection::::Between races, ethnicities and among primates.:Aboriginal Australians.\n\nFrederick S. Hulse wrote in 1962 that aboriginal Australians have retained \"similar\" \"skeletal characteristics\" to those \"which most men possessed in earlier times\" (gerontomorphic characteristics) that are \"contrary\" to the \"pedomorphic qualities\" which the Bushmen have evolved.\n\nSection::::Between races, ethnicities and among primates.:Mongoloids.\n", "Biological adaptation plays a role in these bodily features and skin type. According to Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, \"From a scientific point of view, the concept of race has failed to obtain any consensus; none is likely, given the gradual variation in existence. It may be objected that the racial stereotypes have a consistency that allows even the layman to classify individuals. However, the major stereotypes, all based on skin color, hair color and form, and facial traits, reflect superficial differences that are not confirmed by deeper analysis with more reliable genetic traits and whose origin dates from recent evolution mostly under the effect of climate and perhaps sexual selection\".\n", "BULLET::::- Sorites paradoxes. Stimuli with human and nonhuman traits undermine our sense of human identity by linking qualitatively different categories, human and nonhuman, by a quantitative metric, degree of human likeness.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Afro-textured hair\n\nBULLET::::- Carnation (heraldry)\n\nBULLET::::- Color terminology for race\n\nBULLET::::- Complexion\n\nBULLET::::- Eye color\n\nBULLET::::- Health effects of sun exposure\n\nBULLET::::- Human hair color\n\nBULLET::::- Human physical appearance\n\nBULLET::::- Human skin\n\nBULLET::::- Race (human classification)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Wade, Nicholas (August 19, 2003), \"Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Ways\". \"The New York Times\". p. F1. Summary of clues to the saga in which humans evolved to lose their hair and had to adjust, including turning from light skin to dark skin, together with an estimation of the time when humans invented clothing.\n", "In other words, the considerable observable differences between humans and chimps may be due as much or more to genome level variation in the number, function and expression of genes rather than DNA sequence changes in shared genes. Indeed, even within humans, there has been found to be a previously unappreciated amount of copy number variation (CNV) which can make up as much as 5 – 15% of the human genome. In other words, between humans, there could be +/- 500,000,000 base pairs of DNA, some being active genes, others inactivated, or active at different levels. The full significance of this finding remains to be seen. On average, a typical human protein-coding gene differs from its chimpanzee ortholog by only two amino acid substitutions; nearly one third of human genes have exactly the same protein translation as their chimpanzee orthologs. A major difference between the two genomes is human chromosome 2, which is equivalent to a fusion product of chimpanzee chromosomes 12 and 13. (later renamed to chromosomes 2A and 2B, respectively).\n" ]

[ "Animals of the same species look the same while races of humans look very different.", "Animals of the same species look very identical." ]

[ "The human eye can recognize the differences between humans but not the subtle differences of other animals.", "Animals can look different but humans are not able to recognize the differences." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Animals of the same species look the same while races of humans look very different.", "Animals of the same species look very identical." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The human eye can recognize the differences between humans but not the subtle differences of other animals.", "Animals can look different but humans are not able to recognize the differences." ]

[ "Ice cream maker\n\nA domestic ice cream maker is a machine used to make small quantities of ice cream for personal consumption. Ice cream makers may prepare the mixture by employing the hand-cranking method or by employing an electric motor. The resulting preparation is often chilled through either pre-cooling the machine or by employing a machine that freezes the mixture.\n", "Some forms of soft serve, like many other processed foods, have palm oil.\n\nAll ice cream must be frozen quickly to avoid crystallization. With soft serve, this is accomplished by a special machine at the point of sale. Pre-mixed product (see definitions below) is introduced to the storage chamber of the machine where it is kept at . When product is drawn from the draw valve, fresh mix combined with the targeted quantity of air is introduced to the freezing chamber either by gravity or pump. It is then churned and quick frozen and stored until required.\n", "After expanding sales nationwide, the company needed additional space and moved to its current location in Burnsville in 1998. The company celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2010, after which Stephen and Vicke retired.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nAbdallah Candies produces more than 20,000 pounds of candy each day. Nearly 1 million caramel apples are produced during September and October, and sold locally and online. The company developed a caramel apple-dipping machine to replace the labor-intense, hand-dipping process; the machine coats 4,000 apples an hour.\n", "Take Tin Ice-Pots, fill them with any Sort of Cream you like, either plain or sweeten’d, or Fruit in it; shut your Pots very close; to six Pots you must allow eighteen or twenty Pound of Ice, breaking the Ice very small; there will be some great Pieces, which lay at the Bottom and Top: You must have a Pail, and lay some Straw at the Bottom; then lay in your Ice, and put in amongst it a Pound of Bay-Salt; set in your Pots of Cream, and lay Ice and Salt between every Pot, that they may not touch; but the Ice must lie round them on every Side; lay a good deal of Ice on the Top, cover the Pail with Straw, set it in a Cellar where no Sun or Light comes, it will be froze in four Hours, but it may stand longer; then take it out just as you use it; hold it in your Hand and it will slip out. When you wou’d freeze any Sort of Fruit, either Cherries, Raspberries, Currants, or Strawberries, fill your Tin-Pots with the Fruit, but as hollow as you can; put to them Lemmonade, made with Spring-Water and Lemmon-Juice sweeten’d; put enough in the Pots to make the Fruit hang together, and put them in Ice as you do Cream.\n", "In a typical assembly, the cake component is baked in the normal way, cut to shape if necessary, and then frozen. Ice cream is shaped in a mold as appropriate, and these components are then assembled while frozen. Whipped cream is often used for frosting, as a complement to the two other textures, and because many typical frostings will not adhere successfully to frozen cake. The whole cake is then kept frozen until prior to serving, when it is allowed to thaw until it can be easily sliced but not so much as to melt the ice cream.\n", "Mövenpick products were later made by Emerald Foods, a company owned by Mövenpick until December 2003, when it was sold to the Emerald Group. In December 2005, Emerald Group CEO Diane Foreman noted a supply challenge, in that Emerald was contractually obliged to buy all raw materials from Swiss-based Mövenpick, in order to make licensed Mövenpick products. In late 2009, Emerald signed a contract with Mövenpick for a further four years.\n\nThe ice cream making subsidiary of the Emerald Group was then sold to Emerald Foods Group (HK) in April 2015. \n\nSection::::Production and distribution.:Contracted production.:Pakistan.\n", "Traditionally, a mixture of sugar and water is heated to the hard crack stage corresponding to a temperature of approximately , although some recipes also call for ingredients such as corn syrup and salt in the first step. Nuts are mixed with the caramelized sugar. At this point spices, leavening agents, and often peanut butter or butter are added. The hot candy is poured out onto a flat surface for cooling, traditionally a granite or marble slab. The hot candy may be troweled to uniform thickness. When the brittle cools, it is broken into pieces.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Almond Roca\n", "Section::::Models.:Electric machines.\n\nThere are four types of electric ice cream machines. Each has an electric motor that drives the bowl or the paddle to stir the mixture. The major difference between the four is how the cooling is performed.\n\nSection::::Models.:Electric machines.:Counter-top machines.\n", "In 2001, Delicious Alternative Desserts Ltd. (DAD) received the contract to co-pack Mövenpick products in Canada, in packaging customised to the region. DAD was placed in receivership in 2002. Bankruptcy trustee KPMG continued limited production of Mövenpick at Stoney Creek Dairy, which was purchased by Better Beef Ltd. in February 2002. Better Beef was sold to Cargill Inc. in 2005, and the dairy was purchased by Creme Glacee Lambert in 2009, and closed in 2010.\n\nSection::::Production and distribution.:Contracted production.:Egypt.\n\nIn 2013, Nestlé upgraded their ice cream factory in Egypt, where Mövenpick ice creams are produced for export to Malaysia.\n", "Today, jobs specialize in the selling of ice cream. The title of a person who works in this speciality is often called an 'ice cream man', however women also specialize in the selling of ice cream. People in this line of work often sell ice cream on beaches. On beaches, ice cream is either sold by a person who carries a box full of ice cream and is called over by people who want the purchase ice cream, or by a person who drives up to the top of the beach and rings a bell. In the second method, people go up to the top of the beach and purchase ice cream straight from the ice cream seller, who is often in an ice cream van. In Turkey and Australia, ice cream is sometimes sold to beach-goers from small powerboats equipped with chest freezers.\n", "Section::::Commercial cones.:Pre-filled cones.\n\nIn 1928, J.T. \"Stubby\" Parker of Fort Worth, Texas created an ice cream cone that could be stored in a grocer's freezer, with the cone and the ice cream frozen together as one item. He formed The Drumstick Company in 1931 to market the product, and in 1991 the company was purchased by Nestlé.\n", "Section::::Models.:Electric machines.:Small freezer-unit machines.\n", "The Brown family makes all of their ice cream from scratch and has a hand in every step of the process. They start by creating their own ice cream mix by heating skim milk, gelatin, cream, and sugar in a large industrial mixer. The ice cream is then pasteurized and homogenized and eventually stored for a night. After that night storage, the Brown family packages their ice cream and stores it again in a large walk in freezer until it is shipped out.\n\nValpo Velvet has over 75 different flavors that include:\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate Cookie Dough Ice Cream\n", "In modern times, a common method for producing ice cream at home is to use an ice cream maker, an electrical device that churns the ice cream mixture while cooled inside a household freezer. Some more expensive models have an inbuilt freezing element. A newer method is to add liquid nitrogen to the mixture while stirring it using a spoon or spatula for a few seconds; a similar technique, advocated by Heston Blumenthal as ideal for home cooks, is to add dry ice to the mixture while stirring for a few minutes. Some ice cream recipes call for making a custard, folding in whipped cream, and immediately freezing the mixture. Another method is to use a pre-frozen solution of salt and water, which gradually melts as the ice cream freezes.\n", "Section::::Models.:Electric machines.:Built-in freezer machines.\n", "Sugar is added to fruit to protect against microbial contamination and reduce water activity in the fruit. This allows the fruit to be more stable at room temperature. Some examples are strawberries, prunes, peaches, apricots, and pineapples. IMF blueberries are prepared by osmotic dehydration. They are soaked in sugar for one to two days followed by a freeze drying process until the desired moisture level is reached.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Meat.\n", "In general, jam is produced by taking mashed or chopped fruit or vegetable pulp and boiling it with sugar and water. The proportion of sugar and fruit varies according to the type of fruit and its ripeness, but a rough starting point is equal weights of each. When the mixture reaches a temperature of 104 °C (219 °F), the acid and the pectin in the fruit react with the sugar, and the jam will set on cooling. However, most cooks work by trial and error, bringing the mixture to a \"fast rolling boil\", watching to see if the seething mass changes texture, and dropping small samples on a plate to see if they run or set.\n", "Section::::Models.:Electric machines.:Ice-salt coolant machines.\n", "Harvesting occurs in two stages: In mechanized systems, a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the \"bush\" from the ground and shakes it, then inverts the bush, leaving the plant upside down on the ground to keep the peanuts out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a little less than a third of their original moisture level over a period of three to four days. Traditionally, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand.\n", "The dessert is commonly made by taking a scoop of ice cream frozen well below the temperature at which ice cream is generally kept, possibly coating it in raw egg, rolling it in cornflakes or cookie crumbs, and briefly deep frying it. The extremely low temperature of the ice cream prevents it from melting while being fried. It may be sprinkled with cinnamon and sugar and a touch of peppermint, though whipped cream or honey may be used as well.\n", "Before packaging, the peanut butter must first be cooled in order to be sealed in jars. The mixture is pumped into a heat exchanger in order to cool it to about . Once cool, the peanut butter is pumped into jars and vacuum sealed. This vacuum sealing rids the container of oxygen so that oxidation cannot occur, preserving the food. The jars are then labelled and set aside until crystallization occurs. The peanut butter is then packaged into cartons distributed to retailers, where they are stored at room temperature and sold to consumers.\n", "The sweet is produced by machinery. The process begins with flat sheets of wafer with hemispheres moving down an assembly line. The hemispheres of the wafers are then filled with a chocolate hazelnut cream and part of a hazelnut. Next, two of these wafer sheets, one with a hazelnut and one with hazelnut chocolate cream, are clamped together. The excess wafer is cut away producing wafer balls. These balls are then coated with a layer of chocolate, a layer of chopped hazelnuts, and a final layer of chocolate before the chocolate is packaged.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n", "Nancy Johnson invented the ice cream making machine in 1843. It was operated with a hand crank and revolutionised ice cream production. Jacob Fussell ice cream from Baltimore established the first factory for industrially produced ice cream on 15 June 1851 in Seven Valleys, Pennsylvania. Carl von Linde discovered a refrigeration cycle and invented the first industrial-scale air separation and gas liquefaction processes which is the basis of today's industrial and continuous freezers which allow mass production of ice cream, possibly the largest sector in dairy machinery production.\n", "Peanuts are heated by hot air at for not more than 20 minutes in order to soften and split the skins. After that, the peanuts are exposed to continuous steam in a blanching machine. The skins are then removed using either bristles or soft rubber belts. After that, these skins are separated and blown into waste bags. Meanwhile, the hearts of peanuts are segregated through inspection.\n\nSection::::Production process.:Blanching.:Water blanching.\n", "The process to create this frozen dessert takes an average of two minutes. The flavored milk-based liquid is poured onto the ice pan where it is chopped and manipulated until the liquid becomes a cream. Other required ingredients are added and the mixture is chopped and probed until a creamy texture has formed. The mixture is spread in a thin layer across the pan, then starting on one side the ice cream or gelato is rolled into its cylinder shape with the use of a spatula. The rolls are placed in an ice cream cup and decorated with any desired toppings.\n" ]

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[ "Where radioactive contamination is present, a gas mask, dust mask, or good hygiene practices may offer protection, depending on the nature of the contaminant. Potassium iodide (KI) tablets can reduce the risk of cancer in some situations due to slower uptake of ambient radioiodine. Although this does not protect any organ other than the thyroid gland, their effectiveness is still highly dependent on the time of ingestion, which would protect the gland for the duration of a twenty-four-hour period. They do not prevent acute radiation syndrome as they provide no shielding from other environmental radionuclides.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Fractionation of dose.\n", "Staying indoors until after the most hazardous fallout isotope, I-131 decays away to 0.1% of its initial quantity after ten half-lives – which is represented by 80 days in the care of I-131 case, would make the difference between likely contracting thyroid cancer or escaping completely from this substance depending on the actions of the individual.\n", "If available, inhabitants may take potassium iodide at the rate of 130 mg/day per adult (65 mg/day per child) as an additional measure to protect the thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine, a component of most fallout and reactor waste.\n\nSection::::Different types of radiation emitted by fallout.\n\nSection::::Different types of radiation emitted by fallout.:Alpha (α).\n", "On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to nuclear fallout is to obtain potassium iodide (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against alpha particles, which are only an internal hazard.\n\nTo support and supplement efforts at national, regional and local level with regard to disaster prevention, the preparedness of those responsible for civil protection and the intervention in the event of disaster\n", "The peak incidence of acute BM death corresponds to the 30-day nadir in blood cell numbers. The number of deaths then falls progressively until it reaches 0 at 60 days after irradiation. The amount of radiation greatly affects the probability of death. For example, over the range of 2 to 6 Gray the probability of death in untreated adults goes from about 1% to 99%, but these figures are for healthy adults. Therefore, results may differ, because of the thermal and mechanical injuries and infectious conditions.\n\nSection::::Radiation poisoning.:Gastrointestinal death.\n", "BULLET::::- Radiation Sickness Is Not Always Fatal: In small amounts, radioactivity seldom is harmful. Even when serious radiation sickness follows a heavy dosage, there is still a good chance for recovery.\n\nSection::::Center Insert.:Six Survival Secrets For Atomic Attacks (16, 17).\n\nSection::::Center Insert.:Six Survival Secrets For Atomic Attacks (16, 17).:Always Put First Things First And (16).\n\nBULLET::::- 1. Try To Get Shielded: If you have time, get down in a basement or subway. Should you unexpectedly be caught out-of-doors, seek shelter alongside a building, or jump in any handy ditch or gutter.\n", "The exposure to 4.5 Gray of penetrating gamma rays has many effects that occur at different times:\n\nIn 24 hours:\n\nBULLET::::- vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- diarrhea\n\nThese will usually abate after 6–7 days.\n\nWithin 3–4 weeks there is a period of extreme illness.\n\nBULLET::::- severe bloody diarrhea, indicating intestinal disorders causing fluid imbalance\n\nBULLET::::- extensive internal bleeding\n\nBULLET::::- sepsis infections\n", "For yields of up to 10 kt, prompt radiation is the dominant producer of casualties on the battlefield. Humans receiving an acute incapacitating dose (30 Gy) have their performance degraded almost immediately and become ineffective within several hours. However, they do not die until five to six days after exposure, assuming they do not receive any other injuries. Individuals receiving less than a total of 1.5 Gy are not incapacitated. People receiving doses greater than 1.5 Gy become disabled, and some eventually die.\n", "Section::::Fallout countermeasures.\n\nThe purpose of radiological emergency preparedness is to protect people from the effects of radiation exposure after a nuclear accident or bomb. Evacuation is the most effective protective measure. However, if evacuation is impossible or even uncertain, then local fallout shelters and other measures provide the best protection.\n\nSection::::Fallout countermeasures.:Iodine.\n\nAt least three isotopes of iodine are important. I, I (radioiodine) and I. Open air nuclear testing and the Chernobyl disaster both released iodine-131.\n", "BULLET::::- Rarer still would be personnel who experience radiation burns from highly penetrating gamma radiation. This would likely cause deep gamma penetration within the body, which would result in uniform whole body irradiation rather than only a surface burn. In cases of whole body gamma irradiation (c. 10 Gy) due to accidents involving medical product irradiators, some of the human subjects have developed injuries to their skin between the time of irradiation and death.\n", "A dose of 0.1 Gray will cause low sperm counts for up to a year; 2.5 Gray will cause sterility for 2 to 3 years or more. 4 Gray will cause permanent sterility.\n\nSection::::Long-term effects.\n\nSection::::Long-term effects.:Cataract induction.\n\nThe timespan for developing this symptom ranges from 6 months to 30 years to develop but the median time for developing them is 2–3 years.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Gray of gamma rays cause opacities in a few percent\n\nBULLET::::- 6-7 Gray can seriously impair vision and cause cataracts\n\nSection::::Long-term effects.:Cancer induction.\n", "There is also the risk of internal radiation poisoning by ingestion of fallout particles, if one is in a fallout zone.\n\nSection::::Radiation poisoning.\n", "The lungs are the most radiosensitive organ, and radiation pneumonitis can occur leading to pulmonary insufficiency and death (100% after exposure to 50 Gray of radiation), in a few months.\n\nRadiation pneumonitis is characterized by:\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of epithelial cells\n\nBULLET::::- Edema\n\nBULLET::::- Inflammation\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusions of airways, air sacs and blood vessels\n\nBULLET::::- Fibrosis\n\nSection::::Short-term effects (6–8 weeks).:Ovaries.\n\nA single dose of 1–2 Gray will cause temporary damage and suppress menstruation for periods up to 3 years; a dose of 4 Gray will cause permanent sterility.\n\nSection::::Short-term effects (6–8 weeks).:Testicles.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Long term.\n\nLate or delayed effects of radiation occur following a wide range of doses and dose rates. Delayed effects may appear months to years after irradiation and include a wide variety of effects involving almost all tissues or organs. Some of the \"possible\" delayed consequences of radiation injury, with the rates above the background prevalence, depending on the absorbed dose, include carcinogenesis, cataract formation, chronic radiodermatitis, decreased fertility, and genetic mutations.\n", "Current regimens for treatment of thyrotoxicosis (including Graves' disease), when a patient is exposed to additional sources of iodine, commonly include 500 mg potassium perchlorate twice per day for 18–40 days.\n", "Depending on whether individuals further afield shelter in place or evacuate perpendicular to the direction of the wind, and therefore avoid contact with the fallout plume, and stay there for the days and weeks after the nuclear explosion, their exposure to fallout, and therefore their total dose, will vary. With those who do shelter in place, and or evacuate, experiencing a total dose that would be negligible in comparison to someone who just went about their life as normal.\n", "Within the USA, the highest I fallout doses occurred during the 1950s and early 1960s to children having consumed fresh sources of milk contaminated as the result of above-ground testing of nuclear weapons. The National Cancer Institute provides additional information on the health effects from exposure to I in fallout, as well as individualized estimates, for those born before 1971, for each of the 3070 counties in the USA. The calculations are taken from data collected regarding fallout from the nuclear weapons tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site.\n", "The “prodromal syndrome” is not a diagnosis, but the technical term used by health professionals to describe a specific group of symptoms that may precede the onset of an illness. For example, a fever is “prodromal” to measles, which means that a fever may be a risk factor for developing this illness.\n\nSection::::Radiation poisoning.:Bone marrow death.\n", "For this reason, it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with radioactive materials. Radioactive contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminated water or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all potential pathways of internal exposure should be considered.\n\nSuccessfully used on Harold McCluskey, chelation therapy and other treatments exist for internal radionuclide contamination.\n\nSection::::Decontamination.\n", "The outcomes for the 46 most contaminated people are shown in the bar chart below. Several people survived high doses of radiation. This is thought in some cases to be because the dose was fractionated. Given time, the body's repair mechanisms will reverse cell damage caused by radiation. If the dose is spread over a long time period, these mechanisms can mitigate the effects of radiation poisoning.\n\nSection::::Health outcomes.:Other affected people.\n", "The skin is susceptible to beta-emitting radioactive fallout. The principal site of damage is the germinal layer, and often the initial response is erythema (reddening) due to blood vessels congestion and edema. Erythema lasting more than 10 days occurs in 50% of people exposed to 5-6 Gray.\n\nOther effects with exposure include:\n\nBULLET::::- 2–3 Gray—temporary hair loss\n\nBULLET::::- 7 Gray—permanent epilation occurs\n\nBULLET::::- 10 Gray—itching and flaking occurs\n\nBULLET::::- 10–20 Gray—weeping blistering and ulceration will occur\n\nSection::::Short-term effects (6–8 weeks).:Lungs.\n", "As the nuclear energy sector continues to grow, the international rhetoric surrounding nuclear warfare intensifies, and the ever-present threat of radioactive materials falling into the hands of dangerous people persists, many scientists are working hard to find the best way to protect human organs from the harmful effects of high energy radiation. Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) is the most immediate risk to humans when exposed to ionizing radiation in dosages greater than around 0.1 Gy/hr. Radiation in the low energy spectrum (alpha and beta radiation) with minimal penetrating power is unlikely to cause significant damage to internal organs. The high penetrating power of gamma and neutron radiation, however, easily penetrates the skin and many thin shielding mechanisms to cause cellular degeneration in the stem cells found in bone marrow. While full body shielding in a secure fallout shelter as described above is the most optimal form of radiation protection, it requires being locked in a very thick bunker for a significant amount of time. In the event of a nuclear catastrophe of any kind, it is imperative to have mobile protection equipment for medical and security personnel to perform necessary containment, evacuation, and any number of other important public safety objectives. The mass of the shielding material required to properly protect the entire body from high energy radiation would make functional movement essentially impossible. This has led scientists to begin researching the idea of partial body protection: a strategy inspired by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). The idea is to use enough shielding material to sufficiently protect the high concentration of bone marrow in the pelvic region, which contains enough regenerative stem cells to repopulate the body with unaffected bone marrow. More information on bone marrow shielding can be found in the Health Physics Radiation Safety Journal article Selective Shielding of Bone Marrow: An Approach to Protecting Humans from External Gamma Radiation, or in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)'s 2015 report: Occupational Radiation Protection in Severe Accident Management.\n", "BULLET::::- Delayed period—from 20+ weeks. Characterized by numerous complications, mostly related to healing of thermal and mechanical injuries, and if the individual was exposed to a few hundred to a thousand Millisieverts of radiation, it is coupled with infertility, sub-fertility and blood disorders. Furthermore, ionizing radiation above a dose of around 50-100 Millisievert exposure has been shown to statistically begin increasing a person's chance of dying of cancer sometime in their lifetime over the normal unexposed rate of c. 25%, in the long term, a heightened rate of cancer, proportional to the dose received, would begin to be observed after c. 5+ years, with lesser problems such as eye cataracts and other more minor effects in other organs and tissue also being observed over the long term.\n", "Gastrointestinal death is caused by a dose of radiation between 10 and 50 Gray. Whole body doses cause damage to epithelial cells lining the gastrointestinal tract and this combined with the bone marrow damage is fatal. All symptoms become increasingly severe, causing exhaustion and emaciation in a few days and death within 7–14 days from loss of water and electrolytes.\n\nThe symptoms of gastrointestinal death are:\n\nBULLET::::- gastrointestinal pain\n\nBULLET::::- anorexia\n\nBULLET::::- nausea\n\nBULLET::::- vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- diarrhea\n\nSection::::Radiation poisoning.:Central nervous system death.\n", "Treatment is supportive with the possible use of antibiotics, blood products, colony stimulating factors, and stem cell transplant. Symptomatic measures may also be employed.\n\nSection::::Management.:Antimicrobials.\n\nThere is a direct relationship between the degree of the neutropenia that emerges after exposure to radiation and the increased risk of developing infection. Since there are no controlled studies of therapeutic intervention in humans, most of the current recommendations are based on animal research.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Mapping process.:Drawing (cartography).\n\nSection::::Mapping process.:Drawing (cartography).:Corrected topographic maps.\n\nThe earliest orienteering maps used existing topographic maps e.g. United Kingdom Ordnance Survey 1:25 000 plans. These were cut down to a suitable size, corrected by hand, and then copied.\n\nSection::::Mapping process.:Drawing (cartography).:Hand-drawn orienteering maps.\n\nSection::::Mapping process.:Drawing (cartography).:Hand-drawn orienteering maps.:Hand-drawn maps.\n", "Percy Harrison Fawcett is a British surveyor that explored the jungles of South America attempting to find the Lost City of Z. His biography and expeditions were recounted in the book \"The Lost City of Z\" and were later adapted on film screen.\n\nInō Tadataka produced the first map of Japan using modern surveying techniques starting in 1800, at the age of 55.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cartography\n\nBULLET::::- Chartered Surveyor\n\nBULLET::::- International Federation of Surveyors\n\nBULLET::::- Prismatic compass (surveying)\n\nBULLET::::- Surveying in early America\n\nBULLET::::- Exsecant\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Scribing (cartography)\n\nScribing was used to produce lines for cartographic map compilations before the use of computer based geographic information systems. Lines produced by manual scribing are sharp, clear and even. \n", "Section::::History.:Modern period.\n\nIn cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were produced manually, with brushes and parchment; so they varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.\n", "Since the mid-1990s, the use of computers in map making has helped to store, sort, and arrange data for mapping in order to create map projections.\n\nSection::::Further developments in modern cartography.:Contemporary.\n\nSection::::Further developments in modern cartography.:Contemporary.:Software development.\n", "Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.\n", "Surveying has occurred since humans built the first large structures. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the annual floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c. 2700 BC, affirm the Egyptians' command of surveying. The \"Groma\" instrument originated in Mesopotamia (early 1st millennium BC). The prehistoric monument at Stonehenge (c. 2500 BC) was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry.\n", "BULLET::::- Land surveyors determined the exact dimensions of a particular area such as a field, dividing the land into plots for distribution, or laying out the streets in a town.\n\nBULLET::::- Cartographical surveyors made maps, involving finding latitudes, longitudes and elevations.\n\nBULLET::::- Military surveyors were called upon to determine such information as the width of a river an army would need to cross.\n\nBULLET::::- Engineering surveyors investigated terrain in order to prepare the way for roads, canals, aqueducts, tunnels and mines.\n", "The Polynesian peoples who explored and settled the Pacific islands in the first two millennia AD used maps to navigate across large distances. A surviving map from the Marshall Islands uses sticks tied in a grid with palm strips representing wave and wind patterns, with shells attached to show the location of islands. Other maps were created as needed using temporary arrangements of stones or shells.\n\nSection::::Early modern cartography.\n\nSection::::Early modern cartography.:Medieval maps and the Mappa Mundi.\n", "In the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars continued and advanced on the mapmaking traditions of earlier cultures. Most used Ptolemy's methods; but they also took advantage of what explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the Muslim world, from Spain to India to Africa, and beyond in trade relationships with China, and Russia.\n", "BULLET::::- World map\n\nSection::::See also.:Related histories.\n\nBULLET::::- History of geography\n\nBULLET::::- History of geodesy\n\nBULLET::::- History of navigation\n\nBULLET::::- History of surveying\n\nBULLET::::- History of cadastre\n\nBULLET::::- History of topographic mapping\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Imago Mundi\" journal of History of Cartography\n\nBULLET::::- \"The History of Cartography\" journal published by the University of Chicago Press\n\nBULLET::::- Euratlas Historical Maps History maps from year zero AD\n\nBULLET::::- The History of Cartography Project at the University of Wisconsin, a comprehensive research project in the history of maps and mapping\n\nBULLET::::- Three volumes of \"The History of Cartography\" are available free in PDF format\n", "BULLET::::- ‘An Account of the Trigonometrical Survey carried on by Order of the Master-General of H.M. Ordnance in the years 1800–1809, by William Mudge and Thomas Colby.’\n", "Ptolemy's eight-volume atlas \"Geographia\" is a prototype of modern mapping and GIS. It included an index of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, scale, conventional signs with legends, and the practice of orienting maps so that north is at the top and east to the right of the map—an almost universal custom today.\n", "Section::::Pictorial Map-makers up to modern times.\n", "The primary way of determining one's position on the earth's surface when no known positions are nearby is by astronomic observations. Observations to the sun, moon and stars could all be made using navigational techniques. Once the instrument's position and bearing to a star is determined, the bearing can be transferred to a reference point on the earth. The point can then be used as a base for further observations. Survey-accurate astronomic positions were difficult to observe and calculate and so tended to be a base off which many other measurements were made. Since the advent of the GPS system, astronomic observations are rare as GPS allows adequate positions to be determined over most of the surface of the earth.\n", "Today historical cartography is thriving. The specialization of map services is ever growing. New map projections are still being developed, university map collections, such as Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas, offer better and more diverse maps and map tools every day, making available for their students and the broad public ancient maps that in the past were difficult to find. David Rumsey Historical Map Collection is nowadays a worldwide known initiative.\n\nSection::::Further developments in modern cartography.:Contemporary.:Self-publishing tools and collaborative mapping.\n", "Two additional developments are notable in the early days of GIS: Ian McHarg's publication \"\"Design with Nature\"\" and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S. Census Bureau's DIME (Dual Independent Map Encoding) system.\n\nComputer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose computer \"mapping\" applications by the early 1960s.\n", "In the 1670s the astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini began work on the first modern topographic map in France. It was completed in 1789 or 1793 by his grandson Cassini de Thury.\n\nSection::::Further developments in modern cartography.\n\nSection::::Further developments in modern cartography.:Eighteenth century.\n\nThe Vertical Perspective projection was first used by the German map publisher Matthias Seutter in 1740. He placed his observer at ~12,750 km distance. This is the type of projection used today by Google Earth.\n", "In the mid-to-late 20th century, advances in electronic technology have led to further revolution in cartography. Specifically computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps, particularly with their ability to produce maps that show slightly different features, without engraving a new printing plate. See also digital raster graphic and History of web mapping.\n", "In 1985, Karlin & Collins, Inc., based in Sunnyvale, California, began comprehensive mapping of the San Francisco Bay Area getting another US$2.5 million from Prudential Bache. Karlin and Collins made use of the newly created U.S. Census electronic map (TIGER files) which was matched with aerial photographs. They hired people to drive every road carrying a Dictaphone describing the position. In lieu of using a GPS, they kept track of the location of the vehicle using a dead reckoning system that relied on a gyro compass.\n", "Maps from the Ain-e-Akbari, a Mughal document detailing India's history and traditions, contain references to locations indicated in earlier Indian cartographic traditions. Another map describing the kingdom of Nepal, four feet in length and about two and a half feet in breadth, was presented to Warren Hastings. In this map the mountains were elevated above the surface, and several geographical elements were indicated in different colors.\n\nSection::::Islamic cartographic schools.\n\nSection::::Islamic cartographic schools.:Arab and Persian cartography.\n", "Section::::China.:Sui.\n\nIn the year 605, during the Sui Dynasty (581–618), the Commercial Commissioner Pei Ju (547–627) created a famous geometrically gridded map. In 610 Emperor Yang of Sui ordered government officials from throughout the empire to document in gazetteers the customs, products, and geographical features of their local areas and provinces, providing descriptive writing and drawing them all onto separate maps, which would be sent to the imperial secretariat in the capital city.\n\nSection::::China.:Tang.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n\nThe English term \"cartography\" is modern, borrowed from the French \"cartographie\" in the 1840s, itself based on Middle Latin \"carta\" \"map\".\n\nSection::::Earliest known maps.\n\nThe earliest known maps are of the stars, not the earth. Dots dating to 14,500 BC found on the walls of the Lascaux caves map out part of the night sky, including the three bright stars Vega, Deneb, and Altair (the Summer Triangle asterism), as well as the Pleiades star cluster. The Cuevas de El Castillo in Spain contain a dot map of the Corona Borealis constellation dating from 12,000 BC.\n", "Aerial photography and satellite imagery have provided high-accuracy, high-throughput methods for mapping physical features over large areas, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, and topography.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cartography of India\n\nBULLET::::- City maps\n\nBULLET::::- Early world maps\n\nBULLET::::- \"Forma Urbis Romae\"\n\nBULLET::::- Geographic information system\n\nBULLET::::- Great Trigonometrical Survey (India)\n\nBULLET::::- Here be dragons\n\nBULLET::::- History of Cartography Project\n\nBULLET::::- Iberian cartography, 1400–1600\n\nBULLET::::- List of cartographers\n\nBULLET::::- List of historical maps\n\nBULLET::::- Map projection\n\nBULLET::::- Mappa mundi\n\nBULLET::::- Pictorial maps\n\nBULLET::::- Principal Triangulation of Great Britain\n\nBULLET::::- Terra incognita\n\nBULLET::::- The Royal Thai Survey Department\n\nBULLET::::- Web mapping\n", "Section::::China.:Earliest known reference to a map (图 tu).\n" ]

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[ "The median nerve can be compressed by a decrease in the size of the canal, an increase in the size of the contents (such as the swelling of lubrication tissue around the flexor tendons), or both. Since the carpal tunnel is bordered by carpal bones on one side and a ligament on the other, when the pressure builds up inside the tunnel, there is nowhere for it to escape and thus it ends up pressing up against and damaging the median nerve. Simply flexing the wrist to 90 degrees will decrease the size of the canal.\n", "In carpal tunnel syndrome, one of the tendons or tissues in the carpal tunnel is inflamed, swollen, or fibrotic and puts pressure on the other structures in the tunnel, including the median nerve. Carpal tunnel syndrome is the most commonly reported nerve entrapment syndrome. Carpal tunnel syndrome is often associated with repetitive motions of the wrist and fingers; jobs like typists, pianists, and meat cutters are at particularly high risk. The tough flexor retinaculum along with the rest of the carpal tunnel cannot expand, putting pressure on the median nerve running through the carpal tunnel with the flexor tendons of the wrist. This results in the symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome.\n", "The median nerve can usually move up to 9.6 mm to allow the wrist to flex, and to a lesser extent during extension. Long-term compression of the median nerve can inhibit nerve gliding, which may lead to injury and scarring. When scarring occurs, the nerve will adhere to the tissue around it and become locked into a fixed position, so that less movement is apparent.\n", "On minor league opening day 1967 in Birmingham—just nine days after he got married to his high school sweetheart and the Upland High School team statistician (Jill)—a hit baseball struck Fingers in the face, breaking his cheekbone, jaw, and knocking out some teeth. His jaw was wired shut for five weeks, and when he returned to action, Fingers jumped every time the ball was hit; it took him about half the remaining season to get used to being on the mound again.\n\nSection::::Major league career.\n", "In smaller joints, such as at the fingers, hard bony enlargements, called Heberden's nodes (on the distal interphalangeal joints) or Bouchard's nodes (on the proximal interphalangeal joints), may form, and though they are not necessarily painful, they do limit the movement of the fingers significantly. Osteoarthritis of the toes may be a factor causing formation of bunions, rendering them red or swollen.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n", "In addition to pain, patients may have mechanical symptoms related to the flexor tendons contained in the carpal tunnel after release of the transverse carpal ligament. Damage to the tendons during release may cause inflammation and adhesions leading to triggering at the wrist.\n\nSection::::Balloon carpal tunnelplasty.\n", "There is no consensus reference standard for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. A combination of described symptoms, clinical findings, and electrophysiological testing may be used. Correct diagnosis involves identifying if symptoms matches the distribution pattern of the median nerve (which does not normally include the 5th digit).\n", "The large forces, which the CMC1 joint has to withstand, are considered to be another cause of CMC OA. During daily manual activities, such as grabbing and pinching, the thumb is constantly being used. The forces generated by these movements have an enlarged impact on the CMC1 joint because of the leverage within the thumb. This makes the joint even more sensitive to wear and tear.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n", "Most people relieved of their carpal tunnel symptoms with conservative or surgical management find minimal residual or \"nerve damage\". Long-term chronic carpal tunnel syndrome (typically seen in the elderly) can result in permanent \"nerve damage\", i.e. irreversible numbness, muscle wasting, and weakness. Those that undergo a carpal tunnel release are nearly twice as likely as those not having surgery to develop trigger thumb in the months following the procedure.\n", "Cubital tunnel syndrome may be prevented or reduced by maintaining good posture and proper use of the elbow and arms, such as wearing an arm splint while sleeping to maintain the arm is in a straight position instead of keeping the elbow tightly bent. A recent example of this is popularization of the concept of cell phone elbow and game hand.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nWhile pain symptoms may be effectively controlled using medications such as NSAID, amitriptyline, or vitamin B6 supplementation, effective treatment generally requires resolving the underlying cause.\n", "The importance of wrist braces and splints in the carpal tunnel syndrome therapy is known, but many people are unwilling to use braces. In 1993, The American Academy of Neurology recommend a non-invasive treatment for the CTS at the beginning (except for sensitive or motor deficit or grave report at EMG/ENG): a therapy using splints was indicated for light and moderate pathology. Current recommendations generally don't suggest immobilizing braces, but instead activity modification and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as initial therapy, followed by more aggressive options or specialist referral if symptoms do not improve.\n", "Carpal tunnel syndrome is a common disorder of the hand. This disorder results from compression of an important nerve in the wrist. Disorders like diabetes mellitus, thyroid or rheumatoid arthritis can narrow the tunnel and cause impingement of the nerve. Carpal tunnel syndrome also occurs in people who overuse their hand or perform repetitive actions like using a computer key board, a cashiers machine or a musical instrument. When the nerve is compressed, it can result in disabling symptoms like numbness, tingling, or pain in the middle three fingers. As the condition progresses, it can lead to muscle weakness and inability to hold objects. The pain frequently occurs at night and can even radiate to the shoulder. Even though the diagnosis is straightforward, the treatment is not satisfactory.\n", "Normal pressure of the carpal tunnel has been defined as a range of 2–10 mm, and wrist flexion increases this pressure 8-fold, while extension increases it 10-fold. Repetitive flexion and extension in the wrist significantly increase the fluid pressure in the tunnel through thickening of the synovial tissue that lines the tendons within the carpal tunnel.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Genetics.\n", "A lesion to the upper arm area, just proximal to where motor branches of forearm flexors originate, is diagnosed if the patient is unable to make a fist. More specifically, the patient's index and middle finger cannot flex at the MCP joint, while the thumb usually is unable to oppose. This is known as hand of benediction or Pope’s blessing hand. Another test is the bottle sign—the patient is unable to close all their fingers around a cylindrical object.\n", "One way to prevent this injury from occurring is to be informed and educated about the risks involved in hurting your wrist and hand. If patients do suffer from median nerve palsy, occupational therapy or wearing a splint can help reduce the pain and further damage. Wearing a dynamic splint, which pulls the thumb into opposition, will help prevent an excess in deformity. This splint can also assist in function and help the fingers flex towards the thumb. Stretching and the use of C-splints can also assist in prevention of further damage and deformity. These two methods can help in the degree of movement the thumb can have. While it is impossible to prevent trauma to your arms and wrist, patients can reduce the amount of compression by maintaining proper form during repetitive activities. Furthermore, strengthening and increasing flexibility reduces the risk of nerve compression.\n", "Finger injuries are usually diagnosed with x-ray and can get to be considerably painful. The majority of finger injuries can be dealt with conservative care and splints. However, if the bone presents an abnormal angularity or if it is displaced, one may need surgery and pins to hold the bones in place.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nMost hand injuries are minor and can heal without difficulty. However, any time the hand or finger is cut, crushed or the pain is ongoing, it is best to see a physician. Hand injuries when not treated on time can result in long term morbidity.\n", "Again, some claim that pro-active ways to reduce stress on the wrists, which alleviates wrist pain and strain, involve adopting a more ergonomic work and life environment. For example, some have claimed that switching from a QWERTY computer keyboard layout to a more optimised ergonomic layout such as Dvorak was commonly cited as beneficial in early CTS studies; however, some meta-analyses of these studies claim that the evidence that they present is limited.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "The most common location of ulnar nerve impingement at the elbow is within the cubital tunnel, and is known as cubital tunnel syndrome. The tunnel is formed by the medial epicondyle of the humerus, the olecranon process of the ulna and the tendinous arch joining the humeral and ulnar heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. While most cases of injury are minor and resolve spontaneously with time, chronic compression or repetitive trauma may cause more persistent problems. Commonly cited scenarios include:\n\nBULLET::::- Sleeping with the arm folded behind neck, elbows bent.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe condition known as carpal tunnel syndrome had major appearances throughout the years but it was most commonly heard of in the years following World War II. Individuals who had suffered from this condition have been depicted in surgical literature for the mid-19th century. In 1854, Sir James Paget was the first to report median nerve compression at the wrist in two cases.\n", "Pain is present in about 78% of cases. Slight pain is present in the earliest stage of ainhum, caused by pressure on the underlying nerves. Fracture of the phalanx or chronic sepsis is accompanied with severe pain.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::- Tinel's sign is a classic test to detect median nerve irritation. Tinel's sign is performed by lightly tapping the skin over the flexor retinaculum to elicit a sensation of tingling or \"pins and needles\" in the median nerve distribution. Tinel's sign (pain or paresthesias of the median-innervated fingers with percussion over the median nerve), depending on the study, has 38–100% sensitivity and 55–100% specificity for the diagnosis of CTS.\n\nBULLET::::- Durkan test, \"carpal compression test\", or applying firm pressure to the palm over the nerve for up to 30 seconds to elicit symptoms has also been proposed.\n", "Section::::Stress ratio effect.:Elber Equation.\n\nElber modified the Paris-Erdogen equation to allow for crack closure with the introduction of the \"opening\" stress intensity level formula_42 at which contact occurs. Below this level there is no movement at the crack tip and hence no growth. This effect has been used to explain the stress ratio effect and the increased rate of growth observed with short cracks. Elber's equation is \n\nSection::::Fatigue crack propagation in ductile and brittle materials.\n\nThe general form of the fatigue-crack growth rate in ductile and brittle materials is given by\n", "Because of high recurrence rates, new surgical techniques were introduced, such as fasciectomy and then dermofasciectomy. Most of the diseased tissue is removed with these procedures. For some individuals, the partial insertion of \"K wires\" into either the DIP or PIP joint of the affected digit for a period of a least 21 days to fuse the joint is the only way to halt the disease's progress. After removal of the wires, the joint is fixed into flexion, which is considered preferable to fusion at extension.\n", "Some of these features are due to chronic hypoxemia (oxygen deficiency in the blood), are not specific for IPF, and can occur in other pulmonary disorders. IPF should be considered in all patients with unexplained chronic exertional dyspnea who present with cough, inspiratory bibasilar crackles, or finger clubbing.\n\nAssessment of \"velcro\" crackles on lung auscultation is a practical way to improve the earlier diagnosis of IPF. Fine crackles are easily recognized by clinicians and are characteristic of IPF.\n", "In cubital tunnel syndrome (a type of proximal impingement), sensory and motor symptoms tend to occur in a certain sequence. Initially, there may be numbness of the small and ulnar fourth finger which may be transient. If the impingement is not corrected, the numbness may become constant and progress to hand weakness. A characteristic resting hand position of \"ulnar claw,\" where the small and ring fingers curl up, occurs late in the disease and is a sign of severe neuropathy.\n" ]

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[ "which produce the required standing wave conditions, also known as the clapotis. When the ocean storm is a tropical cyclone, the microbaroms are not produced near the eye wall where wind speeds are greatest, but originate from the trailing edge of the storm where the storm generated waves interact with the ambient ocean swells.\n\nMicrobaroms may also be produced by standing waves created between two storms, or when an ocean swell is reflected at the shore.\n", "The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement. Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line, which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.\n", "Storms are increasing in quantity and potency. We are seeing higher category 4 and 5 storms; translating to intense swells. Storms drive powerful swells; so for an increase in storm power the waves will actually in turn become increased in size.\n\nThough storms are supposed to create larger swells and better surf, waves are actually decreasing in size globally. Rising sea levels decrease the potency of storms; hurricanes and winds have a smaller impact on surf breaks only when the tides are higher.\n\nSection::::Surf Climate Change.:Storms.:Swells.\n", "There are many other factors that affect the wave quality at a specific surf break, including wind conditions and tides. In general, wave quality for surfing is usually better with less wind. If there is wind, wave quality is better if the wind is blowing gently offshore (away from the coast, towards the water.) This offshore airflow helps to hold up the face of breaking waves slightly longer, allowing a surfer to have more time to maneuver on the face of the wave.\n", "Whereas the sea state in the storm has a frequency spectrum with more or less the same shape (i.e. a well defined peak with dominant frequencies within plus or minus 7% of the peak), the swell spectra are more and more narrow, sometimes as 2% or less, as waves disperse further and further away. The result is that wave groups (called sets by surfers) can have a large number of waves. From about seven waves per group in the storm, this rises to 20 and more in swells from very distant storms.\n\nSection::::Coastal impacts.\n", "The shape of the ocean floor affects the break greatly. In general there are gradual sloping ocean floors which result in a slower crumpling wave (better for long boarding) and steeper sloping floors which result in a faster, hollower breaking wave (better for short boarding). There are also many different types of breaks:\n", "The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm's center.\n\nSection::::Historic storm surges.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nThe great majority of large breakers seen at a beach result from distant winds. Five factors influence the formation of the flow structures in wind waves:\n\nBULLET::::1. Wind speed or strength relative to wave speed—the wind must be moving faster than the wave crest for energy transfer\n\nBULLET::::2. The uninterrupted distance of open water over which the wind blows without significant change in direction (called the \"fetch\")\n\nBULLET::::3. Width of area affected by fetch (at right angle to the distance)\n\nBULLET::::4. Wind duration — the time for which the wind has blown over the water.\n\nBULLET::::5. Water depth\n", "In addition to the above processes, surge and wave heights on shore are also affected by the flow of water over the underlying topography, i.e. the configuration and bathymetry of the ocean bottom and affected coastal area. A narrow shelf, for example, or one that has a steep drop from the shoreline and subsequently produces deep water in proximity to the shoreline, tends to produce a lower surge but a higher and more powerful wave. This situation is well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida. The edge of the Floridian Plateau, where the water depths reach , lies just offshore of Palm Beach; just offshore, the depth increases to over . The depth contour followed southward from Palm Beach County lies more than to the east of the Florida Keys.\n", "Swells are often created by storms long distances away from the beach where they break, and the propagation of the longest swells is only limited by shorelines. For example, swells generated in the Indian Ocean have been recorded in California after more than half a round-the-world trip. This distance allows the waves comprising the swells to be better sorted and free of chop as they travel toward the coast. Waves generated by storm winds have the same speed and will group together and travel with each other, while others moving at even a fraction of a metre per second slower will lag behind, ultimately arriving many hours later due to the distance covered. The time of propagation from the source \"t\" is proportional to the distance \"X\" divided by the wave period \"T\". In deep water it is formula_1 where g is the acceleration of gravity. As an example, for a storm located away, swells with a period \"T\"=15 s will arrive 10 days after the storm, followed by 14 s swells another 17 hours later.\n", "Through the wind stress, the wind generates ocean surface waves; the longer waves have a phase velocity tending towards the wind speed. Momentum of the surface winds is transferred into the energy flux by the ocean surface waves. The increased roughness of the ocean surface, by the presence of the waves, changes the wind near the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Moisture\n", "BULLET::::- Piers usually have deep channels directly under them which can form sandbars on the sides, making better waves at the pier.\n\nBULLET::::- Jetties Smaller jetties cause sand to build up on the tip, allowing good sandbars to form. Large jetties can actually cause the waves to reflect off the jetty and wedge into the next wave making larger and better waves. The impact of jetties is especially evident at the breaks in Newport Beach.\n", "The effect that waves have depends on their strength. Strong waves, also called destructive waves, occur on high-energy beaches and are typical of winter. They reduce the quantity of sediment present on the beach by carrying it out to bars under the sea. Constructive, weak waves are typical of low-energy beaches and occur most during summer. They do the opposite to destructive waves and increase the size of the beach by piling sediment up onto the berm.\n", "East coasts also receive heavy winter swells when low-pressure cells form in the sub-tropics, where slow moving highs inhibit their movement. These lows produce a shorter fetch than polar fronts, however, they can still generate heavy swells since their slower movement increases the duration of a particular wind direction. The variables of fetch and duration both influence how long wind acts over a wave as it travels since a wave reaching the end of a fetch behaves as if the wind died.\n", "Eric S. Posmentier published his \"theory of microbaroms\" in 1967 based on the oscillations of the center of gravity of the air above the Ocean surface on which the standing waves appear, which fits well with observed data, including the doubling of the ocean wave frequency in the observed microbarom frequency.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n\nIsolated traveling ocean surface gravity waves radiate only evanescent acoustic waves,\n\nand don't generate microbaroms.\n\nMicrobaroms are generated by nonlinear interactions of ocean surface waves traveling in nearly opposite directions with similar frequencies in the lee of a storm,\n", "Section::::Ocean-surface wave breaking.\n\nWhen wind waves approach to coast area from deep water, the waves change their heights and lengths. The wave height becomes higher and the wavelength becomes shorter as the wave velocity is slowed when ocean waves approach to the shore. If the water depth is sufficiently shallow, the wave crest become steeper and the trough gets broader and shallower; finally, the ocean waves break at the shore. The motions of wave breaking are different with along to the steepness of shores and waves, and can be categorized by below three types.\n\n• Spilling breaker\n", "For a given topography and bathymetry the surge height is not solely affected by peak wind speed; the size of the storm also affects the peak surge. With any storm, the area of piled up water can flow out of the storm perimeter, and this escape mechanism is reduced in proportion to the surge force (for the same peak wind speed) when the storm covers more area (storm perimeter length per area is inversely proportional to a circular storm's diameter).\n\nSection::::Mechanics.:Extratropical storms.\n", "BULLET::::3. The interactions between the waves on the surface generate longer waves and the interaction will transfer wave energy from the shorter waves generated by the Miles mechanism to the waves which have slightly lower frequencies than the frequency at the peak wave magnitudes, then finally the waves will be faster than the cross wind speed (Pierson & Moskowitz).\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThree different types of wind waves develop over time:\n\nBULLET::::- Capillary waves, or ripples\n\nBULLET::::- Seas\n\nBULLET::::- Swells\n", "Section::::Mechanics.\n\nAt least five processes can be involved in altering tide levels during storms: \n\nBULLET::::- The atmospheric pressure effect\n\nBULLET::::- The direct wind effect\n\nBULLET::::- The effect of the Earth's rotation\n\nBULLET::::- The effect of waves near the shore\n\nBULLET::::- The rainfall effect.\n", "The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries. Hurricanes may dump as much as of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result, surface runoff can quickly flood Streams and rivers. This can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing downstream into the estuary.\n\nSection::::Mechanics.:Other processes.\n", "The source of energy for all hurricanes is the elevated temperatures of the tropical Atlantic Ocean and the associated warm surface temperatures of the Gulf Stream flowing northwards along the eastern seaboard. Accordingly, hurricanes are most dangerous when their track lies slightly offshore.\n", "One important fact about waves is that they focus more of their energy towards shallower water. Waves will always turn and refract towards shallower water. This is where swell period can drastically affect the conditions. The longer the period of the swell the more it tends to wrap into a spot. This means that a swell might cause waves in a spot even if it is not directed at the spot. Significant underwater irregularities, such as underwater canyons and sea mounts, can also affect how the waves come into a surf spot. Irregularities like these may cause the surf to be much larger at one spot, while almost nonexistent at another nearby. This is the case at surf spots such as Black's Beach, El Porto, and Mavericks.\n", "Strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45° angle to the wind direction, by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral. Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as \"wind set-up\", which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore and to decrease at the upwind shore. Intuitively, this is caused by the storm blowing the water toward one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is proportional to depth. The pressure effect and the wind set-up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the same way as the astronomical tide.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nLarge breakers observed on a beach may result from distant weather systems over a fetch of ocean. Five factors influence the formation of wind waves which will go on to become ocean swell:\n\nBULLET::::- Wind speed or strength relative to wave speed – the wind must be moving faster than the wave crest for energy transfer; stronger prolonged winds create larger waves\n\nBULLET::::- The uninterrupted distance of open water over which the wind blows without significant change in direction (called the \"fetch\")\n\nBULLET::::- Width of area affected by fetch\n", "The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.\n" ]

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[ "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "Optimal management of wounds requires holistic assessment. Documentation of the patient's pain experience is critical and may range from the use of a patient diary, (which should be patient driven), to recording pain entirely by the healthcare professional or caregiver. Effective communication between the patient and the healthcare team is fundamental to this holistic approach. The more frequently healthcare professionals measure pain, the greater the likelihood of introducing or changing pain management practices.\n", "Therefore, such effects are not as reliable as physiological effects at stopping people. Animals will not faint or surrender if injured, though they may become frightened by the loud noise and pain of being shot, so psychological mechanisms are generally less effective against non-humans.\n\nSection::::Penetration.\n", "The fear-avoidance model (or FA model) is a psychiatric model that describes how individuals develop and maintain chronic musculoskeletal pain as a result of attentional processes and avoidant behavior based on pain-related fear. Introduced by Lethem et al. in 1983, this model helped explain how these individuals experience pain despite the absence of pathology. If an individual experiences acute discomfort and delays the situation by using avoidant behavior, a lack of pain increase reinforces this behavior. Increased vulnerability provides positive feedback to the perceived level of pain and rewards avoidant behavior for removing unwanted stimuli. If the individual perceives the pain as nonthreatening or temporary, he or she feels less anxious and confronts the pain-related situation.\n", "It is widely believed that regular exposure to painful stimuli will increase pain tolerance, increasing the ability of the individual to handle pain by becoming more conditioned to it. However, in some cases, there is evidence to support the theory that greater exposure to pain will result in more painful future exposures. Repeated exposure bombards pain synapses with repetitive input, increasing their responsiveness to later stimuli, through a process similar to learning. Therefore, although the individual may learn cognitive methods of coping with pain, such methods may not be sufficient to cope with the boosted response to future painful stimuli. \"An intense barrage of painful stimuli potentiates the cells responsive to pain so that they respond more vigorously to minor stimulation in the future.\"\n", "In order to effectively manage wound pain, the type of wound pain must be determined to facilitate pain relief. Neuropathic pain may require different interventions and medications than the traditional analgesics, which are effective in the treatment of nociceptive pain.\n\nSection::::Assessment and cause.\n", "Nociceptive pathways are pathways in the brain that send and receive pain signals and are responsible for how we perceive pain. They develop before a baby is born and continue to develop during the critical period of development. It was once thought that because infants’ nociceptive pathways in the brain were still developing, they could not feel pain. However, infants \"can\" feel pain and infant surgeries providing early pain experiences can alter the brain’s tolerance for pain later so by increasing number of A fibers and C fibers—two types of pain receptors—located in the area where injury occurred and by reducing pain tolerance in the areas where incision has occurred. This reduction in pain tolerance is seen in male rats even when they are adolescents. In those rats, the area of their brain where an incision was made as an infant remains hypersensitive to pain thereafter. This effect was not seen as prominently in female rats.\n", "Christopher deCharms (of Omneuron in San Francisco) in conjunction with Stanford University School of Medicine has developed a real-time fMRI for the purpose of training the brain to activate its own endogenous opiates. deCharms believes this will revolutionize the treatment of chronic pain. The patient can control his own pain by visually looking at his rtfMRI, watching his own reactions in real time, and then blocking the pathways causing pain. deCharms mentions that clinical trials with rtfMRI is measuring a 44 to 64 percent decrease in chronic pain. With 8 participants in the study, deCharms et al. (2005) demonstrated that subjects can control the pain of heat stimulus, by visually observing in real time their brain activity. The subjects were instructed to use techniques such as changing the focus of their attention to the pain, and changing the emotional value of the pain. Then while viewing their own fMRI in real time the subjects could observe the effect of their thoughts on the part of the brain called the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC). When the subject 'controlled the pain' the virtual flame on the fMRI got dimmer. Results from this study indicate two things: 1. That subjects can learn to voluntarily control brain activity in a specific region of the brain, and 2. There is a significant increase in the ability of healthy subjects to control their pain with repeated training. This study was then repeated with 8 patients with chronic intractable pain. The results showed that these patients were successful in reducing their pain rating by 64% (using the McGill Pain Questionnaire). The authors state that this is not yet a 'treatment', but still under serious investigation.\n", "A painful experience may change the motivation for normal behavioural responses. American bullfrogs learn to inhibit their high-priority, biologically adaptive righting reflex to avoid electric shock. After repeated exposure, they remain passively on their backs rather than exhibiting the normal, short-latency, righting response, thereby showing a trade-off in motivation.\n\nSection::::Research findings.:Cognitive ability and sentience.\n\nIt has been argued that although a high cognitive capacity may indicate a greater likelihood of experiencing pain, it also gives these animals a greater ability to deal with this, leaving animals with a lower cognitive ability a greater problem in coping with pain.\n", "Section::::Learned avoidance.\n\nLearning to avoid a noxious stimulus indicates that prior experience of the stimulus is remembered by the animal and appropriate action taken in the future to avoid or reduce potential damage. This type of response is therefore not the fixed, reflexive action of nociceptive avoidance.\n\nSection::::Learned avoidance.:Habituation and sensitization.\n", "Another problem with pain management is that pain is the body's natural way of communicating a problem. Pain is supposed to resolve as the body heals itself with time and pain management. Sometimes pain management covers a problem, and the patient might be less aware that they need treatment for a deeper problem.\n\nSection::::Physical approach.\n\nSection::::Physical approach.:Physical medicine and rehabilitation.\n", "If wound pain is not assessed and documented it may be ignored and/or not addressed properly. It is important to remember that increased wound pain may be an indicator of wound complications that need treatment, and therefore practitioners must constantly reassess the wound as well as the associated pain.\n", "Connor drew on the work of Eric Berne and Harris who researched the influences of past experiences on later behaviour, and O’Reilly (1994) and accepted the proposition of the neuro-physiological link between the brain and behaviour. \n\nConnor recognised, as far as learning was concerned, that there was little difference between the effect of physical pain and psychological pain. Both types of pain were debilitating and inhibited learning.\n", "A common difficulty in pain management is communication. People experiencing pain may have difficulty recognizing or describing what they feel and how intense it is. Health care providers and patients may have difficulty communicating with each other about how pain responds to treatments. There is a continuing risk in many types of pain management for the patient to take treatment which is less effective than needed or which causes other difficulty and side effects. Some treatments for pain can be harmful if overused. A goal of pain management for the patient and their health care provider to identify the amount of treatment which addresses the pain but which is not too much treatment.\n", "Section::::Cutting or destruction of nervous tissue.\n\nSurgical cutting or destruction of peripheral or central nervous tissue is now rarely used in the treatment of pain. Procedures include neurectomy, cordotomy, dorsal root entry zone lesioning, and cingulotomy.\n", "Chronic pain is another example that can originate from the drastic misinterpretation of pain as a catastrophe. As a result of this misinterpretation, the individual repeatedly avoids the pain-inducing activity and will likely overestimate any future pain from such activity. The excessive sensitivity to pain discourages the individual from exercise and weakens his or her body.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"central sensitization,\" nociceptive neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord become sensitized by peripheral tissue damage or inflammation. This type of sensitization has been suggested as a possible causal mechanism for chronic pain conditions. The changes of central sensitization occur after repeated trials to pain. Research from animals has consistently shown that when a trial is repeatedly exposed to a painful stimulus, the animal’s pain threshold will change and result in a stronger pain response. Researchers believe that there are parallels that can be drawn between these animal trials and persistent pain in people. For example, after a back surgery that removed a herniated disc from causing a pinched nerve, the patient may still continue to “feel” pain. Also, newborns who are circumcised without anesthesia have shown tendencies to react more greatly to future injections, vaccinations, and other similar procedures. The responses of these children are an increase in crying and a greater hemodynamic response (tachycardia and tachypnea).\n", "Subsequent studies on patients with prefrontal injuries have shown that the patients verbalized what the most appropriate social responses would be under certain circumstances. Yet, when actually performing, they instead pursued behavior aimed at immediate gratification, despite knowing the longer-term results would be self-defeating.\n", "Although there are numerous definitions of pain, almost all involve two key components. First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example in humans would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "It was generally believed that babies would not remember any pain that they happened to feel, and that lack of conscious memory meant lack of long-term harm. Scientific studies on animals with various brain lesions were interpreted as supporting the idea that the responses seen in babies were merely spinal reflexes. Furthermore, the whole effort of relieving pain was considered futile since it was thought to be impossible to measure the child's pain.\n", "While large mechanosensory neurons such as type I/group Aß display adaptation, smaller type IV/group C nociceptive neurons do not. As a result, pain does not usually subside rapidly but persists for long periods of time; in contrast, other sensory information is quickly adapted to, if surroundings remain constant.\n\nSection::::Somatosensory.:Weight training.\n", "First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective \"feeling\" – it is a reflex action. An example would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.\n", "Charles Bell referred to the motor functions of nerve fibers exiting the ventral roots of the spinal cord but did not mention the sensory functions of the dorsal roots. That was in part because his studies were dissectionist and not vivisectionist; pain is elicited and detected best in a conscious animal. A dead, or rendered unconscious, animal would not produce the desired effect when posterior horn fibers, responsible for sensation and transfer of noxious signals, are stimulated. \n", "If a person presents to a healthcare center within 6 hours of a laceration they are typically closed immediately after evaluating and cleaning the wound. After this point in time, however, there is a theoretical concern of increased risks of infection if closed immediately. Thus some healthcare providers may delay closure while others may be willing to immediately close up to 24 hours after the injury. Using clean non-sterile gloves is equivalent to using sterile gloves during wound closure.\n", "Some areas of the brain that are correlated with the subjective experience of pain were activated in MCS patients when noxious stimulation was present. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans found increased blood flow to the secondary sensory cortex, posterior parietal cortex, premotor cortex, and the superior temporal cortex. The pattern of activation, however, was with less spatial extent. Some parts of the brain were less activated than normal patients during noxious stimulus processing. These were the posterior cingulate, medial prefrontal cortex, and the occipital cortex. Even though functional brain imaging can objectively measure changes in brain function during noxious stimulation, the role of different areas of the brain in pain processing is only partially understood. Furthermore, there is still the problem of the subjective experience. MCS patients by definition cannot consistently and reliably communicate their experiences. Even if they were able to answer the question \"are you in pain?\", there would not be a reliable response. Further clinical trials are needed to access the appropriateness of the use of analgesia in patients with MCS.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- Size-dependence: the rate of cluster diffusion has a strong dependence on the size of the cluster, with larger cluster size generally corresponding to slower diffusion. This is not, however, a universal trend and it has been shown in some systems that the diffusion rate takes on a periodic tendency wherein some larger clusters diffuse faster than those smaller than them.\n\nSection::::Surface diffusion and heterogeneous catalysis.\n", "The diffusion of infectious disease tends to occur in a ‘wave’ fashion, spreading from a central source. Pyle mentions barriers that pose a resistance towards a wave of diffusion, which include but are not limited to: physiographic features (i.e. mountains, water bodies), political boundaries, linguistic barriers, and with diseases, a barrier could be differing control programs. The diffusion of disease can be identified as a normal distribution over time and translated into an S-shaped curve to show the phases of disease diffusion. The phases are: Infusion (25th percentile), Inflection (50th percentile), Saturation (75th percentile), and Waning to the upper limits.\n", "BULLET::::- Mass transfer diffusion takes place in the case where adparticle sources and traps such as kinks, steps, and vacancies are present. Instead of being dependent only on the jump potential barrier E, diffusion in this regime is now also dependent on the formation energy of mobile adparticles. The exact nature of the diffusion environment therefore plays a role in dictating the diffusion rate, since the formation energy of an adparticle is different for each type of surface feature as is described in the Terrace Ledge Kink model.\n\nSection::::Anisotropy.\n", "BULLET::::- Intrinsic diffusion occurs on a uniform surface (e.g. lacking steps or vacancies) such as a single terrace, where no adatom traps or sources are present. This regime is often studied using field ion microscopy, wherein the terrace is a sharp sample tip on which an adparticle diffuses. Even in the case of a clean terrace the process may be influenced by non-uniformity near the edges of the terrace.\n", "BULLET::::- Cross-channel diffusion can occur in the case of channeled surfaces. Typically in-channel diffusion dominates due to the lower energy barrier for diffusion of this process. In certain cases cross-channel has been shown to occur, taking place in a manner similar to that shown in figure 8. The intermediate \"dumbbell\" position may lead to a variety of final adatom and surface atom displacements.\n", "Section::::Application.\n", "Section::::Murray's law in mass-conservative networks.:Derivation.:Diffusion.\n\nThe power for transport spent by diffusion is given by\n\nformula_33\n\nwhere the flow rate is given by Fick's law, whose formula_34 is the diffusivity constant and formula_35 is the difference of concentration between the ends of the cylinder. Similarly to the case of laminar flow, the minimisation of the objective function results in\n\nformula_36\n\nHence,\n\nformula_37\n\nSection::::The generalized Murray’s law.\n", "Section::::Implementation.\n", "Here, formula_67 is the diffusion coefficient matrix, formula_127 is the thermal diffusion coefficient, formula_128 is the body force per unite mass acting on the \"i\"th species, formula_129 is the partial pressure fraction of the \"i\"th species (and formula_130 is the partial pressure), formula_131 is the mass fraction of the \"i\"th species, and formula_132\n\nSection::::Diffusion in physics.:Diffusion of electrons in solids.\n", "Cluster diffusion involves motion of atomic clusters ranging in size from dimers to islands containing hundreds of atoms. Motion of the cluster may occur via the displacement of individual atoms, sections of the cluster, or the entire cluster moving at once. All of these processes involve a change in the cluster’s center of mass.\n\nBULLET::::- Individual mechanisms are those that involve movement of one atom at a time.\n\nBULLET::::- Edge diffusion involves movement of adatoms or vacancies at edge or kink sites. As shown in figure 10, the mobile atom maintains its proximity to the cluster throughout the process.\n", "In which \"J\" stands for the flux (\"flow\") of vacancies in direction \"x\"; \"D\" is a constant for the material in that direction and formula_2 is the difference in concentration of vacancies in that direction. The law is valid for all principal directions in (\"x\", \"y\", \"z\")-space, so the \"x\" in the formula can be exchanged for \"y\" or \"z\". The result will be that they will become evenly distributed over the crystal, which will result in the highest mixing entropy.\n", "BULLET::::- Evaporation-condensation involves atoms “evaporating” from the cluster onto a terrace accompanied by “condensation” of terrace adatoms onto the cluster leading to a change in the cluster’s center of mass. While figure 10 appears to indicate the same atom evaporating from and condensing on the cluster, it may in fact be a different atom condensing from the 2D gas.\n\nBULLET::::- Leapfrog diffusion is similar to edge diffusion, but where the diffusing atom actually moves atop the cluster before settling in a different location from its starting position.\n", "BULLET::::- Chemical diffusion describes the process at higher level of coverage where the effects of attraction or repulsion between adatoms becomes important. These interactions serve to alter the mobility of adatoms. In a crude way, figure 3 serves to show how adatoms may interact at higher coverage levels. The adatoms have no \"choice\" but to move to the right at first, and adjacent adatoms may block adsorption sites from one another.\n", "Diffusion curves have been discussed in relation to being a possible addition to the SVG specification.\n\nSection::::Motivations.\n\nIn the original paper introducing the concept of diffusion curves, Orzan \"et al.\" describe two main motivations for them.\n\nSection::::Motivations.:Freehand drawing.\n", "BULLET::::1. Points are closer at a given scale (as specified by formula_55) if they are highly connected in the graph, therefore emphasizing the concept of a cluster.\n\nBULLET::::2. This distance is robust to noise, since the distance between two points depends on all possible paths of length formula_50 between the points.\n\nBULLET::::3. From a machine learning point of view, the distance takes into account all evidences linking formula_56 to formula_57, allowing us to conclude that this distance is appropriate for the design of inference algorithms based on the majority of preponderance.\n\nSection::::Definition of diffusion maps.:Diffusion process and low-dimensional embedding.\n", "BULLET::::1. formula_105 describes the flux of the first component from the areas with the high ratio \"n\"/\"n\" to the areas with lower values of this ratio (and, analogously the flux of the second component from high \"n\"/\"n\" to low \"n\"/\"n\" because \"n\"/\"n\" = 1 – \"n\"/\"n\");\n\nBULLET::::2. formula_106 describes the flux of the heavier molecules to the areas with higher pressure and the lighter molecules to the areas with lower pressure, this is barodiffusion;\n", "Diffusion of adatoms may occur by a variety of mechanisms. The manner in which they diffuse is important as it may dictate the kinetics of movement, temperature dependence, and overall mobility of surface species, among other parameters. The following is a summary of the most important of these processes:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Network diffusion\" occurs when a disease spreads via transportation and social networks, \"reflecting the geographical and social structuring of human interactions\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mixed diffusion\" is a combination of contagious diffusion and hierarchal diffusion. AIDS is a prominent example in modern-day society of a mixed diffusion disease, often spreading along the hierarchal, network, and contagious diffusion patterns.\n", "BULLET::::- Glide diffusion refers to the concerted motion of an entire cluster all at once (see figure 11(b)).\n\nBULLET::::- Reptation is a snake-like movement (hence the name) involving sequential motion of cluster sub-units (see figure 11(c)).\n\nBULLET::::- Shearing is a concerted displacement of a sub-unit of atoms within a cluster (see figure 11(d)).\n", "In plasma physics, ambipolar diffusion is closely related to the concept of quasineutrality. In most plasmas, the forces acting on the ions are different from those acting on the electrons, so naively one would expect one species to be transported faster than the other, whether by diffusion or convection or some other process. If such differential transport has a divergence, then it results in a change of the charge density. The latter will in turn create an electric field that can alter the transport of one or both species in such a way that they become equal.\n", "A gradient is the change in the value of a quantity e.g. concentration, pressure, or temperature with the change in another variable, usually distance. A change in concentration over a distance is called a concentration gradient, a change in pressure over a distance is called a pressure gradient, and a change in temperature over a distance is called a temperature gradient.\n\nThe word diffusion derives from the Latin word, \"diffundere\", which means \"to spread way out.”\n", "BULLET::::- Long-range atomic exchange is a process involving an adatom inserting into the surface as in the normal atomic exchange mechanism, but instead of a nearest-neighbor atom it is an atom some distance further from the initial adatom that emerges. Shown in figure 9, this process has only been observed in molecular dynamics simulations and has yet to be confirmed experimentally. In spite of this long range atomic exchange, as well as a variety of other exotic diffusion mechanisms, are anticipated to contribute substantially at temperatures currently too high for direct observation.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Cluster diffusion.\n", "Shortly after the publication of Kirkendall's paper, L.S. Darken published an analysis of diffusion in binary systems much like the one studied by Smigelskas and Kirkendall. By separating the actual diffusive flux of the materials from the movement of the interface relative to the markers, Darken found the marker velocity formula_1 to be \n\nformula_2\n\nwhere formula_3 and formula_4 are the diffusion coefficients of the two materials and formula_5 is an atomic fraction.\n", "BULLET::::- Divide the domain in equal parts of small domain.\n\nBULLET::::- Place nodal points midway in between each small domain.\n\nBULLET::::- Create control volume using these nodal points.\n\nBULLET::::- Create control volume near the edge in such a way that the physical boundaries coincide with control volume boundaries.(Figure 1)\n\nBULLET::::- Assume a general nodal point 'P' for a general control volume.Adjacent nodal points in east and west are identified by E and W respectively.The west side face of the control volume is referred to by 'w' and east side control volume face by 'e'.(Figure 2)\n", "BULLET::::- Forced diffusion occurs because of the action of some external force\n\nBULLET::::- Diffusion can be caused by temperature gradients (thermal diffusion)\n\nBULLET::::- Diffusion can be caused by differences in chemical potential\n\nThis can be compared to Fick's Law of Diffusion, for a species A in a binary mixture consisting of A and B:\n\nwhere D is the diffusivity constant.\n\nSection::::Energy transfer.\n" ]

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[ "The flexibility of human anatomy is a design issue for traditional \"hard\" robots. Several human joints such as the hips and shoulders are ball and socket joints, with the center of rotation inside the body. Since no two individuals are exactly alike, fully mimicking the degrees of freedom of a joint is not possible. Instead, the exoskeleton joint is commonly modeled as a series of hinges with one degree of freedom for each of the dominant rotations.\n", "Section::::Health.:Physical fitness in humans.\n\nIn addition to general health and susceptibility to disease, research has also studied the link between FA and physical fitness. Research has found that lower levels of lower-body FA is associated with faster running speeds in Jamaican sprinters, and individuals with greater body asymmetry have been shown to move more asymmetrically while running, although do not experience higher metabolic costs than more symmetrical individuals. It has also been shown that children with lower levels of lower-body FA have faster sprinting speeds and are more willing to sprint when followed up in adulthood.\n\nSection::::Health.:Health in non-human populations.\n", "To avoid the different tendon echogenicities caused by different instrument settings, Middleton compared the tendon’s echogenicity with that of the deltoid muscle, which is still lege artis.\n", "Co-variation also provides \"flexibility and stability\" to motor tasks. Considering again the force production task, if one finger did not produce enough force, it could be compensated for by the other. The components of a motor synergy are expected to change their action to compensate for the errors and variability in other components that could affect the outcome of the motor task. This provides flexibility because it allows for multiple motor solutions to particular tasks, and it provides motor stability by preventing errors in individual motor components from affecting the task itself.\n", "The carpal bones form two transversal rows, each forming an arch concave on the palmar side. Because the proximal arch simultaneously has to adapt to the articular surface of the radius and to the distal carpal row, it is by necessity flexible. In contrast, the capitate, the \"keystone\" of the distal arch, moves together with the metacarpal bones and the distal arch is therefore rigid. The stability of these arches is more dependent of the ligaments and capsules of the wrist than of the interlocking shapes of the carpal bones, and the wrist is therefore more stable in flexion than in extension. The distal carpal arch affects the function of the CMC joints and the hands, but not the function of the wrist or the proximal carpal arch. The ligaments that maintain the distal carpal arches are the transverse carpal ligament and the intercarpal ligaments (also oriented transversally). These ligaments also form the carpal tunnel and contribute to the deep and superficial palmar arches. Several muscle tendons attaching to the TCL and the distal carpals also contribute to maintaining the carpal arch.\n", "The relationship between FA, health and susceptibility to disease has also been studied in non-human animals. For example, studies have found that higher levels of facial asymmetry are associated with poorer overall health in female rhesus macaques (\"Macaca mulatta\"), and that higher FA is also linked to more health issues in chimpanzees (\"Pan troglodytes\").\n", "Nature also provides several examples of handedness in traits that are usually symmetric. The following are examples of animals with obvious left-right asymmetries:\n\nBULLET::::- Most snails, because of torsion during development, show remarkable asymmetry in the shell and in the internal organs.\n\nBULLET::::- Fiddler crabs have one big claw and one small claw.\n\nBULLET::::- The narwhal's tusk is a left incisor which can grow up to 10 feet in length and forms a left-handed helix.\n\nBULLET::::- Flatfish have evolved to swim with one side upward, and as a result have both eyes on one side of their heads.\n", "Developmental homeostasis is present not only in humans, but in animals as well. The choosing of symmetrical features over asymmetrical features have been observed in birds, lizards, Araneae,and even insects. For example, barn swallow females have been reported to prefer males whose long outer feathers are the same length on each side. Symmetrical males gain an reproductive advantage because of the female mate choice.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Degrees of freedom problem.\n\nThe problem with understanding motor coordination arises from the biomechanical redundancy caused by the large number of musculoskeletal elements involved. These different elements create many degrees of freedom by which any action can be done because of the range of ways of arranging, turning, extending and combining the various muscles, joints, and limbs in a motor task. Several hypotheses have been developed in explanation of how the nervous system determines a particular solution from a large set of possible solutions that can accomplish the task or motor goals equally well.\n\nSection::::Theories.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Muscle synergies.\n", "Section::::The different muscles.:Skeletal.:Function.\n\nThe skeletal system serves as a framework for tissues and organs to attach themselves to. This system acts as a protective structure for vital organs. Major examples of this are the brain being protected by the skull and the lungs being protected by the rib cage.\n", "Section::::Anatomical snuff box.\n\nThe EPL tendon crosses obliquely the tendons of the ECRL and ECRB, and is separated from the EPB by a triangular interval, the anatomical snuff box, in which the radial artery is found.\n\nSection::::Insertion and action.\n", "Muscles contain many different systems on which the evolutionary selection of preflex stabilization can operate. The deltoid muscle, for example, consists of at least seven segments with different bone attachments and neural control. Within each muscle segment, there exists a complex internal structure that goes down to one in which each muscle unit consists of a tendon, aponeurosis, and a fascicle of active contractile and passive elements. Another source of variation is in the internal architecture of the fiber orientation relative to a muscle’s line of action, for example, as found in pennate muscles. The complexities of the different visco-elastic length- and velocity-force relationships of these subparts provides the opportunity for the adaptive selection of structurally complex muscle biocomposites with highly task-tuned nonlinear visco-elastic length- velocity- force relationships. This nature of muscles to be composite structures thus provides the adaptive opportunity for evolution to modify the visco-elastic reactions of the musculoskeletal system so they counteract perturbations without the need for spinal or higher levels of control.\n", "Spinal flexibility is another challenge since the spine is effectively a stack of limited-motion ball joints. There is no simple combination of external single-axis hinges that can easily match the full range of motion of the human spine. Because accurate alignment is challenging, devices often include the ability to compensate for misalignment with additional degrees of freedom. \n\nSoft exoskeletons bend with the body and address some of these issues. \n\nSection::::Limitations and design issues.:Power control and modulation.\n", "Section::::Complications.:Conflicting evidence.\n\nA number of asymmetrical findings have been disputed, with various studies stating null results in opposition to previously reported differences. This is an issue in handedness neuroscience, as imaging methods are highly susceptible to type 1 errors due to the number of comparisons which they make.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Complexity of causality.\n", "\"I’m not double-jointed at all. The only place where I am double-jointed in my thumbs, which doesn’t even matter. I would say I’m probably a little more flexible than most people in certain areas, mainly my shoulders and my ankles, but I wasn’t born that way. Those areas became flexible because of years of practicing.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Posterior vena cava (rat, mice)\n", "Section::::Health.\n\nSection::::Health.:Susceptibility to diseases.\n", "BULLET::::1. As the superior (or proximal) pair of rectus abdominis muscles contract, the vertebral column is able to slightly flex forward.\n\nBULLET::::2. If more forward flexion is needed, the middle pair of rectus abdominis muscles can contract along with the distal pair to allow the vertebral column to flex forward even farther.\n\nBULLET::::3. Lastly, as the inferior (or distal) pair of muscles contract in conjunction with the other two muscle groups, the vertebral column is able to produce the most forward flexion and the smallest angle between the trunk and lower body.\n", "An important function of the deltoid in humans is preventing the dislocation of the humeral head when a person carries heavy loads. The function of abduction also means that it would help keep carried objects a safer distance away from the thighs to avoid hitting them, as during a farmer's walk. It also ensures a precise and rapid movement of the glenohumeral joint needed for hand and arm manipulation. The lateral fibers are in the most efficient position to perform this role, though like basic abduction movements (such as lateral raise) it is assisted by simultaneous co-contraction of anterior/posterior fibers.\n", "For example, (right-handed) scissors are arranged so that, in the right hand, fingers and thumb push the blades together laterally, creating the shearing action essential to scissors' utility. In the left hand, however, fingers and thumb tend to force right-handed blades apart, so that, rather than being sheared, the work-material is merely hacked, as by a knife, or slips between the blades uncut. Left-handers using right-handed scissors will often try to compensate by forcing the handles apart laterally, causing discomfort or injury to the first knuckle of the thumb.\n", "Section::::Health.:Other health issues in humans.\n\nResearch has also linked FA to conditions such as lower back pain, although the evidence is mixed. While one study found no notable link between pelvic asymmetry and lower back pain, other studies have found pelvic asymmetry (as well as FA in other traits not directly related to pelvic function) to be higher in patients experiencing lower back pain, and higher levels of FA have also been linked to congenital spinal problems. Studies have also shown increased levels of FA of ear length in individuals with cleft lip and/or non-syndromic cleft palate syndrome.\n", "The corticospinal tract is a bundle of white matter which connects the cerebral cortex with motor neurons in the spinal cord. Notably, humans show a natural asymmetry between left and right tracts, such that the left tract (and therefore connections to the right hand) is significantly larger. However this asymmetry has been found to be reduced in left-handers, suggesting a less biased connection to both hands.\n\nSection::::Forced handedness.\n", "There have also been many studies that show the asymmetry of the planum temporale to be related to handedness of subjects. There have been reports of decreased asymmetry displayed on the left side of the planum temporale in those that are dominantly left handed.\n\nSection::::Atypical development.\n", "A direct inguinal hernia will protrude through Hesselbach's triangle, whose borders are the rectus abdominis (medially), inferior epigastric artery and vein (superolaterally), and the inguinal ligament (inferiorly). The hernia will lie medial to the inferior epigastric artery. This is in contrast to an indirect inguinal hernia, which will protrude laterally to the inferior epigastric artery and is most commonly due to an embryological defect in the closure of the deep inguinal ring.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Falx (disambiguation) — other parts of the anatomy with names including \"falx\"\n\nBULLET::::- interfoveolar ligament\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The palmaris longus muscle is seen as a small tendon between the flexor carpi radialis and the flexor carpi ulnaris, although it is not always present. The muscle is absent in about 14% of the population, however this varies greatly with ethnicity. It is believed that this muscle actively participated in the arboreal locomotion of primates, but currently has no function, because it does not provide more grip strength. One study has shown the prevalence of palmaris longus agenesis in 500 Indian patients to be 17.2% (8% bilateral and 9.2% unilateral). The palmaris is a popular source of tendon material for grafts and this has prompted studies which have shown the absence of the palmaris does not have any appreciable effect on grip strength.\n" ]

[ "Musculature is not affected by handedness.", "Because people have dominant hands and arms, the shape of humans are not but should be asymmetrical due to one side of the body being tougher than the other." ]

[ "Musculature is affected by handedness it is just hard to tell. ", "People actually are symmetrical due to hand dominance, however the difference isn't a significant one. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Musculature is not affected by handedness.", "Because people have dominant hands and arms, the shape of humans are not but should be asymmetrical due to one side of the body being tougher than the other." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Musculature is affected by handedness it is just hard to tell. ", "People actually are symmetrical due to hand dominance, however the difference isn't a significant one. " ]

[ "Section::::Major Empirical Findings.\n\nSection::::Major Empirical Findings.:Elevation Differs From Happiness.\n", "Section::::Major Theories.:Elevation as a Self-Transcendent Positive Emotion.\n", "Section::::Major Theories.\n\nSection::::Major Theories.:Haidt's Third Dimension of Social Cognition.\n", "Section::::Controversies.\n", "Research has shown that elevation can contribute to emotional and social functioning in clinically depressed and anxious individuals. For ten days, participants completed brief daily surveys to assess elevation, feelings of competence, interpersonal functioning, symptoms, and compassionate goals. Their findings indicated that on days that clinically distressed individuals experienced high elevation in relation to their normal levels, they reported a greater desire to help others and to be close to others. They also reported less interpersonal conflict and fewer symptoms of distress.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Elevation in the Workplace.\n", "The authors suggest that the illusion occurs because of the way the visual system takes into account perspective. When two identical towers rise in parallel but are viewed from below, their corresponding outlines converge in the retinal image due to perspective. The visual system normally \"corrects\" for the perspective distortion and as a result perceives the towers correctly, i.e. as rising in parallel. However in the case of the two identical images of the Pisa tower, the corresponding outlines of the towers do not converge but run in parallel, and as a result the towers are perceived as non-parallel, i.e. as diverging. The illusion reveals that the visual system is obliged to treat the two images as part of the same scene, in other words as the \"Twin Towers of Pisa\".\n", "This measurement only recently came into use, when the Petronas Towers passed the Sears Tower (now called Willis Tower) in height. The former was considered taller because its spires were considered architectural, while the latter's antennae were not. This led to the split of definitions, with the Sears Tower claiming the lead in this and the height-to-roof (now highest occupied floor) categories, and with the Petronas claiming the lead in the architectural height category.\n", "Hands-on activities are extremely useful in the learning cycle. After making predictions about the height of Mr. Tall in paper clips, the measuring tools can be introduced and the students can test their strategies. For the student using a constant difference relation, actual measurement will show that Mr. Tall is actually nine paper clips high and this will set up some cognitive dissonance.\n", "Section::::Major Theories.:Fredrickson's Broaden and Build Theory.\n\nElevation exemplifies Barbara Fredrickson’s (1998) broaden and build theory of positive emotions, which asserts that positive emotions expand an individual’s scope of attention and cognition in the moment while also building resources for the future. Elevation makes an individual feel admiration for the altruist and also more motivated to help others. Elevation has the potential to spread by creating an upward helping spiral in which individuals view others doing good deeds and then feel an increased urge to help others.\n\nSection::::Major Theories.:Elevation as an Other-Praising Emotion.\n", "Section::::Reception and influence.\n", "BULLET::::- make all lines that are vertical in reality vertical in the image. This includes columns, vertical edges of walls and lampposts. This is a commonly accepted distortion in constructed perspective; perspective is based on the notion that more distant objects are represented as smaller on the page; however, even though the top of the cathedral tower is in reality further from the viewer than base of the tower (due to the vertical distance), constructed perspective considers only the horizontal distance and considers the top and bottom to be the same distance away;\n", "Towering and stooping are more complex forms of atmospheric refraction than looming and sinking. While looming and sinking change the apparent elevation of an object, towering and stooping change the apparent shape of the object itself. With towering, objects appear stretched; with stooping, objects seem to be shortened. The apparent stretching and shortening of the objects are not symmetrical and depends on the thermal profile of the atmosphere. The curvature of the rays changes more rapidly in some places because the thermal profile is curved.\n\nSection::::Image example and explanation.\n", "It is high, as measured from the ground floor to the top of the tower, but the building is often listed as being more than 90 metres high (even as high as 96.8 metres on the Old Mutual web site); this probably takes account of the \"spire\" at the top.\n", "In photography, the term is used to describe the apparent leaning of buildings towards the vertical centerline of the photo when shooting upwards, a common effect in Architectural photography. Likewise, when taking photos looking down, e.g., from a skyscraper, buildings appear to get broader towards the top. The effect is usually corrected for by either using special lenses in Tilt–shift photography or in post-processing using modern image editing software.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "Viewpoint: there are four types of viewpoint (VP-1, VP-2, VP-3 and VP-4), ranging from the most engaged or subjective VP-1 to the most detached or objective VP-4. These are stop points along a cline. Two common types are the intermediate VP-2 and VP-3, while VP-1 and VP-4 are extreme cases of a continuum probably unattainable to ordinary humans in normal categorization and language use.\n\nStress: a notion related to viewpoint, connected with VP-2. It refers to the choice of coordinates (fixed or mobile) to which the conceptualizer attends more than to others and the degree to which this is done.\n", "At and with a roof height of , Q1 qualifies as the world's seventh-tallest all-residential building when measured to the top of its structural point (spire), but is ranked lower behind buildings including The Marina Torch at 337 metres in Dubai and Melbourne's Eureka Tower (roof height of ) when measured to its roof height and highest inhabitable floor. However, according to the ranking system developed by the U.S.-based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, the main criterion by which buildings are ranked is the height of the top of the spire, qualifying Q1 as the taller.\n", "The building's reverse floorplate design makes the upper floors average compared to an average of only for the lower floors.\n", "The height of each storey is based on the ceiling height of the rooms plus the thickness of the floors between each pane. Generally this is around total; however, it varies widely from just under this figure to well over it. Storeys within a building need not be all the same height—often the lobby is taller, for example. Additionally, higher levels may have less floor area than the ones beneath them (e.g., the Sears Tower).\n", "BULLET::::- The scene where Victoria enters the Belfrey Towers is a homage to the 2006 film \"The Devil Wears Prada\", in which Meryl Streep's Miranda Priestly enters the Runway building in a similar way.\n", "Whilst this is technically true, the impression of height was achieved by the construction of a skyscraper façade on the roof of another structure: in this case the Southern California Gas Company Building, South Broadway, Los Angeles. Lloyd had already used this technique in \"Safety Last!\", and indeed the location used for that earlier film was only a few blocks away from this one. Additionally, the concluding sequence of the climb, where Harold Horne falls from the building with a rope attached to his foot, does briefly use back-projection for a mid shot.\n\nSection::::Production.:Re-releases.\n", "A 1991 study conducted on 76,111 Danish men sought to test the height-intelligence positive correlation on either extremes of height. The study defined two groups: the short group, composed of individuals below the 2nd percentile for height and the tall group, composed of individuals above the 98th percentile for height in Denmark. It found that the short group’s intelligence test score and educational level means lay about two-thirds of a standard deviation below the overall means, but suggested there appeared to be local factors that may have contributed negatively and significantly to the scores. In contrast, the study found the tall group scored about one-half standard deviation above the overall means, but suggested that both groups scored below what would be expected from a linear trend.\n", "Much more rarely and interesting under constructive details are partially guyed towers at which at least one basement of the guy anchors is on the ground. At such structures, the guyed mast on the top is in opposite to guyed towers with anchor basements on the top of free-standing tower much taller (in most cases taller than the basement tower) and it must be considered at its construction and maintenance, that the basement of the guyed mast is situated much more elevated than that of the anchor basements.\n", "Section::::Major Empirical Findings.:Elevation Increases Oxytocin in Nursing Mothers.\n\nJennifer Silvers and Jonathan Haidt found that elevation may increase the amount of oxytocin circulating in the body by promoting the release of the hormone. In their study, nursing mothers and their infants watched video clips that either evoked elevation or amusement. Mothers who watched the elevation-inducing clip were more likely to nurse, leak milk, or cuddle their babies. These actions are associated with oxytocin and thus suggest a possible physiological mechanism underlying feelings of elevation.\n\nSection::::Major Empirical Findings.:Elevation Increases Prosocial Behavior.\n", "Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around the base of the tower.\n", "Also, researchers are now beginning to investigate the claim that profound experiences of elevation can be peak experiences that can alter people’s identities and spiritual lives. While moral development is often conceptualized as a lifelong process, Haidt offers an “inspire and rewire” hypothesis to describe momentary experiences that can cause permanent moral transformation. He suggests that powerful moments of elevation may act as a “mental reset button” by erasing cynical or pessimistic feelings and substituting them with feelings of hope, love, and a sensation of moral inspiration.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Positive Psychology\n\nBULLET::::- Awe\n\nBULLET::::- Artistic inspiration\n\nBULLET::::- Admiration\n" ]

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[ "The belief in magic often includes the idea that magic and magicians are more powerful at night. Seances of spiritualism are usually conducted closer to midnight. Similarly, mythical and folkloric creatures as vampires and werewolves are described as being more active at night. Ghosts are believed to wander around almost exclusively during night-time. In almost all cultures, there exist stories and legends warning of the dangers of night-time. In fact, the Saxons called the darkness of night the 'death mist'. \n", "We go through life with dark forces within us and around us, haunted by the ghosts of repudiated terrors and embarrassments, assailed by devils, but we are also continually guided by invisible hands; our darkness is lit by many little flames, from night-lights to the stars. Those who are afraid to look into their own hearts know nothing of the light that shines in the darkness.\n", "Prayer alone can teach us to concentrate again, can lead us to absolute trust in God, and make our minds ready for other essential things . . . for the contemplation (not mere observation) of beauty.\n\nIt seems a law of fallen nature that life must always come to its being through darkness, and this makes us even more aware of its beauty. Dawn is lovelier because it comes after night, spring because it follows winter.\n", "In literature, night and the lack of light are often color-associated with blackness which is historically symbolic in many cultures for villainy, non-existence, or a lack of knowledge (with the knowledge usually symbolized by light or illumination).\n", "BULLET::::- David: A quiet boy with a mysterious expression. Reflecting his introverted nature and need to deal with his crush on Kristen, David's stories tend to be less about malignant outside forces, and more to do with the evil of past events left unresolved, or the darkness inside normal people, and the consequences of not dealing with their actions. In season 3, he and his family moved away.\n", "While Adeline is alone in her characteristically Gothic chamber, she detects something supernatural, or mysterious about the setting. However, the \"actual sounds that she hears are accounted for by the efforts of the faithful servant to communicate with her, there is still a hint of supernatural in her dream, inspired, it would seem, by the fact that she is on the spot of her father's murder and that his unburied skeleton is concealed in the room next hers\".\n", "For example, Adeline is reading the illegible manuscripts she found in her bedchamber's secret passage in the abbey, when she hears a chilling noise from beyond her doorway. She goes to sleep unsettled, only to awake and learn that what she assumed to be haunting spirits were actually the domestic voices of the servant, Peter. La Motte, her caretaker in the abbey, recognizes the heights to which her imagination reached after reading the autobiographical manuscripts of a past murdered man in the abbey.\n", "Each member of the Midnight Society from 1991-96 has a distinct personality, and a notable trend in their storytelling. Though not all of their stories have similar styles and plots, in many of the stories, each character carries a unique aspect that reflects the nature of the storyteller, and what they find to be most important to themselves. In the second generation, the characters derive their stories more from events that happen during the days leading up to the society meetings instead of from their personal interests and views. Many of the later episodes were simply given to a random society member to tell.\n", "Night is often associated with danger and evil, because of the psychological connection of night's all-encompassing darkness to the fear of the unknown and darkness's obstruction of a major sensory system (the sense of sight). Nighttime is naturally associated with vulnerability and danger for human physical survival. Criminals, animals, and other potential dangers can be concealed by darkness. Midnight has a particular importance in human imagination and culture.\n", "Whitby is a coastal town in Yorkshire, which has many gothic associations, not least Dracula. Cherry Cerise is the last of the Whitby Witches and it is left to her to defend the town from supernatural attacks. Best friends Lil and Verne have grown up in Whitby where Lil's parents keep the local witchcraft shop, Whitby Gothic, but they are sceptical about the existence of witches.\n", "Section::::Production.:Casting.\n", "Nightlight (2015 film)\n\nNightlight is a 2015 American supernatural thriller film written and directed by Scott Beck and Bryan Woods. It stars Shelby Young, Chloe Bridges, Carter Jenkins, Mitch Hewer, and Taylor Murphy.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n\nFive friends go into a mysterious forest for a fun night of flashlight games. Their night in the woods turns into a deadly experience when they disturb a demonic presence that has a long history of supposedly driving young people to suicide.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Shelby Young as Robin\n\nBULLET::::- Chloe Bridges as Nia\n\nBULLET::::- Carter Jenkins as Chris\n\nBULLET::::- Mitch Hewer as Ben\n", "Michael Phillips of the \"Los Angeles Times\" said, \"It's a small but crafty and well-acted picture ... The pacing and staging of the later scenes could use a little more electricity and momentum and a little less restraint. Yet \"The Night Listener\" keeps you watching. And listening.\"\n", "Beginning in the early Renaissance, artists such as Giotto, Bosch, Uccello and others told stories with their painted works, sometimes evoking religious themes and sometimes depicting battles, myths, stories and scenes from history, using night-time as the setting. By the 16th and 17th centuries, painters of the late Renaissance, Mannerists, and painters from the Baroque era including El Greco, Titian, Giorgione, Caravaggio, Frans Hals, Rembrandt, Velázquez, Jusepe de Ribera often portrayed people and scenes in night-time settings, illustrating stories and depictions of real life.\n", "In a 2006 study of white, Christian men and women the hypothesis was tested that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are ways of approaching fear of death in old age. Both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Fear of the unknown.\n", "Haunted houses are featured in the 9th-century \"Arabian Nights\" (such as the tale of \"Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad\").\n\nSection::::History.:European Renaissance to Romanticism.\n\nRenaissance magic took a revived interest in the occult, including necromancy. In the era of the Reformation and Counter Reformation, there was frequently a backlash against unwholesome interest in the dark arts, typified by writers such as Thomas Erastus. The Swiss Reformed pastor Ludwig Lavater supplied one of the most frequently reprinted books of the period with his \"Of Ghosts and Spirits Walking By Night.\"\n", "First-time director Oren Peli had been afraid of ghosts his whole life, even fearing the comedy film \"Ghostbusters\", but intended to channel that fear into something positive and productive. Peli took a year to prepare his own house for shooting, going so far as to repaint the walls, add furniture, put in a carpet, and build a stairwell. In this time, he also did extensive research into paranormal phenomena and demonology, stating, \"We wanted to be as truthful as we could be.\" The decision to make the supernatural entity in the story a demon was a result of the research pointing to the most malevolent and violent entities being \"demons\". The phenomena in the film take place largely at night—the vulnerability of being asleep, Peli reasoned, taps into a human being's most primal fear, stating, \"If something is lurking in your home there's not much you can do about it.\"\n", "Like romanticism itself, Dark Romanticism arguably began in Germany, with writers such as E. T. A. Hoffmann, Christian Heinrich Spiess, and Ludwig Tieck – though their emphasis on existential alienation, the demonic in sex, and the uncanny, was offset at the same time by the more homely cult of Biedermeier.\n", "BULLET::::- \"When you cease to fear your solitude, a new creativity awakens in you. Your forgotten or neglected wealth begins to reveal itself. You come home to yourself and learn to rest within. Thoughts are our inner senses. Infused with silence and solitude, they bring out the mystery of inner landscape.\"\n", "BULLET::::- For \"The New York Times\" Alcock was asked why intelligent people believed in the paranormal, especially people in Hollywood. He responded \"Most people are raised to live under two different belief systems: the rational, which governs most decisions in life, and the transcendental, which guides matters of spirituality and faith. Therefore for some people it is only a small leap to let their transcendental impulses creep into their daily affairs, especially when anxiety over career, finances or romance is involved. Faith, in whatever form it takes can provide great comfort, even a sense of empowerment. People who feel they have the stars on their side often feel an edge over mere mortals\".\n", "Puritan imagery, particularly that of hell, acted as potent brain candy for 19th-century authors like Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne. The dark and nightmarish visions the Puritan culture of condemnation, reinforced by shame and guilt, created a lasting impact on the collective consciousness. Notions of predestination and original sin added to the doom and gloom of traditional Puritan values. This perspective and its underlying hold on American society ripened the blossoming of stories like \"The Pit and the Pendulum\", \"Young Goodman Brown\", and \"The Scarlet Letter\".\n", "Yet the temptations of the city and corrupting companionships could easily lead a perfectly diligent servant into the path of crime. A mounting anxiety grew between eighteenth-century Londoners regarding the danger posed by servants seeking employment in order to steal or open the house at night to their accomplices. According to Defoe, living in fear and suspicion of your servants, as feeling unsafe outdoors at night, means to live in an hostile country, a depiction unworthy of his idea of a flourishing England.\n\nSection::::Reforming society.:Soldiers and sailors.\n", "Regarding the house and its ghosts, series co-creator Ryan Murphy speaks as though the Harmon house is alive. \"One of the things about the house we're trying to say,\" he says, \"is that the house always has sort of a prescient intelligence in that it knows exactly the right moment to send the undead back to fuck with the people who live in the house. The house knows what you're afraid of and will scare you. The house also knows what you need to hear and then will provide it. So the timing of it, it's almost like what's going on in these character's personal lives is what conjures these spirits.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Betty Ann: A vibrant girl who has an open and eager passion for the bizarre and twisted. Her stories often include themes where an alien or supernatural force is either trying to break into the world of the characters, or else trying to drag them into their own unnatural realms. Her stories tend to have twists reminiscent of Twilight Zone episodes, hinting that the protagonists of her stories have not yet escaped danger.\n", "The Victorian poet Algernon Charles Swinburne, in the Preface to the 1875 edition of \"Christabel\", argues, \n" ]

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[ "There are large numbers of crude oils all around the world that are used to produce base oils. The most common one is a type of paraffinic crude oil, although there are also naphthenic crude oils that create products with better solubility and very good properties at low temperatures. By using hydrogenation technology, in which sulfur and aromatics are removed using hydrogen under high pressure, you can obtain extremely pure base oils, which are suitable when quality requirements are particularly stringent.\n", "Section::::Food, land and water vs. fuel.\n\nIn some poor countries the rising price of vegetable oil is causing problems. Some propose that fuel only be made from non-edible vegetable oils such as camelina, jatropha or seashore mallow which can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees and crops will not grow, or would produce only low yields.\n", "Section::::Transportation fuel use.:Fuel substitution.:Mobile applications.\n\nDue to its high energy density and ease of handling, oil has a unique role as a transportation fuel. There are, however, a number of possible alternatives. Among the biofuels the use of bioethanol and biodiesel is already established to some extent in some countries.\n", "Bio-based oils existed prior to the development of petroleum-based oils in the 19th century. They have become the subject of renewed interest with the advent of bio-fuels and the push for green products. The development of canola-based motor oils began in 1996 in order to pursue environmentally friendly products. Purdue University has funded a project to develop and test such oils. Test results indicate satisfactory performance from the oils tested. A review on the status of bio-based motor oils and base oils globally, as well as in the U.S, shows how bio-based lubricants show promise in augmenting the current petroleum-based supply of lubricating materials, as well as replacing it in many cases.\n", "Section::::Carrier.:Sources.\n\nThe earliest and still most commonly used vehicle is linseed oil, pressed from the seed of the flax plant. Modern processes use heat or steam to produce refined varieties of oil with fewer impurities, but many artists prefer cold-pressed oils. Other vegetable oils such as hemp, poppy seed, walnut, sunflower, safflower, and soybean oils may be used as alternatives to linseed oil for a variety of reasons. For example, safflower and poppy oils are paler than linseed oil and allow for more vibrant whites straight from the tube.\n\nSection::::Carrier.:Extraction methods and processing.\n", "Section::::Types.:Straight vegetable oil.\n\nStraight unmodified edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower-quality oil has been used for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and then used as a fuel.\n", "There are several challenges which must be met in order to economically produce the desired alkanes such as gasoline. This will only be briefly covered in this article at this time, as it has only just begun.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Suitable strain.\n", "Vegetable oils as alternative energy\n\nVegetable oils are increasingly used as a substitute for fossil fuels. Vegetable oils are the basis of biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles, but straight vegetable oil needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity and surface tension. Another alternative is vegetable oil refining.\n\nThe availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing, although still tiny compared to conventional fossil fuel sources. There is significant research in algaculture methods to make biofuel from algae.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe Sustainable Oils research program began in 2005. In 2007, Targeted Growth, Inc. and Green Earth Fuels established Sustainable Oils as a Limited Liability Company in the state of Delaware.\n\nIn 2008, the company was awarded a contract by the United States Department of Defense to supply the US Navy 40,000 gallons of Camelina-based jet fuel for certification testing of alternative fuels.\n\nIn early 2009, Sustainable Oils began field research operations in Chile.\n", "Aviation fuels may be more widely replaced by biofuels such as jatropha oil than fuels for other forms of transportation. There are fewer planes than cars or trucks and far fewer jet fueling stations to convert than gas stations. To fulfil the yearly demand for aviation fuel, based on demand in 2008 (fuel use has since grown), an area of farmland twice the size of France would need to be planted with jatropha, based on average yields of mature plantations on reasonably good, irrigated land.\n", "Specially bred mustard varieties can produce reasonably high oil yields and are very useful in crop rotation with cereals, and have the added benefit that the meal leftover after the oil has been pressed out can act as an effective and biodegradable pesticide.\n\nThe NFESC, with Santa Barbara-based Biodiesel Industries is working to develop biodiesel technologies for the US navy and military, one of the largest diesel fuel users in the world.\n", "Since vegetable oil (even as biodiesel) does not contribute to greenhouse gas, governments may tax it much less than gasoline as they have done with ethanol.\n\nThis would help them reach Kyoto protocol targets.\n\nSection::::Production in sufficient quantity.\n", "Fats and oils created by enzymatic interesterification provide several benefits to food manufacturers. These oils provide better health profiles than either palm oil or partially hydrogenated oil because they are trans fat free and lower in saturated fat. The wide plasticity range and more consistent solid fat content create less variability in firmness, which is beneficial in production.\n\nMost often created through domestically sourced soybean oil, they provide a better risk management profile than globally produced palm oil. Lastly, producing enzymatic interesterified oil typically uses less processing and no harmful by-products creating a more sustainable, green process.\n", "BULLET::::- Lack of holistic approach allowing for a critical evaluation of economics, applicability and performance of MEOR is missing.\n\nBULLET::::- No published study includes reservoir characteristics; biochemical and physiological characteristics of microbiota; controlling mechanisms and process economics.\n\nBULLET::::- The ecophysiology of microbial communities thriving in oil reservoirs is largely unexplored. Consequently, there is a poor critical evaluation of the physical and biochemical mechanisms controlling microbial response to the hydrocarbon substrates and their mobility.\n", "Almost all biodiesel is produced from virgin vegetable oils using the base-catalyzed technique as it is the most economical process for treating virgin vegetable oils, requiring only low temperatures and pressures and producing over 98% conversion yield (provided the starting oil is low in moisture and free fatty acids). However, biodiesel produced from other sources or by other methods may require acid catalysis, which is much slower. Since it is the predominant method for commercial-scale production, only the base-catalyzed transesterification process will be described\n", "Various stages of converting renewable hydrocarbon fuels produced by hydrotreating is done throughout energy industry. Some commercial examples of vegetable oil refining are NExBTL, H-Bio, the ConocoPhilips process, and the UOP/Eni Ecofining process. Neste Oil is the largest manufacturer, producing 2 million tons annually (2013). Neste Oil completed their first NExBTL plant in the summer 2007 and the second one in 2009. Petrobras planned to use of vegetable oils in the production of H-Bio fuel in 2007. ConocoPhilips is processing of vegetable oil.Other\n", "Section::::Production methods.:Volatile fatty acids from anaerobic digestion of waste streams.\n\nLipids have been drawing considerable attention as a substrate for biodiesel production owing to its sustainability, non-toxicity and energy efficient properties. However, due to cost reasons, attention must be focused on the non-edible sources of lipids, in particular oleaginous microorganisms. Such microbes have the ability to assimilate the carbon sources from a medium and convert the carbon into lipid storage materials. The lipids accumulated by these oleaginous cells can then be transesterified to form biodiesel.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biodiesel from CO2\n\nBULLET::::- Dehulling\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable oil fuel\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Jojoba oil\n\nBULLET::::- Emu oil\n\nBULLET::::- Castor oil\n\nBULLET::::- Borage seed oil\n\nBULLET::::- Nuts:\n\nBULLET::::- Walnut oil\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut oil\n\nBULLET::::- Pecan oil\n\nBULLET::::- Macadamia oil\n\nBULLET::::- Fractionated coconut oil\n\nBULLET::::- Hazelnut oil\n\nBULLET::::- Cocoa butter\n\nBULLET::::- Sweet almond oil\n\nSection::::Safety aspects.\n", "Other methods, like nuclear power, fusion power, wind power and solar power, may provide cheaper electricity, so vegetable oil may only be used in peaking power plants and small power plants, as diesel is limited to today. There is at least one 5 MW power plant that runs on biodiesel. MAN B&W Diesel, Wärtsilä and other companies produce engines suitable for power generation that can be fueled with pure plant oils.\n\nSection::::Market, cost, price, and taxes.\n", "In both cases, this may happen in isolated or complex environmental microbial communities. So far the understanding on the interaction between pH and environmental microbial communities remains unknown, despite the efforts of the last decade. Little is known of the ecophysiology of complex microbial communities, and research is still in developmental stage.\n\nSection::::Environmental constraints.:Oxidation potential.\n", "There is concern that the current growing demand for vegetable oil is causing deforestation, with old forests being replaced with oil palms. When land is cleared it is often burned, which releases large amounts of the greenhouse gas CO. Vegetable oil production would have to increase substantially to replace gasoline and diesel. With current technology such an increase in production would have a substantial environmental impact.\n\nSection::::Food vs fuel debate.\n", "Many advocates suggest that waste vegetable oil is the best source of oil to produce biodiesel, but since the available supply is drastically less than the amount of petroleum-based fuel that is burned for transportation and home heating in the world, this local solution could not scale to the current rate of consumption.\n", "In March 2011, a F-22 Raptor fighter jet completed a successful test flight running on a 50% blend of Camelina fuel and traditional jet fuel. Sustainable Oils supplied all the Camelina oil for the test.\n\nIn March 2013, Global Clean Energy Holdings, a Long Beach, California-based biofuel feedstock company, acquired Sustainable Oils.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nSustainable Oils has one of the largest Camelina research programs in the world, which began in 2005. It has conducted over 140 field trials across 34 states in the continental US and six provinces of Canada. The company has established research nurseries in Montana, Arizona, and Chile.\n", "BULLET::::- Virgin oil feedstock – rapeseed and soybean oils are most commonly used, soybean oil accounting for about half of U.S. production. It also can be obtained from Pongamia, field pennycress and jatropha and other crops such as mustard, jojoba, flax, sunflower, palm oil, coconut and hemp (see list of vegetable oils for biofuel for more information);\n\nBULLET::::- Waste vegetable oil (WVO);\n\nBULLET::::- Animal fats including tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat, and the by-products of the production of Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil.\n", "In modern vegetable oil production, oils are usually extracted chemically, using a solvent such as hexane. Chemical extraction is cheaper and more efficient than mechanical extraction, at a large scale, leaving only 0.5–0.7% of the oil in the plant solids, as compared to 6–14% for mechanical extraction.\n\nSection::::Macerated oils.\n\nMacerated or infused oils are oils to which other matter has been added, such as herbs or flowers. Typically, the oil used is a food-grade fat-type oil.\n\nSection::::Essential oils.\n" ]

[ "We cannot use vegetable or animal oils as fuel in place of petroleum oil." ]

[ "It is possible to use vegetable and animal oils in place of petroleum oil, it is just not the best choice due to cost." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "We cannot use vegetable or animal oils as fuel in place of petroleum oil." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is possible to use vegetable and animal oils in place of petroleum oil, it is just not the best choice due to cost." ]

[ "Warm and cold sensitive nerve fibers differ in structure and function. The cold-sensitive and warm-sensitive nerve fibers are underneath the skin surface. Terminals of each temperature-sensitive fiber do not branch away to different organs in the body. They form a small sensitive point which are unique from neighboring fibers. Skin used by the single receptor ending of a temperature-sensitive nerve fiber is small. There are 20 cold points per square centimeter in the lips, 4 in the finger, and less than 1 cold point per square centimeter in trunk areas. There are 5 times as many cold sensitive points as warm sensitive points.\n", "Although thresholds for touch-position perception are relatively easy to measure, those for pain-temperature perception are difficult to define and measure. \"Touch\" is an objective sensation, but \"pain\" is an individualized sensation which varies among different people and is conditioned by memory and emotion. Anatomical differences between the pathways for touch-position perception and pain-temperature sensation help explain why pain, especially chronic pain, is difficult to manage.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.\n", "Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex.\n\nSection::::Function.:Summary.\n\nThe complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward processing of touch-position information) reflects a phylogenetically older, more primitive sensory system. The detailed information received from peripheral touch-position receptors is superimposed on a background of awareness, memory and emotions partially set by peripheral pain-temperature receptors.\n", "In order to minimise the confounding influence of external factors, patients undergoing infrared thermographic testing must conform to special restrictions regarding the use of certain vasoconstrictors (namely, nicotine and caffeine), skin lotions, physical therapy, and other diagnostic procedures in the days prior to testing. Patients may also be required to discontinue certain pain medications and sympathetic blockers. After a patient arrives at a thermographic laboratory, he or she is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in a 16–20 °C, draft-free, steady-state room wearing a loose fitting cotton hospital gown for approximately twenty minutes. A technician then takes infrared images of both the patient's affected and unaffected limbs, as well as reference images of other parts of the patient's body, including his or her face, upper back, and lower back. After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional-stress-testing to evaluate the function of his or her autonomic nervous system's peripheral vasoconstrictor reflex. This is performed by placing a patient's unaffected limb in a cold water bath (approximately 20 °C) for five minutes while collecting images. In a normal, intact, functioning autonomic nervous system, a patient's affected extremity will become colder. Conversely, warming of an affected extremity may indicate a disruption of the body's normal thermoregulatory vasoconstrictor function, which may sometimes indicate underlying CRPS.\n", "The hunting reaction is one out of four possible responses to immersion of the finger in cold water. The other responses observed in the fingers after immersion in cold water are a continuous state of vasoconstriction, slow steady and continuous rewarming and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of the vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water can be classified as the hunting reaction.\n", "When cold, the body attempts to capture heat in the blood by constricting the smooth muscle cells around the microvasculature. The muscle cells are constricted by an increase in calcium. The decreased cross-sectional area for flow increases the vascular resistance and lowers the flow to extremities. This mechanism allows the body to concentrate the heat around the vital organs for survival.\n\nThe formula for calculating the systemic vascular resistance is:\n\nformula_3\n\nBULLET::::- SVR as the systemic vascular resistance\n\nBULLET::::- MAP as the mean arterial pressure\n\nBULLET::::- MRAP as the mean right arterial pressure\n", "Classification of nerve damage was well-defined by Sir Herbert Seddon and Sunderland in a system that remains in use. The adjacent table details the forms (neurapraxia, axonotmesis and neurotmesis) and degrees of nerve injury that occur as a result of exposure to various temperatures.\n", "Patients are frequently classified into two groups based upon temperature: \"warm\" or \"hot\" CRPS in one group and \"cold\" CRPS in the other group. The majority of patients (approximately 70%) have the \"hot\" type, which is said to be an acute form of CRPS. Cold CRPS is said to be indicative of a more chronic CRPS and is associated with poorer McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ) scores, increased central nervous system involvement, and a higher prevalence of dystonia. Prognosis is not favourable for cold CRPS patients; longitudinal studies suggest these patients have \"poorer clinical pain outcomes and show persistent signs of central sensitisation correlating with disease progression\".\n", "Knee pain is more common among people working in the cold than in those in normal temperature. Cold-induced knee pain may also be due to tenosynovitis of the tendons around the knee, in which cold exposure has a specific role, either as a causative or a contributing factor. Frank arthritis has been reported in children due to frostbite from extreme cold causing direct chondrocyte injury.\n\nThere is also a hereditary disease, familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome (FCAS), which often features knee pain, in addition to hives, fever and pain in other joints, following general exposure to cold.\n", "Touch-position information is generally carried by myelinated (fast-conducting) nerve fibers, and pain-temperature information by unmyelinated (slow-conducting) fibers. The primary sensory receptors for touch-position (Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel's receptors, Pacinian corpuscles, Ruffini’s corpuscles, hair receptors, muscle spindle organs and Golgi tendon organs) are structurally more complex than those for pain-temperature, which are nerve endings.\n", "Pain-temperature information is sent to the VPL (body) and VPM (face) of the thalamus (the same nuclei which receive touch-position information). From the thalamus, pain-temperature and touch-position information is projected onto SI.\n", "When the fingers are exposed to cold, vasoconstriction occurs first to reduce heat loss, resulting in strong cooling of the fingers. Approximately five to ten minutes after the start of the cold exposure of the hand, the blood vessels in the finger tips will suddenly vasodilate. This is probably caused by a sudden decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from the sympathetic nerves to the muscular coat of the arteriovenous anastomoses due to local cold. The CIVD increases blood flow and subsequently the temperature of the fingers. This can be painful and is sometimes known as the 'hot aches' which can be painful enough to bring on vomiting.\n", "Tissue loss and autoamputation are potential consequences of frostbite. Permanent nerve damage including loss of feeling can occur. It can take several weeks to know what parts of the tissue will survive. Time of exposure to cold is more predictive of lasting injury than temperature the individual was exposed to. The classification system of grades, based on the tissue response to initial rewarming and other factors is designed to predict degree of longterm recovery.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Grades.\n\nGrade 1: if there is no initial lesion on the area, no amputation or lasting effects are expected\n", "At the end of the 20th century more sophisticated methods for direct observation of the axon reflex arose due to more precise imaging tools and more advanced techniques. One example is laser Doppler studies which uses laser doppler imaging to observe the skin blood flow to determine vascular function. These sorts of experimental collection techniques produce experimental data that suggests a mechanism to explain how the interaction of neural factors and genetic endowments make some individuals more resistant to cold. These research techniques have helped to improve medical treatment and prevention of cold-related skin damage and frostbite injuries.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "The two basic types of sensation are touch-position and pain-temperature. Touch-position input comes to attention immediately, but pain-temperature input reaches the level of consciousness after a delay; when a person steps on a pin, the awareness of stepping on something is immediate but the pain associated with it is delayed.\n", "Three independent research groups have reported that mice lacking functional TRPM8 gene expression are severely impaired in their ability to detect cold temperatures. Remarkably, these animals are deficient in many diverse aspects of cold signaling, including cool and noxious cold perception, injury-evoked sensitization to cold, and cooling-induced analgesia. These animals provide a great deal of insight into the molecular signaling pathways that participate in the detection of cold and painful stimuli. Many research groups, both in universities and pharmaceutical companies, are now actively involved in looking for selective TRPM8 ligands to be used as new generation of neuropathic analgesic drugs.\n", "The insular and cingulate cortices are parts of the brain which represent touch-position and pain-temperature in the context of other simultaneous perceptions (sight, smell, taste, hearing and balance) in the context of memory and emotional state. Peripheral pain-temperature information is channeled directly to the brain at a deep level, without prior processing. Touch-position information is handled differently. Diffuse thalamic projections from the IL and other thalamic nuclei are responsible for a given level of consciousness, with the thalamus and reticular formation \"activating\" the brain; peripheral pain-temperature information also feeds directly into this system.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nBULLET::::- Trigeminal neuralgia\n", "Hot-cold empathy gap is also dependent on the person's memory of visceral experience. As such, it is very common to underestimate visceral state due to restrictive memory. In general, people are more likely to underestimate the effect of pain in a cold state as compared to those in the hot state.\n\nSection::::Memory.:The experiment.\n\nNordgren, van der Pligt and van Harreveld (2006) assessed the impact of pain on the subjects performance on a memory test. In the assessment process, participants were questioned how pain and other factors affected their performance.\n\nSection::::Memory.:The result of experiment.\n", "The discovery of nociceptors in cephalopods has occurred relatively recently. In 2011, it was written that nociceptors had yet to be described in any cephalopod. However, in 2013, nociceptors responsive to mechanical and electrical stimuli, but not thermal stimuli, were described in the longfin inshore squid (\"Doryteuthis pealeii\") (note – it is highly unlikely that squid encounter temperatures greater than 30 °C making it very improbable that the nervous system will have evolved nociceptors to detect such high temperatures.) This study also provided evidence that these receptors, as in vertebrates, undergo both short-term and long-term sensitization (30 min and 24 h, respectively). Similarly, low-threshold mechanoreceptors and cells considered to be nociceptors in the algae octopus (\"Abdopus aculeatus\") are sensitised for at least 24 hrs after a crushing injury.\n", "Touch-position information from the body is carried to the thalamus by the medial lemniscus, and from the face by the trigeminal lemniscus (both the anterior and posterior trigeminothalamic tracts). Pain-temperature information from the body is carried to the thalamus by the spinothalamic tract, and from the face by the anterior division of the trigeminal lemniscus (also called the anterior trigeminothalamic tract).\n", "This mechanism of vasodilation is supported by research, and the effectiveness of the vasomotor response can be explained by the value of Tau (the time constant of the blood circulation over that area experiences effect from a sensor). In general, the value of Tau does not change much in temperatures of 39 °C and higher, whereas temperatures below 39 °C will exhibit a significant variance in the value of Tau. The vasodilation causing signal originates from an increase in skin temperature, approaching a threshold of around 40 °C. The cooling phase of Tau will depend on body mechanics and an individual’s ability to radiate heat from the body.\n", "When core temperature falls, the blood supply to the skin is reduced by intense vasoconstriction. The blood flow to the limbs (which have a large surface area) is similarly reduced, and returned to the trunk via the deep veins which lie alongside the arteries (forming venae comitantes). This acts as a counter-current exchange system which short-circuits the warmth from the arterial blood directly into the venous blood returning into the trunk, causing minimal heat loss from the extremities in cold weather. The subcutaneous limb veins are tightly constricted, not only reducing heat loss from this source, but also forcing the venous blood into the counter-current system in the depths of the limbs.\n", "The spinal trigeminal nucleus contains a pain-temperature sensory map of the face and mouth. From the spinal trigeminal nucleus, secondary fibers cross the midline and ascend in the trigeminothalamic (quintothalamic) tract to the contralateral thalamus. Pain-temperature fibers are sent to multiple thalamic nuclei. The central processing of pain-temperature information differs from the processing of touch-position information.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.:Spinal trigeminal nucleus.:Somatotopic representation.\n", "Phalanges are commonly fractured. A damaged tendon can cause significant loss of function in fine motor control, such as with a mallet finger. They can be damaged by cold, including frostbite and non-freezing cold injury (NFCI); and heat, including burns.\n\nThe fingers are commonly affected by diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout. Diabetics often use the fingers to obtain blood samples for regular blood sugar testing. Raynaud's phenomenon and Paroxysmal hand hematoma are neurovascular disorders that affects the fingers. \n", "Vasoconstriction occurs first to reduce heat loss, but also results in strong cooling of the extremities. Approximately five to ten minutes after the start of cold exposure, the blood vessels in the extremities will suddenly vasodilate. This is probably caused by a sudden decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from the sympathetic nerves to the muscular coat of the arteriovenous anastomoses due to local cold. This cold-induced vasodilation increases blood flow and subsequently the temperature of the fingers. A new phase of vasoconstriction follows the vasodilation, after which the process repeats itself.\n" ]

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[ "While patent laws are written to apply to all inventions, whether mechanical, pharmaceutical, or electronic, the interpretations of patent law made by government patent granting agencies (the United States Patent and Trademark Office, for example) and courts, can be very subject-matter specific with significant impact on the incentives for drug development and the availability of lower-priced generic drugs. For example, a recent decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit in Pfizer v. Apotex, 480 F.3d 1348 (Fed.Cir.2007), held invalid a patent on the “pharmaceutical salt” formulation of a previously patented active ingredient. If that decision is not overturned by the United States Supreme Court, generic versions of the drug in controversy, Norvasc (amlodipine besylate) will be available much earlier. If the reasoning of the Federal Circuit in the case is applied more generally to other patents on pharmaceutical formulations, it would have a significant impact in speeding generic drug availability (and, conversely, some negative impact on the incentives and funding for the research and development of new drugs).\n", "Using bioequivalence as the basis for approving generic copies of drug products was established by the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, also known as the Hatch-Waxman Act. This Act expedites the availability of less costly generic drugs by permitting FDA to approve applications to market generic versions of brand-name drugs without conducting costly and duplicative clinical trials. At the same time, the brand-name companies can apply for up to five additional years longer patent protection for the new medicines they developed to make up for time lost while their products were going through FDA's approval process. Brand-name drugs are subject to the same bioequivalence tests as generics upon reformulation.\n", "Another example is a series of lawsuits filed by the Alzheimer’s Institute of America (AIA) starting in 2003 with the last ending in 2013, concerning a gene patent it controlled on the Swedish mutation and transgenic mice carrying it; the mutation that is important in Alzheimers. The mice are widely used in Alzheimer's research, both by academic scientists doing basic research and by companies that use the mice to test products in development. Two of these suits are directed to companies that were started based on inventions made at universities (Comentis and Avid), and in each of those cases, the university was sued along with the company. While none of the suits target universities that are conducting basic research using the mice, one of the suits is against Jackson Labs, a nonprofit company that provides transgenic mice to academic and commercial researchers and is an important repository of such mice. Ultimately all the suits failed; the suit against Jackson Labs failed after the NIH granted it protection as a government contractor.\n", "When a new biopharmaceutical is developed, the company will typically apply for a patent, which is a grant for exclusive manufacturing rights. This is the primary means by which the developer of the drug can recover the investment cost for development of the biopharmaceutical. The patent laws in the United States and Europe differ somewhat on the requirements for a patent, with the European requirements are perceived as more difficult to satisfy. The total number of patents granted for biopharmaceuticals has risen significantly since the 1970s. In 1978 the total patents granted was 30. This had climbed to 15,600 in 1995, and by 2001 there were 34,527 patent applications. In 2012 the US had the highest IP (Intellectual Property) generation within the biopharmaceutical industry, generating 37 percent of the total number of granted patents worldwide, however, there is still a large margin for growth and innovation within the industry. Revisions to the current IP system to ensure greater reliability for R&D (research and development) investments is a prominent topic of debate in the US as well. Blood products and other human derived biologics like breast milk, have highly regulated or very hard to access markets, therefore, customers generally face a supply shortage for these products due to their nature and often institutions housing these biologics, designated as 'banks', cannot distribute their product to customers effectively. Conversely, banks for reproductive cells are much more widespread and available due to the ease of which spermatozoa and egg cells are able to be used for fertility treatment.\n", "Depending on a number of considerations, a company may apply for and be granted a patent for the drug, or the process of producing the drug, granting exclusivity rights typically for about 20 years. However, only after rigorous study and testing, which takes 10 to 15 years on average, will governmental authorities grant permission for the company to market and sell the drug. Patent protection enables the owner of the patent to recover the costs of research and development through high profit margins for the branded drug. When the patent protection for the drug expires, a generic drug is usually developed and sold by a competing company. The development and approval of generics is less expensive, allowing them to be sold at a lower price. Often the owner of the branded drug will introduce a generic version before the patent expires in order to get a head start in the generic market. Restructuring has therefore become routine, driven by the patent expiration of products launched during the industry's \"golden era\" in the 1990s and companies' failure to develop sufficient new blockbuster products to replace lost revenues.\n", "In the case of a medical procedure patent issued after 1996, a U.S. infringer may also raise a statutory safe harbor defense to infringement.\n\nThere is safe harbor for research conducted for \"purely philosophical\" inquiry, but research directed to commercial purposes has no safe harbor - unless the research is directed toward obtaining approval of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for introduction of a generic version of a patented drug (see Research exemption and Hatch-Waxman Act).\n\nSection::::Remedies.\n", "While there is some controversy concerning the patenting of isolated genes and the way those patents are used, and there is controversy concerning patents on the diagnostic uses of genes (the real source of dispute in the Myriad court case), it is difficult to find controversy surrounding patents on genes that are used to manufacture therapeutic proteins (for an example of patents on therapeutic proteins, the drug candidate that is the subject of the early part of the movie 'Extraordinary Measures' was covered in part by a classic gene patent, U.S. Patent No. 6,770,468.) There is also little controversy concerning the role of gene patents in the chemical industry—for instance in the manufacture of enzymes used in consumer products or industrial processes.\n", "Unlike generics, biosimilars cannot be approved on the basis of minimal and inexpensive tests to prove bioequivalence. Since biological drugs are complex, heterogeneous products derived from living cells, they can only be shown to be highly similar to the appropriate reference product and therefore require demonstration that there are no clinically meaningful differences in safety and efficacy. The extent to which clinical trials are required will largely determine the cost of development.\n\nSection::::Orphan drugs.\n", "Section::::Product approval.:Orphan drugs.\n\nThere are special rules for certain rare diseases (\"orphan diseases\") in several major drug regulatory territories. For example, diseases involving fewer than 200,000 patients in the United States, or larger populations in certain circumstances are subject to the Orphan Drug Act. Because medical research and development of drugs to treat such diseases is financially disadvantageous, companies that do so are rewarded with tax reductions, fee waivers, and market exclusivity on that drug for a limited time (seven years), regardless of whether the drug is protected by patents.\n\nSection::::Global sales.\n", "Key methods to manipulate DNA to create monoclonal antibodies are covered by a thicket of patents, including the \"Winter patent\" was invented by Gregory P. Winter of the Medical Research Council which covers methods to make chimeric, humanized antibodies and has been licensed to about fifty companies. Abgenix owned a patent on methods of making transgenic mice lacking endogenous heavy chains. The \"Boss patent\" was owned by Celltech and covered methods of making recombinant antibodies and antibody fragments, together with vectors and host cells useful in these processes. Genentech owned the \"Old Cabilly\" patent that covered altered and native immunoglobulins prepared in recombinant cell culture, as well as the \"New Cabilly\" patent that covers artificial synthesis of antibody molecules. Medarex owned a patent that covered high affinity human antibodies from transgenic mice. These patents have been broadly licensed and have been the subject of litigation among patent holders and companies that have brought monoclonal antibody drugs to market.\n", "One common misunderstanding is that pharmaceutical companies patent the plants they collect. While obtaining a patent on a naturally occurring organism as previously known or used is not possible, patents may be taken out on specific chemicals isolated or developed from plants. Often these patents are obtained with a stated and researched use of those chemicals. Generally the existence, structure and synthesis of those compounds is not a part of the indigenous medical knowledge that led researchers to analyze the plant in the first place. As a result, even if the indigenous medical knowledge is taken as prior art, that knowledge does not by itself make the active chemical compound \"obvious,\" which is the standard applied under patent law.\n", "Section::::Gene patents.:Myriad Genetics case.\n\n\"Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics\" was a 2013 case challenging the validity of gene patents in the United States, specifically challenging certain claims in issued patents owned or controlled by Myriad Genetics that covered isolated DNA sequences, methods to diagnose propensity to cancer by looking for mutated DNA sequences, and methods to identify drugs using isolated DNA sequences.\n", "The FDA has implemented the Breakthrough Therapy Designation which should help bring new needed products to the market faster.  One of the key concerns in the current patent system is that an innovation patent is overly generous given that it has a very low inventiveness threshold.\n", "The patentability of such biopharmaceuticals and their process of manufacture is uncertain. Probably, the biopharmaceuticals themselves so made are unpatentable, assuming that they are chemically identical to the preexisting drugs that they imitate. Several 19th century United States Supreme Court decisions hold that a previously known natural product manufactured by artificial means cannot be patented. An argument can be made for the patentability of the process for manufacturing a biopharmaceutical, however, because genetically modifying animals so that they will produce the drug is dissimilar to previous methods of manufacture; moreover, one Supreme Court decision seems to hold open that possibility.\n", "The Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act (Hatch-Waxman Act) of 1984 provides patent holders on approved patented products with an extended term of protection under the patent to compensate for the delay in obtaining Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval.\n\n\"Merck & Co., Inc. v. Hi-Tech Pharmacal Co., Inc.\" ruled that patents extended under Hatch-Waxman are still eligible to URAA term extension. However, patents in force on June 8, 1995 solely because of the Hatch-Waxman term adjustment are not eligible.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Supplementary protection certificate\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "There is now a similar case wherein a company was given extension under S.156 and the generic entrant arguing against such extension between Merck and Hi-tech for a drug called \"dorzolamide\" (TRUSOPT/COSOPT). Here too, the first company (Merck) had filed a standard form terminal disclaimer. This patent was later given an extension and became the crux of the litigation.\n\nSection::::Adjustments possible under current law.:FDA approval extension.\n", "To legally test the drug on human subjects in the U.S., the maker must first obtain an Investigational New Drug (IND) designation from FDA. This application is based on nonclinical data, typically from a combination of in vivo and in vitro laboratory safety studies, that shows the drug is safe enough to test in humans. Often the \"new\" drugs that are submitted for approval include new molecular entities or old medications that have been chemically modified to elicit differential pharmacological effects or reduced side effects.\n\nSection::::Clinical trials.\n", "As of 2018, the Medicines Patent Pool holds licences for 13 HIV antiretrovirals, an HIV technology platform, 2 hepatitis C direct-acting antivirals and 1 investigational treatment for tuberculosis from patent holders AbbVie, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gilead Sciences, MSD, ViiV Healthcare, Johns Hopkins University, the University of Liverpool, the US National Institutes of Health and Pharco Pharmaceuticals. The MPP also worked with Janssen and Boehringer Ingelheim to extend their non-assert policies for paediatric darunavir formulations and nevirapine, ensuring that the companies will not assert their patent rights in many more developing countries. The organisation signed an agreement with F. Hoffmann-La Roche to increase access to valganciclovir, an important treatment for an HIV opportunistic infection.\n", "In \"In the Case of Xalatan\" the NIH received a request from Essential Inventions in January 2004 to adopt a policy of granting march-in licenses to patents when the patent owner charged significantly higher prices in the United States than they did in other high income countries, on the basis of Pfizer's glaucoma drug being sold in the United States at two to five times the prices in other high income countries. The NIH held that \"the extraordinary remedy of march-in was not an appropriate means for controlling prices.\"\n", "Shortly after \"Roche v. Bolar\" was decided, Congress did pass a law permitting use of patented products in experiments for the purpose of obtaining FDA approval (section 271-e-1 of the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act, informally known as the \"Hatch-Waxman Act\" [Public Law 98-417], which established the modern system for FDA approval of generic drugs.)\n", "As the commercial application of molecular diagnostics has become more important, so has the debate about patenting of the genetic discoveries at its heart. In 1998, the European Union's Directive 98/44/ECclarified that patents on DNA sequences were allowable. In 2010 in the US, AMP sued Myriad Genetics to challenge the latter's patents regarding two genes, BRCA1, BRCA2, which are associated with breast cancer. In 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court partially agreed, ruling that a naturally occurring gene sequence could not be patented.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Development from research tools.\n", "In 2003, the European Medicines Agency introduced an adapted pathway for biosimilars, termed \"similar biological medicinal products\". This pathway is based on a thorough demonstration of \"comparability\" of the \"similar\" product to an existing approved product. Within the United States, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 created an abbreviated approval pathway for biological products shown to be biosimilar to, or interchangeable with, an FDA-licensed reference biological product. A major hope linked to the introduction of biosimilars is a reduction of costs to the patients and the healthcare system.\n\nSection::::Commercialization.\n", "Finally, the Orange Book lists patents that are purported to protect each drug. Patent listings and use codes are provided by the drug application owner, and the FDA is obliged to list them. In order for a generic drug manufacturer to win approval of a drug under the Hatch-Waxman Act, the generic manufacturer must certify that they will not launch their generic until after the expiration of the Orange Book-listed patent, or that the patent is invalid, unenforceable, or that the generic product will not infringe the listed patent.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Orange book\n\nBULLET::::- Orange book archives\n", "Collaboration of pharmacologists with organic chemists and the employment of the mass-action law principle resulted in 40 U.S. patents, of which one is for the solo inventor. These are accomplished with small number of personnel and limited financial support. Some invented compounds have been in clinical trials in cancer patients.[3-5]\n\nInternational Patents\n", "However, the compound itself is known and thus could not be patented; it would lack novelty under (before the entry into force of the EPC 2000 and new ). Nor could the general concept of a medical formulation including this compound. This is known from the first medical use, and thus also lacks novelty under EPC Article 54. Only the particular method of treatment is new. However methods for treatment of the human body are not patentable under European patent law (). The Enlarged Board of Appeal of the European Patent Office solved this by allowing claims to protect the \"\"Use of substance X in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of condition Y\"\". This fulfilled the letter of the law (it claimed the manufacture, not the medical treatment), and satisfied the EPO and applicants, in particular the pharmaceutical industry. Meanwhile, in view of new , on 19 February 2010, the EPO Enlarged Board of Appeal issued its decision G 2/08 and decided at that occasion that applicants may no longer claim second medical use inventions in the Swiss format.\n" ]

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[ "Most frequently and in most countries the organizations that raise and spend money for political purposes are parties (headquarters, branches and chapters). Party headquarters spend on public relations, mass media (including billboards), the expertise of consultants and offices. Local party chapters (e.g. constituency or riding associations), which rely on volunteers (party activists), cover telecommunication and mail charges as well as rent and heating for storefront offices, which they use as their centers of political activity.\n\nSection::::Sources of funds.\n", "Registered parties are allocated a separate broadcasting budget for radio and television campaigning, and broadcasting time on Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand to make opening and closing addresses. Only money from the broadcasting allocation can be used to purchase airtime; the actual production costs of advertisements can come from the general election expenses budget.\n", "Thanks to a private gift covering operating and fundraising expenses, 100% of all public donations to GO Campaign go to programming costs, and donors are allowed to choose the project they want to support.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Opposition parties receive state funding to pay administration cost; Short Money in the House of Commons starting in 1975, and Cranborne Money in the House of Lords starting in 1996 however, there is no state funding available to parties for campaign purposes.\n\nIn addition there is a general policy development grant available to parties with two MPs or one MP and one MEP.\n\nSection::::Transparency.\n", "In Australia, the majority of private political donations come in the form of donations from corporations, which go towards the funding of the parties' election advertising campaigns. Donations and affiliation fees from trade unions also play a big role, and to a lesser extent donations from individuals. Donations occasionally take the form of non-cash donations, referred to as \"gifts-in-kind\".\n", "In addition to primary matching funds, the public funding program also assists with financing the major parties' (and eligible minor parties') presidential nominating conventions and funding the major party (and eligible minor party) nominees' general election campaigns. The grants for the major parties' conventions and general election nominees are adjusted each Presidential election year to account for increases in the cost of living. In 2012, each major party is entitled to $18.2 million in public funds for their conventions, and the parties' general election nominees are eligible to receive $91.2 million in public funds. If candidates accept public funds, they agree not to raise or spend private funds or to spend more than $50,000 of their personal resources.\n", "The Electoral Commission of New Zealand is required under Part 6 of the Broadcasting Act 1989 to allocate money appropriated by Parliament to enable all registered political parties to broadcast election programmes and election advertising during the election period for a general election (‘the broadcasting allocation’).\n", "As political parties in New Zealand only need to declare private donations which exceed $30,000NZD over a period of 12 months there is no way to tell the absolute total of donations to each party. The Electoral Commission of New Zealand does, however, have data on declared donations from 1996 – 2017.\n\nSection::::Sources of funds.:Public funding.\n", "Section::::Recipients.:State-based policy funding.\n\nBetween 2008 and 2013, Donors Trust granted $10 million to the State Policy Network (SPN), a national network of conservative and libertarian think tanks focused on state-level policy. SPN used the grants to incubate new think tanks in Arkansas, Rhode Island and Florida. Donors Trust also issued grants to SPN's affiliates at the state level during the same period. The American Legislative Exchange Council, a nonprofit organization of conservative state legislators and private sector representatives that drafts and shares model state-level legislation, is a Donors Trust recipient.\n\nSection::::Recipients.:Project Veritas.\n", "Funds come from individuals, a 5% fee on all donations made through the site, Gift Aid from donations, corporate sponsorship and trust and foundation grants. Unrestricted funding goes towards the running costs of the organization; individual donations made towards projects go directly to beneficiaries. Included in the 5% fee are fees associated with credit card processing, foreign currency exchange, transaction costs, and Gift Aid processing costs.\n\nFor Common Cause had an income of £91,062 and spent £58,172 in 2013.\n\nSection::::Publicity.\n\nFor Common Cause participated in the first annual Grass Roots Enterprise conference in 2013.\n", "OPM's FAQ page states, \"Historically, campaign costs nationwide have averaged ten percent. These funds were spent on printing materials, training volunteers, auditing contributions, and other administrative expenses.\" Prior to 2017, these costs were deducted from the donations to the charity. Beginning in 2017, charities were required to pay upfront fees to receive donations through the CFC. In 2017, total overhead costs exceeded 25% under the new model.\n", "When the last contribution is tallied, the Community Foundation calculates the match percentage. From the total match money raised by the Co-Challengers, 20% is subtracted and distributed to local nonprofits through a twice-annual competitive grants process.\n\nThe remaining matching funds are compared to all eligible contributions made on behalf of local nonprofits. The ratio of matching funds to donor contributions provides the match percentage. The match is added to all funds raised by each participating non-profit allowing the donor's contribution to make an even larger impact!\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official website\n\nBULLET::::- Community Foundation of Jackson Hole\n", "Section::::Scottish Referendum.\n\nBusiness for Scotland Ltd registered with the Electoral Commission as a \"permitted participant\" on the Yes side in the 2014 Scottish independence referendum. It spent £143,027 campaigning at the independence referendum making it the largest spender of the all the registered participant groups. After the referendum it was revealed that Business for Scotland received a £100,000 donation from Stagecoach founder Brain Souter.\n\nThe Founder and Chief Executive of the organisation, and registered responsible person with the electoral commission was Gordon MacIntyre-Kemp. The organisation was chaired during the referendum by Tony Banks.\n", "Section::::Spending by Outside Organizations/Independent Expenditures.:501(c) organizations.\n\nmain: 501(c) organization\n", "The Conservative Party, for example, is reported to make phone calls or send letters to about 200,000 people a month, and conducts surveys to collect and feed information on the views of individuals into its database referred to as CIMS, an acronym for \"Constituent Information Management System\". The information stored in the database is then used to customize mailings and phone calls for each targeted donor to appeal to them specifically on issues that they are known to react more strongly to.\n\nOther associated overhead for fundraising include legal consultation, processing, accounting, auditing, and reporting costs.\n", "Donors Capital Fund granted 192,000 to the Alaska Policy Forum (APF) in the organization's first two years, 2009 and 2010. APF is free-market think tank and a member of the State Policy Network (SPN) of conservative and libertarian think tanks which focus on state-level policy. The grants from Donors Capital Fund were most of the funds raised by APF in that period. In 2010, Donors Capital Fund granted 1.75 million to SPN, 2 million to Donors Trust, 2.5 million to the American Enterprise Institute, 2 million to Citizens Against Government Waste, 1.7 million to The Heartland Institute, and over 206 other grantees.\n", "According to a review by the \"International Business Times\", the Trump Foundation did not give to right-wing causes until 2010, when donations to conservative organizations were first reported. Among these organizations, the Foundation gave:\n\nBULLET::::- Liberty Central Inc. — $10,000 in 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Citizens Against Government Waste — $10,000 in 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Graham Evangelistic Association — $50,000 in 2012\n\nBULLET::::- American Conservative Union — $50,00 in 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Family Leader Foundation — $20,000 in 2013 and 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Citizens United Foundation — $100,000 in 2014\n", "This section lists the top contributors by employer. These organizations themselves didn't donate, but these numbers include donations from their PACs, members, employees, owners, and their immediate families.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 United States Senate elections\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 United States House of Representatives elections in Minnesota\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Election Center from the Minnesota Secretary of State\n\nBULLET::::- Campaign contributions at OpenSecrets.org\n\nBULLET::::- Outside spending at the Sunlight Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Candidate issue positions at On the Issues\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Senate election coverage at Minnesota Public Radio\n\nBULLET::::- Official campaign websites (Archived)\n\nBULLET::::- Kurt Bills for U.S. Senate\n", "About $53 million in fees from four tribes to Capitol Campaign Strategies, either directly or through other Abramoff-controlled organizations (e.g. a $1 million from the Choctaws for \"professional services\" to the National Center for Public Policy Research was split $500,000 to CCS and $450,000 to Abramoff's Capital Athletic Foundation, and $50,000 to repay an Abramoff loan).\n\nAccording to the Senate Indian Affairs Committee, six tribes gave CCS a total of $66 million.\n", "Fundly charges fees based on the scale of the fundraiser. Individual campaigns are charged 4.9% of the funds collected, plus 3% credit card fees. Campaigns that reach certain donation levels receive discounts on the fee percentage that Fundly charges. Campaign donations raised from $50,001 to $500,000 are charged 4.4%, donations raised from $500,001 to $1,000,000 are charged 3.9% and every donation raised over $1,000,000 is charged 2.9% \n\nSection::::Patents.\n\nFundly has a patent pending on its fund raising technology.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Crowdfunding\n\nBULLET::::- Causes (company)\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of crowd funding services\n", "Earned income is generated from the sale of Pacific Wonderland license plates; revenue is shared with the Oregon Historical Society. Additional earned income, though limited, is generated at times from the sale of historical items being removed /replaced at the Capitol and from ticket sales to special events. \n\nGovernance\n\nThe Oregon State Capitol Foundation is run by an all-volunteer Board of Directors made up of current and former legislators, lobbyists, state workers and community volunteers who share a passion for the vision, mission and work of the Capitol Foundation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Oregon State Capitol\n\nBULLET::::- Government of Oregon\n", "Fox News reported that in 2011 CMD received $864,740 in donations. $520,000, or 60% of 2011's total revenue, was received from the Schwab Charitable Fund, a donor advised fund which preserves the anonymity of donors by not disclosing individual donor names.\n", "Section::::Funding.\n\nIn 2010, according to Beers, \"The Tyee\"'s annual revenue of about $500,000 to $600,000 includes $450,000 from ongoing sale of equity, $75,000 from advertising, $50,000 from grants, $25,000 from reader donations, and several thousand from renting out newsroom desks. By 2017, that revenue mix had evolved to 28% ongoing sale of equity, 46% reader funding, and 26% advertising, sponsorships, event ticket sales, and grants for special projects.\n", "Section::::Sources of funds.:Grassroots fundraising.\n", "To provide the full transparency, all fundraising results, budgets of supported project which are verified by the Help Needed experts, as well as own reports of the foundation are published online and publicly available.\n" ]

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[ "One form of in-game mobile advertising is what allows players to actually play. As a new and effective form of advertising, it allows consumers to try out the content before they actually install it. This type of marketing can also really attract the attention of users like casual players. These advertising blur the lines between game and advertising, and provide players with a richer experience that allows them to spend their precious time interacting with advertising.\n", "1. Content embedded mode For the most part at present, the downloading APP from APP store is free, for APP development enterprise, need a way to flow to liquidate, implantable advertising and APP combines content marketing and game characters to seamlessly integrating user experience, so as to improve advertising hits.\n\nWith these free downloading apps, developers use in-app purchases or subscription to profit. \n", "Typically, commercial mobile games use one of the following monetisation models: pay-per-download, subscription, free-to-play ('freemium') or advertising-supported. Until recently, the main option for generating revenues was a simple payment on downloading a game. Subscription business models also existed and had proven popular in some markets (notably Japan) but were rare in Europe. Today, a number of new business models have emerged which are often collectively referred to as \"freemium\". The game download itself is typically free and then revenue is generated after download either through in-app transactions or advertisements; this resulted in $34 billion spent on mobile games in 2013.\n", "Brands are now delivering promotional messages within mobile games or sponsoring entire games to drive consumer engagement. This is known as mobile advergaming or ad-funded mobile game.\n\nIn in-game mobile marketing, advertisers pay to have their name or products featured in the mobile games. For instance, racing games can feature real cars made by Ford or Chevy. Advertisers have been both creative and aggressive in their attempts to integrate ads organically in the mobile games.\n", "As these product placement deals are non-standard, they are largely charged with a production fee, which can be $350,000 to $750,000 depending on the type of placement and the popularity of the game.\n\nSection::::Advertising.:Lead generation offers.\n\nAnother form of advertising that is prevalent in many social games are lead generation offers. In this form of advertising, companies, usually from different industries, aim to convince players to sign up for their goods or services and in exchange, players will receive virtual gifts or advance forward in the game as a reward.\n\nSection::::Advertising.:Sponsorship.\n\nSection::::Advertising.:Sponsorship.:White label games.\n", "Although investment in mobile marketing strategies like advergaming is slightly more expensive than what is intended for a mobile app, a good strategy can make the brand derive a substantial revenue. Games that use advergaming make the users remember better the brand involved. This memorization increases virality of the content so that the users tend to recommend them to their friends and acquaintances, and share them via social networks.\n", "Due to the variety of ways in which product placement can be accomplished in any media, and because the category is nascent, this category is not standardized at all, but some examples include branded in-game goods or even in-game quests. For example, in a game where you run a restaurant, you might be asked to collect ingredients to make a Starbucks Frappuccino, and receive in-game rewards for doing so.\n", "Video ads are shown either in in-game interstitials (e.g. when the game is loading a new screen) or through incentive-based advertising, i.e. you will get either an in-game reward or Facebook credits for watching an advertisement.\n\nSection::::Advertising.:Product placement.\n\nA brand or product will be injected in a game in some way.\n", "Many mobile games are distributed free to the end user, but carry paid advertising: examples are \"Flappy Bird\" and \"Doodle Jump\". The latter follows the \"freemium\" model, in which the base game is free but additional items for the game can be purchased separately.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- iPod game\n\nBULLET::::- Handheld electronic game\n\nBULLET::::- Handheld game console\n\nBULLET::::- Handheld video game\n\nBULLET::::- List of best-selling mobile games\n\nBULLET::::- List of highest-grossing video game franchises\n\nBULLET::::- List of most-played video games by player count\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile software\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile gambling\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile development\n\nBULLET::::- Screen protector\n\nBULLET::::- N-Gage (device)\n", "Total global revenue from mobile games was estimated at $2.6 billion in 2005 by \"Informa Telecoms\" and \"Media\". Total revenue in 2008 was $5.8 billion. The largest mobile gaming markets were in the Asia-Pacific nations Japan and China, followed by the United States. In 2012, the market had already reached $7.8 billion A new report was released in November 2015 showing that 1887 app developers would make more than one million dollars on the Google and iOS app stores in 2015.\n", "Advertising is a form of indirect monetization. Apart from aforementioned methods of monetization, indirect monetization generate revenue from other sources that does not directly come from the player. Most frequently, this is the placement of advertisements within a game; these may take the form of banner advertisements, commercial breaks in play, or product placement in the game. Games that rely on advertisement for returns usually are free-to-play or are cheaper than other games as their production cost has already been subsidized.\n\nSection::::Impact.\n", "This kind of advertisement is not only interesting, but also brings some benefits to marketers. As this kind of in-gaming mobile marketing can create more effective conversion rates because they are interactive and have faster conversion speeds than general advertising. Moreover, games can also offer a stronger lifetime value. They measure the quality of the consumer in advance to provide some more in-depth experience，So this type of advertising can be more effective in improving user stickiness than advertising channels such as stories and video.\n\nSection::::QR codes.\n", "By employing advergaming, a company typically provides interactive games on its website in the hope that potential customers will be drawn to the game and spend more time on the website, or simply become more product aware. The games themselves usually feature prominent product placement, often as \"powerups\" or upgrades.\n", "In Europe, downloadable mobile games were introduced by the \"Les Games\" portal from Orange France, run by In-fusio, in 2000. Whereas before mobile games were usually commissioned directly by handset manufacturers, now also mobile operators started to act as distributors of games. As the operators were not keen on handling potentially hundreds of relationships with one- or two-person developers, mobile aggregators and publishers started to act as a middleman between operators and developers that further reduced the revenue share seen by developers.\n", "The popularity of mobile games has increased in the 2000s, as over US$3 billion worth of games were sold in 2007 internationally, and projected annual growth of over 40%. Ownership of a smartphone alone increases the likelihood that a consumer will play mobile games. Over 90% of smartphone users play a mobile game at least once a week.\n", "Several studies have shown that the majority of mobile games are bought and played by women. Sixty-five percent of mobile game revenue is driven by female wireless subscribers. They are the biggest driver of revenue for the Puzzle/Strategy category; comprising 72 percent of the total share of revenue, while men made up 28 percent (see Table 2). Women dominate revenue generation for all mobile game categories, with the exception of Action/Adventure mobile games, in which men drive 60 percent of the revenue for that category. It's also said that teens are three times as likely as those over twenty to play cell phone games.\n", "Section::::In-game mobile marketing.\n\nThere are essentially three major trends in mobile gaming right now: interactive real-time 3D games, massive\n\nmulti-player games and social networking games. This means a trend towards more complex and more sophisticated, richer game play. On the other side, there are the so-called casual games, i.e. games that are very simple and very easy to play. Most mobile games today are such casual games and this will probably stay so for quite a while to come.\n", "In October 2017, the company announced it was opening a studio in Barcelona. \n\nIn May 2019, the company acquired Dublin-based DIGIT Game Studios, its collaborator on mobile strategy game \"Star Trek Fleet Command\". \n\nIn June 2019, the company shared it had surpassed $1 billion in lifetime revenues. \n\nSection::::Games.\n\nIn January 2012, Scopely launched its first free-to-play mobile game \"Dice with Buddies\", followed that year by \"Jewels with Buddies\" and \"Bubble Galaxy with Buddies\", which debuted as the #1 free app in the App Store.\n", "A well known example is the treasure hunt game \"Geocaching\", which can be played on any mobile device with integrated or external GPS receiver. External GPS receivers are usually connected via Bluetooth. More and more mobile phones with integrated GPS are expected to come.\n\nSeveral other Location-based mobile games, such as \"BotFighters\", are in the stage of research prototypes rather than being commercial successes.\n\nSection::::Augmented reality games.\n", "Mobile Strike\n\nMobile Strike is a freemium mobile massively multiplayer online strategy video game developed and published in 2015 by Machine Zone (now known as MZ). The game had a high-profile advertising campaign and became one of the top-grossing apps in 2015 and 2016.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n", "BULLET::::- Mobile browser download - a game file is downloaded directly from a mobile website.\n\nUntil the launch of Apple App Store, in the US, the majority of mobile games were sold by the US wireless carriers, such as AT&T Mobility, Verizon Wireless, Sprint Corporation and T-Mobile US. In Europe, games were distributed equally between carriers, such as Orange and Vodafone, and off-deck, third party stores such as Jamba!, Kalador and Gameloft.\n", "Examples of TTL advertising in games include \"link-chases,\" ARGs, and viral marketing.\n", "2. Advertising model advertisement implantation mode is a common marketing mode in most APP applications. Through Banner ads, consumer announcements, or in-screen advertising, users will jump to the specified page and display the advertising content when users click. This model is more intuitive, and can attract users' attention quickly.\n", "Section::::Advertising in online-only games.:Pay-to-play.\n", "Section::::Static in-game advertising.\n\nSimilar to product placement in the film industry, static IGAs cannot be changed after they are programmed directly into the game (unless it's completely online). However, unlike product placement in traditional media, IGA allows gamers to interact with the virtual product. For example, has required the use of in-game Sony Ericsson phones to catch terrorists. Unlike static IGAs, dynamic IGAs are not limited to a developer and publisher determined pre-programmed size or location and allow the advertiser to customize the advertisement display.\n" ]

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[ "mobile games make money from ads for other games." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Nost revenue comes from micro transactions in game. " ]

[ "L terminals consist of an L-shaped post with a bolt hole through the vertical side. These are used on some European cars, motorcycles, lawn and garden devices, snowmobiles, and other light duty vehicles.\n\nSome batteries sizes are available with terminals in two different configurations: 1) positive on left and negative on right, 2) negative on left and positive on right. Purchasing the wrong configuration may prevent battery cables from reaching the battery terminals.\n\nSection::::Marine battery terminals.\n\nMarine batteries typically have two posts, a 3/8\"-16 threaded post for the positive terminal, and a 5/16\"-18 threaded post for the negative terminal.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Biasing.\n\nAs shown, the cascode circuit using two \"stacked\" FETs imposes some restrictions on the two FETs — namely, the upper FET must be biased so its source voltage is high enough (the lower FET drain voltage may swing too low, causing it to saturate). Ensurance of this condition for FETs requires careful selection for the pair or special biasing of the upper FET gate, increasing cost.\n", "This is beneficial because a weak or dead battery will drain the charge from a strong battery if both are connected directly together. The disadvantage to an isolator is added cost and complexity, and if a diode-type isolator is used (which is very common) there is additional voltage drop in the circuit between the charging source and the batteries.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "For this geometry, four main designs were proposed: rows of anodes and cathodes, alternating anodes and cathodes, hexagonally packed 1:2 anodes:cathodes, and alternating anodic and cathodic triangular poles where the nearest neighbors in the row are rotated 180 degrees.\n", "Section::::Switched capacitor circuits.:Cross-coupled switched capacitors.\n\nCross-coupled switched capacitor circuits come into their own for very low input voltages. Wireless battery driven equipment such as pagers, bluetooth devices and the like may require a single-cell battery to continue to supply power when it has discharged to under a volt.\n", "A common application of series circuit in consumer electronics is in batteries, where several cells connected in series are used to obtain a convenient operating voltage. Two disposable zinc cells in series might power a flashlight or remote control at 3 volts; the battery pack for a hand-held power tool might contain a dozen lithium-ion cells wired in series to provide 48 volts. \n", "Battery-powered lights, which are wired in parallel, can also create a simulated \"chasing\" effect by alternating the polarity for each LED attached to the string, and controlling the positive and negative parts of the cycle separately. This creates two \"virtual circuits\", with odd-numbered LEDs lighting on positive polarity and even-numbered ones on negative polarity, for example. By eliminating the need for extra wires, this reduces costs for the manufacturer, and makes the cords less bulky and obvious for the consumer to string on decorative items. On cheaper sets, this causes strobing and prevents any of the LEDs from getting to full brightness, since both polarities share the same wire pair and cannot be active at the same time, meaning each can only be on during its own half of the cycle. Better lights can adjust the duty cycle so that any unused \"off\" time on one polarity can be used by the other, reducing the strobing effect and making it easier to create color blends (such as orange, amber, and yellow from a red/green LED).\n", "Battery isolator\n\nA battery isolator is an electrical device that divides direct current (DC) into multiple branches and only allows current in one direction in each branch. The primary benefit of such an arrangement is the ability to simultaneously charge more than one battery from a single power source (e.g., an alternator) without connecting the battery terminals together in parallel. \n\nSection::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n", "Antiparallel (electronics)\n\nIn electronics, two anti-parallel or inverse-parallel devices are connected in parallel but with their polarities reversed.\n\nOne example is the TRIAC, which is comparable to two thyristors connected back-to-back (in other words, reverse parallel), but on a single piece of silicon.\n", "A wide variety of devices were eventually designed to operate on a parallel port. Most devices were uni-directional (one-way) devices, only meant to respond to information sent from the PC. However, some devices such as Zip drives were able to operate in bi-directional mode. Printers also eventually took up the bi-directional system, allowing various status report information to be sent.\n\nSection::::Historical uses.\n", "In 2012, Intel started using FinFETs for its future commercial devices. Leaks suggest that Intel's FinFET has an unusual shape of a triangle rather than rectangle, and it is speculated that this might be either because a triangle has a higher structural strength and can be more reliably manufactured or because a triangular prism has a higher area-to-volume ratio than a rectangular prism, thus increasing switching performance.\n", "Ni/MH batteries of bipolar design (bipolar batteries) are being developed because they offer some advantages for applications as storage systems for electric vehicles. This solid polymer membrane gel separator could be useful for such applications in bipolar design. In other words, this design can help to avoid short-circuits occurring in liquid-electrolyte systems.\n", "When a pack contains groups of cells in parallel there are differing wiring configurations which take into consideration the electrical \"balance\" of the circuit. Battery regulators are sometimes used to keep the voltage of each individual cell below its maximum value during charging so as to allow the weaker batteries to become fully charged, bringing the whole pack back into balance. Active balancing can also be performed by battery balancer devices which can shuttle energy from strong cells to weaker ones in real time for better balance. A well-balanced pack lasts longer and delivers better performance.\n", "In circuit theory these are called \"active resistors\". Applying a voltage across the terminals causes a proportional current \"out\" of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor. For example, connecting a battery to the terminals would cause the battery to charge rather than discharge.\n\nConsidered as one-port devices, these circuits function similarly to the passive negative differential resistance components above, and like them can be used to make one-port amplifiers and oscillators with the advantages that:\n\nBULLET::::- because they are active devices they do not require an external DC bias to provide power, and can be DC coupled,\n", "A risk of using a balanced power system, in an installation that also uses \"conventional\" power in the same rooms, is that a user may inadvertently interconnect the power systems together via an intermediate system of audio or video equipment, elements of which might be connected to different power systems.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Europe.\n", "Features like polarity, or reverse battery, protection can be part of the design. The contact for the anode side can be recessed behind plastic and receive a battery nub common on Alkaline batteries. Another method is a plastic channel to receive a battery post or terminal. In July 2010, Microsoft announced its plans to partner with several other companies, including Duracell and MPD, to utilize its patent no. 2007/0275299 A1, which is a new kind of polarity protection in which a battery can be inserted into a battery holder in either orientation and still operate properly. Although other technologies have existed which could do this, they were expensive or caused a passive energy drain on the battery, whereas this solution is purely mechanical and affordable to produce.\n", "Section::::Current applications.:Supercapacitors.\n", "This concept is called \"grid bias\". Many early radio sets had a third battery called the \"C battery\" (unrelated to the present-day C cell, for which the letter denotes its size and shape). The C battery's positive terminal was connected to the cathode of the tubes (or \"ground\" in most circuits) and whose negative terminal supplied this bias voltage to the grids of the tubes.\n", "Some computer designs have used non-button cell batteries, such as the cylindrical \"1/2 AA\" used in the Power Mac G4 as well as some older IBM PC compatibles, or a 3-cell NiCd CMOS battery that looks like a \"barrel\" (common in Amiga and older IBM PC compatibles), which serves the same purpose. These motherboards often have a four pin straight header, with pin two missing, to connect an external 3.6v battery, such as the Tadiran TL-5242/W, when their soldered on batteries die.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- BIOS\n\nBULLET::::- Extended System Configuration Data (ESCD)\n\nBULLET::::- List of battery types\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In each case, the upper right output remains positive, and lower right output negative. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called \"reverse-polarity protection\". That is, it permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.\n", "Zinc–carbon batteries were the first commercial dry batteries, developed from the technology of the wet Leclanché cell. They made flashlights and other portable devices possible, because the battery can function in any orientation. They are still useful in low drain or intermittent use devices such as remote controls, flashlights, clocks or transistor radios. Zinc–carbon dry cells are single-use primary cells.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Batteries.:Series-parallel battery interactions.\n\nBattery strings wired in series-parallel can develop unusual failure modes due to interactions between the multiple parallel strings. Defective batteries in one string can adversely affect the operation and lifespan of good or new batteries in other strings. These issues also apply to other situations where series-parallel strings are used, not just in UPS systems but also in electric vehicle applications.\n\nConsider a series-parallel battery arrangement with all good cells, and one becomes shorted or dead:\n\nBULLET::::- The failed cell will reduce the maximum developed voltage for the entire series string it is within.\n", "Section::::Advantages.\n\nAn advantage of a battery pack is the ease with which it can be swapped into or out of a device. This allows multiple packs to deliver extended runtimes, freeing up the device for continued use while charging the removed pack separately.\n\nAnother advantage is the flexibility of their design and implementation, allowing the use of cheaper high-production cells or batteries to be combined into a pack for nearly any application.\n\nAt the end of product life, batteries can be removed and recycled separately, reducing the total volume of hazardous waste.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "For low-power applications, double diodes in series, with the anode of the first diode connected to the cathode of the second, are manufactured as a single component for this purpose. Some commercially available double diodes have all four terminals available so the user can configure them for single-phase split supply use, half a bridge, or three-phase rectifier.\n", "Other arguments for a higher voltage included the reduction of weight in the wiring system, improved stability, and reduced voltage drop. With three times the voltage, thick conductors can be reduced to a third of the cross-section, and at the same time the relative voltage drop can also be reduced to a third. For the same cross-section, the relative voltage drop is now no more than one ninth. The voltage level resulting from these arguments was so close to three times the present voltage that became the automatic choice for the second voltage level.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive battery\n" ]

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[ "Every Moore machine formula_13 is equivalent to the Mealy machine with the same states and transitions and the output function formula_14, which takes each state-input pair formula_15 and yields formula_16, where formula_17 is formula_13's output function.\n", "Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a \"1\", and when off it represents a \"0\" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Input devices.\n", "Each IC can contain large numbers of gates (hundreds of millions in 2005). Thus the same decryption circuit, or cell, can be replicated thousands of times on one IC. The communications requirements for these ICs are very simple. Each must be initially loaded with a starting point in the key space and, in some situations, with a comparison test value (see known plaintext attack). Output consists of a signal that the IC has found an answer and the successful key.\n", "Section::::Physical representation.\n\nA bit can be stored by a digital device or other physical system that exists in either of two possible distinct states. These may be the two stable states of a flip-flop, two positions of an electrical switch, two distinct voltage or current levels allowed by a circuit, two distinct levels of light intensity, two directions of magnetization or polarization, the orientation of reversible double stranded DNA, etc.\n", "While a single bit, on its own, is able to represent only two values, a string of bits may be used to represent larger values. For example, a string of three bits can represent up to eight distinct values as illustrated in Table 1.\n\nAs the number of bits composing a string increases, the number of possible \"0\" and \"1\" combinations increases exponentially. While a single bit allows only two value-combinations and two bits combined can make four separate values and so on. The amount of possible combinations doubles with each binary digit added as illustrated in Table 2.\n", "To choose representations, engineers consider types of digital systems. Most digital systems divide into \"combinational systems\" and \"sequential systems.\" A combinational system always presents the same output when given the same inputs. It is basically a representation of a set of logic functions, as already discussed.\n\nA sequential system is a combinational system with some of the outputs fed back as inputs. This makes the digital machine perform a \"sequence\" of operations. The simplest sequential system is probably a flip flop, a mechanism that represents a binary digit or \"bit\".\n", "One discrete problem that is expensive to solve on many computers is that of counting the number of bits which are set to 1 in a (binary) number, sometimes called the \"population function\". For example, the decimal number \"37\" is \"00100101\" in binary, so it contains three bits that are set to binary \"1\".\n\nA simple example of C code, designed to count the 1 bits in a \"int\", might look like this:\n", "Serial binary addition is done by a flip-flop and a full adder. The flip-flop takes the carry-out signal on each clock cycle and provides its value as the carry-in signal on the next clock cycle. After all of the bits of the input operands have arrived, all of the bits of the sum have come out of the sum output.\n\nSection::::Serial binary subtracter.\n", "However, not every Mealy machine can be converted to an equivalent Moore machine. Some can be converted only to an \"almost\" equivalent Moore machine, with outputs shifted in time. This is due to the way that state labels are paired with transition labels to form the input/output pairs. Consider a transition formula_19 from state formula_20 to state formula_21. The input causing the transition formula_19 labels the edge formula_23. The output corresponding to that input, is the label of state formula_20. Notice that this is the source state of the transition. So for each input, the output is already fixed before the input is received, and depends solely on the present state. This is the original definition by E. Moore. It is a common mistake to use the label of state formula_21 as output for the transition formula_19.\n", "In the simplest form of decoder, each of the 2048 lines is logically an AND gate. The 11 bits (call them A[13:3] and their complements (call them B[13:3]) are driven up the decoder. For each line, 11 bits or complements are fed into an 11-input AND gate. For instance, 1026 decimal is equal to 10000000010 binary. The function for line 1026 would be:\n", "The output of a SGD may be digitized and/or synthesized: digitized systems play directly recorded words or phrases while synthesized speech uses text-to-speech software that can carry less emotional information but permits the user to speak novel messages by typing new words. Today, individuals use a combination of recorded messages and text-to-speech techniques on their SGDs. However, some devices are limited to only one type of output.\n\nSection::::Output.:Digitized speech.\n", "A discrete variable that can take only one state contains zero information, and is the next natural number after 1. That is why the bit, a variable with only two possible values, is a standard primary unit of information.\n", "Binary code\n\nA binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often \"0\" and \"1\" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.\n", "Note that confluent states have the property of a one-cycle delay, thus effectively holding two bits of data at any given time.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Transmission state rules.\n\nThe flow of bits between cells is indicated by the direction property. The following rules apply:\n\nBULLET::::- Transmission states apply the OR operator to inputs, meaning a cell in a transmission state (ordinary or special) will be excited at time t+1 if \"any\" of the inputs pointing to it is excited at time t\n", "Moore/Mealy machines, are DFAs that have also output at any tick of the clock. Modern CPUs, computers, cell phones, digital clocks and basic electronic devices/machines have some kind of finite state machine to control it.\n\nSimple software systems, particularly ones that can be represented using regular expressions, can be modeled as Finite State Machines. There are many of such simple systems, such as vending machines or basic electronics.\n", "For devices with only a few switches (such as the buttons on a joystick), the status of each can be encoded as bits (usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed) in a single word. This is useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful, and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard (such as shift and control). But it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word.\n", "A digital computer can perform its operations in the decimal system, in binary, in ternary or in other numeral systems. As of 2014, all digital electronic computers commonly used, whether personal computers or supercomputers, are working in the binary number system and also use binary logic. A few ternary computers using ternary logic were built mainly in the Soviet Union as research projects.\n", "In 4B3T coding, there are three states presented to line: a positive pulse (+), a negative pulse (-), or a zero-state (no pulse: 0). An analogy here is that operation is similar to B8ZS or HDB3 in T1/E1 systems, except that there is an actual gain in the information rate by coding 2=16 possible binary states to one of 3=27 ternary states. This added redundancy is used to generate a zero DC-bias signal.\n", "A computer that uses memory-mapped I/O accesses hardware by reading and writing to specific memory locations, using the same assembly language instructions that computer would normally use to access memory. An alternative method is via instruction-based I/O which requires that a CPU have specialised instructions for I/O. Both input and output devices have a data processing rate that can vary greatly. With some devices able to exchange data at very high speeds direct access to memory (DMA) without the continuous aid of a CPU is required.\n\nSection::::Interface.:Higher-level implementation.\n", "Bits can be implemented in several forms. In most modern computing devices, a bit is usually represented by an electrical voltage or current pulse, or by the electrical state of a flip-flop circuit.\n", "Digital integrated circuits can contain anywhere from one to billions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, work using boolean algebra to process \"one\" and \"zero\" signals.\n", "These characteristics suggest a simple and fast method of translating a binary value into the corresponding Gray code. Each bit is inverted if the next higher bit of the input value is set to one. This can be performed in parallel by a bit-shift and exclusive-or operation if they are available: the \"n\"th Gray code is obtained by computing formula_1\n", "They typically comprise 4 to 22 fully connected macrocells. These macrocells typically consist of some combinatorial logic (such as AND OR gates) and a flip-flop. In other words, a small Boolean logic equation can be built within each macrocell. This equation will combine the state of some number of binary inputs into a binary output and, if necessary, store that output in the flip-flop until the next clock edge. Of course, the particulars of the available logic gates and flip-flops are specific to each manufacturer and product family. But the general idea is always the same.\n", "One particular study in this area is that of the computational nature of gene assembly in unicellular organisms called ciliates. \n\nCiliates store a copy of their DNA containing functional genes in the macronucleus, and another \"encrypted\" copy in the micronucleus. Conjugation of two ciliates consists of the exchange of their micronuclear genetic information, leading to the formation of two new micronuclei, followed by each ciliate re-assembling the information from its new micronucleus to construct a new functional macronucleus. \n", "All of the concepts mentioned above are demonstrated in the following example of a circuit for adding binary data. First, a fundamental building block (TYPE Cell) is defined, then \n\nthis Cell is used to declare a cascade of word-width 8, and finally the Cells are connected to each other. The MODULE Adder defined in this example can serve as a building block on a higher level of the design hierarchy.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "There is a broad range of hardware solutions for radio amateurs and home use. There are professional-grade transceiver solutions, e.g. the Zeus ZS-1 or the Flex Radio, home-brew solutions,e.g. PicAStar transceiver, the SoftRock SDR kit, and starter or professional receiver solutions, e.g. the FiFi SDR for shortwave, or the Quadrus coherent multi-channel SDR receiver for short wave or VHF/UHF in direct digital mode of operation.\n", "The first crude device that did this was the tikker, invented in 1908 by Valdemar Poulsen.\n", "The museum began in 1985 as an informal collection of radio sets, spare parts, schematics, recordings, and vintage magazines and manuals owned by a Bellingham resident, Jonathan Winter Winter's collection continued to grow, and by 1998, the Bellingham Antique Radio Museum was officially established, with the more than 800 radio sets from Winter's collection forming the core of the museum's collection.\n", "Exceptions to the above rules allow the unlicensed operation by the public of low power short range transmitters in consumer products such as cell phones, cordless phones, wireless devices, walkie-talkies, citizens band radios, wireless microphones, garage door openers, and baby monitors. In the US, these fall under Part 15 of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. Many of these devices use the ISM bands, a series of frequency bands throughout the radio spectrum reserved for unlicensed use. Although they can be operated without a license, like all radio equipment these devices generally must be type-approved before sale.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Section::::Applications.:One way voice communication.\n\nOne way, unidirectional radio transmission is called \"simplex\". \n\nBULLET::::- Baby monitor – this is a cribside appliance for mothers of infants that transmits the baby's sounds to a receiver carried by the mother, so she can monitor the baby while she is in other parts of the house. These transmit in FM on 49.300, 49.830, 49.845, 49.860, or 49.875 MHz with low power. Many baby monitors have duplex channels so the mother can talk to the baby, and video cameras to show a picture of the baby, this is called a \"baby cam\".\n", "Hobby grade models can be fine tuned, unlike most toy grade models. For example, cars often allow toe-in, camber and caster angle adjustments, just like their real-life counterparts. All modern \"computer\" radios allow each function to be adjusted over several parameters for ease in setup and adjustment of the model. Many of these transmitters are capable of \"mixing\" several functions at once, which is required for some models.\n", "Section::::Special purpose signal generators.\n\nIn addition to the above general-purpose devices, there are several classes of signal generators designed for specific applications.\n\nSection::::Special purpose signal generators.:Pitch generators and audio generators.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Baby monitor\" - this is a cribside appliance for mothers of infants that transmits the baby's sounds to a receiver carried by the mother, so she can monitor the baby while she is in other parts of the house. Many baby monitors now have video cameras to show a picture of the baby.\n\nBULLET::::- Data communications\n", "The GNU Radio project already successfully demonstrated that purely software-based demodulators can exist and the hardware rule is not fully enforceable.\n\nSection::::Current status.\n", "All-digital radio transmitters and receivers present the possibility of advancing the capabilities of radio.\n\nSection::::History.:Portable radios.\n", "BULLET::::1. Using radio transmission: A radio receiver is typically wired or screwed into a fixture or device, wired or otherwise connected to the electrical system of the building or plugged into an outlet. The radio receiver's memory is programmed by any number of means to respond to certain selected \"switches\" or (more correctly) remote control transmitters.\n", "The FM30 exciter was a development from the original FM25. The main difference being the amplifier module and an uprated mains transformer. The FM25 first appeared in 1990. The production of these exciters ran for more than 20 years with many hundreds being produced.\n", "Many of the functions performed by analog electronics can be performed by software instead. The benefit is that software is not affected by temperature, physical variables, electronic noise and manufacturing defects.\n", "Section::::Human-powered equipment.:Military radio.\n\nDuring World War II, U.S. troops sometimes employed hand crank generators, GN-35 and GN-45, to power Signal Corps Radio transmitter/receivers. The hand cranking was laborious, but generated sufficient current for smaller radio sets, such as the SCR-131, SCR-161, SCR-171, SCR-284, and SCR-694.\n", "The majority of current audience response systems use wireless hardware. Two primary technologies exist to transmit data from the keypads to the base stations: infrared (IR) and radio frequency (RF). A few companies also offer Web-based software that routes the data over the Internet (sometimes in a unified system with IR and RF equipment). Cell phone-based systems are also becoming available.\n\nSection::::Audience response systems.:Hardware.:Infrared.\n", "There are various types of RF MEMS components, such as CMOS integrable RF MEMS resonators and self-sustained oscillators with small form factor and low phase noise, RF MEMS tunable inductors, and RF MEMS switches, switched capacitors and varactors.\n\nSection::::Components.:Switches, switched capacitors and varactors.\n", "Aside from a standard radio transceiver and a computer with a sound card, very little equipment is required to use PSK31. Normally, an older computer and a few cables will suffice, and many PSK31 software applications are free. Many operators now use a commercially available interface/modem device (or \"nomic\") between their computers and radios. These devices incorporate the necessary impedance matching and sound level adjustment to permit the sound card output to be injected into the microphone input, send the radio's audio output to the sound card input, and handle the radio's transmit-receive switching.\n", "Section::::History.:Vacuum tube era.:Superregenerative receiver.\n\nThis was a receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1922 which used regeneration in a more sophisticated way, to give greater gain. It was used in a few shortwave receivers in the 1930s, and is used today in a few cheap high frequency applications such as walkie-talkies and garage door openers.\n", "Section::::Rise of portable audio players.\n", "More recently, the GNU Radio using primarily the Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP) uses a USB 2.0 interface, an FPGA, and a high-speed set of analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, combined with reconfigurable free software. Its sampling and synthesis bandwidth is a thousand times that of PC sound cards, which enables wideband operation.\n", "Section::::How receivers work.:The superheterodyne design.\n\nThe superheterodyne receiver, invented in 1918 by Edwin Armstrong is the design used in almost all modern receivers except a few specialized applications.\n", "Section::::Design.:Tuned circuit.:Impedance matching.\n", "Section::::General purpose signal generators.:RF and microwave signal generators.\n", "The USRP family was designed for accessibility, and many of the products are open source hardware. The board schematics for select USRP models are freely available for download; all USRP products are controlled with the open source UHD driver, which is free and open source software. USRPs are commonly used with the GNU Radio software suite to create complex software-defined radio systems.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Small gadget transmitters do not need to know what is being transmitted. There is only a need to monitor channel occupation by radio receiver RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indication) to know when not to send. Transmitting interleaved Reed-Solomon FEC signal in some smart modulation needs a lot fewer resources than reception of the same signal, thus a sufficient microprocessor might cost just USD 5 instead of USD 30 and a system cost might stay below US$50, transmitter included. However, in recent years, the ability to receive as well as send using cheap microcontrollers (such as the Atmel AVR or the Motorola 68HC08 families) has been demonstrated.\n" ]

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[ "In the case of the ATOC, the source was mounted on the bottom about a half mile deep, hence marine mammals, which are bound to the surface, were generally further than a half mile from the source. This fact, combined with the modest source level, the infrequent 2% duty cycle (the sound is on only 2% of the day), and other such factors, made the sound transmissions benign in its effect on marine life.\n\nSection::::Types of transmitted acoustic signals.\n", "Sound is an oscillating pressure wave. As the pressure oscillates up and down, an audio point source acts in turn as a fluid point source and then a fluid point sink. (Such an object does not exist physically, but is often a good simplified model for calculations.)\n\nExamples:\n\nBULLET::::- Seismic vibration from a localised seismic experiment searching for oil\n\nBULLET::::- Noise pollution from a jet engine in a large-scale study of noise pollution\n\nBULLET::::- A loudspeaker may be considered as a point source in a study of the acoustics of airport announcements\n\nSection::::Ionizing radiation.\n", "The resonator is simply attenuating some frequencies of the ambient noise in the environment, including air flowing within the resonator and sound originating within the human body itself, more than others.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nFollowing the First World War, when sonar was first used for the detection of submarines, echo sounders began to find uses outside the military. The French explorer Rallier du Baty reported unexpected midwater echoes, which he attributed to fish schools, in 1927. In 1929, the Japanese scientist Kimura reported disruptions in a continuous acoustic beam by sea bream swimming in an aquaculture pond.\n", "Dear Uncle Ezra,\n\nWhat is that sound coming from the Johnson Museum? It's a pingy type sound that I guess could be some kind of wind chime but it seems like it's coming from the building itself.\n\n— Just wondering\n\nDear Chiming In,\n", "Section::::The cone of confusion.\n\nMost mammals are adept at resolving the location of a sound source using interaural time differences and interaural level differences. However, no such time or level differences exist for sounds originating along the circumference of circular conical slices, where the cone's axis lies along the line between the two ears.\n", "BULLET::::- The Triton shell also known as \"Triton's trumpet\" \"Charonia tritonis\" which is used as a trumpet in Melanesian and Polynesian culture and also in Korea and Japan. In Japan this kind of trumpet is known as the horagai. In Korea it is known as the nagak. In some Polynesian islands it is known as \"\"pu\"\".\n\nBULLET::::- The Queen Conch \"Lobatus gigas\", has been used as a trumpet in the Caribbean.\n", "However, if the object has a diameter greater than the acoustic wavelength, a 'sound shadow' is cast behind the object where the sound is inaudible. (Note: some sound may be propagated through the object depending on material).\n\nSection::::Optical atmospheric diffraction.\n", "Section::::Acoustics.:Hearing.\n", "Section::::History.:Echo sounding.\n", "Blind from birth, Juan Ruiz lives in Los Angeles, California. He appeared in the first episode of \"Stan Lee's Superhumans\", titled \"Electro Man\". The episode showed him capable of riding a bicycle, avoiding parked cars and other obstacles, and identifying nearby objects. He entered and exited a cave, where he determined its length and other features.\n\nSection::::In popular media.\n\nSection::::In popular media.:Toph Beifong.\n", "Section::::Animal sounds.\n", "Depending on where the source is located, our head acts as a barrier to change the timbre, intensity, and spectral qualities of the sound, helping the brain orient where the sound emanated from. These minute differences between the two ears are known as interaural cues.\n\nLower frequencies, with longer wavelengths, diffract the sound around the head forcing the brain to focus only on the phasing cues from the source.\n", "Eardrum\n\nIn the anatomy of humans and various other tetrapods, the eardrum, also called the tympanic membrane or myringa, is a thin, cone-shaped membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. Its function is to transmit sound from the air to the ossicles inside the middle ear, and then to the oval window in the fluid-filled cochlea. Hence, it ultimately converts and amplifies vibration in air to vibration in fluid. The malleus bone bridges the gap between the eardrum and the other ossicles.\n", "The human ear has evolved with two basic tools to encode sound waves; each are separate in detecting high and low frequency sounds. Georg von Békésy (1899-1972) employed the use of a microscope in order to examine the basilar membrane located within the inner-ear of cadavers. He found that movement of the basilar membrane resembles that of a traveling wave; the shape of which varies based on the frequency of the pitch. In low frequency sounds, the tip (apex) of the membrane moves the most, while in high frequency sounds, the base of the membrane moves most.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Air guns are made from the highest grades of corrosion resistant stainless steel. Large chambers (i.e., greater than 1 L or 70 cu in) tend to give low frequency signals, and the small chambers (less than 1 L) give higher frequency signals.\n\nSection::::Types of sources.:Plasma sound source.\n", "Auditory\n\nAuditory means of or relating to the process of hearing:\n\nBULLET::::- Auditory system, the neurological structures and pathways of sound perception\n\nBULLET::::- Auditory bulla, part of auditory system found in mammals other than primates\n\nBULLET::::- Auditory nerve, also known as the cochlear nerve is one of two parts of a cranial nerve\n\nBULLET::::- Auditory ossicles, three bones in the middle ear that transmit sounds\n\nBULLET::::- Hearing (sense), the auditory sense, the sense by which sound is perceived\n\nBULLET::::- Ear, the auditory end organ\n\nBULLET::::- Cochlea, the auditory branch of the inner ear\n", "Multiples from the bottom of a body of water (the interface of the base of water and the rock or sediment beneath it) and the air-water interface are common in marine seismic data, and are suppressed by seismic processing.\n\nSection::::Outline of the method.:Sources of noise.:Cultural noise.\n\nCultural noise includes noise from weather effects, planes, helicopters, electrical pylons, and ships (in the case of marine surveys), all of which can be detected by the receivers.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "BULLET::::- Trained observers and listening devices are used to visually and acoustically monitor that zone for marine mammals and other protected species before any sound-producing operations begin. These observers help ensure adherence to the protective practices during operations and their detailed reports provide information on the biodiversity of the survey area to the local governments.\n", "In 2005, architect Nikola Bašić built a Sea organ in Zadar, Croatia, which is an experimental musical instrument which plays music by way of sea waves and tubes located underneath a set of large marble steps. Concealed under these steps is a system of polyethylene tubes and a resonating cavity that turns the site into a huge musical instrument, played by the wind and the sea. The waves create somewhat random but harmonic sounds.\n", "Neurons within the ear respond to simple tones, and the brain serves to process other increasingly complex sounds. An average adult is typically able to detect sounds ranging between 20 and 20,000 Hz. The ability to detect higher pitch sounds decreases in older humans.\n", "Neural fibers that are sensitive to infrasonic stimuli have been identified in the pigeon and their characteristics have been studied. It turns out that, although these fibers also originate in the inner ear, they are quite different from normal acoustic fibers. \n", "Sound and space are closely linked. Our ears help define our surroundings by picking up on spatial clues in reflected sound waves. This innate ability to situate ourselves in our soundscape was probably more overtly useful in the days before electricity, when we had to rely on our ears to alert us to danger our eyes could not detect. There is, however, a movement in the visually impaired community to cultivate this ability to help them navigate in the world and participate in sports, and artists such as Janet Cardiff use sound and spatiality as integral parts of their work (see The Forty Part Motet).\n", "Section::::Perception of sound.:Spatial location.\n\nSpatial location (see: Sound localization) represents the cognitive placement of a sound in an environmental context; including the placement of a sound on both the horizontal and vertical plane, the distance from the sound source and the characteristics of the sonic environment. In a thick texture, it is possible to identify multiple sound sources using a combination of spatial location and timbre identification. This is the main reason why we can pick the sound of an oboe in an orchestra and the words of a single person at a cocktail party.\n\nSection::::Sound pressure level.\n", "The hearing organ in fish is called an otolith, which is sensitive to particle motion, not sound pressure. Some fish also have a lateral line.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Affected mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Affected mechanisms.:Traveling wave theory.\n" ]

[ "Noises are heard from a hollow object." ]

[ "The noise that is heard is coming from with in the ear." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Noises are heard from a hollow object.", "Noises are heard from a hollow object. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The noise that is heard is coming from with in the ear.", "The noise that is heard is coming from with in the ear. " ]

[ "In the 1980s and early 1990s, when the 8088 and 80286 were still in common use, the term x86 usually represented any 8086 compatible CPU. Today, however, x86 usually implies a binary compatibility also with the 32-bit instruction set of the 80386. This is due to the fact that this instruction set has become something of a lowest common denominator for many modern operating systems and probably also because the term became common \"after\" the introduction of the 80386 in 1985.\n", "In its literature and product version names, Microsoft and Sun refer to AMD64/Intel 64 collectively as \"x64\" in the Windows and Solaris operating systems. Linux distributions refer to it either as \"x86-64\", its variant \"x86_64\", or \"amd64\". BSD systems use \"amd64\" while macOS uses \"x86_64\".\n", "In supercomputers tracked by TOP500, the appearance of 64-bit extensions for the x86 architecture enabled 64-bit x86 processors by AMD and Intel (light olive with circles, and red with circles on the diagram provided in this section, respectively) to replace most RISC processor architectures previously used in such systems (including PA-RISC, SPARC, Alpha and others), as well as 32-bit x86 (green with dots and purple with dots on the diagram), even though Intel itself initially tried unsuccessfully to replace x86 with a new incompatible 64-bit architecture in the Itanium processor.\n", "In 1999-2003, AMD extended this 32-bit architecture to 64 bits and referred to it as x86-64 in early documents and later as AMD64. Intel soon adopted AMD's architectural extensions under the name IA-32e, later using the name EM64T and finally using Intel 64. Microsoft and Sun Microsystems/Oracle also use term \"x64\", while many Linux distributions, and the BSDs also use the \"amd64\" term. Microsoft Windows, for example, designates its 32-bit versions as \"x86\" and 64-bit versions as \"x64\", while installation files of 64-bit Windows versions are required to be placed into a directory called \"AMD64\".\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Basic properties of the architecture.\n", "Intel's name for this instruction set has changed several times. The name used at the IDF was \"CT\" (presumably for \"Clackamas Technology\", another codename from an Oregon river); within weeks they began referring to it as \"IA-32e\" (for IA-32 extensions) and in March 2004 unveiled the \"official\" name \"EM64T\" (Extended Memory 64 Technology). In late 2006 Intel began instead using the name \"Intel 64\" for its implementation, paralleling AMD's use of the name AMD64.\n", "In 1999, AMD published a (nearly) complete specification for a 64-bit extension of the x86 architecture which they called \"x86-64\" with claimed intentions to produce. That design is currently used in almost all x86 processors, with some exceptions intended for embedded systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Some components like Microsoft Jet Database Engine and Data Access Objects will not be ported to 64-bit architectures such as x86-64 and IA-64.\n", "X86\n\nx86 is a family of instruction set architectures based on the Intel 8086 microprocessor and its 8088 variant. The 8086 was introduced in 1978 as a fully 16-bit extension of Intel's 8-bit 8080 microprocessor, with memory segmentation as a solution for addressing more memory than can be covered by a plain 16-bit address. The term \"x86\" came into being because the names of several successors to Intel's 8086 processor end in \"86\", including the 80186, 80286, 80386 and 80486 processors.\n", "The term is not synonymous with IBM PC compatibility, as this implies a multitude of other computer hardware; embedded systems, as well as general-purpose computers, used x86 chips before the PC-compatible market started, some of them before the IBM PC (1981) itself.\n\nAs of 2018, the majority of personal computers and laptops sold are based on the x86 architecture, while other categories—especially high-volume mobile categories such as smartphones or tablets—are dominated by ARM; at the high end, x86 continues to dominate compute-intensive workstation and cloud computing segments.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "BULLET::::- Early AMD64 and Intel 64 CPUs lacked codice_22 and codice_23 instructions in 64-bit mode. AMD introduced these instructions (also in 64-bit mode) with their Athlon 64, Opteron and Turion 64 revision D processors in March 2005 while Intel introduced the instructions with the Pentium 4 G1 stepping in December 2005. The 64-bit version of Windows 8.1 requires this feature.\n\nBULLET::::- Early Intel CPUs with Intel 64 also lack the NX bit of the AMD64 architecture. This feature is required by all versions of Windows 8.x.\n", "Section::::Operating modes.:Protected mode.:Virtual 8086 mode.\n", "Whether this processor belongs in the fourth or fifth generation of x86 processors can be considered a matter of debate as the processor was based on the 5x86 (a scaled down version of the Cyrix 6x86). While the 5x86 was intended to compete with the Intel Pentium line, the 5th generation x86, it was designed to interface with a 4th generation (80486) motherboard and had only the 486's instruction set, lacking the ability to run software requiring Pentium's new instructions.\n", "The project began in 1992 when David Wexelblat, Glenn Lai, David Dawes and Jim Tsillas joined forces addressing bugs in the source code of the X386 X display server (written by Thomas Roell), as contributed to X11R5. This version was initially called X386 1.2E. As newer versions of the (originally freeware) X386 were being sold under a proprietary software license by SGCS (of which Roell was a partner), confusion existed between the projects. After discussion, the project was renamed X\"Free\"86, as a pun (compare X-three-eighty-six to X-free-eighty-six). Roell has continued to sell proprietary X servers, most recently under the name \"Accelerated-X\".\n", "Section::::History.:Extensions of word size.\n\nThe instruction set architecture has twice been extended to a larger word size. In 1985, Intel released the 32-bit 80386 (later known as i386) which gradually replaced the earlier 16-bit chips in computers (although typically not in embedded systems) during the following years; this extended programming model was originally referred to as \"the i386 architecture\" (like its first implementation) but Intel later dubbed it IA-32 when introducing its (unrelated) IA-64 architecture.\n", "Following the fully pipelined i486, Intel introduced the Pentium brand name (which, unlike numbers, could be trademarked) for their new set of superscalar x86 designs; with the x86 naming scheme now legally cleared, other x86 vendors had to choose different names for their x86-compatible products, and initially some chose to continue with variations of the numbering scheme: IBM partnered with Cyrix to produce the 5x86 and then the very efficient 6x86 (M1) and 6x86MX (MII) lines of Cyrix designs, which were the first x86 microprocessors implementing register renaming to enable speculative execution. AMD meanwhile designed and manufactured the advanced but delayed 5k86 (K5), which, \"internally\", was closely based on AMD's earlier 29K RISC design; similar to NexGen's Nx586, it used a strategy such that dedicated pipeline stages decode x86 instructions into uniform and easily handled micro-operations, a method that has remained the basis for most x86 designs to this day.\n", "By the 2000s, 32-bit x86 processors' limitations in memory addressing were an obstacle to their utilization in high-performance computing clusters and powerful desktop workstations. The aged 32-bit x86 was competing with much more advanced 64-bit RISC architectures which could address much more memory. Intel and the whole x86 ecosystem needed 64-bit memory addressing if x86 was to survive the 64-bit computing era, as workstation and desktop software applications were soon to start hitting the limitations present in 32-bit memory addressing. However, Intel felt that it was the right time to make a bold step and use the transition to 64-bit desktop computers for a transition away from the x86 architecture in general, an experiment which ultimately failed.\n", "Section::::Video game consoles.\n\nBoth PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and their successors incorporate AMD x86-64 processors, based on the Jaguar microarchitecture. Firmware and games are written in x86-64 code; no legacy x86 code is involved.\n\nSection::::Industry naming conventions.\n\nSince AMD64 and Intel 64 are substantially similar, many software and hardware products use one vendor-neutral term to indicate their compatibility with both implementations. AMD's original designation for this processor architecture, \"x86-64\", is still sometimes used for this purpose, as is the variant \"x86_64\". Other companies, such as Microsoft and Sun Microsystems/Oracle Corporation, use the contraction \"x64\" in marketing material.\n", "BULLET::::- Java Development Kit (JDK): the name \"amd64\" is used in directory names containing x86-64 files.\n\nBULLET::::- x86_64\n\nBULLET::::- The Linux kernel and the GNU Compiler Collection refers to 64-bit architecture as \"x86_64\".\n\nBULLET::::- Some Linux distributions, such as Fedora, openSUSE, Arch Linux, Gentoo Linux refer to this 64-bit architecture as \"x86_64\".\n\nBULLET::::- Apple macOS refers to 64-bit architecture as \"x86-64\" or \"x86_64\", as seen in the Terminal command codice_32 and in their developer documentation.\n\nBULLET::::- Breaking with most other BSD systems, DragonFly BSD refers to 64-bit architecture as \"x86_64\".\n\nBULLET::::- Haiku refers to 64-bit architecture as \"x86_64\".\n\nSection::::Licensing.\n", "Section::::Extensions.:x86-64.\n", "BULLET::::- 1996: Nintendo introduces the Nintendo 64 video game console, built around a low-cost variant of the MIPS R4000. HP releases the first implementation of its 64-bit PA-RISC 2.0 architecture, the PA-8000.\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: IBM releases the POWER3 line of full-64-bit PowerPC/POWER processors.\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Intel releases the instruction set for the IA-64 architecture. AMD publicly discloses its set of 64-bit extensions to IA-32, called x86-64 (later branded AMD64).\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: IBM ships its first 64-bit z/Architecture mainframe, the zSeries z900. z/Architecture is a 64-bit version of the 32-bit ESA/390 architecture, a descendant of the 32-bit System/360 architecture.\n", "The first versions of Windows for x64 did not even use the full 256 TB; they were restricted to just 8 TB of user space and 8 TB of kernel space. Windows did not support the entire 48-bit address space until Windows 8.1, which was released in October 2013. \n\nSection::::AMD64.:Virtual address space details.:Page table structure.\n", "Modern x86 is relatively uncommon in embedded systems, however, and small low power applications (using tiny batteries) as well as low-cost microprocessor markets, such as home appliances and toys, lack any significant x86 presence. Simple 8-bit and 16-bit based architectures are common here, although the x86-compatible VIA C7, VIA Nano, AMD's Geode, Athlon Neo and Intel Atom are examples of 32- and 64-bit designs used in some \"relatively\" low power and low cost segments.\n", "Paging is used extensively by modern multitasking operating systems. Linux, 386BSD and Windows NT were developed for the 386 because it was the first Intel architecture CPU to support paging and 32-bit segment offsets. The 386 architecture became the basis of all further development in the x86 series.\n", "Many additions and extensions have been added to the x86 instruction set over the years, almost consistently with full backward compatibility. The architecture has been implemented in processors from Intel, Cyrix, AMD, VIA and many other companies; there are also open implementations, such as the Zet SoC platform. Nevertheless, of those, only Intel, AMD, and VIA hold x86 architectural licenses, and are producing modern 64-bit designs.\n", "BULLET::::- 1998: Sun releases Solaris 7, with full 64-bit UltraSPARC support.\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: IBM releases z/OS, a 64-bit operating system descended from MVS, for the new zSeries 64-bit mainframes; 64-bit Linux on z Systems follows the CPU release almost immediately.\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Linux becomes the first OS kernel to fully support x86-64 (on a simulator, as no x86-64 processors had been released yet).\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Microsoft releases Windows XP 64-Bit Edition for the Itanium's IA-64 architecture, although it was able to run 32-bit applications through an execution layer.\n" ]

[ "Bit number should also be architecture number.", "If 64bit is called x64 then 32bit should be called x32." ]

[ "Architecture number comes from the original chip names.", "x64 is only abbreviated on from what used to be x86-64, which is all based off of various Intel model chip numbers." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Bit number should also be architecture number.", "If 64bit is called x64 then 32bit should be called x32." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Architecture number comes from the original chip names.", "x64 is only abbreviated on from what used to be x86-64, which is all based off of various Intel model chip numbers." ]

[ "Problems like this grow exponentially in the number of computations they require, and they are one reason why exponentially difficult problems are called \"intractable\" in computer science: for even small numbers like the 40 or 50 characters described earlier, the number of computations required exceeds even theoretical limits on mankind's computing power. The traditional division between \"easy\" and \"hard\" problems is thus drawn between programs that do and do not require exponentially increasing resources to execute.\n", "The textbook series has been parodied by the on-line cartoon series \"Weapons of Math Destruction\", including one panel of a student declaring that he can't finish his homework because they have run out of glue, or writing two different ways to determine if 2 is even or odd, and explaining the answer.\n\nSection::::Adoptions.\n\nAn incomplete listing of school districts that have adopted TERC materials\n\nBULLET::::- Bellevue School District adopted it for 10 years, dropped in favor of Math Expressions as \"outdated and inefficient\" for 2008.\n\nBULLET::::- Stillwater School District\n\nBULLET::::- Ridgewood Public Schools\n", "If the search space is fixed, the computational complexity for this class of problems is usually estimated by:\n\nBULLET::::- the time and space required to construct the data structure to be searched in\n\nBULLET::::- the time (and sometimes an extra space) to answer queries.\n\nFor the case when the search space is allowed to vary, see \"Dynamic problems\".\n\nSection::::Combinatorial computational geometry.:Problem classes.:Dynamic problems.\n", "It is also a fundamental problem in multi-dimensional SPL design. The expression problem is an example of an SPL of rank 2. The following applications either explain/illustrate the expression problem or show how it scales to product lines of large programs. EP is really a SPL of ~30 line programs; the applications below show how these ideas scale to programs of 30K lines (a 10 increase in size).\n\nBULLET::::- Expression Problem\n\nBULLET::::- Illustration of Small Expression Problem\n\nBULLET::::- Extensible IDEs\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-Dimensional Separation of Concerns\n\nBULLET::::- Calculator Product Line\n", "BULLET::::- Mesh generation\n\nBULLET::::- Boolean operations on polygons\n\nThe computational complexity for this class of problems is estimated by the time and space (computer memory) required to solve a given problem instance.\n\nSection::::Combinatorial computational geometry.:Problem classes.:Geometric query problems.\n\nIn geometric query problems, commonly known as geometric search problems, the input consists of two parts: the search space part and the query part, which varies over the problem instances. The search space typically needs to be preprocessed, in a way that multiple queries can be answered efficiently.\n\nSome fundamental geometric query problems are:\n", "Section::::Structure.:Masters Round.\n\nThis round has been replaced by the Math Video Challenge in current years. At the national level and in some states, there is an additional round known as the Masters Round, open only to the top four contestants. Participants are given thirty minutes to develop a fifteen-minute oral presentation based upon an advanced mathematical topic, not known to them before their preparation time begins. While an award is given for the best presentation as determined by a panel of judges, the Masters Round does not affect participants' rankings. \n\nSection::::Structure.:Ciphering Round.\n", "BULLET::::- Estimation - The user must round numbers to estimate the answer.\n\nBULLET::::- Fractions/decimals/percents - The user must solve problems that involve fractions, decimals and percentages.\n\nBULLET::::- Review - features a mix of problems from all the various subjects\n", "In addition, data structures which solve the dynamic version of the problem also support these operations:\n\nBULLET::::- codice_3, which adds to the set\n\nBULLET::::- codice_4, which removes from the set\n\nThe problem is typically analyzed in a transdichotomous model of computation such as word RAM.\n\nSection::::Data structures.\n", "BULLET::::- the complexity of the issues posed in public policy-making leads to give more importance to the arguments supporting the evaluations of the panelists; so these are often invited to list arguments for and against each option item, and sometimes they are given the possibility to suggest new items to be submitted to the panel;\n\nBULLET::::- for the same reason, the scaling methods, which are used to measure panel evaluations, often include more sophisticated approaches such as multi-dimensional scaling.\n", "BULLET::::- Mandelbrot, from studies of the Fatou, Julia and Mandelbrot sets, coined and popularized the term 'fractal' to describe these structures' self-similarity.\n\nBULLET::::- Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken prove the four colour theorem, the first theorem to be proved by computer.\n\nSection::::1980s.\n\nBULLET::::- Fast multipole method invented by Rokhlin and Greengard (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).\n\nSection::::1990s.\n\nBULLET::::- The appearance of the first research grids using volunteer computing – GIMPS (1996) and distributed.net (1997).\n\nBULLET::::- Kepler conjecture is almost all but certainly proved algorithmically by Thomas Hales in 1998.\n\nSection::::2000s.\n", "The key to solving a problem recursively is to recognize that it can be broken down into a collection of smaller sub-problems, to each of which \"that same general solving procedure that we are seeking\" applies, and the total solution is then found in some \"simple\" way from those sub-problems' solutions. Each of thus created sub-problems being \"smaller\" guarantees that the base case(s) will eventually be reached. Thence, for the Towers of Hanoi:\n\nBULLET::::- label the pegs A, B, C,\n\nBULLET::::- let \"n\" be the total number of disks,\n", "BULLET::::- continues to decompose problems until each problem is simple enough that it can be seen to be an instance of a recognized problem frame. Each subproblem description includes a description of the specification interfaces for the machine to be built.\n\nAt this point, problem analysis — \"problem decomposition\" — is complete. The next step is to reverse the process and to build the desired software system though a process of \"solution composition\".\n", "Every day, there are certain things that each EM lesson requires the student to do routinely. These components can be dispersed throughout the day or they can be part of the main math lesson.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Math Messages\"—These are problems, displayed in a manner chosen by the teacher, that students complete before the lesson and then discuss as an opener to the main lesson.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mental Math and Reflexes\"—These are brief (no longer than 5 min) sessions “…designed to strengthen children's number sense and to review and advance essential basic skills…” (Program Components 2003).\n", "For instance, while engineering a large system, the large problem is often broken down into many smaller toy problems which have been well understood in detail. Often these problems distill a few important aspects of complicated problems so that they can be studied in isolation. Toy problems are thus often very useful in providing intuition about specific phenomena in more complicated problems.\n\nAs an example, in the field of artificial intelligence, classical puzzles, games and problems are often used as toy problems. These include sliding-block puzzles, N-Queens problem, missionaries and cannibals problem, tick-tack-toe, chess, Hanoi tower and others.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "She posits that these problematic mathematical tools share three key features: they are opaque, unregulated and difficult to contest, and at the same time scalable, thereby amplifying any inherent biases to affect increasingly larger populations.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "An example of representing a number: 9067 requires four boards. The leftmost board has two checkers in the 8 and 1 squares (8000 + 1000). The second board has none, as the value has zero hundreds. The third board has checkers in the 4 and 2 squares (40 + 20), and the rightmost board has checkers in the 4, 2, and 1 squares (4 + 2 + 1). Together, these 7 values (8000 + 1000 + 40 + 20 + 4 + 2 + 1) total up to 9067.\n", "BULLET::::- 7.2.2.7. Squares\n\nBULLET::::- 7.2.2.8. A potpourri of puzzles\n\nBULLET::::- 7.2.2.9. Estimating backtrack costs (chapter 6 of \"Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms\", and pre-fascicle 5b in Section 7.2.2 under the heading \"Running time estimates\")\n\nBULLET::::- 7.2.3. Generating inequivalent patterns (includes discussion of Pólya enumeration theorem)\n\nBULLET::::- 7.3. Shortest paths\n\nBULLET::::- 7.4. Graph algorithms\n\nBULLET::::- 7.4.1. Components and traversal\n\nBULLET::::- 7.4.2. Special classes of graphs\n\nBULLET::::- 7.4.3. Expander graphs\n\nBULLET::::- 7.4.4. Random graphs\n\nBULLET::::- 7.5. Network algorithms\n\nBULLET::::- 7.5.1. Distinct representatives\n\nBULLET::::- 7.5.2. The assignment problem\n\nBULLET::::- 7.5.3. Network flows\n\nBULLET::::- 7.5.4. Optimum subtrees\n\nBULLET::::- 7.5.5. Optimum matching\n", "The Problem Solving Environment for Parallel Scientific Computation was introduced in 1960, where this was the first Organised Collection was introduced in 1960, where this was the first Organised Collections with minor standardisation. In 1970, PSE was initially researched for providing high-class programming language rather than Fortran, also Libraries Plotting Packages advent. Development of Libraries were continued, and there were introduction of Emergence of Computational Packages and Graphical systems which is data visualisation. By 1990s, Hypertext, Point and Click had moved towards inter-operability. Moving on, a \"Software Parts\" Industry finally existed.\n", "BULLET::::- Fuson, K. C. & Beckmann, S. (Fall/Winter, 2012–2013). Standard algorithms in the Common Core State Standards\". National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics Journal of Mathematics Education Leadership, 14 (2), 14–30.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mathematics for Elementary Teachers with Activities\", 4th edition, published by Pearson Education, copyright 2014, publication date January 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Bedrich Benes and Rafael Forsbach (2001), \"Layered data representation for visual simulation of terrain erosion\", in Spring Conference on Computer Graphics (IEEE), PDF from Purdue University\n\nSection::::In the News.\n\nBULLET::::- Crop Modeling Project Awarded $5M in (2019)\n\nBULLET::::- Drone navigation and photography simplified by Purdue grad student and professor in (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- From Terminator to household tech: Researchers work to add function to 3D-printed objects in (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- New Automation Revolutionizes 120 year old grading process in Purdue News (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Teaching machines to pinpoint earthquake damage in Purdue News (2017)\n", "Questions in the Sprint Round are usually the easiest problems in the written individual contests because the Sprint Round is intended to test contestants' ability to solve problems within a tight time constraint. The problems generally increase in difficulty so that nearly all students can solve the first few problems while few to none correctly answer the last few. Sprint round questions are worth one point each. Contestants work individually.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Target Round.\n", "Section::::Offerings.\n\nBULLET::::- Nightly math problem: Bedtime Math's core offering is its daily math problems for kids, broadcast by email and posted daily on the website's homepage and Facebook page. The mental math problems are designed “to promote both giggles and mathematical thought” as a means to “increase ‘math awareness’ in our everyday lives.”\n\nBULLET::::- App: The organization delivers the same daily riddles via a free mobile application for Android and iPhone OS.\n", "The competition is divided into four stages: school, chapter, state, and national. The problems generally increase in difficulty between levels—perfect scores are relatively common at the school-level, while winners of the written round at the national-level do not often achieve a perfect score. Each school is allowed to register ten students, including a group of four designated as the school team.\n", "All of the following were published by the California Institute of Technology:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Project Mathematics!\", workbooks (1990),\n\nBULLET::::- \"Project Mathematics!\", 9 videotapes (VHS, 30 minutes each, 1994),\n\nBULLET::::- \"Project Mathematics!, DVD 1\", videodisk (DVD, 68 minutes, 2005),\n\nBULLET::::- \"Project Mathematics!, DVD 2\", videodisk (DVD, 81 minutes, 2005),\n\nBULLET::::- \"Project Mathematics!, DVD 3\", videodisk (DVD, 82 minutes, 2005),\n\nSection::::Awards.\n\n\"Project Mathematics!\" has received numerous awards including the Gold Apple award in 1989 from the National Educational Film and Video Festival.\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 International Film and TV Festival of New York\n\nSection::::\"Interactive Project Mathematics!\".\n", "BULLET::::- Preliminary Selection: This is the first step of the selection. This is mainly done in district level. The selected contestants then go for the divisional round. Students are given 7 problems and have to solve them with in 1hr 15mins.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "FM synthesis was the basis of some of the early generations of digital synthesizers, most notably those from Yamaha, as well as New England Digital Corporation under license from Yamaha. Yamaha's popular DX7 synthesizer, released in 1983, was ubiquitous throughout the 1980s. Several other models by Yamaha provided variations and evolutions of FM synthesis during that decade.\n", "Fujitsu also released the \"FM Sound Editor\" software for the FM-7 in 1985, providing users with a user-friendly interface to create and edit synthesized music.\n", "BULLET::::- Linear Arithmetic synthesis\n\nLinear Arithmetic synthesis (LA synthesis) is a type of sound synthesis invented by Roland Corporation, introduced with the Roland D-50 synthesizer in 1987. LA synthesis was since used by a number of other Roland equipment, such as the MT-32 sound module in 1987 and the E-20 synthesizer in 1988.\n", "With the expiration of the Stanford University FM patent in 1995, digital FM synthesis can now be implemented freely by other manufacturers. The FM synthesis patent brought Stanford $20 million before it expired, making it (in 1994) \"the second most lucrative licensing agreement in Stanford's history\". FM today is mostly found in software-based synths such as FM8 by Native Instruments or Sytrus by Image-Line, but it has also been incorporated into the synthesis repertoire of some modern digital synthesizers, usually coexisting as an option alongside other methods of synthesis such as subtractive, sample-based synthesis, additive synthesis, and other techniques. The degree of complexity of the FM in such hardware synths may vary from simple 2-operator FM, to the highly flexible 6-operator engines of the Korg Kronos and Alesis Fusion, to creation of FM in extensively modular engines such as those in the latest synthesisers by Kurzweil Music Systems.\n", "Section::::History.:FM synthesis.\n\nA major advance for chip music was the introduction of frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), first commercially released by Yamaha for their digital synthesizers and FM sound chips, which began appearing in arcade machines from the early 1980s. Arcade game composers utilizing FM synthesis at the time included Konami's Miki Higashino (\"Gradius\", \"Yie-Ar Kung Fu\", \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\") and Sega's Hiroshi Kawaguchi (\"Space Harrier\", \"Hang-On\", \"Out Run\").\n", "The final component in the audio path is a VCA. It is a single-transistor design, based on a selected 2SC945 which is an NPN silicon device (equivalenced by 2N2222A according to the Towers' International Transistor Selector book, update 5 (, 90100)).\n\nSection::::Architecture.:Modulation.\n\nSection::::Architecture.:Modulation.:Modulation generator.\n\nThe MS-20 has a low frequency oscillator, labelled \"modulation generator\". It has two controls (\"rate\" and \"shape\") and two outputs (pulse and sloped).\n", "FM synthesis using analog oscillators may result in pitch instability. However, FM synthesis can also be implemented digitally, the latter proving to be more stable and is currently seen as standard practice. Digital FM synthesis (implemented as phase modulation) was the basis of several musical instruments beginning as early as 1974. Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974, based on FM synthesis, before commercially releasing the Yamaha GS-1 in 1980. The Synclavier I, manufactured by New England Digital Corporation beginning in 1978, included a digital FM synthesizer, using an FM synthesis algorithm licensed from Yamaha. Yamaha's groundbreaking DX7, released in 1983, brought FM to the forefront of synthesis in the mid-1980s.\n", "FM synthesis had also become the usual setting for games and software until the mid-nineties. Through sound cards like the AdLib and Sound Blaster, IBM PCs popularized Yamaha chips like OPL2 and OPL3. The related OPN2 was used in the Fujitsu FM Towns Marty and Sega Genesis as one of its sound generator chips. Similarly cases, Sharp X68000 and MSX (Yamaha computer unit) also use FM-based soundchip, OPM.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "New hardware synths specifically marketed for their FM capabilities disappeared from the market after the release of the Yamaha SY99 and FS1R, and even those marketed their highly powerful FM abilities as counterparts to sample-based synthesis and formant synthesis respectively. However, well-developed FM synthesis options are a feature of Nord Lead synths manufactured by Clavia, the Alesis Fusion range, the Korg Oasys and Kronos and the Modor NF-1. Various other synthesizers offer limited FM abilities to supplement their main engines.\n", "In 1973, Yamaha licensed the algorithms for the first digital synthesis algorithm, frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), from John Chowning, who had experimented with it since 1971. Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the \"key scaling\" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation. In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, evolving Chowning's early work on FM synthesis technology. Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974. Yamaha eventually commercialized FM synthesis technology with the Yamaha GS-1, the first FM digital synthesizer, released in 1980. The first commercial digital synthesizer released a year earlier, the Casio VL-1, released in 1979.\n", "The very earliest digital synthesis experiments were made with computers, as part of academic research into sound generation. In 1973, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971. Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the \"key scaling\" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation, though it would take several years before Yamaha were to release their FM digital synthesizers. In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, under the company's former name \"Nippon Gakki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha\", evolving Chowning's early work on FM synthesis technology. Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974.\n", "This technology first appeared in 1987, in the Roland D-50 synthesizer. At the time, re-synthesizing samplers were very expensive, so Roland set out to produce a machine that would be easy to program, sound realistic, and still sound like a synthesizer. Also, Yamaha had previously gained world market lead with their DX7 FM synth, which excelled at metallic, percussive sounds—something that Roland's synths using subtractive synthesis were less good at.\n", "Frequency modulation (FM) synthesis was developed in the late 1960s by John Chowning at Stanford University, California. FM synthesis uses digital technology to generate sounds, creating different results from analog synthesis. In 1971, to demonstrate its commercial potential, Chowning used FM to emulate acoustic sounds such as organs and brass. Stanford patented the technology and hoped to license it, but was turned down by American companies including Hammond and Wurlitzer. According to Chowning, \"Frankly, I don't think their engineers understood it — they were into analog technology, and had no idea what I was talking about.\"\n", "Section::::Voice architecture and sound programming.:MIDI implementation.\n\nThe AX80 has fairly standard MIDI implementation for an instrument of this vintage, with the ability to use any channel (1-16) for transmission or reception (these can be set separately). The instrument does not recognize the MIDI tuning request, nor does it allow for saving or loading sounds (patches) to a computer via system-exclusive data dumps.\n\nSection::::Other information.\n", "Most recently, in 2016, Korg released the Korg Volca FM, a, 3-voice, 6 operators FM iteration of the Korg Volca series of compact, affordable desktop modules, and Yamaha released the Montage, which combines a 128-voice sample-based engine with a 128-voice FM engine. This iteration of FM is called FM-X, and features 8 operators; each operator has a choice of several basic wave forms, but each wave form has several parameters to adjust its spectrum. The Yamaha Montage was followed by the more affordable Yamaha MODX in 2018, with 64-voice, 8 operators FM-X architecture in addition to a 128-voice sample-based engine. Elektron in 2018 launched the Digitone, an 8-voice, 4 operators FM synth featuring Elektron's renown sequence engine.\n", "In 1973, Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971. Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the \"key scaling\" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation. In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, under the company's former name \"Nippon Gakki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha\", evolving Chowning's early work on FM synthesis technology. Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974.\n", "BULLET::::- Ulrich L. Rohde \" Microwave and Wireless Synthesizers: Theory and Design \", John Wiley & Sons, August 1997,\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Hewlett-Packard 5100A (tunable, 0.01 Hz-resolution \"Direct Frequency Synthesizer\" introduced in 1964; to HP, direct synthesis meant PLL not used, while indirect meant a PLL was used)\n\nBULLET::::- Frequency Synthesizer U.S. Patent 3,555,446, Braymer, N. B., (1971, January 12)\n", "The first commercial musical instrument to incorporate FM Synthesis was the Synclavier I, introduced by New England Digital Corporation in 1977. Their Synclavier II, introduced in 1980, was frequently used in the production of popular music beginning that year. The first Yamaha product to incorporate the FM algorithm was their GS1, a digital synthesizer that first shipped in 1981. Some thought it too expensive at the time, Chowning included. Soon after, in 1983, Yamaha made their first commercially successful digital FM synthesizer, the DX7.\n", "The speakers in the IBM PC (released in 1981) and its successors may be used to create sounds and music using a similar mechanism.\n\nSection::::Prior methods.:Square-wave synthesis.\n\nThe first specialized audio circuits in computers included simple analog oscillators that could be set to desired frequencies, generally approximating tones along the musical scale. An example of this is the Atari POKEY custom ASIC used in the Atari 800.\n\nSection::::Prior methods.:FM synthesis.\n", "In 1983, the Yamaha CX5 MSX computer and Yamaha MSX modules introduced FM synthesis and MIDI sequencing to the MSX personal computer, including MIDI software with capabilities such as synthesizing and sequencing sounds and rhythms. They provided synthesis, composition tools, and a 4-track MIDI sequencer, available on different cartridges.\n", "A typical modern additive synthesizer produces its output as an electrical, analog signal, or as digital audio, such as in the case of software synthesizers, which became popular around year 2000.\n\nSection::::History.:Timeline.\n\nThe following is a timeline of historically and technologically notable analog and digital synthesizers and devices implementing additive synthesis.\n\nSection::::Discrete-time equations.\n", "BULLET::::- FM synthesis and MIDI\n\nThe Yamaha GS-1, the first commercial FM digital synthesizer, released in 1980, was programmed using a proprietary Yamaha computer, which at the time was only available at Yamaha's headquarters in Japan (Hamamatsu) and the United States (Buena Park).\n\nIt was not until the advent of MIDI in 1983 that general-purpose computers started to play a key role in mainstream music production. In 1982, the NEC PC-88 and PC-98 computers introduced MIDI support.\n\nBULLET::::- MSX and Yamaha modules\n", "BULLET::::- 4 operators per channel, all generating sine waves at configurable frequencies and powers\n\nBULLET::::- 8 options for routing those 4 operators to perform FM synthesis (actually phase modulation) or simple additive synthesis\n\nBULLET::::- 1 low frequency oscillator running 1 of 4 waveforms, mappable to pitch on a per-channel basis and/or amplitude on a per-operator basis\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Global Pitch Envelope Generator (Enabled for DX21 model only)\n", "Later, Yamaha released the Yamaha FB-01 MIDI module, which was effectively an SFG-05 in a standalone, portable case. FB-01 is an independent Z80 microprocessor system that sends and receives data from YM2164. The FB-01 was released in 1986.\n\nBULLET::::- Sound cards and sound modules\n\nIn 1983, Roland Corporation's CMU-800 sound module introduced music synthesis and sequencing to the PC, Apple II, and Commodore 64.\n", "Roland understood that their subtractive synthesis method had to change. One of the more complex parts of a sound to program is the attack transient, so Roland added a suite of sampled attack transients to subtractive synthesis. As well as the attack transients, Roland added a suite of single-cycle sampled waveforms that could be continuously looped. Sounds could now have three components: An attack, a body made from a subtractive synth sound (saw or pulse wave through a filter) and an \"embellishment\" of one of many looped samples. (The looped samples also contained a collection of totally synthetic waves derived from additive synthesis, as well as sequences of inharmonic wave cycles. Thus, LA synthesis offered the realistic sounds of a sampler with the control and creativity of a synthesizer.)\n" ]

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[ "When properly relaxed it is possible to cause regions of intense black, bright white or even colors such as yellow, green, or pink to appear in the noise. These regions can span the entire visual field, but seem to be fleeting in nature.\n\nSection::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 3: Patterns, motion, and color.\n", "Section::::History.:Color organs.\n", "BULLET::::- Nathaniel Hawthorne, writer, describes colours experienced by the protagonist upon hearing a female character's voice in \"Rapaccini's Daughter.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Jimi Hendrix (November 27, 1942 – September 18, 1970), musician.\n\nBULLET::::- Victor Hugo (26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885), writer.\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Jackson, \"It is likely Jackson has synesthesia, he told me he views music like I how I view music–in shapes and colors\"\n\nBULLET::::- Richard D. James aka Aphex Twin (born August 18, 1971), English electronic music artist; musical sounds and words → colour.\n\nBULLET::::- Wassily Kandinsky (December 16, 1866 – December 13, 1944), painter.\n", "Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 11.\n\nIn the operation of a healthy eye, three kinds of division of retinal activity often occur at once. (1) The quantitative intensive division unites with the qualitative division resulting in a loss of color energy and a deviation toward paleness or darkness; (2) After being excited by an external stimulant, the quantitative extensive division unites with the qualitative division resulting in the retina being covered by many various juxtaposed spots of color sensation; (3) When the stimulation ceases, an afterimage (physiological spectrum) appears on each retinal spot.\n\nSection::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 12.\n", "The eye's reaction to external stimulus is an activity, not a passive response. It is the activity of the retina. When the eye's retina receives a full impression of light, or when whiteness appears, it is fully active. When light is absent, or when blackness appears, the retina is inactive.\n\nSection::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 3.\n", "Joanne Harris, author of \"Chocolat\", is a synesthete who says she experiences colors as scents. Her novel \"Blueeyedboy\" features various aspects of synesthesia.\n\nRamin Djawadi, a composer best known for his work on composing the theme songs and scores for such TV series as \"Game of Thrones\", \"Westworld\" and for the \"Iron Man\" movie, also has synesthesia. He says he tends to \"associate colors with music, or music with colors.\"\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Literature.\n", "This can be seen when the eyes are closed and looking at the back of the eyelids. In a bright room, a dark red can be seen, owing to a small amount of light penetrating the eyelids and taking on the color of the blood it has passed through. In a dark room, blackness can be seen or the object can be more colourful. But in either case it is not a flat unchanging redness/blackness. Instead, if actively observed for a few minutes, one becomes aware of an apparent disorganized motion, a random field of lightness/darkness that overlays the redness/blackness of closed eyelids.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2010 Disney film \"Tangled\", the character Flynn Rider casually remarks that the pub he is in \"smells like the color brown.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The 2013 novel, \"The First of July\" by Elizabeth Speller, one character sees colors when music is played, and also feels the pain of injuries he witnesses.\n\nBULLET::::- In January, 2014, \"The Onion\", a satirical newspaper, posted a short article titled \"Report:% Of Americans Suffer From Synesthesia\", with colorboxes in place of numbers.\n", "Myriad Colors Phantom World\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1942 novel \"Perelandra\", C. S. Lewis describes the colors of angelic beings when they manifest themselves: \"We think that when creatures of the hypersomatic kind choose to 'appear' to us, they are not in fact affecting our retina at all, but directly manipulating the relevant parts of our brain. If so, it is quite possible that they can produce there the sensations we should have if our eyes were capable of receiving those colours in the spectrum which are actually beyond their range.\" (Chapter 16)\n", "The first medical description of \"colored hearing\" is in an 1812 thesis by the German physician Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs. The \"father of psychophysics,\" Gustav Fechner, reported the first empirical survey of colored letter photisms among 73 synesthetes in 1876, followed in the 1880s by Francis Galton. Carl Jung refers to \"color hearing\" in his Symbols of Transformation in 1912.\n", "Section::::Perception.:Nonstandard color perception.:Synesthesia.\n\nIn certain forms of [[synesthesia]]/[[ideasthesia]], perceiving letters and numbers ([[grapheme-color synesthesia|grapheme–color synesthesia]]) or hearing musical sounds (music–color synesthesia) will lead to the unusual additional experiences of seeing colors. Behavioral and [[functional neuroimaging]] experiments have demonstrated that these color experiences lead to changes in behavioral tasks and lead to increased activation of brain regions involved in color perception, thus demonstrating their reality, and similarity to real color percepts, albeit evoked through a non-standard route.\n\nSection::::Perception.:Afterimages.\n", "The most common forms of synesthesia are those that trigger colors, and the most prevalent of all is day-color. Also relatively common is grapheme-color synesthesia. We can think of \"prevalence\" both in terms of how common is synesthesia (or different forms of synesthesia) within the population, or how common are different forms of synesthesia within synesthetes. So within synesthetes, forms of synesthesia that trigger color also appear to be the most common forms of synesthesia with a prevalence rate of 86% within synesthetes. In another study, music-color is also prevalent at 18–41%. Some of the rarest are reported to be auditory-tactile, mirror-touch, and lexical-gustatory.\n", "World Wide Web pioneer at CERN (January 26, 1947). His archived website includes his color-coded alphabet.\n\nSection::::Synesthetes.:Alessia Cara.\n\nCanadian singer and songwriter (born 1996). Music has colour and words have tastes\n\n“ I don't even see it as a gift, I just see it as something that happens.”\n\n-Alessia Cara 2017 on The Project\n\nSection::::Synesthetes.:Jack Coulter.\n\nArtist (born April 20, 1994). Music → color\n\n“My visual interpretation of ‘sound’ within musicality is presently stimulated when I am soulfully, aesthetically and perceptively immersed within a specific musical composition or piece of music.”\n", "Section::::Synesthetes.\n\nSection::::Synesthetes.:Dev Hynes a.k.a. Blood Orange.\n\nSinger/songwriter/record producer (born December 23, 1985). Letters → color\n\nWhen writing a new piece of music from a drawing “I start off by choosing four colors, so I associate C with yellow, I associate F with pink, I associate E with brown, I associate A with red.” \n\n-TEDx Talks, A YouTube Video Description \n\nSection::::Synesthetes.:Anna Akana.\n\nFilmmaker/producer/actress/comedian/model (born August 18, 1989). Letters → color\n", "everything with a color, a number, a day of the week, with a shape... but so every time I create something, I'm already \n\nthinking what color is it? what day of the week? what number is it?\" \n\n-Billie Eilish \n\nSection::::Synesthetes.:Maggie Rogers.\n\nMusician and Singer-songwriter (born April 25, 1994) Music → color \n\nSection::::Pseudo-synesthetes.\n", "BULLET::::- Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959), architect, claimed to hear music sometimes while designing buildings.\n", "BULLET::::- Timbaland \"See when I do music, I see it in colors. I see it in stages. I see the world, I see the people as colors.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Devin Townsend, Canadian musician, frequently relates sound to colors and numbers in interviews and demonstrations.\n\nBULLET::::- Ludwig Wittgenstein, philosopher (1889–1951) Possible case of grapheme–colour synaesthesia, based on this quote from the book \"Zettel\": \"It’s just like the way some people do not understand the question 'What color has the vowel A for you?'\"\n", "I wouldn't know what to do with [colour]. Colour to me is too real. It's limiting. It doesn't allow too much of a dream. The more you throw black into a colour, the more dreamy it gets ... Black has depth. It's like a little egress; you can go into it, and because it keeps on continuing to be dark, the mind kicks in, and a lot of things that are going on in there become manifest. And you start seeing what you're afraid of. You start seeing what you love, and it becomes like a dream.\n", "Ramachandran, a neuroscientist and author, studied the case of a grapheme-color synesthete who was also color blind. While he couldn't see certain colors with his eyes, he could still \"see\" those colors when looking at certain letters. Because he didn't have a name for those colors, he called them \"Martian colors.\"\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Art.\n", "On the other hand, many synesthetes never realize that their experiences are in any way unusual or exceptional. For example, the Nobel prize winning physicist, Richard Feynman reports:\n\nWhile synesthetes sometimes report seeing colors projected in space, they do not confuse their synesthetic colors with real colors in the external world. Rather, they report that they are simultaneously aware of the external color and also the internal, synesthetic color:\n\nFinally, synesthetes are quite precise in the color mappings that they experience, which can lead them to make quite detailed comparisons of their colors:\n\nSection::::Further research.\n", "Phosphenes can be directly induced by mechanical, electrical, or magnetic stimulation of the retina or visual cortex as well as by random firing of cells in the visual system. Phosphenes have also been reported by meditators (commonly called \"nimitta\"), people who go for long periods without visual stimulation (also known as the prisoner's cinema), or those who are using psychedelic drugs.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Mechanical stimulation.\n", "French pianist (born November 7, 1969). Grimaud has colored numbers (graphemes → color) and sees music in colors (music → color).\n\nSection::::Synesthetes.:Neil Harbisson.\n", "Another common form of synesthesia is the association of sounds with colors. For some, everyday sounds such as doors opening, cars honking, or people talking can trigger seeing colors. For others, colors are triggered when musical notes or keys are being played. People with synesthesia related to music may also have perfect pitch because their ability to see/hear colors aids them in identifying notes or keys.\n\nThe colors triggered by certain sounds, and any other synesthetic visual experiences, are referred to as \"photisms\".\n", "Section::::Release and promotion.:Tour and performances.\n" ]

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[ "In everyday life aberration is a well-known phenomenon. Consider a person standing in the rain on a day when there is no wind. If the person is standing still, then the rain drops will follow a path that is straight down to the ground. However, if the person is moving, for example in a car, the rain will appear to be approaching at an angle. This apparent change in the direction of the incoming raindrops is aberration.\n", "Bidirectional Path Tracing combines both \"Shooting\" and \"Gathering\" in the same algorithm to obtain faster convergence of the integral. A shooting path and a gathering path are traced independently, and then the head of the shooting path is connected to the tail of the gathering path. The light is then attenuated at every bounce and back out into the pixel. This technique at first seems paradoxically slower, since for every gathering sample we additionally trace a whole shooting path. In practice however, the extra speed of convergence far outweighs any performance loss from the extra ray casts on the shooting side.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rainfall continuity\" – the more frequent and extended are the gaps during the event where no rainfall occurs, the higher the likelihood that potential stemflow volume is lost to evapotranspiration; this is also governed by air temperature, relative humidity and most significantly, wind speed\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rainfall intensity\" – the amount of total stemflow is diminished when the amount of rain in a given period surpasses the capacity of the flow paths\n", "Section::::Singles.\n\nSection::::Singles.:\"30 Sexy\".\n", "BULLET::::- In Tasmania, one of the states of Australia, the central Midlands region is in a strong rain shadow and receives only about a fifth as much rainfall as the highlands to the west.\n\nBULLET::::- In New South Wales and Victoria (both states of Australia), the Monaro is shielded by both the Snowy Mountains to the northwest and coastal ranges to the southeast. Consequently, parts of it are as dry as the wheat-growing lands of those states.\n", "Section::::Explanation.\n\nAberration may be explained as the difference in angle of a beam of light in different inertial frames of reference. A common analogy is to consider the apparent direction of falling rain. If rain is falling vertically in the frame of reference of a person standing still, then to a person moving forwards the rain will appear to arrive at an angle, requiring the moving observer to tilt their umbrella forwards. The faster the observer moves, the more tilt is needed.\n", "Light from the sky at a shallow angle to the road is refracted by the index gradient, making it appear as if the sky is reflected by the road's surface. The mind interprets this as a pool of water on the road, since water also reflects the sky. The illusion fades as one gets closer.\n", "A \"rainbow\" is perceived as a circle in the sky; and its contributing light rays form a cone. In contrast, a \"dewbow\" is perceived as the intersection of that cone and the ground. If the ground is flat and horizontal, and the sun is low in the sky, the dew bow is a hyperbola. Theoretically, when the sun is high, the intersection might be another conic section, like a parabola or an ellipse. However, dew usually evaporates before the sun is high. Nonetheless, an elliptical dew bow was captured on camera, when at night the full moon, high in the sky, illuminated a field loaded with dew.\n", "Section::::CCIR interpolation formula.\n\nIt is possible to extrapolate the cumulative attenuation distribution at a given location by using\n\nthe CCIR interpolation formula:\n\nwhere \"A\" is the attenuation in dB exceeded for a \"p\" percentage of the time and \"A\" is the attenuation exceeded for 0.01% of the time.\n\nSection::::ITU-R frequency scaling formula.\n\nAccording to the ITU-R, rain attenuation statistics can be scaled in frequency in the range 7 to 55 GHz by the formula\n\nwhere\n\nand \"f\" is the frequency in GHz.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fresnel zone\n\nBULLET::::- Diversity scheme\n\nBULLET::::- Drop size distribution (DSD)\n", "BULLET::::- The deserts of the Basin and Range Province in the United States and Mexico, which includes the dry areas east of the Cascade Mountains of Oregon and Washington and the Great Basin, which covers almost all of Nevada and parts of Utah are rain shadowed. The Cascades also cause rain shadowed Columbia Basin area of Eastern Washington and valleys in British Columbia, Canada - most notably the Thompson and Nicola Valleys which can receive less than 10 inches of rain in parts, and the Okanagan Valley (particularly the south, nearest to the US border) which receives anywhere from 12-17 inches of rain annually.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "The algorithm can be used for vision-based robot localization of mobile robots. Instead of tracking the position of an object in the scene, however, the position of the camera platform is tracked. This allows the camera platform to be globally localized given a visual map of the environment.\n", "As in the path tracing method a ray gets followed backwards, beginning from the eye on, until reaching the light source. In volumetric path tracing scatter events can occur while these process. When a light ray hits a surface, a special amount of it can get scattered into the media.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nThe algorithm is based on the volumetric rendering equation, which extends the rendering equation with a scattering term.\n", "The first measurements of this distribution were made by rather rudimentary tool by Palmer, Marshall's student, exposing a cardboard covered with flour to the rain for a short time. The mark left by each drop being proportional to its diameter, he could determine the distribution by counting the number of marks corresponding to each droplet size. This was immediately after the Second World War.\n\nDifferent devices have been developed to get this distribution more accurately:\n\nBULLET::::- Disdrometer\n\nBULLET::::- Modified wind profiler\n\nSection::::Drop size versus radar reflectivity.\n", "In volumetric path tracing a distance between the ray and the surface gets sampled and compared with the distance of the nearest intersection of the ray with the surface. If the sampled distance is smaller, a scatter event occurs. In that case the path gets evaluated and traced from the scatter point in the media, not from the surface point on which it falls. The rest of the procedure continues the same, until reaching the light source.\n\nSection::::Sampling.\n", "Optical patternators provide the distribution of drop surface areas rather than the mass flux. In many instances, this is advantageous as all local transfer phenomena, such as mass; momentum; energy and species are directly proportional to the surface area density of the droplets in the spray.\n\nThere are three principal types of optical patternators: (a) those that use laser sheets, (b)those that use planar liquid laser induced fluorescence and (c) those that use laser extinction tomography.\n\nSection::::Optical patternators.:Using a laser sheet.\n", "A common optical phenomenon involving water droplets is the glory. A glory is an optical phenomenon, appearing much like an iconic Saint's halo about the head of the observer, produced by light backscattered (a combination of diffraction, reflection and refraction) towards its source by a cloud of uniformly sized water droplets. A glory has multiple colored rings, with red colors on the outermost ring and blue/violet colors on the innermost ring.\n", "Precipitation can impact infiltration in many ways. The amount, type and duration of precipitation all have an impact. Rainfall leads to faster infiltration rates than any other precipitation events, such as snow or sleet. In terms of amount, the more precipitation that occurs, the more infiltration will occur until the ground reaches saturation, at which point the infiltration capacity is reached. Duration of rainfall impacts the infiltration capacity as well. Initially when the precipitation event first starts the infiltration is occurring rapidly as the soil is unsaturated, but as time continues the infiltration rate slows as the soil becomes more saturated. This relationship between rainfall and infiltration capacity also determines how much runoff will occur. If rainfall occurs at a rate faster than the infiltration capacity runoff will occur.\n", "For example, if one looks at a waterfall for about a minute and then looks at the stationary rocks at the side of the waterfall, these rocks appear to be moving upwards slightly. The illusory upwards movement is the motion aftereffect. This particular motion aftereffect is also known as the \"waterfall illusion\".\n", "The tracer is typically passive as in \n\nbut may also be active as in, representing a dynamical property of the fluid such as vorticity.\n\nAt present, advection of contours is limited to two dimensions,\n\nbut generalizations to three dimensions are possible.\n\nSection::::Method.\n\nFirst we need a set of points that accurately define the contour.\n\nThese points are advected forward using a trajectory\n\nintegration technique.\n\nTo maintain its integrity,\n\npoints must be added to or removed from the curve \n\nat regular intervals based on some criterion or metric.\n", "There are two broad theories for the wagon-wheel effect under truly continuous illumination. The first is that human visual perception takes a series of still frames of the visual scene and that movement is perceived much like a movie. The second is Schouten's theory: that moving images are processed by visual detectors sensitive to the true motion and also by detectors sensitive to opposite motion from temporal aliasing. There is evidence for both theories, but the weight of evidence favours the latter.\n\nSection::::Under continuous illumination.:Truly continuous illumination.:Discrete frames theory.\n", "In \"Accelerate\", Entity FX was able to create a visual effect of Clark superspeeding through the rain—something Gough and Millar had wanted to see since season one—that eventually won them a Visual Effects Society award. Gough and Millar had always wanted to see Clark superspeeding through a rain shower, but \"the opportunity, [and] money\" never presented itself, until now. Entity FX had an extended period of time to research the kinetics of the cemetery scene, where Clark would speed through rain drops, because there were limited effects done for the episodes \"Precipice\" and \"Witness\". Using HoudiniTM, Mat Beck and his team began creating their digital raindrops: \"Each raindrop can be thought of as a lens, as a mirror, and an object in itself. The entire backdrop is refracted through it like a lens, and the area behind the camera is being reflected in it. By adjusting those parameters, we were able to give it a brilliant jewel-like magical quality.\" When trying to decide on the shape of the raindrops, Beck explains: \"We figured that round drops weren't that interesting, and teardrop ones looked a little silly and over the top, so we settled on this round diamond shape.\" Entity FX created \"collision events\" as Clark ran through the raindrops, breaking them up. Beck remembered watching the cars on the freeway, during a rainstorm, \"throwing up these loose trails of spray\". Eli Jarra added a similar mist trail to Clark as he ran through the cemetery to give a more realistic effect, although Beck admits to taking a few liberties with the final look of the mist. Occasionally, Mat Beck and his team have to stretch the limits of the realistic physics they try and create when illustrating Clark's abilities. While creating the alley scene in \"Prodigal\" where Lucas Luthor is attacked by an assassin with an Uzi 9mm, Mat Beck had to \"cheat\" the realism on the special effects used. First, the length of the alley is exaggerated in order to create enough time to show Clark stopping the bullets from hitting Lucas. Based on the calculations of how fast an Uzi 9 mm fires, and the muzzle velocity, they estimated that the bullets would be approximately twenty to thirty feet apart; four alleys would have been needed for Clark to catch up to all of the bullets in time. Second, the bullets themselves were enlarged so that audiences would be able to see them.\n", "In addition, PDV has an inherently higher resolution than PIV (where small image subregions are used to determine the velocity typically 16 x 16 pixels) and a velocity measurement may be obtained for each pixel within the flow image. However, particularly in the case of instantaneous measurement using PDV, some pixel binning is used to attenuate the deleterious effects of laser speckle and improve the Signal-to-Noise ratio.\n\nSection::::Weaknesses.\n", "The illusion tricks us into thinking we are looking at a perspective picture, and thus according to Changizi, switches on our future-seeing abilities. Since we aren't actually moving and the figure is static, we misperceive the straight lines as curved ones.\n\nChangizi said:\n", "BULLET::::- Gathering rays from a point on a surface. A ray is projected from the surface to the scene in a bouncing path that terminates when a light source is intersected. The light is then sent backwards through the path and to the output pixel. The creation of a single path is called a \"sample\". For a single point on a surface hundreds or thousands of samples are taken. The final output of the pixel is the arithmetic mean of all those samples, not the sum.\n" ]

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[ "When driving rain appears to come from a single point. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "When standing or driving rain appears to come from a single point called perspective. " ]

[ "Depending upon the strength and brittleness of the hair, some may snap off rather than being pulled out. Because those hairs snap off just above the skin surface, they can look somewhat like stubble from shaving, but are far more sparsely spread because the other hairs have been pulled out entirely. As with waxing, because of the phases of growth that occur with hair, there is not as much regrowth following the first epilation. Regular epilation of regrowth is less painful than the initial epilation and the number of broken off hairs diminishes with regular epilation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Wet use type.\n", "BULLET::::- The pluck test is conducted by pulling hair out \"by the roots\". The root of the plucked hair is examined under a microscope to determine the phase of growth, and is used to diagnose a defect of telogen, anagen, or systemic disease. Telogen hairs have tiny bulbs without sheaths at their roots. Telogen effluvium shows an increased percentage of hairs upon examination. Anagen hairs have sheaths attached to their roots. Anagen effluvium shows a decrease in telogen-phase hairs and an increased number of broken hairs.\n", "There is little theory on how plants induce themselves to senesce, although it is reasonably widely accepted that some of it is done hormonally. Plant scientists generally concentrate on ethylene and abscisic acid as culprits in senescence, but neglect gibberellin and brassinosteroid which inhibits root growth if not causing actual root pruning. This is perhaps because roots are below the ground and thus harder to study.\n", "Root hair cells can survive for 2 to 3 weeks and then die off, at the same time new root hair cells are continually being formed at the tip of the root. This way, the root hair coverage stays the same. When a new root hair cell grows, it excretes a poison so that the other cells in close proximity to it are unable to grow one of these hairs. This ensures equal and efficient distribution of the actual hairs on these cells. \n", "BULLET::::2. Root pruning – the concept that plants prune the roots in the same kind of way as they abscise leaves, is not a well discussed topic among plant scientists, although the phenomena undoubtedly exists. If gibberellin, brassinosteroid and ethylene are known to inhibit root growth it takes just a little imagination to assume they perform the same role as ethylene does in the shoot, that is to prune the roots too.\n", "The first way that hot roots can occur involves two separate color applications. Once permanent hair color is applied and subsequent hair growth occurs, the roots of the affected hair can, and usually do, exhibit a noticeably different color from the ends. To equalize the color of the roots and the ends, another artificial color can be applied to this new growth. This is what is called a \"color touch-up.\" If this touch-up color is lighter and/or warmer than the original color applied, the roots can appear warmer, creating hot roots. This will happen even if the touch-up color is applied from root to end because, as mentioned above, the newly applied artificial color will \"not\" lighten the artificial color already present on the ends, as it does the natural color at the roots.\n", "There are several different techniques for harvesting hair follicles, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of the harvesting technique, proper extraction of the hair follicle is paramount to ensure the viability of the transplanted hair and avoid transection, the cutting of the hair shaft from the hair follicle. Hair follicles grow at a slight angle to the skin's surface, so transplanted tissue must be removed at a corresponding angle.\n\nThere are two main ways in which donor grafts are extracted today: strip excision harvesting, and follicular unit extraction.\n\nSection::::Procedure.:Harvesting methods.:Strip harvesting.\n", "Secondly, hot roots can be the result of a single color process. If a darker shade of natural hair color is being lightened with a permanent hair color, the heat produced by the scalp can cause the hair nearest it to lighten more and/or become warmer than the ends of the hair.\n", "BULLET::::- Root hair – fine cellular appendages from cells of epiblema. They are unicellular, which means one root hair and corresponding cell of epiblema comprise only 1 cell. By contrast, stem and leaf hairs can be unicellular or multicellular. Root hairs of older portions of roots are destroyed over time, and only at a certain region near a growing apex (called the root-hair-region) are root hairs seen. Although microscopic, root-hairs can be observed by the unaided eye in chili and \"Brassica\" seedlings.\n\nSection::::Plant structures.:Vegetative morphology.:Roots.:Terms classifying roots and their modifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Tap-Root-System:\n\nBULLET::::- Storage roots:\n", "With Follicular Unit Extraction or FUE harvesting, individual follicular units containing 1 to 4 hairs are removed under local anesthesia; this micro removal typically uses tiny punches of between 0.6mm and 1.0mm in diameter. The surgeon then uses very small micro blades or fine needles to puncture the sites for receiving the grafts, placing them in a predetermined density and pattern, and angling the wounds in a consistent fashion to promote a realistic hair pattern. The technicians generally do the final part of the procedure, inserting the individual grafts in place.\n", "Donor hair can be harvested in two different ways. Small grafts of naturally-occurring units of one to four hairs, called follicular units, can be moved to balding areas of the hair restoration. These follicular units are surgically implanted in the scalp in very close proximity to one another and in large numbers. The grafts are obtained in one or both of the two primary methods of surgical extraction, follicular unit transplantation, colloquially referred to as \"strip harvesting\", or Follicular Unit Extraction (FUE), in which follicles are transplanted individually.\n", "In FUT, a strip of skin containing many follicular units is extracted from the patient and dissected under a stereoscopic microscope. The site of the strip removal is stitched closed. Once divided into follicular unit grafts, each unit is individually inserted into small recipient sites made by an incision in the bald scalp. In the newer technique, roots are extracted from the donor area and divided into strips for transplantation. The strip, two to three millimeters thick, is isolated and transplanted to the bald scalp. After surgery, a bandage is worn for two days to protect the stitched strip during healing. A small strip scar remains after healing, which can be covered by scalp hair growing over the scar.\n", "Root hair cells are outgrowths at a tip of the plant's roots. Root hair cells vary between 15 and 17 micrometres in diameter, and 80 to 1,500 micrometres in length. They are found only in the zone of maturation, and not the zone of elongation, possibly because any root hairs that arise are sheared off as the root elongates and moves through the soil. \n\nRoot hairs grow quickly, at least 1μm/min, making them particularly useful for research on cell expansion.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n", "Water passes from the soil water to the root hair cell’s cytoplasm by osmosis. This happens because the soil water has a higher water potential than the root hair cell cytoplasm. The function of root hairs is to collect water and mineral nutrients present in the soil and take this solution up through the roots to the rest of the plant. As root hair cells do not carry out photosynthesis they do not contain chloroplasts.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "When dissected, the arrangement of the cells in a root is root hair, epidermis, epiblem, cortex, endodermis, pericycle and, lastly, the vascular tissue in the centre of a root to transport the water absorbed by the root to other places of the plant.\n", "The catagen phase, also known as the transitional phase, allows the follicle to, in a sense, renew itself. During this time, which lasts about two weeks, the hair follicle shrinks due to disintegration and the papilla detaches and \"rests,\" cutting the hair strand off from its nourishing blood supply. Signals sent out by the body (that only selectively affect 1 percent of all hair of one's body at any given time) determine when the anagen phase ends and the catagen phase begins. The first sign of catagen is the cessation of melanin production in the hair bulb and apoptosis of follicular melanocytes. Ultimately, the follicle is 1/6 its original length, causing the hair shaft to be pushed upward. While hair is not growing during this phase, the length of the terminal fibers increase when the follicle pushes them upward.\n", "More advanced cases may be resistant or unresponsive to medical therapy and require hair transplantation. Naturally occurring units of one to four hairs, called follicular units, are excised and moved to areas of hair restoration. These follicular units are surgically implanted in the scalp in close proximity and in large numbers. The grafts are obtained from either follicular unit transplantation (FUT) or follicular unit extraction (FUE). In the former, a strip of skin with follicular units is extracted and dissected into individual follicular unit grafts, and in the latter individual hairs are extracted manually or robotically (with the FDA cleared ARTAS system). The surgeon then implants the grafts into small incisions, called recipient sites. Cosmetic scalp tattoos can also mimic the appearance of a short, buzzed haircut.\n", "Both trichomes and root hairs, the rhizoids of many vascular plants, are lateral outgrowths of a single cell of the epidermal layer. Root hairs form from trichoblasts, the hair-forming cells on the epidermis of a plant root. Root hairs vary between 5 and 17 micrometres in diameter, and 80 to 1,500 micrometres in length (Dittmar, cited in Esau, 1965). Root hairs can survive for two to three weeks and then die off. At the same time new root hairs are continually being formed at the top of the root. This way, the root hair coverage stays the same. It is therefore understandable that repotting must be done with care, because the root hairs are being pulled off for the most part. This is why planting out may cause plants to wilt.\n", "The surgeon then uses very small micro blades or fine needles to puncture the sites for receiving the grafts, placing them in a predetermined density and pattern, and angling the wounds in a consistent fashion to promote a realistic hair pattern. The technicians generally do the final part of the procedure, inserting the individual grafts in place.\n", "Further applications include detailed studies of fundamental molecular, genetic and biochemical aspects of genetic transformation and of hairy root induction.\n\nSection::::Genetically transformed cultures.\n\nThe Ri plasmids can be engineered to also contain T-DNA, used for genetic transformation (biotransformation) of the plant cells. The resulting genetically transformed root cultures can produce high levels of secondary metabolites, comparable or even higher than those of intact plants.\n\nSection::::Use in plant propagation.\n\nHairy root culture can also be used for regeneration of whole plants and for production of artificial seeds.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Follicular Unit Transplantation enables the hair transplant to look natural both at the individual follicular unit level and in regards to the overall graft distribution. Since scalp hair normally grows in follicular units of 1 to 4 hairs, the exclusive use of these naturally-occurring units in FUT ensures that each graft will be identical to the surrounding follicular units. Thus, when the transplanted follicular units grow hair after a transplant, the overall results of the transplant will appear natural.\n", "In the older mini-micrografting techniques, hair was harvested in multiple strips with the follicular units in each strip edge showing damage from the harvesting blades. The strips were then cut into smaller pieces, a process that would break up follicular units and risk additional damage to the follicles.\n\nSection::::Key concepts.:Ensuring the naturalness of hair transplant.\n", "Plant calluses derived from many different cell types can differentiate into a whole plant, a process called regeneration, through addition of plant hormones to the culture medium. This ability is known as totipotency. Regeneration of a whole plant from a single cell allows transgenics researchers to obtain whole plants which have a copy of the transgene in every cell. Regeneration of a whole plant that has some genetically transformed cells and some untransformed cells yields a chimera. In general, chimeras are not useful for genetic research or agricultural applications.\n", "A club hair is formed during the catagen phase when the part of the hair follicle in contact with the lower portion of the hair becomes attached to the hair shaft. This process cuts the hair off from its blood supply and from the cells that produce new hair. When a club hair is completely formed, about a 2-week process, the hair follicle enters the telogen phase.\n\nSection::::Hair growth.:Telogen phase.\n", "To evaluate formula_12 for given segments numbered formula_8 and formula_9, number the endpoints of the two segments 1, 2, 3, and 4. Let formula_15 be the vector that begins at endpoint formula_16 and ends at endpoint formula_17. Define the following quantities:\n\nThen we calculate\n\nFinally, we compensate for the possible sign difference and divide by formula_20 to obtain\n\nIn addition, other methods to calculate writhe are fully described mathematically and algorithmically in.\n\nSection::::Applications in DNA topology.\n" ]

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[ "After vasectomy, the testes remain in the scrotum where Leydig cells continue to produce testosterone and other male hormones that continue to be secreted into the bloodstream. Some studies have found that sexual desire after vasectomy may be somewhat diminished.\n", "Sperm are produced in the male sex gland or testicle. From there they travel through tubes (efferent tubules), exit the testes and enter a “storage site” or epididymis. The epididymis is a single, , tightly coiled, small tube, within which sperm mature to the point where they can move, swim and fertilize eggs. Testicular sperm are not able to fertilize eggs naturally (but can if they are injected directly into the egg in the laboratory), as the ability to fertilize eggs is developed slowly over several months of storage in the epididymis. From the epididymis, a 14-inch, 3 mm-thick muscular tube called the vas deferens carries the sperm to the urethra near the base of the penis. The urethra then carries the sperm through the penis during ejaculation. A vasectomy interrupts sperm flow within the vas deferens. After a vasectomy, the testes still make sperm, but because the exit is blocked, the sperm die and eventually are reabsorbed by the body.\n", "When the vasectomy is complete, sperm cannot exit the body through the penis. Sperm is still produced by the testicles but is broken down and absorbed by the body. Much fluid content is absorbed by membranes in the epididymis, and much solid content is broken down by the responding macrophages and reabsorbed via the bloodstream. Sperm is matured in the epididymis for about a month before leaving the testicles. After vasectomy, the membranes must increase in size to absorb and store more fluid; this triggering of the immune system causes more macrophages to be recruited to break down and reabsorb more solid content. Within one year after vasectomy, sixty to seventy percent of vasectomized men develop antisperm antibodies. In some cases, vasitis nodosa, a benign proliferation of the ductular epithelium, can also result. The accumulation of sperm increases pressure in the vas deferens and epididymis. The entry of the sperm into the scrotum can cause sperm granulomas to be formed by the body to contain and absorb the sperm which the body will treat as a foreign biological substance (much like a virus or bacterium).\n", "If sperm are found at the testicular end of the vas deferens, then it is assumed that a secondary epididymal obstruction has not occurred and a vas deferens-to-vas deferens reconnection (vasovasostomy) is planned. If sperm are not found, then some surgeon consider this to be prime facie evidence that an epididymal obstruction is present and that an epididymis to vas deferens connection (vasoepididymostomy) should be considered to restore sperm flow. Other, more subtle findings that can be observed in the fluid—including the presence of sperm fragments and clear, good quality fluid without any sperm—require surgical decision-making to successfully treat. There are however, no large randomised prospective controlled trials comparing patency or pregnancy rates following the decision to perform either microsurgical vasovasostomy to microsurgical vasoepididymosty as determined by this paradigm.\n", "Section::::Conceiving after vasectomy.\n", "An association between vasectomy and primary progressive aphasia, a rare variety of frontotemporal dementia, was reported. However, it is doubtful that there is a causal relationship. The putative mechanism is a cross-reactivity between brain and sperm, including the shared presence of neural surface antigens. In addition, the cytoskeletal tau protein has been found only to exist outside of the CNS in the manchette of sperm.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.\n\nThe prognosis for each patient should be determined by a pre-operative examination of the vasectomy sites and consideration of the time interval since vasectomy.\n\nSection::::Rate of pregnancy.\n\nThe rate of pregnancy depends on such factors as the method used for the vasectomy and the length of time that has passed since the vasectomy was performed. The reversal procedures are frequently impermanent, with occlusion of the vas recurring two or more years after the operation.\n", "BULLET::::2. Approximately 50%-80% of men who have had vasectomies develop a reaction against their own sperm (i.e., antisperm antibodies). High levels of these proteins directed against sperm may impair fertility, either by making it hard for sperm to swim to the egg or by interrupting the way the sperm must interact with the egg. Sperm-bound antibodies are usually assessed 6 months after the vasectomy reversal if no pregnancy has ensued. Treatment options include steroid treatment, intrauterine insemination (IUI) and in vitro fertilization (IVF) techniques.\n", "BULLET::::5. When the vas deferens has been blocked for a long time, the epididymis is adversely affected by elevated pressure. As sperm are nurtured to maturity within the normal epididymis, sperm counts may be sufficiently high to achieve a pregnancy, but sperm movement may be poor. Antioxidants, vitamins (A, C and E), or other supplements are recommended by some centers after vasectomy reversal for this reason. Some patients gradually recover from this epididymal dysfunction. Those patients whose sperm continue to have problems may require IVF to achieve a pregnancy.\n\nSection::::Failure and complications.:Complications.\n", "In general, vasectomy reversal is a safe procedure and complication rates are low. There are small chances of infection or bleeding, the latter of which can result in a hematoma or blood clot in the scrotum that needs surgical drainage. If there is significant scar tissue encountered during the vasectomy reversal, fluid other than blood (seroma) can also accumulate in a small number of cases. Painful granulomas, caused by leaking sperm, can develop near the surgical site in some cases. Very rare complications include compartment syndrome or deep venous thrombosis from prolonged positioning, testis atrophy due to damaged blood supply, and reactions to anesthesia.\n", "Although men considering vasectomies should not think of them as reversible, and most men and their partners are satisfied with the operation, life circumstances and outlooks can change, and there is a surgical procedure to reverse vasectomies using vasovasostomy (a form of microsurgery first performed by Earl Owen in 1971). Vasovasostomy is effective at achieving pregnancy in a variable percentage of cases, and total out-of-pocket costs in the United States are often upwards of $10,000. The typical success rate of pregnancy following a vasectomy reversal is around 55% if performed within 10 years, and drops to around 25% if performed after 10 years. After reversal, sperm counts and motility are usually much lower than pre-vasectomy levels. There is evidence that men who have had a vasectomy may produce more abnormal sperm, which would explain why even a mechanically successful reversal does not always restore fertility. The higher rates of aneuploidy and diploidy in the sperm cells of men who have undergone vasectomy reversal may lead to a higher rate of birth defects.\n", "In case of failure with PVS, spermatozoa are sometimes collected by electroejaculation: an electrical probe is inserted into the rectum, where it triggers ejaculation. The success rate is 80–100%, but the technique requires anaesthesia and does not have the potential to be done at home that PVS has. Both PVS and electroejaculation carry a risk of autonomic dysreflexia, so drugs to prevent the condition can be given in advance and blood pressure is monitored throughout the procedures for those who are susceptible. Massage of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles is another method to retrieve stored sperm. If these methods fail to cause ejaculation or do not yield sufficient usable sperm, sperm can be surgically removed by testicular sperm extraction or percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration. These procedures yield sperm in 86–100% of cases, but nonsurgical treatments are preferred.\n", "Section::::Alternatives: assisted reproduction.\n\nAssisted reproduction uses “test tube baby” technology (also called in vitro fertilization, IVF) for the female partner along with sperm retrieval techniques for the male partner to help build a family. This technology, including intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), has been available since 1992 and became available as an alternative to vasectomy reversal soon after. This alternative should be discussed with couples during a consultation for vasectomy reversal.\n", "Procedure to extract sperm for IVF include percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA procedure). testicular sperm extraction (TESE procedure) and open testicular biopsy. Needle aspiration a PESA procedure invariably causes trauma to the epididymal tubule and TESE procedures may damage the intra testicular collecting system (rete testis). Both potentially compromise the prospect of successful vasectomy reversal. Conversely, because in most circumstances vasectomy reversal leads to the restoration of sperm in the semen it reduces the need for sperm retrieval procedures in association with IVF.\n", "Section::::Alternatives: how to choose.\n\nSometimes it is not clear to couples who want children whether they should do a vasectomy reversal or pursue assisted reproduction. There are several questions for couples to ask themselves.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"How long ago was the vasectomy performed?\" An older vasectomy, especially those more than 20–25 years, may make vasectomy reversal less likely to work.\n", "Return of sperm to the ejaculate depends greatly on the length of time from the vasectomy and the skill of the surgeon. Generally, the shorter the interval, the higher the chance of success. The likelihood of pregnancy can depend on female partner factors.\n\nOver half of men who have undergone a vasectomy develop anti-sperm antibodies. The effects of anti-sperm antibodies continue to be debated in the medical literature, but there is agreement that antibodies may reduce sperm motility.\n\nSection::::What is required for a successful vasovasostomy.\n", "With vasectomy reversal surgery, there are two typical measures of success: patency rate, or return of some moving sperm to the ejaculate after vasectomy reversal, and pregnancy rates. In a recently published report 95% of men with a vasovasostomy had motile sperm in the ejaculate within 1 year after vasectomy reversal. Almost 80% of these men achieved sperm motility within 3 months of vasectomy reversal. The case for vasoepididymostomy is different. Fewer men will eventually achieve motile sperm counts and the time to achieve motile sperm counts is longer.\n\nAdditional information:\n", "The procedure of deferentectomy, also known as a vasectomy, is a method of contraception in which the vasa deferentia are permanently cut, though in some cases it can be reversed. A modern variation, which is also known as a vasectomy even though it does not include cutting the vas, involves injecting an obstructive material into the ductus to block the flow of sperm.\n\nInvestigational attempts for male contraception have focused on the vas with the use of the intra vas device and reversible inhibition of sperm under guidance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Disease.\n", "It is important to appreciate that female age is the single most powerful factor determining the pregnancy rate following any fertility treatment and vasectomy reversal is no exception. No large studies have stratified the results of vasectomy reversal by female age and hence assessing outcomes is confounded by this issue.\n", "BULLET::::- The age of the patient at the time of vasectomy reversal does not appear to matter. Using different age cut-offs, including 35, 36-45, and 45 years old, no differences in patency rates were detected in a recent vasectomy reversal series.\n\nBULLET::::- The patency rates after vasovasostomy appear equivalent when performed in the straight or convoluted segments of the vas deferens\n", "In order to allow the possibility of reproduction via artificial insemination after vasectomy, some men opt for cryopreservation of sperm before sterilization. It is advised that all men having a vasectomy consider freezing some sperm before the procedure. Dr Allan Pacey, senior lecturer in andrology at Sheffield University and secretary of the British Fertility Society, notes that men who he sees for a vasectomy reversal which has not worked express wishing they had known they could have stored sperm. Pacey notes, \"The problem is you're asking a man to foresee a future where he might not necessarily be with his current partner—and that may be quite hard to do when she's sitting next to you.\"\n", "Section::::Legality.:No legislation.\n\nMany other countries, including Belgium and the United States, have no specific legislation regarding the rights of men on gamete donation following their death, leaving the decision in the hands of individual clinics and hospitals. As such, many medical institutions in such countries institute in-house policies regarding circumstances in which the procedure would be performed.\n\nSection::::Ethics.\n", "If the sperm is viable, fertilisation is generally achieved through intracytoplasmic sperm injection, a form of \"in vitro\" fertilisation. The success rate of \"in vitro\" fertilisation remains unchanged regardless of whether the sperm was retrieved from a living or dead donor.\n\nSection::::Legality.\n\nThe legality of posthumous sperm extraction varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Generally, legislation falls into one of three camps: a full ban, a requirement of written consent from the donor, or implied consent obtained from the family.\n\nSection::::Legality.:Areas with full bans.\n", "Late failure, i.e. pregnancy following spontaneous recanalization of the vasa deferentia, has also been documented. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists states there is a generally agreed-upon rate of late failure of about one in 2000 vasectomies— better than tubal ligations for which the failure rate is one in every 200 to 300 cases. A 2005 review including both early and late failures described a total of 183 recanalizations from 43,642 vasectomies (0.4%), and sixty pregnancies after 92,184 vasectomies (0.07%).\n\nSection::::Complications.\n", "Sexual intercourse can usually be resumed in about a week (depending on recovery); however, pregnancy is still possible as long as the sperm count is above zero. Another method of contraception must be relied upon until a sperm count is performed either two months after the vasectomy or after ten to twenty ejaculations have occurred.\n\nAfter a vasectomy, contraceptive precautions must be continued until azoospermia is confirmed. Usually two semen analyses at three and four months are necessary to confirm azoospermia. The British Andrological Society has recommended that a single semen analysis confirming azoospermia after sixteen weeks is sufficient.\n" ]

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[ "Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water returns to the ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor condenses on the particles, then they fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.\n", "Over the course of time, a snowpack may settle under its own weight until its density is approximately 30% of water. Increases in density above this initial compression occur primarily by melting and refreezing, caused by temperatures above freezing or by direct solar radiation. In colder climates, snow lies on the ground all winter. By late spring, snow densities typically reach a maximum of 50% of water. Snow that persists into summer evolves into névé, granular snow, which has been partially melted, refrozen and compacted. Névé has a minimum density of , which is roughly half of the density of liquid water.\n", "Scientists think that water ice was transported downward by snow at night. It sublimated (went directly from ice to vapor) in the morning. Throughout the day convection and turbulence mixed it back into the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Climate.:Climate cycles.\n", "Sublimation is when water molecules directly leave the surface of ice without first becoming liquid water. Sublimation accounts for the slow mid-winter disappearance of ice and snow at temperatures too low to cause melting. Antarctica shows this effect to a unique degree because it is by far the continent with the lowest rate of precipitation on Earth. As a result, there are large areas where millennial layers of snow have sublimed, leaving behind whatever non-volatile materials they had contained. This is extremely valuable to certain scientific disciplines, a dramatic example being the collection of meteorites that are left exposed in unparalleled numbers and excellent states of preservation.\n", "Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water returns to the ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor condenses on the particles, then they fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.\n", "In 2005 the European Space Agency's Mars Express spacecraft imaged a substantial quantity of water ice in a crater in the Vastitas Borealis region. The environmental conditions at the locality of this feature are suitable for water ice to remain stable. It was revealed after overlaying frozen carbon dioxide sublimated away at the commencement of the Northern Hemisphere Summer and is believed to be stable throughout the Martian year.\n", "Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water returns to the ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor condenses on the particles, then they fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer returns to the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.\n", "Section::::Extraterrestrial snow.\n\nExtraterrestrial \"snow\" includes water-based precipitation, but also precipitation of other compounds prevalent on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- On Mars, observations of the \"Phoenix\" Mars lander reveal that water-based snow crystals occur at high latitudes. Additionally, carbon dioxide precipitates from clouds during the Martian winters at the poles and contributes to a seasonal deposit of that compound, which is the principal component of that planet's ice caps.\n", "Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulating the remaining ice.\n", "In central Greenland a typical year might produce two or three feet of winter snow, plus a few inches of summer snow. When this turns to ice, the two layers will make up no more than a foot of ice. The layers corresponding to the summer snow will contain bigger bubbles than the winter layers, so the alternating layers remain visible, which makes it possible to count down a core and determine the age of each layer. As the depth increases to the point where the ice structure changes to a clathrate, the bubbles are no longer visible, and the layers can no longer be seen. Dust layers may now become visible. Ice from Greenland cores contains dust carried by wind; the dust appears most strongly in late winter, and appears as cloudy grey layers. These layers are stronger and easier to see at times in the past when the earth's climate was cold, dry, and windy.\n", "After deposition, snow progresses on one of two paths that determine its fate, either \"ablation\" (mostly by melting) or transitioning from firn (multi-year snow) into \"glacier ice\". During this transition, snow \"is a highly porous, sintered material made up of a continuous ice structure and a continuously connected pore space, forming together the snow microstructure\". Almost always near its melting temperature, a snowpack is continually transforming these properties in a process, known as \"metamorphism\", wherein all three phases of water may coexist, including liquid water partially filling the pore space. Starting as a powdery deposition, snow becomes more granular when it begins to compact under its own weight, be blown by the wind, sinter particles together and commence the cycle of melting and refreezing. Water vapor plays a role as it deposits ice crystals, known as hoar frost, during cold, still conditions.\n", "On March 31, 2012, for the second time that year, virtually all of the 200 million cubic liters of water in Lake Cachet II were lost in less than 24 hours as a result of perforations in the glacial wall, a consequence of rising temperatures driven by climate change. The lake has drained 11 times since 2008 and experts predict it will increase in frequency.\n", "Frozen water is found on the Earth’s surface primarily as snow cover, freshwater ice in lakes and rivers, sea ice, glaciers, ice sheets, and frozen ground and permafrost (permanently frozen ground). The residence time of water in each of these cryospheric sub-systems varies widely. Snow cover and freshwater ice are essentially seasonal, and most sea ice, except for ice in the central Arctic, lasts only a few years if it is not seasonal. A given water particle in glaciers, ice sheets, or ground ice, however, may remain frozen for 10–100,000 years or longer, and deep ice in parts of East Antarctica may have an age approaching 1 million years.\n", "The ice mantle under the shallow subsurface is thought to result from frequent, major climate changes. Changes in Mars' orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water returns to the ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor condenses on the particles, then they fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.\n", "Snow cover is an extremely important storage component in the water balance, especially seasonal snowpacks in mountainous areas of the world. Though limited in extent, seasonal snowpacks in the Earth’s mountain ranges account for the major source of the runoff for stream flow and groundwater recharge over wide areas of the midlatitudes. For example, over 85% of the annual runoff from the Colorado River basin originates as snowmelt. Snowmelt runoff from the Earth's mountains fills the rivers and recharges the aquifers that over a billion people depend on for their water resources. Further, over 40% of the world's protected areas are in mountains, attesting to their value both as unique ecosystems needing protection and as recreation areas for humans. Climate warming is expected to result in major changes to the partitioning of snow and rainfall, and to the timing of snowmelt, which will have important implications for water use and management. These changes also involve potentially important decadal and longer time-scale feedbacks to the climate system through temporal and spatial changes in soil moisture and runoff to the oceans.(Walsh 1995). Freshwater fluxes from the snow cover into the marine environment may be important, as the total flux is probably of the same magnitude as desalinated ridging and rubble areas of sea ice. In addition, there is an associated pulse of precipitated pollutants which accumulate over the Arctic winter in snowfall and are released into the ocean upon ablation of the sea-ice .\n", "In Helsinki, Finland, the amount of snow transported from streets and properties to snow dump sites during the winter of 2009–2010 was 210,000 truckloads, equaling over 3 million cubic meters.\n", "Snow accumulates from a series of snow events, punctuated by freezing and thawing, over areas that are cold enough to retain snow seasonally or perennially. Major snow-prone areas include the Arctic and Antarctic, the Northern Hemisphere, and alpine regions. The liquid equivalent of snowfall may be evaluated using a snow gauge or with a standard rain gauge, adjusted for winter by removal of a funnel and inner cylinder. Both types of gauges melt the accumulated snow and report the amount of water collected. At some automatic weather stations an ultrasonic snow depth sensor may be used to augment the precipitation gauge.\n", "Section::::Climate change effects.:Thaw.\n\nThe ground can consist of many substrate materials, including bedrock, sediment, organic matter, water or ice. Frozen ground is that which is below the freezing point of water, whether or not water is present in the substrate. Ground ice is not always present, as may be the case with nonporous bedrock, but it frequently occurs and may be present in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the thawed substrate.\n", "Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies, e.g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost, rather than rain or snow.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nPrecipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km (121,000 mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is .\n", "In the field snow scientists often excavate a snow pit within which to make basic measurements and observations. Observations can describe features caused by wind, water percolation, or snow unloading from trees.Water percolation into a snowpack can create flow fingers and ponding or flow along capillary barriers, which can refreeze into horizontal and vertical solid ice formations within the snowpack. Among the measurements of the properties of snowpacks that the \"International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground\" includes are: snow height, snow water equivalent, snow strength, and extent of snow cover. Each has a designation with code and detailed description. The classification extends the prior classifications of Nakaya and his successors to related types of precipitation and are quoted in the following table:\n", "Section::::Classification.\n\nThe \"International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground\" has a more extensive classification of deposited snow than those that pertain to airborne snow. A list of the main categories (quoted together with their codes) comprises:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Precipitation particles (PP)\" (See below)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Machine-made snow (MM)\" – May be round polycrystalline particles from freezing of very small water droplets from the surface inward or crushed ice particles from crushing and forced distribution\n", "Inclusions in the snow, such as wind-blown dust, ash, bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances, remain in the ice. The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate, such as tree rings or sediment layers. These include (proxies for) temperature, ocean volume, precipitation, chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere, volcanic eruptions, solar variability, sea-surface productivity, desert extent and forest fires.\n", "BULLET::::- \"D\" = masking depth of vegetation (≈ 0.2 m worldwide)\n\nSection::::Models.:Snowmelt.\n\nGiven the importance of snowmelt to agriculture, hydrological runoff models that include snow in their predictions address the phases of accumulating snowpack, melting processes, and distribution of the meltwater through stream networks and into the groundwater. Key to describing the melting processes are solar heat flux, ambient temperature, wind, and precipitation. Initial snowmelt models used a degree-day approach that emphasized the temperature difference between the air and the snowpack to compute snow water equivalent (SWE) as:\n\nSWE = \"M\" (\"T\" – \"T\") when \"T\" ≥ \"T\"\n\nwhere:\n", "This group uses satellite-based measurements to study rivers, lakes, wetlands, and floodplains. Led by Profs. Douglas Alsdorf and Michael Durand, group members primarily use passive and active microwave measurements such as radar to measure surface water and snowpack. This group is working to better quantify the amount of water stored in snowpacks in the United States using satellite measurements.\n", "Increasing temperatures allow deeper active layer depths, resulting in increased water infiltration. Ice within the soil melts, causing loss of soil strength, accelerated movement, and potential debris flows.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Contact failures.\n\nElectrical contacts exhibit ubiquitous contact resistance, the magnitude of which is governed by surface structure and the composition of surface layers. Ideally contact resistance should be low and stable, however weak contact pressure, mechanical vibration, corrosion, and the formation of passivizing oxide layers and contacts can alter contact resistance significantly, leading to resistance heating and circuit failure.\n", "According to Reuters, The British Association of Dermatologists is warning of a rash occurring on people's ears or cheeks caused by an allergic reaction from the nickel surface commonly found on mobile devices’ exteriors. There is also a theory it could even occur on the fingers if someone spends a lot of time text messaging on metal menu buttons. In 2008, Lionel Bercovitch of Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, and his colleagues tested 22 popular handsets from eight different manufacturers and found nickel on 10 of the devices.\n\nSection::::Impact on society.:Human behaviour.\n\nSection::::Impact on society.:Human behaviour.:Culture and customs.\n", "BULLET::::- A user should be able to use a device in normal circumstances. For instance a smartphone is normally used while travelling, quite often outside. It can rain, or start to rain outside. A device should not break down immediately. Still such circumstances could trigger the LCI.\n\nSo, a liquid contact indicator can be triggered, without pointing to liquids causing a defect.\n\nSection::::Forgery.\n", "The touch and gesture features of the iPhone are based on technology originally developed by FingerWorks. Most gloves and styli prevent the necessary electrical conductivity; although capacitive styli can be used with iPhone's finger-touch screen. The iPhone 3GS and later also feature a fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating.\n", "Due to the top layer of a PCT being glass, it is sturdier than less-expensive resistive touch technology. \n\nUnlike traditional capacitive touch technology, it is possible for a PCT system to sense a passive stylus or gloved finger. However, moisture on the surface of the panel, high humidity, or collected dust can interfere with performance.\n\nThese environmental factors, however, are not a problem with 'fine wire' based touchscreens due to the fact that wire based touchscreens have a much lower 'parasitic' capacitance, and there is greater distance between neighbouring conductors.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Surface acoustic wave.\n\nSurface acoustic wave (SAW) technology uses ultrasonic waves that pass over the touchscreen panel. When the panel is touched, a portion of the wave is absorbed. The change in ultrasonic waves is processed by the controller to determine the position of the touch event. Surface acoustic wave touchscreen panels can be damaged by outside elements. Contaminants on the surface can also interfere with the functionality of the touchscreen.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Capacitive.\n", "A capacitive touchscreen panel consists of an insulator, such as glass, coated with a transparent conductor, such as indium tin oxide (ITO). As the human body is also an electrical conductor, touching the surface of the screen results in a distortion of the screen's electrostatic field, measurable as a change in capacitance. Different technologies may be used to determine the location of the touch. The location is then sent to the controller for processing. Touchscreens that use silver instead of ITO exist, as ITO causes several environmental problems due to the use of Indium.\n", "In the absence of interstitial materials, as in a vacuum, the contact resistance will be much larger, since flow through the intimate contact points is dominant.\n\nSection::::Factors influencing contact conductance.:Surface roughness, waviness and flatness.\n", "Unlike a resistive touchscreen, some capacitive touchscreens cannot be used to detect a finger through electrically insulating material, such as gloves. This disadvantage especially affects usability in consumer electronics, such as touch tablet PCs and capacitive smartphones in cold weather when people may be wearing gloves. It can be overcome with a special capacitive stylus, or a special-application glove with an embroidered patch of conductive thread allowing electrical contact with the user's fingertip.\n", "The iPhone's indicators are more exposed than those in some mobile phones from other manufacturers, which carry them in a more protected location, such as beneath the battery behind a battery cover. These indicators can be triggered during routine use, by an owner's sweat, steam in a bathroom, and other light environmental moisture. Criticism led Apple to change its water damage policy for iPhones and similar products, allowing customers to request further internal inspection of the phone to verify if internal liquid damage sensors were triggered.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Included items.\n", "In 2007 93% of touchscreens shipped were Resistive and only 4% were Projected Capacitance. In 2013 3% of touchscreens shipped were Resistive and 90% were Projected Capacitance.\n\nSection::::Technologies.\n\nThere are a variety of touchscreen technologies with different methods of sensing touch.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Resistive.\n", "Apple's Human Interface Guidelines state that the brushed metal interface should be used for programs that mimic the operation of, or interface with, common devices. Older versions (before 5.0) of iTunes and the Panther and Tiger Calculator both use brushed metal because they mimic real-world devices, while iSync features the theme because it interfaces with PDAs.\n", "Section::::Why use transformers in power converters.\n\nTransformers are used in power converters to incorporate:\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical isolation\n\nBULLET::::- Voltage step-down or step up\n\nThe secondary circuit is floating, when you touch the secondary circuit, you merely drag its potential to your body potential or the earth potential. There will be no current flowing through your body. That's why you can use your cellphone safely when it is being charged, even if your cellphone has a metal shell and it is connected to the secondary circuit.\n", "Touchscreens can suffer from the problem of fingerprints on the display. This can be mitigated by the use of materials with optical coatings designed to reduce the visible effects of fingerprint oils. Most modern smartphones have oleophobic coatings, which lessen the amount of oil residue. Another option is to install a matte-finish anti-glare screen protector, which creates a slightly roughened surface that does not easily retain smudges.\n\nSection::::Ergonomics and usage.:Glove touch.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Capacitive.:Surface capacitance.\n", "Although some standard Capacitance detection methods are projective, in the sense that they can be used to detect a finger through a non-conductive surface, they are very sensitive to fluctuations in temperature, which expand or contract the sensing plates, causing fluctuations in the capacitance of these plates. These fluctuations result in a lot of background noise, so a strong finger signal is required for accurate detection. This limits applications to those where the finger directly touches the sensing element or is sensed through a relatively thin non-conductive surface .\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Capacitive.:Projected capacitance.\n", "The RC time constant associated with contact resistance can limit the frequency response of devices. The charging and discharging of the leads resistance is a major cause of power dissipation in high clock rate digital electronics. Contact resistance causes power dissipation via Joule heating in low frequency and analog circuits (for example, solar cells) made from less common semiconductors. The establishment of a contact fabrication methodology is a critical part of the technological development of any new semiconductor. Electromigration and delamination at contacts are also a limitation on the lifetime of electronic devices.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "A number of high voltage dry piles were invented between the early 19th century and the 1830s in an attempt to determine the answer to this question, and specifically to support Volta’s hypothesis of contact tension. The Oxford Electric Bell is one example. Francis Ronalds in 1814 was one of the first to realise that dry piles also worked through chemical reaction rather than metal to metal contact, even though corrosion was not visible due to the very small currents generated.\n\nSection::::Triboelectric contact.\n", "iPhone 7 is rated IP67 water and dust resistant, although tests have resulted in malfunctions, specifically distorted speakers, after water exposure. The warranty does not cover any water damage to the phone.\n\niPhone 7's home button uses a capacitive mechanism for input rather than a physical push-button, as on previous models, meaning direct skin contact (or a capacitive glove) is required to operate the device. Physical feedback is provided via a Taptic Engine vibrator, and the button is also pressure-sensitive. iPhone 7 retains the 3D Touch display system introduced on the iPhone 6S, providing pressure-sensitive touchscreen input.\n", "Every time the contacts of an electromechanical switch, relay or contactor are opened or closed, there is a certain amount of contact wear. The sources of the wear are high current densities in microscopic areas, and the electric arc. Contact wear includes material transfer between contacts, loss of contact material due to splattering and evaporation, and oxidation or corrosion of the contacts due to high temperatures and atmospheric influences.\n", "Section::::Preparation and characterization of ohmic contacts.\n\nThe fabrication of the ohmic contacts is a much-studied part of materials engineering that nonetheless remains something of an art. The reproducible, reliable fabrication of contacts relies on extreme cleanliness of the semiconductor surface. Since a \"native oxide\" rapidly forms on the surface of silicon, for example, the performance of a contact can depend sensitively on the details of preparation.\n", "Section::::Electrolytic-metallic contact.\n", "BULLET::::- Contact electrification: If two conducting surfaces are moved relative to each other, and there is potential difference in the space between them, then an electric current will be driven. This is because the surface charge on a conductor depends on the magnitude of the electric field, which in turn depends on the distance between the surfaces. The externally observed electrical effects are largest when the conductors are separated by the smallest distance without touching (once brought into contact, the charge will instead flow internally through the junction between the conductors). Since two conductors in equilibrium can have a built-in potential difference due to work function differences, this means that bringing dissimilar conductors into contact, or pulling them apart, will drive electric currents. These contact currents can damage sensitive microelectronic circuitry and occur even when the conductors would be grounded in the absence of motion.\n", "The glass transition temperature in thin films is also affected by this phenomenon. Exposure to the free surface enhances the cooperative segmental mobility which reduces T. This can be detrimental in applications like nano electronics, where polymer thin films are used.\n", "Section::::Metallic contact.\n" ]

[ "Touchscreens don't react to some conductors such as metal.", "Metal does not work as a conductor on a touchscreen. " ]

[ "Touchscreens react to any conductor but the surface area needs to be large enough.", "Metal or any other conductor will work on a touch screen, if the conductor is large enough. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Touchscreens don't react to some conductors such as metal.", "Metal does not work as a conductor on a touchscreen. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Touchscreens react to any conductor but the surface area needs to be large enough.", "Metal or any other conductor will work on a touch screen, if the conductor is large enough. " ]

[ "Section::::Fossil snail.\n", "The operculum is large, ear-shaped in outline, and is corneus and somewhat transparent. On beaches where the shell of this species washed up commonly, the operculum will usually also be found washed up in the drift line.\n\nSection::::Moon snail predation.\n\nEmpty shells of clams and snails, including other moon snails, display evidence of predation by a moon snail when they are seen to have a neat \"countersunk\" hole drilled in them.\n", "Land snail shells range from microscopic to large. They are usually classified into three broad size groups. The presence of land snails on a site may indicate human consumption, rodent activity, environmental conditions, or human collection due to their special features.\n", "Fattening pens may contain pieces (or other convenient size) of heavy plastic sheets, hung from boards resting on a rack that lets the tips of the plastic sheets just touch the ground. The plastic sheets are about apart. The sheets give the snails a resting and hiding place. Feeders may be located on the rack that supports the plastic sheets.\n\nA layer of coarse sand and topsoil with earthworms is placed on the fattening pen's bottom. The worms help clean up the snail droppings.\n", "Limpets of this family have a hole at the top of the shell, the portal through which waste products are released. This makes them different from the true limpets, which release waste from the mantle beneath the shell. This species is one of the largest keyhole limpets.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n", "Section::::Ecology.\n", "In England the snail is regularly predated by the song thrush \"Turdus philomelos\", which breaks them open on \"thrush anvils\" (large stones). Here fragments accumulate, permitting researchers to analyse the snails taken. The thrushes hunt by sight, and capture selectively those forms which match the habitat \"least well\". Snail colonies are found in woodland, hedgerows and grassland, and the predation determines the proportion of phenotypes (morphs) found in each colony.\n", "BULLET::::- Almost all genera of hermit crabs use or \"wear\" empty marine gastropod shells throughout their lifespan, in order to protect their soft abdomens, and in order to have a strong shell to withdraw into if attacked by a predator. Each individual hermit crab is forced to find another gastropod shell on a regular basis, whenever it grows too large for the one it is currently using.\n\nSection::::Molluscan seashells.:Conchology.\n", "The bright colors and patterns of cone snails are attractive, hence people sometimes pick up the live animals. This is risky, because the snail often fires its harpoon in these situations. In the case of the larger species of cone snail, the harpoon is sometimes capable of penetrating skin, gloves or wetsuits.\n", "For dead shells of marine species on sandy beaches, these minute empty shells wash up in the lightest deposits of beach drift, in more sheltered areas where the very smallest particles of detritus are left behind by the retreating tide; this is often in a rather flat and level part of the beach. When at least some minute shells are seen on close visual inspection, a sediment sample taken at that spot may contain many more.\n", "It is still unclear how limpets find their way back to the same spot each time, but it is thought that they follow pheromones in the mucus left as they move. Other species, notably \"Lottia gigantea\" seem to \"garden\" a patch of algae around their home scar. They are one of the few invertebrates to exhibit territoriality and will aggressively push other organisms out of this patch by ramming with their shell, thereby allowing their patch of algae to grow for their own grazing.\n\nSection::::Life habits.:Predators and other risks.\n", "In addition, \"Neotricula aperta\" is not known from waters of low conductivity or pH and is calciphilic; the pH of all \"Neotricula aperta\" habitats sampled to date is 7.5 and the river systems in which the snails are found have always been those draining karst areas. More recently, \"Neotricula aperta\" has been found in the primary streams emerging from karst springs, close to the origins of the streams. The snail \"Neotricula aperta\" requires hard water to provide the calcium needed for rapid shell growth as populations re-establish in the Mekong river each year following the annual flood.\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 – an expedition of the U.S. research vessel RV \"Knorr\" with ROV \"Jason\" discovered scaly-foot gastropods in the Kairei vent field.\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 – an expedition of RV \"Da Yang Yi Hao\" discovered the Longqi vent field.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 – an expedition of RV \"Yokosuka\" with DSV \"Shinkai\" 6500 discovered the Solitaire field and sampled scaly-foot gastropods there.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 – an expedition of RV \"Da Yang Yi Hao\" visually observed scaly-foot gastropods at Longqi vent field.\n", "Commonly packed in 3 kg boxes by the processor, the box is usually Polystyrene#Expanded_polystyrene_(EPS) or thin wood, depending on the market demands. Holes in the box ensures that any water lost by the snails, drains out, so that they remain in better shape for longer. A label indicates the fishing zone, packaging date and any other information required by law.\n\nSection::::Human use.:Storing.\n", "In April 2010, a Department of Conservation officer reported that 1552 snails were still held in refrigerators in Hokitika.\n", "The giant African snail is a macrophytophagous herbivore; it eats a wide range of plant material, fruit, and vegetables, paper, and cardboard. It sometimes eats sand, very small stones, bones from carcasses, and even concrete as calcium sources for its shell. In rare instances, the snails consume each other.\n", "Section::::Findings.:Shellfish.\n", "Snails are a delicacy in French cuisine, where they are called \"escargots\". 191 farms produced escargots in France as of 2014. In an English-language menu, \"escargot\" is generally reserved for snails prepared with traditional French recipes (served in the shell with a garlic and parsley butter). Before preparing snails to eat, the snails should be fasting for three days with only water available. After three days of fasting, the snails should be fed flour and offered water for at least a week. This process is thought to cleanse the snails.\n", "Typically half or more of these snails were buried in the sediments and were not visible from the surface. This was also noticed in aquaria where they actively buried themselves in sand. Exact proportion of population of \"Tarebia granifera\" that is buried at any time is not known. There is also not known how long can snails remain buried.\n\n\"Tarebia granifera\" will die at the temperature 7 °C in aquaria, but they do not live in water temperature under 10 °C in the wild.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Dispersal.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 – an expedition of the British Royal Research Ship RRS \"James Cook\" with ROV \"Kiel\" 6000 sampled the Longqi vent field.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nSection::::Description.:Sclerites.\n", "The snail often rests on leaves of shrubs and saplings, and also on the trunks of larger trees. It usually rests on its side, with the end part of its tail curved back. This tail area can act as a suction cup and because of the snail's habit of resting on leaves, these animals can be accidentally and unknowingly picked up by other animals, or even by cars and human beings, that brush against the foliage. Most arboreal snails have very sticky mucus, and this \"hitchhiking\" capability may account for the very extensive distributions of some of the smaller species, as they could easily travel on the feet or legs of birds or bats.\n", "The bottom of the enclosure, if it is not the ground or trays of dirt, needs be a surface more solid than screening. A snail placed in a wire-mesh-bottom pen will keep crawling, trying to get off the wires and onto solid, more comfortable ground.\n", "Most species of land snail are annual, others are known to live 2 or 3 years, but some of the larger species may live over 10 years in the wild. For instance, 10-year old individuals of the Roman snail \"Helix pomatia\" are probably not uncommon in natural populations. Populations of some threatened species may be dependent on a pool of such long-lived adults. In captivity, the lifespan of snails can be much longer than in the wild, for instance up to 25 years in \"H. pomatia\".\n\nSection::::Biology.:Diet.\n", "Many predators, both specialist and generalist, feed on snails. Some animals, such as the song thrush, break the shell of the snail by hammering it against a hard object, such as stone, in order to expose its edible insides. Other predators, such as some species of frogs, circumvent the need to break snail shells by simply swallowing the snail whole, shell and all.\n", "In \"Eight Little Piggies\", a book from 1993, Gould wrote: \"I don't even think \"Euglandina\" has even dented \"Otala\" but it devastated the native \"Poecilozonites\". I used to find them by the thousands throughout the Island. When I returned in 1973... I could not find a single animal alive. Last year (1991) I relocated one species, the smallest and most cryptic, but the large \"P. bermudensis\", the major subject of my research, is probably extinct.\"\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- booting: In computing, booting (also known as booting up) is the initial set of operations that a computer system performs after electrical power to the CPU is switched on or when the computer is reset. On modern general purpose computers, this can take tens of seconds and typically involves performing a power-on self-test, locating and initializing peripheral devices, and then finding, loading and starting the operating system.\n\nSection::::C.\n", "The boot process can be considered complete when the computer is ready to interact with the user, or the operating system is capable of running system programs or application programs.\n\nMany embedded systems must boot immediately. For example, waiting a minute for a digital television or a GPS navigation device to start is generally unacceptable. Therefore, such devices have software systems in ROM or flash memory so the device can begin functioning immediately; little or no loading is necessary, because the loading can be precomputed and stored on the ROM when the device is made.\n", "In computers, instant-on is the ability to boot nearly instantly, thus allowing to go online or to use a specific application without waiting for a PC's traditional operating system to launch. Instant-on technology is today mostly used on laptops, netbooks, and nettops because the user can boot up one program, instead of waiting for the PC's entire operating system to boot. For instance, a user may want to just launch a movie-playing program or launch an internet browser, without needing the whole operating system. There are and were true instant-on machines such as the Atari ST, as described in the Booting article. These machines had complete Operating Systems resident in ROM similar to the way in which the BIOS function is conventionally provided on current computer architectures. The \"instant-on\" concept as used here results from loading an OS, such as a legacy system DOS, with a small hard drive footprint. Latency inherent to mechanical drive performance can also be eliminated by using Live USB or Live SD flash memory to load systems at electronic speeds which are orders of magnitude faster.\n", "Booting\n\nIn computing, booting is the process of starting a computer. It can be initiated by hardware such as a button press, or by a software command. After it is switched on, a computer's central processing unit (CPU) has no software in its main memory, so some process must load software into memory before it can be executed. This may be done by hardware or firmware in the CPU, or by a separate processor in the computer system.\n", "Several devices are available that enable the user to \"quick-boot\" into what is usually a variant of Linux for various simple tasks such as Internet access; examples are Splashtop and Latitude ON.\n\nSection::::Personal computers (PC).:Boot sequence.\n", "BULLET::::- Booting- is starting up a computer or computer appliance until it can be used. It can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or by software command. After the power is switched on, the computer is relatively dumb and can read only part of its storage called read-only memory. There, a small program is stored called firmware. It does power-on self-tests and, most importantly, allows accessing other types of memory like a hard disk and main memory. The firmware loads bigger programs into the computer's main memory and runs it.\n\nSection::::C.\n", "When a computer is turned off, its softwareincluding operating systems, application code, and dataremains stored on non-volatile memory. When the computer is powered on, it typically does not have an operating system or its loader in random-access memory (RAM). The computer first executes a relatively small program stored in read-only memory (ROM) along with a small amount of needed data, to access the nonvolatile device or devices from which the operating system programs and data can be loaded into RAM.\n", "\"Boot\" is short for \"bootstrap\" or \"bootstrap load\" and derives from the phrase \"to pull oneself up by one's bootstraps\". The usage calls attention to the requirement that, if most software is loaded onto a computer by other software already running on the computer, some mechanism must exist to load the initial software onto the computer. Early computers used a variety of ad-hoc methods to get a small program into memory to solve this problem. The invention of read-only memory (ROM) of various types solved this paradox by allowing computers to be shipped with a start up program that could not be erased. Growth in the capacity of ROM has allowed ever more elaborate start up procedures to be implemented.\n", "Restarting a computer also is called rebooting, which can be \"hard\", e.g. after electrical power to the CPU is switched from off to on, or \"soft\", where the power is not cut. On some systems, a soft boot may optionally clear RAM to zero. Both hard and soft booting can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or by software command. Booting is complete when the operative runtime system, typically operating system and some applications, is attained.\n", "The boot device is the device from which the operating system is loaded. A modern PC's UEFI or BIOS firmware supports booting from various devices, typically a local solid state drive or hard disk drive via the GPT or Master Boot Record (MBR) on such a drive or disk, an optical disc drive (using El Torito), a USB mass storage device (FTL-based flash drive, SD card, or multi-media card slot; hard disk drive, optical disc drive, etc.), or a network interface card (using PXE). Older, less common BIOS-bootable devices include floppy disk drives, SCSI devices, Zip drives, and LS-120 drives.\n", "Most computers are also capable of booting over a computer network. In this scenario, the operating system is stored on the disk of a server, and certain parts of it are transferred to the client using a simple protocol such as the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). After these parts have been transferred, the operating system takes over the control of the booting process.\n", "\"Fastboot \"is a protocol and it has a tool with the same name included with the Android SDK package used primarily to modify the flash filesystem via a USB connection from host computer. It requires that the device be started in a boot loader or Secondary Program Loader mode, in which only the most basic hardware initialization is performed. After enabling the protocol on the device itself, it will accept a specific set of commands sent to it via USB using a command line. Some of the most commonly used fastboot commands include:\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThere are many different methods available to load a short initial program into a computer. These methods reach from simple, physical input to removable media that can hold more complex programs.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre integrated-circuit-ROM examples.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre integrated-circuit-ROM examples.:Early computers.\n", "After initializing required hardware, the firmware (UEFI or BIOS) goes through a pre-configured list of non-volatile storage devices (\"boot device sequence\") until it finds one that is bootable. A bootable MBR device is defined as one that can be read from, and where the last two bytes of the first sector contain the little-endian word , found as byte sequence , on disk (also known as the MBR boot signature), or where it is otherwise established that the code inside the sector is executable on x86 PCs.\n", "As with the second-stage boot loader, network booting begins by using generic network access methods provided by the network interface's boot ROM, which typically contains a Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) image. No drivers are required, but the system functionality is limited until the operating system kernel and drivers are transferred and started. As a result, once the ROM-based booting has completed it is entirely possible to network boot into an operating system that itself does not have the ability to use the network interface.\n\nSection::::Personal computers (PC).\n\nSection::::Personal computers (PC).:Boot devices.\n", "Smaller computers often use less flexible but more automatic boot loader mechanisms to ensure that the computer starts quickly and with a predetermined software configuration. In many desktop computers, for example, the bootstrapping process begins with the CPU executing software contained in ROM (for example, the BIOS of an IBM PC) at a predefined address (some CPUs, including the Intel x86 series are designed to execute this software after reset without outside help). This software contains rudimentary functionality to search for devices eligible to participate in booting, and load a small program from a special section (most commonly the boot sector) of the most promising device, typically starting at a fixed entry point such as the start of the sector.\n", "Section::::Modern boot loaders.:First-stage boot loader.\n", "Some computer systems, upon receiving a boot signal from a human operator or a peripheral device, may load a very small number of fixed instructions into memory at a specific location, initialize at least one CPU, and then point the CPU to the instructions and start their execution. These instructions typically start an input operation from some peripheral device (which may be switch-selectable by the operator). Other systems may send hardware commands directly to peripheral devices or I/O controllers that cause an extremely simple input operation (such as \"read sector zero of the system device into memory starting at location 1000\") to be carried out, effectively loading a small number of boot loader instructions into memory; a completion signal from the I/O device may then be used to start execution of the instructions by the CPU.\n", "Upon starting, an IBM-compatible personal computer's x86 CPU executes, in real mode, the instruction located at reset vector (the physical memory address on 16-bit x86 processors and on 32-bit and 64-bit x86 processors), usually pointing to the firmware (UEFI or BIOS) entry point inside the ROM. This memory location typically contains a jump instruction that transfers execution to the location of the firmware (UEFI or BIOS) start-up program. This program runs a power-on self-test (POST) to check and initialize required devices such as DRAM and the PCI bus (including running embedded ROMs). The most complicated step is setting up DRAM over SPI, made more difficult by the fact that at this point memory is very limited.\n", "Section::::Boot process.\n\nIn PowerPC-based Macintoshes, the boot process starts with the activation of BootROM, the basic Macintosh ROM, which performs a Power On Self Test to test hardware essential to startup. On the passing of this test, the startup chime is played and control of the computer is passed to OpenFirmware. OpenFirmware initializes the Random Access Memory, Memory Management Unit and hardware necessary for the ROM's operation. The OpenFirmware then checks settings, stored in NVRAM, and builds a list of all devices on a device tree by gathering their stored FCode information.\n", "Instant-off\n\nInstant-off is a feature found in modern laptops, predominantly included in premium, high-end models only. Instant-off enables users of such devices to immediately power down their hardware without enduring the long and often arduous waiting process typically associated with laptops that are not Instant-off enabled. Whilst such a feature could technically be incorporated into inferior mainstream consumer models, the high cost and low level of user education associated with this market are prohibitive.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Once the user has selected the device they'd like to make bootable, selected the bootable disk to copy the required libraries and information from, and chosen the programs to include on the DasBoot device, clicking a single button starts the process of building the required information and copying it to the device.\n", "Large and complex systems may have boot procedures that proceed in multiple phases until finally the operating system and other programs are loaded and ready to execute. Because operating systems are designed as if they never start or stop, a boot loader might load the operating system, configure itself as a mere process within that system, and then irrevocably transfer control to the operating system. The boot loader then terminates normally as any other process would.\n\nSection::::Modern boot loaders.:Network booting.\n", "BULLET::::- Dell Computer Corporation announced on 13 August 2008 that they would support \"instant on\" in their Latitude line of laptops, leveraging \"a dedicated low-voltage sub-processor and OS that can enable multi-day battery life and which provides \"near-instant access to e-mail, calendar, attachments, contacts and the Web without booting into the system’s main operating system (OS)...\" This OS will be running a Linux variant.\n\nBULLET::::- In January 2009, LG started shipping Splashtop on its netbooks, calling it \"Smart On.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In June 2009, Acer started using Splashtop on its netbook, calling it \"RevoBoot.\"\n", "In the IBM System/360 and its successors, including the current z/Architecture machines, the boot process is known as \"Initial Program Load\" (IPL).\n" ]

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[ "Because chemoresponsive nerve fibers are present in all types of skin, chemesthetic sensations can be aroused from anywhere on the body's surface as well as from mucosal surfaces in the nose, mouth, eyes, etc. Mucus membranes are generally more sensitive to chemesthetic stimuli because they lack the barrier function of cornified skin.\n\nMuch of the chemesthetic flavor sensations are mediated by the trigeminal nerves, which are relatively large and important nerves. Flavors that stimulate the trigeminal nerves are therefore important - for example, carbon dioxide is the trigeminal stimulant in carbonated beverages.\n", "BULLET::::- the sensory limb is mediated predominantly by CN IX (glossopharyngeal nerve)\n\nBULLET::::- the motor limb by CN X (vagus nerve).\n\nThe gag reflex involves a brisk and brief elevation of the soft palate and bilateral contraction of pharyngeal muscles evoked by touching the posterior pharyngeal wall. Touching the soft palate can lead to a similar reflex response. However, in that case, the sensory limb of the reflex is the CN V (trigeminal nerve). In very sensitive individuals, much more of the brain stem may be involved; a simple gag may enlarge to retching and vomiting in some.\n", "A percentage of the gas we breathe (air) is always dissolved in our blood, like the gas dissolved in a carbonated drink bottle with the lid on. If a person moves to a higher ambient pressure, then the gas inhaled is at a higher pressure, so more of it dissolves in the blood and diffuses into body tissues (Henry's and Fick's gas laws). If they slowly move back to a lower pressure, then the extra gas comes out slowly until they are back to their normal amount of dissolved gas. But if they move quickly to a lower ambient pressure, then the gas comes out of our blood and tissues violently, in large bubbles, in the same way that quickly removing the cap from a bottle of soft drink produces far more bubbles than slowly opening the bottle.\n", "A detailed physical examination of the airway is important, particularly:\n\nBULLET::::- the range of motion of the cervical spine: the subject should be able to tilt the head back and then forward so that the chin touches the chest.\n\nBULLET::::- the range of motion of the jaw (the temporomandibular joint): three of the subject's fingers should be able to fit between the upper and lower incisors.\n", "BULLET::::- For a CO pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks (formula_4 ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the p\"K\" value (3.60), giving [HCO] [HCO] at high pressures.\n\nBULLET::::- A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.\n\nBULLET::::- Remark\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Chart performance.\n", "Gunshot wounds are the commonest form of penetrating trauma that cause TBI. Less commonly, knife wounds and shrapnel from motor vehicle accidents can also penetrate the airways. Most injuries to the trachea occur in the neck, because the airways within the chest are deep and therefore well protected; however, up to a quarter of TBI resulting from penetrating trauma occurs within the chest. Injury to the cervical trachea usually affects the anterior (front) part of the trachea.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Gas is very compressible. Humans have many air spaces: sinuses, middle ears, gas in our bowels, cavities in our teeth, and largest of all, our lungs. On land in our daily lives, the pressure in our air spaces is usually exactly the same as the pressure outside, because our air spaces are connected to the outside world. If there was a pressure difference between the outside world and one of our air spaces, then we experience painful pressure on the walls of that air space, as air pushes from the higher-pressure side to the lower-pressure side. This is why we sometimes get painful ears on air trips.\n", "Saliva acts as a buffer, regulating the pH when acidic drinks are ingested. Drinks vary in their resistance to the buffering effect of saliva. Studies show that fruit juices are the most resistant to saliva's buffering effect, followed by, in order: fruit-based carbonated drinks and flavoured mineral waters, non-fruit-based carbonated drinks, sparkling mineral waters; Mineral water being the least resistant. Because of this, fruit juices in particular, may prolong the drop in pH levels.\n", "Drinking from a beer bong is different from drinking beer normally (or other carbonated beverage). This is because the drinker is not in control of the volume of liquid entering the mouth. In addition, the force of gravity pushes the beer into the drinker's mouth and thus 'forces' the beer down. It is for this reason the beer bong often engages the gag reflex.\n", "where:\n\nBULLET::::- 6.1 is the acid dissociation constant (p\"K\") of carbonic acid () at normal body temperature\n\nBULLET::::- is the concentration of bicarbonate in the blood in mEq/L\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pa\"CO is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood in torr\n", "Section::::Anatomy of the human nose.:The structures of the nose.:E. Nerves of the nose.:The maxillary division innervation.\n\nBULLET::::- Maxillary nerve – conveys sensation to the upper jaw and the face.\n\nBULLET::::- Infraorbital nerve – conveys sensation to the area from below the eye socket to the external nares (nostrils).\n\nBULLET::::- Zygomatic nerve – through the zygomatic bone and the zygomatic arch, conveys sensation to the cheekbone areas.\n\nBULLET::::- Superior posterior dental nerve – sensation in the teeth and the gums.\n\nBULLET::::- Superior anterior dental nerve – mediates the sneeze reflex.\n", "The term \"Mace\" came into being because it was the brand-name invented by one of the first American manufacturers of CN aerosol sprays. Subsequently, in the United States, Mace became synonymous with tear-gas sprays in the same way that Kleenex has become strongly associated with facial tissues (a phenomenon known as a genericized trademark).\n\nLike CS gas, this compound irritates the mucous membranes (oral, nasal, conjunctival and tracheobronchial). Sometimes it can give rise to more generalized reactions such as syncope, temporary loss of balance and orientation. More rarely, cutaneous irritating outbreaks have been observed and allergic contact permanent dermatitis.\n", "BULLET::::- The abdominal muscles contract to accentuate the action of the relaxing diaphragm; simultaneously, the other expiratory muscles contract. These actions increase the pressure of air within the lungs.\n\nBULLET::::- The vocal cords relax and the glottis opens, releasing air at over 100 mph.\n\nBULLET::::- The bronchi and non-cartilaginous portions of the trachea collapse to form slits through which the air is forced, which clears out any irritants attached to the respiratory lining.\n", "BULLET::::- Nerve injury: This is primarily an issue with extraction of third molars, but can occur with the extraction of any tooth should the nerve be close to the surgical site. Two nerves are typically of concern, and are found in duplicate (one left and one right): 1. the inferior alveolar nerve, which enters the mandible at the mandibular foramen and exits the mandible at the sides of the chin from the mental foramen. This nerve supplies sensation to the lower teeth on the right or left half of the dental arch, as well as sense of touch to the right or left half of the chin and lower lip. 2. The lingual nerve (one right and one left), which branches off the mandibular branches of the trigeminal nerve and courses just inside the jaw bone, entering the tongue and supplying sense of touch and taste to the right and left half of the anterior 2/3 of the tongue as well as the lingual gingiva (\"i.e.\", the gums on the inside surface of the dental arch). Such injuries can occur while lifting teeth (typically the inferior alveolar), but are most commonly caused by inadvertent damage with a surgical drill. Such injuries are rare and are usually temporary, but depending on the type of injury (\"i.e.\", Seddon classification: neuropraxia, axonotmesis, & neurotmesis), can be prolonged or even permanent.\n", "In and \"\" (1919), the following recipe is offered: \"[One] teaspoonful of the following mixture after each meal: One ounce chloride of soda, one ounce liquor of potassa, one and one-half ounces phosphate of soda, and three ounces of water.\"\n", "According to one study, one in three people lacks a gag reflex. However, on the other end of the spectrum are people with a hypersensitive gag reflex. This hypersensitivity can lead to issues in various situations, from swallowing a pill or large bites of food to visiting the dentist. Hypersensitivity is generally a conditioned response, usually occurring following a previous experience. There are a variety of ways to desensitize one’s hypersensitivity, from relaxation to numbing the mouth and throat to training one's soft palate to get used to being touched.\n\nSection::::Absence.\n", "Section::::Nerve and Vascular Supply during Early Development.:Nerve Supply.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nClinical examination and x rays can help diagnose the condition. For examples :\n\nBULLET::::- Valsalva test (nose blowing test): Ask the patient to pinch the nostrils together and open the mouth, then blow gently through the nose. Observe if there is passage of air or bubbling of blood in the post extraction alveolus as the trapped air from closed nostrils is forced into the mouth through any oroantral communication. Gentle suction applied to the socket often produces a characteristic hollow sound.\n", "In renal compensation, plasma bicarbonate rises 3.5 mEq/L for each increase of 10 mm Hg in \"Pa\"CO. The expected change in serum bicarbonate concentration in respiratory acidosis can be estimated as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Acute respiratory acidosis: HCO increases 1 mEq/L for each 10 mm Hg rise in \"Pa\"CO.\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic respiratory acidosis: HCO rises 3.5 mEq/L for each 10 mm Hg rise in \"Pa\"CO.\n\nThe expected change in pH with respiratory acidosis can be estimated with the following equations:\n\nBULLET::::- Acute respiratory acidosis: Change in pH = 0.08 X ((40 − \"Pa\"CO)/10)\n", "Burping\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Burping is usually caused by swallowing air when eating or drinking and subsequently expelling it, in which case the expelled gas is mainly a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen.\n\nBULLET::::- Burps can be caused by drinking beverages containing carbon dioxide, such as beer and soft drinks, in which case the expelled gas is mainly carbon dioxide.\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetes drugs such as metformin and exenatide can cause burping, especially at higher doses. This often resolves in a few weeks.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "One experiment investigated the influence of gaze direction and facial expression on face memory. Participants were shown a set of unfamiliar faces with either happy or angry facial expressions, which were either gazing straight ahead or had their gaze averted to one side. Memory for faces that were initially shown with angry expressions was found to be poorer when these faces had averted as opposed to direct gaze, whereas memory for individuals shown with happy faces was unaffected by gaze direction. It is suggested that memory for another individual's face partly depends on an evaluation of the behavioural intention of that individual.\n", "FMRI results show activation of the fusiform cortex, posterior cingulate gyrus, and amygdala when individuals are asked to identify previously seen faces that were encoded as either “friends” or “foes.” Additionally, the caudate and anterior cingulate cortex are more activated when looking at faces of “foes” versus “friends.\" This research suggests that quick first impressions of hostility or support from unknown people can lead to long-term effects on memory that will later be associated with that person.\n\nSection::::Neuroscience.:Alcohol and impressions.\n", "Contradicting the last theory, the affective valence in developmental prosopagnosia theory states that individuals may be processing faces on affective dimensions, feelings and emotions, rather than familiarity dimensions, previous occasions and when they met.\n", "After picking up her two young children from school, Grace Lawson looks through a newly developed set of photographs. She finds an odd one in the pack: a mysterious picture from perhaps twenty years ago, showing four strangers she can’t identify. But there is one face she recognizes—that of her husband, from before she knew him. When her husband sees the photo that night, he leaves their home and drives off without explanation. She doesn't know where he's going, why he's leaving, or whether or not he's ever coming back. Nor does she realize how dangerous the search for him will be. There are others interested in both her husband’s past and that photo, including Eric Wu, a fierce, silent killer who will not be stopped from finding his quarry, no matter who or what stands in his way.\n", "Some target identity information survives crowding,people can identify more correct targets from a crowded setting when they are asked to report information on both the target and the flanker. Sometimes certain information such as the target information is lost, but the people are able to make better \"target “ responses in this condition. Some information on the target is preserved, but most of the times the location information is lost.\n\nSection::::Reduction.\n", "Prosopagnosia (or \"face blindness\") is a category-specific visual object agnosia, specifically, impairment in visual recognition of familiar faces, such as close friends, family, husbands, wives, and sometimes even their own faces. Individuals are often able to identify others through alternate characteristics, such as, voice, gait, context or unique facial features. This deficit is typically assessed through picture identification tasks of famous persons. This condition is associated with damage to the medial occipito-temporal gyri, including the fusiform and lingual gryi, as the suggested location of the brain's face recognition units.\n\nSection::::Common forms of visual associative agnosia.:Prosopagnosia.:Associative and apperceptive forms.\n", "Disjunctive cognitions reveal much about how the brain is organized. Blechner has suggested that whenever disjunctive cognitions occur, the two aspects of cognition that are disjunctive are handled in different parts of the brain whose mutual integration is suppressed or shifted during sleep. Disjunctive cognitions between what the person looks like and who the person is suggest two brain systems for those aspects of perception. This is supported by research in neuropsychology and neurobiology. For example, some people who have suffered strokes or other brain damage have a syndrome known as prosopagnosia. A prosopagnosic man may look at his wife of 50 years, see all of her features clearly, and yet not recognize who she is. In such people, the process of seeing is intact, but the process of facial recognition is damaged. There is also the phenomenon of Capgras syndrome, in which a person may feel that a close relative is actually an impostor. The features of the relative are recognizable, but the person's identity is not. And there is also Fregoli delusion, in which a person may mistakenly identify strangers as people he actually knows. In all of these syndromes, there is a disjunction between the appearance and perceived identity of the person.\n", "In order to monitor changing facial expressions of individuals, the hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex may be a crucial part in guiding critical real-world social behavior in social gatherings. The hippocampus may well be a part of using social cues to understand numerous appearances of the same person over short delay periods. The orbitofrontal cortex being important in the processing of social cues leads researchers to believe that it works with the hippocampus to create, maintain, and retrieve corresponding representations of the same individual seen with multiple facial expressions in working memory. After coming across the same person multiple times with different social cues, the right lateral orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampus are more strongly employed and display a stronger functional connection when disambiguating each encounter with that individual. During an fMRI scan the lateral orbitofrontal cortex, hippocampus, fusiform gyrus bilaterally showed activation after meeting the same person again and having previously seen two different social cues. This would suggest that both of these brain areas help retrieve correct information about a person's last encounter with the person. The ability to separate the different encounters with different people seen with different social cues leads researchers to believe that it permits for suitable social interactions. Ross, LoPresti and Schon offer that the orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampus are a part of both working memory and long-term memory, which permits flexibility in encoding separate representations of an individual in the varying social contexts in which we encounter them.\n", "Section::::Encoding.\n\nSection::::Encoding.:During the event.\n\nSection::::Encoding.:During the event.:Challenges of identifying faces.\n", "Covert facial recognition\n\nJoachim Bodamer created the term prosopagnosia in 1947, which is a disorder where individuals have an inability to recognize faces of people. Individuals with this disorder do not have the ability to overtly recognize faces, but discoveries have been made showing that people with this disorder have the ability to covertly recognize faces. Covert facial recognition is the unconscious recognition of familiar faces by people with prosopagnosia. The individuals who express this phenomenon are unaware that they are recognizing the faces of people they have seen before.\n", "BULLET::::- Jennifer Thompson was a college student in North Carolina in 1984, when a man broke into her apartment, put a knife to her throat, and raped her. According to her own account, she studied her rapist throughout the incident with great determination to memorize his face. \"I studied every single detail on the rapist's face. I looked at his hairline; I looked for scars, for tattoos, for anything that would help me identify him. When and if I survived the attack, I was going to make sure that he was put in prison and he was going to rot.\"\n", "Research has been conducted to see if faces or voices make it easier to identify individuals and recall semantic memory and episodic memory. These experiments look at all three stages of face processing. The experiment method was to show two groups celebrity and familiar faces or voices with a between-group design and ask the participants to recall information about them. The participants are first asked if the stimulus is familiar. If they answer yes then they are asked to information (semantic memory) and memories they have of the person (episodic memory) that fits the face or voice presented. These experiments all demonstrate the strong phenomenon of the face advantage and how it persists through different follow-up studies with different experimental controls and variables.\n", "Section::::Face advantage in memory recall.:Extension to episodic memory and explanation for existence.\n", "Section::::Facial pattern recognition.\n\nRecognizing faces is one of the most common forms of pattern recognition. Humans are incredibly effective at remembering faces, but this ease and automaticity belies a very challenging problem. All faces are physically similar. Faces have two eyes, one mouth, and one nose all in predictable locations, yet humans can recognize a face from several different angles and in various lighting conditions. \n", "Although the ability for overt facial recognition is inhibited in patients with prosopagnosia, there have been many studies done which show that some of these individuals may have the ability to recognize familiar faces covertly. These experiments have used behavioral and physiological measures in order to demonstrate covert facial recognition. A common physiological measure that is used is the measure of autonomic activity by using skin-conductance responses (SCR) which show a larger response in individuals with prosopagnosia who are shown pictures of familiar faces compared to pictures of unfamiliar faces.\n\nSection::::Theories and reasoning.\n", "Just as memory and cognitive function separate the abilities of children and adults to recognize faces, the familiarity of a face may also play a role in the perception of faces. Zheng, Mondloch, and Segalowitz recorded event-related potentials in the brain to determine the timing of recognition of faces in the brain. The results of the study showed that familiar faces are indicated and recognized by a stronger N250, a specific wavelength response that plays a role in the visual memory of faces. Similarly, Moulson et al. found that all faces elicit the N170 response in the brain.\n", "Section::::Memory for faces.:Difficulties with facial recognition.:Autism spectrum disorders.\n\nAutism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurological development disorders characterized by repetitive behaviours and impaired social skills. Patients with ASD are also characterized by over-selectivity, which is a tendency to attend to only a few stimuli. Over-selectivity causes memory encoding problems, as relevant information is not attended to, and thus not stored in memory. These encoding problems are associated with an impaired memory for faces, which is in turn associated with impairments in social functioning.\n\nSection::::Memory for faces.:Difficulties with facial recognition.:Prosopagnosia.\n", "As an example of one of these first factors, several studies point toward Capgras delusion being the result of a disorder of the affect component of face perception. As a result, while the person can recognize their spouse (or other close relation) they do not feel the typical emotional reaction, and thus the spouse does not seem like the person they once knew.\n", "Since the brain has separate systems for deciding what a person looks like and who the person is, this division of labor may be responsible not only for disjunctive cognitions, but also the phenomenon of transference. In psychoanalytic treatment, patients frequently experience transference, in which the psychoanalyst is perceived to be very much like someone from the patient's past. As in disjunctive cognitions of dreams, the patient may feel \"You look like Dr. X, but you feel like my mother.\" The separate areas of the brain involved in telling us what the person looks like and who the person is may give a neurobiological basis for transference, the phenomenon in which we know who a person is, yet we react emotionally to that person as if they are someone else.\n", "The ability to visually identify previous social partners is essential for successful interactions because it aids in recognizing which partners can and cannot be trusted. In humans, this is accomplished by facial recognition. Research suggests that humans are born with an innate ability to process other human faces. In one study, Pascalis, et al. (1995) found that four-day-old neonates (infants) prefer to look at their mothers' faces rather than at a stranger's. This finding suggests that neonates are able to remember, recognize, and differentiate between faces. Further research suggests that humans prefer to attend to faces rather than non-face alternatives. Such specialized processing for faces aids in the encoding of memory for people. This preference is one explanation for why humans are more proficient at memorizing faces than non-faces.\n", "Psychologists debate whether the FFA is activated by faces for an evolutionary or expertise reason. The conflicting hypotheses stem from the ambiguity in FFA activation, as the FFA is activated by both familiar objects and faces. A study regarding novel objects called greebles determined this phenomenon. When first exposed to greebles, a person's FFA was activated more strongly by faces than by greebles. After familiarising themselves with individual greebles or becoming a greeble expert, a person's FFA was activated equally by faces and greebles. Likewise, children with autism have been shown to develop object recognition at a similarly impaired pace as face recognition. Studies of late patients of autism have discovered that autistic people have lower neuron densities in the FFA This raises an interesting question, however: Is the poor face perception due to a reduced number of cells or is there a reduced number of cells because autistic people seldom perceive faces? Asked simply: Are faces simply objects with which every person has expertise?\n", "The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. Specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area (FFA), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals.\n", "There are unfamiliar faces too, like a woman named Cassie who turns up at the funeral and may or may not have been their late father's mistress. It is a chance for everyone to get acquainted or reacquainted, and it's all in the family.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Hoskins as Johnny Scanlan\n\nBULLET::::- Blair Brown as Amy Scanlan\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Curry as Boyd Pinter\n\nBULLET::::- Frances McDormand as Nora Scanlan\n\nBULLET::::- William Petersen as Frank Scanlan\n\nBULLET::::- Pamela Reed as Terry Scanlan Pinter\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Riegert as Peter Syracusa\n\nBULLET::::- Maureen Stapleton as Mary Scanlan\n\nBULLET::::- Nancy Travis as Cassie Slocombe\n", "Prosopagnosia is an inability to identify faces and face-like objects. This represents a failure to encode incoming visual information. Neurological studies indicate that prosopagnosia is associated with bilateral lesions of the central visual system, primarily located in the mesial occipitotemporal region. The inability to correctly recognize a face can have detrimental consequences for building social relationships due to the fact that recognition is required for associating feelings or experiences with a stimulus.\n\nSection::::Memory for previous interactions.\n", "In 1997, Hadyn Ellis and his colleagues published a study of five patients with Capgras delusion (all diagnosed with schizophrenia) and confirmed that although they could consciously recognize the faces, they did not show the normal automatic emotional arousal response. The same low level of autonomic response was shown in the presence of strangers. Young (2008) has theorized that this means that patients with the disease experience a \"loss\" of familiarity, not a \"lack\" of it. Further evidence for this explanation comes from other studies measuring galvanic skin responses (GSR) to faces. A patient with Capgras delusion showed reduced GSRs to faces in spite of normal face recognition. This theory for the causes of Capgras delusion was summarised in \"Trends in Cognitive Sciences\".\n" ]

[ "People with aphantasia remember the faces of loved ones." ]

[ "They do not remeber what they look lik, but other personality queues like voice, posture, etc help them identify people. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "People with aphantasia remember the faces of loved ones.", "People with aphantasia remember the faces of loved ones." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "They do not remeber what they look lik, but other personality queues like voice, posture, etc help them identify people. ", "They do not remeber what they look lik, but other personality queues like voice, posture, etc help them identify people. " ]

[ "When the skin is exposed to UV-B light, cholesterol in the skin is transformed into vitamin D3. In general the skin does not need much UV-B energy to generate vitamin D3, and 15 minutes of strong sunshine every day is usually considered enough.\n\nIn Northern European countries especially in the winter when sunlight is scarce, pregnant women may receive UVB light in clinics to assure that their babies have an adequate amount of vitamin D3 when born.\n\nAnimals need UV-B light to produce vitamin D3 and strong bones. \n", "The farther a place is from the equator, the less UVB is received, and the potential to produce of vitamin D is diminished. Some regions far from the equator do not receive UVB radiation at all between autumn and spring. Vitamin D deficiency does not kill its victims quickly, and generally does not kill at all. Rather it weakens the immune system, the bones, and compromises the body’s ability to fight uncontrolled cell division which results in cancer. A form of vitamin D is a potent cell growth inhibitor; thus chronic deficiencies of vitamin D seem to be associated with higher risk of certain cancers. This is an active topic of cancer research and is still debated.\n", "Vitamin D is produced photochemically from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin of most vertebrate animals, including humans. The precursor of vitamin D, 7-dehydrocholesterol is produced in relatively large quantities. 7-Dehydrocholesterol reacts with UVB light at wavelengths of 290–315 nm. These wavelengths are present in sunlight, as well as in the light emitted by the UV lamps in tanning beds (which produce ultraviolet primarily in the UVA spectrum, but typically produce 4% to 10% of the total UV emissions as UVB). Exposure to light through windows is insufficient because glass almost completely blocks UVB light.\n", "The active UVB wavelengths are present in sunlight, and sufficient amounts of cholecalciferol can be produced with moderate exposure of the skin, depending on the strength of the sun. Time of day, season, and altitude affect the strength of the sun, and pollution, cloud cover or glass all reduce the amount of UVB exposure. Exposure of face, arms and legs, averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week, may be sufficient, but the darker the skin, and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure; the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.\n", "Humans with light skin pigmentation living in low sunlight environments experience increased vitamin D synthesis compared to humans with dark skin pigmentation due to the ability to absorb more sunlight. Almost every part of the human body, including the skeleton, the immune system, and brain requires vitamin D. Sunlight is necessary for the production of vitamin D. Vitamin D production in the skin begins when UV radiation penetrates the skin and interacts with a cholesterol-like molecule produce pre-vitamin D3. This reaction only occurs in the presence of medium length UVR, UVB. Most of the UVB and UVC rays are destroyed or reflected by ozone, oxygen, and dust in the atmosphere. UVB reaches the Earth’s surface in the highest amounts when its path is straight and goes through a little layer of atmosphere.\n", "With the increase of vitamin D synthesis, there is a decreased incidence of conditions that are related to common vitamin D deficiency conditions of people with dark skin pigmentation living in environments of low UV radiation: rickets, osteoporosis, numerous cancer types (including colon and breast cancer), and immune system malfunctioning. Vitamin D promotes the production of cathelicidin, which helps to defend humans' bodies against fungal, bacterial, and viral infections, including flu. When exposed to UVB, the entire exposed area of body’s skin of a relatively light skinned person is able to produce between 10 - 20000 IU of vitamin D.\n", "Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UVB exposure raises human vitamin D in those deficient in it. Recent research (primarily since the Montreal Protocol) shows that many humans have less than optimal vitamin D levels. In particular, in the U.S. population, the lowest quarter of vitamin D (17.8 ng/ml) were found using information from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to be associated with an increase in all-cause mortality in the general population. While blood level of vitamin D in excess of 100 ng/ml appear to raise blood calcium excessively and to be associated with higher mortality, the body has mechanisms that prevent sunlight from producing vitamin D in excess of the body's requirements.\n", "Section::::Human health-related effects.:Harmful effects.:Skin damage.\n\nOverexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UVA) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.\n\nAll bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate aging of the skin. Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin, which may cause further damage.\n", "Three benefits of UV exposure are production of vitamin D, improvement in mood, and increased energy.\n\nUVB induces production of vitamin D in the skin at rates of up to 1,000 IUs per minute. This vitamin helps to regulate calcium metabolism (vital for the nervous system and bone health), immunity, cell proliferation, insulin secretion, and blood pressure. In third-world countries, foods fortified with vitamin D are \"practically nonexistent.\" Most people in the world depend on the sun to get vitamin D.\n", "Adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs, averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week, or approximately 25% of the time for minimal sunburn. The darker the skin, and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure; the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.\n", "Vitamin D is produced when the skin is exposed to UVB, whether from sunlight or an artificial source. It is needed for mineralization of bone and bone growth. Areas in which vitamin D's role is being investigated include reducing the risk of cancer, heart disease, multiple sclerosis and glucose dysregulation. Exposing arms and legs to a minimal 0.5 erythemal (mild sunburn) UVB dose is equal to consuming about 3000 IU of vitamin D3. In a study in Boston, MA, researchers found that adults who used tanning beds had \"robust\" levels of 25(OH)D (46 ng/mL on average), along with higher hip bone density, compared to adults who did not use them.\n", "People with higher levels of vitamin D tend to have lower rates of diabetes, heart disease, and stroke and tend to have lower blood pressure. However, it has been found that vitamin D supplementation does not improve cardiovascular health or metabolism, so the link with vitamin D must be in part indirect. People who get more sun are generally healthier, and also have higher vitamin D levels. It has been found that ultraviolet radiation (even UVA) produces nitric oxide (NO) in the skin, and nitric oxide can lower blood pressure. High blood pressure increases the risk of stroke and heart disease. Although long-term exposure to ultraviolet contributes to non-melanoma skin cancers that are rarely fatal, it has been found in a Danish study that those who get these cancers were less likely to die during the study, and were much less likely to have a heart attack, than those who did not have these cancers.\n", "Synthesis of pre-vitamin D in the skin involves UVB radiation, which effectively penetrates only the epidermal layers of skin. 7-Dehydrocholesterol absorbs UV light most effectively at wavelengths between 290 and 320 nm and, thus, the production of vitamin D will occur primarily at those wavelengths. The two most important factors that govern the generation of pre-vitamin D are the quantity (intensity) and quality (appropriate wavelength) of the UVB irradiation reaching the 7-dehydrocholesterol deep in the stratum basale and stratum spinosum. Another important consideration is the quantity of 7-dehydrocholesterol present in the skin. Under normal circumstances, ample quantities of 7-dehydrocholesterol (about 25–50 ug/cm of skin) are available in the stratum spinosum and stratum basale of human skin to meet the body's vitamin D requirements.\n", "Excessive exposure to sunlight poses no risk in vitamin D toxicity through overproduction of vitamin D precursor, cholecalciferol, regulating vitamin D production. During ultraviolet exposure, the concentration of vitamin D precursors produced in the skin reach an equilibrium, and any further vitamin D that is produced is degraded. This process is less efficient with increased melanin pigmentation in the skin. Endogenous production with full body exposure to sunlight is comparable to taking an oral dose between 250 µg and 625 µg (10,000 IU and 25,000 IU) per day.\n", "The major natural source of the vitamin is synthesis of cholecalciferol in the skin from cholesterol through a chemical reaction that is dependent on sun exposure (specifically UVB radiation). Dietary recommendations typically assume that all of a person's vitamin D is taken by mouth, as sun exposure in the population is variable and recommendations about the amount of sun exposure that is safe are uncertain in view of the skin cancer risk.\n", "In birds and fur-bearing mammals, fur or feathers block UV rays from reaching the skin. Instead, vitamin D is created from oily secretions of the skin deposited onto the feathers or fur, and is obtained orally during grooming. However, some animals, such as the naked mole-rat, are naturally cholecalciferol-deficient, as serum 25-OH vitamin D levels are undetectable.\n\nSection::::Biosynthesis.:Industrial synthesis.\n", "These earlier studies were confirmed in 2019 which showed that sunscreen with a high UVA protection factor enabled significantly higher vitamin D synthesis than a low UVA protection factor sunscreen, likely because it allows more UVB transmission\n\nSection::::Measurements of protection.\n\nSection::::Measurements of protection.:Sun protection factor and labeling.\n", "There are not many foods that naturally have vitamin D. Examples are cod liver oil and oily fish. If people cannot get sunlight, then they will need 1,000 IU of vitamin D per day to stay healthy. A person would have to eat oily fish three or four times per week in order to get enough vitamin D from that food source alone.\n", "Over the past several years, levels of ultraviolet radiation have been tracked at over 30 sites across North America as part of the United States Department of Agriculture's UVB Monitoring and Research Program at Colorado State University. The first map at right shows levels of UVB radiation in June 2008, expressed in Vitamin D Equivalents.\n", "People in certain situations, such as people with intellectual disabilities and neurodevelopmental disorders who stay inside most of the time have low vitamin D levels. Getting enough vitamin D can help stave off \"autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular disease, many types of cancer, dementia, types 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus, and respiratory tract infections.\"\n\nFetuses and children who do not get enough vitamin D can suffer from \"growth retardation and skeletal deformities.\"\n\nSection::::Lower prevalence of multiple sclerosis.\n", "Vitamin D production. Concerns have also been raised about potential vitamin D deficiency arising from prolonged use of sunscreen. Typical use of sunscreen does not usually result in vitamin D deficiency; however, extensive usage may. Sunscreen prevents ultraviolet light from reaching the skin, and even moderate protection can substantially reduce vitamin D synthesis. However, adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs, averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week without sunscreen. (The darker the complexion, or the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed, approximating 25% of the time for minimal sunburn.) Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure thanks to an equilibrium the skin reaches in which vitamin D degrades as quickly as it is created.\n", "Vitamin D deficiencies are often caused by decreased exposure of the skin to sunlight. People with a darker pigment of skin or increased amounts of melanin in their skin may have decreased production of Vitamin D. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet B radiation from the sun and reduces vitamin D production. Sunscreen can also reduce vitamin D production. Medications may speed up the metabolism of vitamin D, causing a deficiency. Some types of liver diseases and kidney diseases can decrease vitamin D production leading to a deficiency. The liver is required to transform vitamin D into 25-hydroxyvitamin D. This is an inactive metabolite of vitamin D but is a necessary precursor (building block) to create the active form of vitamin D.\n", "About 95% of the UVR that reaches the earth from the sun is UVA and 5% UVB; no appreciable UVC reaches the earth. While tanning systems before the 1970s produced some UVC, modern tanning devices produce no UVC, a small amount of UVB and mostly UVA. Classified by the WHO as a group 1 carcinogen, UVR has \"complex and mixed effects on human health\". While it causes skin cancer and other damage, including wrinkles, it also triggers the synthesis of vitamin D and endorphins in the skin.\n\nSection::::Background.:History.\n", "Sunscreen absorbs or reflects ultraviolet light and prevents much of it from reaching the skin. Sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum decreases vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95%, and SPF 15 decreases it by 98%.\n", "The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial.\n\nSection::::Human health-related effects.:Beneficial effects.\n\nThere is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5 to 15 minutes of casual sun exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the summer months is sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high.\n" ]

[ "UV exposure increases the risk of skin cancer." ]

[ "Humans have evolved to darken their skin which prevents over exposure to UV, which otherwise would increase a risk of skin cancer." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "UV exposure increases the risk of skin cancer." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Humans have evolved to darken their skin which prevents over exposure to UV, which otherwise would increase a risk of skin cancer." ]

[ "Section::::Pathways.\n\nThree pathways for rancidification are recognized:\n\nSection::::Pathways.:Hydrolytic.\n\nHydrolytic rancidity refers to the odor that develops when triglycerides are hydrolyzed and free fatty acids are released. This reaction of lipid with water may require a catalyst, leading to the formation of free fatty acids and glycerol. In particular, short-chain fatty acids, such as butyric acid, are malodorous. When short-chain fatty acids are produced, they serve as catalysts themselves, further accelerating the reaction, a form of autocatalysis.\n\nSection::::Pathways.:Oxidative.\n", "The use of an inert blanketing gas for food products helps to keep oxygen levels low in and around the product. Low levels of oxygen surrounding the product help to reduce the amount of oxidation that may occur, and increases shelf life. In the case of cooking oils, lipid oxidation can cause the oil to change its color, flavor, or aroma. It also decreases the nutrient levels in the food and can even generate toxic substances. Tank blanketing strategies are also implemented to prepare the product for transit (railcar or truck) and for final packaging before sealing the product.\n", "Degreasing\n\nDegreasing, often called defatting or fat trimming, is the removal of fatty acids from an object. In culinary science, degreasing is done with the intention of reducing the fat content of a meal.\n\nSection::::Degreasing food.\n", "For some foods alternative ingredients can be used. Common oils and fats become rancid relatively quickly if not refrigerated; replacing them with hydrogenated oils delays the onset of rancidity, increasing shelf life. This is a common approach in industrial food production, but recent concerns about health hazards associated with trans fats have led to their strict control in several jurisdictions. Even where trans fats are not prohibited, in many places there are new labeling laws (or rules), which require information to be printed on packages, or to be published elsewhere, about the amount of trans fat contained in certain products.\n", "In addition, rancidification can be decreased by storing fats and oils in a cool, dark place with little exposure to oxygen or free radicals, since heat and light accelerate the rate of reaction of fats with oxygen. Antimicrobial agents can also delay or prevent rancidification by inhibiting the growth of bacteria or other micro-organisms that affect the process.\n\nOxygen scavenging technology can be used to remove oxygen from food packaging and therefore prevent oxidative rancidification.\n\nSection::::Oxidative stability measurement.\n", "Section::::Manufacture.\n", "Fatty acid degradation\n\nFatty acid degradation is the process in which fatty acids are broken down into their metabolites, in the end generating acetyl-CoA, the entry molecule for the citric acid cycle, the main energy supply of animals. It includes three major steps:\n\nBULLET::::- Lipolysis of and release from adipose tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Activation and transport into mitochondria\n\nBULLET::::- β-oxidation\n\nSection::::Lipolysis and release.\n", "Substituting fats is a method in which a certain ingredient is substituted by another ingredient. A common way of doing this is substituting saturated fatty acids with unsaturated fatty acids while cooking. For instance, olive oil can be used instead of butter for seasoning vegetables.\n\nFood items are also substituted to reduce fat content. For instance, instead of using eggs by using a whole egg, where the egg yolks are high in fat levels, egg whites can instead be used. Alternatively, skimmed milk or similar low-fat products can be used as ingredients for cooking.\n\nSection::::Degreasing food.:Degreasing liquids.\n", "As an increasing number of mobile devices use high-level file systems, similar to the file systems of computers, methods and tools can be taken over from hard disk forensics or only need slight changes.\n\nThe FAT file system is generally used on NAND memory. A difference is the block size used, which is larger than 512 bytes for hard disks and depends on the used memory type, e.g., NOR type 64, 128, 256 and NAND memory 16, 128, 256, or 512 kilobyte.\n", "In sewers carrying alkaline fluids, lipids can become calcified and solidify. Comprised not only of wet wipes and fat, fatbergs may contain other items that do not break apart or dissolve when flushed down the toilet, such as sanitary napkins, cotton buds, needles, condoms and food waste washed down kitchen sinks. The resulting lumps of congealed material can be as strong as concrete, and require specialist equipment to remove.\n\nIn some areas, such as London, fat blocked in a sewer can react with the lining of the pipe and undergo saponification, converting the oil into a solid, soaplike substance.\n", "BULLET::::3. Iron bacteria stimulates ferric oxyhydroxides deposition which may cause clogging of soil pores. This is an indirect biological cause of decrease in hydraulic conductivity.\n\nSection::::Field observation.\n\nSection::::Field observation.:Under ponded infiltration.\n\nSection::::Field observation.:Under ponded infiltration.:Field problem and countermeasure.\n", "Section::::Pathways.:Microbial.\n\nMicrobial rancidity refers to a water-dependent process in which microorganisms, such as bacteria or molds, use their enzymes such as lipases to break down fat. By destroying or inhibiting microorganisms, pasteurization (sterilization) and addition of antioxidant ingredients, such as vitamin E, can reduce this process.\n\nSection::::Food safety.\n\nUsing fish oil as an example of a food or dietary supplement susceptible to rancidification over various periods of storage, two reviews found effects only on flavor and odor, with no evidence as of 2015 that rancidity causes harm if a spoiled product is consumed.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Those people who wish to reduce their cholesterol level or fat intake, in particular people with hypercholesterolemia often use degreasing to reduce their fat consumption.\n\nSection::::Degreasing food.:Degreasing of a meal during preparation.\n\nFat trimming of a meal can be done during preparation by a variety of methods. The most common methods involving substituting food items or removal of naturally occurring fat and conservative addition of fat.\n", "Bisphenol-A (BPA) is an industrial chemical and organic compound that has been used in the production of plastics and resins for over a half-century. It is used in products such as toys, medical devices, plastic food and beverage containers, shower curtains, dental sealants and compounds, and register receipts. BPA has been shown to seep into food sources from containers or into the body just by handling products made from it. Certain researchers suggest that BPA actually decreases the fat cell count in the body, but at the same time increasing the size of the ones remaining; therefore, no difference in weight is shown, and an individual is even likely to gain more.\n", "Refrigerating or freezing liquids until the fat congeals and solidifies can make the fat easier to remove with a spoon. If, after removing the congealed fat, the liquid still appears cloudy, it can be made clearer by skimming it again with a ladle after bringing it to a gentle simmer to allow for the release of more fat and insoluble proteins.\n\nSection::::Degreasing food.:Degreasing solid food items.\n", "Section::::Lipid degradation.:Fatty acid degradation.\n\nThe fatty acids resulting from hydrolysis can undergo one of two routes of degradation, depending on the availability of oxygen. It is possible, however, for both routes to take place at the same time in different areas of the body.\n\nSection::::Lipid degradation.:Fatty acid degradation.:Anaerobic degradation.\n", "Section::::Polymers.\n\nMany engineering polymers are hygroscopic, including nylon, ABS, polycarbonate, cellulose, and poly(methyl methacrylate).\n\nOther polymers, such as polyethylene and polystyrene, do not normally absorb much moisture, but are able to carry significant moisture on their surface when exposed to liquid water.\n\nType-6 nylon can absorb up to 9.5% of its weight in moisture.\n\nSection::::Applications in baking.\n", "Oxidative rancidity is associated with the degradation by oxygen in the air. The double bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid can be cleaved by free-radical reactions involving molecular oxygen. This reaction causes the release of malodorous and highly volatile aldehydes and ketones. Because of the nature of free-radical reactions, the reaction is catalyzed by sunlight. Oxidation primarily occurs with unsaturated fats. For example, even though meat is held under refrigeration or in a frozen state, the poly-unsaturated fat will continue to oxidize and slowly become rancid. The fat oxidation process, potentially resulting in rancidity, begins immediately after the animal is slaughtered and the muscle, intra-muscular, inter-muscular and surface fat becomes exposed to oxygen of the air. This chemical process continues during frozen storage, though more slowly at lower temperature. Oxidative rancidity can be prevented by light-proof packaging, oxygen-free atmosphere (air-tight containers) and by the addition of antioxidants.\n", "Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. They provide energy as noted above. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.\n", "Lipid storage disorder\n\nA lipid storage disorder (or lipidosis) is any one of a group of inherited metabolic disorders in which harmful amounts of fats or lipids accumulate in some of the body’s cells and tissues. People with these disorders either do not produce enough of one of the enzymes needed to metabolize and break down lipids or they produce enzymes that do not work properly. Over time, the buildup of fats can cause permanent cellular and tissue damage, particularly in the brain, peripheral nervous system, liver, spleen and bone marrow.\n", "Clog\n\nClogs are a type of footwear made in part or completely from wood. Clogs are used worldwide and although the form may vary by culture, within a culture the form often remained unchanged for centuries.\n\nTraditional clogs remain in use as protective footwear in agriculture and in some factories and mines. Although clogs are sometimes negatively associated with cheap and folkloric footwear of farmers and the working class, some types of clogs are considered fashion wear today, such as Swedish träskor or Japanese geta.\n", "Fat\n\nFats are one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrates and proteins. Fat molecules consist of primarily carbon and hydrogen atoms and are therefore hydrophobic and are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water. Examples include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides.\n", "It is very difficult to measure or estimate the actual human consumption of these substances. Highly unsaturated omega-3 rich oils such as fish oil are being sold in pill form so that the taste of oxidized or rancid fat is not apparent. The health food industry's dietary supplements are self-regulated and outside of FDA regulations. To properly protect unsaturated fats from oxidation, it is best to keep them cool and in oxygen-free environments.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Types of fat include vegetable oils, animal products such as butter and lard, as well as fats from grains, including maize and flax oils. Fats are used in a number of ways in cooking and baking. To prepare stir fries, grilled cheese or pancakes, the pan or griddle is often coated with fat or oil. Fats are also used as an ingredient in baked goods such as cookies, cakes and pies. Fats can reach temperatures higher than the boiling point of water, and are often used to conduct high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying, deep frying or sautéing. Fats are used to add flavor to food (e.g., butter or bacon fat), prevent food from sticking to pans and create a desirable texture.\n", "Organotins (tin-based chemicals), used in marine anti-fouling paints, wood catalysts, plasticizers, slimicides, in industrial water systems, and fungicides on food have recently been linked to obesogenic properties when introduced in the body. Human exposure to these major environmental sources most commonly occurs through ingestion of contaminated seafood, agricultural products, and drinking water as well as from exposure to leaching from plastics.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Structure and Function.\n\nNon-synaptic transmission is characteristic of autonomic neuroeffector junctions. The essential features are that: the terminal portions of autonomic nerve fibers are varicose and mobile; transmitters are released from varicosities at varying distances from the effector cells; and while there is no structural post-junctional specialization on effector cells, receptors for neurotransmitters accumulate on cell membranes at close junctions. Besides smooth muscle, autonomic neural control of immune, epithelial, and endothelial cells also involves nonsynaptic transmission.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Cell types.\n\nMany of the nonspiking neurons are found near neuromuscular junctions and exist as long fibers that help to innervate certain motor nerves such as the thoracic-coxal\n", "When first discovered in \"E.coli\", MinD was thought to associate with MinC and form a stable cap at each bacterial pole, thereby specifying the mid-zone of the cell by alleviating inhibitory pressures in that region. Through the use of live-cell imaging with GFP fusion proteins, Raskin and de Boer revealed a dynamic interaction of the Min proteins, demonstrating that MinC and MinD instead rapidly oscillate between the two poles in a non-static manner.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Physiological characteristics.\n\nSome studies have indicated that even with the volatility of signal transmission with these particular neurons, they still perform very well in maintaining signal strength. Studies show that the ratio of signal to noise in experimental settings of some signals are at least 1000 and upwards to 10000 over 5-7mm of propagation length by nerves.\n", "may synapse with many more making it possible for one neuron to stimulate up to thousands of cells. This is exemplified in the way that thousands of muscle fibers can be stimulated from the initial input from a single motor neuron.\n\nIn a converging circuit, inputs from many sources are converged into one output, affecting just one neuron or a neuron pool. This type of circuit is exemplified in the respiratory center of the brainstem, which responds to a number of inputs from different sources by giving out an appropriate breathing pattern.\n", "These findings were demonstrated in part by mouse \"knockout\" studies. In mice which are deficient for either agrin or MuSK, the neuromuscular junction does not form. Further, mice deficient in Dok-7 did not form either acetylcholine receptor clusters or neuromuscular synapses.\n\nThe development of neuromuscular junctions is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015 an all-human neuromuscular junction has been created in vitro using human embryonic stem cells and somatic muscle stem cells. In this model presynaptic motor neurons are activated by optogenetics and in response synaptically connected muscle fibers twitch upon light stimulation.\n", "Cultured networks on traditional MEAs are flat, single-layer sheets of cells with connectivity only two dimensions. Most \"in vivo\" neuronal systems, to the contrary, are large three-dimensional structures with much greater interconnectivity. This remains one of the most striking differences between the model and the reality, and this fact probably plays a large role in skewing some of the conclusions derived from experiments based on this model.\n\nSection::::Growing a neuronal network.\n\nSection::::Growing a neuronal network.:Neurons used.\n", "Non-synaptic transmission is characteristic of autonomic neuroeffector junctions. The structure of the autonomic neuromuscular junction consists of several essential features including that: the terminal portions of autonomic nerve fibers are varicose and mobile, transmitters being released ‘en passage’ from varying distances from the effector cells; while there is no structural post-junctional specialization on effector cells, receptors for neurotransmitters accumulate on cell membranes at close junctions. Muscle effectors are bundles rather than single smooth muscle cells that are connected by gap junctions which allow electrotonic spread of activity between cells. A multiplicity of transmitters are utilized by autonomic nerves, and co-transmission occurs often involving synergistic actions of the co-transmitters, although pre- and post-junctional neuromodulation of neurotransmitter release also take place. It is suggested that autonomic neural control of immune, epithelial and endothelial cells also involves non-synaptic transmission.\n", "Purkinje cells also receive input from the inferior olivary nucleus via climbing fibers. A good mnemonic for this interaction is the phrase \"climb the other olive tree\", given that climbing fibers originate from the contralateral inferior olive. In striking contrast to the 100,000-plus inputs from parallel fibers, each Purkinje cell receives input from exactly one climbing fiber; but this single fiber \"climbs\" the dendrites of the Purkinje cell, winding around them and making a large number of synapses as it goes. The net input is so strong that a single action potential from a climbing fiber is capable of producing a \"complex spike\" in the Purkinje cell: a burst of several spikes in a row, with diminishing amplitude, followed by a pause during which simple spikes are suppressed.\n", "Section::::Roles at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ).:NMJ transmission.\n\nThere are two proposed means by which PSCs can interact with the transmission at the NMJ. One means by which this may occur is through detecting and differentiating between synaptic transmissions, or, in a sense, “hearing” the transmission of the NMJ. The other is altering and participating in the transmission at the NMJ, or “talking” into the already existing message.\n\nSection::::Roles at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ).:NMJ transmission.:Listening to synaptic transmissions.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Identification.\n", "Each sensory neuron within a nerve net responds to each stimulus, like odors or tactile stimuli. The motor neurons communicate with cells via chemical synapse to produce a certain reaction to a given stimulus, therefore a stronger stimulus produces a stronger reaction from the organism. If a particular stimulus is larger than another, then more receptors of the sensory cells (which detect stimuli) will be stimulated which will ultimately trigger a larger response. In a typical unmyelinated axon, the action potential is conducted at a rate of about 5 meters per second, compared to a myelinated human neural fiber which conducts at around 120 meters per second.\n", "Although the axon can conduct in both directions, in tissue there is a preferred direction for transmission from cell to cell.\n\nLater elements that were not included by Waldeyer, but were added in the following decades.\n\nSynapse\n\nA barrier to transmission exists at the site of contact between two neurons that may permit transmission.\n\nUnity of transmission\n\nIf a contact is made between two cells, then that contact can be either excitatory or inhibitory, but will always be of the same type.\n\nDale's law\n\nEach nerve terminal releases a single type of transmitter.\n\nSection::::Update.\n", "A neuron in the brain requires a single signal to a neuromuscular junction to stimulate contraction of the postsynaptic muscle cell. In the spinal cord, however, at least 75 afferent neurons are required to produce firing. This picture is further complicated by variation in time constant between neurons, as some cells can experience their EPSPs over a wider period of time than others.\n\nWhile in synapses in the developing brain synaptic depression has been particularly widely observed it has been speculated that it changes to facilitation in adult brains.\n\nSection::::Circuitry.\n", "Section::::Construction.\n", "BULLET::::- It has been show that in the brains of patients with schizophrenia, as well as in those of patients with bipolar disorder, the glycoprotein reelin is 50% downregulated. In the brains of patients with autism, structural abnormalities in the neocortex and diminished levels of reelin suggest the involvement of CR cells in this disorder.\n", "The complex interactions in the brain make it a perfect candidate to apply network theory. Neurons in the brain are deeply connected with one another and this results in complex networks being present in the structural and functional aspects of the brain. For instance, small-world network properties have been demonstrated in connections between cortical areas of the primate brain or during swallowing in humans. This suggests that cortical areas of the brain are not directly interacting with each other, but most areas can be reached from all others through only a few interactions.\n\nSection::::Networks in biology.:Food webs.\n", "Section::::Types.:Intrinsic excitability of a neuron.:Axonal modulation.:Shunting.\n", "Section::::Role in itch responses.\n", "BULLET::::2. Divergence and convergence: In the human cerebellum, information from 200 million mossy fiber inputs is expanded to 40 billion granule cells, whose parallel fiber outputs then converge onto 15 million Purkinje cells. Because of the way that they are lined up longitudinally, the 1000 or so Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone may receive input from as many as 100 million parallel fibers, and focus their own output down to a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells. Thus, the cerebellar network receives a modest number of inputs, processes them very extensively through its rigorously structured internal network, and sends out the results via a very limited number of output cells.\n", "Neurotransmission implies both a convergence and a divergence of information. First one neuron is influenced by many others, resulting in a convergence of input. When the neuron fires, the signal is sent to many other neurons, resulting in a divergence of output. Many other neurons are influenced by this neuron.\n\nSection::::Cotransmission.\n\nCotransmission is the release of several types of neurotransmitters from a single nerve terminal.\n", "However, structure-function relationships in the brain are unlikely to reduce to simple one-to-one mappings. In fact, the connectome can evidently support a great number of variable dynamic states, depending on current sensory inputs, global brain state, learning and development. Some changes in functional state may involve rapid changes of structural connectivity at the synaptic level, as has been elucidated by two-photon imaging experiments showing the rapid appearance and disappearance of dendritic spines (Bonhoeffer and Yuste, 2002).\n", "The 30 nanometer cleft between nerve ending and endplate contains a meshwork of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at a density of 2,600 enzyme molecules/micrometer, held in place by the structural proteins dystrophin and rapsyn. Also present is the receptor tyrosine kinase protein MuSK, a signaling protein involved in the development of the neuromuscular junction, which is also held in place by rapsyn.\n", "This is currently a highly researched topic, in which many neuroscience labs around the world are attempting to be the first to have a feasible method of directing outgrowth. Potential applications involve the direction and regeneration of severed nerves although these would only become available in the very distant future. This technique would also be useful in the study of neuronal networks. Neurites could be directed toward each other over large distances and allowed to form synapses. Networks of hundreds or thousands of cells could be constructed and studied.\n", "In many practical cases, there is not only a single neuron which becomes the only active one but there are exactly \"k\" neurons which become active for a fixed number \"k\". This principle is referred to as k-winners-take-all.\n\nSection::::Circuit example.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Chemical.\n\nLike other groups, the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations, especially the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior. However, lawrencium is an exception, since its last electron is transferred to the 7p subshell due to relativistic effects.\n", "Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Except for the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.\n", "Section::::Chemical elements.\n\nAn element is a chemical substance made up of a particular kind of atom and hence cannot be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction into a different element, though it can be transmuted into another element through a nuclear reaction. This is so, because all of the atoms in a sample of an element have the same number of protons, though they may be different isotopes, with differing numbers of neutrons.\n", "The same trend in stability is noted in groups 14, 15 and 16. The heaviest members of each group, i.e. lead, bismuth and polonium are comparatively stable in oxidation states +2, +3, and +4 respectively.\n", "When different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.\n", "The oldest periodic table is the short form table (columns I–VIII) by Dmitri Mendeleev, which shows secondary chemical kinships. For example, the alkali metals and the coinage metals (copper, silver, gold) are in the same column because both groups tend to have a valence of one. This format is still used by many, as shown by this contemporary Russian short form table, which includes all elements and element names until roentgenium.\n", "The properties of the chemical elements are summarized in the periodic table, which organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (\"periods\") in which the columns (\"groups\") share recurring (\"periodic\") physical and chemical properties. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, most of them in low degrees of impurities.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "The many different forms of periodic table have prompted the question of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of periodic table. The answer to this question is thought to depend on whether the chemical periodicity seen to occur among the elements has an underlying truth, effectively hard-wired into the universe, or if any such periodicity is instead the product of subjective human interpretation, contingent upon the circumstances, beliefs and predilections of human observers. An objective basis for chemical periodicity would settle the questions about the location of hydrogen and helium, and the composition of group 3. Such an underlying truth, if it exists, is thought to have not yet been discovered. In its absence, the many different forms of periodic table can be regarded as variations on the theme of chemical periodicity, each of which explores and emphasizes different aspects, properties, perspectives and relationships of and among the elements.\n", "Modern science does not support the classical elements as the material basis of the physical world. Atomic theory classifies atoms into more than a hundred chemical elements such as oxygen, iron, and mercury. These elements form chemical compounds and mixtures, and under different temperatures and pressures, these substances can adopt different states of matter. The most commonly observed states of solid, liquid, gas, and plasma share many attributes with the classical elements of earth, water, air, and fire, respectively, but these states are due to similar behavior of different types of atoms at similar energy levels, and not due to containing a certain type of atom or a certain type of substance.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Chemistry.\n\nLike other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:\n", "Each chemical element has a unique atomic number (\"Z\") representing the number of protons in its nucleus. Most elements have differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms, with these variants being referred to as isotopes. For example, carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. Elements with no stable isotopes have the atomic masses of their most stable isotopes, where such masses are shown, listed in parentheses.\n", "From Mendeleev's original periodic table, elements have been basically arranged by valence (groups in columns) and the repetition therein (periods in rows). Over the years and with discoveries in atomic structure, this schema has been adjusted and expanded, but not changed as a principle.\n", "Section::::Description.:Properties.:Occurrence and origin on Earth.\n\nChemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man-made nuclear reactions.\n", "In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number \"Z\" (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (\"period\") is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (\"groups\") are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.\n", "Complicating the chemistry of the nonmetals is the first row anomaly seen particularly in hydrogen, (boron), carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine; and the alternation effect seen in (arsenic), selenium and bromine. The first row anomaly largely arises from the electron configurations of the elements concerned.\n", "The lower the values of ionization energy, electronegativity and electron affinity, the more metallic character the element has. Conversely, nonmetallic character increases with higher values of these properties. Given the periodic trends of these three properties, metallic character tends to decrease going across a period (or row) and, with some irregularities (mostly) due to poor screening of the nucleus by d and f electrons, and relativistic effects, tends to increase going down a group (or column or family). Thus, the most metallic elements (such as caesium and francium) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic tables and the most nonmetallic elements (oxygen, fluorine, chlorine) at the top right. The combination of horizontal and vertical trends in metallic character explains the stair-shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables, and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line, or elements adjacent to those elements, as metalloids.\n", "Parish writes that, 'as anticipated', the borderline metals of groups 13 and 14 have non-standard structures. Gallium, indium, thallium, germanium, and tin are specifically mentioned in this context. The group 12 metals are also noted as having slightly distorted structures; this has been interpreted as evidence of weak directional (i.e. covalent) bonding.\n\nSection::::Related groupings.:Chemically weak metals.\n", "Many alloys of elements that resemble each other chemically will form a structure at higher temperatures where the two elements occupy similar positions in the lattice at random. At lower temperatures ordering may occur where crystallographic positions are no longer equivalent because one element preferentially occupies one site and the other the other. This partial ordering process may lower the translation symmetry and result in a different, larger unit cell.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Displacive transitions.\n", "Since the properties of an element are mostly determined by its electron configuration, the properties of the elements likewise show recurring patterns or periodic behaviour, some examples of which are shown in the diagrams below for atomic radii, ionization energy and electron affinity. It is this periodicity of properties, manifestations of which were noticed well before the underlying theory was developed, that led to the establishment of the periodic law (the properties of the elements recur at varying intervals) and the formulation of the first periodic tables.\n\nSection::::Periodic trends and patterns.:Atomic radii.\n", "Section::::Chemistry.\n\nLike other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, though niobium curiously does not follow the trend:\n", "Section::::Periodic trends and patterns.:Electron affinity.\n\nThe electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.\n", "Section::::History and classification.:Metalloid clusters.\n\nElementoid clusters are ligand-stabilized clusters of metal atoms that possess more direct element-element than element-ligand contacts. Examples of structurally characterized clusters feature ligand stabilized cores of Al, Ga, and Pd.\n\nSection::::History and classification.:Intermetalloid clusters.\n", "In the research field of superatoms, clusters of atoms have properties of single atoms of another element. It is suggested to extend the periodic table with a second layer to be occupied with these cluster compounds. The latest addition to this multi-story table is the aluminium cluster ion , which behaves like a multivalent germanium atom.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- A 1974 review of the tables then known is considered a definitive work on the topic: Mazurs, E. G. Graphical Representations of the Periodic System During One Hundred Years. Alabama; University of Alabama Press, 1974, .\n", "Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in the table below, although some are rarely used. Groups 3–10 have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first member of their group (such as \"the scandium group\" for group 3), since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends.\n", "BULLET::::2. Elements which are similar regarding their chemical properties either have similar atomic weights (e.g., Pt, Ir, Os) or have their atomic weights increasing regularly (e.g., K, Rb, Cs).\n\nBULLET::::3. The arrangement of the elements in groups of elements in the order of their atomic weights corresponds to their so-called valencies, as well as, to some extent, to their distinctive chemical properties; as is apparent among other series in that of Li, Be, B, C, N, O, and F.\n\nBULLET::::4. The elements which are the most widely diffused have small atomic weights.\n" ]

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[ "Elements have the same number of protons, neutrons, and electrons." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal", "normal" ]

[ "The variance of protons, neutrons, and electrons is what creates different elements." ]

[ "Section::::Temporal taste perception.:Variability of human taste perception.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Abito da sposa cercasi XXL\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Adolescenti XXL (\"Too Fat for 15\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Basta: io o il cane\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bimbi fatti in casa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cher: Mia figlia cambia sesso\" (\"Becoming Chaz\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chirurgia XXL\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cucina con Buddy (\"Kitchen Boss\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Emozioni in vitro\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fantasmi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gite gastronomiche\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Il cibo ti fa bella Australia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Il giardiniere\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Il mio grosso grasso matrimonio gypsy (\"My Big Fat Gypsy Wedding\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Io e la mia ossessione (\"My Strange Addiction\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"I peggiori cuochi d'America\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jo Frost: SOS genitori (\"Supernanny\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"L'aggiustatutto a domicilio\"\n", "BULLET::::- A 72-ounce steak meal in less than an hour\n\nBULLET::::- A cluster of bananas and drinking two liters of Sprite\n\nBULLET::::- An entire pineapple\n\nBULLET::::- Two wooden pencils\n\nBULLET::::- 27 ghost peppers, including a video from 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- 110 McDonald's Chicken Nuggets\n\nBULLET::::- 50 cloves of raw garlic in four minutes\n\nBULLET::::- 5 light bulbs in under 10 minutes\n\nBULLET::::- 60 Reese's Peanut Butter Cups\n\nSection::::Notable challenges.:Drinking.\n\nBULLET::::- Drinking a 20-year-old bottle of Crystal Pepsi\n\nBULLET::::- A gallon of honey while covered with bees\n\nBULLET::::- A whole bottle of Syrup of ipecac\n", "A 2011 review used fifteen years of data from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study to examine the fast-food consumption of more than 5,000 young American adults aged 18–30 years in different geographic environments. The study found that fast food consumption was directly related to the proximity of fast food restaurants among low-income participants. \n", "BULLET::::- Panos Kalidis\n\nBULLET::::- Thanos Petrelis\n\nSection::::Charity.\n", "Section::::Determinants.\n\nExpectations about the post-ingestive effects of a food are learned over time. In particular, it would appear that the expected satiety and expected satiation of foods increases as they become familiar.\n", "Christopher Cornell, writing in \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\", echoed the sentiment: \"People who liked the movie (read: teenagers) will tune in expecting something like what they saw in the theater. But the network is going to have to completely eliminate the movie's cheerfully rampant drug use and tone down the lusty sexual content, so that parents won't be uncomfortable.\"\n", "BULLET::::- How and why we evolved our particular taste and flavor sense organs and our general food likes and dislikes\n\nBULLET::::- How cooking methods affect the eventual flavor and texture of food ingredients\n\nBULLET::::- How new cooking methods might produce improved results of texture and flavor\n\nBULLET::::- How our brains interpret the signals from all our senses to tell us the \"flavor\" of food\n\nBULLET::::- How our enjoyment of food is affected by other influences, our environment, our mood, how it is presented, who prepares it, etc.\n\nSection::::Chefs.\n", "A study done by researchers from the Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth College saw results that suggest that when children watch more commercial television (and see more advertisements on fast food), they are more inclined to ask to visit these subsequent fast food restaurants. Specifically, fast food restaurants have been increasing their advertising efforts that target black and Hispanic youth. Advertising on Spanish speaking channels increased by 8% in 2012, with KFC and Burger King increasing spending in this demographic by 35% while cutting down on their regular advertising within English speaking channels.\n", "Section::::Temporal taste perception.\n\nCharacteristics of a food's aftertaste are quality, intensity, and duration. Quality describes the actual taste of a food and intensity conveys the magnitude of that taste. Duration describes how long a food's aftertaste sensation lasts. Foods that have lingering aftertastes typically have long sensation durations.\n", "Section::::Criticisms.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "BULLET::::- John Besh - competitor on \"The Next Iron Chef\", chef and owner of \"August Restaurant\" (New Orleans, Louisiana)\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Boitano - Olympic figure skater and host of \"What Would Brian Boitano Make?\"\n\nBULLET::::- Alton Brown - host of \"Good Eats\", \"Cutthroat Kitchen\" and \"Iron Chef America\", and author of \"Good Eats 2: The Middle Years\"\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Bruni - former restaurant critic \"New York Times\", author \"Born Round\"\n\nBULLET::::- Anne Burrell - sous chef on \"Iron Chef America, host of \"Secrets of a Restaurant Chef, and co-host of \"Worst Cooks in America\"\n", "Section::::Commercial reception.\n", "Section::::Release and reception.\n", "Modern commercial fast food is highly processed and prepared on a large scale from bulk ingredients using standardized cooking and production methods and equipment. It is usually rapidly served in cartons, bags, or in a plastic wrapping, in a fashion which reduces operating costs by allowing rapid product identification and counting, promoting longer holding time, avoiding transfer of bacteria, and facilitating order fulfillment. In most fast food operations, menu items are generally made from processed ingredients prepared at central supply facilities and then shipped to individual outlets where they are cooked (usually by grill, microwave, or deep-frying) or assembled in a short amount of time either in anticipation of upcoming orders (i.e., \"to stock\") or in response to actual orders (i.e., \"to order\"). Following standard operating procedures, pre-cooked products are monitored for freshness and disposed of if holding times become excessive. This process ensures a consistent level of product quality, and is key to delivering the order quickly to the customer and avoiding labor and equipment costs in the individual stores.\n", "BULLET::::- \"La fabbrica del cioccolato\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Little Miss America (\"Toddlers & Tiaras\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mad Fashion\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Malattie imbarazzanti (\"Embarrassing Bodies\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Malattie imbarazzanti XXL\n\nBULLET::::- \"Malattie misteriose\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mamme che amano troppo\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Million Dollar Decorators\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mob Wives\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Monster House\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Shocking Body\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Non sapevo di essere incinta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Obiettivo peso forma'\n\nBULLET::::- \"Party Mamas\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pazzi per la spesa (\"Extreme Couponing\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Quattro matrimoni (\"Four Weddings\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"School Mum Makeover\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Storia di un bebè\" (\"A conception story\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tabatha mani di forbice (\"Tabatha Takes Over\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Torte da record\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transgender e incinta\"\n", "During sham feeding sessions of both appetizing and unappetizing foods, 3 cycles per minute (cpm) power was measured. During the sham feeding of appetizing foods, 3cpm power increased. This increase was not reported in the sham feeding of unappetizing foods. The researchers concluded that the presence of this pattern seems to mark the beginning of the body preparing for digestion, and the absence of this pattern in the disgust condition could indicate that the body is readying to reject the food. The increase of 3cpm power is also linked with increased saliva and digestive juice production, all of which support the idea that this reflex, called the cephalic-vagal reflex, is the precursor of digestion. The differential response to appetizing and unappetizing foods suggest that the body uses disgust as a cue to whether a food is good to eat and responds accordingly.\n", "Because of commercial emphasis on quickness, uniformity and low cost, fast food products are often made with ingredients formulated to achieve a certain flavor or consistency and to preserve freshness.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Variants.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Another study shows that the differences in fast food consumption is blurred between income classes, as the upper class eat about one less fast food meal than the lower class on average. Fast food consumption peaks in the middle-class income but the difference  is still not as clear, but one conclusion remains: the more hours worked, the more fast food a person consumes.\n", "Modern commercial fast food is often highly processed and prepared in an industrial fashion, i.e., on a large scale with standard ingredients and standardized cooking and production methods. It is usually rapidly served in cartons or bags or in a plastic wrapping, in a fashion that minimizes cost. In most fast food operations, menu items are generally made from processed ingredients prepared at a central supply facility and then shipped to individual outlets where they are reheated, cooked (usually by microwave or deep frying) or assembled in a short amount of time. This process ensures a consistent level of product quality, and is key to being able to deliver the order quickly to the customer and eliminate labor and equipment costs in the individual stores.\n", "BULLET::::- 2010: The World's 50 Best Restaurants, \"Restaurant\" – Best Restaurant in the World\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: The World's 50 Best Restaurants, \"Restaurant\" – Best Restaurant in the World\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: The World's 50 Best Restaurants, \"Restaurant\" – Best Restaurant in the World\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: The World's 50 Best Restaurants, \"Restaurant\" – 2nd Best Restaurant in the World\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: The World's 50 Best Restaurants, \"Restaurant\" – Best Restaurant in the World\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: The World's 50 Best Restaurants, \"Restaurant\" – 3rd Best Restaurant in the World\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Irvine - host \"\", and \", co-host \"Worst Cooks in America\"\n\nBULLET::::- Troy Johnson - host \"Crave\", senior editor \"Riviera Magazine\"\n\nBULLET::::- Judy Joo - TV judge \"The Next Iron Chef\", Iron Chef UK, executive chef \"Playboy Club\" (London)\n\nBULLET::::- Ellie Krieger - host \"Healthy Appetite\"\n\nBULLET::::- Emeril Lagasse - host on \"Essence of Emeril\" and \"Emeril Live\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nigella Lawson - host on \"Nigella's Kitchen\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sandra Lee - host on \"Semi-Homemade Cooking\" and \"Sandra's Money Saving Meals\"\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Majumdar - TV judge \"The Next Iron Chef\", and \"Iron Chef America\" author \"Eat My Globe\"\n", "BULLET::::- Jack Klugman as Artur\n\nBULLET::::- Jeremy Glazer as Young Artur\n\nBULLET::::- Meredith Scott Lynn as Jennifer\n\nBULLET::::- Shiri Appleby as Nikki\n\nBULLET::::- Victoria Justice as Young Nikki\n\nBULLET::::- Mili Avital as Vanessa\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Feldman as Zeke\n\nBULLET::::- Adam Lamberg as Lionel\n\nBULLET::::- Max Greenfield as Ethan\n\nBULLET::::- Kane Ritchotte as Young Ethan\n\nBULLET::::- Cynda Williams as Grace\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Ivanir as Rafi\n\nSection::::Awards and nominations.\n\nBULLET::::- deadCENTER Film Festival in Oklahoma City: Winner - Best Narrative Feature\n\nBULLET::::- Napa/Sonoma Wine Country Film Festival: Winner - Best Comedy\n" ]

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[ "Generally speaking, if the double vision is intractable by optical and other means and the patient needs relief from the disturbing double images, it may be indicated to use a more modest approach that simply ensures that the image of the weaker eye no longer interferes with the image of the dominant eye. This relieves the most disturbing symptoms, albeit at the cost of offering only subnormal binocular vision.\n", "Section::::Procedure.\n\nSection::::Procedure.:Preoperative screening.\n\nDuring the \"preoperative screening\", a complete examination of the eye is carried out at a consultation with the surgeon to determine if a patient is suitable for Laser Blended Vision treatment. The dominant eye is determined and vision tested to identify the level of correction required for distance and near on the dominant eye and non-dominant eye. The analysis of ocular dominance and patient specific interocular suppression and binocular rivalry also allows for ensuring the eyes can work together to create the Laser Blended Vision effect.\n", "Binocular vision anomalies are among the most common visual disorders. They are usually associated with symptoms such as headaches, asthenopia, eye pain, blurred vision, and occasional diplopia. About 20% of patients who come to optometry clinics will have binocular vision anomalies. The most effective way to diagnosis vision anomalies is with the near point of convergence test. During the NPC test, a target, such as a finger, is brought towards the face until the examiner notices that one eye has turned outward and/or the person has experienced diplopia or doubled vision.\n", "BULLET::::- A patient without astigmatism should be fully corrected after this step alone. However, if astigmatism is present, the aim of this step is to position the 2 focal lines so as to straddle the retina. This is known as the Circle of Confusion.\n\nBULLET::::- First we need to establish whether the patient is myopic or hypermetropic, therefore determining the need for a minus or plus lens to correct their refractive error.\n", "Section::::Prescription of corrective lenses.:Self refraction.\n\nAlthough lenses are normally prescribed by optometrists or ophthalmologists, there is evidence from developing countries that allowing people to select lenses for themselves produces good results in the majority of cases and is less than a tenth of the cost of prescription lenses.\n\nSection::::Lens types.\n\nSection::::Lens types.:Single vision.\n\nSingle vision lenses correct for only one distance. If they correct for far distance, the person must accommodate to see clearly up close. If the person cannot accommodate, they may need a separate correction for near distances, or else use a multifocal lens (see below).\n", "Section::::Lens types.:Plano.\n\nA corrective lens with a power of zero is called a plano lens. These lenses are used when one or both eyes do not require correction of a refractive error. Some people with good natural eyesight like to wear eyeglasses as a style accessory, or want to change the appearance of their eyes using novelty contact lenses.\n\nSection::::Lens optical profile.\n", "Because of the risks of surgery, and because about 35% of people require at least one more surgery, many people try vision therapy first. This consists of visual exercises. Although vision therapy is generally not covered by American health insurance companies, many large insurers such as Aetna have recently begun offering full or partial coverage in response to recent studies.\n", "BULLET::::- Can be quick and simple to perform in the clinic as the test is easy to orientate and the red green goggles are simply put over the eyes. There is no turning of lenses, as in Bagolini Striated Glasses Test which is another test measuring binocular functions, making the interpretation of the results less complicated\n\nBULLET::::- There are no large glasses frames such as in the Bagolini striated glasses test so the goggles are minimally obstructive to the patient's vision\n\nBULLET::::- Refractive correction can be worn under the goggles\n", "It is to be noted that the vision therapy approach that is widespread in the U.S. and which has led to recover stereopsis in a number of persons, most notably Susan R. Barry, is diametrically opposed to the use of prisms in the manner that is advocated in the MKH method. In particular, Frederick W. Brock spoke against the use of an amblyoscope during training, because in his view the patient needed to take the correct binocular posture (aiming the two eyes such that they simultaneously look at the same target in space) when fusing, otherwise the training would not be likely to succeed.\n", "Since both eyes tend to have a similar shape, the optometrist or ophthalmologist will look at the good eye to assess the anatomical predisposition. The unaffected eye has a 14.7% risk of NAION within five years.\n\nA number of uncontrolled single case or small number of patient reports have associated NAION with use of oral erectile dysfunction drugs.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "In some cases, surgeons may opt for inserting an additional lens over the already implanted one. This type of IOLs procedures are called \"piggyback\" IOLs and are usually considered an option whenever the lens result of the first implant is not optimal. In such cases, implanting another IOL over the existent one is considered safer than replacing the initial lens. This approach may also be used in patients who need high degrees of vision correction.\n", "One must bear in mind that the human eye itself has an Abbe value V≈50.2 so the extremely expensive high-end optical glass types mentioned above would be of dubious value when used to make corrective lenses. Also, one would be very hard pressed to find a laboratory that would be willing to acquire or shape custom eyeglass lenses from these materials, considering that such an order would most likely consist of just two different lenses that are specific to the wearer. In general, V values above that of Crown Glass and CR-39 are of dubious value, except in combinations of extreme prescriptions, very large lens sizes that cover a good portion of the face, high wearer sensitivity to dispersion, and occupations that involve work with very high contrast elements (e.g. reading dark print on very bright white paper, construction involving contrast of (dark) building elements against a cloudy white sky, a workplace with recessed can or other concentrated small area lighting shining on very bright white surfaces, etc.).\n", "Despite ongoing research and advancement in digital photography, digital imaging techniques still face certain barriers, including low sensitivity and specificity, as well as lack of stereopsis (impression of depth). As such, teleophthalmology cannot be a true substitute for comprehensive eye examinations using traditional binocular observation with standard 7-field stereoscopic fundus photography.\n\nAutomated image recognition algorithms are gaining in clinical adoption. While they perform at a level nearly equivalent to humans in ascertaining low and high risk states, diagnosis and grading performance is still insufficient for clinical acceptance.\n", "When interpreting results, the line associated with each eye is the line perpendicular to the lens in front of that eye. If the lens in front of the right eye is at 135 degrees, then the line on the results representing the right eye will be at 45 degrees.\n\nOne light: If the patient sees one light, that means that either they have fused the two images from each eye together, or are suppressing of one of the images.\n", "Convergence insufficiency may be treated with convergence exercises prescribed by an eyecare specialist trained in orthoptics or binocular vision anomalies. Some cases of convergence insufficiency are successfully managed by prescription of eyeglasses, sometimes with therapeutic prisms.\n", "In the U.S., laws at the federal and state level govern the provision and effective dates of prescriptions for contact lenses and eyeglasses. Federal law requires that eyeglass and contact lens prescriptions be given to every consumer, and that the prescriptions be for a minimum of one year. (FTC Section 456.2 “Separation of examination and dispensing” was reviewed in 2004: FTC 2004 review of section 456.2)).\n", "Several proofs of concept for Google Glasses have been proposed in healthcare. In July 2013, Lucien Engelen started research on the usability and impact of Google Glass in health care. Engelen, who is based at Singularity University and in Europe at Radboud University Medical Center, is participating in the Glass Explorer program.\n\nKey findings of Engelen's research included:\n\nBULLET::::1. The quality of pictures and video are usable for healthcare education, reference, and remote consultation.The camera needs to be tilted to different angle for most of the operative procedures\n\nBULLET::::2. Tele-consultation is possible—depending on the available bandwidth—during operative procedures.\n", "The cornea experiences a significant degree of adaptation within hours to days, although full adaptation often requiring 2 – 3 weeks. During this initial period vision may be affected for some people. Once adapted, FDA trials showed over 65% of patients achieved 20/20 eyesight and over 90% achieved 20/40 or better (the typical US requirement for driving without glasses).\n", "In South Africa, Australia and Taiwan, practitioners using the GOV orthokeratology system have achieved successful fits as high as −10.00D of myopia and +5.00D of hyperopia. Not every patient within these parameters will be suitable for the procedure and conditions such as flat or steep corneas may result in the procedure being less successful.\n\nCounter-indications may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Inflammations or infection of the anterior segment of the eye or the cornea\n\nBULLET::::- Disease, injury or abnormality affecting the cornea, conjunctiva or eyelid, or impacting contact lens wear\n\nBULLET::::- Very dry eyes or low eye moisture\n\nBULLET::::- Corneal hypoesthesia (low sensitivity)\n", "One of the major disadvantages of conventional IOLs is that they are primarily focused for distance vision. Though patients who undergo a standard IOL implantation no longer experience clouding from cataracts, they are unable to accommodate, or change focus from near to far, far to near, and to distances in between. In the United States, a new category of intraocular lenses was opened with the approval by the Food and Drug Administration in 2003 of multifocal and accommodating lenses. These come at an additional cost to the recipient beyond what Medicare will pay and each has advantages and disadvantages.\n", "One of the best-known 3D displays developed by HHI was the Free2C, a display with very high resolution and very good comfort achieved by an eye tracking system and a seamless mechanical adjustment of the lenses.\n\nEye tracking has been used in a variety of systems in order to limit the number of displayed views to just two, or to enlarge the stereoscopic sweet spot. However, as this limits the display to a single viewer, it is not favored for consumer products.\n", "Some ophthalmologists, notably Ing and Helveston, favour a prescribed approach often involving multiple surgical episodes whereas others prefer to aim for full alignment of the eyes in one procedure and let the number of muscles operated upon during this procedure be determined by the size of the squint.\n\n2. Timing and outcome\n", "In June 2018, Snap released an update for Spectacles allowing users to export videos from the glasses in square or widescreen format. \n\nIn November 2018, it was reported that the company would release a new version of Spectacles by year end 2018 that included two cameras. However, as of the end of 2018, no such glasses matching this description have been launched. \n\nSection::::Design.\n\nSection::::Design.:Hardware.\n", "The base curve (usually determined from the profile of the front surface of an ophthalmic lens) can be changed to result in the best optic and cosmetic characteristics across the entire surface of the lens. Optometrists may choose to specify a particular base curve when prescribing a corrective lens for either of these reasons. A multitude of mathematical formulas and professional clinical experience has allowed optometrists and lens designers to determine standard base curves that are ideal for most people. As a result, the front surface curve is more standardized and the characteristics that generate a person's unique prescription are typically derived from the geometry of the back surface of the lens.\n", "Since the formation of the European Union, \"there exists a strong movement, headed by the Association of European Schools and Colleges of Optometry (AESCO), to unify the profession by creating a European-wide examination for optometry\" and presumably also standardized practice and education guidelines within EU countries. The first examinations of the new European Diploma in Optometry were held in 1998 and this was a landmark event for optometry in continental Europe.\n\nSection::::Training, licensing, representation and scope of practice.:Europe.:France.\n\nThere is no regulatory framework and optometrists are sometimes trained by completing an apprenticeship at an ophthalmologists' private office.\n" ]

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[]

[ "The riders for the app services such as Uber Eats, Foodora, Grubhub, etc. are independent contractors because they have the flexibility to choose when they work. As independent contractors, they earn $6 an hour or more. In Australia, specifically riders for the food app of Foodora, consider themselves employees because they sometimes work full time hours, are required to wear uniforms, and do set shifts.\n", "Section::::Operation.\n\nUsers can read the menu, order, and pay for food from participating restaurants using an application on the iOS or Android platforms or through a web browser. Users additionally have the option of giving a tip for delivery.\n", "Uber Eats\n\nUber Eats is an American online food ordering and delivery platform launched by Uber in 2014 and based in San Francisco, California.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Uber Eats' parent company Uber was founded in 2009 by Garrett Camp and Travis Kalanick. The company made its foray into food delivery in August 2014 with the launch of the UberFRESH service in Santa Monica, California. In 2015, the platform was renamed to UberEATS, and the ordering software was released as its own application, separate from their app for Uber rides. Its London operation opened in 2016. In November 2018, the company announced plans to triple its workforce in its European markets. As of November 2018, the company reported making food deliveries in 200 cities in 20 countries in EMEA markets.\n", "The app detects the user's location and displays restaurants open at the time. Payment is charged to a card on file with Uber. Meals are delivered by couriers using cars, bikes, or on foot. As of August 2018, Uber Eats changed its flat $4.99 delivery fee rate to varying fee according to the distances. The fee ranges from $2 to $8 as the minimum and maximum rate varying according to the distance covered by delivery services. In the UK and Ireland the delivery fee is based on the value of the order; in February 2019, Uber Eats announced that it would reduce its fee from 35 percent of the order's value to 30 percent. As part of its expansion into foreign markets, the company announced its intention to open virtual restaurants in the UK. Sometimes called cloud restaurants or cloud kitchens, these are restaurant kitchens staffed to prepare and deliver food, either for existing brick-and-mortar restaurants wishing to move their delivery operations offsite, or for delivery-only restaurants with no walk-in or dining room service.\n", "Passengers use an app to order a ride, where they are quoted the fare. Uber uses a dynamic pricing model; prices for the same route vary based on the supply and demand for rides at the time the ride is requested. At the end of the ride, payment is made based on the rider's pre-selected preferences, which could be a credit card on file, Google Pay, Apple Pay, PayPal, cash, or, in India, Airtel mobile wallet or Unified Payments Interface. After the ride is over, the rider is given the option to provide a gratuity to the driver, which is also billed to the rider's payment method. In some locations, if the driver has to wait more than a few minutes after arriving to the pickup location, riders are charged a wait time fee.\n", "Uber Eats delivers the food in special lunch bags that make sure the food remains hot or cold. It allows the customers to monitor the progress of the food, as well as, the location of the driver delivering the food. Uber Eats has expanded to the Middle East, Europe, and Africa.\n\nTalabat allows the customers to request their food deliveries at different times and shows them food menus with pictures on them.\n", "Food delivery riders do not usually get any insurance cover or sick pay, since they are independent contractors. Deliveroo chose to give the riders insurance in the United Kingdom. The insurance consisted of the rider paying $1.85 per week, which covers his or her days of sickness. Deliveroo will pay the riders 75% of their income in days off because of injury caused at work.\n", "UberEATS allows users to order food and register to be UberEATS drivers. Similar to Uber drivers, UberEATS drivers get paid for delivering food. An example of grocery delivery in sharing economy is Instakart. It has the same business model as that of sharing economy based companies like Uber, Airbnb, or CanYa. Instacart uses resources that are readily available, and the shoppers shop at existing grocery shops. The contract workers use their personal vehicles to deliver groceries to customers. Instacart manages to keep its cost low as it does not require any infrastructure to store goods. In addition to having contract workers, Instacart allows signing up to be a \"personal shopper\" for Instacart through its official web page.\n", "In March 2018, the Toronto based mobile App Ritual adopted an aggressive strategy of sign up incentives to capture a significant portion of the City of London young professional lunch market. At the time of writing, the long term success of this strategy remains unclear. Ritual however has also attracted controversy by allowing random strangers to access users precise work place location and eating habits.\n\nSection::::Service Types.:Online Food App Services.:Food Riders.\n", "The Guardian quoted a driver in March 2019 who said the be earning 3,75$ per hour after expenses.. A report published by the Economic Policy Institute in 2018 found the average wage for drivers to be 9.21$. Austrian weekly papers Profil and Trend found the hourly wage of drivers to be at 4 € and claimed a high incidence of tax evasion, social fraud and circumvention of labour laws by the companies employing drivers on Ubers behalf. 4 percent of all drivers are still working a such one year after entering the company.\n", "In August 2014, Uber launched UberPOOL, a carpooling service, in the San Francisco Bay Area. The service was then launched in other cities worldwide: Paris in November 2014, New York City in December 2014, China in August 2015, Washington, D.C. in October 2015, London in December 2015, the suburbs of Boston in January 2016, Hyderabad, Kolkata Mumbai, and Singapore in June 2016, Delaware in September 2016, Toronto (Brampton and Scarborough) in April 2017, Nashville in December 2017, Sydney in April 2018, and Melbourne in June 2018.\n\nIn August 2014, Uber launched Uber Eats, a food delivery service.\n", "In restaurant delivery, if the delivery service is provided by a third party, such as Uber Eats or Deliveroo, the delivery fee, which can be as much as 25 or 30 percent of the value of the order, is paid by the restaurant to the service provider. In addition to the delivery fees, the service companies charge the restaurants a fee to set up the account, further cutting into the restaurants' margins. Due to intense competition between the service providers wishing to sign up restaurants to use their services, restaurants have been able to negotiate lower delivery fees. McDonalds negotiated the delivery fees charged by Uber Eats from nearly 20 percent to \"around 15 percent,\" according to a report in the Wall Street Journal.\n", "Uber is an on-demand taxi-like service where users can request rides with their smartphone. By using the data of the active riders and drivers, Uber can price discriminate based on the current rider/driver ratio. This lets them earn more money than they would without “surge pricing,” and helps get more drivers out on the street in unpopular working hours.\n", "Uberisation has been made possible by the development of digital technologies developed in the 20th and 21st centuries. Business organisations such as Uber, Grab, Lyft and Airbnb enable potential customers to be put into direct contact with potential providers of a service. The phenomenon of uberisation is characterised by the elimination or quasi-elimination of middle man roles.\n\nUberised business formats are characterised by the following elements: \n\nBULLET::::- The use of a digitalised platform enabling peer-to-peer, or quasi-peer to peer transactions\n\nBULLET::::- Minimising the distance between the provider and customer of a service\n", "As of 2018, to register and drive with Ola, drivers in India had to spend an initial 1 to 1.5 lakh rupees, and thereafter earned Rs. 20-25,000 per month, working 12–14 hours a day, after making 3200 rides with a rating of 4.75. Some drivers found making even this difficult, especially in saturated areas where Ola and Uber had contracted far more drivers than needed. Initial investments and salaries were similar with Uber India.\n\nSection::::Ola Electric Mobility.\n", "The company's early hires included a nuclear physicist, a computational neuroscientist, and a machinery expert who worked on predicting demand for private hire car drivers and where demand is highest. In April 2012, in Chicago, Uber launched a service where users were able to request a regular taxi or an Uber driver via its mobile app.\n", "By offering salary sacrifice schemes, corporate customers can provide their employees with a car benefit scheme. Employees offset part of their salary each month before it gets taxed in exchange for a new car complete with road tax, car insurance, breakdown cover, MOT and car servicing, employees continue to pay for fuel.\n", "Some CNS models that have emerged also incorporate on-demand ride services (e.g., TNCs) that deliver packages. CNS deliveries are either made in separate trips or in multiple-purpose trips that may also serve passengers simultaneously. The now defunct Sidecar is an example of a TNC that incorporated this hybrid passenger and package delivery service. Uber also has food and goods delivery services like UberEATS for food and UberRUSH for bike, foot, and vehicle messenger deliveries.\n\nSection::::Scootersharing.\n", "Following a beta launch in May 2010, Uber's services and mobile app officially launched in San Francisco in 2011. Originally, the application only allowed users to hail a black luxury car and the price was 1.5 times that of a taxi.\n", "Facing the reality of being a public company, the marketing department headcount was reduced by a third on July 29, 2019 with the lay-off of 400 people.\n\nSection::::History.:Self-driving car research.\n\nAdvanced Technologies Group (Uber ATG) is a subsidiary of the company that is developing self-driving cars. Uber ATG is minority owned by Softbank Vision Fund, Toyota, and Denso.\n\nIn early 2015, the company hired approximately 50 people from the robotics department of Carnegie Mellon University.\n", ", Uber is estimated to have 110 million worldwide users a 69.0% market share in the United States for passenger transport, and a 25% market share for food delivery. Uber has been so prominent in the sharing economy that the changes in industries as a result of it have been referred to as uberisation, and many startups have described their products as \"Uber for X\".\n\nSection::::Business model.\n\nSection::::Business model.:Stakeholders.\n\nSection::::Business model.:Stakeholders.:Passengers.\n", "In November 2016, Ando secured $7 million in Series A funding to help expand delivery locations in New York City. Other angel investors include Jimmy Fallon, Aziz Ansari, the chairman of Estée Lauder, a co-founder of Warby Parker, and the founder of Soul Cycle.\n\nAndo was acquired by Uber Eats in January 2018.\n\nSection::::Offering.\n", "The business model of companies situated in the gig economy has been criticised for using technology to evade worker protections such as rights to minimum wages and paid leave and disguising employment relationships as independent contracting/self employment in order to shift costs onto workers. For example, a study by the Centre for Future Work at the Australia Institute accused Uber of \"creatively leveraging the advantages of its dispatch system in order to evade traditional labour regulations (and other inconvenient taxes and regulations).\" While in traditional industries, workers may enjoy the benefits of trade unions, healthcare provision, minimum wage, contract termination and working hours rights, employees within the sharing economy are often paid as freelancers. Freelancers do not receive pension benefits or other employee rights and benefits and are often not paid on an hourly basis.\n", "In January 2014, Plated earned $5 million of Series A venture capital funding. The company raised an additional $15 million in funding in August 2014 of what was called new Series A funding from Venture Capital Dispatch. In the company's first three years, the company moved into sequentially larger fulfillment centers 14 times due to growth.\n" ]

[ "Uber eats drivers make profit." ]

[ "Uber eats drivers most likely break even therefore they don't make profit." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Uber eats drivers make profit.", "Uber eats drivers make profit." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Uber eats drivers most likely break even therefore they don't make profit.", "Uber eats drivers most likely break even therefore they don't make profit." ]

[ "Buffered sodium phosphate solution draws additional water from the bloodstream into the colon to increase the effectiveness of the enema, but can be rather irritating to the colon, causing intense cramping or \"griping.\"\n", "Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.\n", "Gastric juice in the stomach also contains pepsinogen. Hydrochloric acid activates this inactive form of enzyme into the active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides.\n\nSection::::Function.:Absorption.\n\nAlthough the absorption in the human digestive system is mainly a function of the small intestine, some absorption of certain small molecules nevertheless does occur in the stomach through its lining. This includes:\n\nBULLET::::- Water, if the body is dehydrated\n\nBULLET::::- Medication, such as aspirin\n\nBULLET::::- Amino acids\n\nBULLET::::- 10–20% of ingested ethanol (e.g. from alcoholic beverages)\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine\n", "If these operations are performed in order, isolation is maintained, although T must wait. Consider what happens if T fails halfway through. The database eliminates T's effects, and T sees only valid data.\n\nBy interleaving the transactions, the actual order of actions might be:\n\nBULLET::::1. T subtracts 10 from A.\n\nBULLET::::2. T subtracts 20 from B.\n\nBULLET::::3. T adds 20 to A.\n\nBULLET::::4. T adds 10 to B.\n", "In the duodenum, gastric acid is neutralized by sodium bicarbonate. This also blocks gastric enzymes that have their optima in the acid range of pH. The secretion of sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas is stimulated by secretin. This polypeptide hormone gets activated and secreted from so-called S cells in the mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum when the pH in the duodenum falls below 4.5 to 5.0. The neutralization is described by the equation:\n", "The reduced osmolarity solution has been criticized by some for not providing enough sodium for adults with cholera. Clinical trials have, however, shown reduced osmolarity solution to be effective for adults and children with cholera. They seem to be safe but some caution is warranted according to the Cochrane review.\n\nSection::::Administration.\n\nORT is based on evidence that water continues to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract even while fluid is lost through diarrhea or vomiting. The World Health Organization specify indications, preparations and procedures for ORT.\n", "BULLET::::- Secretin, a hormone produced by the duodenal \"S cells\" in response to the stomach chyme containing high hydrogen atom concentration (high acidicity), is released into the blood stream; upon return to the digestive tract, secretion decreases gastric emptying, increases secretion of the pancreatic ductal cells, as well as stimulating pancreatic acinar cells to release their zymogenic juice.\n", "When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the human stomach. The few surviving bacteria conserve their energy and stored nutrients during the passage through the stomach by shutting down protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine, they must propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to reach the intestinal walls where they can attach and thrive.\n", "BULLET::::- Mucin: The stomach has a priority to destroy the bacteria and viruses using its highly acidic environment but also has a duty to protect its own lining from its acid. The way that the stomach achieves this is by secreting mucin and bicarbonate via its mucous cells, and also by having a rapid cell turn-over.\n", "Secretory diarrhea means that there is an increase in the active secretion, or there is an inhibition of absorption. There is little to no structural damage. The most common cause of this type of diarrhea is a cholera toxin that stimulates the secretion of anions, especially chloride ions (Cl). Therefore, to maintain a charge balance in the gastrointestinal tract, sodium (Na) is carried with it, along with water. In this type of diarrhea intestinal fluid secretion is isotonic with plasma even during fasting. It continues even when there is no oral food intake.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Osmotic.\n", "The co-transport of glucose into epithelial cells via the SGLT1 protein requires sodium. Two sodium ions and one molecule of glucose (or galactose) are transported together across the cell membrane via the SGLT1 protein. Without glucose, intestinal sodium is not absorbed. This is why oral rehydration salts include both sodium and glucose. For each cycle of the transport, hundreds of water molecules move into the epithelial cell to maintain osmotic equilibrium. The resultant absorption of sodium and water can achieve rehydration even while diarrhea continues.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Definition.\n", "Good water, a liter,\n\nA pinch of salt with a fistful of gur,\n\nRemove the menace for good.\n\nStomach acid provides a natural defense against cholera infestation. Researchers gave billions of bacteria to healthy individuals and none of them became ill, except when subjects were given an antacid. This decrease in stomach acid immediately made them susceptible to cholera.\n\nIf ORT were applied to all patients who needed it, some estimate an additional two million lives could be saved annually and global savings in healthcare from home use of ORT would reach $10–15 billion US each year.\n", "This process is infinitely exchangeable for an equivalence class of binary matrices defined by a left-ordered many-to-one function. formula_25 is obtained by ordering the columns of the binary matrix formula_1 from left to right by the magnitude of the binary number expressed by that column, taking the first row as the most significant bit.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese restaurant process\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- T.L. Griffiths and Z. Ghahramani The Indian Buffet Process: An Introduction and Review, Journal of Machine Learning Research, pp. 1185–1224, 2011.\n", "The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8, but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.\n\nThere is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq/hour.\n\nThere are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:\n", "Free pantothenic acid is absorbed into intestinal cells via a saturable, sodium-dependent active transport system. At high levels of intake, when this mechanism is saturated, some pantothenic acid may also be absorbed via passive diffusion. As intake increases 10-fold, however, absorption rate decreases to 10%.\n\nSection::::Deficiency.\n\nPantothenic acid deficiency is exceptionally rare and has not been thoroughly studied. In the few cases where deficiency has been seen (victims of starvation and limited volunteer trials), nearly all symptoms can be reversed with the return of pantothenic acid.\n", "BULLET::::- Gastrin: This is an important hormone produced by the \"G cells\" of the stomach. G cells produce gastrin in response to stomach stretching occurring after food enters it, and also after stomach exposure to protein. Gastrin is an endocrine hormone and therefore enters the bloodstream and eventually returns to the stomach where it stimulates parietal cells to produce hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Intrinsic factor (IF).\n\nOf note is the division of function between the cells covering the stomach. There are four types of cells in the stomach:\n\nBULLET::::- Parietal cells: Produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.\n", "The SGLT1 receptor is present in the small intestine. When the cholera patient is given a solution containing water, sodium and glucose, the SGLT1 receptor will reabsorb sodium and glucose, while water will be passively absorbed with the sodium. This will replace the water and electrolyte loss in the cholera-induced diarrhea.\n\nSection::::Therapeutic applications.\n", "Although the body can synthesize LA, it can also be absorbed from the diet. Dietary supplementation in doses from 200–600 mg are likely to provide up to 1000 times the amount available from a regular diet. Gastrointestinal absorption is variable and decreases with the use of food. It is therefore recommended that dietary LA be taken 30–60 minutes before or at least 120 minutes after a meal. Maximum blood levels of LA are achieved 30–60 minutes after dietary supplementation, and it is thought to be largely metabolized in the liver.\n", "Section::::Ram feeding.\n", "BULLET::::- To a small extent water-soluble vitamins (most are absorbed in the small intestine)\n\nThe parietal cells of the human stomach are responsible for producing intrinsic factor, which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12. B12 is used in cellular metabolism and is necessary for the production of red blood cells, and the functioning of the nervous system.\n\nSection::::Function.:Control of secretion and motility.\n\nThe movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive hormones of the digestive system:\n", "The consumption of overly sugary and/or salty foods can cause dehydration. \n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nThe treatment for minor dehydration that is often considered the most effective is drinking water and stopping fluid loss. Plain water restores only the volume of the blood plasma, inhibiting the thirst mechanism before solute levels can be replenished. Solid foods can contribute to fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea. Urine concentration and frequency will customarily return to normal as dehydration resolves.\n", "In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.\n\nSection::::Human digestion process.:Neural and biochemical control mechanisms.\n\nDifferent phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n\nThe systemic bioavailability of ziprasidone is 100% when administered intramuscularly and 60% when administered orally without food.\n\nAfter a single dose intramuscular administration, the peak serum concentration typically occurs at about 60 minutes after the dose is administered, or earlier. Steady state plasma concentrations are achieved within one to three days. Exposure increases in a dose-related manner and following three days of intramuscular dosing, little accumulation is observed.\n\nZiprasidone absorption is optimally achieved when administered with food. Without a meal preceding dose, the bioavailability of the drug is reduced by approximately 50%.\n", "HCO secretion occurs to neutralize the acid secretions that make their way into the duodenum of the small intestine. Most of the HCO comes from pancreatic acinar cells in the form of NaHCO in an aqueous solution. This is the result of the high concentration of both HCO and Na present in the duct creating an osmotic gradient to which the water follows.\n\nSection::::Secretion.:Digestive enzymes.\n", "In the absence of a gut compartment, input can be made directly in the liver. However, in that case local metabolism in the gut may not be correctly described. The case of approximately continuous absorption (\"e.g. via\" drinking water) can be modeled by a zero-order absorption rate (here \"R\" in units of mass over time):\n\nformula_4\n\nMore sophisticated gut absorption model can be used. In those models, additional compartments describe the various sections of the gut lumen and tissue. Intestinal pH, transit times and presence of active transporters can be taken into account\n\nSection::::Building a PBPK model.:Modeling inputs.:Skin depot.\n" ]

[ "Drinking water after eating may dilute the stomach's acid causing the stomach to be ineffective at digesting food.", "Stomach acid is needed to digest food." ]

[ "Technically, stomach acid does not digest food and acid is continuously added and removed from the stomach so water will not dilute it very much.", "Stomach acid helps with sterilizing food and not digesting it." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Drinking water after eating may dilute the stomach's acid causing the stomach to be ineffective at digesting food.", "Stomach acid is needed to digest food." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Technically, stomach acid does not digest food and acid is continuously added and removed from the stomach so water will not dilute it very much.", "Stomach acid helps with sterilizing food and not digesting it." ]

[ "Section::::Oxygen evolution in nature.:History of discovery.\n", "Oxygen is essential to all life. Plants and phytoplankton photosynthesize water and carbon dioxide and water, both oxides, in the presence of sunlight to form sugars with the release of oxygen. The sugars are then turned into such substances as cellulose and (with nitrogen and often sulfur) proteins and other essential substances of life. Animals especially but also fungi and bacteria ultimately depend upon photosynthesizing plants and phytoplankton for food and oxygen.\n", "Oxygen is a component of many organic and inorganic molecules within the plant, and is acquired in many forms. These include: O and CO (mainly from the air via leaves) and HO, NO, HPO and SO (mainly from the soil water via roots). Plants produce oxygen gas (O) along with glucose during photosynthesis but then require O to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and break down this glucose to produce ATP.\n\nSection::::Functions of nutrients.:Macronutrients (primary).\n\nSection::::Functions of nutrients.:Macronutrients (primary).:Nitrogen.\n", "The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis, at first by cyanobacteria and later by photosynthetic eukaryotes, radically changed the composition of the early Earth's anoxic atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems. Many animals rely on plants for shelter as well as oxygen and food.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:CO gain and water loss.\n\nCarbon dioxide, a key reactant in photosynthesis, is present in the atmosphere at a concentration of about 400 ppm. Most plants require the stomata to be open during daytime. The air spaces in the leaf are saturated with water vapour, which exits the leaf through the stomata; this is known as transpiration. Therefore, plants cannot gain carbon dioxide without simultaneously losing water vapour.\n\nSection::::Function.:Alternative approaches.\n", "Thomas compares the Earth to a living cell, one with its own membrane that allows it to keep out disorder. He shows how the evolution of cells was closely tied to the “breath” of the Earth, the cycling of oxygen concentration in the atmosphere. The atmosphere is “for sheer size and perfection of function, it is far and away the grandest product of collaboration in all of nature.” It gives us the oxygen we need, protection from UV light, and protection from the millions of meteorites.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Wood gives structural strength to the trunk of most types of tree; this supports the plant as it grows larger. The vascular system of trees allows water, nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around the plant, and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do. Trees, as relatively tall plants, need to draw water up the stem through the xylem from the roots by the suction produced as water evaporates from the leaves. If insufficient water is available the leaves will die. The three main parts of trees include the root, stem, and leaves; they are integral parts of the vascular system which interconnects all the living cells. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.\n", "Some tree species have developed root extensions that pop out of soil, in order to get oxygen, when it is not available in the soil because of excess water. These root extensions are called pneumatophores, and are present, among others, in black mangrove and pond cypress.\n\nSection::::Parts and function.:Trunk.\n", "The alveoli are the dead end terminals of the \"tree\", meaning that any air that enters them has to exit via the same route. A system such as this creates dead space, a volume of air (about 150 ml in the adult human) that fills the airways after exhalation and is breathed back into the alveoli before environmental air reaches them. At the end of inhalation the airways are filled with environmental air, which is exhaled without coming in contact with the gas exchanger.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Ventilatory volumes.\n", "The trachea and the first portions of the main bronchi are outside the lungs. The rest of the \"tree\" branches within the lungs, and ultimately extends to every part of the lungs.\n", "Treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any other mammal, including humans, but high ratios are not uncommon for animals weighing less than a kilogram.\n\nAmong orders of mammals, treeshrews are closely related to primates, and have been used as an alternative to primates in experimental studies of myopia, psychosocial stress, and hepatitis.\n\nSection::::Name.\n\nThe name \"Tupaia\" is derived from \"tupai\", the Malay word for squirrel, and was provided by Sir Stamford Raffles.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Chemical oxygen generators consist of chemical compounds that release O upon some stimulation, usually heat. They are used in submarines and commercial aircraft, providing emergency oxygen. Oxygen is generated by high-temperature decomposition of sodium chlorate:\n\nPotassium permanganate also releases oxygen upon heating, but the yield is modest.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Great Oxygenation Event\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Plant Physiology Online, 4th edition: Topic 7.7 - Oxygen Evolution\n\nBULLET::::- Oxygen evolution - Lecture notes by Antony Crofts, UIUC\n\nBULLET::::- Evolution of the atmosphere – Lecture notes, Regents of the University of Michigan\n", "In his 2015 book about natural forests, \"Das geheime Leben der Bäume:Was sie fühlen, wie sie kommunizieren - die Entdeckung einer verborgenen Welt\", (The Hidden Life of Trees: What they Feel, How they Communicate: Discoveries from a Secret World) he takes the perspective of the trees, much as Jacques Cousteau took the perspective of the inhabitants of the oceans.\n\nAmong other phenomena, this book introduces for a popular audience the \"Wood-Wide Web\", through which nutrition and signals are exchanged among trees.\n", "Carbon dioxide is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism. This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates, the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians) or the gills (e.g., fish), from where it dissolves in the water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration.\n", "Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants includes anatomical features such as stomata, that are found in various parts of the plant.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Anatomy.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Food.\n", "It has been proposed that, in the cork layer (the phellogen), suberin acts as a barrier to microbial degradation and so protects the internal structure of the plant.\n", "Trees are either evergreen, having foliage that persists and remains green throughout the year, or deciduous, shedding their leaves at the end of the growing season and then having a dormant period without foliage. Most conifers are evergreens, but larches (\"Larix\" and \"Pseudolarix\") are deciduous, dropping their needles each autumn, and some species of cypress (\"Glyptostrobus\", \"Metasequoia\" and \"Taxodium\") shed small leafy shoots annually in a process known as cladoptosis. A sapling is a young tree.\n", "Green plants produce carbon dioxide and water as respiratory products. In green plants, the carbon dioxide released during respiration gets utilized during photosynthesis. Oxygen is a by product generated during photosynthesis, and exits through stomata, root cell walls, and other routes. Plants can get rid of excess water by transpiration and guttation. It has been shown that the leaf acts as an 'excretophore' and, in addition to being a primary organ of photosynthesis, is also used as a method of excreting toxic wastes via diffusion. Other waste materials that are exuded by some plants — resin, saps, latex, etc. are forced from the interior of the plant by hydrostatic pressures inside the plant and by absorptive forces of plant cells. These latter processes do not need added energy, they act passively. However, during the pre-abscission phase, the metabolic levels of a leaf are high. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.\n", "Section::::Plot.:Epona.\n\nThey visit Epona an imaginary ecosystem created by group scientists and science fiction writers called The Epona Project.\n\nSection::::Plot.:Epona.:Featured organisms.\n\nBULLET::::- Epona Pagoda Tree, a thin-looking, green tree from Epona with large, disk-shaped leaves surrounding it. The reason why the leaves are so huge is because they need to get as much carbon dioxide as possible. They are able to do a remarkable ability of movement. If a herbivore comes to nibble on them, they are able to fold back their branches.\n", "The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods. Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common carbon fixation pathway. These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants.\n\nSection::::Plant biochemistry.:Medicine and materials.\n", "The trunk is composed of sleeves of conductive tissue, most notably the phloem and xylem. The outside bark of the vine contains the phloem tissues which transports sap, enriched by sugars and other molecules, from the leaves to the rest of the vine. During the annual growth cycle of the grapevine, the vine will start to store carbohydrate energy in the wood part of the trunk and roots. The downward passage of phloem sap to the roots and this storing process can be interrupted by the viticultural practice of \"girdling\" or cincturing the vine. This process can improve fruit set by forcing the vine to direct most of its energy towards developing the grape clusters. The xylem is the woody tissue on the inside of the trunk that moves sap, enriched with water, minerals and other compounds, up from the roots to the leaves.\n", "Section::::Biological role of O.\n\nSection::::Biological role of O.:Photosynthesis and respiration.\n\nIn nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher, while some estimates are lower, suggesting oceans produce ~45% of Earth's atmospheric oxygen each year.\n\nA simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is:\n\nor simply\n", "Within the periderm are lenticels, which form during the production of the first periderm layer. Since there are living cells within the cambium layers that need to exchange gases during metabolism, these lenticels, because they have numerous intercellular spaces, allow gaseous exchange with the outside atmosphere. As the bark develops, new lenticels are formed within the cracks of the cork layers.\n\nSection::::Rhytidome.\n", "BULLET::::- A study of Nickel bioremediation involving poplar (\"Populas nigra\"), conducted by researchers at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and the National Research Institute of Italy (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche), found that Ni-induced stress reduced photosynthesis rates, and that this effect was dependent upon leaf Ni content. In mature leaves, Ni stress led to emission of cis-β-ocimene, whereas in developing leaves, it led to enhanced isoprene emissions.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In 1954, Pattle suggested that there was an untapped source of power when a river mixes with the sea, in terms of the lost osmotic pressure, however it was not until the mid ‘70s where a practical method of exploiting it using selectively permeable membranes by Loeb was outlined.\n", "Section::::Aquatic organisms.\n\nWater is a critical issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use salt water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants and most mammals must have access to fresh water to live. Some terrestrial mammals, especially desert rodents, appear to survive without drinking, but they do generate water through the metabolism of cereal seeds, and they also have mechanisms to conserve water to the maximum degree.\n", "The impact of brackish water on ecosystems can be minimized by pumping it out to sea and releasing it into the mid-layer, away from the surface and bottom ecosystems.\n\nImpingement and entrainment at intake structures are a concern due to large volumes of both river and sea water utilized in both PRO and RED schemes. Intake construction permits must meet strict environmental regulations and desalination plants and power plants that utilize surface water are sometimes involved with various local, state and federal agencies to obtain permission that can take upwards to 18 months.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "A process of osmosis through semipermeable membranes was first observed in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet. For the following 200 years, osmosis was only a phenomenon observed in the laboratory. In 1950, the University of California at Los Angeles first investigated desalination of seawater using semipermeable membranes. Researchers from both University of California at Los Angeles and the University of Florida successfully produced fresh water from seawater in the mid-1950s, but the flux was too low to be commercially viable until the discovery at University of California at Los Angeles by Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan at the National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, of techniques for making asymmetric membranes characterized by an effectively thin \"skin\" layer supported atop a highly porous and much thicker substrate region of the membrane. John Cadotte, of FilmTec Corporation, discovered that membranes with particularly high flux and low salt passage could be made by interfacial polymerization of \"m\"-phenylene diamine and trimesoyl chloride. Cadotte's patent on this process was the subject of litigation and has since expired. Almost all commercial reverse-osmosis membrane is now made by this method. By the end of 2001, about 15,200 desalination plants were in operation or in the planning stages, worldwide.\n", "Fresh water is not the same as potable water (or drinking water). Much of the earth's fresh water (on the surface and groundwater) is unsuitable for drinking without some treatment. Fresh water can easily become polluted by human activities or due to naturally occurring processes, such as erosion.\n\nWater is critical to the survival of all living organisms. Some organisms can thrive on salt water, but the great majority of higher plants and most mammals need fresh water to live.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Numerical definition.\n", "Saline water can be treated to yield fresh water. Two main processes are used, reverse osmosis or distillation. Both methods require more energy than water treatment of local surface waters, and are usually only used in coastal areas or where water such as groundwater has high salinity.\n\nSection::::Portable water purification.\n\nLiving away from drinking water supplies often requires some form of portable water treatment process. These can vary in complexity from the simple addition of a disinfectant tablet in a hiker's water bottle through to complex multi-stage processes carried by boat or plane to disaster areas.\n\nSection::::Ultra pure water production.\n", "In 1954 Pattle suggested that there was an untapped source of power when a river mixes with the sea, in terms of the lost osmotic pressure, however it was not until the mid ‘70s where a practical method of exploiting it using selectively permeable membranes by Loeb and independently by Jellinek was outlined. This process was referred by Loeb as pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) and one simplistic implementation is shown opposite. Some situations that may be envisaged to exploit it are using the differential osmotic pressure between a low brackish river flowing into the sea, or brine and seawater. The worldwide theoretical potential for osmotic power has been estimated at 1,650 TWh / year.\n", "Doubts remain about the benefit of introducing ASR in such large capacity to Florida due to a predominantly karst geography. Current or potential problems include: (1) poor recovery due to mixing of the injected fresh water with the existing brackish to saline water in the aquifer; (2) pre-existing quality of water introduced to ASR; and (3) potential risk of resulting water quality due to mixing of injected freshwater and existing aquifer.\n\nSection::::ASR use in the United States.:Oregon.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Reversed electrodialysis.\n\nA second method being developed and studied is reversed electrodialysis or reverse dialysis, which is essentially the creation of a salt battery. This method was described by Weinstein and Leitz as “an array of alternating anion and cation exchange membranes can be used to generate electric power from the free energy of river and sea water.”\n", "Desalination appeared during the late 20th century, and is still limited to a few areas.\n", "Another type of water treatment is called desalination and is used mainly in dry areas with access to large bodies of saltwater.\n\nSection::::Water quality.:Water treatment.:Point of use methods.\n\nThe ability of point of use (POU) options to reduce disease is a function of both their ability to remove microbial pathogens if properly applied and such social factors as ease of use and cultural appropriateness. Technologies may generate more (or less) health benefit than their lab-based microbial removal performance would suggest.\n", "Many arid and semi-arid areas actually do have sources of water, but the available water is usually brackish (0.5–5g/L salt) or saline (30–50g/L salt). The water may be present in underground aquifers or as seawater along coastal deserts. With traditional farming practices, saline water results in soil salinization, rendering it unfit for raising most crop plants. Indeed, many arid and semi-arid areas were simply considered unsuitable for agriculture, and agricultural development of these areas was not systematically attempted until the second half of the 20th century.\n", "Unplanned Indirect Potable Use has existed for a long time. Large towns on the River Thames upstream of London (Oxford, Reading, Swindon, Bracknell) discharge their treated sewage (\"non-potable water\") into the Thames, which supplies water to London downstream. In the United States, the Mississippi River serves as both the destination of sewage treatment plant effluent and the source of potable water.\n\nSection::::Types and applications.:Urban reuse.\n\nBULLET::::- Unrestricted: The use of reclaimed water for non-potable applications in municipal settings, where public access is not restricted.\n", "BULLET::::- Rainwater harvesting and stormwater recovery- Urban design systems which incorporate rainwater harvesting and reduce runoff are known as Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) in Australia, Low Impact Development (LID) in the United States and Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) in the United Kingdom.\n\nBULLET::::- Seawater desalination - an energy-intensive process where salt and other minerals are removed from seawater to produce potable water for drinking and irrigation, typically through membrane filtration (reverse-osmosis), and steam-distillation.\n\nSection::::Design considerations.:Costs.\n", "Although the total volume of groundwater is known to be much greater than that of river runoff, a large proportion of this groundwater is saline and should therefore be classified with the saline water above. There is also a lot of \"fossil\" groundwater in arid regions that has never been renewed for thousands of years; this must not be seen as renewable water.\n", "Section::::Estuarine and coastal ecosystem services.:Provisioning Services.:Fresh water.\n\nWater bodies that are not highly concentrated in salts are referred to as 'fresh water' bodies. Fresh water may run through lakes, rivers and streams, to name a few; but it is most prominently found in the frozen state or as soil moisture or buried deep underground. Fresh water is not only important for the survival of humans, but also for the survival of all the existing species of animals, plants.\n\nSection::::Estuarine and coastal ecosystem services.:Provisioning Services.:Raw materials.\n", "In 2013 large freshwater aquifers were discovered under continental shelves off Australia, China, North America and South Africa. They contain an estimated half a million cubic kilometers of \"low salinity\" water that could be economically processed into potable water. The reserves formed when ocean levels were lower and rainwater made its way into the ground in land areas that were not submerged until the ice age ended 20,000 years ago. The volume is estimated to be 100 times the amount of water extracted from other aquifers since 1900.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "Water used for agriculture is called \"agricultural water\" or \"farm water.\" Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water, this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems.\n", "A proposed alternative to desalination in the American Southwest is the commercial importation of bulk water from water-rich areas either by oil tankers converted to water carriers, or pipelines. The idea is politically unpopular in Canada, where governments imposed trade barriers to bulk water exports as a result of a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) claim.\n\nSection::::Considerations and criticism.:Environmental.:Public health concerns.\n", "Historically the predominant response to increasing water demand in the U.S. has been to tap into ever more distant sources of conventional water supply, in particular rivers. Because of environmental concerns and limitations in the availability of water resources, including droughts that may be due to climate change, this approach now is in many cases not feasible any more. Still, supply-side management is often being pursued tapping into non-conventional water resources, in particular seawater desalination in coastal areas with high population growth. California alone had plans to build 21 desalination plants in 2006 with a total capacity of per day, which would represent a massive 70-fold increase over current seawater desalination capacity in the state. In 2007 the largest desalination plant in the United States is the one at Tampa Bay, Florida, which began desalinating of water per day in December 2007.\n", "Because groundwater recharge is much more difficult to accurately measure than surface runoff, groundwater is not generally used in areas where even fairly limited levels of surface water are available. Even today, estimates of total groundwater recharge vary greatly for the same region depending on what source is used, and cases where fossil groundwater is exploited beyond the recharge rate (including the Ogallala Aquifer) are very frequent and almost always not seriously considered when they were first developed.\n\nSection::::Distribution of saline and fresh water.\n", "Reverse osmosis per its construction removes both harmful contaminants present in the water, as well as some desirable minerals. Modern studies on this matter have been quite shallow, citing lack of funding and interest in such study, as re-mineralization on the treatment plants today is done to prevent pipeline corrosion without going into human health aspect. They do, however link to older, more thorough studies that at one hand show some relation between long-term health effects and consumption of water low on calcium and magnesium, on the other confess that none of these older studies comply to modern standards of research \n", "Despite the issues associated with desalination processes, public support for its development can be very high. One survey of a Southern California community saw 71.9% of all respondents being in support of desalination plant development in their community. In many cases, high freshwater scarcity corresponds to higher public support for desalination development whereas areas with low water scarcity tend to have less public support for its development.\n\nSection::::Experimental techniques.\n\nOther desalination techniques include:\n\nSection::::Experimental techniques.:Waste heat.\n", "Before the Central Valley Project and State Water Project were built, all freshwater—primarily runoff from the Sierra Nevada—entering the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta flowed into San Francisco Bay. After the pumps powering the Central Valley Project and State Water Project became operational, the freshwater was drawn from the Delta Cross Channel through a maze of river channels and sloughs before entering the Clifton Court Forebay north of Tracy, where water is pumped into the California Aqueduct and the Delta-Mendota Canal. Large numbers of Delta smelt and other endangered species are killed by the pumping plants, which provide water for the aqueducts. Freshwater flowing into the Delta displaces salt water entering from the San Francisco Bay.\n", "The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.\n\nSection::::Most affected countries.\n" ]

[ "It is impossible to make drinkable water from fresh water from salt water.", "It is not possible to make fresh water from salt water." ]

[ "It is possible to make fresh water drinkable from salt water via the use of a desalination plant, but due to the costs to run it isn't viable to use salt water as the main source of water.", "You can make fresh water from salt water using desalination plants." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is impossible to make drinkable water from fresh water from salt water.", "It is not possible to make fresh water from salt water." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is possible to make fresh water drinkable from salt water via the use of a desalination plant, but due to the costs to run it isn't viable to use salt water as the main source of water.", "You can make fresh water from salt water using desalination plants." ]

[ "Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. As a result of the symbiotic relationship between commensals and the immune system, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced. However, since most antibiotics non-specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics can lead to an \"overgrowth\" of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (a yeast infection). There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yogurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections.\n", "Antibacterials are used to treat bacterial infections. The drug toxicity to humans and other animals from antibacterials is generally considered low.(depends) Prolonged use of certain antibacterials can decrease the number of gut flora, which may have a negative impact on health. Consumption of probiotics and reasonable eating can help to replace destroyed gut flora. Stool transplants may be considered for patients who are having difficulty recovering from prolonged antibiotic treatment, as for recurrent \"Clostridium difficile\" infections.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nSelf containment by housing people in private rooms is important to prevent the spread of \"C. difficile\" between patients. Contact precautions are an important part of preventing the spread of  C. difficile. C. difficile does not often occur in people who are not taking antibiotics so limiting use of antibiotics decreases the risk.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Antibiotics.\n", "The manipulation of the gut flora is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Although probiotics, in general, are considered safe, there are concerns about their use in certain cases. Some people, such as those with compromised immune systems, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, heart valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events. Rarely, consumption of probiotics may cause bacteremia, and sepsis, potentially fatal infections in children with lowered immune systems or who are already critically ill.\n", "The manipulation of the gut flora is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Although probiotics, in general, are considered safe, there are concerns about their use in certain cases. Some people, such as those with compromised immune systems, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, heart valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events. Rarely, consumption of probiotics may cause bacteremia, and sepsis, potentially fatal infections in children with lowered immune systems or who are already critically ill.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Concerns regarding the containment of recombinant microbes in the gut have been addressed through safety mechanisms in both \"L. lactis\" and \"B. ovatus\". Containment refers to the inability of microbes to colonize the external environment, where they may have unknown consequences. LL-Thy12 will die upon removal from the body, as they depend on dietary thymidine for survival. \"B. ovatus\" is naturally an obligate anaerobe, so any recombinant strain is expected to die in the presence of oxygen once removed from the body.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Gut flora\n\nBULLET::::- Oral administration\n\nBULLET::::- Mucous membrane\n\nBULLET::::- Absorption (pharmacokinetics)\n", "Altering the numbers of gut bacteria, for example by taking broad-spectrum antibiotics, may affect the host's health and ability to digest food. Antibiotics can cause antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) by irritating the bowel directly, changing the levels of gut flora, or allowing pathogenic bacteria to grow. Another harmful effect of antibiotics is the increase in numbers of antibiotic-resistant bacteria found after their use, which, when they invade the host, cause illnesses that are difficult to treat with antibiotics.\n", "Several factors determine the most appropriate choice for the initial antibiotic regimen. These factors include local patterns of bacterial sensitivity to antibiotics, whether the infection is thought to be a hospital or community-acquired infection, and which organ systems are thought to be infected. Antibiotic regimens should be reassessed daily and narrowed if appropriate. Treatment duration is typically 7–10 days with the type of antibiotic used directed by the results of cultures. If the culture result is negative, antibiotics should be de-escalated according to person's clinical response or stopped altogether if infection is not present to decrease the chances that the person is infected with multiple drug resistance organisms. In case of people having high risk of being infected with multiple drug resistance organisms such as \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\", \"Acinetobacter baumannii\", addition of antibiotic specific to gram-negative organism is recommended. For Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin or teicoplanin is recommended. For Legionella infection, addition of macrolide or fluoroquinolone is chosen. If fungal infection is suspected, an echinocandin, such as caspofungin or micafungin, is chosen for people with severe sepsis, followed by triazole (fluconazole and itraconazole) for less ill people. Prolonged antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended in people who has SIRS without any infectious origin such as acute pancreatitis and burns unless sepsis is suspected.\n", "The manipulation of the gut flora is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Although probiotics, in general, are considered safe, there are concerns about their use in certain cases. Some people, such as those with compromised immune systems, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, heart valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events. Rarely, consumption of probiotics may cause bacteremia, and sepsis, potentially fatal infections in children with lowered immune systems or who are already critically ill.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Type strain of \"Bifidobacterium bifidum\" at Bac\"Dive\" - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase\n", "Antimicrobial substances used to prevent transmission of infections include:\n\nBULLET::::- antiseptics, which are applied to living tissue/skin\n\nBULLET::::- disinfectants, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.\n\nBULLET::::- antibiotics, called prophylactic when given as prevention rather as treatment of infection. However, long term use of antibiotics leads to resistance of bacteria. While humans do not become immune to antibiotics, the bacteria does. Thus, avoiding using antibiotics longer than necessary helps preventing bacteria from forming mutations that aide in antibiotic resistance.\n", "Antibiotics are sometimes given in moderate to severe cases; the data supporting this practice date to the 1950s, although there is more recent animal data suggesting that antibiotics may increase survival and prevent bacteria from crossing the damaged lining of the colon into the bloodstream. The use of prophylactic antibiotics in ischemic colitis has not been prospectively evaluated in humans, but many authorities recommend their use based on the animal data.\n", "Preventive measures include only using antibiotics when needed, thereby stopping misuse of antibiotics or antimicrobials. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance, as well as side effects. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential. Health care providers can minimize spread of resistant infections by use of proper sanitation and hygiene, including handwashing and disinfecting between patients, and should encourage the same of the patient, visitors, and family members.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the hospital level.\n\nAntimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the farming level.\n", "There is another form of respiratory tract infections' prevention when managing adults in intensive care units, it is recommended to use both topical and systematic antibiotics as prophylaxis against the infection and the overall mortality. However children under 5 years are a high-risk group too, there is no sufficient evidence recommends the antibiotic use as a prophylaxis against the possible suppurative complications of any RTI of unkown cause.\n", "There is a complex interplay between the probiotic bacteria and the body's immune system in the large intestine, where the good bacteria stimulate the body's own immune system to inhibit the pathogenic bacteria. For example, in a controlled study, 61 elderly volunteers, after 6 months of a daily dose of \"L. bulgaricus\", responded to the intake of probiotic with an increase in the percentage of NK cells, an improvement in the parameters defining the immune risk profile (IRP), and an increase in the T cell subsets that are less differentiated. The probiotic group also showed decreased concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-8 but increased antimicrobial peptide hBD-2.\n", "Infection prevention is the most efficient strategy of prevention of an infection with a MDR organism within a hospital, because there are few alternatives to antibiotics in the case of an extensively resistant or panresistant infection; if an infection is localized, removal or excision can be attempted (with MDR-TB the lung for example), but in the case of a systemic infection only generic measures like boosting the immune system with immunoglobulins may be possible. The use of bacteriophages (viruses which kill bacteria) is a developing area of possible therapeutic treatments.\n", "Macrolide antibiotics (e.g., clarithromycin) may be used in patients with a history of allergy to beta-lactam antibiotics. Macrolide resistance has also been observed.\n\nSection::::Serious complications.\n\nThe serious complications of HiB are brain damage, hearing loss, and even death.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Not all people with heart disease require antibiotics to prevent infective endocarditis. Heart diseases have been classified into high, medium and low risk of developing IE. Those falling into high risk category require IE prophylaxis before endoscopies and urinary tract procedures.\n\nDiseases listed under high risk include:\n\nBULLET::::- Prior endocarditis\n\nBULLET::::- Unrepaired cyanotic congenital heart diseases\n\nBULLET::::- Completely repaired congenital heart disease in their first 6 months\n\nBULLET::::- Prosthetic heart valves\n\nBULLET::::- Incompletely repaired congenital heart diseases\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiac transplant valvulopathy\n\nFollowing are the antibiotic regimens recommended by the American Heart Association for antibiotic prophylaxis:\n", "Antibiotics have no effect on viral infections such as the common cold. They are also ineffective against sore throats, which are usually viral and self-resolving. Most cases of bronchitis (90–95%) are viral as well, passing after a few weeks—the use of antibiotics against bronchitis is superfluous and can put the patient at risk of suffering adverse reactions. If you take an antibiotic when you have a viral infection, the antibiotic attacks bacteria in your body, bacteria that are either beneficial or at least not causing disease. This misdirected treatment can then promote antibiotic-resistant properties in harmless bacteria that can be shared with other bacteria, or create an opportunity for potentially harmful bacteria to replace the harmless ones.\n", "BULLET::::4. If a persons immune repertoire is low—say as a result of a cancer treatment which as a side effect, knocks out their immune system—they'll be unusually susceptible to diseases. In fact, one of the limiting factors, in developing cancer treatment, is this—it means patients have to be nursed carefully for some time in sterile environments until the immune system recovers. And if they are unlucky enough to get infected while the immune system is down—the infections can be life-threatening. Any way to make the immune system recover faster, would be useful.\n", "The manipulation of the gut microbiota is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Though probiotics are considered safe, some have concerns about their safety in certain cases. Some people, such as those with immunodeficiency, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, and cardiac valve disease, and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events. In severely ill people with inflammatory bowel disease, a risk exists for the passage of viable bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract to the internal organs (bacterial translocation) as a consequence of bacteremia, which can cause adverse health consequences. Rarely, consumption of probiotics by children with lowered immune system function or who are already critically ill may result in bacteremia or fungemia (i.e., bacteria or fungi in the blood), which can lead to sepsis, a potentially fatal disease.\n", "Section::::Management.:Medications.\n\nWhile antibiotics are beneficial in certain types of acute diarrhea, they are usually not used except in specific situations. There are concerns that antibiotics may increase the risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome in people infected with . In resource-poor countries, treatment with antibiotics may be beneficial. However, some bacteria are developing antibiotic resistance, particularly \"Shigella\". Antibiotics can also cause diarrhea, and antibiotic-associated diarrhea is the most common adverse effect of treatment with general antibiotics.\n", "BULLET::::- Hospitalized patients without risk for \"pseudomonas\": This group requires intravenous antibiotics, with a quinolone active against \"streptococcus pneumoniae\" (such as levofloxacin), a β-lactam antibiotic (such as cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ampicillin/sulbactam or high-dose ampicillin plus a macrolide antibiotic (such as azithromycin or clarithromycin) for seven to ten days.\n", "There is preliminary evidence of an infectious contribution to inflammatory bowel disease in some patients that may benefit from antibiotic therapy, such as with rifaximin. The evidence for a benefit of rifaximin is mostly limited to crohn’s disease with less convincing evidence supporting use in ulcerative colitis.\n", "\"S. aureus\" is particularly common, and asymptomatically colonizes about 30% of the human population; attempts to decolonize carriers have met with limited success and generally involve mupirocin nasally and chlorhexidine washing, potentially along with vancomycin and cotrimoxazole to address intestinal and urinary tract infections.\n\nSection::::In built environment and human interaction.:Antimicrobials.\n" ]

[ "Antibiotics will only gradually ruin your immune system." ]

[ "Antibiotics ruin your gut flora right away." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Antibiotics will only gradually ruin your immune system.", "Antibiotics will only gradually ruin your immune system." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Antibiotics ruin your gut flora right away.", "Antibiotics ruin your gut flora right away." ]

[ "BULLET::::- 75 µg gestodene (UK: Femodette, Bayer; RU: Logest, Bayer; Brazil: Femiane, Bayer)\n\nBULLET::::- 3000 µg drospirenone: 24 days + 4 days placebo (US, EU, RU: Yaz; Bayer Schering Pharma AG. Cleonita); 21 days + 7 days placebo (US, EU: , Bayer); 24 days + 4 days placebo and levomefolate calcium (US: Beyaz; Bayer)\n\nBULLET::::- 30 µg ethinylestradiol\n\nBULLET::::- 1500 µg norethisterone acetate (UK: Loestrin 30, Galen; US: Loestrin 1.5/30, Duramed; Microgestin 1.5/30, Watson; Junel 1.5/30, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 300 µg norgestrel (US: Lo/Ovral, Wyeth; Low-Ogestrel, Watson; Cryselle, Barr)\n", "BULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/desogestrel combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/50 µg, 7 tablets 30 µg/100 µg, 7 tablets 30 µg/150 µg (RU: Tri-Merci, Organon)\n\nBULLET::::- 30/40/30 µg ethinylestradiol: triphasic\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel combination with 6 tablets 30 µg/50 µg, 5 tablets 40 µg/75 µg, 10 tablets 30 µg/125 µg (UK: Trinordiol, Wyeth; Logynon, Logynon ED, Bayer; US: Triphasil, Wyeth; Trivora, Watson; , Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/gestodene combination with 6 tablets 30 µg/50 µg, 5 tablets 40 µg/70 µg, 10 tablets 30 µg/100 µg (UK: Triadene, Bayer; Tri-Minulet, Wyeth)\n\nBULLET::::- 35 µg ethinylestradiol: triphasic\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/500 µg, 9 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg, 5 tablets 35 µg/500 µg (UK: Synphase, Pfizer; US: Tri-Norinyl, Watson; Leena, Watson)\n", "BULLET::::- 50 µg mestranol (equivalent to 35 µg ethinylestradiol)\n\nBULLET::::- 1000 µg norethisterone (UK: Norinyl-1, Pfizer; US: Ortho-Novum 1/50; Ortho-McNeil; Norinyl 1/50, Watson; Necon 1/50, Watson)\n\nBULLET::::- 50 µg ethinylestradiol\n\nBULLET::::- 1000 µg norethisterone (US: Ovcon 50, Warner Chilcott)\n\nBULLET::::- 1000 µg etynodiol diacetate (US: Demulen 1/50, Pfizer; Zovia 1/50, Watson)\n\nBULLET::::- 500 µg norgestrel (US: Ogestrel, Watson)\n\nBULLET::::- 250 µg levonorgestrel (US: Nordiol, Wyeth)\n\nBULLET::::- 1.5 mg estradiol (as hemihydrate)\n\nBULLET::::- 2.5 mg nomegestrol acetate: 24-day cycle + 4 placebo pills (AU, EU, RU: Zoely, MSD)\n\nSection::::Combined oral contraceptive pills.:Multiphasic.\n\nBULLET::::- 25 µg ethinylestradiol: triphasic\n", "BULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/500 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/750 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg (UK: TriNovum, Janssen-Cilag; US: Ortho-Novum 7/7/7, Ortho-McNeil; Necon 7/7/7, Watson; Nortrel 7/7/7, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norgestimate combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/180 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/215 µg, 7 tablets 35 µg/250 µg followed by 7 placebos (Ortho Tri-Cyclen, Ortho-McNeil; TriNessa, Watson; Tri-Sprintec, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 35 µg ethinylestradiol: biphasic\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone combination with 10 tablets 35 µg/500 µg, 11 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg, followed by 7 placebos (US: Ortho-Novum 10/11, Ortho-McNeil; Necon 10/11, Watson)\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone combination with 7 tablets 35 µg/500 µg, 14 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg (UK: BiNovum, Janssen-Cilag)\n\nBULLET::::- 3/2/1 mg estradiol valerate: estrophasic\n", "Section::::Emergency contraceptive pills.:Effectiveness.\n\nUlipristal acetate, and mid-dose mifepristone are both more effective than levonorgestrel, which is more effective than the Yuzpe method.\n", "BULLET::::- 75 µg gestodene (UK: Femodene, Femodene ED, Bayer; Minulet, Wyeth; RU: Femoden, Jenapharm)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg desogestrel (AU, EU, RU, UK: Marvelon, BR: Microdiol, US: Desogen, MSD; US: Ortho-Cept, Ortho-McNeil; RU: Regulon, Richter Gedeon)\n\nBULLET::::- 3000 µg drospirenone (AU, EU, US: Yasmin, FR: Jasmine, RU: Yarina, Bayer Schering Pharma AG); with levomefolate calcium (US: Safyral, Bayer Schering Pharma AG)\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 µg chlormadinone acetate (EU: Belara, Benelux: Bellina; Gedeon Richter)\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 µg dienogest (AU, EU: Valette, RU: Jeanine, Bayer Schering Pharma AG; RU: Siluet, Gedeon Richter)\n\nBULLET::::- 35 µg ethinylestradiol\n\nBULLET::::- 400 µg norethisterone: chewable, spearmint flavor (US: Femcon Fe, Warner Chilcott)\n", "Hormonal contraception is available in a number of different forms, including oral pills, implants under the skin, injections, patches, IUDs and a vaginal ring. They are currently available only for women, although hormonal contraceptives for men have been and are being clinically tested. There are two types of oral birth control pills, the combined oral contraceptive pills (which contain both estrogen and a progestin) and the progestogen-only pills (sometimes called minipills). If either is taken during pregnancy, they do not increase the risk of miscarriage nor cause birth defects. Both types of birth control pills prevent fertilization mainly by inhibiting ovulation and thickening cervical mucus. They may also change the lining of the uterus and thus decrease implantation. Their effectiveness depends on the user's adherence to taking the pills.\n", "BULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel (UK: Ovranette, Wyeth; Microgynon 30, Microgynon 30 ED, Bayer; US: Nordette, Duramed, Levora, Watson, Portia, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: 21 day cycle + 7 days no pills (Canada: Min-Ovral 21; EU: Ovoplex 150/30; Sweden: , )\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: 21 day cycle + 7 days placebo (Canada: Min-Ovral 28; Sweden: ; RU: Rigevidon 21+7, Richter Gedeon)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: extended cycle: 84 days + 7 days placebo (US: Seasonale, Duramed; Quasense, Watson; Jolessa, Barr, Introvale)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg levonorgestrel: extended cycle: 84 days + 7 days 10 µg ethinylestradiol only (US: Seasonique, Duramed; Camrese, Teva; Amethia, Watson)\n", "Section::::Methods.:Emergency.\n\nEmergency contraceptive methods are medications (sometimes misleadingly referred to as \"morning-after pills\") or devices used after unprotected sexual intercourse with the hope of preventing pregnancy. They work primarily by preventing ovulation or fertilization. They are unlikely to affect implantation, but this has not been completely excluded. A number of options exist, including high dose birth control pills, levonorgestrel, mifepristone, ulipristal and IUDs. Providing emergency contraceptive pills to women in advance does not affect rates of sexually transmitted infections, condom use, pregnancy rates, or sexual risk-taking behavior. All methods have minimal side effects.\n", "BULLET::::- 400 µg norethisterone (US: Ovcon 35, Warner Chilcott; Balziva, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 500 µg norethisterone (UK: Ovysmen, Janssen-Cilag; Brevinor, Pfizer; US: Modicon, Ortho-McNeil; Brevicon, Watson; Nortrel 0.5/35, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 1000 µg norethisterone (AU, CAN: Synphasic, Pfizer; UK: Norimin, Pfizer; US: Ortho-Novum 1/35, Ortho-McNeil; Norinyl 1/35, Watson; Necon, Watson; Nortrel 1/35, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 1000 µg etynodiol diacetate (US: Demulen 1/35, Pfizer; Zovia 1/35, Watson; Kelnor, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 250 µg norgestimate (UK: Cilest, Janssen-Cilag; US: Ortho Cyclen, Ortho-McNeil; MonoNessa, Watson; Sprintec, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 µg cyproterone acetate: only approved for severe acne or severe hirsutism in the UK (AU, RU: Diane-35, UK: Dianette, Bayer)\n", "BULLET::::- 1000 µg norethisterone acetate (UK: Loestrin 20, Galen; US: Loestrin 1/20, Duramed; Microgestin 1/20, Watson Pharmaceuticals; Junel 1/20, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 1000 µg norethisterone acetate: 24 days + 4 days ferrous fumarate only (US: Loestrin 24 Fe, Warner Chilcott)\n\nBULLET::::- 90 µg levonorgestrel: continuous: 365 days/year, no placebo (US: Amethyst, Watson)\n\nBULLET::::- 100 µg levonorgestrel: extended cycle: 84 days + 7 days 10 µg ethinylestradiol only (US: LoSeasonique, Teva; CamreseLo, Teva)\n\nBULLET::::- 100 µg levonorgestrel (US: Alesse, Wyeth; Aviane, Barr; Lessina, Barr; Lutera, Watson; Sronyx, Watson)\n\nBULLET::::- 150 µg desogestrel (UK: Mercilon, Organon; RU: Novynette, Richter Gedeon)\n", "Birth control pills are the most commonly prescribed hormonal treatment for hirsutism, as they prevent ovulation and decrease androgen production by the ovaries. Additionally, estrogen in the pills stimulates the liver to produce more of a protein that binds to androgens and reduces their activity.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Effectiveness.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Barrier.\n\nBarrier contraceptives are devices that attempt to prevent pregnancy by physically preventing sperm from entering the uterus. They include male condoms, female condoms, cervical caps, diaphragms, and contraceptive sponges with spermicide.\n", "BULLET::::- 350 µg norethisterone (norethindrone) (UK: Micronor, Janssen-Cilag; Noriday, Pfizer; US: Micronor, Ortho-McNeil; Nor-QD, Watson; Nora-BE, Watson; Jolivette, Watson; Camila, Barr; Errin, Barr; Heather, Glenmark; RU: Primolut-Nor, Bayer; Norkolut, Richter Gedeon)\n\nBULLET::::- 500 µg etynodiol diacetate (UK: Femulen, Pfizer)\n\nBULLET::::- 30 µg levonorgestrel (UK: Norgeston, Bayer; AUS, RU: Microlut, Bayer)\n\nBULLET::::- 75 µg desogestrel (UK: Cerazette, Loestrin; RU: Cerazette, Organon; Lactinette, Richter Gedeon; SE: Gestrina)\n\nBULLET::::- 500 µg lynestrenol (RU: Exluton, Organon)\n\nSection::::Contraindications.\n\nGenerally oral contraceptives should not be used in people who currently have the following conditions:\n\nBULLET::::- Thrombophlebitis or thromboembolic disorders\n\nBULLET::::- A past history of deep vein thrombophlebitis or thromboembolic disorders\n", "The primary mechanism of action of progesterone receptor modulator emergency contraceptive pills like low-dose and mid-dose mifepristone and ulipristal acetate is to prevent fertilization by inhibition or delay of ovulation. One clinical study found that post-ovulatory administration of ulipristal acetate altered the endometrium, but whether the changes would inhibit implantation is unknown. The European EMA-approved labels for ulipristal acetate emergency contraceptive pills do not mention an effect on implantation, but the U.S. FDA-approved label says: \"alterations to the endometrium that may affect implantation may also contribute to efficacy.\"\n", "The antiprogestin ulipristal acetate is available as a micronized emergency contraceptive tablet, effective up to 120 hours after intercourse. Ulipristal acetate ECPs developed by HRA Pharma are available over the counter in Europe and by prescription in over 50 countries under the brand names \"ellaOne\", \"ella\" (marketed by Watson Pharmaceuticals in the United States), \"Duprisal 30\", \"Ulipristal 30\", and \"UPRIS\".\n", "Combination pills usually work by preventing the ovaries from releasing eggs (ovulation). They also thicken the cervical mucus, which keeps sperm from penetrating into the uterus and joining with an egg. The hormones in combination and progestogen-only pills also thin the lining of the uterus. This could prevent pregnancy by interfering with implantation of a blastocyst.\n\nMain action in typical use is prevention of ovulation.\n\nSection::::Combined oral contraceptive pills.\n", "One of the more common forms of contraception that contains only levonorgestral is an IUD. One IUD, the Mirena is a small hollow cylinder containing levonorgestral and polydimethylsiloxane and covered with a release rate controlling membrane.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Emergency birth control.\n", "Section::::Female.:Human chorionic gonadotropin.\n\nHuman chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), also known as the “hormone of pregnancy” is a hormone that is normally produced during pregnancy and plays an integral role throughout reproduction.\n\nIt is crucial in maintaining pregnancy, from the stages of placentation through to early embryo development. hCG is also used in assisted reproductive techniques as it can be used to replace Luteinizing Hormone (LH) in final maturation induction.\n\nSection::::Male.\n\nThere currently are no effective medications to treat oligospermia, so other assisted reproductive technologies are used.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n", "BULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norgestimate combination with 7 tablets 25 µg/180 µg, 7 tablets 25 µg/215 µg, 7 tablets 25 µg/250 µg followed by 7 placebos (Ortho Tri-Cyclen Lo from Ortho-McNeil, Tri-Lo Sprintec back from Teva, Tri-Lo Marzia from Lupin, and norgestimate/ethinylestradiol from Mylan)\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/desogestrel combination with 7 tablets 25 µg/100 µg, 7 tablets 25 µg/125 µg, 7 tablets 25 µg/150 µg, followed by 7 tablets of ferric oxide (US: Cyclessa, Organon; Velivet, Barr)\n\nBULLET::::- 20/30/35 µg ethinylestradiol: estrophasic\n\nBULLET::::- ethinylestradiol/norethisterone acetate combination with 5 tablets 20 µg/1000 µg, 7 tablets 30 µg/1000 µg, 9 tablets 35 µg/1000 µg, followed by 7 tablets of ferrous fumarate 75 mg (US: Estrostep Fe, Warner Chilcott)\n\nBULLET::::- 35/30/30 µg ethinylestradiol: triphasic\n", "Oral contraceptive pill\n\nOral contraceptives, abbreviated OCPs, also known as birth control pills, are medications taken by mouth for the purpose of birth control.\n\nSection::::Female.\n\nTwo types of female oral contraceptive pill, taken once per day, are widely available:\n\nBULLET::::- The combined oral contraceptive pill contains estrogen and a progestin\n\nBULLET::::- The progestogen-only pill\n\nBULLET::::- Ormeloxifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator which offers the benefit of only having to be taken once a week.\n\nEmergency contraception pills (\"morning after pills\") are taken at the time of intercourse, or within a few days afterwards:\n", "Combined oral contraceptive pills were developed to prevent ovulation by suppressing the release of gonadotropins. Combined hormonal contraceptives, including COCPs, inhibit follicular development and prevent ovulation as a primary mechanism of action.\n", "Due to physiological changes in the body during pregnancy, it may be necessary to alter the dosing of medications so that they remain effective. Generally, the dose or the frequency of dosing are increased to account for these changes.\n\nThe recommended ART regimen for HIV-positive pregnant women consists of drugs from 4 different classes of medications listed below. In the United States, the favored regimen is a three-drug regimen where the first two drugs are NRTIs and the third is either a protease inhibitor, an integrase inhibitor, or an NNRTI.\n", "Neurological advice is recommended in women on the anti-epileptic drug lamotrigine who are considering CHC, as the seizure threshold in someone on lamotrigine may be lowered by the oestrogen in CHC. In a similar mechanism, stopping CHC in a woman on lamotrigine can cause lamotrigine toxicity.\n\nSection::::Drug interactions.:Antibiotics.\n\nExtra contraceptive precautions are not necessary when using CHC in combination with antibiotics that do not induce liver enzymes, unless the antibiotics cause vomiting and/or diarrhoea.\n\nSection::::Incorrect usage.\n", "Fertility medication\n\nFertility medication, better known as fertility drugs, are drugs which enhance reproductive fertility. For women, fertility medication is used to stimulate follicle development of the ovary. There are currently very few fertility medication options available for men.\n\nAgents that enhance ovarian activity can be classified as either Gonadotropin releasing hormone, Estrogen antagonists or Gonadotropins.\n\nSection::::Female.\n\nSection::::Female.:Main techniques.\n\nThe main techniques involving fertility medication in females are:\n\nBULLET::::- Ovulation induction, with the aim of producing one or two ovulatory follicles for fertilization by sexual intercourse or artificial insemination\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Robert J. Guttman wrote in 2001 that the very definition of the term superpower has changed, and in the 21st century it does not only refer to states with military power, but also to groups such as the European Union, with strong market economics, young, highly educated workers savvy in high technology, and a global vision. Friis Arne Petersen, the Danish ambassador to the US, has expressed similar views but has conceded that the EU is a \"special kind of superpower\", one that has yet to establish a unified military force that exerts itself even close to the same level as many of its individual members.\n", "Historian Timothy Garton Ash argued in 2011, pointing to factors such as the International Monetary Fund predicting that China's GDP (purchasing power parity adjusted) will overtake that of the United States in 2016, that a power shift to a world with several superpowers was happening \"Now\". However, China was still lacking in soft power and power projection abilities and had a low GDP/person. The article also stated that the Pew Research Center in a 2009 survey found that people in 15 out of 22 countries believed that China had or would overtake the US as the world's leading superpower.\n", "Collectively these potential superpowers, and the United States, comprise 68.0% of global nominal GDP, 62.4% of global GDP (PPP), more than one third of the total land area and more than 50% of the world's population.\n\nSection::::Comparative statistics.\n\n\"* Note:\" The European Union does not have its own armed forces. The table shows the total military expenditures of all 28 EU member states.\n\nSection::::Brazil.\n\nThe Federative Republic of Brazil has seen limited discussion among authorities regarding its potential as a superpower.\n", "Experts argue that this older assessment of global politics is too simplified, in part because of the difficulty in classifying the European Union at its current stage of development. Others argue that the notion of a superpower is outdated, considering complex global economic interdependencies and propose that the world is multipolar.\n", "However, the notion of the United States being seen as the sole superpower or China as a newly emerged equal is disputed and split between scholars and political scientists. With the only middle ground being agreed upon is that US global influence have significantly eroded in the 21st century.\n\nSection::::Post–Cold War era.:Potential superpowers.\n", "Chinese foreign policy adviser Wang Jisi in 2012 stated that many Chinese officials see China as a first-class power which should be treated as such. China is argued to soon become the world's largest economy and to be making rapid progress in many areas. The United States is seen as a declining superpower as indicated by factors such as poor economic recovery, financial disorder, high deficits gaining close to GDP levels and unemployment, increasing political polarization, and overregulation forcing jobs overseas in China.\n", "Some people doubt the existence of superpowers in the post–Cold War era altogether, stating that today's complex global marketplace and the rising interdependency between the world's nations has made the concept of a superpower an idea of the past and that the world is now multipolar. However, while the military dominance of the United States remains unquestioned for now and its international influence has made it an eminent world power, countries such as China, India, Brazil and Russia are inventing new ways to counter American military supremacy such as space and are making great strides in science, literature, soft power and diplomacy.\n", "The United Nations Security Council, NATO Quint, the G7, the BRICs and the Contact Group have all been described as great power concerts.\n\nSection::::History.:Emerging powers.\n", "Robert J. Guttman wrote in 2001 that the very definition of the term superpower has changed and in the 21st century, it does not only refer to states with military power, but also to groups such as the European Union, with strong market economics, young, highly educated workers savvy in high technology, and a global vision. Friis Arne Petersen, the Danish ambassador to the US, has expressed similar views. He conceded that the EU is a \"special kind of superpower,\" one that has yet to establish a unified military force that exerts itself even close to the same level as many of its individual members.\n", "Parag Khanna stated in 2008 that by making massive trade and investment deals with Latin America and Africa, China had established its presence as a superpower along with the European Union and the United States. China's rise is demonstrated by its ballooning share of trade in its gross domestic product. He believed that China's \"consultative style\" had allowed it to develop political and economic ties with many countries including those viewed as rogue states by the United States. He stated that the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation founded with Russia and the Central Asian countries may eventually be the \"NATO of the East\".\n", "youth dependency ratio - The youth dependency ratio is the ratio of the youth population (ages 0-14) per 100 people of working age (ages 15-64). A high youth dependency ratio indicates that a greater investment needs to be made in schooling and other services for children.\n\nelderly dependency ratio - The elderly dependency ratio is the ratio of the elderly population (ages 65+) per 100 people of working age (ages 15-64). Increases in the elderly dependency ratio put added pressure on governments to fund pensions and healthcare.\n", "In the opinion of Kim Richard Nossal of Queen's University in Canada, \"generally this term was used to signify a political community that occupied a continental-sized landmass, had a sizable population (relative at least to other major powers); a superordinate economic capacity, including ample indigenous supplies of food and natural resources; enjoyed a high degree of non-dependence on international intercourse; and, most importantly, had a well-developed nuclear capacity (eventually normally defined as second strike capability)\".\n", "According to Lyman Miller, \"[t]he basic components of superpower stature may be measured along four axes of power: military, economic, political, and cultural (or what political scientist Joseph Nye has termed \"soft power\")\".\n", "The term was first applied post World War II to the United States and the Soviet Union. For the duration of the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union came to be generally regarded as the two remaining superpowers, dominating world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, only the United States appeared to be the world's superpower. Alice Lyman Miller defines a superpower as \"a country that has the capacity to project dominating power and influence anywhere in the world, and sometimes, in more than one region of the globe at a time, and so may plausibly attain the status of global hegemony\".\n", "Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its UN Security Council permanent seat was transferred to the Russian Federation in 1991, as its successor state. The newly formed Russian Federation emerged on the level of a great power, leaving the United States as the only remaining global superpower (although some support a multipolar world view).\n", "Besides those mentioned above, a limited number of observers have also discussed, although ultimately dismissed, Brazil having the potential to emerge as a superpower.\n\nThe record of such predictions has admittedly not been perfect. For example, in the 1980s, some commentators thought Japan would become a superpower due to its large GDP and high economic growth at the time. However, Japan's economy crashed in 1991, creating a long period of economic slump in the country which has become known as \"The Lost Years\". As of August 2012, Japan had yet to fully recover from the 1991 crash.\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "The Soviet Union and the United States fulfilled the superpower criteria in the following ways:\n\nSection::::Post–Cold War era.\n", "In recent times, consensus has concluded that China has reached the qualifications of superpower status, citing China's growing political clout and leadership in the economic sectors has given the country renewed standings in the International Community. Although China's military projection is still premature and untested, the perceived humilation of US leadership in failing to prevent its closest allies in joining the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, along with the controversial Belt and Road Initiative and China's role in the worldwide groundings of the Boeing 737 MAX, was seen as a paradigm shift or an inflection point to the unipolar world order that dominated post-Cold War international relations. University Professor Øystein Tunsjø argues that competition between China and the USA will increase, leading to the gap between them decreasing, while the gap between the two countries and the rest of the top ten largest economies will widen. Additionally, economics correspondent, Peter S. Goodman and Beijing Bureau Chief of China, Jane Perlez further stated that China is using a combination of its economic might and growing military advancements to pressure, coerce and change the current world order to accommodate China's interests at the expense of the United States and its allies.\n", "Potential superpowers\n\nA potential superpower is a state or a political and economic entity that is speculated to be – or to have the potential to soon become – a superpower.\n\nCurrently, only the United States fulfills the criteria to be considered a superpower.\n\nThe European Union and the emerging BRIC economies comprising Brazil, Russia, India and China, are most commonly described as being potential superpowers.\n", "Russian news agency RIA Novosti called Russia a \"superpower\" after its actions in Syria, and after the formation of a coalition to fight ISIS in Syria and Iraq, Benny Avni of the \"New York Post\" called Russia the \"world's new sole superpower\".\n\nSection::::Russia.:Contrary views.\n", "total dependency ratio - The total dependency ratio is the ratio of combined youth population (ages 0-14) and elderly population (ages 65+) per 100 people of working age (ages 15-64). A high total dependency ratio indicates that the working-age population and the overall economy face a greater burden to support and provide social services for youth and elderly persons, who are often economically dependent.\n", "Lawrence Saez at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, argued in 2011 that the United States will be surpassed by China as military superpower within twenty years. Regarding economic power, the Director of the China Center for Economic Reform at Peking University Yao Yang stated that \"Assuming that the Chinese and U.S. economies grow, respectively, by 8% and 3% in real terms, that China's inflation rate is 3.6% and America's is 2% (the averages of the last decade), and that the renminbi appreciates against the dollar by 3% per year (the average of the last six years), China will become the world's largest economy by 2021. By that time, both countries' GDP will be about $24 trillion.\"\n", "The European Union (EU) has been called an emerging superpower by academics. Many scholars and academics like T. R. Reid, Andrew Reding, Andrew Moravcsik, Mark Leonard, Jeremy Rifkin, John McCormick, and some politicians like Romano Prodi and Tony Blair, believed that the EU either is, or will become, a superpower in the 21st century. These prognoses, however, all predate the euro crisis and Brexit. See; Political midlife crisis.\n", "China was increasingly called a superpower in the early 2010s, including at the 2011 meeting between President Hu Jintao and United States President Barack Obama. China overtook the U.S. as the world's largest trading nation, filing the most patents, expanding its military, landing its lunar rover \"Yutu\" on the moon (ending a four-decade lack of lunar exploration) and creating China's Oriental Movie Metropolis as a major film and cultural center. China was projected to have the world's largest economy by 2018 with an estimated GDP per capita equal to the U.S. by the late 2050s. In 2018, global military spending reached the highest it has been since 1988, late Cold War levels, largely fueled by increased defense spending by China and the United States, whose budgets together accounted for half of the world's total military spending. In 2019, the Lowy Institute Asia Power Index, which measures the projections of power in the Indo-Pacific, called both China and the United States the superpowers of the 21st century, citing immense influence in almost all eight indexes of power.\n", "After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term hyperpower began to be applied to the United States as the sole remaining superpower of the Cold War era. This term, popularized by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the late 1990s, is controversial and the validity of classifying the United States in this way is disputed. One notable opponent to this theory is Samuel P. Huntington, who rejects this theory in favor of a multipolar balance of power. Other international relations theorists such as Henry Kissinger theorize that because the threat of the Soviet Union no longer exists to formerly American-dominated regions such as Western Europe and Japan, American influence is only declining since the end of the Cold War because such regions no longer need protection or have necessarily similar foreign policies as the United States.\n" ]

[ "The United States has much debt, so it does not make sense that it's the world's largest super power.", "It is illogical that the US, with the largest debt, is also the world's largest super power." ]

[ "The United States is considered the world's largest super power due to it's military strength and not it's financial value.", "Even though the debt is high the GDP is massive and \"superpower\" refers to military strength." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The United States has much debt, so it does not make sense that it's the world's largest super power.", "It is illogical that the US, with the largest debt, is also the world's largest super power." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "The United States is considered the world's largest super power due to it's military strength and not it's financial value.", "Even though the debt is high the GDP is massive and \"superpower\" refers to military strength." ]

[ "BULLET::::- In Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Canada, Ireland, Poland, Russia and the UK, a public holiday otherwise falling on a Sunday will result in observance of the public holiday on the next available weekday (generally Monday). This arrangement results in a long weekend\n\nBULLET::::- The U.S. Congress changed the observance of Memorial Day and Washington's Birthday from fixed dates to certain Mondays in 1968 (effective 1971). Several states had passed similar laws earlier.\n\nSection::::Religious holidays.\n\nSection::::Religious holidays.:Abrahamic holidays.\n\nSection::::Religious holidays.:Abrahamic holidays.:Christian holidays.\n\nBULLET::::- Advent (Preparation for the commemoration of Jesus' Birth. Start of the Christmas Season)\n", "BULLET::::- All Friday holidays are celebrated on Saturday and all Monday holidays are celebrated on Tuesday to account for the time zone difference with the states. Weekday holidays such as Thanksgiving are celebrated as they fall.\n\nBULLET::::- March 20 – April 23 (floating Friday using Computus) – Good Friday\n\nBULLET::::- March 22 – April 25 (floating Sunday using Computus) – Easter (listed to account for park closing, which normally opens Sundays)\n\nBULLET::::- April 13–15 – Songkran Festival\n\nBULLET::::- December 31 – New Year's Eve\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Washington.\n", "BULLET::::- May 1–7 (floating Monday) – Primary Election Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 2–8 (floating Monday) – General Election Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – Lincoln's Birthday to occur on day after Thanksgiving\n\nBULLET::::- December 24 – Washington's Birthday to occur on Christmas Eve\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Iowa.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday and Columbus Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – Day after Thanksgiving\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Kansas.\n", "BULLET::::- February 3 – March 9 (floating Tuesday using Computus) – Shrove Tuesday / Mardi Gras\n\nBULLET::::- February 12 – Lincoln's Birthday\n\nBULLET::::- February 15 – Susan B. Anthony Day\n\nBULLET::::- February 15–21 (floating Monday) – Washington's Birthday (reincluded because the holiday is not listed under the Florida government holidays)\n\nBULLET::::- March 20 – April 23 (floating Friday using Computus) – Good Friday\n\nBULLET::::- April 2 – Pascua Florida Day\n\nBULLET::::- April 26 – Confederate Memorial Day\n\nBULLET::::- June 3 – birthday of Jefferson Davis\n\nBULLET::::- June 14 – Flag Day\n\nBULLET::::- October 8–14 (floating Monday) – renamed holiday as Columbus and Farmers' Day\n", "According to Yanovski et al., in the United States the holiday season \"is generally considered to begin with the day after Thanksgiving and end after New Year's Day\". According to Axelrad, the season in the United States encompasses at least Christmas and New Year's Day, and also includes Saint Nicholas Day. The U.S. Fire Administration defines the \"winter holiday season\" as the period from December 1 to January 7. According to Chen et al., in China the Christmas and holiday season \"is generally considered to begin with the winter solstice and end after the Lantern Festival\". In some stores and shopping malls, Christmas merchandise is advertised beginning after Halloween or even in late October, alongside Halloween items. In the UK and Ireland, Christmas food generally appears on supermarket shelves as early as September or even August, while the Christmas shopping season itself starts from mid-November when the high street Christmas lights are switched on.\n", "BULLET::::- February 12 – Lincoln's Birthday\n\nBULLET::::- November 2–8 (floating Tuesday) – Election Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – day after Thanksgiving\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Illinois.:Chicago, Illinois.\n\nBULLET::::- All Illinois state holidays except the Day after Thanksgiving\n\nBULLET::::- March 1–7 (floating Monday) – Pulaski Day\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Indiana.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday\n\nBULLET::::- March 20 – April 23 (floating Friday using Computus) – Good Friday\n", "BULLET::::- March 5 – death of Crispus Attucks (schools open, but with related instructions)\n\nBULLET::::- March 7 – birthday of Luther Burbank / Arbor Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n\nBULLET::::- March 30 – Vietnamese Veterans Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n\nBULLET::::- April 6 – California Poppy Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n\nBULLET::::- April 21 – John Muir Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n\nBULLET::::- May 8–14 (floating Wednesday) – Day of the Teacher (schools open, but with related instructions)\n\nBULLET::::- May 22 – Harvey Milk Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n", "BULLET::::- November 2–8 (floating Tuesday) – General Election Day (even numbered years only)\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – Day after Thanksgiving\n\nBULLET::::- December 24 – Christmas Eve (if Christmas Eve falls on Sunday as it does in 2017, December 22 is the observed holiday)\n\nBULLET::::- December 31 – New Year's Eve (if New Year's Eve falls on Sunday as it does in 2017, December 29 is the observed holiday)\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Minnesota.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – Day after Thanksgiving\n", "Proposals in some communities to hold Halloween the following weekend, or whenever conditions returned to normal, met with protest from some parents. Some considered the October 31 date to be immutable and nonnegotiable, so children would have to wait for 2012. \"I don't have control over the calendar, so Halloween is on Halloween, which is the 31st\", said Pat Murphy, mayor of New Milford, Connecticut. She noted the town had managed to celebrate the holiday that day on its village green despite considerable storm damage and continued power outages. Others had already allowed their children some trick-or-treating, and did not want them to indulge in candy a second time within the week.\n", "BULLET::::- Samhain: \"31 October–1 November\" – first day of winter in the Celtic calendar (and Celtic New Year's Day)\n\nBULLET::::- Secular\n\nBULLET::::- Columbus Day: \"October 12\" or the second Monday in October\n\nBULLET::::- Indigenous People's Day: the second Monday in October\n\nSection::::November.\n\nBULLET::::- Christianity\n\nBULLET::::- All Saints Day: \"1 November\" – in Western Christian churches\n\nBULLET::::- Nativity Fast: \"forty days leading to Christmas\" – also St Philip's fast, Christmas fast, or winter lent or fast (Eastern Christianity).\n\nBULLET::::- Secular\n\nBULLET::::- Thanksgiving: \"fourth Thursday of November (US); second Monday of October (CAN)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Calan Gaeaf: \"1 November\" – the first day of winter in Wales\n", "Section::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Arkansas.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n\nBULLET::::- February 15–21 (floating Monday) – this federal holiday is renamed \"George Washington's Birthday and Daisy Gatson Bates Day\".\n\nBULLET::::- December 24 – Christmas Eve\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:California.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n\nBULLET::::- March 31 (fixed) – César Chávez Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – day after Thanksgiving\n", "In Hungary, Kenya, the United Kingdom (except Scotland), Australia, South Africa, Germany, Serbia, Switzerland and New Zealand, Easter has two public holidays, Good Friday and Easter Monday, making a four-day weekend. The moveable date of Easter sometimes brings it into conflict with other, fixed, public holidays.\n", "BULLET::::- Washington's Birthday: third Monday in February (formerly February 22)\n\nBULLET::::- Memorial Day: last Monday in May (formerly May 30)\n\nBULLET::::- Labor Day: first Monday in September\n\nBULLET::::- Columbus Day: second Monday in October (formerly observed in some states on October 12)\n\nBULLET::::- Veterans Day: fourth Monday in October (formerly November 11; subsequently returned to November 11 effective 1978)\n", "BULLET::::- December 24 – Washington's Birthday observed. If December 24 is a Wednesday, then this holiday is observed on Friday December 26.\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Guam.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays\n\nBULLET::::- March 7 – Guam History and Chamorro Heritage Day\n\nBULLET::::- July 21 – Liberation Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 2 – All Souls' Day\n\nBULLET::::- December 8 – Lady of Camarin Day\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Hawaii.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n", "Section::::Impact.:Halloween.\n", "Section::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Rhode Island.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday\n\nBULLET::::- August 8–14 (floating Monday) – Victory Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 2–8 (floating Tuesday) – Election Day\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:South Carolina.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n\nBULLET::::- May 10 – Confederate Memorial Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – Day after Thanksgiving\n\nBULLET::::- December 24 – Christmas Eve\n\nBULLET::::- December 26 – Day after Christmas\n", "Winter in the Northern Hemisphere features many holidays that involve festivals and feasts. The Christmas and holiday season surrounds the Christmas and other holidays, and is celebrated by many religions and cultures. Usually, this period begins near the start of November and ends with New Year's Day. \"Holiday season\" in the US corresponds to the period that begins with Thanksgiving and ends with New Year's Eve. Some Christian countries consider the end of the festive season to be after the feast of Epiphany.\n\nSection::::Types of holiday (observance).:National holidays.\n", "Section::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Legal holidays observed nationwide.\n\nBULLET::::- January 1 – New Year's Day\n\nBULLET::::- May 25–31 (floating Monday) – Memorial Day\n\nBULLET::::- Known officially as \"National Memorial Day\" in Alabama,\n\nBULLET::::- and \"Memorial Day / Decoration Day\" in Idaho.\n\nBULLET::::- Observed with Jefferson Davis' Birthday, and known officially as \"National Memorial Day / Jefferson Davis' Birthday\", in Mississippi.\n\nBULLET::::- July 4 – Independence Day\n\nBULLET::::- September 1–7 (floating Monday) – Labor Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 11 – Veterans Day\n", "Section::::Snowfall totals and records.\n", "The competing dates for Thanksgiving are parodied in the 1942 film \"Holiday Inn\". In the film, a November calendar appears on which an animated turkey jumps back and forth between the two weeks, until he gives up and shrugs his shoulders at the audience.\n\nIn the 1940 Three Stooges short film \"No Census, No Feeling\", Curly makes mention of the Fourth of July being in October. When Moe questions him, Curly replies, \"You never can tell. Look what they did to Thanksgiving!\"\n", "BULLET::::- Summer holidays run from June to September. Holidays begin between June 10 and 20, and end around September 11.\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas holidays begin around December 23 and end around January 8 (about 2 weeks).\n\nBULLET::::- Easter holidays last 2 weeks from Lazarus Saturday to Thomas Sunday (according to the Orthodox calculations)\n\nBULLET::::- There are also two 1-day national holidays: October 28 and March 25\n\nSection::::Holidays in the world.:Europe.:Ireland.\n", "BULLET::::- February 3 – March 9 (floating Tuesday using Computus) – Mardi Gras\n\nBULLET::::- March 20 – April 23 (floating Friday using Computus) – Good Friday\n\nBULLET::::- November 2–8 (floating Tuesday) – Election Day\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Louisiana.:Louisiana courts.\n\nBULLET::::- All Louisiana state holidays\n\nBULLET::::- November 1 – All Saints' Day\n\nBULLET::::- November 23–29 (floating Friday) – Day after Thanksgiving\n\nBULLET::::- December 24 – Christmas Eve\n\nBULLET::::- December 31 – New Year's Eve\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Louisiana.:Baton Rouge, Louisiana.\n", "BULLET::::- February 15–21 (floating Monday) – this federal holiday is renamed \"George Washington/Thomas Jefferson Birthday\"\n\nBULLET::::- April 22–28 (floating Monday) – Confederate Memorial Day\n\nBULLET::::- June 1–7 (floating Monday) – Jefferson Davis' birthday\n\nBULLET::::- October 8–14 (floating Monday) – Renamed Columbus Day / Fraternal Day / American Indian Heritage Day\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Alabama.:Baldwin County, Alabama.\n\nBULLET::::- All Alabama state holidays\n\nBULLET::::- February 3 – March 9 (floating Tuesday using Computus)  – Mardi Gras\n", "Lewis had already noted a distinct split between the religious and secular observance of Christmas. In \"Xmas and Christmas: A Lost Chapter from Herodotus\", Lewis relates as satire the observance of two simultaneous holidays in \"Niatirb\" (Britain backwards) from the supposed view of the Greek historian and traveller. One, \"Exmas\", is observed by a flurry of compulsory commercial activity and expensive indulgence in alcoholic beverages. The other, \"Crissmas,\" is observed in Niatirb's temples. Lewis's narrator asks a priest \"why they kept Crissmas on the same day as Exmas?\" He receives the reply:\n", "Section::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Mississippi.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n\nBULLET::::- January 15–21 (floating Monday) – this federal holiday is renamed \"Martin Luther King's and Robert E. Lee's Birthdays\"\n\nBULLET::::- April 24–30 (floating Monday) – Confederate Memorial Day\n\nBULLET::::- May 25–31 (floating Monday) – renamed National Memorial Day / Jefferson Davis Birthday\n\nBULLET::::- November 11 – renamed Armistice Day (Veterans Day)\n\nSection::::Government sector holidays: federal, state, and local government.:Legal holidays by states and political divisions of the United States.:Missouri.\n\nBULLET::::- All federal holidays\n\nBULLET::::- February 12 – Lincoln's Birthday\n" ]

[ "Easter is not on a set date.", "Easter does not have a set date. " ]

[ "Easter is on a set date according to a different calendar.", "Easter does have a set date, it just doesn't seem as it does because the date uses a different calendar. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Easter is not on a set date.", "Easter does not have a set date. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Easter is on a set date according to a different calendar.", "Easter does have a set date, it just doesn't seem as it does because the date uses a different calendar. " ]

[ "Section::::Major Empirical Findings.\n\nSection::::Major Empirical Findings.:Elevation Differs From Happiness.\n", "Section::::Major Theories.\n\nSection::::Major Theories.:Haidt's Third Dimension of Social Cognition.\n", "Section::::Major Theories.:Elevation as a Self-Transcendent Positive Emotion.\n", "Section::::Controversies.\n", "Research has shown that elevation can contribute to emotional and social functioning in clinically depressed and anxious individuals. For ten days, participants completed brief daily surveys to assess elevation, feelings of competence, interpersonal functioning, symptoms, and compassionate goals. Their findings indicated that on days that clinically distressed individuals experienced high elevation in relation to their normal levels, they reported a greater desire to help others and to be close to others. They also reported less interpersonal conflict and fewer symptoms of distress.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Elevation in the Workplace.\n", "BULLET::::- Test subjects may have been invited instead of chosen at random, resulting in sampling bias.\n\nBULLET::::- Some countries may have significant height gaps between different regions. For instance, one survey shows there is gap between the tallest state and the shortest state in Germany. Under such circumstances, the mean height may not represent the total population unless sample subjects are appropriately taken from all regions with using weighted average of the different regional groups.\n", "BULLET::::- The scene where Victoria enters the Belfrey Towers is a homage to the 2006 film \"The Devil Wears Prada\", in which Meryl Streep's Miranda Priestly enters the Runway building in a similar way.\n", "Humans also interact with their environments based on their sensory capabilities. The fields of human perception systems, like perceptual psychology and cognitive psychology, are not exact sciences, because human information processing is not a purely physical act, and because perception is affected by cultural factors, personal preferences, experiences, and expectations. So human scale in architecture can also describe buildings with sightlines, acoustic properties, task lighting, ambient lighting, and spatial grammar that fit well with human senses. However, one important caveat is that human perceptions are always going to be less predictable and less measurable than physical dimensions.\n", "BULLET::::5. In ring theory, the height of a prime ideal is the supremum of the lengths of all chains of prime ideals contained in it.\n\nSection::::In geosciences.\n\nSection::::In geosciences.:In geology.\n", "BULLET::::- Elevation : When an object is visible relative to the horizon, we tend to perceive objects which are closer to the horizon as being farther away from us, and objects which are farther from the horizon as being closer to us. In addition, if an object moves from a position close the horizon to a position higher or lower than the horizon, it will appear to move closer to the viewer.\n\nSection::::Binocular cues.\n\nBinocular cues provide depth information when viewing a scene with both eyes.\n", "Height\n\nHeight is measure of vertical distance, either vertical extent (how \"tall\" something or someone is) or vertical position (how \"high\" a point is).\n\nFor example, \"The height of that building is 50 m\" or \"The height of an airplane is about 10,000 m\".\n\nWhen the term is used to describe vertical position (of, e.g., an airplane) from sea level, height is more often called \"altitude\".\n\nFurthermore, if the point is attached to the Earth (e.g., a mountain peak), then altitude (height above sea level) is called \"elevation\".\n", "Section::::Other important dimensions.\n", "In aviation terminology, the terms \"height\", \"altitude\", and \"elevation\" are not synonyms. Usually, the altitude of an aircraft is measured from sea level, while its height is measured from ground level. Elevation is also measured from sea level, but is most often regarded as a property of the ground. Thus, elevation plus height can equal altitude, but the term \"altitude\" has several meanings in aviation.\n\nSection::::In human culture.\n\nHuman height is one of the areas of study within anthropometry. While height variations within a population are largely genetic, height variations between populations are mostly environmental.\n", "BULLET::::- A chapter titled \"Epistemology at the Core of Postmodernism\" in the 2002 book \"Telling the Truth: Evangelizing Postmodernisms\" makes this observation: \"I remember the subversive effect the observation had on me that in every U.S. presidential race, the taller of the two candidates had been elected. It opened up space for a counterdiscourse to the presumed rationality of the electoral process.\"\n", "BULLET::::- A 1978 book titled \"The Psychology of Person Identification\" states: \"They also say that every President of the USA elected since the turn of the [20th] century has been the taller of the two candidates (Jimmy Carter being an exception).\"\n", "This measurement only recently came into use, when the Petronas Towers passed the Sears Tower (now called Willis Tower) in height. The former was considered taller because its spires were considered architectural, while the latter's antennae were not. This led to the split of definitions, with the Sears Tower claiming the lead in this and the height-to-roof (now highest occupied floor) categories, and with the Petronas claiming the lead in the architectural height category.\n", "The pressure (force per unit area) at a given altitude is a result of the weight of the overlying atmosphere. If at a height of \"z\" the atmosphere has density \"ρ\" and pressure \"P\", then moving upwards at an infinitesimally small height \"dz\" will decrease the pressure by amount \"dP\", equal to the weight of a layer of atmosphere of thickness \"dz\".\n\nThus:\n", "It has been shown that a log-normal distribution fits the data equally well, besides guaranteeing a non-negative lower confidence limit, which could otherwise attain a non-physical negative height value for arbitrarily large confidence levels.\n\nSection::::Height abnormalities.\n", "BULLET::::- A 1997 book called \"How to Make Anyone Fall in Love with You\" discusses the issue in a section about the importance of height: \"What about height? One assumes the taller the better, because our culture venerates height. In fact, practically every president elected in the United States since 1900 was the taller of the two candidates.\"\n", "BULLET::::- make all lines that are vertical in reality vertical in the image. This includes columns, vertical edges of walls and lampposts. This is a commonly accepted distortion in constructed perspective; perspective is based on the notion that more distant objects are represented as smaller on the page; however, even though the top of the cathedral tower is in reality further from the viewer than base of the tower (due to the vertical distance), constructed perspective considers only the horizontal distance and considers the top and bottom to be the same distance away;\n", "In general, \"altitude\" refers to distance above mean sea level (MSL or AMSL), \"height\" refers to distance above a particular point (e.g. the airport, runway threshold, or ground at present location), and \"elevation\" describes a feature of the terrain itself in terms of distance above MSL. One mnemonic that can be used is: if it's an altitude you can fly there, if it's an elevation you can walk there, and if it's height that's how far a rock will fall before it hits the ground.\n\nSection::::Atmospheric sciences.\n", "There has been some debate in the scientific community over whether elevation is a uniquely human trait. Primatologist Jane Goodall argues that other animals are capable of experiencing awe, elevation and wonder. Dr. Goodall is famous for her execution of the longest uninterrupted study of a group of animals. She lived among wild chimpanzees in Tanzania, observing them for 45 years. Several times, she witnessed signs of heightened arousal in chimpanzees in the presence of spectacular waterfalls or rainstorms. Each time, the chimp would perform a magnificent display, swaying rhythmically from one foot to the other, stamping in the water, and throwing rocks. Dr. Goodall postulates that such displays are the precursors of religious ritual, and are inspired by feelings akin to elevation or awe.\n", "Section::::Major Empirical Findings.:Elevation Increases Oxytocin in Nursing Mothers.\n\nJennifer Silvers and Jonathan Haidt found that elevation may increase the amount of oxytocin circulating in the body by promoting the release of the hormone. In their study, nursing mothers and their infants watched video clips that either evoked elevation or amusement. Mothers who watched the elevation-inducing clip were more likely to nurse, leak milk, or cuddle their babies. These actions are associated with oxytocin and thus suggest a possible physiological mechanism underlying feelings of elevation.\n\nSection::::Major Empirical Findings.:Elevation Increases Prosocial Behavior.\n", "BULLET::::- Different social groups can show different mean height. According to a study in France, executives and professionals are taller, and university students are taller than the national average. As this case shows, data taken from a particular social group may not represent a total population in some countries.\n\nBULLET::::- A relatively small sample of the population may have been measured, which makes it uncertain whether this sample accurately represents the entire population.\n", "BULLET::::- Distance constancy refers to the relationship between apparent distance and physical distance. An illusion example of this would be the moon - when it is near the horizon it is perceived as larger (size constancy) and/or closer to earth than when it is above our heads.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Musical notation was well developed by then, originating around 1025. Guido d'Arezzo developed a system of pitch notation using lines and spaces. Until this time, only two lines had been used. d'Arezzo expanded this system to four lines, and initiated the idea of ledger lines by adding lines above or below these lines as needed. He used square notes called neumes. This system eliminated any uncertainty of pitch. d'Arezzo also developed a system of clefs, which became the basis for the clef system: bass clef, treble clef, and so on. (Co-existing civilizations used other forms of notation).\n", "Types and methods of notation have varied between cultures and throughout history, and much information about ancient music notation is fragmentary. Even in the same time period, such as in the 2010s, different styles of music and different cultures use different music notation methods; for example, for professional classical music performers, sheet music using staves and noteheads is the most common way of notating music, but for professional country music session musicians, the Nashville Number System is the main method.\n", "While music with notation has survived, in substantial quantity, the interpretation of this music, especially with regard to rhythm, remains controversial. Three music theorists describe the contemporary practice: Johannes de Garlandia, Franco of Cologne, and Anonymous IV. However, they were all writing more than two generations after the music was written, and may have been imposing their current practice, which was quickly evolving, on music which was conceived differently. In much music of the Notre-Dame School the lowest voices sing long note values while the upper voice or voices sing highly ornamented lines, which often use repeating patterns of long and short notes known as the \"rhythmic modes\". This marked the beginning of notation capable of showing relative durations of notes within and between parts .\n", "There is another possible point of view concerning the 19th-century chant reform than the simplification of the former Byzantine notation, its Papadic tradition of teaching, essentially based on the many signs memorized by the didactic chant \"Mega Ison\". Greek musicians of the Ottoman Empire, especially those who lived in sea ports like Istanbul, in the Fener district in particular (phanariotes), did not only sing in the churches the daily services, they also joined Sufi lodges, and sometimes even the Court as invited guests but also as paid musicians, and it is known from several musicians that Sufis and Christians went to the synagogue to listen to Jewish singers and vice versa. Among Jewish singers, the brotherhoods of the \"Maftirim\" (of Edirne, but also of Galata) were of particular interest, because they adapted classical Ottoman makam compositions not only to Piyyutim poetry, but also to Hebrew psalms, and these compositions had been organized as a cycle of the same makam, chosen as makam of the day. These inspiring exchanges developed other needs like the adaptation to a tone system which was common knowledge of all musicians of the Ottoman Empire, which allowed to understand \"makamlar\" within the system of the \"octoechos\" tradition or without it as so-called \"exoteric music\" or \"external music\" (ἡ μουσική ἐξωτερική). Some signs of the former Byzantine notation were too specific concerning the own tradition, so that they were abandoned. Thus, the ornamentation became part of the oral transmission, whether it was \"makam\" or a certain melos of an \"echos\", and thus, a new more universal notation was created which had been even used to notate primitive models of Western polyphony, despite it had been developed over centuries to notate very complex forms of monodic chant.\n", "Unlike Western notation Byzantine neumes always indicate modal steps in relation to a clef or modal key (modal signatures which had been in use since papyrus fragments dating back to the 6th century). Originally this key or the incipit of a common melody was enough to indicate a certain melodic model given within the echos. Despite ekphonetic notation further early melodic notation developed not earlier than between the 9th and the 10th century. Like the Greek alphabet notational signs are ordered left to right (though the direction could be adapted like in certain Syriac manuscripts). The question of rhythm was entirely based on cheironomia, well-known melodical phrases given by gestures of the choirleaders, which existed once as part of an oral tradition.\n", "Accidentals (e.g., added sharps, flats and naturals that change the notes) were not always specified, somewhat as in certain fingering notations for guitar-family instruments (tablatures) today. However, Renaissance musicians would have been highly trained in dyadic counterpoint and thus possessed this and other information necessary to read a score correctly, even if the accidentals were not written in. As such, \"what modern notation requires [accidentals] would then have been perfectly apparent without notation to a singer versed in counterpoint.\" (See musica ficta.) A singer would interpret his or her part by figuring cadential formulas with other parts in mind, and when singing together, musicians would avoid parallel octaves and parallel fifths or alter their cadential parts in light of decisions by other musicians . It is through contemporary tablatures for various plucked instruments that we have gained much information about which accidentals were performed by the original practitioners.\n", "Section::::Other systems and practices.:Cipher notation.\n\nCipher notation systems assigning Arabic numerals to the major scale degrees have been used at least since the Iberian organ tablatures of the 16th-century and include such exotic adaptations as \"Siffernotskrift\". The one most widely in use today is the Chinese \"Jianpu\", discussed in the main article. Numerals can of course also be assigned to different scale systems, as in the Javanese \"kepatihan\" notation described above.\n\nSection::::Other systems and practices.:Solfège.\n", "Notes as pitch classes or modal keys (usually memorised by modal signatures) are represented in written form only between these neumes (in manuscripts usually written in red ink). In modern notation they simply serve as an optional reminder and modal and tempo directions have been added, if necessary. In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a temporary change into another echos.\n\nThe so-called \"great signs\" were once related to cheironomic signs; according to modern interpretations they are understood as embellishments and microtonal attractions (pitch changes smaller than a semitone), both essential in Byzantine chant.\n", "Unlike Latin treatises only a few Greek treatises of chant have survived and their authors wrote nothing about the intervals, about microtonal shifts as part of a certain melos and its echos, or about the practice of ison singing (\"isokratema\"). Nevertheless, these practices remained undisputed, because they are still part of the living tradition today, while Western plainchant became rediscovered during the 19th century. Neither musicians nor musicologists were longer familiar with them which explains why various descriptions, as they can be found in certain Latin treatises, were ignored for quite a long time.\n", "The earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written ca. 950) used symbols called \"neumes\" (Gr. sign, of the hand) to indicate tone-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n\nSection::::History.:Middle Ages.:China.\n\nSome imported early Chinese instruments became important components of the entertainment music of the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) courts: the bent-neck pipa (quxiang pipa), the bili, the konghou and the jiegu. They generated not only new repertories and performing practices but also new music theories. The pipa, for example, carried with it a theory of musical modes that subsequently led to the Sui and Tang theory of 84 musical modes.\n\nSection::::History.:Middle Ages.:Arabic countries / Persian countries.\n\nMedieval Arabic music theorists include:\n", "In his third volume of \"Études de science musicale\", published in 1898, Antoine Dechevrens laid out a comprehensive system of interpreting the neumes of Sankt Gallen style in proportional note lengths. Peter Wagner's \"Neumenkunde\" (1905) volume set out the various musical signs of all the most ancient notational styles historically and paleographically, including Jewish and Byzantine neumes, while providing a number of facsimile illustrations, giving rhythmically proportional values for the musical signs along with a few examples of proportional interpretations of certain chants in modern Western European notation.\n", "The oldest manuscript (eleventh century) of Portuguese liturgical music in Toledan Hispanic notation is kept at the University of Coimbra General Library. Most other existing documents use Aquitan notation. From the middle of the thirteenth century on, the notation presents typically Portuguese variations; this Portuguese notation was used until the fifteenth century, when modern notation in staves was adopted.\n", "Although note heads of various shapes, and notes with and without stems appear in early Gregorian chant manuscripts, many scholars agree that these symbols do not indicate different durations, although the dot is used for augmentation. See neume.\n\nIn the 13th century, chant was sometimes performed according to rhythmic modes, roughly equivalent to meters; however, the note shapes still did not indicate duration in the same way as modern note values.\n\nSection::::History.:Mensural notation.\n", "According to James Grier, Professor of Music History in the Don Wright Faculty of Music at the University of Western Ontario, Adémar was the first person to write music using the musical notation still in use today. He placed the musical notes above the text, higher or lower according to the pitch. Professor Grier states that \"Placement on the vertical axis remains the standard convention for indicating pitch in notation in Western culture and there is far greater weight on pitch than on many other elements such as dynamics and timbre\". Therefore, in discovering this document written around 1000 years in the past, Professor Grier turns Adémar in one of the first—if not the first—to write music using \"modern\" notation.\n", "Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias. The \"Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians\" (Oxford University Press) identifies this clearly:\n\nYet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, which permitted the study and analysis by theorists and composers of individual pre-constructed works in which pitches (and to some extent rhythms) remained unchanged regardless of the nature of the performance.\n\nSection::::Historical rules.\n", "The Slavic kondakar’s did only use very few oikoi pointing at certain models, but the text of the first oikos was only written in the earliest manuscript known as Tipografsky Ustav, but never provided with notation. If there was an oral tradition, it probably did not survive until the 13th century, because the oikoi are simply missing in the kondakar’s of that period.\n", "Script. Thompson notes that many features of the music script can give the impression of uniformity, suggesting that standards of copying the music text were in place before copying began. But her close inspection of the four manuscripts show distinct scripts. She makes a distinction between \"music hand\" (\"the product of an individual's pen) and \"music script\" (\"the form of notation, apart of who may have written it\") and warns that excessive initial focus on the music hand can allow too many subjective decisions for a proper analysis. Thompson identifies two features which can reveal music script variations between different hands: the shape of white notes (that is, half notes) with stems below their noteheads, and the angle and the point of attachment of stems.\n", "The musical notation (\"melekket\") used for the chants, is not a typical notational system since it does not represent pitch or melody. Rather, it is as a mnemonic. Most studies conclude that there has been impressive consistency since the 1500s. It is likely that Ethiopian liturgical chants have undergone an evolution similar to that of European liturgical chants. It can be assumed that the notations have become more and more complex as time has passed. Regional varieties may have become standardized over time, and more symbols and segments of music have become available for composers.\n", "In 1934, Dom Gregory Murray's anti-proportionalist \"A Pilgrim's Progress\" was published. In the same year, a series of articles on the subject of the rhythmic quantities of Gregorian musical signs began to be published, entitled 'La Question Rhythmique Grégorienne' by the Abbé G Delorme. This work concluded that certain notational styles contained two distinct signs for any single note and that this difference must be related to rhythm rather than pitch.\n", "During the 9th century several important developments took place. First, there was a major effort by the Church to unify the many chant traditions, and suppress many of them in favor of the Gregorian liturgy. Second, the earliest polyphonic music was sung, a form of parallel singing known as organum. Third, and of greatest significance for music history, notation was reinvented after a lapse of about five hundred years, though it would be several more centuries before a system of pitch and rhythm notation evolved having the precision and flexibility that modern musicians take for granted.\n", "Before the 15th century, Western music was written by hand and preserved in manuscripts, usually bound in large volumes. The best-known examples of Middle Ages music notation are medieval manuscripts of monophonic chant. Chant notation indicated the notes of the chant melody, but without any indication of the rhythm. In the case of Medieval polyphony, such as the motet, the parts were written in separate portions of facing pages. This process was aided by the advent of mensural notation, which also indicated the rhythm and was paralleled by the medieval practice of composing parts of polyphony sequentially, rather than simultaneously (as in later times). Manuscripts showing parts together in score format were rare and limited mostly to organum, especially that of the Notre Dame school. During the Middle Ages, if an Abbess wanted to have a copy of an existing composition, such as a composition owned by an Abbess in another town, she would have to hire a copyist to do the task by hand, which would be a lengthy process and one that could lead to transcription errors.\n", "Phanariotes, Armenian musicians as well as Danubian Boyars were the first, who invented different notation systems to transcribe the orally based music traditions of the Ottoman Empire, while Greek treatises still tended to reformulate passages taken from the Hagiopolites treatise. Even before the invention of the universal New Method and its various new phthorai used for certain \"makamlar\" and named after them, the traditional explanation for the transcription of \"makamlar\" was just another demonstration of the integrative function, that Byzantine Round notation had already developed before the Papadic reform. The \"phthorai\" itself played a central role, as \"destroyers\" they marked a transition between the \"internal\" (ἐσωτερική) and \"external music\" (ἐξωτερική). This way Greek musicians could use the interval structure (διαστήματα) of a certain \"makam\" for a temporary change (ἡ ἐναλλαγή μερική) which was not at all a proper melos within the octoechos system, but rather a refined way of a transition between two \"echoi\". But developing its own architecture within a section sung over abstract syllables (\"teretismata, nenanismata,\" etc.), it could soon develop its own proper \"melos\" as an \"echos kratema\" like \"phthora nana\" and \"phthora nenano\" before.\n", "Notation plays a relatively minor role in the oral traditions of Indonesia. However, in Java and Bali, several systems were devised beginning at the end of the 19th century, initially for archival purposes. Today the most widespread are cipher notations (\"not angka\" in the broadest sense) in which the pitches are represented with some subset of the numbers 1 to 7, with 1 corresponding to either highest note of a particular octave, as in Sundanese gamelan, or lowest, as in the kepatihan notation of Javanese gamelan.\n", "Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript. The Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BC, also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved. Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the Decline of the Western Roman Empire.\n\nSection::::History.:Byzantine Empire.\n" ]

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[ "Different musical cultures accounted for those differences when standardising music." ]

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[ "All musical cultures did not account for these differences. " ]

[ "In addition, there are numerous small creeks and rivers which feed the lake, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Coal Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Denny Creek (O.O. Denny Park)\n\nBULLET::::- Fairweather Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Forbes Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Juanita Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Kelsey Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Lyon Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Mapes Creek\n\nBULLET::::- May Creek\n\nBULLET::::- McAleer Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Mercer Slough\n\nBULLET::::- Ravenna Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Taylor Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Thornton Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Yarrow Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Yesler Creek\n\nSection::::Canals and bridges.\n", "BULLET::::- Lake Manapouri in New Zealand has been modified as part of a hydroelectric scheme such that it drains (naturally) south to Foveaux Strait via the Waiau River and (artificially) west via a constructed tunnel to Doubtful Sound\n\nSection::::List.:Other unusual systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Vostok is a subglacial lake beneath the Antarctic ice cap.\n\nBULLET::::- Bahr Yussef – in Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- The Tonle Sap River flows north in the wet season and south in the dry season\n", "Section::::Natural history.\n", "Endorheic regions can occur in any climate but are most commonly found in desert locations. In areas where rainfall is higher, riparian erosion will generally carve drainage channels (particularly in times of flood), or cause the water level in the terminal lake to rise until it finds an outlet, breaking the enclosed endorheic hydrological system's geographical barrier and opening it to the surrounding terrain. The Black Sea was likely such a lake, having once been an independent hydrological system before the Mediterranean Sea broke through the terrain separating the two. Lake Bonneville was another such lake, overflowing its basin in the Bonneville flood. The Malheur/Harney lake system in Oregon is normally cut off from drainage to the ocean, but has an outflow channel to the Malheur River that is normally dry, but flows in years of peak precipitation.\n", "BULLET::::- Lago Enriquillo on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea.\n\nMany small lakes and ponds in North Dakota and the Northern Great Plains are endorheic; some of them have salt encrustations along their shores.\n\nSection::::Notable endorheic basins and lakes.:Europe.\n\nThough a large portion of Europe drains to the endorheic Caspian Sea, Europe's wet climate means it contains relatively few terminal lakes itself: any such basin is likely to continue to fill until it reaches an overflow level connecting it with an outlet or erodes the barrier blocking its exit. Exceptions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Neusiedl, in Austria and Hungary.\n", "Groundwater supplies about 80% of the island's freshwater needs, with greater reliance on surface water in the south. Streams are only found in southern Guam, where volcanic rock with low-permeability slows the infiltration of rainwater into the ground. In the north, a limestone karst landscape quickly absorbs water. On Guam, freshwater forms a lens, with a transitional zone of brackish water to salt water underneath it.\n", "Beds of papyrus circle the lakes and dominate the surrounding swamps. Sections of these beds drift from shore and become floating islands. A variety of aquatic plants grow profusely around and in the lakes. Grasses and trees are found in parts of the watershed that are less often flooded.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Floating islands.\n\nThe term floating island is sometimes used for accumulations of vegetation free-floating within a body of water. Due to the lack of currents and tides, these are more frequently found in lakes than in rivers or the open sea. Peaty masses of vegetable matter from shallow lake floors may rise due to the accumulation of gases during decomposition, and will often float for a considerable time, becoming ephemeral islands until the gas has dissipated enough for the vegetation to return to the lake floor.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Artificial islands.\n", "The watershed contains thirteen streams flowing into the lake, forming a watershed that has an area roughly in size. Where a few of the streams enter the lake there are well-developed deltas. The streams flow for about 4–12 weeks out of the year. Nearly half of the water flowing into the lake comes from Canada, Lost Seal and Von Guerard streams.\n\nSection::::Climate.\n", "A number of shorelines have been identified in the valley, indicating variable water levels. There are two principal shorelines at and , the high shoreline is known as the Gale shoreline. There are a number of other shorelines which span an elevation range of about .\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "BULLET::::- Lake Fryxell is adjacent to the Ross Sea in Taylor Valley. The lake has an ice cover and receives its water from numerous glacial meltwater streams for approximately 6 weeks out of the year. Its salinity increases with depth.\n\nSection::::Notable endorheic basins and lakes.:Asia.\n\nMuch of western and Central Asia is a giant endorheic region made up of a number of contiguous closed basins. The region contains several basins and terminal lakes, including:\n\nBULLET::::- The Caspian Sea, the largest lake on Earth. A large part of Eastern Europe, drained by the Volga River, is part of the Caspian's basin.\n", "None of these lakes have perennial inflowing streams or outlets. The water levels of 14 Lakes fluctuate seasonally and inter-annually based on the amount of precipitation and rates of groundwater inflow and outflow. Because shrubs and trees can't persist with the periodic flooding, the fluctuating water levels maintain a very diverse herbaceous-dominated shoreline with most plant species adapted to periodic flooding. (See botanical inventory of 14 Lakes (pdf))\n", "BULLET::::- The largest lake in the world that drains naturally in two directions is Wollaston Lake.\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Toba on the island of Sumatra is in what is probably the largest resurgent caldera on Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- The largest lake completely within the boundaries of a single city is Lake Wanapitei in the city of Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Before the current city boundaries came into effect in 2001, this status was held by Lake Ramsey, also in Sudbury.\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Enriquillo in Dominican Republic is the only saltwater lake in the world inhabited by crocodiles.\n", "Throughout the island, the freshwater lens is nearly flat, with water levels less than eight feet. In some cases, the lens extends into fractures in the volcanic rock, but for the most part, it is contained in limestone in the north. Minor areas of perched water occur in limestone, atop nearly impermeable volcanic rocks at different points.\n", "The deepest - north-eastern - part of Goby Lake is stratified into two layers, an oxygenated upper layer (mixolimnion) and a lower anoxic layer (monimolimnion). The oxygen concentration in the lake declines from about 6 mg/l at the surface to zero at 10 meters (at the chemocline). Stratification is persistent and seasonal mixing does not occur. The lake is one of about 200 saline meromictic lakes that have been identified in the world. However most of these lakes are of freshwater origin. Permanently stratified marine lakes are unusual, but in Palau there are eleven other permanently stratified marine lakes, the most renowned one is Jellyfish Lake.\n", "Lake Killian receives all of its water from springs and precipitation; the only outflow is Skid's Creek on the west side of the lake. Skid's Creek drains from so far north in the lake that water in the southern basin has a significantly greater residence time than more northern waters.\n\nSection::::Bathymetry.\n", "Section::::Creeks and rivers.\n", "It is also not precisely known where the last connection of the inland waters to the ocean were, and when they closed. The southeast end is more likely however, as the island is in the Equatorial Counter Current which runs west to east, and drifting coral and other reef-builder larvae as well as flotsam would therefore predominantly land at the island's western side. Thus, it is to be expected that land build up faster there. This also agrees with the eastern location of the remaining lake. In any case, the canal network now opens to the sea south of Tangkore, and there is a direct connection from the lake to the ocean at Teraina's eastern tip.\n", "Low nutrient concentrations and thus a low density of living organisms characterize the surface waters of the NPSG. The low biomass results in clear water, allowing photosynthesis to occur to a substantial depth. The NPSG is classically described as a two-layered system. The upper, nutrient-limited layer accounts for most of the primary production, supported primarily by recycled nutrients. The lower layer has nutrients more readily available, but photosynthesis is light-limited.\n", "Section::::Natural processes.:Estuarine and ocean exchange.:Nitrate.\n", "BULLET::::- The artificial Gatun Lake in Panama drains into the Atlantic and Pacific.\n\nBULLET::::- Isa Lake in Yellowstone National Park drains to the Atlantic and Pacific.\n\nBULLET::::- At the summit of Simpson Pass in the Canadian Rockies is a small lake, the Committee's Punch Bowl, that drains both east and west.\n\nBULLET::::- Wollaston Lake in Canada is the world’s largest bifurcation lake, draining both northwest to the Arctic Ocean and northeast to Hudson Bay.\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Diefenbaker – in Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Inhottu, Isojärvi, Kivesjärvi, Kuolimo, Lummene, Vehkajärvi and Vesijako – in Finland\n", "Section::::Geography.:Basins.:Wapato Basin.\n\nThe lower basin, Wapato, is the shallower of the two, with a maximum depth of only . About of glacial sediment and rockslide deposits rest between the lake bottom and bedrock. This section of the lake is long, and has an average depth of .\n\nDue to the relatively modest size of this basin, water resides in this basin for only 0.8 years, compared to 10 for Lucerne Basin.\n\nSection::::Geography.:Basins.:Lucerne Basin.\n", "\"Ruppia megacarpa\", a form a seagrass, is found on the floor of the lake and deposits of seagrass wrack are found on the shoreline.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe traditional owners of the area are the Noongar peoples, who have inhabited the region for tens of thousands of years.\n\nSettlers arrived in the latter part of the 19th century, with large cattle leases being held in the area in the 1920s.\n", "The shoreline of Admiralty Lake was about lower than Lake Ontario. The shoreline of Glacial Lake Iroquois, an earlier proglacial lake was much higher than Lake Ontario's, because a lobe of the Laurentian Glacier blocked what is now the valley of the St Lawrence River. Lake Iroquois drained over the Niagara Escarpment, and down the Mohawk River. When the lobe of the glacier retreated the weight of the glacier kept the outlet of the St Lawrence River lower than the current level. As the glacier continued to retreat the region of the Thousand Islands rebounded, and the lake filled to its current level.\n", "Lake Muir is usually brackish (1000–3000 mg/L TDS) at the end of winter, saline by summer and dry throughout autumn.\n\nSection::::Flora and fauna.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Microbial hazards.:Microbes and microgravity in space.\n", "As with submarines before them, space capsules are closed environments, subject to strict contamination requirements. Incoming material is screened for mission threats. Any shedding, including wood, graphite, and ink vapors and droplets, may become a risk. In the case of a manned capsule, the much smaller recirculating volume, combined with microgravity and an even greater difficulty of resupply, make these requirements even more critical.\n", "Before the flight NASA believed that the RCC was very durable. Charles F. Bolden, who worked on tile-damage scenarios and repair methods early in his astronaut career, said in 2004 that:\n", "Section::::Cleaning and waste management.:Control of gases in spacecraft.\n\nToxic gases are produced as an off-gassing from the astronauts and non-metallic materials e.g. surface coatings, adhesives, elastomers, solvents, cleaning agents, heat exchanger liquids etc. Above specific concentrations, if inhaled, the gases could affect the ability of the crew to carry out their duties effectively.\n", "A large number of volatile substances detected during flight are mostly within their threshold limit values and NASA Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentration Limits. If spacecraft cabin exposure to specific chemicals is below their TLVs and SMACs then it is expected that the risks to health following inhalation exposure will be reduced.\n\nSection::::Cleaning and waste management.:Spacecraft maximum allowable concentrations.\n", "SMACs provide guidance on chemical exposures during normal as well as emergency operations aboard spacecraft. Short-term SMACs refer to concentrations of airborne substances such as a gas and vapor that will not comprise the performance of specific tasks by astronauts during emergency conditions or cause serious toxic effects. Long-term SMACs are intended to avoid adverse health effects and to prevent any noticeable changes in the crew's performance under continuous exposure to chemicals for as long as 180 days.\n\nAstronautical hygiene data needed for developing the SMACs include:\n\nBULLET::::- chemical-physical characterization of the toxic chemical\n\nBULLET::::- animal toxicity studies\n", "When astronauts travel in space, they are exposed to numerous hazards, such as radiation, microbes in the spacecraft, and planetary surface toxic dust, etc. During a space voyage, astronautical hygienists work on collecting data concerning a multitude of subjects. Once the data has been collected, they then analyze the data to determine, among other things, the risks to human health due to exposure to the various chemicals within the spacecraft as well as other toxins during their flight. From that, the hygienists can determine the appropriate measures to take in order to mitigate exposure of the astronauts to the harmful chemicals. \n", "Dr. John R. Cain (a UK government health risk management expert) was the first scientist to define the new discipline of astronautical hygiene. The establishment of the UK Space Agency and the UK Space Life and Biomedical Sciences Association (UK Space LABS) see the development and application of the principles of astronautical hygiene as an important means to protect the health of astronauts working (and eventually living) in space.\n\nSection::::Cleaning and waste management.\n", "Section::::Anatomical hazards due to environment.\n", "Section::::Causes and current studies.:Computer based simulation information.\n\nStudies applying Finite Element Modeling (FEM) to IVDs under the lower osmotic pressure of the space environment shows that the appearance of a crack in the IVD experiencing lower osmotic pressure will increase the IVD risk for injury. FEM was also used to demonstrate that static loading alone will not promote fluid extrusion from IVDs swollen during bed rest or weightlessness. Fluid expulsion will increase with the increased frequency of loading.\n\nFuture work in this simulation capability needs to be pursued.\n\nSection::::Causes and current studies.:Risk in context of exploration operational scenarios.\n", "The whole lower surface of the lifting-body was protected from the heat of re-entry by Toughened Unipiece Fibrous Insulation (TUFI) tiles, a tougher, more impact-resistant version of the Shuttle's HRSI tiles; the upgraded TUFI tiles came into use in 1996. These tiles, matt black like those on the Shuttle, were bonded directly to a multi-piece titanium heat-resistant skin mounted on the aluminium frames.\n", "There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the environment of space which make it hostile to the human body, and the potential for mechanical malfunctions of the equipment required to accomplish space flight.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.:Environmental hazards.\n\nPlanners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.:Environmental hazards.:Life support.\n\nThe basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the life support system of the spacecraft.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.:Environmental hazards.:Medical issues.\n\nMedical consequences such as possible blindness and bone loss have been associated with human space flight.\n", "Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.\n\nSection::::List of space stations.\n\nThe Soviet space stations came in two types, the civilian \"Durable Orbital Station\" (DOS), and the military \"Almaz\" stations.\n\n\"Dates refer to periods when stations were inhabited by crews.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Salyut space stations 1971–1986 () :\n\nBULLET::::- Salyut 1: 1971, 1 crew and 1 failed docking\n", "The use of high-gradient magnetic separation techniques should be developed to remove dust from the spacesuits following exploration as the fine fraction of the lunar dust is magnetic. Furthermore, vacuums can be used to remove dust from spacesuits.\n\nMass spectrometry has been used to monitor spacecraft cabin air quality. The results obtained can then be used to assess the risks during spaceflight for example, by comparing the concentrations of VOCs with their SMACs. If the levels are too high then appropriate remedial action will be required to reduce the concentrations and the risks to health.\n\nSection::::Microbial hazards.\n", "Because of the potential for microbes to cause infection in the astronauts and to be able to degrade various components that may be vital for the functioning of the spacecraft, it is important that the risks are assessed and, where appropriate, manage the levels of microbial growth controlled by the use of good astronautical hygiene. For example, by frequently sampling the space-cabin air and surfaces to detect early signs of a rise in microbial contamination, keeping surfaces clean by the use of disinfected clothes, by ensuring that all equipment is well maintained in particular the life support systems and by regular vacuuming of the spacecraft to remove dust etc. It is likely that during the first manned missions to Mars that the risks from microbial contamination could be underestimated unless the principles of good astronautical hygiene practice are applied. Further research in this field is therefore needed so that the risks of exposure can be evaluated and the necessary measures to mitigate microbial growth are developed.\n", "BULLET::::7. To provide an holistic approach to protecting an astronaut's health.\n", "During spaceflight, there will be the transfer of microbes between crew members. Several bacterial associated diseases were experienced by the crew in Skylab 1. The microbial contamination in the Skylab was found to be very high. \"Staphylococcus aureus\" and \"Aspergillus\" spp have commonly been isolated from the air and surfaces during several space missions. The microbes do not sediment in microgravity which results in persisting airborne aerosols and high microbial densities in cabin air in particular if the cabin air filtering systems are not well maintained. During one mission an increase in the number and spread of fungi and pathogenic streptococci were found.\n", "A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that \"Salmonella typhimurium\", a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.\n\nOn December 31, 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that manned spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.\n", "BULLET::::- a thermal protection system against the harsh conditions of atmospheric reentry. This may include ceramic tiles, or may utilize a double stainless-steel skin with active coolant flowing in between the two layers. Options under study in design include hexagonal stainless steel tiles that could be used on the windward side of \"Starship\", with some areas additionally containing multiple small pores that will allow for transpiration cooling.\n", "Hazardous moulds which can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids which degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful for the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS that can identify common bacteria and moulds faster than standard methods of culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth. , 76 types of unregulated micro-organisms have been detected on the ISS. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five \"Enterobacter bugandensis\" bacterial strains on the ISS, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.\n", "Weightlessness can cause serious problems on technical instruments, especially those consisting of many mobile parts. Physical processes that depend on the weight of a body (like convection, cooking water or burning candles) act differently in free-fall. Cohesion and advection play a bigger role in space. Everyday work like washing or going to the bathroom are not possible without adaptation. To use toilets in space, like the one on the International Space Station, astronauts have to fasten themselves to the seat. A fan creates suction so that the waste is pushed away. Drinking is aided with a straw or from tubes.\n", "Cleaning and waste disposal issues arise when dealing with low gravity environments. On the International Space Station, there are no showers, and astronauts instead take short sponge baths, with one cloth used to wash, and another used to rinse. Since surface tension causes water and soap bubbles to adhere to the skin, very little water is needed. Special non-rinsing soap is used, as well as special non-rinsing shampoos. Since a flush toilet would not work in low gravity environments, a special toilet was designed, that has suction capability. While the design is nearly the same, the concept uses the flow of air, rather than water. In the case of the space shuttle, waste water is vented overboard into space, and solid waste is compressed, and removed from the storage area once the shuttle returns to earth. The current toilet model was first flown on STS-54 in 1993, and features an unlimited storage capacity, compared to only 14-day capacity of the original shuttle toilets, and the new model has an odor-free environment.\n", "Section::::Safety concerns.:Mechanical hazards.:Reliability.\n", "Reduced humidity, paint with mould-killing chemicals, and antiseptic solutions can be used to prevent contamination in space stations. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi.\n\nIn April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study of microorganisms and fungi present on the International Space Station has been conducted. The results can be useful in improving health and safety conditions for astronauts.\n\nSection::::Orbital debris threats.\n", "Developed after the initial delivery of \"Columbia\" and first used on the OMS pods of \"Challenger\". This white low-density fibrous silica batting material had a quilt-like appearance, and replaced the vast majority of the LRSI tiles. They required much less maintenance than LRSI tiles yet had about the same thermal properties. After their limited use on \"Challenger\", they were used much more extensively beginning with \"Discovery\" and replaced many of the LRSI tiles on \"Columbia\" after the loss of \"Challenger\".\n\nSection::::Detailed description.:Non-tile TPS.:Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC).\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final \"s\" silent, the \"a\" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of \"a\" in \"man\" and the sounding of the terminal \"s\" is an innovation to be discouraged.\n", "Citizens of the State of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River as in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adams–Onís Treaty\n\nBULLET::::- Historic regions of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- History of Arkansas\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas Territorial Militia\n\nBULLET::::- Territorial evolution of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Territories of Spain that encompassed land that would later become part of the Territory of Arkansas:\n\nBULLET::::- Nueva Vizcaya, 1562–1821\n\nBULLET::::- Santa Fé de Nuevo Méjico, 1598–1821\n\nBULLET::::- Tejas, 1690–1821\n\nBULLET::::- Luisiana, 1764–1803\n", "Citizens of the state of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River as , in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.\n", "Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.\n\nAnd, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.\n", "Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final \"s\" silent, the \"a\" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of \"a\" in \"man\" and the sounding of the terminal \"s\" is an innovation to be discouraged.\n", "Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.\n\nAnd, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.\n", "The name has been pronounced and spelled in a variety of fashions. In 1881, the pronunciation of Arkansas with the final \"s\" being silent was made official by an act of the state legislature after a dispute arose between Arkansas's two U.S. senators as one favored the pronunciation as while the other favored .\n\nIn 2007, the state legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring that the possessive form of the state's name is \"Arkansas's\", which has been followed increasingly by the state government.\n\nSection::::Geography.\n\nSection::::Geography.:Boundaries.\n", "BULLET::::- Albany, Georgia - stressed on the second syllable as \"All-'ben-ny\" or \"Al-'bain-ny\"\n\nBULLET::::- Albuquerque, New Mexico -\n\nBULLET::::- Alma, Wisconsin -\n\nBULLET::::- Aloha, Oregon -\n\nBULLET::::- Amherst, Massachusetts - (the h is silent)\n\nBULLET::::- Arab, Alabama and Arab, Missouri –\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas -\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas City, Kansas is pronounced , as is the Arkansas River to many Kansans.\n\nBULLET::::- Armada, Michigan -\n\nBULLET::::- Athens, Kentucky, Athens, Illinois, Athens, Vermont and New Athens, Illinois –\n\nBULLET::::- Au Sable, New York, and the river of that name - or\n\nBULLET::::- Austwell, Texas –\n\nSection::::Place names in the United States of America.:B.\n", "The linguistic history was treated definitively by Donald M. Lance, who acknowledged that the question is sociologically complex, but that no pronunciation could be declared \"correct\", nor could any be clearly defined as native or outsider, rural or urban, southern or northern, educated or otherwise. Politicians often employ multiple pronunciations, even during a single speech, to appeal to a greater number of listeners. Often, informal respellings of the state's name, such as \"Missour-\"ee\"\" or \"Missour-\"uh\"\", are used informally to phonetically distinguish pronunciations.\n\nSection::::Etymology and pronunciation.:Nicknames.\n", "BULLET::::- Bahama, North Carolina –\n\nBULLET::::- Balmorhea, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Bangor, Maine –\n\nBULLET::::- Banquete, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Barre, Vermont –\n\nBULLET::::- Beatrice, Alabama and Beatrice, Nebraska – ; usually Beatrice is\n\nBULLET::::- Beatty, Nevada –\n\nBULLET::::- Beaufort, South Carolina – (cf intuitive or of Beaufort, North Carolina)\n\nBULLET::::- Bedias, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Belen, New Mexico –\n\nBULLET::::- Bellefontaine, Ohio –\n\nBULLET::::- Belle Fourche, South Dakota –\n\nBULLET::::- Benld, Illinois –\n\nBULLET::::- Bergen, New York –\n\nBULLET::::- Berlin, Connecticut; IL; MA; NH; NY (New); Berlin, Holmes County, Ohio; TX WI; and WI (New) – (stress on first syllable)\n", "The Arkansas from its headwaters to the 100th meridian west formed part of the U.S.-Mexico border from the Adams–Onís Treaty (in force 1821) until the Texas Annexation or Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.\n\nSection::::Pronunciations.\n\nName pronunciation varies by region. Some people in the upper reaches of the river, particularly in Kansas, and parts of Colorado, pronounce it , People in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and some parts of Colorado, typically pronounce it , which is how the Arkansas state is always pronounced according to a state law passed in 1881.\n\nSection::::Physical geography.\n\nSection::::Physical geography.:Course changes.\n", "Section::::Place names in the United States of America.:L.\n\nBULLET::::- Lac Courte Oreilles, Wisconsin –\n\nBULLET::::- La Fayette, Alabama, GA, MS, TN –\n\nBULLET::::- Lafayette, Indiana –\n\nBULLET::::- Lafayette, Louisiana – (or , approximating Louisiana French pronunciation)\n\nBULLET::::- La Grande, Oregon –\n\nBULLET::::- La Jolla, California –\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Orion, Michigan -\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Oswego, Oregon –\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Pend Oreille, Idaho (ponda-ray)\n\nBULLET::::- Lalor Street in Trenton, New Jersey —\n\nBULLET::::- Lamesa, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- La Plata, Maryland –\n\nBULLET::::- Lapwai, Idaho –\n\nBULLET::::- Latah, Washington and Latah County, Idaho –\n\nBULLET::::- Leakey, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Lebam, Washington –\n", "Section::::Etymology and pronunciation.\n\nThe name \"Arkansas\" was initially applied to the Arkansas River and derives from a French term, \"Arcansas\", the plural term for Quapaws, a Dhegiha Siouan-speaking Native American people who settled in Arkansas around the 13th century. This comes from an Algonquian term, /akansa/, for the Quapaws, and is likely also the root term for Kansas.\n", "BULLET::::- is an open back vowel: like English \"a\" in \"bra\".\n\nUsually in fast speech, the /a/ is pronounced . This assimilation occurs after a stressed syllable, or at the end of a word. For example: 'cow', 'this one'.\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Vowels.:Nasalized vowels.\n", "The name \"Missouri\" has several different pronunciations even among its present-day natives, the two most common being and . Further pronunciations also exist in Missouri or elsewhere in the United States, involving the realization of the medial consonant as either or ; the vowel in the second syllable as either or ; and the third syllable as (phonetically , or ) or . Any combination of these phonetic realizations may be observed coming from speakers of American English. In British received pronunciation, the preferred variant is , with being a possible alternative.\n", "BULLET::::- Castile, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Celina, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Chartres Street, New Orleans –\n\nBULLET::::- Charlevoix and Charlevoix County, Michigan –\n\nBULLET::::- Charlotte, Vermont and NY –\n\nBULLET::::- Chatham, Massachusetts, NJ and NY –\n\nBULLET::::- Chauncey, Ohio –\n\nBULLET::::- Chehalis, Washington –\n\nBULLET::::- Chelan, Chelan County, and Lake Chelan, Washington –\n\nBULLET::::- Cheyenne, Wyoming - (\n\nBULLET::::- Cherryville, North Carolina –\n\nBULLET::::- Chewelah, Washington –\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago –\n\nBULLET::::- Chickasha, Oklahoma –\n\nBULLET::::- Chili, New York and Chili, Indiana–\n\nBULLET::::- Clatskanie, Oregon –\n\nBULLET::::- Clinton, South Carolina -\n\nBULLET::::- Coahoma, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Coeur d'Alene, Idaho –\n", "List of places in the United States with counterintuitive pronunciations: A–L\n\nThis list is a sublist of List of names in English with counterintuitive pronunciations.\n\nSection::::Place names in the United States of America.\n\nSection::::Place names in the United States of America.:A.\n\nBULLET::::- Aberdeen, Maryland; Aberdeen, Washington – stressed on the first syllable , unlike Aberdeen, Scotland, which is stressed on the final syllable\n\nBULLET::::- Abiquiu, New Mexico –\n\nBULLET::::- Acequia, Idaho –\n\nBULLET::::- Achilles, Kansas –\n\nBULLET::::- Advance, Missouri -\n\nBULLET::::- Advance, North Carolina -\n\nBULLET::::- Alachua, Florida -\n", "BULLET::::- Cajun English speakers generally do not aspirate the consonants , , or . As a result, the words \"par\" and \"bar\" can sound very similar to speakers of other English varieties. It is notable that after the Cajun Renaissance, this feature became more common in men than women, with women largely or entirely dropping this phonological feature.\n", "BULLET::::- The cot-caught merger of the two historical vowels sounds and , in words like \"caught\" and \"cot\" or \"stalk\" and \"stock\", is becoming increasingly common throughout the United States, thus affecting Southwestern and even many Southeastern dialects, towards a merged vowel . The \"ANAE\" reports a completed merger in Amarillo, Odessa, and variably El Paso, but the rest of Texas is also rapidly transitioning towards the merger.\n", "BULLET::::- Bethlehem, Pennsylvania – occasionally\n\nBULLET::::- Bexar, Texas – or\n\nBULLET::::- Billerica, Massachusetts –\n\nBULLET::::- Bingen, Washington –\n\nBULLET::::- Biscay, Minnesota –\n\nBULLET::::- Boca Raton, Florida –\n\nBULLET::::- Boerne, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Bogata, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Bogota, New Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- Bois D'Arc, Missouri –\n\nBULLET::::- Boise, Idaho –\n\nBULLET::::- Boise City, Oklahoma – locally\n\nBULLET::::- Bolivar Township, Benton County, Indiana, MO, MS, NY, OH, PA, OR, TN, WV, Port Bolivar, Texas – all named for Simón Bolívar but pronounced\n\nBULLET::::- Bosque County, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Bossier City, Louisiana –\n\nBULLET::::- Bowie, Maryland, TX –\n\nBULLET::::- Buena, New Jersey -\n", "BULLET::::- The accents of Northern England generally do not use a . so \"cast\" is pronounced rather than the pronunciation of most southern accents. This pronunciation is found in the words that were affected by the trap–bath split.\n\nBULLET::::- For many speakers, the remaining instances of RP instead becomes : for example, in the words \"palm, cart, start, tomato\".\n\nBULLET::::- The vowel in \"dress, test, pet\", etc. is slightly more open, transcribed by Wells as rather than .\n", "Section::::Colonial Arkansas.:Robert La Salle and Henri de Tonti.\n", "BULLET::::- Concord, Massachusetts and NH –\n\nBULLET::::- Conneaut, Ohio and Conneautville, Pennsylvania –\n\nBULLET::::- Conetoe, North Carolina –\n\nBULLET::::- Connecticut –\n\nBULLET::::- Copalis Beach, Washington –\n\nBULLET::::- Copiague, New York -\n\nBULLET::::- Coquille, Oregon –\n\nBULLET::::- Cordele, Georgia –\n\nBULLET::::- Cordele, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Corfu, New York –\n\nBULLET::::- Cotulla, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Coupland, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Coxsackie, New York –\n\nBULLET::::- Creve Coeur, Missouri -\n\nBULLET::::- Cudahy, California – or\n\nSection::::Place names in the United States of America.:D.\n\nBULLET::::- Delhi, California, IA, LA, and NY – all\n\nBULLET::::- Del Norte County, California – /dɛlˈnɔ:rt/\n", "BULLET::::- \"half\" and \"calf\", which had been pronounced with in early Middle English before developing around the early 15th century to by \"L\"-vocalization. In accents of England the development was subsequently the same as that in words such as \"palm\" (see below). The North American development to as in \"trap\" seems to be the result of shortening from to , although there is little evidence of this development.\n", "BULLET::::- Buena, Washington -\n\nBULLET::::- Buena Vista, Colorado, OR, VA, TX, IA –\n\nBULLET::::- Buck Creek, Indiana -\n\nBULLET::::- Buddha, Indiana –\n\nBULLET::::- Buhl, Idaho –\n\nBULLET::::- Bulverde, Texas –\n\nBULLET::::- Burien, Washington –\n\nBULLET::::- Burnet, Texas –\n\nSection::::Place names in the United States of America.:C.\n\nBULLET::::- Cairo, Georgia and MS –\n\nBULLET::::- Cairo, Illinois, OH, and NY –\n\nBULLET::::- Cahuenga Pass, California -\n\nBULLET::::- Calais, Maine and VT –\n\nBULLET::::- Camano Island, Washington –\n\nBULLET::::- Canaan Valley, West Virginia – locally\n\nBULLET::::- Casa Grande, Arizona – or\n\nBULLET::::- Camp Hill, Pennsylvania –\n\nBULLET::::- Canyon de Chelly, Arizona –\n" ]

[ "Arkansas should be pronounced differently." ]

[ "Arkansas is pronounced the way it is due to the language it was adopted from." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Arkansas should be pronounced differently." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Arkansas is pronounced the way it is due to the language it was adopted from." ]

[ "Mold is found everywhere and can grow on almost any substance when moisture is present. They reproduce by spores, which are carried by air currents. When spores land on a moist surface suitable for life, they begin to grow. Mold is normally found indoors at levels which do not affect most healthy individuals.\n", "Plants also appear to reduce airborne microbes and molds, and to increase humidity. However, the increased humidity can itself lead to increased levels of mold and even VOCs.\n", "\"Penicillium\" species are present in the air and dust of indoor environments, such as homes and public buildings. The fungus can be readily transported from the outdoors, and grow indoors using building material or accumulated soil to obtain nutrients for growth. \"Penicillium\" growth can still occur indoors even if the relative humidity is low, as long as there is sufficient moisture available on a given surface. A British study determined that \"Aspergillus\"- and \"Penicillium\"-type spores were the most prevalent in the indoor air of residential properties, and exceeded outdoor levels. Even ceiling tiles can support the growth of \"Penicillium\"—as one study demonstrated—if the relative humidity is 85% and the moisture content of the tiles is greater than 2.2%.\n", "Mold exposures: Exposure to mold is commonly seen after a natural disaster such as flooding, hurricane, tornado or tsunami. Mold growth can occur on both the exterior and interior of residential or commercial buildings. Warm and humid condition encourages mold growth; therefore, standing water and excess moisture after a natural disaster would provide an ideal environment for mold growth especially in tropical regions. While the exact number of mold species is unknown, some examples of commonly found indoor molds are Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Alternaria and Penicillium. Reaction to molds differ between individuals and can range from mild symptoms such as eye irritation, cough to severe life-threatening asthmatic or allergic reactions. People with history of chronic lung disease, asthma, allergy, other breathing problems or those that are immunocompromised could be more sensitive to molds and may develop fungal pneumonia.\n", "Section::::Sources and influencing factors.\n\nSection::::Sources and influencing factors.:Sources for indoor environments.\n\nIndoor bioaerosols may originate from outdoor air and indoor reservoirs. Although outdoor bioaerosols cannot easily migrate into large buildings with complex ventilation systems, certain categories of outdoor bioaerosols (i.e., fungal spores) do serve as major sources for indoor bioaerosols in naturally ventilated buildings at specific periods of time (i.e., growing seasons for fungi).\n", "Fungal cells usually die when they travel through the atmosphere due to the desiccating effects of higher altitudes. However, some particularly resilient fungal bioaerosols have been shown to survive in atmospheric transport despite exposure to severe UV light conditions. Although bioaerosol levels of fungal spores increase in higher humidity conditions, they can also can be active in low humidity conditions and in most temperature ranges. Certain fungal bioaerosols even increase at relatively low levels of humidity.\n\nSection::::Types of bioaerosols.:Bacteria.\n", "Some of the locations where these opportunistic pathogens can grow include faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are \"high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles\". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from disinfection.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Spores need three things to grow into mold: nutrients - cellulose (the cell wall of green plants) is a common food for indoor spores; moisture - to begin the decaying process caused by mold; and time - mold growth begins from 24 hours to 10 days after the provision of growing conditions.\n\nMold colonies can grow inside buildings, and the chief hazard is the inhalation of mycotoxins. After a flood or major leak, mycotoxin levels are higher even after a building has dried out.\n", "Gray mold favors moist, humid, and warm environmental conditions between 18.3-23-9℃ (65-75℉). Temperature, relative humidity, and wetness duration produce a conducive environment that is favorable for inoculation of mycelium or conidia. Controlled environments, such as crop production greenhouses, provide the moisture and high temperatures that favor the spreading and development of the pathogen \"Botrytis cinerea.\"\n", "Mold (American English) or mould (British English), also sometimes referred to as mildew, is a fungal growth that develops on wet materials. Mold is a natural part of the environment and plays an important part in nature by breaking down dead organic matter such as fallen leaves and dead trees; indoors, mold growth should be avoided. Mold reproduce by means of tiny spores. The spores are like seeds, but invisible to the naked eye, that float through the air and deposit on surfaces. When the temperature, moisture, and available nutrient conditions are correct, the spores can form into new mold colonies where they are deposited. There are many types of mold, but all require moisture and a food source for growth.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThe main factors that contribute to the release of the ascospores are moisture and temperature. For the most part, as long as temperatures are above freezing spores can be released, but they are most likely to be released at moderate temperatures of . In the case of moisture, humidity alone is not enough to make the perithecia release the spores, as the perithecia themselves need to be wet. The temperate climates of North America and Europe are most conducive for Eutypella canker development.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Mold growth in buildings generally occurs as fungi colonize building materials composed of cellulose. Many building products commonly incorporate paper, wood products, or solid wood members such as drywall, cabinets, and insulation. Interior mold colonization can lead to a variety of health problems as microscopic airborne reproductive spores, analogous to tree pollen, are inhaled by building occupants. High quantities of indoor airborne spores as compared to exterior conditions are strongly suggestive of indoor mold growth. Determination of airborne spore counts is accomplished by way of an air sample, in which a specialized pump with a known flow rate is operated for a known period of time. Conducive to scientific methodology, air samples should be drawn from the affected area, a control area, and the exterior.\n", "The mould is highly weather sensitive. During the time when the weather is cool, wet, or overcast the disease can evolve in a greenhouse or field. The disease spreads rapidly because of the pathogen. The rate of continental spread is based on the potential for high levels of inoculum and effective wind spores. When the weather is clear, dry, and hot the disease usually stops spreading and more than likely stops all together.\n\nSection::::Spreading the disease.\n", "There are some varieties of mold that contain toxic compounds (mycotoxins). However, exposure to hazardous levels of mycotoxin via inhalation is not possible in most cases, as toxins are produced by the fungal body and are not at significant levels in the released spores. The primary hazard of mold growth, as it relates to indoor air quality, comes from the allergenic properties of the spore cell wall. More serious than most allergenic properties is the ability of mold to trigger episodes in persons that already have asthma, a serious respiratory disease.\n\nSection::::Common pollutants.:Carbon monoxide.\n", "Infection is favored by frost, hail, and wind as well as other ways that create wounds to the plant. Infection occurs at a moderate temperature between 14 and 28 °C. Optimum temperature for growth of pathogen is higher at a range of 20-25 °C. A high relative humidity favors production of conidia and further infection.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "Food sources for mold in buildings include cellulose-based materials such as wood, cardboard and the paper facing on drywall and organic matter such as soap, fabrics, and dust containing skin cells. If a house has mold, the moisture may originate in the basement or crawl space, a leaking roof or a leak in plumbing pipes. Insufficient ventilation may accelerate moisture buildup. Visible mold colonies may form where ventilation is poorest and on perimeter walls (because they are nearest the dew point).\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\n\"Didymella bryoniae\" is common in the Southern U.S. and other subtropical or tropical locations . Most infections occur during rainy/wet seasons, in which the humid is greater than 90% and the temperature is roughly 20-24 °C . Humidity seems to be a larger factor than temperature when it comes to infection success . \"D. bryoniae\" can also be found in temperate regions, especially where winter squash and pumpkins are grown . This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown .\n", "During mold remediation in the U.S., the level of contamination dictates the protection level for remediation workers. Contamination levels have been enumerated as I, II, III, and IV:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Level I\": Small, isolated areas ( or less); remediation may be conducted by trained building staff;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Level II\": Mid-sized, isolated areas (); may also be remediated by trained, protected building staff;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Level III\": Large, isolated areas (): Professionals experienced in microbial investigations or mold remediation should be consulted, and personnel should be trained in the handling of hazardous materials and equipped with respiratory protection, gloves and eye protection;\n", "BULLET::::- Socioeconomics and living conditions. They have a minor role in airborne diseases transmission, but they also have to be taken in consideration. Dwelling is an important aspect. In cities the spread of diseases are faster than in rural areas and outskirts. Normally, cities enclose quarters of buildings, in which the transmission of the viral and bacterial diseases among the neighborhoods are uncomplicated. However, suburban areas are generally more favorable for higher airborne fungal spores\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Symptoms.\n\nSymptoms of mold exposure may include nasal and sinus congestion; runny nose, eye irritation; itchy, red, watery eyes, respiratory problems, such as wheezing and difficulty breathing, chest tightness, cough, throat irritation, skin irritation (such as a rash), headache, and persistent sneezing. Immune-compromised people and people with chronic lung illnesses, such as obstructive lung disease, may get serious infections in their lungs when they are exposed to mold. These people should stay away from areas that are likely to have mold, such as compost piles, cut grass, and wooded areas.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Symptoms.:Asthma.\n", "Molds are ubiquitous in the biosphere, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust. The vast majority of molds are not hazardous to humans, and reaction to molds can vary between individuals with relatively minor allergic reactions being the most common. Nonetheless, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported in its June 2006 report, 'Mold Prevention Strategies and Possible Health Effects in the Aftermath of Hurricanes and Major Floods,' that \"excessive exposure to mold-contaminated materials can cause adverse health effects in susceptible persons regardless of the type of mold or the extent of contamination.\" When mold spores are present in abnormally high quantities, they can present especially hazardous health risks to humans after prolonged exposure, including allergic reactions or poisoning by mycotoxins, or causing fungal infection (mycosis).\n", "\"S. chartarum\" is a slow-growing mold that does not compete well with other molds. It is only rarely found in nature, and seldom encounters the kind of large-scale living environment occasionally produced by human habitation (i.e., large amounts of cellulose, large temperature fluctuations, low nitrogen, no other molds, no sunlight, and ample constant humidity). The spores are only released into the ambient air when the mold is mechanically disturbed, particularly when wet. It is considered an uncommon contaminant of most indoor air.\n", "Health problems associated with high levels of airborne mold spores include allergic reactions, asthma episodes, irritations of the eye, nose and throat, sinus congestion, and other respiratory problems, although mold spores won't actually cause asthma, just irritate existing conditions. For example, residents of homes with mold are at an elevated risk for both respiratory infections and bronchitis. When mold spores are inhaled by an immunocompromised individual, some mold spores may begin to grow on living tissue, attaching to cells along the respiratory tract and causing further problems. Generally, when this occurs, the illness is an epiphenomenon and not the primary pathology. Also, mold may produce mycotoxins, either before or after exposure to humans, potentially causing toxicity.\n", "According to previous studies, major indoor environmental factors influencing bioaerosol concentration include relative humidity, characteristics of air ventilation systems, seasonal variation, temperature, and chemical composition of the air. Other factors, such as the type of home, building material, geographical factors, do not seem to have significant impacts on respirable fungi and bacteria (important constituents of bioaerosols). Relative humidity is one of the most widely studied influencing factors for indoor bioaerosols. Concentrations of two categories of bioaerosols, endotoxin and airborne fungi, are both positively related to indoor relative humidity (higher concentration associated with higher relative humidity). Relative humidity also affects the infectivity of airborne viruses. Regarding the characterisation of air ventilation system, increased use of central air conditioning is found to be associated with lower fungal bioaerosol concentration.\n", "The main sources of mold exposure are from the indoor air in buildings with substantial mold growth, and from ingestion of food with mold growths.\n\nSection::::Exposure sources and prevention.:Air.\n" ]

[ "Because mold spores are always in the air, many structures should be covered with mold." ]

[ "Light can act as a deterrent to mold growth by drying it out before it can grow, other factors also play a roll in disrupting mold growth." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Because mold spores are always in the air, many structures should be covered with mold.", "Because mold spores are always in the air, many structures should be covered with mold." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Light can act as a deterrent to mold growth by drying it out before it can grow, other factors also play a roll in disrupting mold growth.", "Light can act as a deterrent to mold growth by drying it out before it can grow, other factors also play a roll in disrupting mold growth." ]

[ "BULLET::::1. The first stage is autolysis, more commonly known as self-digestion, during which the body's cells are destroyed through the action of their own digestive enzymes. However, these enzymes are released into the cells because of active processes ceasing in the cells, not as an active process. In other words, though autolysis resembles the active process of digestion of nutrients by live cells, the dead cells are not actively digesting themselves as is often claimed in popular literature and as the synonym of autolysis - \"self-digestion -\" seems to imply. As a result of autolysis liquid is created that seeps between the layers of skin and results in peeling of the skin. During this stage, flies (when present) begin to lay eggs in the openings of the body: eyes, nostrils, mouth, ears, open wounds, and other orifices. Hatched larvae (maggots) of blowflies subsequently get under the skin and begin to consume the body.\n", "Some of the brachyceran flies are important transmitters of pathogenic organisms through a route known as mechanical (or contaminative) transmission. These flies have complex cutting mouthparts that make a superficial wound in skin. Blood flowing into the wound is sponged up by the labella organ of the mouthparts (see photograph of \"Tabanus\" mouthparts). The flies tend to take small meals from many hosts at short intervals, to avoid the defensive actions of their hosts. Fresh blood on the labella may contaminate other hosts with pathogenic organisms. Many species of brachyceran flies such as the house-flies and blow-flies that do not feed on blood are also mechanical transmitters of pathogenic organisms by a contaminative route on their mouthparts used for sponging up wet nutritious secretions on skin of vertebrate animals. Usually the mechanical transmission of microbes by flies does not involve any developmental stage of the microorganism in the fly. However, some brachyceran flies, such as a group of species of genus \"Glossina\", are important biological transmitters, not mechanical.\n", "The habitat of the \"M. stabulans\" is similar to that of the house fly, \"Musca domestica\". \"M. stabulans\" have been spotted in animal housing, such as poultry houses, as well as in the mucosal linings of mammalian intestines. \"M. stabulan\" can be found on carrions in the decomposition stages, but they exhibit a strong preference for the later stages of decomposition. They are able to reach a buried body in shallow ground through several inches of dirt.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "William Baer, an orthopedic surgeon at Johns Hopkins during the late 1920s, used maggot therapy to treat a series of patients with osteomyelitis, an infection of bone or bone marrow. The idea was based on an experience in World War I in which two soldiers presented to him with broken femurs after having lain on the ground for seven days without food and water. Baer could not figure out why neither man had a fever or signs of sepsis. He observed: “On removing the clothing from the wounded part, much was my surprise to see the wound filled with thousands and thousands of maggots, apparently those of the blow fly. The sight was very disgusting and measures were taken hurriedly to wash out these abominable looking creatures.” However, he then saw that the wounds were filled with “beautiful pink granulation tissue” and were healing well.\n", "Jennifer Blyth, for her 2005 University of Leicester dissertation, studied the mating behavior of coelopids; one experiment examined the mating behavior of \"Chaetocoelopa littoralis\", \"Chaetocoelopa sydneyensis\", \"Gluma keyseri\", \"Amma blanchae\", and \"This canus\" in a laboratory setting. \"T. canus\" were collected at Forresters Beach, New South Wales and Asling's Beach, Twofold Bay; instead of inhabiting beds of wrack seaweed, which were not present at these sites, the \"T. canus\" were in \"wrack strings\", i.e., small pieces of dried seaweed.\n", "Feeding larvae of Calliphoridae flies are the dominant insect group at carcasses during the active decay stage. At the beginning of the stage larvae are concentrated in natural orifices, which offer the least resistance to feeding. Towards later stages, when flesh has been removed from the head and orifices, larvae become more concentrated in the thoracic and abdominal cavities.\n", "Myiasis\n\nMyiasis is the parasitic infestation of the body of a live animal by fly larvae (maggots) that grow inside the host while feeding on its tissue. Although flies are most commonly attracted to open wounds and urine- or feces-soaked fur, some species (including the most common myiatic flies—the botfly, blowfly, and screwfly) can create an infestation even on unbroken skin and have been known to use moist soil and non-myiatic flies (such as the common housefly) as vector agents for their parasitic larvae.\n", "Larval secretions \"in vitro\" enhance fibroblast migration to the wound site, improving wound closure. Larval therapy of \"L. sericata\" is highly recommended for the treatment of wounds infected with Gram-positive bacteria, yet is not as effective for wounds infected with Gram-negative bacteria. Also, bacteria from the genus \"Vagococcus\" were resistant to the maggot excreta/secreta. Attempts are currently ongoing to extract or synthesize the chymotrypsins found in larval secretions to destroy MRSA without application of the larvae.\n", "Once a new generation of microfilariae is released in the primary host, those in turn must seek out host tissue suited to the nature of the vector species. For example, if the vector is a skin-piercing fly such as a mosquito the microfilaria must enter the peripheral blood circulation, whereas species borne by skin-rasping flies such as Simuliidae and skin-cutting flies such as Tabanidae tend to establish in hypodermal tissues. For obscure reasons, some such species actually undergo daily migrations to bodily regions favoured by the vector ectoparasites. Outside those periods they take refuge in blood circulation of the lungs.\n", "Adults may be vectors of pathogens of diseases such as dysentery. Flies, most commonly Calliphoridae, have frequently been associated with disease transmission in humans and animals, as well as myiasis. Studies and research have linked \"Calliphora\" and \"Lucilia\" to vectors of causal agents of bacterial infections. These larvae, commonly seen on decaying bodies, feed on carrion while the adults can be necrophagous or vegetative. During the process of decay, microorganisms (e.g. \"Mycobacterium\") may be released through the body. Flies arrive at the scene and lay their eggs. The larvae begin eating and breaking down the corpse, simultaneously ingesting these organisms which is the first step of one transmission route.\n", "All insects found on the body should be placed into kill jars and properly labeled. For the most part adult flies are only important for indicating what species of fly may develop on the corpse. However, if an adult with crumpled wings is found it should be labeled as such, because this indicates that it may have just emerged from its pupil casing. This indicates that at least one generation of flies has developed off the corpse. In addition, sticky traps can be used (by placing them around the body) to collect the insects moving around the body (mainly flies). \n", "This fly is typically one of the first and primary colonizers on corpses, and are considered to be necrophagous and parasitic. It is able to colonize a body within hours after death, when it is considered to be in the \"fresh\" stage of decomposition. Regardless of the environment a body is in, adult \"C. stygia\" will lay eggs in any, and all orifices such as, but not limited to eyes, nose, mouth, and wounds that occur before and after death.\n\nSection::::Forensics.\n", "Fly larvae can be used as a biomedical tool for wound care and treatment. Maggot debridement therapy (MDT) is the use of blow fly larvae to remove the dead tissue from wounds, most commonly being amputations. Historically, this has been used for centuries, both intentional and unintentional, on battlefields and in early hospital settings. Removing the dead tissue promotes cell growth and healthy wound healing. The larvae also have biochemical properties such as antibacterial activity found in their secretions as they feed. These medicinal maggots are a safe and effective treatment for chronic wounds.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dasypogon caudatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon cephicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon cerretanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon coon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon copreus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon costalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon crassus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon diadema\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon dorsalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon equestris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon fabricii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon flavipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon fossius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon fraternus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon fuscipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon geradi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon gerardi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon gougeleti\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon grandis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon iberus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon insertus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon irinelae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon kugleri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon lebasii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon lenticeps\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon longus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon luctuosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon lugens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon magisi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon maricus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon melanogaster\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon melanopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dasypogon mexicanus\"\n", "Most larvae, however, come in contact with the bonellin in the skin of an adult female—its body or its roving, bonellin-rich proboscis—and are masculinised by this exposure. The chemical causes these larvae to develop into the tiny males, which cling to the female's body or are sucked inside it by the feeding tube, to spend the remainder of their lives inside her genital sac, producing sperm to fertilize her eggs, reliant on her for all other needs.\n", "The fly feeds on decaying organic matter, while the fly larvae feed on the living tissue of warm-blooded mammals as opposed to necrotic tissue that many other fly larvae feed on. Since the larvae can cause permanent tissue damage, \"C. bezziana\" has led to much public concern. Management procedures include both prevention of colonization of the fly and treatment of a current infestation.\n\nSection::::Geographical distribution.\n", "One animal that does affect \"C. stygia\" flies is a tree frog, \"Litoria caerulea\". This frog secretes a toxic substance that alters \"C. stygia\" behavior, either making then spastic or non-motile. Upon picking up the secretion the fly will increase grooming, which may lead to ingestion, the motor, sensory, and respiratory functions may be impaired. Long exposures or ingestion of these toxins will be fatal to a fly, and prevent the frog from being a host.\n", "The adults are attracted to decaying matter and thus they can be found on dead bodies. However, because \"C. bezziana\" can cause myiasis and lay its eggs on a live mammal, it can be more complicated to determine a time of colonization. If the fly laid its eggs and the maggots hatched prior to the death of the corpse and the forensic entomologist does not take this into account, the entomologist could give an incorrect time of colonization.\n\nSection::::Public concern.\n", "\"Muscina\" flies are rarely seen on the skin of living mammals, but there has been one reported case where a \"Muscina\" species alone caused cutaneous myiasis in a human. A nine-year-old girl from Minnesota was reported with a lump on her wrist that was reddened and elevated, but showed no signs of any external openings or contains any pus inside. A vaseline bandage was applied after some blood was extracted, and the lump was soaked in hot water several times. Twelve hours later, a worm was found in the cut after removing the bandage. Several other small lesions were noticeable around the proximity of the cut, but they receded at about this time. The girl recovered after applying a hot pack to the lesion. The larvae were confirmed by M. T. James of the State College of Washington and C. W. Sabrosky and W. W. Wirth of the United States National Museum to be a \"Muscina\" fly, most likely \"M. levida\".\n", "based solely on haplotype data, although they are definitely not members of the forensically important and extensively studied fly families Calliphoridae or Sarcophagidae. There are several common carrion-feeding species in the family Muscidae that have not been investigated using DNA methods, and one of these species, \"Hydrotea dentipes\", fits the general appearance of these specimens. Given the current state of the science these specimens cannot be identified using DNA analysis.\n\nSection::::Conclusion.\n", "According to a pest control officer for the Food and Hygiene Department in 2009, the Hong Kong government (where many of the case studies are published) is unaware of any research in this field. The most recent research done on this fly was published in January 2008 and involved identifying fly eggs using a scanning electron microscope for use in forensic investigations.\n\nIt is not a suitable fly for research in maggot therapy, because it can cause permanent damage by feeding on the underlying tissues, so most studies published on the subject do not include \"C. bezziana\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::4. The black fly takes another blood meal, passing the larvae into the next human host’s blood.\n\nBULLET::::5. The larvae migrate to the subcutaneous tissue and undergo two more molts. They form nodules as they mature into adult worms over six to 12 months.\n\nBULLET::::6. After maturing, adult male worms mate with female worms in the subcutaneous tissue to produce between 700 and 1,500 microfilaria per day.\n", "Fly larvae that feed on dead tissue can clean wounds and may reduce bacterial activity and the chance of a secondary infection. They dissolve dead tissue by secreting digestive enzymes onto the wound as well as actively eating the dead tissue with mouth hooks, two hard, probing appendages protruding on either side of the \"mouth\". Maggot therapyalso known as maggot debridement therapy (MDT), larval therapy, larva therapy, or larvae therapyis the intentional introduction by a health care practitioner of live, disinfected green bottle fly maggots into the non-healing skin and soft tissue wounds of a human or other animal for the purpose of selectively cleaning out only the necrotic tissue within a wound in order to promote healing.\n", "Many mites (class Acari, not insects) feed on corpses with \"Macrocheles\" mites common in the early stages of decomposition, while Tyroglyphidae and Oribatidae mites such as Rostrozetes feed on dry skin in the later stages of decomposition.\n", "Gastropods carrying second- and third-stage larvae may be accidentally ingested with plants, which results in the larvae being transmitted to a new host. The larvae then move into the new host's stomach wall and make their way to the CNS, as in white-tailed deer, or the brain as in other ungulates. Once in these tissues, they develop into their adult third stage of life and lay eggs to begin the cycle again.\n\nSection::::Transmission.\n" ]

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[ "High oil prices and economic weakness contributed to a demand contraction in 2007–2008. In the United States, gasoline consumption declined by 0.4% in 2007, then fell by 0.5% in the first two months of 2008 alone. Record-setting oil prices in the first half of 2008 and economic weakness in the second half of the year prompted a /day contraction in US consumption of petroleum products, representing 5.8% of total US consumption, the largest annual decline since 1980 at the climax of the 1979 energy crisis.\n\nSection::::Possible causes.\n\nSection::::Possible causes.:Demand.\n", "2000s energy crisis\n\nFrom the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under US$25/barrel. During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by 11 August 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008. Commentators attributed these price increases to many factors, including Middle East tension, soaring demand from China, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, reports showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, and financial speculation.\n", "During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by 11 August 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008. Commentators attributed the heavy price increases to many factors, including reports from the United States Department of Energy and others showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, Middle East tension, and oil price speculation.\n", "For a time, geo-political events and natural disasters indirectly related to the global oil market had strong short-term effects on oil prices, such as North Korean missile tests, the 2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon, worries over Iranian nuclear plans in 2006, Hurricane Katrina, and various other factors. By 2008, such pressures appeared to have an insignificant impact on oil prices given the onset of the global recession. The recession caused demand for energy to shrink in late 2008, with oil prices falling from the July 2008 high of $147 to a December 2008 low of $32. Oil prices stabilized by October 2009 and established a trading range between $60 and $80.\n", "Section::::Economics.:Energy crisis.\n\nFrom the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under $25/barrel. During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by August 11, 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008. Commentators attributed these price increases to many factors, including reports from the United States Department of Energy and others showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, Middle East tension, and oil price speculation.\n", "Many factors have resulted in possible and/or actual concerns about the reduced supply of oil. The post-9/11 war on terror, labor strikes, hurricane threats to oil platforms, fires and terrorist threats at refineries, and other short-lived problems are not solely responsible for the higher prices. Such problems do push prices higher temporarily, but have not historically been fundamental to long-term price increases.\n\nSection::::Possible causes.:Investment/speculation demand.\n", "For a time, geopolitical events and natural disasters indirectly related to the global oil market had strong short-term effects on oil prices. These events and disasters included North Korean missile tests, the 2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon, worries over Iranian nuclear plants in 2006 and Hurricane Katrina. By 2008, such pressures appeared to have an insignificant impact on oil prices given the onset of the global recession. The recession caused demand for energy to shrink in late 2008 and early 2009 and the price plunged as well. However, it surged back in May 2009, bringing it back to November 2008 levels.\n", "Oil prices ended the year at $101.80, falling to $100.01 per barrel on 30 and 31 January 2011., then the Egyptian civil war broke out, as it theoretically put the use of Suez Canal at risk. Making matters worse, a gas pipeline to Jordan was blown up by saboteurs in the Sinai Peninsula. Prices remained steady until a dramatic drop began the 2010s oil glut.\n\nSection::::Boom.:Fuel.:Uranium.\n", "Section::::New inflation-adjusted peaks.\n\nThe price of crude oil in 2003 traded in a range between $20–$30/bbl. Between 2003 and July 2008, prices steadily rose, reaching $100/bbl in late 2007, coming close to the previous inflation-adjusted peak set in 1980. A steep rise in the price of oil in 2008 – also mirrored by other commodities – culminated in an all-time high of $147.27 during trading on 11 July 2008, more than a third above the previous inflation-adjusted high.\n", "For a time, geopolitical events and natural disasters had strong short-term effects on oil prices, such as North Korean missile tests, the 2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon, worries over Iranian nuclear plans in 2006, Hurricane Katrina, and various other factors. By 2008, such pressures appeared to have an insignificant impact on oil prices given the onset of the global recession. The recession caused demand for energy to shrink in late 2008, with oil prices collapsing from the July 2008 high of $147 to a December 2008 low of $32. However, it has been disputed that the laws of supply and demand of oil could have been responsible for an almost 80% drop in the oil price within a 6 month period. Oil prices stabilized by August 2009 and generally remained in a broad trading range between $70 and $120 through November 2014, before returning to 2003 pre-crisis levels by early 2016.\n", "BULLET::::- August 20: The NYMEX near-month crude oil futures price closes above $30 per barrel for the first time since February 2001. Concern over possible conflict in Iraq, OPEC quotas, and declining crude oil and product stocks are among the factors leading to a nine-straight-session rise in NYMEX prices. (Reuters)\n", "The weakened U.S. Dollar resulted in a spike to $112/barrel with the national average of $3.74/gallon – with expectations of damaging the U.S. economy suggestive of a long-term recession. As of April 26, the national average was $3.87 – with a fear of $4/gallon as the nationwide average prior to the summer driving season.\n", "Attempts to mitigate the impacts of oil price increases include:\n\nBULLET::::- Increasing the supply of petroleum\n\nBULLET::::- Finding substitutes for petroleum\n\nBULLET::::- Decreasing the demand for petroleum\n\nBULLET::::- Attempting to reduce the impact of rising prices on petroleum consumers\n", "In January 2008, oil prices surpassed $100 a barrel for the first time, the first of many price milestones to be passed in the course of the year. In July 2008, oil peaked at $147.30 a barrel and a gallon of gasoline was more than $4 across most of the US. The high of 2008 may have been part of broader pattern of spiking instability in the price of oil over the preceding decade. This pattern of instability in oil price may be a product of peak oil. There is concern that if the economy was to improve, oil prices might return to pre-recession levels.\n", "Section::::By country.:United States.:North American natural gas crisis, 2000–2008.\n\nThe natural gas crisis is typically described by upward price spikes of natural gas in North America from 2000 to 2008, due to the decline in production and the increase in demand for electricity generation. Gas production in the U.S. fell from in 2001 to in 2005, before rising again in 2006 and 2007.\n", "BULLET::::- April - May: Lebanese civil war causes a drop in Iraq exports through trans-Lebanon pipelines to the Mediterranean.\n\nBULLET::::- May: OPEC issues press release vowing to \"take appropriate measures\" to protect OPEC interests in light of protectionist actions by certain countries.\n\nBULLET::::- September 1: U.S. stripper well oil prices decontrolled.\n\nBULLET::::- December 14: 640 $3 oil tanker Argo Merchant runs aground on the Nantucket Shoals, spilling of No. 6 fuel oil.\n", "In the second half of 2008, the prices of most commodities fell dramatically on expectations of diminished demand in the world recession and credit crunch. Prices began to rise again in late 2009 to mid-2010 (as supply could not meet demand), triggering another round of boom that lasted until 2014, when fossil fuels and metals prices collapsed in a far more prolonged fashion that looks to far eclipse that of 2008.\n\nSection::::Late-2000s economic fallout.:Mine closures.\n", "The higher price of oil substantially cut growth of world oil demand in 2006, including a reduction in oil demand of the OECD. After news of North Korea's successful nuclear test on October 9, 2006, oil prices rose past $60 a barrel, but fell back the next day.\n", "In September 2008, Masters Capital Management released a study of the oil market, concluding that speculation did significantly impact the price. The study stated that over $60 billion was invested in oil during the first six months of 2008, helping drive the price per barrel from $95 to $147, and that by the beginning of September, $39 billion had been withdrawn by speculators, causing prices to fall.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Section::::2004 to 2008: rising costs of oil.\n\nAfter retreating for several months in late 2004 and early 2005, crude oil prices rose to new highs in March 2005. The price on NYMEX has been above $50 per barrel since March 5, 2005. In June 2005, crude oil prices broke the psychological barrier of $60 per barrel.\n", "Industrial development and population growth have led to a surge in the global demand for energy in recent years. In the 2000s, this new demand — together with Middle East tension, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, dwindling oil reserves, concerns over peak oil, and oil price speculation — triggered the 2000s energy crisis, which saw the price of oil reach an all-time high of $147.30 a barrel in 2008.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between US$1 and US$2 per U.S. gallon. After 2004, the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but receded to approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009. More recently, the U.S. experienced an upswing in gasoline prices through 2011, and by 1 March 2012, the national average was $3.74 per gallon.\n", "BULLET::::- In the same period, the Euro gained value over the U.S. dollar to make oil in the Eurozone 2.94 times more expensive.\n\nOn average, oil prices roughly quadrupled for these areas, triggering widespread protest activities. A similar price surge for petroleum-based fertilizers contributed to the 2007–08 world food price crisis and further unrest.\n", "A trend connecting economic and political events in North America, Asia, and the Middle East is the rapidly increasing demand for fossil fuels, which, along with fewer new petroleum finds, greater extraction costs (see peak oil), and political turmoil, saw the price of gas and oil soar ~500% between 2000 and 2005. In some places, especially in Europe, gas could be $5 a gallon, depending on the currency. Less influential, but omnipresent, is the debate on Turkey's participation in the European Union. New urbanism and urban revival continue to be forces in urban planning in the United States. However, evidence shows that growth of American suburbs still outpaces urban growth.\n", "Crude oil is the greatest contributing factor when it comes to the price of gasoline. This includes the resources it takes for exploration, to remove it from the ground, and transport it. Between 2004 and 2008, there was an increase in fuel costs due in large part to a worldwide increase in demand for crude oil. Prices leapt from , causing a corresponding increase in gas prices. On the supply side, OPEC (or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has a great deal to do with the price of gasoline, both in the United States and around the world. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market.\n" ]

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[ "People have an average of two to four million sweat glands. But how much sweat is released by each gland is determined by many factors, including gender, genetics, environmental conditions, age or fitness level. Two of the major contributors to sweat rate are an individual's fitness level and weight. If an individual weighs more, sweat rate is likely to increase because the body must exert more energy to function and there is more body mass to cool down. On the other hand, a fit person will start sweating earlier and more readily. As someone becomes fit, the body becomes more efficient at regulating the body's temperature and sweat glands adapt along with the body's other systems.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nTypical regions of excessive sweating include the hand palms, underarms, the sole of the foot, and sometimes groin, face, and scalp. Indeed, profuse sweating is present mostly in the underarms, followed by the feet, palms and facial region. Sweating patterns of focal hyperhidrosis are typically bilateral or symmetric and rarely occur in just one palm or one underarm. Night sweats or sweating while sleeping is also rare. The onset of focal hyperhidrosis is usually before the age of 25 years. This is in contrast to generalized hyperhidrosis which tends to occur in an older age group.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n", "Several researchers have noted that symptoms overlap with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and have proposed an unknown hantavirus as the cause. A critique of this hypothesis argued that sweating sickness was thought to be transmitted from human to human, whereas hantaviruses are rarely spread that way. However, infection via human contact has been suggested in hantavirus outbreaks in Argentina.\n", "Although sweating is found in a wide variety of mammals, relatively few (exceptions include humans and horses) produce large amounts of sweat in order to cool down.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nBULLET::::- The words diaphoresis and hidrosis both can mean either perspiration (in which sense they are synonymous with \"sweating\") or excessive perspiration (in which sense they can be either synonymous with hyperhidrosis or differentiable from it only by clinical criteria involved in narrow specialist senses of the words).\n\nBULLET::::- Hypohidrosis is decreased sweating from whatever cause.\n", "If patients have impaired sweating above the waist affecting only one side of the body, and they do not have clinically apparent Horner's syndrome, then their lesions are just below the stellate ganglion in the sympathetic chain.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nThree tests are useful in confirming the presence and severity of Horner syndrome:\n", "Lesions occur in any body areas with hair follicles, although areas such as the axilla, groin, and perianal region are more commonly involved. This theory includes most of the following potential indicators:\n\nBULLET::::- Postpubescent individuals are more likely to exhibit HS.\n\nBULLET::::- Plugged apocrine (sweat) gland or hair follicle\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive sweating\n\nBULLET::::- Androgen dysfunction\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic disorders that alter cell structure\n\nBULLET::::- Patients with more advanced cases may find exercise intolerably painful, which may increase the rate of obesity among sufferers.\n", "In 2006, researchers uncovered that primary palmar hyperhidrosis, referring to excess sweating on the palms of the hands and feet, maps to the gene locus 14q11.2-q13.\n\nAfter this discovery, further research was conducted to examine if primary focal hyperhidrosis maps back to the same locus. In addition, researchers wanted to see if other previously unknown genes were responsible for different phenotypes among individuals with hyperhidrosis.\n", "Adenolipomas are lipomas associated with eccrine sweat glands.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:As signs in other illnesses.\n\nMany diseases cause sweat gland dysfunction:\n\nBULLET::::- Acromegaly, a result of excess growth hormone, causes the size of sweat glands increase, which leads to thicker skin.\n\nBULLET::::- Aquagenic wrinkling of the palms, in which white papules develop on the palms after exposure to water, can sometimes come with abnormal aquaporin 5 in the sweat glands.\n\nBULLET::::- Cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed by a sweat test, as the disease causes the sweat glands ducts to reabsorb less chloride, leading to higher concentrations of chloride in the secreted sweat.\n", "There is a correlation between obesity and the risk of asthma with both having increased in recent years. Several factors may be at play including decreased respiratory function due to a buildup of fat and the fact that adipose tissue leads to a pro-inflammatory state.\n", "Compensatory hyperhidrois is aberrant sympathetic nervous system functioning. The only study evaluating the total body sweat prior and shortly after sympathectomy concluded that patients produce more sweat after the surgery, just not so much in the areas treated by the surgery.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nOf people that have a sympathectomy, it is impossible to predict who will end up with a more severe version of this disorder, as there is no link to gender, age or weight. There is no test or screening process that would enable doctors to predict who is more susceptible.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "In humans, sweating is primarily a means of thermoregulation, which is achieved by the water-rich secretion of the eccrine glands. Maximum sweat rates of an adult can be up to 2–4 liters per hour or 10–14 liters per day (10–15 g/min·m), but is less in children prior to puberty. Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface has a cooling effect due to evaporative cooling. Hence, in hot weather, or when the individual's muscles heat up due to exertion, more sweat is produced. Animals with few sweat glands, such as dogs, accomplish similar temperature regulation results by panting, which evaporates water from the moist lining of the oral cavity and pharynx.\n", "Section::::Popular culture.\n", "In these patients, Na ion concentrations can greatly increase (up to 180 mmol/L).\n\nIn people who have hyperhidrosis, the sweat glands (eccrine glands in particular) overreact to stimuli and are just generally overactive, producing more sweat than normal. Similarly, cystic fibrosis patients also produce salty sweat. But in these cases, the problem is in the CFTR chloride transporter that is also located on the apical membrane of eccrine gland ducts.\n\nDermcidin is a newly isolated antimicrobial peptide produced by the eccrine sweat glands.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- A video of 3D visualization of a human eccrine gland duct\n", "BULLET::::- Ectodermal dysplasia can present a lack of sweat glands.\n\nBULLET::::- Fabry disease, characterized by excess globotriaosylceramide (GL3), causes a decrease in sweat gland function due to GL3 deposits in the eccrine glands.\n\nBULLET::::- GM gangliosidoses, characterized by abnormal lipid storage, leads to vacuolization in eccrine sweat gland cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Hunter syndrome can include metachromin granules and mucin in the cytoplasm of the eccrine sweat gland cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Hypothyroidism's low levels of thyroid hormone lead to decreased secretions from sweat glands; the result is dry, coarse skin.\n", "One classification scheme uses the amount of skin affected. In this scheme, excessive sweating in an area of 100 square centimeters (16 square inches) or more is differentiated from sweating that affects only a small area.\n\nAnother classification scheme is based on possible causes of hyperhidrosis.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Brown adipocytes consist of densely packed mitochondria that contain uncoupling protein 1 (UCP-1). UCP-1 plays a key role in brown adipocyte thermogenesis. The presence of PRDM16 in adipose tissue causes a significant up-regulation of thermogenic genes, such as UCP-1 and CIDEA, resulting in thermogenic heat production. \n\nUnderstanding and stimulating the thermogenic processes in brown adipocytes provides possible therapeutic options for treating obesity.\n\nSection::::PRDM16 in WAT.\n", "Excessive sweating or focal hyperhidrosis of the hands interferes with many routine activities, such as securely grasping objects. Some focal hyperhidrosis sufferers avoid situations where they will come into physical contact with others, such as greeting a person with a handshake. Hiding embarrassing sweat spots under the armpits limits the sufferers' arm movements and pose. In severe cases, shirts must be changed several times during the day and require additional showers both to remove sweat and control body odor issues or microbial problems such as acne, dandruff, or athlete's foot. Additionally, anxiety caused by self-consciousness to the sweating may aggravate the sweating. Excessive sweating of the feet makes it harder for patients to wear slide-on or open-toe shoes, as the feet slide around in the shoe because of sweat.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Artificial perspiration.\n\nArtificial skin capable of sweating similar to natural sweat rates and with the surface texture and wetting properties of regular skin has been developed for research purposes. Artificial perspiration is also available for in-vitro testing, and contains 19 amino acids and the most abundant minerals and metabolites in sweat.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Diagnostics.\n", "Sweat is not pure water; it always contains a small amount (0.2–1%) of solute. When a person moves from a cold climate to a hot climate, adaptive changes occur in the sweating mechanisms of the person. This process is referred to as acclimatisation: the maximum rate of sweating increases and its solute composition decreases. The volume of water lost in sweat daily is highly variable, ranging from 100 to 8,000 mL/day. The solute loss can be as much as 350 mmol/d (or 90 mmol/d acclimatised) of sodium under the most extreme conditions. During average intensity exercise, sweat losses can average up to 2 litres of water/hour. In a cool climate and in the absence of exercise, sodium loss can be very low (less than 5 mmol/d). Sodium concentration in sweat is 30-65 mmol/l, depending on the degree of acclimatisation.\n", "Genetics play an important role in weight management and contribute to a person's risk of becoming obese. In fact, several genes have been found to be associated with elevated Body Mass Index (BMI) and obesity. That being said, genetics can only be blamed for a small portion of a person's excess weight as there are many other significant factors that affect a person's weight, as discussed in the sections above.\n\nThere are some rare genetic disorders that do cause significant weight gain like Prader-Willi Syndrome.\n\nSection::::Key components of weight management.:Medications.\n", "East Asians who have nearly complete loss of typical body odor, when compared to people of African and European descent, have significantly less of the characteristic axillary odorants and variants in the ABCC11 gene, which is expressed and localized in apocrine sweat glands. Racial differences also exist in the cerumen glands, apocrine sweat glands which produce earwax. East Asians have predominantly dry earwax, as opposed to sticky; the gene encoding for this is strongly linked to reduced body odor, whereas those with wet, sticky earwax (Africans and Europeans) are prone to more body odor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Eccrine sweat gland\n", "BULLET::::6. Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.\n\nBULLET::::7. Excretion: sweat contains urea, however its concentration is 1/130th that of urine, hence excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.:Final outbreak.\n\nThe last major outbreak of the disease occurred in England in 1551. John Caius wrote \"A Boke or Counseill Against the Disease Commonly Called the Sweate, or Sweatyng Sicknesse\" as an eyewitness account. Henry Machin also recorded it in his diary:\n\nReference is made in 1551 to an outbreak in the Halifax Parish resulting in the deaths of 44 persons. There was an outbreak in Tiverton, Devon in 1644 recorded in Martin Dunsford's History which led to the deaths of 443 people, 105 of them buried in the month of October.\n\nSection::::Picardy sweat.\n", "In warm or humid weather or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for the active secretion of sweat. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Key components of weight management.:Thermogenic Effect of Food.\n\nThe thermogenic effect of food is another component of a person's daily energy expenditure and refers to the amount of energy it takes the body to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients in the diet. The amount of energy expended while processing food differs by individual but on average it amounts to about 10% the number of calories consumed during a given time period. Processing proteins and carbohydrates has more of a thermogenic effect than does processing fats.\n\nSection::::Key components of weight management.:Genetics.\n", "The science behind weight management is complex, but one of the key concepts that governs weight management is Energy Balance. Energy Balance is the phrase used to describe the difference between the number of calories a person consumes and the number of calories that same person expends (a.k.a. burns) in a given time period. There are three possible scenarios when it comes to the energy balance equation:\n\nBULLET::::- Calories consumed (food, drink) = Calories expended (basal metabolic rate, physical activity, thermogenic effect of food, acute illness)\n\nBULLET::::- Outcome: Weight remains unchanged\n\nBULLET::::- Calories consumed Calories expended\n", "The glycemic load is \"the mathematical product of the glycemic index and the carbohydrate amount\".\n\nIn a randomized controlled trial that compared four diets that varied in carbohydrate amount and glycemic index found complicated results:\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 and 2 were high carbohydrate (55% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 1 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 2 was low-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 and 4 were high protein (25% of total energy intake)\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 3 was high-glycemic index\n\nBULLET::::- Diet 4 was low-glycemic index\n", "The weight of eating companions may also influence the volume of food consumed. Obese individuals have been found to eat significantly more in the presence of other obese individuals compared to normal-weight others, while normal-weight individuals' eating appears unaffected by the weight of eating companions.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Weight.\n\nBeing overweight or underweight causes change in the human body's shape as well as posture and walking style. This is measured using Body Mass Index – BMI or waist circumference. Depending on the BMI, a body may be referred to as slim, overweight, or obese.\n\nDieting, in conjunction with exercise, may be used to bring and keep the BMI within a healthy or desired range.\n", "Speakman's group was the first to link genetic variation to differences in food consumption in humans by examining polymorphic variation in the fat mass and obesity associated FTO gene.\n", "As the BMR equations do not attempt to take into account body composition, identical results can be calculated for a very muscular person, and a very fat person, who are both the same height, weight, age and gender. As muscle and fat require differing amounts of calories to maintain, the TEE estimates will not be accurate for such cases.\n", "MET is used as a means of expressing the intensity and energy expenditure of activities in a way comparable among persons of different weight. Actual energy expenditure (e.g., in calories or joules) during an activity depends on the person's body mass; therefore, the energy cost of the same activity will be different for persons of different weight. However, since the RMR is also dependent on body mass in a similar way, it is assumed that the ratio of this energy cost to the RMR of each person will remain more or less stable for the specific activity and thus independent of each person's weight.\n", "Section::::Deficiencies.\n", "Considering energy foods as adequate nutrition was first scientifically demonstrated to be false by François Magendie by experiments on dogs and described in his \"Précis élémentaire de Physiologie\". He showed that eating only sugar, olive oil, or butter, each led to the death of his test animals in 30 to 40 days.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThe following foods are often considered to contain mostly empty calories and may lead to weight gain:\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar: cake, cookies, sweets, candy, soft drinks, fruit-flavored sweet beverages and other foods containing mostly added sugars (including High-fructose corn syrup).\n", "Genetics play an important role in weight management and contribute to a person's risk of becoming obese. In fact, several genes have been found to be associated with elevated Body Mass Index (BMI) and obesity. That being said, genetics can only be blamed for a small portion of a person's excess weight as there are many other significant factors that affect a person's weight, as discussed in the sections above.\n\nThere are some rare genetic disorders that do cause significant weight gain like Prader-Willi Syndrome.\n\nSection::::Key components of weight management.:Medications.\n", "A study, involving more than 12,000 people tracked over 32 years, found that social networks play a surprisingly powerful role in determining an individual's chances of gaining weight, transmitting an increased risk of becoming obese from wives to husbands, from brothers to brothers and from friends to friends.\n\nThe human microbiota facilitates fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates to short-chain fatty acids, SCFAs, contributing to weight gain. A change in the proportion of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes may determine host’s risk of obesity.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Sleep and stress.\n", "Obesity is one of the most widely studied topics in nutritional genomics. Due to genetic variations among individuals, each person could respond to diet differently. By exploring the interaction between dietary pattern and genetic factors, the field aims to suggest dietary changes that could prevent or reduce obesity.\n", "Being overweight is generally caused by the intake of more calories (by eating) than are expended by the body (by exercise and everyday activity). Factors that may contribute to this imbalance include:\n\nBULLET::::- Alcoholism\n\nBULLET::::- Eating disorders (such as binge eating)\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic predisposition\n\nBULLET::::- Hormonal imbalances (e.g. hypothyroidism)\n\nBULLET::::- Insufficient or poor-quality sleep\n\nBULLET::::- Limited physical exercise and a sedentary lifestyle\n\nBULLET::::- Poor nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Metabolic disorders, which could be caused by repeated attempts to lose weight by weight cycling\n\nBULLET::::- Overeating\n\nBULLET::::- Psychotropic medication (e.g. olanzapine)\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking cessation and other stimulant withdrawal\n\nBULLET::::- Stress\n", "There are many factors that contribute to a person's weight, including: diet, physical activity, genetics, environmental factors, medications, and illnesses. Each of these factors affect weight in different ways and to varying degrees, but health professionals most often stress the importance of diet and physical activity above all other factors because they can be affected by conscious behavior modification. The following is a review of some of the key components of weight management in humans.\n\nSection::::Key components of weight management.:Energy Balance.\n", "Postingestive feedback factors such as energy density and nutrient composition could affect the palatability of a food which in turn would inhibit or facilitate \"sensory-specific satiety\". Studies done by Birch & Deysher (1986) and B.J. Rolls \"et al.\", summarized in a paper by Raynor and Epstein, show that postingesitive feedback does not influence \"sensory-specific satiety\" very much. Since postingestive feedback seems to have little effect of sensory-specific satiety, it is probable that sensory-specific satiety is more driven by external factors, such as the sensory properties of the food, than internal factors.\n\nSection::::Obesity in relation to sensory-specific satiety.\n", "Section::::Factors that affect the thermic effect of food.\n\nThe thermic effect of food is increased by both aerobic training of sufficient duration and intensity or by anaerobic weight training. However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of the meals ingested. Meal frequency has little to no effect on TEF; assuming total calorie intake for the days are equivalent.\n", "Wishnofsky did not take into account numerous aspects of human physiology and biochemistry which were unknown at the time. The claim has achieved the status of a rule of thumb and is repeated in numerous sources, used for diet planning by dietitians and misapplied at the population level as well.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Sugar consumption.\n\nResearch by Professor John Yudkin in the UK in the 1960s demonstrated a clear link between obesity and cardio-vascular disease publishing many academic papers which culminated in the book Pure, White and Deadly. A discreditation campaign by the sugar industry meant that this research and its conclusions was ignored for over three decades before being demonstrated to be correct.\n", "In regard to adipose tissue increases, a person generally gains weight by increasing food consumption, becoming physically inactive, or both. When energy intake exceeds energy expenditure (when the body is in positive energy balance), the body can store the excess energy as fat. However, the physiology of weight gain and loss is complex involving numerous hormones, body systems and environmental factors. Other factors beside energy balance that may contribute to gaining weight include:\n\nSection::::Causes.:Social factors.\n", "Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition; these include insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, steroids, certain anticonvulsants (phenytoin and valproate), pizotifen, and some forms of hormonal contraception.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Social determinants.\n", "Section::::Factors affecting dressed weight.\n", "There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors – such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals – contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. Evidence indicates that diets possibly protective against metabolic syndrome include low saturated and trans fat intake and foods rich in dietary fiber, such as high consumption of fruits and vegetables and moderate intake of low-fat dairy products.\n\nSection::::Global nutrition challenges.\n", "Some popular beliefs attached to weight loss have been shown to either have less effect on weight loss than commonly believed or are actively unhealthy. According to Harvard Health, the idea of metabolism being the \"key to weight\" is \"part truth and part myth\" as while metabolism does affect weight loss, external forces such as diet and exercise have an equal effect. They also commented that the idea of changing one's rate of metabolism is under debate. Diet plans in fitness magazines are also often believed to be effective, but may actually be harmful by limiting the daily intake of important calories and nutrients which can be detrimental depending on the person and are even capable of driving individuals away from weight loss.\n", "BULLET::::- Also known as Positive Energy Balance\n\nBULLET::::- Outcome: Weight increases\n\nBULLET::::- Calories consumed Calories expended\n\nBULLET::::- Also known as Negative Energy Balance\n\nBULLET::::- Outcome: Weight decreases\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Countries that do not recognize polygamous marriages.:Asia.:Illegal \"de jure\" but still practiced.\n\nBULLET::::- Cambodia\n\nBULLET::::- Israel: polygamy was criminalized in 1977, but the law is not consistently enforced and polygamy is still practiced by Israeli Bedouins.\n\nBULLET::::- Kazakhstan\n\nBULLET::::- Laos\n", "BULLET::::- Uruguay\n\nBULLET::::- Venezuela\n\nSection::::Countries that do not recognize polygamous marriages.:Asia.\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- China: Polygamy is illegal under Marriage Law passed in 1980. This replaced a similar 1950 prohibition. In Hong Kong, polygamy ended with the passing of the Marriage Act of 1971.\n\nBULLET::::- Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Kyrgyzstan\n\nBULLET::::- Mongolia\n\nBULLET::::- Myanmar\n\nBULLET::::- North Korea\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan: Polygamy is illegal by the 1930 ROC civil law.\n\nBULLET::::- Tajikistan\n", "BULLET::::- Thailand: Prior to October 1, 1935, polygamy in Thailand could be freely practiced and recognised under civil law. Since its abolition, it is still practiced and widely accepted in Thailand, though no longer recognised, as the law states \"A man or a woman cannot marry each other while one of them has a spouse.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tunisia: Illegal. Up to 5 years imprisonment.\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey: Illegal. Up to 5 years imprisonment.\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom: Illegal, although marriages performed abroad may be recognised for some legal purposes (see \"Polygamy in the United Kingdom\").\n", "Many societies, even some with a cultural tradition of polygamy, recognize monogamy as the only valid form of marriage. For example, People's Republic of China shifted from allowing polygamy to supporting only monogamy in the Marriage Act of 1953 after the Communist revolution.\n\nMany African and Islamic societies still allow polygamy. Africa has the highest rate of polygamy in the world. In Senegal, for example, nearly 47 percent of marriages are multiple. In India, only Muslims are allowed to practice polygamy.\n\nSection::::State recognition.\n", "BULLET::::- Turkey: Polygamy was criminalized in 1926 with the adoption of the Turkish Civil Code, part of Atatürk's secularist reforms. Penalties for illegal polygamy are up to 5 years imprisonment. Turkey has long been known for its promotion of secularism, and has introduced measures establishing stricter bars against polygamy; these were passed by the ruling moderate Islamist AK Parti as well. In March 2009, AK Parti effectively banned polygamists from entering or living in the country.\n\nBULLET::::- Turkmenistan\n\nBULLET::::- Uzbekistan\n\nBULLET::::- Vietnam\n\nSection::::Countries that do not recognize polygamous marriages.:Asia.:Under customary law.\n\nBULLET::::- Palestine\n", "BULLET::::- Russia: Factual polygamy and sexual relationships with several adult partners are not punishable in accordance with current revisions of Criminal Code of Russia and Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses. But multiple marriage can't be registered and officially recognised by Russian authorities because Family Code of Russia (section 14 and others) prohibits registration of marriage if one of person is in another registered marriage in Russia or another country. Polygamy is tolerated in predominantly Muslim republics such as Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Dagestan.\n\nBULLET::::- Thailand\n\nBULLET::::- Timor-Leste\n\nSection::::Countries that do not recognize polygamous marriages.:Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- Albania\n\nBULLET::::- Andorra\n", "BULLET::::- Romania: Bigamy, defined as marriage conducted by a person which is already married, is punishable by up to 2 years in prison or fine. Knowingly marrying a married person is punishable by up to 1 year in prison or by fine.\n\nBULLET::::- Russian Federation\n\nBULLET::::- San Marino\n\nBULLET::::- Serbia\n\nBULLET::::- Slovakia\n\nBULLET::::- Slovenia\n\nBULLET::::- Spain\n", "BULLET::::- Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nSection::::Countries that do not recognize polygamous marriages.\n\nSection::::Countries that do not recognize polygamous marriages.:Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- Benin\n\nBULLET::::- Côte d'Ivoire: Polygamy may be punishable by six months to three years imprisonment, or a fine of CFA 50,000 to CFA 500,000 (US$80 to US$800).\n\nBULLET::::- Eritrea: Illegal since 1977, after 2015 polygamy is punishable with \"a definite term of imprisonment of not less than 6 months and not more than 12 months, or a fine of 20,001 – 50,000 Nakfas.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ethiopia\n\nBULLET::::- Seychelles\n\nBULLET::::- Tunisia, where it has been banned since 1956\n", "Many majority-Muslim countries retain the traditional sharia, which interprets teachings of the Quran to permit polygamy with up to four wives. Exceptions to this include Albania, Tunisia, Turkey, and former USSR republics. Though about 70% of the population of Albania is historically Muslim, the majority is non-practicing. Turkey and Tunisia are countries with overwhelmingly Muslim populations that enforce secularist practices by law. In the former USSR republics, a prohibition against polygamy has been inherited from Soviet Law. In the 21st century, a revival of the practice of polygamy in the Muslim World has contributed to efforts to re-establish its legality and legitimacy in some countries and communities where it is illegal.\n", "A 2005 report by the Alberta Civil Liberties Research Centre recommended that Canada decriminalize polygamy, stating: \"Criminalization is not the most effective way of dealing with gender inequality in polygamous and plural union relationships. Furthermore, it may violate the constitutional rights of the parties involved.\"\n\nSection::::Canada.:British Columbia.\n", "BULLET::::- Chile\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Costa Rica\n\nBULLET::::- Cuba\n\nBULLET::::- Dominica\n\nBULLET::::- Dominican Republic\n\nBULLET::::- Ecuador\n\nBULLET::::- El Salvador\n\nBULLET::::- Grenada\n\nBULLET::::- Guatemala\n\nBULLET::::- Guyana\n\nBULLET::::- Haiti\n\nBULLET::::- Honduras\n\nBULLET::::- Jamaica\n\nBULLET::::- Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- Nicaragua\n\nBULLET::::- Panama\n\nBULLET::::- Paraguay\n\nBULLET::::- Peru\n\nBULLET::::- St. Kitts and Nevis\n\nBULLET::::- St. Lucia\n\nBULLET::::- St. Vincent and The Grenadines\n\nBULLET::::- Suriname\n\nBULLET::::- Trinidad and Tobago\n", "Due to an increase in the number of polygamous marriages, proposals were made in Tajikistan to re-legalize polygamy. Tajik women who want to be second wives particularly support decriminalizing polygyny. Mukhiddin Kabiri, the Deputy Chairman of the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan, says that legislation is unlikely to stop the growth in polygyny. He criticizes the ruling élite for speaking out against the practice while taking more than one wife themselves.\n\nSection::::By country.:Europe.\n\nSection::::By country.:Europe.:Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n", "BULLET::::- Armenia\n\nBULLET::::- Austria\n\nBULLET::::- Azerbaijan\n\nBULLET::::- Belarus\n\nBULLET::::- Belgium\n\nBULLET::::- Bosnia and Herzegovina\n\nBULLET::::- Bulgaria: Illegal and punishable with up to three years imprisonment.\n\nBULLET::::- Croatia\n\nBULLET::::- Cyprus\n\nBULLET::::- Czech Republic\n\nBULLET::::- Denmark\n\nBULLET::::- Estonia\n\nBULLET::::- Finland: The official prosecutor is obliged to take all cases to a court where more two persons are married to each other and such relationships cease to exist after the court has decided it. Polygamic marriages performed abroad may be recognized only in narrow occasions, for instance in child custody matters.\n\nBULLET::::- France: Civil marriage registry illegal.\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia\n", "Five years after the new Mudawana laws were passed, the president of the ADFM noted that opposition to its reforms was still present throughout the judicial system. While polygamy had become nearly nonexistent, she noted, one out of every ten marriages still involved a minor as of 2007, and the system was facing organizational challenges. Some reports claim that marriage of underage girls has actually risen since the passing of the reforms, and point out that the actual existence of separate marital property contracts remains low, despite their being newly legalized, meaning that the reforms offer little actual protection to women whose husbands order them to leave the marital home.\n", "The vast majority of Muslim majority sovereign states recognize polygamous marriages: these states span from West Africa to Southeast Asia, with exceptions of Israel, Turkey and Tunisia. The Palestinian territories — consisting of West Bank and Gaza Strip — permit polygamous unions for Muslim citizens of the territories.\n\nPredominantly Christian nations usually do not allow polygamy, with a handful of exceptions such as the Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Zambia.\n", "BULLET::::- Nepal: Criminalized with sentence of one to three years and fine up to Rs 25,000. However, the second marriage is not annulled and once the completion of the sentence, the second wife carries equal footing as the first one. Even the government pension provided to the wife of the retired government employee after his death is split by the government.\n", "Several countries such as India and Sri Lanka, permit only their Islamic citizens to practice polygamy. Some Indians have converted to Islam in order to bypass such legal restrictions. Predominantly Christian nations usually do not allow polygamous unions, with a handful of exceptions being the Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Zambia. Myanmar (frequently referred to as Burma) is also the only predominantly Buddhist nation to allow for civil polygynous marriages, though such is rarely tolerated by the Burmese population.\n\nSection::::Law.:State recognition.\n", "Polyandry is \"de facto\" the norm in rural areas of Tibet, although it is illegal under Chinese family law. Polygamy continues in Bhutan in various forms as it has since ancient times. It is also found in parts of Nepal, despite its formal illegality in the country.\n\nDebates of legalizing polygamous marriages continue in Central Asian countries.\n\nSection::::Current legislation.:Civil unions.\n", "BULLET::::- Montenegro\n\nBULLET::::- Netherlands: Marriage between more than two individuals prohibited; however, a samenlevingscontract may include more than two partners. It legally accepts immigrants who are in such a union from a country where it is legal; e.g. if a man with two wives immigrates to The Netherlands, all three will be legally recognized.\n\nBULLET::::- Norway\n\nBULLET::::- Poland\n\nBULLET::::- Portugal\n", "Section::::Campaigns for repeal.:Iraq.\n\nArticle 427 of Iraq's penal code, in its current form dating from 1969, states that if the perpetrator lawfully marries the victim, any legal action becomes void. Following parliamentary votes in favour of the abolition of similar laws in Lebanon, Jordan and Tunisia in 2017, women's rights activists made efforts to put the issue on the political agenda during the campaign for the [[2018 Iraqi parliamentary election]].\n\nSection::::Campaigns for repeal.:Italy.\n", "BULLET::::- New Zealand: Illegal. Up to 7 years imprisonment, or up to 2 years imprisonment if the judge is satisfied the second spouse was aware their marriage would be void.\n\nBULLET::::- Morocco: Permitted for Muslims, restrictions apply.\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan: Polygamy in Pakistan is permitted with some restrictions.\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines: Legal for Muslims. Others face 6–12 years imprisonment and legal dissolution of marriage.\n\nBULLET::::- Romania: Illegal.\n\nBULLET::::- Saudi Arabia: Bigamy or polygamy is legal.\n", "BULLET::::- Indonesia (except for in the provinces of Maluku, North Maluku, Papua, and West Papua)\n\nBULLET::::- Iran\n\nBULLET::::- Iraq (except for in Iraqi Kurdistan)\n\nBULLET::::- Jordan\n\nBULLET::::- Kuwait\n\nBULLET::::- Lebanon\n\nBULLET::::- Maldives\n\nBULLET::::- Oman\n\nBULLET::::- Qatar\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Saudi Arabia\n\nBULLET::::- Sri Lanka\n\nBULLET::::- Syria (except in Syrian Kurdistan)\n\nBULLET::::- United Arab Emirates\n\nBULLET::::- Yemen\n\nSection::::Countries that recognize polygamous marriages.:Oceania.\n\nBULLET::::- Solomon Islands\n\nSection::::Countries that only recognize polygamous marriages for Muslims.\n\n\"Note: These countries are included separately because they have specific legislation aimed only at Muslims.\"\n\nSection::::Countries that only recognize polygamous marriages for Muslims.:Asia.\n\nBULLET::::- Malaysia\n\nBULLET::::- Philippines\n", "BULLET::::- Australia: Polygamous marriages cannot be performed in Australia, but polygamous relationships are still common within some indigenous Australian communities. Polygamous marriages entered into abroad are recognised for limited purposes only.\n\nBULLET::::- Fiji\n\nBULLET::::- Kiribati\n\nBULLET::::- Marshall Islands\n\nBULLET::::- Micronesia\n\nBULLET::::- Nauru\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand: Polygamous marriages cannot be performed in New Zealand, but are permissible if they are legally performed in a country that permits polygamy.\n\nBULLET::::- Palau\n\nBULLET::::- Papua New Guinea\n\nBULLET::::- Samoa\n\nBULLET::::- Tonga\n\nBULLET::::- Tuvalu\n\nBULLET::::- Vanuatu\n\nSection::::Current legislation.\n", "BULLET::::- Arranged marriage is prevalent in many parts of Africa and Asia alike, especially in rural regions.\n\nBULLET::::- Same-sex marriage is illegal in most parts of Africa and Asia alike.\n\nBULLET::::- Polygamy is legal in many parts of Africa and Asia, but tends to be illegal in most Communist countries and legal in most Muslim countries\n\nBULLET::::- Divorce is legal in all parts in Africa and Asia (except in the Philippines), but wives seeking divorce have fewer legal rights than husbands in Muslim countries than in Communist countries.\n", "In most Muslim-majority countries, polygyny is legal with Kuwait being the only one where no restrictions are imposed on it. The practice is illegal in Muslim-majority Turkey, Tunisia, Albania, Kosovo and Central Asian countries.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Properties of mucus.:Tunable swelling capacity.\n\nMucus is able to absorb water or dehydrate through pH variations. The swelling capacity of mucus stems from the bottlebrush structure of mucin within which hydrophilic segments provide a large surface area for water absorption. Moreover, the tunability of swelling effect is controlled by polyelectrolyte effect.\n\nSection::::Properties of mucus.:Tunable swelling capacity.:Polyelectrolyte effect in mucus.\n", "Section::::Properties of mucus.:Tunable swelling capacity.:Mechanism of pH-tunable swelling.\n", "Section::::Properties of mucus.:Charge selectivity.\n", "Section::::Secretion.:Mucus.\n\nMucus is released in the stomach and intestine, and serves to lubricate and protect the inner mucosa of the tract. It is composed of a specific family of glycoproteins termed mucins and is generally very viscous. Mucus is made by two types of specialized cells termed mucus cells in the stomach and goblet cells in the intestines. Signals for increased mucus release include parasympathetic innervations, immune system response and enteric nervous system messengers.\n\nSection::::Secretion.:Bile.\n", "Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of most leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection. However, as organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, other systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.\n", "Section::::Routes of Administration.:Nasal.\n", "In these cases, a useful diagnostic, adjunct involves measuring the nasal transepithelial potential difference (ie, the charge on the respiratory epithelial surface as compared to interstitial fluid). Individuals with Cystic fibrosis have a significantly more negative nasoepithelial surface than normal, due to increased luminal sodium absorption. \n", "the nostril), and on the back.\n\nReflecting upon the diversity of the human skin researchers on the human skin microbiome have observed: \"hairy, moist underarms lie a short distance from smooth dry forearms, but these two niches are likely as ecologically dissimilar as rainforests are to deserts.\"\n\nThe NIH has launched the Human Microbiome Project to characterize the human microbiota which includes that on the skin and the role of this microbiome in health and disease.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n\nThe mucosa of organs are composed of one or more layers of epithelial cells that secrete mucus, and an underlying lamina propria of loose connective tissue. The type of cells and type of mucus secreted vary from organ to organ and each can differ along a given tract.\n", "Excessive moisture as tears collected in the lacrimal sac travel down the nasolacrimal ducts where they drain into the inferior meatus in the nasal cavity.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nose shape.\n\nThe shape of the nose varies widely due to differences in the nasal bone shapes and formation of the bridge of the nose. Some nose shapes were classified for surgeries by Eden Warwick in \"Nasology\" 1848:\n", "In determining the degree at which bioconcentration occurs biological factors have to be kept in mind.The rate at which an organism is exposed through respiratory surfaces and contact with dermal surfaces of the organism, competes against the rate of excretion from an organism. The rate of excretion is a loss of chemical from the respiratory surface, growth dilution, fecal excretion, and metabolic biotransformation. Growth dilution is not an actual process of excretion but due to the mass of the organism increasing while the contaminant concentration remains constant dilution occurs.\n\nThe interaction between inputs and outputs is shown here:\n\nformula_6\n", "Section::::Chemistry.\n", "Section::::Morphology and taxonomy.\n", "\"There is high diversity in the salivary microbiome within and between individuals, but little geographic structure. Overall, ∼13.5% of the total variance in the composition of genera is due to differences among individuals, which is remarkably similar to the fraction of the total variance in neutral genetic markers that can be attributed to differences among human populations.\"\n", "Section::::Physiology and ecology.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Factors.:Climate.\n\nThe principal climatic variables influencing soil formation are effective precipitation (i.e., precipitation minus evapotranspiration) and temperature, both of which affect the rates of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Temperature and moisture both influence the organic matter content of soil through their effects on the balance between primary production and decomposition: the colder or drier the climate the lesser atmospheric carbon is fixed as organic matter while the lesser organic matter is decomposed.\n", "Studies suggest that one biochemical mechanism of low-temperature tolerance is achieved by altering the composition and total content of fatty-acids in their membrane, a phenomenon called homeoviscous adaptation.\n\nSection::::White-nose syndrome.\n", "Mucosal immunology is the study of immune system responses that occur at mucosal membranes of the intestines, the urogenital tract and the respiratory system, i.e., surfaces that are in contact with the external environment. In healthy states, the mucosal immune system provides protection against pathogens but maintains a tolerance towards non-harmful commensal microbes and benign environmental substances. For example, in the oral and gut mucosa, the secretion of IgA provides an immune response to potential antigens in food without a large and unnecessary systemic immune response. Since the mucosal membranes are the primary contact point between a host and its environment, a large amount of secondary lymphoid tissue is found here. The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, or MALT, provides the organism with an important first line of defense. Along with the spleen and lymph nodes, the tonsils and MALT are also considered to be secondary lymphoid tissue. The mucosal immune system provides three main functions: serving as the body's first line defense from antigens and infection, preventing systemic immune responses to commensal bacteria and food antigens (primarily food proteins in the Gut-associated lymphoid tissue, so-called oral tolerance), and regulating appropriate immune responses to pathogens encountered on a daily basis.\n", "The mucus protects the olfactory epithelium and allows odors to dissolve so that they can be detected by olfactory receptor neurons. Electron microscopy studies show that Bowman's glands contain cells with large secretory vesicles. The exact composition of the secretions from Bowman's glands is unclear, but there is evidence that Bowman's glands do not produce odorant binding protein.\n\nIn vertebrates, the olfactory epithelium consists of a three basic cell types: bipolar olfactory receptor neurons; sustentacular cells, a type of supporting cell; and basal cells, the stem cells that continuously give rise to new olfactory receptor neurons and sustentacular cells.\n", "Section::::Habitat and ecology.\n", "The nose also plays the major part in the olfactory system. It contains an area of specialised cells, olfactory receptor neurons responsible for the sense of smell. Olfactory mucosa in the upper nasal cavity, contains a type of nasal gland called olfactory glands or Bowman's glands which help in olfaction. The nasal conchae also help in olfaction function, by directing air-flow to the olfactory region.\n\nSection::::Function.:Speech.\n", "Section::::Environmental cues.\n\nSection::::Environmental cues.:Immune response.\n", "Section::::Adaptation of.\n", "There is a nasal valve area in the cavity responsible for providing resistance to the flow of air. This enables an increased time for warming and moistening the air. This area is of two nasal valves. The internal nasal valve is the narrowest part of the airway in the middle third of the cavity. The larger external nasal valve is located in the alar wall.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Internal nose.:Nasal vestibule.\n", "Inflammation, in the biological sense, refers to the cellular response of the body to disturbances, be they internal or external. In the case of asthma or chronic bronchitis the human body responds to allergens or pollutants by flooding the bronchial tree and airway walls with mononuclear cells. The layers of the airway wall, including the inner epithelial tissue lining thickens and expands anywhere from 10% to 300% of healthy individuals, and obstructs air flow. Enduring the disease long term coupled with airway hyperresponsiveness (smooth muscle contraction or Bronchial hyperresponsiveness) leads to chronic continuous inflammation and thickening, and noticeable airway remodeling consisting of stiffer airways and lost elasticity. Inflammation in a constricted cylinder, as with an airway, eventually folds over on itself, leading to mechanically studied buckling patterns and growth relationships within tissue linings.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Calibration.\n\nSection::::Calibration.:Temperature sensors.\n", "Apparent temperature\n\nApparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The measure is most commonly applied to the perceived outdoor temperature. However it also applies to indoor temperatures, especially saunas and when houses and workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled.\n\nBULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n", "Thermoception\n\nThermoception or thermoreception is the sense by which an organism perceives temperature, or more accurately, temperature differences inferred from heat flux. The details of how temperature receptors work are still being investigated. Ciliopathy is associated with decreased ability to sense heat, thus cilia may aid in the process. Transient receptor potential channels (TRP channels) are believed to play a role in many species in sensation of hot, cold, and pain. Vertebrates have at least two types of sensor: those that detect heat and those that detect cold.\n", "Taking a person's temperature is an initial part of a full clinical examination. There are various types of medical thermometers, as well as sites used for measurement, including:\n\nBULLET::::- In the rectum (rectal temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the mouth (oral temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- Under the arm (axillary temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the ear (tympanic temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- in the nose\n\nBULLET::::- In the vagina (vaginal temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the bladder\n\nBULLET::::- On the skin of the forehead over the temporal artery\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "Section::::Measuring principle—OTDR and OFDR technology.\n\nThere are two basic principles of measurement for distributed sensing technology, OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometry) and OFDR (Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry). For Distributed Temperature Sensing often a Code Correlation technology \n", "Other important devices for measuring temperature include:\n\nBULLET::::- Thermocouples\n\nBULLET::::- Thermistors\n\nBULLET::::- Resistance temperature detector (RTD)\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrometer\n\nBULLET::::- Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma)\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared\n\nBULLET::::- Other thermometers\n", "It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television rays that are not related to temperature. Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. People are constantly radiating their body heat, but at different rates. From these values, the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer, which explains the “chill” we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same.\n", "The cutaneous somatosensory system detects changes in temperature. The perception begins when thermal stimuli from a homeostatic set-point excite temperature specific sensory nerves in the skin. Then with the help of sensing range, specific thermosensory fibers respond to warmth and to cold. Then specific cutaneous cold and warm receptors conduct units that exhibit a discharge at constant skin temperature.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Nerve fibers for temperature.\n", "Section::::Technologies.\n", "\"\" br\n\n\"Q\" = the dry heat loss, or power, recorded by the manikinbr\n\n\"t\" = the skin temperature of the manikinbr \n\n\"t\" = the equivalent temperature of the room (the calibration temperature)\n\nThis factor may then be used to calculate equivalent temperature during further experiments in which radiant temperature and air velocity are not controlled using the equation:br\n\nSection::::Setup.\n", "In addition to varying throughout the day, normal body temperature may also differ as much as from one day to the next, so that the highest or lowest temperatures on one day will not always exactly match the highest or lowest temperatures on the next day.\n\nNormal human body temperature varies slightly from person to person and by the time of day. Consequently, each type of measurement has a range of normal temperatures. The range for normal human body temperatures, taken orally, is (). This means that any oral temperature between is likely to be normal.\n", "The first physician that put thermometer measurements to clinical practice was Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738). In 1866, Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt (1836–1925) invented a clinical thermometer that produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as opposed to twenty. In 1999, Dr. Francesco Pompei of the Exergen Corporation introduced the world's first temporal artery thermometer, a non-invasive temperature sensor which scans the forehead in about two seconds and provides a medically accurate body temperature.\n\nSection::::Registering.\n", "Many outside factors affect the measured temperature as well. \"Normal\" values are generally given for an otherwise healthy, non-fasting adult, dressed comfortably, indoors, in a room that is kept at a normal room temperature, , during the morning, but not shortly after arising from sleep. Furthermore, for oral temperatures, the subject must not have eaten, drunk, or smoked anything in at least the previous fifteen to twenty minutes, as the temperature of the food, drink, or smoke can dramatically affect the reading.\n", "Section::::Indirect methods of temperature measurement.\n\nIn theory any physical phenomenon exhibiting a temperature dependence could be used as a thermometer, measuring temperature indirectly. Some of these properties have been exploited. For example, blackbody radiation allows one to measure the temperature in a blast furnace or kiln, or the temperature of a distant star\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal expansion\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Density\n\nBULLET::::- Thermochromism\n\nBULLET::::- Fluorescence\n\nBULLET::::- Optical absorbance spectra\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical potential\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear magnetic resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetic susceptibility\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Reported values vary depending on how it is measured: oral (under the tongue): (), internal (rectal, vaginal): . A rectal or vaginal measurement taken directly inside the body cavity is typically slightly higher than oral measurement, and oral measurement is somewhat higher than skin measurement. Other places, such as under the arm or in the ear, produce different typical temperatures. While some people think of these averages as representing normal or ideal measurements, a wide range of temperatures has been found in healthy people. The body temperature of a healthy person varies during the day by about with lower temperatures in the morning and higher temperatures in the late afternoon and evening, as the body's needs and activities change. Other circumstances also affect the body's temperature. The core body temperature of an individual tends to have the lowest value in the second half of the sleep cycle; the lowest point, called the nadir, is one of the primary markers for circadian rhythms. The body temperature also changes when a person is hungry, sleepy, sick, or cold.\n", "The process of measurement goes as follows. First, a sample of the substance is cooled as close to absolute zero as possible. At such temperatures, the entropy approaches zerodue to the definition of temperature. Then, small amounts of heat are introduced into the sample and the change in temperature is recorded, until the temperature reaches a desired value (usually 25°C). The obtained data allows the user to integrate the equation above, yielding the absolute value of entropy of the substance at the final temperature. This value of entropy is called calorimetric entropy.\n\nSection::::Interdisciplinary applications of entropy.\n", "Oral temperatures are influenced by drinking, chewing, smoking, and breathing with the mouth open. Mouth breathing, cold drinks or food reduce oral temperatures; hot drinks, hot food, chewing, and smoking raise oral temperatures.\n\nEach measurement method also has different normal ranges depending on sex.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Variations due to outside factors.\n", "One must be careful when measuring temperature to ensure that the measuring instrument (thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In such a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system, but also with the heat transfer properties of the system.\n", "Temperature examination in the rectum is the traditional gold standard measurement used to estimate core temperature (oral temperature is affected by hot or cold drinks and mouth-breathing). Rectal temperature is expected to be approximately one Fahrenheit degree higher than an oral temperature taken on the same person at the same time. Ear thermometers measure eardrum temperature using infrared sensors. The blood supply to the tympanic membrane is shared with the brain. However, this method of measuring body temperature is not as accurate as rectal measurement and has a low sensitivity for fevers, missing three or four out of every ten fevers in children. Ear temperature measurement may be acceptable for observing trends in body temperature but is less useful in consistently identifying fevers.\n", "Temperature measurement\n\nTemperature measurement, also known as thermometry, describes the process of measuring a current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation. Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can be used to assess temperature trends.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "where,\n\nOr\n\nwhere,\n\nIt is also acceptable to approximate this relationship for occupants engaged in near sedentary physical activity (with metabolic rates between 1.0 met and 1.3 met), not in direct sunlight, and not exposed to air velocities greater than 0.10 m/s (20 fpm). \n\nwhere formula_5 and formula_6 have the same meaning as above.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "When an energy transfer to or from a body is only as heat, the state of the body changes. Depending on the surroundings and the walls separating them from the body, various changes are possible in the body. They include chemical reactions, increase of pressure, increase of temperature, and phase change. For each kind of change under specified conditions, the heat capacity is the ratio of the quantity of heat transferred to the magnitude of the change. For example, if the change is an increase in temperature at constant volume, with no phase change and no chemical change, then the temperature of the body rises and its pressure increases. The quantity of heat transferred, , divided by the observed temperature change, , is the body's heat capacity at constant volume:\n", "Section::::Precision, accuracy, and reproducibility.\n\nThe precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible to make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest 10 °C or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1 °C. Special instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this precision does not mean the reading is true or accurate, it only means that very small changes can be observed.\n", "The temperature of the air near the surface of the Earth is measured at meteorological observatories and weather stations, usually using thermometers placed in a shelter such as Stevenson screen, a standardized well-ventilated white-painted instrument shelter. The thermometers should be positioned 1.25–2 m above the ground. Details of this setup are defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).\n", "Different methods used for measuring temperature produce different results. The temperature reading depends on which part of the body is being measured. The typical daytime temperatures among healthy adults are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal), vagina, or in the ear (otic) is about\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the mouth (oral) is about\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature under the arm (axillary) is about\n\nGenerally, oral, rectal, gut, and core body temperatures, although slightly different, are well-correlated.\n" ]

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[ "Recent technology developments have aided collectors in assessing the temperature and humidity history or the wine which are two key components in establishing perfect provenance. For example, there are devices available that rest inside the wood case and can be read through the wood by waving a smartphone equipped with a simple app. These devices track the conditions the case has been exposed to for the duration of the battery life, which can be as long as 15 years, and sends a graph and high/low readings to the smartphone user. This takes the trust issue out of the hands of the owner and gives it to a third party for verification.\n", "Diurnal and seasonal variations occur in solar radiation. Temperature cycling can cause mechanical stress, particularly in composite systems consisting of materials with widely differing temperature coefficients of expansion. Temperature and its cycles are also closely linked with water in all of its forms. Drops in temperature can cause water to condense on the material as dew, a rise in temperature causes evaporation, and sudden rainfall can cause thermal stress.\n\nSection::::Moisture.\n", "The term is also used for inkless scratched inscriptions, such as glosses in manuscripts.\n\nSection::::Lines and burrs.\n", "After humidification, drying techniques are necessary to ensure that the parchment lays flat and does not suffer additional moisture-related issues. The specific method is dependent on the condition of the object, as well as the humidification process utilized. Some of the most common methods include:\n\nBULLET::::- Drying and flattening under pressure, often pressed between two absorbent surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- Tensioning at the edges, where the parchment is constricted at the edges with weights or clips. This techniques most closely reflects parchment's original manufacturing process.\n\nBULLET::::- Stretch drying on Terylene\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum suction table flattening\n", "Parchment is usually positively identified by sight, sometimes with the assistance of a hand lens or microscope. Visible hair follicle pattern, veining, scars, bruises and sometimes fat deposits all help confirm the animal origin of the material. Additional light sources including ultraviolet lights, can make these properties more easily identifiable. \n", "Section::::Mechanisms of Pb loss.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of Pb loss.:Solid-state diffusion.\n\nSolid-state diffusion is the net movement of atoms in solid phase, from region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration. It is easy to imagine diffusion in liquid phase as ink spreading in water. Solid-state diffusion of Pb is the net exchange of Pb in the solid mineral with the external environment, which is usually a fluid. In most of the cases, Pb is transported from the mineral to the fluid, resulting in Pb loss and thus age resetting.\n", "The player assumes the role of the house's next inhabitant, Michael Arthate, an author seeking seclusion to work on his next book. He moves in only to find that the house still echoes its horrible past quite literally as \"scratches\" are heard all around, particularly in the basement and fireplaces, and soon becomes more interested in researching the house's history than his writing.\n", "BULLET::::- Temperature and Humidity Fluctuations: Both mechanisms of decay for objects can be attributed to either too low or too high of a temperature, too high of humidity, or too much fluctuation between temperatures or humidity levels.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Other techniques.\n\nHistorical documents such as county gazzettes in China, diaries, logbooks of travellers, official histories and old newspapers can contain information on tropical cyclones. In China such records go back over a millennium, while elsewhere it is usually confined to the last 130 years. Such historical records however are often ambiguous or unclear. The frequency of shipwrecks has been used to infer past tropical cyclone occurrence, such as has been done with a database of shipwrecks that the Spaniards suffered in the Caribbean.\n", "The inks are resistant to water after drying but can be defaced by certain solvents which include acetone and various alcohols.\n\nSection::::Types of ballpoint pens.\n", "Kam Biu-Liu, a professor at Louisiana State University, has been studying sediment lying at the bottom of coastal lakes and marshes in order to study the frequency and intensity of hurricanes over the past 5,000 years. Since storm surges sweep coastal sands with them as they progress inland, a layer of sand is left behind in coastal lakes and marshes. Radiocarbon dating is then used to date the layers.\n\nSection::::Newspapers.\n", "A pioneer in the use of tephra layers as marker horizons to establish chronology was Sigurdur Thorarinsson, who began by studying the layers he found in his native Iceland. Since the late 1990s, techniques developed by Chris S. M. Turney (QUB, Belfast; now University of Exeter) and others for extracting tephra horizons invisible to the naked eye (\"cryptotephra\") have revolutionised the application of tephrochronology. This technique relies upon the difference between the specific gravity of the microtephra shards and the host sediment matrix. It has led to the first discovery of the Vedde ash on the mainland of Britain, in Sweden, in the Netherlands, in the Swiss Lake Soppensee and in two sites on the Karelian Isthmus of Baltic Russia.\n", "As the archives in Guadalajara were in the process of being moved, Mallet-Prevost began his search in Mexico City. A search of the National Archives found no record of the Peralta grant but did produce copies of signatures and 18th century documents for use in later comparisons. From Mexico City he went to Guadalajara, arriving just after the move of the archive was completed. Upon his return to Santa Fe in April 1894, Mallet-Prevost stated he was \"entirely convinced of the spurious character of every paper there filed\".\n", "In microscopy, an artifact is an apparent structural detail that is caused by the processing of the specimen and is thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen. In light microscopy, arteficts may be produced by air bubbles trapped under the slide's cover slip.\n\nIn electron microscopy, distortions may be produced in the drying out of the specimen. Staining can cause the appearance of solid chemical deposits that may be seen as structures inside the cell. Different techniques including freeze-fracturing and cell fractionation may be used to overcome the problems of artifacts.\n", "BULLET::::- Even when raindrop impressions form in mud during a shower, further rainfall eventually destroys them, leaving a surface which is not helpful to further preservation of impressions.\n\nBULLET::::- Many examples cited as modern or fossil raindrop impressions can be explained by air bubbles rising through the mud.\n\nBULLET::::- The characteristics of any impression depend on so many variables they can not be used convincingly to demonstrate those impressions formed specifically by raindrops.\n", "Section::::Chemistry.\n\nBynesian decay usually starts when specimens are stored or displayed for considerable periods of time in an enclosed space. The storage method itself usually causes this problem, when containers, cabinets or display cases are entirely or partially made of wood, plywood or other wood products such as Masonite, or when the specimens are surrounded by, or in contact with, various other kinds of materials that are cellulose-based and can turn water vapor acidic.\n", "Other potentially damaging materials include non-archival quality cardboard, card, paper, cotton and cork, all of which give off acidic vapors over time. PVC and polyurethane plastics are also a problem, as they also degrade and give off acidic vapors with time. High humidity of the air is a significant contributing factor, as is lack of ventilation of the specimens. High ambient temperatures can increase the rapidity of the decay.\n", "Section::::Conservation treatments.:Humidification.\n\nHumidification is a parchment conservation treatment which involves the controlled and monitored increase in relative humidity. Humidified parchments are more flexible, which will allow for corrections to distortions like cockling, puckering and changes in original size. Some methods of humidification are: humidification chambers: moisture chambers with ultrasonic humidifier, moisture chambers with steam/ultrasonic mist; and application of alcohol and water. Localized humidification is sometimes used to treat specific folds or creases in parchment objects. \n\nSection::::Conservation treatments.:Flattening, tensioning and drying.\n", "That vault had been open to all kinds of weather, but the grating was over a shaft so it never rained in there, it never snowed in there. And the successive wrappings on these paper rolls protected them. Each time it was wrapped around, the picture underneath was protected.\n", "Section::::Provenance in archival science.:Emergence of provenance.\n", "A story holds that one time Odo was writing a glossary to the life of St Martin written by Postumianus and Gallus. The book, however, was left in a cellar which was flooded with water during a rainstorm at night. The place where the book lay was covered by a torrent, but the next day when the monks came down to the cellar they found that only the margin of the book was soaked through but all of the writing was untouched. Odo then told the monks, 'Why do ye marvel oh brothers? Know ye not that the water feared to touch the life of the saint?' Then a monk replied, 'But see, the book is old and moth-eaten, and has so often been soaked that it is dirty and faint! Can our father then persuade us that the rain feared to touch a book which in the past has been soaked through? Nay, there is another reason.' Odo then realized that they were suggesting it was preserved because he had written a glossary in it, but he then quickly gave the glory to God and St Martin.\n", "Filigranology\n\nFiligranology is the study of watermarks. It is usually pursued in order to discover information about the date and origin for a paper based piece of written work or a piece of art. There are several catalogues of watermarks - most notably C. M. Briquet's, \"Les Filigranes\" (1907) - including illustrations of many watermarks from dated documents to aid those wishing to undertake this kind of research.\n", "BULLET::::- Hummocky deposits in shallow seas, known as tempestites. The mechanics of their formation are still controversial, and such deposits are prone to reworking which wipes out the traces of a storm.\n\nBULLET::::- Boulders and coral blocks can be moved by storms and such moved blocks can potentially be dated to obtain the age of the storm, if certain conditions are met. They can be correlated to storms with the help of oxygen isotope excursions for example. This technique has also been applied to islands formed by storm-moved blocks.\n", "A college professor is working on a long-term scientific experiment when a baseball comes through the window, destroying all of his glassware and spilling the fluids that the flasks and test tubes contained. The pooled fluids combine to form the chemical \"methylethylpropylbutyl,\" which then covers a large portion of the baseball. The professor soon discovers that the fluid, along with any object with which it makes contact, is repelled by wood (cf. Alexander Fleming's serendipitous discovery of penicillin).\n", "Martin's main area of expertise is ichnology, the study of animal activity in modern and ancient sediments. He studied dwarf fossil faunas under Wayne A. Pryor at Miami University and Ordovician trace fossils under Robert W. Frey at the University of Georgia. Both Pryor and Frey emphasized the need for ichnologists to study modern traces in order to understand trace fossils, and Martin took this to heart. He honed his tracking skills in several field schools with emphasis on modern vertebrate ichnology. Having run numerous field trips and field courses on Sapelo Island, Georgia and San Salvador Island together with Emory colleague Stephen W. Henderson, Martin developed the experience necessary for books on \"Trace Fossils of San Salvador\" and \"Life Traces of the Georgia Coast\".\n" ]

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[ "In analog radio systems, as receiving stations move away from a radio transmitting site, the signal strength decreases gradually, causing the relative noise level to increase. The signal becomes increasingly difficult to understand until it can no longer be heard as anything other than static.\n", "Multipathing is a potential error in the ILS system, which may affect the glideslope and/or the localizer. This occurs when the radio signals reaching the aircraft are distorted because a large metal object moves into the radiation zone of the transmitter, such as when an aircraft is flying ahead or a taxiing aircraft or truck enters the ILS critical area.\n", "The average person can notice the effects of changes in radio propagation in several ways.\n", "Diffraction phenomena by small obstacles are also important at high frequencies. Signals for urban cellular telephony tend to be dominated by ground-plane effects as they travel over the rooftops of the urban environment. They then diffract over roof edges into the street, where multipath propagation, absorption and diffraction phenomena dominate.\n\nSection::::Modes.:Other effects.:Absorption.\n", "Section::::Electric current.\n\nElectric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies (\"RF currents\") have special properties not shared by direct current or alternating current of lower frequencies.\n\nBULLET::::- Energy from RF currents in conductors can radiate into space as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). This is the basis of radio technology.\n\nBULLET::::- RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical conductors but tends to flow along their surfaces; this is known as the skin effect.\n", "Section::::Sensorimotor disconnection.\n\nHemispheric disconnection has impacted behaviors relating to the sensory and motor systems. The different systems affected are listed below:\n", "In an ideal communication scenario, there is a line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver that represents clear spatial channel characteristics. In urban cellular systems, this is seldom the case as base stations are located on rooftops while many users are located either indoors or at streets far from base stations. Thus, there is a non-line-of-sight multipath propagation channel between base stations and users, describing how the signal is reflected at different obstacles on its way from the transmitter to the receiver. However, the received signal may still have a strong spatial signature in the sense that stronger average signal gains are received from certain spatial directions.\n", "Actually, the term path loss is something of a misnomer because no energy is lost on a free-space path. Rather, it is merely not received by the receiving antenna. The apparent reduction in transmission, as frequency is increased, is an artifact of the change in the aperture of a given type of antenna.\n", "Also, because of the high frequency, a high data transfer rate may be available. However, in practical last mile environments, obstructions and de-steering of these beams, and absorption by elements of the atmosphere including fog and rain, particularly over longer paths, can greatly restrict their use for last-mile wireless communications. Longer (redder) waves suffer less obstruction but may carry lower data rates. See RONJA.\n\nSection::::Existing last mile delivery systems.:Wireless delivery systems.:Radio waves.\n", "A common example of deep fade is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference. Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary fades.\n", "Section::::Modes.:Tropospheric modes.:Airplane scattering.\n\nAirplane scattering (or most often reflection) is observed on VHF through microwaves and, besides back-scattering, yields momentary propagation up to 500 km even in mountainous terrain. The most common back-scatter applications are air-traffic radar, bistatic forward-scatter guided-missile and airplane-detecting trip-wire radar, and the US space radar.\n\nSection::::Modes.:Tropospheric modes.:Lightning scattering.\n", "Unlike some other long distance modes, high power and large antennas are often not required to make contact with distant stations via a sporadic E event. A two-way conversation can take place over a distance of several hundred miles or more, often using low levels of RF power. Sporadic E is a rare and completely random propagation phenomenon lasting anywhere from a matter of minutes to several hours.\n\nSection::::Communications beyond 50 miles.:Satellite communications.\n", "Lower power levels at a receiver reduce the chance of successfully receiving a transmission. Low levels can be caused by at least three basic reasons: low transmit level, for example Wi-Fi power levels; far-away transmitter, such as 3G more than away or TV more than away; and obstruction between the transmitter and the receiver, leaving no clear path.\n\nNLOS lowers the effective received power. Near Line Of Sight can usually be dealt with using better antennas, but Non Line Of Sight is usually requires alternative paths or multipath propagation methods.\n", "If unobstructed and in a perfect environment, radio waves will travel in a relatively straight line from the transmitter to the receiver. But if there are reflective surfaces that interact with a stray transmitted wave, such as bodies of water, smooth terrain, roof tops, sides of buildings, etc., the radio waves deflecting off those surfaces may arrive either out-of-phase or in-phase with the signals that travel directly to the receiver. Sometimes this results in the counter-intuitive finding that reducing the height of an antenna increases the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver. \n", "The angle of refraction places a minimum on the distance at which the refracted beam will first return to Earth. This distance increases with frequency. As a result, any station employing DX will be surrounded by an annular \"dead zone\" where they can't hear other stations or be heard by them.\n", "The bandlimiting can also be due to the physical properties of the medium - for instance, the cable being used in a wired system may have a cutoff frequency above which practically none of the transmitted signal will propagate.\n", "The dependence on the interference on clearance is the cause of the picket-fencing effect when either the radio transmitter or receiver is moving, and the high and low signal strength zones are above and below the receiver's cut-off threshold. The extreme variations of signal strength at the receiver can cause interruptions in the communications link, or even prevent a signal from being received at all.\n", "BULLET::::- 100 dBµ or 100 mV/m: blanketing interference may occur on some receivers\n\nBULLET::::- 60 dBµ or 1.0 mV/m: frequently considered the edge of a radio station's protected area in North America\n\nBULLET::::- 40 dBµ or 0.1 mV/m: the minimum strength at which a station can be received with acceptable quality on most receivers\n\nSection::::Relationship to average radiated power.\n", "Because these waves are not guided but diverge, in free space these systems are attenuated following an inverse-square law, inversely proportional to distance squared. Losses thus increase more slowly with increasing length than for wired systems, whose loss increases exponentially. In a free space environment, beyond a given length, the losses in a wireless system are lower than those in a wired system.\n", "Many types of radio transmissions depend, to varying degrees, on line of sight (LOS) between the transmitter and receiver. Obstacles that commonly cause NLOS conditions include buildings, trees, hills, mountains, and, in some cases, high voltage electric power lines. Some of these obstructions reflect certain radio frequencies, while some simply absorb or garble the signals; but, in either case, they limit the use of many types of radio transmissions, especially when low on power budget.\n", "Certain types of transmissions can suffer other negative effects from reflected waves on a transmission line. Analog TV can experience \"ghosts\" from delayed signals bouncing back and forth on a long line. FM stereo can also be affected and digital signals can experience delayed pulses leading to bit errors. Whenever the delay times for a signal going back down and then again up the line are comparable to the modulation time constants, effects occur. For this reason, these types of transmissions require a low SWR on the feedline, even if SWR induced loss might be acceptable and matching is done at the transmitter.\n", "Section::::Weather conditions.\n\nA signal has two important factors: frequency and wavelength. If weather is fine and temperature is normal, the signal can be transmitted within given frequency and wavelength limits. The signal travels with velocity \"c\" ≤ 3*10 m/s, which is equal to the speed of light. For frequency \"f\" Hz and wavelength \"λ\" m, we have\n\nAs such, when weather conditions deteriorate, frequency \"f\" has to be increased. This causes the wavelength \"λ\" to decrease, which means that the signal then travels lesser distance.\n", "Use of RSSI to locate a transmitter from a single receiver requires that both the transmitted (or backscattered) power from the object to be located are known, and that the propagation characteristics of the intervening region are known. In empty space, signal strength decreases as the inverse square of the distance for distances large compared to a wavelength and compared to the object to be located, but in most real environments, a number of impairments can occur: absorption, refraction, shadowing, and reflection. Absorption is negligible for radio propagation in air at frequencies less than about 10 GHz, but becomes important at multi-GHz frequencies where rotational molecular states can be excited. Refraction is important at long ranges (tens to hundreds of kilometers) due to gradients in moisture content and temperature in the atmosphere. In urban, mountainous, or indoor environments, obstruction by intervening obstacles and reflection from nearby surfaces are very common, and contribute to multipath distortion: that is, reflected and delayed replicates of the transmitted signal are combined at the receiver. Signals from different paths can add constructively or destructively: such variations in amplitude are known as fading. The dependence of signal strength on position of transmitter and receiver becomes complex and often non-monotonic, making single-receiver estimates of position inaccurate and unreliable. Multilateration using many receivers is often combined with calibration measurements (\"fingerprinting\") to improve accuracy.\n", "Musicality, especially on the radio, contains musical aspects (timbre, emotional impact, melody), and artifacts that arise from non-musical aspects (soundstaging, dynamic range compression sonic balance). The introduction of these sonic artifacts affects the balance between these musical and non-musical aspects. When the volume of music is higher, these artifacts become more apparent, and because they are uncomfortable for the ear, cause listeners to \"tune out\" and lose focus or become tired. These listeners may then unconsciously avoid that type of music, or the radio station they may have heard it on.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Sensory overload.\n", "Weak signal strength can also be caused by destructive interference of the signals from local towers in urban areas, or by the construction materials used in some buildings causing significant attenuation of signal strength. Large buildings such as warehouses, hospitals and factories often have no usable signal further than a few metres from the outside walls.\n\nThis is particularly true for the networks which operate at higher frequency since these are attenuated more by intervening obstacles, although they are able to use reflection and diffraction to circumvent obstacles.\n\nSection::::RF signals.:Estimated received signal strength.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Most birds fly (\"see bird flight\"), with some exceptions. The largest birds, the ostrich and the emu, are earthbound, as were the now-extinct dodos and the Phorusrhacids, which were the dominant predators of South America in the Cenozoic era. The non-flying penguins have wings adapted for use under water and use the same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight. Most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage.\n", "Many domesticated birds, such as the domestic chicken and domestic duck, have lost the ability to fly for extended periods, although their ancestral species, the red junglefowl and mallard, respectively, are capable of extended flight. A few particularly bred birds, such as the Broad Breasted White turkey, have become totally flightless as a result of selective breeding; the birds were bred to grow massive breast meat that weighs too much for the bird's wings to support in flight.\n", "A number of bird species appear to be in the process of losing their powers of flight to various extents. These include the Zapata rail of Cuba, the Okinawa rail of Japan, and the Laysan duck of Hawaii. All of these birds show adaptations common to flightlessness, and evolved recently from fully flighted ancestors, but have not yet completely given up the ability to fly. They are, however, weak fliers and are incapable of traveling long distances by air.\n\nSection::::Morphological changes and energy conservation.:Continued presence of wings in flightless birds.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Some examples of birds that have lost the ability to fly in favor of an aquatic lifestyle include: \n\nBULLET::::- Penguins: one of the most highly adapted birds for swimming, penguins swim via lift produced by their wings and demonstrate a highly streamlined body shape that reduces drag.\n\nBULLET::::- Flightless cormorants: have very small wings incapable of producing enough lift for flight, and swim via drag based paddling of their webbed hind limbs\n\nBULLET::::- Magellanic flightless steamer duck\n\nBULLET::::- Falkland flightless steamer duck\n\nBULLET::::- White-headed flightless steamer duck\n\nBULLET::::- Auckland Island teal\n\nBULLET::::- Campbell Island teal\n\nBULLET::::- Great auk\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "Section::::Awards and recognition.\n", "New Zealand had more species of flightless birds (including the kiwi, several species of penguins, the takahe, the weka, the moa, and several other extinct species) than any other such location. One reason is that until the arrival of humans roughly a thousand years ago, there were no large land predators in New Zealand; the main predators of flightless birds were larger birds.\n\nSection::::Origins of flightlessness.:Independent evolution of flightlessness in Paelaeognathes.\n", "Birds that are heavily \"wing-loaded\"—that is, heavy-bodied birds with relatively short wings—have great difficulty flying with the loss of even a few flight feathers. A protracted moult like the one described above would leave them vulnerable to predators for a sizeable portion of the year. Instead, these birds lose all their flight feathers at once. This leaves them completely flightless for a period of three to four weeks, but means their overall period of vulnerability is significantly shorter than it would otherwise be. Eleven families of birds, including loons, grebes and most waterfowl, have this moult strategy.\n", "BULLET::::- Birds (flying, soaring) — Most of the approximately 10,000 living species can fly (flightless birds are the exception). Bird flight is one of the most studied forms of aerial locomotion in animals. See List of soaring birds for birds that can soar as well as fly.\n\nSection::::Flying animals.:Extant.:Mammals.\n\nBULLET::::- Bats. There are approximately 1,240 bat species, representing about 20% of all classified mammal species.\n\nSection::::Flying animals.:Extinct.\n\nSection::::Flying animals.:Extinct.:Reptiles.\n", "BULLET::::- Henderson crake, \"Porzana atra\"\n\nBULLET::::- Invisible rail, \"Habroptila wallacii\"\n\nBULLET::::- New Guinea flightless rail, \"Megacrex inepta\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lord Howe swamphen, \"Porphyrio albus\" †\n\nBULLET::::- North Island takahē, \"Porphyrio mantelli\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Takahē, \"Porphyrio hochstetteri\"\n\nBULLET::::- Samoan woodhen, \"Gallinula pacifica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Makira woodhen, \"Gallinula silvestris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tristan moorhen, \"Gallinula nesiotis\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Gough Island moorhen, \"Gallinula comeri\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tasmanian native hen,\"Tribonyx mortierii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Giant coot, \"Fulica gigantea\" (adults only; immature birds can fly)\n\nBULLET::::- Hawkins' rail, \"Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Snipe-rail, \"Capellirallus karamu †\"\n\nBULLET::::- Adzebills, \"Aptornis otidiformis\" and \"A. defossor\" †\n\nSection::::List of flightless birds.:Mesitorniformes (mesites).\n", "Wing shape and size generally determine a bird's flight style and performance; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators. Although flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to \"fly\" through the water, as do auks, shearwaters and dippers.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n", "Flightless bird\n\nFlightless birds are birds that through evolution lost the ability to fly. There are over 60 extant species, including the well known ratites (ostriches, emu, cassowaries, rheas and kiwi) and penguins. The smallest flightless bird is the Inaccessible Island rail (length 12.5 cm, weight 34.7 g). The largest (both heaviest and tallest) flightless bird, which is also the largest living bird, is the ostrich (2.7 m, 156 kg). Ostriches are farmed for their decorative feathers, meat and their skins, which are used to make leather.\n", "The only known species of flightless bird in which wings completely disappeared was the gigantic, herbivorous moa of New Zealand, hunted to extinction by humans by the 15th century.\n\nSection::::List of flightless birds.\n\nMany flightless birds are extinct; this list shows species that are either still extant, or became extinct in the Holocene (no more than 11,000 years ago). Extinct species are indicated with a dagger (†). A number of species that are suspected, but not confirmed to be flightless, are also included here.\n\nSection::::List of flightless birds.:Ratites.\n\nBULLET::::- Ostriches\n\nBULLET::::- Common ostrich, \"Struthio camelus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Somali ostrich, \"Struthio molybdophanes\"\n", "Other ornithopters do not necessarily act like birds or bats in flight. Typically birds and bats have thin and cambered wings to produce lift and thrust. Ornithopters with thinner wings have a limited angle of attack but provide optimum minimum-drag performance for a single lift coefficient.\n", "Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for searching for food and for escaping from predators. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as an aerofoil.\n", "Although hummingbirds fly with fully extended wings, such flight is not feasible for an ornithopter. If an ornithopter wing were to fully extend and twist and flap in small movements it would cause a stall, and if it were to twist and flap in very large motions, it would act like a windmill causing an inefficient flying situation.\n", "BULLET::::- New Caledonian rail, \"Gallirallus lafresnayanus\" (likely †)\n\nBULLET::::- Lord Howe woodhen, \"Gallirallus sylvestris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Calayan rail, \"Gallirallus calayanensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pink-legged rail, \"Gallirallus insignis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Guam rail, \"Gallirallus owstoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- Roviana rail, \"Gallirallus rovianae\" (flightless, or almost so)\n\nBULLET::::- Tahiti rail, \"Gallirallus pacificus\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Dieffenbach's rail, \"Gallirallus dieffenbachii\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Chatham rail, \"Cabalus modestus\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Wake Island rail, \"Gallirallus wakensis\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Snoring rail, \"Aramidopsis plateni\"\n\nBULLET::::- Inaccessible Island rail, \"Atlantisia rogersi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Laysan rail, \"Porzana palmeri\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaiian rail, \"Porzana sandwichensis\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Kosrae crake, \"Porzana monasa\" †\n\nBULLET::::- Ascension crake, \"Mundia elpenor\" †\n", "Section::::Morphological changes and energy conservation.\n\nTwo key differences between flying and flightless birds are the smaller wing bones of flightless birds and the absent (or greatly reduced) keel on their breastbone. (The keel anchors muscles needed for wing movement.)\n", "The general limit for weight in flying birds is at about 25 kg, the exceptional \"Argentavis magnificens\" with its size and weight of a good-sized adult human notwithstanding as it evolved under unusual ecological conditions. Large males of the kori bustard (\"Ardeotis kori\") and great bustard (\"Otis tarda\") are perfectly capable of flight, while weighing in excess of 20 kg. A wing loading of c. 25 kg/m is the known limit for bird flight under normal circumstances; thus, a case could be made for \"Eremopezus\" to have been capable of flight. Paleontologists do not consider this likely however, due to the stoutness of the bones, which in such a degree is only known from birds that were certainly flightless. The secretarybird's tarsometatarsus, for example, is only some 20% shorter but more than 60% slimmer than that of \"E. eocaenus\". Thus, its wings and arm bones were probably reduced, a process known to have taken as little as 10,000 years in some island rails.\n", "Some flightless varieties of island birds are closely related to flying varieties, implying flight is a significant biological cost. Flight is the most costly type of locomotion exemplified in the natural world. The energy expenditure required for flight increases proportionally with body size, which is often why flightlessness coincides with body mass. By reducing large pectoral muscles that require a significant amount of overall metabolic energy, ratites decrease their basal metabolic rate and conserve energy. A study looking at the basal rates of birds found a significant correlation between low basal rate and pectoral muscle mass in kiwis. On the contrary, flightless penguins exude an intermediate basal rate. This is likely because penguins have well-developed pectoral muscles for hunting and diving in the water. For ground feeding birds, a cursorial lifestyle is more economical and allows for easier access to dietary requirements. Flying birds have different wing and feather structures that make flying easier, while flightless birds' wing structures are well adapted to their environment and activities, such as diving in the ocean.\n", "Flightlessness has evolved in many different birds independently. There were families of flightless birds, such as the now extinct Phorusrhacidae, that evolved to be powerful terrestrial predators. Taking this to a greater extreme, the terror birds (and their relatives the bathornithids), eogruids, geranoidids, gastornithiforms, and dromornithids (all extinct) all evolved similar body shapes – long legs, long necks and big heads – but none of them were closely related. Furthermore, they also share traits of being giant, flightless birds with vestigial wings, long legs, and long necks with some of the ratites, although they are not related.\n\nSection::::Origins of flightlessness.\n", "Section::::Gliding animals.:Extant.:Fish.\n", "These cormorants evolved on an island habitat that was free of predators. Having no enemies, taking its food primarily through diving along the food-rich shorelines, and not needing to travel to breeding grounds, the bird eventually became flightless. Indeed, wings trapping air among flight feathers are likely to have been a disadvantage to the cormorants which dive from the surface. However, since their discovery by man, the islands have not remained free of predators: cats, dogs, and pigs have been introduced to the islands over the years. In addition, these birds have no fear of humans and can easily be approached and picked up.\n", "While most galliformes are rather reluctant flyers, truly flightless forms are utterly unknown among the living members of the order. Though they are often mischaracterised as weak-flying, Galliformes are actually highly specialised for their particular flight style, bearing extremely powerful flight muscles, and some species are even migratory. Adult snowcocks are however in fact flightless, requiring gravity to launch, though juveniles can still fly relatively well.\n\nNonetheless, a few birds outside the Galliforme crown-group did produce flightlessness.\n" ]

[ "Chickens can't fly.", "Chickens cannot fly." ]

[ "Chickens can fly short distances.", "Chicken can fly, they just don't fly long distances. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Chickens can't fly.", "Chickens cannot fly." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Chickens can fly short distances.", "Chicken can fly, they just don't fly long distances. " ]

[ "A different texture is provided by the jazzy \"Tell Me Why,\" shimmering with vibraphone beneath Rapp's whimsical lines.\n", "Section::::Collins Colorfield Combines.\n", "Ashes as the end product of incomplete combustion will be mostly mineral, but usually still contain an amount of combustible organic or other oxidizable residues. The best-known type of ash is wood ash, as a product of wood combustion in campfires, fireplaces, etc. The darker the wood ashes, the higher the content of remaining charcoal will be due to incomplete combustion.\n\nLike soap, ash is also a disinfecting agent (alkaline). The World Health Organization recommends ash or sand as alternative when soap is not available.\n\nSection::::Specific types.\n\nBULLET::::- Wood ash\n\nBULLET::::- Products of coal combustion\n\nBULLET::::- Bottom ash\n", "Section::::Writing and composition.\n", "The reactions in the flash smelting furnaces produce copper matte, iron oxides and sulfur dioxide. The reacted particles fall into a bath at the bottom of the furnace, where the iron oxides react with fluxes, such as silica and limestone, to form a slag.\n", "Section::::Chemical composition and classification.:Class F.\n\nThe burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 7% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, adding a chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can form a geopolymer.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition and classification.:Class C.\n", "Clifford Dyer Holley quotes from Theophrastus' \"History of Stones\" as follows, in his book \"The Lead and Zinc Pigments\".\n", "The minor constituents of fly ash depend upon the specific coal bed composition but may include one or more of the following elements or compounds found in trace concentrations (up to hundreds ppm): arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, hexavalent chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along with very small concentrations of dioxins and PAH compounds. It also has unburnt carbon.\n", "Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of the coal burned (i.e., anthracite, bituminous, and lignite).\n", "Coal dust has historically been collected as a waste product from homes and industry. During the nineteenth century coal ash was taken by 'scavengers' and delivered to local brick works, where the ash would be mixed with clay. The income from the sale of ash would normally pay for the collection of waste.\n", "Section::::Creation and development.\n", "Section::::Release.:\"In the Beginning\" reissue.\n", "Section::::Hair-temperature pottery.\n\nLastly, the term \"hair-temperature\" pottery refers to ware made of fine, sorted clay tempered with about 30% finely cut hair and chamotte with similar shape, size, and surface treatment (including decoration) as the asbestos pottery. It does not generally contain asbestos, but some samples have small traces. Hair, when used as ceramic temper, leaves thin pores in the ware after firing. Its intended use is unknown, but its adiabatic capacity suggests some kind of insulating usage (but not heat resistance).\n", "Christians continued the practice of using ashes as an external sign of repentance. Tertullian (c. 225) said that confession of sin should be accompanied by lying in sackcloth and ashes. The historian Eusebius (c. 260/265339/340) recounts how a repentant apostate covered himself with ashes when begging Pope Zephyrinus to readmit him to communion.\n", "Section::::Culture and staining observations.\n", "BULLET::::- Raw sienna and burnt sienna are also clay pigments rich in iron oxide, which were mined during the Renaissance around the city of Siena in Tuscany. Sienna contains less than five percent manganese. The natural sienna earth is a dark yellow ochre color; when roasted it becomes a rich reddish brown called burnt sienna.\n\nBULLET::::- Mummy brown was a pigment used in oil paints made from ground Egyptian mummies.\n", "Examples of the practice among Jews are found in several other books of the Bible, including Numbers , , Jonah , Book of Esther , and Hebrews . Jesus is quoted as speaking of the practice in Matthew and Luke : \"If the mighty works done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago (sitting) in sackcloth and ashes.\"\n\nSection::::Christian use of ashes.\n", "Cultivation of White Ash differs across North American continent. For example, within City of Chicago region. 2010 Statistics show most common street tree species is White Ash at 6.2%. Along with third ranked Green type at 4.9%, Ashes combine to make up 11% percent of cities street trees. Along with overall population of 13,648,044 Million standing Ashes within Cook county alone. \n", "Ash content may be determined as air dried basis and on oven dried basis. The main difference between the two is that the latter is determined after expelling the moisture content in the sample of coal\n\nSection::::Chemical properties of coal.:Fixed carbon.\n", "The cakes are heated in a liquation furnace, usually four or five at once, to a temperature above the melting point of lead (327°C), but below that of copper (1084 °C), so that the silver-rich lead melts and flows away. As the melting point of lead is so low a high temperature furnace is not required and it can be fuelled with wood. It is important that this takes place in a reducing atmosphere, i.e.one with little oxygen, to avoid the lead oxidising, the cakes are therefore well covered by charcoal and little air is allowed into the furnace. It is impossible to stop some of the lead oxidising however and this drops down and forms spiky projections known as ‘liquation thorns’ in the channel underneath the hearth.\n", "Ashes were used in ancient times to express grief. When Tamar was raped by her half-brother, \"she sprinkled ashes on her head, tore her robe, and with her face buried in her hands went away crying\" (). The gesture was also used to express sorrow for sins and faults. In Job , Job says to God: \"I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear: but now mine eye seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent in dust and ashes.\" The prophet Jeremiah calls for repentance by saying: \"O daughter of my people, gird on sackcloth, roll in the ashes\" (Jer 6:26). The prophet Daniel recounted pleading to God: \"I turned to the Lord God, pleading in earnest prayer, with fasting, sackcloth and ashes\" (Daniel 9:3). Just prior to the New Testament period, the rebels fighting for Jewish independence, the Maccabees, prepared for battle using ashes: \"That day they fasted and wore sackcloth; they sprinkled ashes on their heads and tore their clothes\" (1 Maccabees 3:47; see also 4:39).\n", "The Catholic Church and the Methodist Church say that the ashes should be those of palm branches blessed at the previous year's Palm Sunday service, while a Church of England publication says they \"may be made\" from the burnt palm crosses of the previous year. These sources do not speak of adding anything to the ashes other than, for the Catholic liturgy, a sprinkling with holy water when blessing them. An Anglican website speaks of mixing the ashes with a small amount of holy water or olive oil as a fixative.\n", "BULLET::::- Once combustion of the carbonaceous residue is complete, a powdery or solid mineral residue (ash) is often left behind, consisting of inorganic oxidized materials of high melting point. Some of the ash may have left during combustion, entrained by the gases as fly ash or particulate emissions. Metals present in the original matter usually remain in the ash as oxides or carbonates, such as potash. Phosphorus, from materials such as bone, phospholipids, and nucleic acids, usually remains as phosphates.\n\nSection::::Occurrence and uses.\n\nSection::::Occurrence and uses.:Cooking.\n", "It has been found that bodies formulated with quartz rather than flint were more susceptible to dunting, especially on re-fire. It was postulated this may be related to the lower Young's modulus of the quartz based bodies.\n", "The visible particulate matter in such smokes is most commonly composed of carbon (soot). Other particulates may be composed of drops of condensed tar, or solid particles of ash. The presence of metals in the fuel yields particles of metal oxides. Particles of inorganic salts may also be formed, e.g. ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, or sodium chloride. Inorganic salts present on the surface of the soot particles may make them hydrophilic. Many organic compounds, typically the aromatic hydrocarbons, may be also adsorbed on the surface of the solid particles. Metal oxides can be present when metal-containing fuels are burned, e.g. solid rocket fuels containing aluminium. Depleted uranium projectiles after impacting the target ignite, producing particles of uranium oxides. Magnetic particles, spherules of magnetite-like ferrous ferric oxide, are present in coal smoke; their increase in deposits after 1860 marks the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. (Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles can be also produced in the smoke from meteorites burning in the atmosphere.) Magnetic remanence, recorded in the iron oxide particles, indicates the strength of Earth's magnetic field when they were cooled beyond their Curie temperature; this can be used to distinguish magnetic particles of terrestrial and meteoric origin. Fly ash is composed mainly of silica and calcium oxide. Cenospheres are present in smoke from liquid hydrocarbon fuels. Minute metal particles produced by abrasion can be present in engine smokes. Amorphous silica particles are present in smokes from burning silicones; small proportion of silicon nitride particles can be formed in fires with insufficient oxygen. The silica particles have about 10 nm size, clumped to 70-100 nm aggregates and further agglomerated to chains. Radioactive particles may be present due to traces of uranium, thorium, or other radionuclides in the fuel; hot particles can be present in case of fires during nuclear accidents (e.g. Chernobyl disaster) or nuclear war.\n" ]

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