Datasets:

---

tasksource

/

CREPE

like 2

Follow

tasksource 30

[ "Because remixes may borrow heavily from an existing piece of music (possibly more than one), the issue of intellectual property becomes a concern. The most important question is whether a remixer is free to redistribute his or her work, or whether the remix falls under the category of a derivative work according to, for example, United States copyright law. Of note are open questions concerning the legality of visual works, like the art form of collage, which can be plagued with licensing issues.\n", "Remixes will inevitably encounter legal problems when the whole or a substantial part of the original material has been reproduced, copied, communicated, adapted or performed – unless a permission has been given in advance through a voluntary open content license like a Creative Commons license, there is fair dealing involved (the scope of which is extraordinarily narrow), a statutory license exists, or permission has been sought and obtained from the copyright owner. Generally, the courts consider what will amount to a substantial part by reference to its quality, as opposed to quantity and the importance the part taken bears in relation to the work as whole.\n", "There are two obvious extremes with regard to derivative works. If the song is substantively dissimilar in form (for example, it might only borrow a motif which is modified, and be completely different in all other respects), then it may not necessarily be a derivative work (depending on how heavily modified the melody and chord progressions were). On the other hand, if the remixer only changes a few things (for example, the instrument and tempo), then it is clearly a derivative work and subject to the copyrights of the original work's copyright holder.\n", "The exclusive rights of the copyright owner over acts such as reproduction/copying, communication, adaptation and performance – unless licensed openly – by their very nature reduce the ability to negotiate copyright material without permission.\n", "The 2008 open-source film by Brett Gaylor documents \"the changing concept of copyright\". \n\nIn 2012 Canada's Copyright Modernization Act explicitly added a new exemption which allows non-commercial remixing.\n\nIn 2013 the US court ruling Lenz v. Universal Music Corp. acknowledged that amateur remixing might fall under fair use and copyright holders are requested to check and respect fair use before doing DMCA take down notices.\n\nSection::::Copyright.\n", "BULLET::::2. Clear Title. As of now, there is no comprehensive and accessible registry that lists who owns rights to what. In addition to making the above clear, Lessig insists that author/owner should have to register their work in order to extend the copyright after a shorter period of time and for the work, otherwise, to enter public domain. He insists that this change would be instrumental to digital archiving and access for educational purposes.\n", "In 2012, Canada's Copyright Modernization Act explicitly added a new exemption which allows non-commercial remixing.\n\nIn 2013, the US court ruling Lenz v. Universal Music Corp. acknowledged that amateur remixing might fall under fair use and copyright holders are requested to check and respect fair use before doing DMCA take down notices.\n\nIn June 2015, a WIPO article named \"\"Remix Culture and Amateur Creativity: A Copyright Dilemma\"\" acknowledged the \"age of remixing\" and the need for a copyright reform.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Assemblage\n\nBULLET::::- Audio mixing\n\nBULLET::::- Ccmixter\n\nBULLET::::- Cover version\n\nBULLET::::- Multitracking\n\nBULLET::::- Musical montage\n\nBULLET::::- Plunderphonics\n", "BULLET::::- The album version of \"Ain't It Funny\" is included, despite not being released as a single in the United States. The \"Murder Remix\" featuring Ja Rule is the version of the song released as a single (and subsequently reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100) in the US.\n\nBULLET::::- The version of the Trackmasters remix of \"Caramel\" removes the third verse and goes straight from Ortiz's second verse to Eve's rap.\n\nBULLET::::- The album version of \"Turn Off the Light\" by Nelly Furtado is included over the popular remix featuring Ms. Jade and Timbaland.\n", "In 2012, The Opilec Music label from Italy released an EP. with three songs written by The Units and remixed by Todd Terje from Norway and I-Robots from Italy. The same year, The Opilec Music label from Italy released two songs by The Units on the \"We Are Opilec\" compilation. Also the Tsugi Sampler label from France released the \"Ivan Smagghe – A Walk In The Woods With Ivan Smagghe\" that included a remix of \"High Pressure Days\" by Todd Terje.\n", "BULLET::::- \"1997\" Dame Un Poco Mas Nayobe Remixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1997\" Blood on the Dance Floor: History in the Mix Michael Jackson Producer, Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1997\" Blood on the Dance Floor [4 Track Single] Michael Jackson Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1997\" Alan, Elvis & God Something Happens Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1996\" Waiting for Your Love Stevie B Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1996\" Vibrolush Vibrolush Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1996\" Vibrolush Vibrolush Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1996\" For Old Times Sake: The Freddie Jackson Story Freddie Jackson Engineer\n\nBULLET::::- \"1996\" For Old Times Sake: The Freddie Jackson Story Freddie Jackson Engineer\n", "BULLET::::- Public Domain – \"So Get Up\" : Jeremy mix (lyrics and vocals by: Ithaka) BZRK Records, Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Public Domain – \"So Get Up\" : Dr. Phil's mix (lyrics and vocals by: Ithaka) BZRK Records, Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Public Domain – \"So Get Up\" : original mix (lyrics and vocals by: Ithaka) BZRK Records, Netherlands\n\nSection::::Versions, remixes, uses and sampling.:1996.\n\nBULLET::::- Tecmania Rebel (aka Patrick van der Hart) – \"So Get Up\" – (lyrics and vocals by: Ithaka) The Violet E.P. – Planet Dance Records [Netherlands]\n\nSection::::Versions, remixes, uses and sampling.:1997.\n", "Section::::Material.\n", "Confusion sometimes occurs when the copyright status of the elements is conflated with the copyright status of the compilation. For instance, copyright on a filmed musical may lapse, but public display of the film without license may remain a copyright infringement if the songs performed therein are still protected by copyright.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nUnder the U.S. law, which protects the human creativity expressed in the selection, coordination, or arrangement of the material, the copyright office gives the following examples of compilations in which copyright might exist, as each represents compilations that reflect human creativity in preparation:\n", "In 2011, the US producer Timbaland won a copyright infringement case after sampling parts of a composition owned by the Finnish record label Kernel Records without permission, claiming it to be sampling. Under US copyright law, a work must first be registered with the US copyright office to become the subject of a copyright infringement lawsuit. The court held that by being published online, the composition had been simultaneously published in every country with internet service, including the US. The work, therefore, satisfied the definition of a US work, and as it had not been registered with the US copyright office it could be sampled without permission.\n", "Thanks to a combination of guest raps, re-sung or altered lyrics and alternative backing tracks, some hip-hop remixes can end up being almost entirely different songs from the originals. An example is the remix of \"Ain't It Funny\" by Jennifer Lopez, which has little in common with the original recording apart from the title.\n", "There are proposed theories of reform regarding the copyright law and remixes. Nicolas Suzor believes that copyright law should be reformed in such a manner as to allow certain reuses of copyright material without the permission of the copyright owner where those derivatives are highly transformative and do not impact upon the primary market of the copyright owner. There certainly appears to be a strong argument that non commercial derivatives, which do not compete with the market for the original material, should be afforded some defense to copyright actions.\n", "In 2009, Buck 65 contributed \"Blood Pt. 2\" to the AIDS benefit album, \"Dark Was the Night\", produced by the Red Hot Organization. It is a remix of Sufjan Stevens' take on the song \"You Are the Blood\", originally by Castanets.\n", "BULLET::::- The cover for Remixploiation is based on the artwork for The Jimi Hendrix Experience's \"Electric Ladyland\". This was one of several covers that was released, although not the original idea from Hendrix. John 5 has long been a fan of Jimi Hendrix, citing him as one of his influences. In fact John 5 contributed a track to the Jimi Hendrix tribute album \"Hazy Dreams\" back in 2003.\n", "BULLET::::- \"1991\" Mistaken Identity Donna Summer Engineer\n\nBULLET::::- \"1991\" Let the Beat Hit 'Em [Single] Lisa Lisa & Cult Jam Engineer, Editing, Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1991\" Here We Go [CD Single] C+C Music Factory Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1991\" Emotions Mariah Carey Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1991\" Comfort Zone Vanessa Williams Sampling, Beats, Production Concept, Sample Programming\n\nBULLET::::- \"1990\" Vertigo Boxcar Remixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1990\" Unison Celine Dion Mixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1990\" Smart Pack Debbie Gibson Engineer\n\nBULLET::::- \"1990\" Shut Up and Dance: Dance Mixes Paula Abdul Remixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1990\" Remixed Prayers Madonna Remixing\n\nBULLET::::- \"1990\" Hack Information Society Engineer, Mixing\n", "Three remixes by Matthew Herbert, 16bit and These New Puritans were released as part of \"Biophilia Remix Series\". The Matthew Herbert's and the These New Puritans remixes were later included on \"bastards\" (2012). In July 2012, the online music store Beatport announced a fan contest in which \"Mutual Core\" had to be remixed, to be released afterwards on a remix package.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Some industrial groups allow, and often encourage, their fans to remix their music, notably Nine Inch Nails, whose website contains a list of downloadable songs that can be remixed using Apple's GarageBand software. Some artists have started releasing their songs in the U-MYX format, which allows buyers to mix songs and share them on the U-MYX website.\n\nThe main single of \"I Turn to You\" by Melanie C, was released as the \"Hex Hector Radio Mix\", for which Hex Hector won the 2001 Grammy as Remixer of the Year.\n", "Related rights are independent of any authors' rights, as is made clear in the various treaties (Art. 1 Rome; Art. 7.1 Geneva; Art. 1.2 WPPT). Hence a CD recording of a song is concurrently protected by four copyright-type rights:\n\nBULLET::::- Authors' rights of the composer of the music\n\nBULLET::::- Authors' rights of the lyricist\n\nBULLET::::- Performers' rights of the singer and musicians\n\nBULLET::::- Producers' rights of the person or corporation that made the recording\n\nSection::::Performers.\n", "Recent technology allows for easier remixing, leading to a rise in its use in the music industry. It can be done legally, but there have been numerous disputes over rights to samples used in remixed songs. Many famous artists have been involved in remix disputes. In 2015, Jay-Z went to trial over a dispute about his use of a sample from \"Khosara Khosara\", a composition by Egyptian composer Baligh Hamdy in his song \"Big Pimpin'\". Osama Fahmy, a nephew of Hamdy, argued that while Jay-Z had the “economic rights” to use the song, he did not have the “moral rights”.\n", "BULLET::::- Stonebridge - \"SOS\" (Seamus Haji Remix) - Apollo/Stoney Boy\n\nBULLET::::- One Night Only - \"Just For Tonight\" (Seamus Haji Remix)\n\nBULLET::::- Orson - \"Aint No Party\" (Seamus Haji Remix) Mercury\n\nBULLET::::- Brand New Heavies - \"I Don't Know Why (I Love You)\"\n\nBULLET::::- DJ Pierre - \"Destroy This Track\" (Seamus Haji Remix) Big Love\n\nBULLET::::- Mish Mash - \"Speechless\" - (Seamus Haji Remix) Data\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Harris - \"Find A Friend\" (Seamus Haji Remix) Toolroom\n\n2008:\n\nBULLET::::- Mariah Carey - \"Touch My Body\" (Seamus Haji & Paul Emanuel Remix) - Universal\n", "According to Kirby Ferguson in 2011 and his popular TED talk series, everything is a remix, and that all original material builds off of and remixes previously existing material. He argues if all intellectual property is influenced by other pieces of work, copyright laws would be unnecessary. Ferguson described that, the three key elements of creativity — copy, transform, and combine — are the building blocks of all original ideas; building on Pablo Picasso's famous quote \"Good artists copy, great artists steal.\".\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "For more on the development of the first permeameter as told by Walter Gardner, visit (http://www.decagon.com/ag_research/hydro/history.php)\n\nSection::::The Disc.\n", "Ohl investigated why the cat's whisker functioned so well. He spent most of 1939 trying to grow more pure versions of the crystals. He soon found that with higher quality crystals their finicky behaviour went away, but so did their ability to operate as a radio detector. One day he found one of his purest crystals nevertheless worked well, and it had a clearly visible crack near the middle. However as he moved about the room trying to test it, the detector would mysteriously work, and then stop again. After some study he found that the behaviour was controlled by the light in the room – more light caused more conductance in the crystal. He invited several other people to see this crystal, and Walter Brattain immediately realized there was some sort of junction at the crack.\n", "Use continued to grow until the 1920s when vacuum tube radios replaced them.\n\nSection::::History.:Crystodyne: negative resistance diodes.\n", "During the 1900s, celluloid gradually replaced bone handles. Natural animal bristles were also replaced by synthetic fibers, usually nylon, by DuPont in 1938. The first nylon bristle toothbrush made with nylon yarn went on sale on February 24, 1938. The first electric toothbrush, the Broxodent, was invented in Switzerland in 1954. By the turn of the 21st century nylon had come to be widely used for the bristles and the handles were usually molded from thermoplastic materials.\n", "BULLET::::- Movement of the discluded teeth should not be impeded by the appliance.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n\nThe advantages of this approach are:\n\nBULLET::::- Minimal removal of tooth substance is required to create the interocclusal space; therefore, the technique involves limited destruction (this is particularly important on the palatal surfaces of anterior teeth where substantial wear may have occurred. This may be due to conditions causing intrinsic wear, such as bulimia and acid reflux. As time has gone on, even less invasive techniques have been used).\n\nBULLET::::- Lost OVD can be restored by increasing the vertical dimension.\n", "Prior to the discovery, it was well known that oil and oily substances had a selective affinity or attraction for, and would unite mechanically with, the minute particles of metal and metallic compounds found in crushed or powdered ores, but would not so unite with the quartz, or rocky nonmetallic material, called \"gangue\". It was also well known that this selective property of oils and oily substances was increased when applied to some ores by the addition of a small amount of acid to the ore and water used in process of concentration.\n", "The formula for the fixing coat was devised by a chemist, Paul Doumenjou, who also helped create early non-inflammable film for the cinema industry.\n\nSection::::History.:Marketing.\n", "Human beings recognized long ago the relationship between clean teeth and tooth decay and dental disease. The desire for clean teeth led individuals and later doctors and dentists to create teeth cleaning agents and tools. Tooth picks, toothbrushes and tooth powders were early inventions designed to satisfy the need to clean teeth. Cleaning agents for the teeth were often sold by doctors and early druggists. Figure 4 shows an early example ad for Rogers's Tooth Powder advertised in the Norwich Packet, May 6, 1800.\n", "During the first three decades of radio, from 1888 to 1918, called the \"wireless telegraphy\" or \"spark\" era, primitive radio transmitters called spark gap transmitters were used, which generated radio waves by an electric spark. These transmitters were unable to produce the continuous sinusoidal waves which are used to transmit audio (sound) in modern AM or FM radio transmission. Instead spark gap transmitters transmitted information by wireless telegraphy; the user turned the transmitter on and off rapidly by tapping on a telegraph key, producing pulses of radio waves which spelled out text messages in Morse code. Therefore, the radio receivers of this era did not have to demodulate the radio wave, extract an audio signal from it as modern receivers do, they merely had to detect the presence or absence of the radio waves, to make a sound in the earphone when the radio wave was present to represent the \"dots\" and \"dashes\" of Morse code. The device which did this was called a \"detector\". The crystal detector was the most successful of many detector devices invented during this era. \n", "Until George Jacobs invented a practical enamel for the purpose, cloth was used to insulate magnet wire. This had a number of drawbacks such as, the cloth being too expensive, becoming worn, and bulky. Wire with enamel insulation could be more densely packed, allowing smaller, more efficient motors, coils and other electromagnetic devices.\n", "In the 1930s to 1950s, it was fairly common for people to adjust the frequency of the crystals by manual grinding. The crystals were ground using a fine abrasive slurry, or even a toothpaste, to increase their frequency. A slight decrease by 1–2 kHz when the crystal was overground was possible by marking the crystal face with a pencil lead, at the cost of a lowered Q.\n", "Dust-Off was developed and introduced in 1970 by an employee at Falcon Safety Products who discovered that the pressurized blasts used to sound the alarm in the company’s signal horns could also remove dust from photography equipment and film without having to touch the surface.\n", "The risk of radiation burns to extremities were known since Wilhelm Röntgen's 1895 experiment, but this was a short-term effect with early warning from erythema. The long-term risks from chronic exposure to radiation began to emerge with Hermann Joseph Muller's 1927 paper showing genetic effects, and the incidence of bone cancer in radium dial painters of the same time period. However, there was not enough data to quantify the level of risk until atomic bomb survivors began to experience the long-term effects of radiation in the late 1940s. The first scientific evaluations of these machines in 1948 immediately sparked concern for radiation protection and electrical safety reasons, and found them ineffective at shoe fitting.\n", "An 18th-century American and British toothpaste recipe called for burned bread. Another formula around this time called for dragon's blood (a resin), cinnamon, and burned alum.\n\nBy 1900, a paste made of hydrogen peroxide and baking soda was recommended for use with toothbrushes. Pre-mixed toothpastes were first marketed in the 19th century, but did not surpass the popularity of tooth-powder until World War I. \n", "By 1924, diatomaceous earth was mined for tooth powder. In modern times, baking soda has been the most commonly used tooth powder, although this has now been mostly supplanted by commercial toothpastes. \n\nThe use of powdered substances such as charcoal, brick, and salt for cleaning teeth has been historically widespread in India, particularly in rural areas. Modern tooth powder has been positioned as a cost-effective substitute for toothpaste, as it can be applied with the index finger without requiring use of a toothbrush.\n\nSection::::Types of dentifrices.:Mouthwash.\n", "Manufacturers sold both single-sided and double-sided disks with the double-sided disks being typically 50% more expensive than single-sided disks. While the magnetic-coated medium was coated on both sides, the single-sided floppies had a read-write notch on only one side, thus allowing only one side of the disk to be used. When users discovered this, they began buying the less-expensive single-sided disks and \"notching\" them using scissors, a hole punch, or a specially-designed \"notcher\" to allow them to write to the reverse side of the disk.\n", "\"Time\" got with the gag, featuring the device in a May 6, 1946 issue, described as \"An adjunct to the turbo-encabulator, employed whenever a barescent skor motion is required.\" A month later a response to reader mail on the feature appeared in the June 3, 1946 issue:\n", "It seemed so logical to me; we had been working on smaller and smaller components, improving reliability as well as size reduction. I thought the only way we could ever attain our aim was in the form of a solid block. You then do away with all your contact problems, and you have a small circuit with high reliability. And that is why I went on with it. I shook the industry to the bone. I was trying to make them realise how important its invention would be for the future of microelectronics and the national economy.\n", "Little advancement was made in thin-film coating technology until 1936, when John Strong began evaporating fluorite in order to make anti-reflection coatings on glass. During the 1930s, improvements in vacuum pumps made vacuum deposition methods, like sputtering, possible. In 1939, Walter H. Geffcken created the first interference filters using dielectric coatings.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Reflectometric interference spectroscopy\n\nBULLET::::- Thin-film optics\n\nBULLET::::- Transfer-matrix method (optics)\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- D.G. Stavenga, Thin film and multilayer optics cause structural colors of many insects and birds Materials today: Proceedings, 1S, 109 – 121 (2014).\n", "The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars. However, the limited choice of metals in this period meant that he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc. The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty, rough tracks, meant that the copper wore quickly making the system impractical.\n", "The only source for these crystals was the NZPO (New Zealand Post Office), and delivery times were often measured in months, which was an ongoing problem for Robinson in his ability to supply his radios. Warren Robinson realising there was an opportunity to compete with the NZPO sold Marlin Electronics to Autocrat Radio and went on to found Rakon Industries (RIL) a few years later (1967). Initially, the New Zealand government blocked Robinson's application to import crystal manufacturing equipment as they didn't wish there to be undue competition to the post office, however by 1967 Robinson was able to secure an import license for the equipment and started manufacturing quartz crystals, in his garage, to supply the local radio market.\n", "BULLET::::- St. Paul, MN: In 1944, Western Electric purchased a factory in St. Paul, Minnesota to restart manufacture of telephone sets for civilian installation as authorized by War Production Board. By 1946, some of these facilities were relocated to the Hawthorne plant as space became available from war-production scale down.\n\nAt Hawthorne Works, Cicero, Illinois, Elton Mayo conducted research on how lighting changes and work structure changes such as working hours or break times could affect productivity. In fact, the researchers actually observed productivity changes in response to being observed: this type of reactivity is called the Hawthorne effect.\n", "The General Electric automatic toothbrush was introduced in the early 1960s; it was cordless with rechargeable NiCad batteries and although portable, was rather bulky, about the size of a two-D-cell flashlight handle. NiCad batteries of this period suffered from the Memory effect. The GE Automatic Toothbrush came with a charging stand which held the hand piece upright; most units were kept in the charger, which is not the best way to get maximum service life from a NiCad battery. Also, early NiCad batteries tended to have a short lifespan. The batteries were sealed inside the GE device, and the whole unit had to be discarded when the batteries failed.\n", "Section::::Inventions.\n\nSection::::Inventions.:Pork skinning.\n\nIn 1945 Townsend was working at his father's machine shop. During a visit to a Des Moines area food processor he noticed the arduous and treacherous work needed to loosened skin from hams and pork bellies. \n", "The film was remarkably durable and indeed trying to effectively destroy the image was a serious problem when sensitive material needed to be destroyed. Simply heating the film damaged the image, eventually, but usually left it largely intact. Eventually a patented process was developed that accomplished this in a reasonable amount of time.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Current systems usually use photosensors mounted in the rear-view mirror to detect light and dim the mirror by means of electrochromism. This electrochromic feature has also been incorporated into side-view mirrors allowing them to dim and reduce glare as well.\n\nSection::::Trucks and buses.\n", "On manual tilt versions, a tab is used to adjust the mirror between \"day\" and \"night\" positions. In the day view position, the front surface is tilted and the reflective back side gives a strong reflection. When the mirror is moved to the night view position, its reflecting rear surface is tilted out of line with the driver's view. This view is actually a reflection off the low-reflection front surface; only a much-reduced amount of light is reflected into the driver's eyes.\n", "Twilight Sentinel\n\nOn an automobile, Twilight Sentinel is a device on General Motors' cars that senses outside light and turns the exterior lights on and off depending on lighting conditions.\n", "\"Manual tilt\" day/night mirrors first began appearing in the 1930s and became standard equipment on most passenger cars and trucks by the early 1970s.\n\nSection::::Anti-glare.:Automatic dimming.\n", "A prismatic rear-view mirror—sometimes called a \"day/night mirror\"—can be tilted to reduce the brightness and glare of lights, mostly for high-beam headlights of vehicles behind which would otherwise be reflected directly into the driver's eyes at night. This type of mirror is made of a piece of glass that is wedge-shaped in cross section—its front and rear surfaces are not parallel.\n", "Section::::Automotive.\n\nSection::::Automotive.:Automatic interior mirror.\n\nGentex first introduced a rear-view mirror that automatically adjusted to glare conditions in 1982.\n\nSection::::Automotive.:Auto-dimming mirrors.\n\nSection::::Automotive.:Auto-dimming mirrors.:Interior.\n\nGentex introduced an automatic dimming mirror based on electrochromism in 1987. The reduction of glare eliminates the temporary blind spot caused by the Troxler effect after the glare source leaves the field of view.\n\nThese mirrors have forward- and rearward-facing sensors to measure the ambient light level and glare of approaching vehicles, respectively. An electrochromic gel is placed between two pieces of glass, which allows the mirror to dim in proportion to the glare level.\n\nSection::::Automotive.:Auto-dimming mirrors.:Exterior.\n", "Section::::Beam aim control.:Automatic beam switching.:Bone-Midland lamps.\n\nIn 1956, the inventor Even P. Bone developed a system where a vane in front of each headlight moved automatically and caused a shadow in front of the approaching vehicle, allowing for high beam use without glare for the approaching driver. The system, called \"Bone-Midland Lamps,\" was never taken up by any car manufacturer.\n\nSection::::Beam aim control.:Automatic beam switching.:Camera-based dimmer.\n", "In 2014, the BMW i8 became the first production car to be sold with an auxiliary high-beam lamp based on this technology. The limited-production Audi R8 LMX uses lasers for its spot lamp feature, providing illumination for high-speed driving in low-light conditions. The Rolls-Royce Phantom VIII will employ laser headlights with a high beam range of over 600 meters.\n\nSection::::Automatic headlamps.\n", "Most instruments and controls on a dashboard in modern vehicles are illuminated when the headlamps are turned on, and the intensity of light can be adjusted by the driver for comfort. Saab automobiles, for example, have an aircraft-style \"night panel\" function which shuts off all interior illumination save for the speedometer (unless attention is called to a critical situation on another gauge) to improve the driver's night vision.\n\nSection::::On service vehicles.\n\nSection::::On service vehicles.:Emergency vehicle lights.\n", "However, Twilight Sentinel does not automatically shut off the headlights if the driver manually turns the headlights on (they must manually turn the headlights off), nor does it turn on the exterior lights for driving conditions such as heavy rain or fog (however in some newer versions of the system, Twilight Sentinel is linked to GM's RainSense automatic windshield wiper system to turn lights on automatically when the wipers are on).\n\nTwilight Sentinel was first offered exclusively on 1960 Buick LeSabres, Invictas, Electras and Electra 225s. \n", "Section::::Worldwide.:United States.\n", "UN R48 has mandated the installation of automatic headlamp since July 30, 2016. With Daytime running lamp equipped and operated, the dipped beam headlamp should automatically turn on if the car is driving in less than 1,000 lux ambient condition (Automatic switching condition), such as in tunnel and in dark environment. while driving in tunnel or dark environment, Daytime running lamp would make glare more evident to the upcoming vehicle driver, which in turn would influence the upcoming vehicle driver's eyesight, such that, by automatically switching the Daytime running lamp to the dipped-beam headlamp, the inherent safety defect could be solved and safety benefit ensured.\n", "In a classic self-contained infinity mirror, a set of light bulbs, LEDs, or other point-source lights are placed around the periphery of a fully reflective mirror, and a second, partially reflective \"one-way mirror\" is placed a short distance in front of it, in a parallel alignment. When an outside observer looks into the surface of the partially reflective mirror, the lights appear to recede into infinity, creating the appearance of a tunnel of lights of great depth.\n", "Section::::Worldwide.:European Union.:United Kingdom.\n\nUK regulations briefly required vehicles first used on or after 1 April 1987 to be equipped with a \"dim-dip\" device\n", "An unilluminated LCD must be lit from the front. To use ambient light, the liquid crystal itself is sandwiched between a polarization filter and a reflective surface. The mirror makes the display opaque so it cannot be illuminated from the back. Most often a light source is placed around the perimeter of the LCD.\n", "A related feature offered on many General Motors models during the 1950s and 1960s was the Autronic Eye headlight dimming system (which did just that). Cadillac later referred to its automatic dimming system as \"Guidematic Headlamp Control\" which encompassed Twilight Sentinel and Dimming Sentinel controls. (See Discussion Page)\n", "In the 1940s, American inventor Jacob Rabinow developed a light-sensitive automatic mechanism for the wedge-type day/night mirror. Several Chrysler Corporation cars offered these automatic mirrors as optional equipment as early as 1959, but few customers ordered them for their cars and the item was soon withdrawn from the option lists. Several automakers began offering rear-view mirrors with automatic dimming again in 1983, and it was in the late 1980s that they began to catch on in popularity.\n", "Automatic systems for activating the headlamps have been available since the mid-1960s, originally only on luxury American models such as Cadillac, Lincoln and Imperial. Basic implementations turn the headlights on at dusk and off at dawn. Modern implementations use sensors to detect the amount of exterior light.\n", "Section::::DIY headlight restoration products.\n", "A new headlamp design with projectors is offered for Xenon lamps. Headlamps washers now pop up from beneath body color moulding in the bumpers. A new alloy wheel complements the existing range of 16 inch (steel and alloy) and 17 inch (alloy) designs. V8 models are given a discreet V8 badge at the leading edge of both front doors and a new side moulding across the doors.\n\nSection::::Fourth generation R52 series (2013–present).\n", "Section::::Worldwide.\n\nSection::::Worldwide.:European Union.\n", "BULLET::::- UK based Monodraught \"SunPipe\" (and www.sunpipe.info) with extensive technical and reference information\n\nBULLET::::- UK based http://www.glidevale.com/downloads/Sunscoop%20Tubular%20Rooflights.pdf and www.glidevail.com with extensive technical and reference information\n\nBULLET::::- Monodraught SunPipe – the UK's largest and most successful vendor of Light Tube products and solutions.\n\nBULLET::::- Case study installing light tubes in an older residential bungalow\n\nBULLET::::- Using Water as a Light Tube\n\nSection::::External links.:Other approaches to sunlight capture and transmission.\n\nBULLET::::- the Japanese approach of \"depthscraper\" : a rotating mirror planned to throw sunlight deep down into a courtyard.\n", "Section::::Lauryn Hill version.\n", "Ford Motor Company offers a nearly identical exterior lights on/off/delay shut-off system called \"AutoLamp\". The Ford automatic headlamp system could be had with automatic dimming on Lincoln models . Chrysler offered Twilight Sentinel on Imperial model from 1967-1975, other full-size C-body Chrysler products had it as an option from 1965 or 1966 through 1975 as well.\n", "In Japan, the Toyota Crown, Toyota Crown Majesta, Nissan Fuga and Nissan Cima offer the technology on top level models.\n\nSection::::Beam aim control.:Glare-free high beam and pixel light.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Irish, Italians, Jewish, and many other minorities overcame prejudice and worked their way up. Blacks should do the same without any special favors.\n\nBULLET::::- Generations of slavery and discrimination have created conditions that make it difficult for Blacks to work their way out of the lower class.\n\nBULLET::::- Over the past few years, Blacks have gotten less than they deserve.\n\nBULLET::::- It's really a matter of some people not trying hard enough; if Blacks would only try harder they could be just as well off as Whites.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Geographic distribution.\n\nThe distance between jobs and the location of minorities' homes affects the ability of minorities to find profitable work. Saskia Sassen found that the redistribution of manufacturing jobs out of central cities in the 1980s negatively affected the wage gap between blacks and whites because most blacks live in cities.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Foreign birth.\n", "BULLET::::- Racial segregation\n\n\"Racial residential segregation is a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health\". Racial segregation can result in decreased opportunities for minority groups in income, education, etc. While there are laws against racial segregation, study conducted by D. R. Williams and C. Collins focuses primarily on the impacts of racial segregation, which leads to differences between races.\n\nSection::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Police brutality.\n", "Jennifer Richeson studies racial identity, social inequality, and interracial relations with a focus on understanding the psychological processes behind reactions to diversity. Richeson's research has examined whites' and minorities' reactions to the likely future \"majority-minority\" demographic in the United States, specifically how whites feel threatened to this increase in diversity and how this threat influences political attitudes and perceptions of immigrants. In work focusing on social inequality, Richeson and her colleagues Michael Kraus and Julian Rucker found that Americans incorrectly estimate the extent to which economic equality has been achieved with both whites and blacks with high and low incomes overestimating race-based economic equality.\n", "A 2014 study in the \"Journal of Economic Growth\" found that anti-black violence and terrorism, as well as segregation laws, reduced the economic activity and innovation of African Americans.\n\nAfrican-Americans have historically faced discrimination in terms of getting access to credit.\n\nSection::::United States.:Criminal justice system.\n", "Several studies have shown that, in the United States, several minority groups, including black men and women, Hispanic men and women, and white women, suffer from decreased wage earning for the same job with the same performance levels and responsibilities as white males. Numbers vary wildly from study to study, but most indicate a gap from 5 to 15% lower earnings on average, between a white male worker and a black or Hispanic man or a woman of any race with equivalent educational background and qualifications.\n", "On the poor end of the spectrum, the \"New Americans\" report found that low-skill low wage immigration does not, on aggregate, lower the wages of most domestic workers. The report also addresses the question of if immigration affects black Americans differently from the population in general: \"While some have suspected that blacks suffer disproportionately from the inflow of low-skilled immigrants, none of the available evidence suggests that they have been particularly hard-hit on a national level. Some have lost their jobs, especially in places where immigrants are concentrated. But the majority of blacks live elsewhere, and their economic fortunes are tied to other factors.\"\n", "Section::::United States.:In politics.:Representation.\n\nBlack representation in Congress had been scarce with less than eight Blacks in Congress per Congressional periods since the end of the Civil War up until the Nixon era when there were 11 Black representatives (ten in the House and one in the Senate). After the 91st Congress, Black representation began to increase. Not only did the number of Black representatives rise; the number of Black democrats in Congress increased as well.\n\nSection::::Canada.\n\nSection::::Canada.:Exclusionary anti-Chinese immigration laws.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Jennifer L. Hochschild, \"Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation\", Princeton University Press, 1996.\n\nBULLET::::- Steven Gregory, \"Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community\", Princeton University Press, 1999.\n\nBULLET::::- Michael B. Katz, \"Improving Poor People: The Welfare State, the \"Underclass,\" and Urban Schools as History\", Princeton University Press, 1997.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Alford A. Young Jr. Profile at the University of Michigan\n\nBULLET::::- Maura Reynolds, \"Blacks divide along class lines\", \"Los Angeles Times\", November 14, 2007.\n", "Often overlooked is the direct contrast of Model Minorities with Black Americans. Model Minorities are used as a tool to discriminate against Black people with the mantra \"If they can do it, why can't you?\". This argument is often viewed as logical, because at the surface, there doesn't seem to be a clear cut explanation for why Jews, Asians, and Irish people are able to thrive after experiencing racism, but Blacks still seem to be disenfranchised.  What this argument often ignores, is the unique experience of Black people in America, namely, they are the only minority who had been enslaved on U.S. soil for centuries. Some scholars also explain the differing successes of Asian immigrants and Blacks on the specific types of racism they experience. Essentially racism in itself is not monolithic, and is perpetrated in different ways and different arenas of life, some arenas where anti-Black rhetoric exist prove to be more harmful to Black personhood than situations in which anti-Asian discrimination exists.\n", "Fear of discrimination is another possible factor. Minorities may be distrustful of banks and lack of trust was commonly reported as why minorities, people with low education, and the poor chose not to have banking accounts.\n\nSection::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Poverty.\n\nThere are large differences in poverty rates across racial groups. In 2009, the poverty rate across the nation was 9.9%. This data illustrates that Hispanics and Blacks experience disproportionately high percentages of poverty in comparison to non-Hispanics Whites and Asians. In discussing poverty, it is important to distinguish between episodic poverty and chronic poverty.\n\nSection::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Poverty.:Episodic poverty.\n", "Section::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Racial wealth gap.:History.\n", "Young then talks about how most research on poor black males only focuses on behavioral traits and their value systems. He says that good research would also include a deep analysis of how these men create their worldviews and beliefs regarding the present and future. Cultural analysis is the topic of a huge debate right now. On one side \"the debate asks whether black men adopt or promote distinct cultural patters that contribute to, if not cause altogether, their demise.\"\n", "There is evidence that shows that racial inequalities affect various economic aspects of people's lives. In a study conducted by the Urban Institute, \"black homebuyers encountered discrimination in 22 percent of their searches for rental units and 17 percent in their efforts to purchase homes. For Hispanics, the figures were 26 and 20 percent.\" African Americans and Hispanic people receive \"inferior health care\" compared to Caucasians when dealing with major health problems. This is why a study conducted in 1995, showed that the infant mortality rate was higher for black babies than it was for white babies. The black rate was 14.3 for every 1000 babies as opposed to the 6.3 for every 1000 white babies. Some research has shown that it is easier for white people to find employment than black people despite the white person having a felony.\n", "BULLET::::- Deindustrialization: As mentioned above, because blacks were concentrated in the low-wage sector of the economy due to discrimination and prejudice, they are more adversely affected by impersonal economic shifts in advanced industrial society. Their heavy concentration in the automobile, rubber, steel, and other smokestack industries meant that they were particularly hit hard by deindustrialization occurring in US cities from the 70s onward. In other words, minorities, particularly poor and working-class minorities, are not only adversely affected by periodic recessions, they are also vulnerable to the structural economic changes in the past two decades because of economic cutbacks, plant closings, and relocation of firms to cheaper labor sites in the suburbs.\n", "One specific study showed that African Americans are less likely than whites to be referred for cardiac catheterization and bypass grafting, prescription of analgesia for pain control, and surgical treatment of lung cancer. Both African Americans and Latinos also receive less pain medication than whites for long bone fractures and cancer. Other studies showed that African Americans are reported to receive fewer pediatric prescriptions, poorer quality of hospital care, fewer hospital admissions for chest pain, lower quality of prenatal care, and less appropriate management of congestive heart failure and pneumonia.\n", "Section::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Racial wealth gap.:Financial decisions.:Use of financial services.\n\nThe Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation in 2009 found that 7.7% of United States households are \"unbanked\". Minorities are more likely than White Americans to not have a banking account. 3.5% of Asians, 3.3% of White Americans, 21.7% of African Americans and 19.3% of Hispanics and 15.6% of remaining racial/ethnic categories do not have banking accounts.\n", "Wilson & McBrier (2005) conducted a longitudinal study based on the theory of minority vulnerability of employees. These constitute to a group of African Americans who work for good financial income in the upper tier for relatively privileged jobs. \"The minority vulnerability thesis, accordingly, maintains that African Americans are more likely to experience layoffs from upper-tier occupations than Whites even when the two groups have similar background socioeconomic statuses, have accumulated similar human-capital credentials, such as educational attainment and commitment to work, and have similar job/labor market characteristics, including union status as well as economic sector of employment. Findings indicate that, after controlling for seniority, African Americans are susceptible to layoffs on a relatively broad and generalized basis that is unstructured by traditional, stratification-based causal factors, namely, background socioeconomic status, human-capital credentials, and job/labor-market characteristics.\"\n", "Section::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Crime rates and incarceration.:Consequences of a criminal record.\n\nAfter being released from prison, the consequences of having a criminal record are immense. Over 40 percent who are released will return to prison within the next few years. Those with criminal records who do not return to prison face significant struggles to find quality employment and income outcomes compared to those who do not have criminal records.\n\nSection::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Crime rates and incarceration.:Potential causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Poverty\n", "Data from research shows that when the quality of the school is better and students are given more resources, it affects the racial achievement gap by reducing it. When white and black schools were given the equal amount of resources, it shows that black students started improving while white students stayed the same because they didn't need the resources. This showed that lack of resources is a factor in the racial achievement gap. The research that was conducted shows that predominantly white schools have more resources than black schools. However, lack of resources is only a small effect on academic achievement in comparison to students’ family backgrounds.\n", "Returning to the concept of residential segregation, it is known that affluence and poverty have become both highly segregated and concentrated in relation to race and location. Residential segregation and poverty concentration is most markedly seen in the comparison between urban and suburban populations in which suburbs consist of majority White populations and inner-cities consist of majority minority populations. According to Barnhouse-Walters (2001), the concentration of poor minority populations in inner-cities and the concentration of affluent White populations in the suburbs, \"is the main mechanism by which racial inequality in educational resources is reproduced.\"\n\nSection::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Unemployment rates.\n", "Achieving higher education has contributed to an increase in overall affluence within the African-American community, with increasing median income. According to a 2007 study, average African-American family income has increased, but the gap with white families has increased slightly.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In 2016, the unemployment rate was 3.8% for Asians, 4.6% for non-Hispanic Whites, 6.1% for Hispanics, and 9.0% for Blacks, all over the age of 16. In terms of unemployment, it can be seen that there are two-tiers: relatively low unemployment for Asians and Whites, relatively high unemployment for Hispanics and Blacks.\n\nSection::::Manifestations of racial inequality.:Unemployment rates.:Potential explanations.\n\nSeveral theories have been offered to explain the large racial gap in unemployment rates:\n\nBULLET::::- Segregation and job decentralization\n", "The education of African Americans and some other minorities lags behind those of other U.S. ethnic groups, such as Whites and Asian Americans, as reflected by test scores, grades, urban high school graduation rates, rates of disciplinary action, and rates of conferral of undergraduate degrees. Indeed, high school graduation rates and college enrollment rates are comparable to those of whites 25 or 30 years ago. It should also be noted that the category of African immigrant population (excluding Haitians and other foreign-born blacks born outside of Africa) has the highest educational attainment of any group in the United States, but they represent a small group within the larger African American population.\n", "Black Americans now number 36 million, 12.9% of the total population. As of 2009, the median black male income was $23,738, compared to the median white non-Hispanic male income of $36,785.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Xerographic documents (and the closely related laser printer printouts) can have excellent archival durability, depending on the quality of the paper used. If low-quality paper is used, it can yellow and degrade due to residual acid in the untreated pulp; in the worst case, old copies can literally crumble into small particles when handled. High-quality xerographic copies on acid-free paper can last as long as typewritten or handwritten documents on the same paper. However, xerographic copies are vulnerable to undesirable toner transfer if they are stored in direct contact or close proximity to plasticizers, which are present in looseleaf binders made with PVC. In extreme cases, the ink toner will stick directly to the binder cover, pulling away from the paper copy and rendering it illegible.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Optical media\", such as CD-R, DVD-R and BD-R, may experience data decay from the breakdown of the storage medium. This can be mitigated by storing discs in a dark, cool, low humidity location. \"Archival quality\" discs are available with an extended lifetime, but are still not truly permanent.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paper media\", such as punched cards and punched tape, may literally rot. Mylar punched tape is another approach that does not rely on electromagnetic stability.\n\nSection::::Component and system failures.\n", "The same studies also found that the processes had negative cosmetic side effects. BookKeeper left \"a palpable residue\", clamp marks on the covers, and caused some of the colored inks to rub off. CSC Book Saver left a \"white powdery deposit\" on books. Papersave caused \"discoloration, white deposit, Newton rings, bleeding of inks and dyes, odor and different 'feel' of the paper.\" Wei T'o caused \"odor, white residues, rings, cockling, (yellow) discolorations and adhesive bleeding.\"\n", "The physical condition of microfilm greatly impacts the quality of the digitized copy. Microfilm with a cellulose acetate base (popular through the 1970s) is frequently subject to vinegar syndrome, redox blemishes, and tears, and even preservation standard silver halide film on a polyester base can be subject to silvering and degradation of the emulsion—all issues which affect the quality of the scanned image.\n", "Anhysteretic print signals are almost as strong as intentionally recorded signals and are much more difficult to erase. This type of print noise is relatively rare because users are typically careful about accidentally exposing recordings to strong magnetic fields, and the magnetic influence of such fields decreases with distance. \n\nDigital tapes can also be affected by contact print effects in a phenomenon known as \"bit-shift\" when upper or lower layers of tape cause a middle layer to alter the pulses recorded to represent binary information.\n\nSection::::Video recording.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Data rot, a similar concept\n\nBULLET::::- CD bronzing\n\nBULLET::::- DVD-D and Flexplay, disposable optical disc formats designed to become unplayable after a limited time\n\nBULLET::::- M-Disc, an optical disc format claimed to have a reduced rate of rot compared to conventional DVDs\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mac Observer\" article\n\nBULLET::::- \"CD Bronzing\" article, with PDO replacement information, at Classical.net - How a manufacturing problem can cause disc quality degradation\n\nBULLET::::- \"Using CDs for Data Storage\" article, with extensive footnoting.\n\nBULLET::::- A bad case of DVD rot eats into movie collections\n", "Section::::Durability.\n\nInkjet documents can have poor to excellent archival durability, depending on the quality of the inks and paper used. If low-quality paper is used, it can yellow and degrade due to residual acid in the untreated pulp; in the worst case, old prints can literally crumble into small particles when handled. High-quality inkjet prints on acid-free paper can last as long as typewritten or handwritten documents on the same paper.\n", "BULLET::::- An example of a quality issue is when the master roll contains defects that have to be cut around. Expensive materials with demanding quality characteristics such as photographic paper or Tyvek have to be carefully optimised so that the wasted area is minimised.\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-machine problems arise when orders can be produced on more than one machine and these machines have different widths. Generally availability of more than one master roll width improves the waste considerably; in practice however additional order splitting constraints may have to be taken into account.\n", "Quality control need not only take place at this juncture. Most companies dealing with the digital supply chain process will subject the media to scrutiny of the quality control process at various stages including: original capture, post-compression, post-ingest and post-publish, thus ensuring the media has not become corrupt or has not been degraded undesirably during any stage along the digital supply chain process.\n\nSection::::Components.:Digital Asset Management.\n", "Section::::Paper and newsprint.\n\nPaper and newsprint can be recycled by reducing it to pulp and combining it with pulp from newly harvested wood. As the recycling process causes the paper fibres to break down, each time paper is recycled its quality decreases. This means that either a higher percentage of new fibres must be added, or the paper down-cycled into lower quality products. Any writing or colouration of the paper must first be removed by deinking, which also removes fillers, clays, and fibre fragments.\n", "Mimeographed images generally have much better durability than spirit-duplicated images, since the inks are more resistant to ultraviolet light. The primary preservation challenge is the low-quality paper often used, which would yellow and degrade due to residual acid in the treated pulp from which the paper was made. In the worst case, old copies can crumble into small particles when handled. Mimeographed copies have moderate durability when acid-free paper is used.\n\nSection::::Contemporary use.\n", "Ironically, paper documents such as books are almost entirely immune to these problems. Non-acidic paper and inks are extremely chemically stable and can last for centuries if not millennia when kept in a controlled environment. In fact, the greatest cause of obsolescence in printed media is linguistic drift, a process that can take centuries.\n\nSection::::Strategies.\n", "Improperly exposed bluelines are more likely to fade at an increased rate since the chemical reaction in the ammonia phase continues until the process is completed. But also properly exposed bluelines should not be exposed to the elements, and bluelines kept in flat files or hanging on racks in a cool, dry room often retain the majority of their lines and are able to be subsequently scanned into a digital format for various purposes.\n\nSection::::Demise of the technology.\n", "In the mid-19th century, machine-made paper was introduced, and wood became the most common, least expensive ingredient, especially in newspapers. The presence of lignin in wood pulp paper causes acid to degrade the cellulose, which causes the paper to become unstable and discolored over time. In addition, paper has the natural ability to absorb and retain moisture from the atmosphere, making it prone to the growth of mold, fungi, and bacteria.\n", "1) the amount of print due to conditions of time and storage; \n\n2) the thickness of the base film that acts as magnetic barrier (thin C-90 cassette tapes are more susceptible than studio mastering tapes that use a base film four times thicker); \n\n3) the stability of the magnetic particle used in the tape coating; \n", "Faculty members of the Slovak University of Technology added these further requirements. \n\nBULLET::::- the chemicals used have to be safe.\n\nBULLET::::- the process has to be able to be applied to any kind of paper.\n\nBULLET::::- the process can not cause swelling or warping of the paper.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Color prints made on most inkjet printers look very good at first but they have a very short lifespan, measured in months rather than in years. Even prints from commercial photo labs will start to fade in a matter of years if not processed properly and stored in cool, dry environments.\n\nSection::::Documents/books.\n\nWith documents for which the media are not so critical as what the documents contain, the information in documents can be copied by using photocopiers and image scanners. Books and manuscripts can also have their information saved without destruction by using a book scanner.\n", "A quirk of diazo blueline prints is that with continued exposure to ultraviolet light, either from natural sunlight or from typical office fluorescent lighting, a blueline copy can fade over a span of months (indoors) or just days (outdoors), becoming illegible. This fading process thus requires reduplication of the original documents every few months in a typical office for any project using bluelines. Hence, blueline drawings that are used as engineering working copy prints have to be protected when not in use by storing them in flat files in the dark. Incandescent lighting was often used in areas where blueline engineering prints needed to be posted on a wall for long periods to hinder rapid fading.\n", "The dyes in ukiyo-e prints are susceptible to fading when exposed even to low levels of light; this makes long-term display undesirable. The paper they are printed on deteriorates when it comes in contact with acidic materials, so storage boxes, folders, and mounts must be of neutral pH or alkaline. Prints should be regularly inspected for problems needing treatment, and stored at a relative humidity of 70% or less to prevent fungal discolourations.\n", "In an archival setting, Van Dyke prints are relatively rare, as they were created for temporary purposes and often discarded after the final positive prints were made. Because of the nitrates used in preparing the paper and the preferred thin paper itself, Van Dyke prints are often extremely brittle and susceptible to damage. Van Dyke prints should be stored separately and, when possible reformatted before the image degrades unacceptably.\n\nSection::::Major processes.:Diazotypes.\n", "BULLET::::- Damaging light, particularly UV light, which fades and destroys media over time by breaking down the molecules.\n\nBULLET::::- Atmosphere contains small traces of sulfur dioxide and nitric acid which turn media yellow and break the fibers down.\n\nBULLET::::- Humidity and moisture also aid in the breakdown of media. If there is too much, the document can be attacked by bacteria, and if too little, cellulose material breaks down.\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature, particularly elevated ones, can destroy some media. Low temperatures can cause the water to form crystals which expands destroying the structure of paper-based documents.\n\nSection::::Online photo albums.\n", "Generation loss\n\nGeneration loss is the loss of quality between subsequent copies or transcodes of data. Anything that reduces the quality of the representation when copying, and would cause further reduction in quality on making a copy of the copy, can be considered a form of generation loss. File size increases are a common result of generation loss, as the introduction of artifacts may actually increase the entropy of the data through each generation.\n\nSection::::Analog generation loss.\n", "Indeed, the Victoria and Albert Museum's Conservation Journal states that \"...the majority of the deterioration seen in such prints is usually associated with the supports, which are often yellowed and brittle, rather than the actual image.\"\n\nSection::::Environmental factors.\n\nEnvironmental factors that hasten the deterioration of a print include exposure to heat, ozone and other pollutants, water or humidity, and high levels of light. Though light-induced fade often gets the most publicity, greater than 90 per cent of consumer prints are stored in the dark where the effects of heat, humidity, and/or pollutants can dominate.\n\nSection::::Research and standards.\n", "BULLET::::- Photographic illustrations reproduce poorly in microform format, with loss of clarity and halftones. The latest electronic digital viewer/scanners can scan in gray shade, which greatly increases the quality of photographs; but the inherent bi-tonal nature of microfilm limits its ability to convey much subtlety of tone.\n\nBULLET::::- Reader-printers are not always available, limiting the user's ability to make copies for their own purposes. Conventional photocopy machines cannot be used.\n", "Retail recordable/writable optical media contain dyes in/on the optical media to record data, whereas factory-manufactured optical media use physical \"pits\" created by plastic molds/casts. As a result, data storage on retail optical media does not have the life-span of factory-manufactured optical media. The problem is exacerbated because as the writing laser of the recorder is used, its power output drops with age - typically after just a few years. Consequently, a disc written with a laser that is nearing the end of its useful life may not have a readable life that is long as if a new laser had been used.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "The use of cigarette lighter receptacles to supply 12 volt DC power is an example of backward compatibility to a de facto standard. As a power connector, the lighter receptacle is larger, harder to use and less reliable than other DC connectors. Cigarette lighter receptacles are in widespread use in many highway vehicles and some boats. Portable cigarette lighter receptacles attached to cables and alligator clips for connection directly to car batteries are available for temporary use. In newer vehicles, one or more USB connectors may also be provided.\n", "In newer cars, the socket is equipped with a plastic cover without the lighter heating element. However, the socket has been repurposed and continues to be used to power consumer electronics in vehicles. Often, a vehicle may come with several outlets for convenience, some in the rear passenger area of the vehicle or even the cargo area, for powering portable devices. These outlets usually have a plastic cap tethered to them, and are usually labeled as being only for DC power, because they are not intended to withstand the heat produced by an electrical cigarette lighter.\n", "The car power outlet is also called a cigarette lighter receptacle, or cigar lighter receptacle, since it was originally designed as a lighter for cigars—hence its rather large size. Nowadays, it is used to power automotive accessories such as portable inverters, mobile phone chargers and portable fridges.\n", "As a DC power connector, it has the disadvantages of bulkiness, relatively low current rating, and poor contact reliability. However, due to it's large diameter, the connector and appliances can have a robust design against damage such as bending. Additionally, the connector is reversible.\n", "Devices that require alternating-current mains electricity can be operated with a plug-in inverter, which outputs voltage levels and patterns similar to the home electrical outlet.\n", "Auxiliary car power outlet\n\nThe auxiliary car power outlet (also known as \"car outlet\", \"automotive power socket\", \"automobile outlet\", \"vehicular outlet\", and similar; formerly known as \"cigarette lighter receptacle\", \"cigar lighter receptacle\" or \"cigar lighter socket\") in an automobile was initially designed to power an electrically heated cigarette lighter, but became a de facto standard DC connector to supply electrical power for portable accessories used in or near an automobile, directly from the vehicle's electrical system\n", "However, almost all car accessories are able to adapt to these variations of voltage, and keep working without issues.\n", "In the United States, cigarette lighters started appearing as standard equipment in automobiles in 1925–1926.\n", "Although there is a risk of short-circuiting a battery charger, the risk is minimal and often mitigated by the circuitry of the battery charger itself. On the other hand, the short circuit current of the lead-acid batteries installed in vehicles is sufficiently great, that a short circuit could result in a fire or explosion. The priority is therefore given to avoiding short circuits of the vehicle battery, rather than of the charger.\n\nSection::::Car lighter sockets and plugs.\n", "Standardized 12 volt DC automobile plugs are defined in the United States by UL Standard 2089 regarding vehicle battery adapters. This standard covers plugs and cord sets that insert into cigarette lighter receptacles. In Europe, 12 volt plugs and sockets are not specially regulated, and do not require approvals for the CE mark.\n", "Motor vehicles require electrical energy to power their instrumentation, keep the engine itself operating, and recharge their batteries. Until about the 1960s motor vehicles tended to use DC generators with electromechanical regulators. Following the historical trend above and for many of the same reasons, these have now been replaced by alternators with built-in rectifier circuits.\n\nSection::::Common use cases.:Vehicular generators.:Bicycles.\n", "Many systems used in telecommunications use an extra-low voltage \"common battery\" 48 V DC power, because it has less restrictive safety regulations, such as being installed in conduit and junction boxes. DC has typically been the dominant power source for telecommunications, and AC has typically been the dominant source for computers and servers.\n", "Although the nominal voltage of a 12 V lead acid battery is 12 V, when the engine is running the car's battery charging system will bring the system voltage to 13.8 V or higher. The possible range of battery voltages from 11–15 V must be taken into account by devices attached to the cigar lighter socket.\n\nThis connector is also often used for powering accessories on motorcycles, such as heated clothing (vests, gloves, etc.) or GPS units. This makes \"plugging in\" easier to manage while wearing gloves. As the accessory lacks any power of its own, there's no risk of \"shorting\" the exposed connector.\n", "Most accessories that can be plugged into the outlet are rated for input voltages of up to 24V, some are even rated for 30V or 32V, because larger vehicles such as lorry trucks and busses often have 24-volt electrical systems, with a higher voltage while their alternator is generating power.\n\nAccessories might partially work with lower input voltages such as 9V.\n", "In most vehicles, at least one car outlet is present. Some vehicles, especially vans, tend to have more power outlets, usually one for the front passengers, one for the rear passengers and one for the luggage trunk.\n\nThe voltage of the power outlet is usually near 12 V DC, (14V to 15V while the running engine is turning the alternator, in order to charge the car battery while providing electrical power), because it is unregulatedly directly powered from the car's electrical system.\n\nSection::::Accessories.\n", "In Australia, the same or similar T-configuration sockets are used for DC power sockets, such as in stand-alone power systems (SAPS), on boats and in police vehicles. Polarity is inconsistent.\n\nIn the former Soviet Union this socket was and still is commonly used for wiring in places where the voltage is lowered for safety purposes, like in schools, filling stations or in wet areas, and is rated 42 V at 10 A AC. Such an unusual connection is intended specifically to make the connection of standard higher-voltage equipment impossible.\n\nSection::::Obsolete types.:U.S. combination duplex socket.\n", "12 volt auto connectors are made to comply with a standard by Underwriters Laboratories for safety. UL2089 was developed to cover the requirements for portable adapters rated 24 V DC or less that are intended to be supplied from the battery powered electrical system of a vehicle. Products covered by the standard include cord assemblies of a plug that mates with the standard cigarette receptacle found in automobiles.\n\nBULLET::::- 6-volt cigarette lighter receptacle and plug:\n\nBULLET::::- Receptacle inside diameter: (median )\n\nBULLET::::- Plug body diameter: (median )\n\nBULLET::::- 12-volt cigarette lighter receptacle and plug, size A:\n", "Since inverter-fed motor cables' high-frequency current spikes can interfere with other cabling in facilities, such inverter-fed motor cables should not only be of shielded, symmetrical-geometry design but should also be routed at least 50 cm away from signal cables.\n\nSection::::Application considerations.:Dynamic braking.\n", "The other popular motor to consider when building a BugE is an AC motor. There are two main classifications for AC motors: induction and synchronous. The most popular AC motor for electric vehicles is the 3-phase induction motor. The AC motor still uses a DC power source so, instead of the controller that would be used with a DC drive system, an inverter is needed. This can increase the overall price in comparison with the DC motor system.\n", "The European Union defined a Common external power supply for \"hand-held data-enabled mobile phones\" (smartphones) sold from 2010, intended to replace the many incompatible proprietary power supplies and eliminate waste by reducing the total number of supplies manufactured. Conformant supplies deliver 5 VDC via a micro-USB connector, with preferred input voltage handled ranging from 90 to 264 VAC.\n\nIn 2006 Larry Page, a founder of Google, proposed a and up to standard for almost all equipment requiring an external converter, with new buildings fitted with wiring, making external AC-to-DC adapter circuitry unnecessary.\n", "Early systems used 6 volts, but 12 volts became the standard because it provided greater power with less current. The original DC generator was replaced by an alternator controlled by a voltage regulator. Due to mechanical and electrical properties, it is more efficient to first produce alternating current and then immediately convert it to direct current. By regulating the current sent to the alternator's rotor and thus the strength of the magnetic field, a stable voltage can be produced over a wider range of engine speeds. \n", "The male plug is sometimes used to feed power \"into\" a vehicle to recharge its battery, because it usually has no regulatory circuitry between the outlet and the car battery. For instance, portable solar battery maintainers generally connect to a vehicle's battery in this manner. Trickle chargers also sometimes connect in this way, eliminating the need to leave a vehicle's hood open, as well as eliminating the possibility of reversed polarity. Most cars nowadays are designed with a battery-negative earthing system and therefore have +12v positive power distribution. In such case the centre pin of a plug/socket will be +12V DC and the outer casing 0V. While polarity is not an issue for a cigarette lighter, it is prudent to verify correct matching of polarities when connecting other kinds of accessory. In some models, the cigarette lighter outlet is not powered when the ignition key is removed and charging is not possible.\n", "In the 1990s a 42V electrical system standard was proposed. It was intended to allow more powerful electrically driven accessories, and lighter automobile wiring harnesses. The availability of higher-efficiency motors, new wiring techniques, and digital controls, and a focus on hybrid vehicle systems that use high-voltage starter/generators have largely eliminated the push for switching the main automotive voltages.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "AC-operated radios using power transformers require repair and refurbishment of the power supply section before operation, as any failures are likely to stress or damage the power transformer, necessitating a costly repair. \n\nAC/DC sets using a no power transformer may be either \"curtain burners\" using a resistance cord to drop the line voltage, or warm/hot chassis radios using a series-string filament circuit where the voltages add up to the line voltage. They were named \"AC/DC\" because they operated on either AC or DC line voltage, which was not possible with a transformer-based set. \n", "AC replaced DC in most applications and eventually the need for local DC substations diminished along with the need for rotary converters. Many DC customers converted to AC power, and on-site solid-state DC rectifiers were used to power the remaining DC equipment from the AC supply.\n\nSection::::Self-balancing dynamo.\n" ]

[ "Electrical devices people run in their cars use AC." ]

[ "The majority of electrical devices people want to run in their cars use DC, not AC." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Electrical devices people run in their cars use AC.", "most electrical devices use AC plugs." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "The majority of electrical devices people want to run in their cars use DC, not AC.", "the majority of things that people want to run in their cars these days run on DC." ]

[ "In 2017, the company collaborated with Champion developing sixteen items of clothing, including tracksuits, hoodies, fleeces, and t-shirts. In August 2017, the company also collaborated with A$AP Rocky with his label AWGE. In 2018, the company partnered with Jimmy Choo to create a Summer/Spring collection inspired by Lady Diana, former Princess of Wales.\n", "Once the order is processed, the garment is actually manufactured. The company uses the just-in-time production method:\n\nDonn Davis, a former America Online executive now on LWD's board, says that Temple has \"reinvent[ed] apparel much as Dell reinvented the PC industry. It's affordable custom [manufacturing] in real time with little inventory risk.\"\n", "Often, this is done on a white garment only as this base colour allows for the best applicability. The types of garments available are T-shirts, hoodies, sweaters, socks, bags, and much more.\n\nSection::::All-Over-Printing Patents.\n\n“\"A Systems and Methods for the Printing of Pre-Constructed Clothing Articles and Clothing Article so Printed.” is a patented process under US patents 8,958,131 / US 9,468,23\"7.\" \n\nAbstract \n", "Prospects and clients can use ICTs - own computers, tablets and smart phones - to skip fitting rooms and cosmetics counters, and instead virtually see how they look in specific outfits and makeup via in-store kiosks, mobile phones or tablets. Modiface is a web application that anyone can use to give them a virtual makeover. Customers can give any look and decide on what to suits and buy products.\n", "BULLET::::- The resulting industrialised design is then put out to tender (using what is called a tech pack), with several supply chain partners being given the opportunity to demonstrate their ability to produce the garment to the desired standard and at an acceptable cost. Those suppliers can use a consistent “studio” environment to share any initial samples or material information they require;\n", "BULLET::::- Bio3-zone, Diesel with the Ingeo fiber garments of Lesley Mobo (Diesel Award winner), Docare, Fortei, Fucci, Gaspard Yurkievich, Paul Simon, Salewa, Urban Outfitters, Versace Sport and Wickers have all agreed to create specially-designed clothing to be sold in stores worldwide. \n\nBULLET::::- Lesley Mobo all set to soar at the Mall of Asia Arena \n\nBULLET::::- From edgy lace to drapings - Lesley Mobo shows Manila what he's got - Inquirer Newspaper \n\nBULLET::::- Who's Who in Fashion 6th Edition Bloomsbury Publishing and fairchild Books \n\nBULLET::::- Abolut Label 1879 Lesley Mobo designs for Absolut Vodka Sweden \n", "BULLET::::- A pattern maker (\"also referred as pattern master or\" \"pattern cutter\") drafts the shapes and sizes of a garment's pieces. This may be done manually with paper and measuring tools or by using a CAD computer software program. Another method is to drape fabric directly onto a dress form. The resulting pattern pieces can be constructed to produce the intended design of the garment and required size. Formal training is usually required for working as a pattern marker.\n", "Kostadinov partnered with Japanese brand ASICS to produce footwear for his eponymous label's Spring/Summer 2018 collection. The partnership would continue for his Autumn/Winter 2018 collection. In 2018, Kostadinov would also collaborate with Camper to create his own rendition of three of the brand's hiking boots.\n\nIn the fall of 2018, Kostadinov introduced a womenswear line to be led by Laura and Deanna Fanning, who had graduated from Central Saint Martins' master program 7 months prior.\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 - Glamsquad Guest Presenter Fashion Police, Comedy, Celebrity Critique\n\nSection::::Isio De-laVega Design Studios.\n\nAfter her return from Florence, Italy, Wanogho set up a design studio (Isio De-laVega Design Studios) which offered bespoke design services for both domestic and commercial customers.\n\nSection::::Charitable works.\n", "In this variant, clothes and accessories are photographed on real-life mannequins. The mannequins are then edited out digitally from the images and replaced with a virtual mannequin designed to reflect the brand in question. A shopper may then drag and drop (and mix-and-match) clothes on the virtual mannequin. Some such solutions are being used to replace the real-life models in the garment photography, reducing the cost associated with human models and standardising the photography processes.\n\nSection::::Photo-accurate virtual fitting room.\n", "In between her degrees, Edeline Lee apprenticed in the studios of Alexander McQueen in London and John Galliano in Paris. She also trained at Conock & Lockie under the former Head Cutter of H. Huntsman & Sons of Savile Row in traditional methods of bespoke tailoring. She dropped out of Central Saint Martins to work as an Assistant Designer to Zac Posen in New York for two years. She returned to Central Saint Martins to finish her degree and then worked as Head Designer for Rodnik in London. She then consulted for various companies.\n\nSection::::Label.\n", "After a year of product development and small-scale sales in the spring of 2012, the company decided to conduct a Kickstarter campaign to fund the creation of a synthetic knit-blend dress shirt with heat and moisture management, odor control, and offered a full range of motion. The campaign raised over $400,000 and became the largest amount raised for a fashion product at the time on a Kickstarter project.\n", "Section::::Collaborative Product Development.\n\nMUUSE Designers are responsible for the design of styles, while the MUUSE production staff takes care of sourcing textiles, negotiating with manufacturers, quality control and fitting. There are two types of clothing produced: Ready-to-Wear and Couture. Ready-to-Wear pieces are produced in small batches of between 20 and 100 pieces. Production outsourced to small manufacturers in Europe and Asia. Couture pieces are sewn to-order by MUUSE tailors to fit the buyer's measurements, matching the designer's prototypes, with alterations for wearability and to meet requests from buyers.\n\nSection::::Sales model.\n", "An example would be Benetton and their knitted sweaters that are initially all white, and then dyed into different colors only when the season/customer color preference/demand is known. It is usually necessary to redesign the product specifically for delayed differentiation, and resequencing to modify the order of production manufacturing steps.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Postponement\n\nBULLET::::- Mass customization\n", "In 2000 a menswear collection was streamed online in collaboration with Kataweb. Over the following three years the company extended its range of products to include perfumes, eyewear, ready to wear apparel and footwear, plus accessories targeted at the younger generations.\n\nSection::::Distribution and Production.\n\nSection::::Distribution and Production.:Costume National.\n\nThe company’s Thiene factory is responsible for the men's and women’s Ready To Wear production. The factory is mainly responsible for cutting-room, pattern-making and finished product quality control.\n\nCN Shoes factory, based in Fossò, develops and produces footwear. \n", "Leather bags and leather accessories are produced by selected partners and commercialised by CN Production.\n\nLeather clothing production is licensed to Leather Company, that works in exclusive for Costume National. \n\nCostume National has 5 flagship stores which were designed with the same concept of classical edginess and minimalism. \n\nin October 2008 Costume National launched its online store where the Costume National and Costume National Homme collections and accessories are available.\n\nSection::::Distribution and Production.:C’N’C Costume National.\n", "Virtual clothes can be created by traditional 3D sculpting typically using software programs such as ZBrush or the Marvelous Designer software program, which is a pattern-based garment creation tool for creating clothes specifically for 3D models/Avatars. Marvelous Designer garments also have the benefit of being dynamic, meaning, they can be used for animations and support cloth dynamics, so that the cloth reacts to a movement, wind blowing on it or the 3d model changing its posture - and the clothing adjusts to it to simulate and replicate a real-life look and feel. \n", "BULLET::::- At the 2015 Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week Australia, The Iconic works with emerging designer Jennifer Kate to launch \"Shop The Runway\" - real looks, stoppable instantly.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2016, having grown from just five staff to over 400 in under five years, The Iconic moves its headquarters from a Surry Hills warehouse space to an office in the Sydney CBD\n\nBULLET::::- In 2016, THE ICONIC hosted the world’s first runway Swim Show on Sydney’s iconic Bondi Beach\n", "BULLET::::- Goddess, launched in the US and acquired in 2002 by Eveden Group, full-figure bras and swimwear\n\nSection::::Product manufacturing.\n\nWacoal products are manufactured almost entirely by hand using Japanese sewing technology as well as continued innovation. Much of the production occurs at Wacoal Vietnam, a manufacturing location established in 1997.\n\nSection::::Philanthropic efforts.\n", "Section::::Designing a garment.\n\nFashion designers work in different ways. Some sketch their ideas on paper, while others drape fabric on a dress form. When a designer is completely satisfied with the fit of the \"toile\" (or muslin), he or she will consult a professional pattern maker who then makes the finished, working version of the pattern out of card or via a computerized system. Finally, a sample garment is made up and tested on a model to make sure it is an operational outfit.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Once a pattern is complete, the design process shifts to choosing the proper fabrics to get the design printed on or woven into the fabric\n\nDesigners might want to use the method of dyeing or printing to create their design. There are many printing methods. \n\nBULLET::::- Direct (Blotch) printing\n\nBULLET::::- Overprinting\n\nBULLET::::- Discharge printing\n\nBULLET::::- Resist printing\n\nBULLET::::- Block printing\n\nBULLET::::- Roller printing\n\nBULLET::::- Screen printing\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Clothing technology\n\nBULLET::::- Fashion design\n\nBULLET::::- Textile manufacturing\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Billie J. Collier, Martin J. Bide, and Phyllis G., \"Understanding of Textiles\", Pearson Publishers, 2009, ,\n", "BULLET::::- Colin and Justin's Influence Range at Matalan\n\nThe decorators worked with UK department store Matalan and launched several large homewares collections for the 190 store chain. A further collection of festive decorations augmented their range with the company.\n\nBULLET::::- Colin and Justin at Zellers, Canada\n\nThe decorators collaborated with Canadian department store Zellers, and their first collection of named brand bedding was available between January 2010 and July 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- Home Heist now broadcasts in approximately 35 countries such as Australia, Poland and South Africa, New Zealand, France, Germany and China\n\nBULLET::::- Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Take Away*\n", "In addition, new technologies have allowed for bespoke garments to be made with lean manufacturing practices and digital patterning, making new patterns within minutes and fully bespoke garments in hours, at a price point similar to made to measure or even mass production.\n\nSection::::Clothing.:Advertising Standards Authority ruling.\n", "All Valextra products are handmade at the company's factory in Italy, which employs approximately 60 craftspersons. Each bag bears the individual artisan number of the craftsperson who oversaw its creation. Several of the items first made by the company in 1937 are still in production; cleaning and repairs are provided for life. The company will also fabricate custom luggage and handbags to the customer's specification.\n\nIn 2011, Valextra hired actress Katie Holmes to design a new handbag for the company.\n\nSection::::Retail outlets.\n", "Wilson has done work for President Clinton's Harlem office, the Good Housekeeping Showhouse, the private residence of Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., White House Fellows organization, and in 2014, she completed the EcoBungalow-LA project to rebuild a home for a family who lost everything in a fire.\n\nWilson was the first woman to license her name to eco-friendly kitchen cabinetry through Holiday Kitchens (licensed from 2008-2017), made in the USA in Rice Lake, Wisconsin, and sold at over 400 independent dealers nationwide.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Juries in the United States\n\nThe most outstanding feature in the United States is that verdicts in criminal cases must almost always be unanimous.\n\nThere are three types of juries in the United States: criminal grand juries, criminal petit juries, and civil juries. In the United States Constitution, juries are mentioned in Article Three and the Fifth, the Sixth, and the Seventh Amendments. Juries are not available in courts of American Samoa established pursuant to the Constitution of American Samoa.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A jury consultant helped pick the jury in the O. J. Simpson murder trial. Criminologist Jo-Ellan Dimitrius used surveys to determine the ideal defense juror demographic (black women) and analyzed and judged the prospective jurors' answers to a questionnaire and response and body language during voir dire (the stage of jury selection where lawyers are permitted to directly question the jury). Prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi gives more credit to the traditional change of venue. He argues that transferring the case to a section of Los Angeles with more blacks in the jury pool was most detrimental to the selection of a prosecution-friendly jury. The prosecutor dismissed her court-appointed jury consultant early in the process.\n", "Evidence supporting jury effectiveness has also been illustrated in studies that investigate the parallels between judge and jury decision-making. According to Kalven and Zeisel (1966), it is not uncommon to find that the verdicts passed down by juries following a trial match the verdicts held by the appointed judges. Upon surveying judges and jurors of approximately 8000 criminal and civil trials, it was discovered that the verdicts handed down by both parties were in agreement 80% of the time.\n\nSection::::Jury effectiveness.:Buffering effects.\n", "BULLET::::1. Jury Size: modifying could influence group structure, representativeness, and majority influence; large juries are more likely to be hung, but small and large juries do not significantly differ in the types of verdicts reached.\n\nBULLET::::2. Unanimity: juries that do not have to reach a unanimous decision render their judgements twice as quickly and are less likely to be hung.\n", "The collective knowledge and deliberate nature of juries are also given as reasons in their favor:\n", "The actual efficacy of jury consultants may not be very important because the demographic composition of the jury has little effect on the verdict it renders, usually causing only a 5%–15% variance in verdicts. The evidence presented at trial has far more impact on what the verdict will be. As Kressel and Kressel indicate, \"when the evidence is strong, nothing else matters much\" and even when the evidence is ambiguous, demographic characteristics of jurors are a relatively minor influence. Some researchers argue that a significant improvement in jury selection, however small, may be worthwhile when the stakes are high, as with a defendant accused of a capital crime or a corporation that stands to lose millions of dollars in a civil suit.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Limited constitutional rights.\n\nThe prosecutor is not obliged to present evidence in favor of those being investigated.\n", "Following the English tradition, U.S. juries have usually been composed of 12 jurors, and the jury's verdict has usually been required to be unanimous. However, in many jurisdictions, the number of jurors is often reduced to a lesser number (such as five or six) by legislative enactment, or by agreement of both sides. Some jurisdictions also permit a verdict to be returned despite the dissent of one, two, or three jurors. Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 48 states that a federal civil jury must begin with at least 6 and no more than 12 members, and that the verdict must be unanimous unless the parties stipulate otherwise.\n", "In most jurisdictions, several criteria are used to determine if an anonymous jury is appropriate. The defendant's involvement in organized crime, the defendant's participation in a group with the capacity to harm jurors, the defendant's past attempts to interfere with the judicial process, the potential that the defendant will get a long jail sentence or substantial fines if convicted, and extensive publicity that could expose jurors to intimidation or harassment are situations in which an innominate jury may be appropriate.\n\nSection::::Notable cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Leroy Barnes: 1977 trial of a drug kingpin. Commonly considered the first use of an anonymous jury.\n", "Section::::State laws.:Louisiana.\n", "For certain terrorist and organised crime offences the Director of Public Prosecutions may issue a certificate that the accused be tried by the Special Criminal Court composed of three judges instead of a jury, one from the District Court, Circuit Court and High Court.\n\nSection::::In various jurisdictions.:Italy.\n\nThe Corte d'Assise is composed of 2 judges and 6 laypersons chosen at random among Italian citizens 30 to 65 years old. Only serious crimes like murder can be tried by the Corte d'Assise.\n\nSection::::In various jurisdictions.:Japan.\n", "The juror selection process holds the potential for discrimination in the selection of jurors and the final composition of juries. Claims that errors (of all types) were made during jury selection are among the most common of all grounds for criminal appeals. With regard to legal proceedings within the U.S. military, one argument has been advanced that selection of juries for courts-martial is subject to too much control by commanders, who can pick jurors who will be most likely to convict and hand down heavy penalties.\n", "1. \"Group Structure\": Smaller Juries are more cohesive and individuals tend to participate at more equal rates. Members of larger juries on the other hand, exchange more information.\n\n2. \"Representativeness\": Saks concluded that smaller juries were not as representative as larger juries. That is, if a community was 10% Latino and 90% Anglo, it is probable that approximately 80% of 12 member juries would include at least one Latino member, while only 40% of 6 member juries would consist of any Latinos.\n", "Oregon created its rule in 1934 by state constitutional amendment. Specifically, as long as at least 10 jurors on a 12-member jury agreed, the jury could render a verdict of guilty or not guilty. The Louisiana Legislature passed a similar \"Majority Rule\" law in 1880, allowing for jury verdicts of 9-3, which was later ratified its 1898 constitutional convention.\n\nIn 2018, Louisiana voters passed a constitutional amendment that ended their practice of non-unanimous juries. Now, Oregon is the only state that allows non-unanimous jury verdicts for felonies (although first-degree murder convictions require a unanimous jury verdict).\n\nSection::::Facts and procedural posture.\n", "Juries only decide questions of fact; they have no role in criminal sentencing in criminal cases or awarding damages in libel cases. It is not necessary that a jury be unanimous in its verdict. In civil cases, a verdict may be reached by a majority of nine of the twelve members. In a criminal case, a verdict need not be unanimous where there are not fewer than eleven jurors if ten of them agree on a verdict after considering the case for a reasonable time.\n", "Many U.S. jurisdictions permit the seating of an advisory jury in a civil case in which there is no right to trial by jury to provide non-binding advice to the trial judge, although this procedural tool is rarely used. For example, a judge might seat an advisory jury to guide the judge in awarding non-economic damages (such as \"pain and suffering\" damages) in a case where there is no right to a jury trial, such as (depending on state law) a case involving \"equitable\" rather than \"legal\" claims.\n", "Detailed interviews with jurors after they rendered verdicts in trials involving complex expert testimony have demonstrated careful and critical analysis. The interviewed jurors clearly recognized that the experts were selected within an adversary process. They employed sensible techniques to evaluate the experts’ testimony, such as assessing the completeness and consistency of the testimony, comparing it with other evidence at the trial, and evaluating it against their own knowledge and life experience. Moreover, the research shows that in deliberations jurors combine their individual perspectives on the evidence and debate its relative merits before arriving at a verdict.\n", "In the U.S., every defendant in a criminal case has the right, under Article III, Section 2 and the Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, to be tried by an impartial jury. If the defendant is acquitted, the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment forbids the government from putting him or her on trial again. FIJA advises jurors to vote for acquittal if they disagree with the law – a concept known as jury nullification – even if they believe the defendant committed the crime for which he or she is charged.\n\nSection::::Activism.\n", "A study by the University of Glasgow suggested that a civil jury of 12 people was ineffective because a few jurors ended up dominating the discussion, and that seven was a better number because more people feel comfortable speaking, and they have an easier time reaching a unanimous decision.\n\nSection::::Integrity.\n", "BULLET::::3. Procedural Innovation: we can improve juries by making the instructions given to juries (prior to deliberation) clearer and more understandable. If the members understand at the beginning of the process what their requirements are, then they will be more efficient in their delivery of the verdict, and be more understanding of the process.\n\nSection::::Yielding.\n\nSection::::Yielding.:Social cryptoamnesia.\n", "Another simplified experiment indicated that lawyers trained in a systematic selection method made better predictions of juror verdicts in two of four cases – the sale of illegal drugs and a military court-martial (the other two cases were murder and drunk driving). The systematic method was more effective in those two cases where the predictive relationships between demographic variables and attitudes/verdicts were strongest, and least effective where such predictive relationships were weak or nonexistent.\n", "Part XX of the \"Criminal Code of Canada\" allows for a jury in a Canadian murder trial to consist of twelve jurors. However, a minimum of ten jurors and a maximum of 14 jurors may hear the evidence a trial. At the end of the trial, a maximum of twelve jurors and minimum of ten jurors may deliberate. \n", "Cases are tried by a jury of six jurors and a panel of three active judges, that is, one judge-in-charge (called \"president\" of the court) and two associate judges (\"assesseurs\"), on first hearing, and a jury of nine jurors and a panel of three active judges on appeal. Lists of eligible jurors are put together at random from the list of registered voters, but both the prosecution and defense have the right to peremptory challenge and can refuse a juror without stating a reason.\n\nSpecial procedures exist for the following categories of crimes and suspects:\n", "As much of the research on social conformity suggests, individuals tend to lose their sense of individuality when faced with powerful group forces (i.e., normative influence; informational influence; interpersonal influence). This raises the question if the effectiveness of jury decision-making compromised by individuals’ tendencies to conform to the normative transmissions of a group.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Impartial juries are always selected even in high profile cases." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Sometimes it is not possible to select an impartial jury." ]

[ "Harvested foods decompose from the moment they are harvested due to attacks from enzymes, oxidation and microorganisms. These include bacteria, mold, yeast, moisture, temperature and chemical reaction. \n\nSection::::Reasons.:Bacteria.\n\nBacteria are responsible for the spoilage of food. When bacteria breaks down the food, acids and other waste products are created in the process. While the bacteria itself may or may not be harmful, the waste products may be unpleasant to taste or may even be harmful to one's health.\n", "There are two types of pathogenic bacteria that target different categories of food. The first type is called \"Clostridium perfingen\" and targets foods such as meat and poultry, and \"Bacillus cereus\", which targets milk and cream. When stored or subjected to unruly conditions, the organisms will begin to breed apace, releasing harmful toxins that can causes\n\nSection::::Reasons.:Fungi.\n", "\"Fungi\" has been seen as a method of food spoilage, causing only an undesirable appearance to food, however, there has been significant evidence of various fungi being a cause of death of many people spanning across hundreds of years in many places through the world. Fungi are caused by acidifying, fermenting, discoloring and disintegrating processes and can create fuzz, powder and slimes of many different colors, including black, white, red, brown and green.\n", "Section::::Description.:Shellfish.\n", "Section::::Signs.\n\nSigns of food spoilage may include an appearance different from the food in its fresh form, such as a change in color, a change in texture, an unpleasant odour, or an undesirable taste. The item may become softer than normal. If mold occurs, it is often visible externally on the item.\n\nSection::::Consequences.\n\nSpoilage bacteria do not normally cause \"food poisoning\"; typically, the microorganisms that cause foodborne illnesses are odorless and flavourless, and otherwise undetectable outside the lab.\n", "Section::::Microbial degradation.\n", "Section::::Food contamination.\n\nFood contamination happens when food are corrupted with another substance. It can happen In the process of production, transportation, packaging, storage, sales and cooking process. The contamination can be physical, chemical and biological.\n\nSection::::Food contamination.:Physical contamination.\n\nPhysical contaminants (or ‘foreign bodies’) are objects such as hair, plant stalks or pieces of plastic and metal. When the foreign object comes into the food, it is a physical contaminant. If the foreign objects are bacteria, the case will a physical and biological contamination.\n\nCommon sources to create physical contaminations are: hair, glass or metal, pests, jewelry, dirt and fingernails.\n", "Food contaminant\n\nFood contamination refers to the presence of harmful chemicals and microorganisms in food, which can cause consumer illness. This article addresses the chemical contamination of foods, as opposed to microbiological contamination, which can be found under foodborne illness.\n", "Section::::Exposure routes.:Food.\n\nLead may be found in food when food is grown in soil that is high in lead, airborne lead contaminates the crops, animals eat lead in their diet, or lead enters the food either from what it was stored or cooked in.\n\nSection::::Exposure routes.:Paint.\n", "Section::::Processing.\n\nFish is a highly perishable product: the \"fishy\" smell of dead fish is due to the breakdown of amino acids into biogenic amines and ammonia.\n", "\"Mold\" is a type of fungus, but the two terms are not reciprocal of each other; they have their own defining features and perform their own tasks. Very well known types of mold are Aspergillus and Penicillium, and, like regular fungi, create a fuzz, powder and slime of various colors.\n", "Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These are mainly spices and condiments, with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.\n\nSection::::Modern industrial techniques.:Pulsed electric field electroporation.\n", "Commercially, food waste in the form of wastewater coming from commercial kitchens’ sinks, dishwashers and floor drains is collected in holding tanks called grease interceptors to minimize flow to the sewer system. This often foul-smelling waste contains both organic and inorganic waste (chemical cleaners, etc.) and may also contain hazardous hydrogen sulfide gases. It is referred to as fats, oils, and grease (FOG) waste or more commonly \"brown grease\" (versus \"yellow grease\", which is fryer oil that is easily collected and processed into biodiesel) and is an overwhelming problem, especially in the US, for the aging sewer systems. Per the US EPA, sanitary sewer overflows also occur due to the improper discharge of FOGs to the collection system. Overflows discharge – of untreated wastewater annually into local waterways, and up to 3,700 illnesses annually are due to exposure to contamination from sanitary sewer overflows into recreational waters.\n", "Eating deteriorated food could not be considered safe due to mycotoxins or microbial wastes. Some pathogenic bacteria, such as \"Clostridium perfringens\" and \"Bacillus cereus\", are capable of causing spoilage.\n\nIssues of food spoilage do not necessarily have to do with the quality of the food, but more so with the safety of consuming said food. However, there are cases where food has been proven to contain toxic ingredients. 200 years ago, Claviceps purpurea, a type of fungus, was linked to human diseases and 100 years ago in Japan, yellow rice was found to contain toxic ingredients. \n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::Toxicity and biochemistry.\n", "Sometimes food may make an appearance in the feces. Common undigested foods found in human feces are seeds, nuts, corn, and beans, mainly because of their high dietary fiber content. Beets may turn feces different hues of red. Artificial food coloring in some processed foods, such as highly colorful packaged breakfast cereals, can cause unusual coloring of feces if eaten in sufficient quantities.\n\nUndigested objects such as seeds can pass through the human digestive system, and later germinate. One result of this is tomato plants growing where treated sewage sludge has been used as fertilizer.\n\nSection::::Analytical tools.\n", "Section::::Sources of environmental toxicity.\n\nThere are many sources of environmental toxicity that can lead to the presence of toxicants in our food, water and air. These sources include organic and inorganic pollutants, pesticides and biological agents, all of which can have harmful effects on living organisms. There can be so called point sources of pollution, for instance the drains from a specific factory but also non-point sources (diffuse sources) like the rubber from car tires that contain numerous chemicals and heavy metals that are spread in the environment.\n\nSection::::Sources of environmental toxicity.:PCBs.\n", "Particles of soil or organic matter may be suspended in the water. Such materials may give the water a cloudy or turbid appearance. The anoxic decomposition of some organic materials may give rise to obnoxious or unpleasant smells as sulphur containing compounds are released.\n\nSection::::Pollutants in wastewater.:Nutrients.\n", "\"Penicillium\" moulds cause soft rot such as of apples, while \"Aspergillus\" moulds create patches on the surface of old bread, yoghurt and many other foods. Yeasts spoil sugary foods such as plums and jams, fermenting the sugars to alcohol. Scientific understanding of spoilage began in the 19th century with works such as Louis Pasteur's 1879 \"Studies on Fermentation\", which investigated the spoilage of beer.\n\nSection::::Harmful interactions.:Destruction of timber.\n", "Section::::Consequences of persistence.:Long-range transport.\n", "The specific mechanisms are unknown, but there is evidence that pesticides and metals have different targets in the olfactory epithelium.\n\nSection::::Pesticides.:Past studies.\n", "Section::::Pathways.:Microbial.\n\nMicrobial rancidity refers to a water-dependent process in which microorganisms, such as bacteria or molds, use their enzymes such as lipases to break down fat. By destroying or inhibiting microorganisms, pasteurization (sterilization) and addition of antioxidant ingredients, such as vitamin E, can reduce this process.\n\nSection::::Food safety.\n\nUsing fish oil as an example of a food or dietary supplement susceptible to rancidification over various periods of storage, two reviews found effects only on flavor and odor, with no evidence as of 2015 that rancidity causes harm if a spoiled product is consumed.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "In countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, food scraps constitute around 19% of the waste dumped in landfills, where it ends up rotting and producing methane, a greenhouse gas.\n\nMethane, or CH, is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas that is released into the air, also produced by landfills in the U.S. Although methane spends less time in the atmosphere (12 years) than CO, it's more efficient at trapping radiation. It is 25 times greater to impact climate change than CO in a 100-year period. Humans accounts over 60% of methane emissions globally.\n\nSection::::Disposal.:Animal feed.\n", "Desulfotomaculum\n\nDesulfotomaculum is a genus of Gram-positive, obligately anaerobic soil bacteria. A type of sulfate-reducing bacteria, \"Desulfotomaculum\" can cause food spoilage in poorly processed canned foods. Their presence can be identified by the release of hydrogen sulfide gas with its rotten egg smell when the can is first opened. They are endospore-forming bacteria.\n", "The term toxic food environment was coined by Kelly D. Brownell in his book, \"Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry\" which describes American culture at the end of the 20th century as one that fosters and promotes obesity and unprecedented food consumption.\n\nBrownell was a Yale professor and director of the Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity at Yale. He is now director of the World Food Policy Center of the Sanford School of Public Policy at Duke University.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- On September 4, 1995, Ee Heng Chuan, a 29-year-old rubber tapper from the southern Malaysian state of Johor, was reported to have been killed by a large reticulated python. The victim had apparently been caught unaware and was squeezed to death. The snake had coiled around the lifeless body with the victim's head gripped in its jaws when it was stumbled upon by the victim's brother. The python, reported as measuring long and weighing more than 300 lb, was killed soon after by the arriving police, who shot it four times.\n", "Tonic immobility has been used to show that hens in cages are more fearful than those in pens, hens on the top tier of tiered battery cages are more fearful than those on the lower levels, hens carried by hand are more fearful than hens carried on a mechanical conveyor, and hens undergoing longer transportation times are more fearful than those undergoing transport of a shorter duration.\n\nTonic immobility as a scientific tool has also been used with mice, gerbils, guinea pigs, rats, rabbits and pigs.\n\nSection::::Thanatosis.\n", "There are several methods of powering fluid injection once the dart strikes its target. These include expansion of compressed gas, creation of gas by chemical fluid reaction, release of a compressed spring, and creation of gas by explosive charge . For example, a design with compressed air or butane in the rear of the dart creates constant compression on the injection fluid. The fluid is restrained within the syringe by placing a gasket-like collar or cap over the hole in the needle. Upon striking the target, the cap is punctured by the needle or the collar is pushed back, and the needle tip continues into the target. At the same time, the fluid is no longer restrained by the gasket, so the compressed gas chamber forces the injection fluid chamber to empty into the target (see diagrams from Veterinary Technician). It has also been suggested that the momentum of a steel ball at the rear of the dart could push the syringe plunger in some designs. In each of these methods, intramuscularly injects carries a dose of barbiturate or other sedative drugs into the animal. The tranquilizer drug causes the target to become sleepy and suddenly unconscious within 45 minutes . Because of the power of the drugs, the handlers then have to move quickly to secure the animal for transport, monitor its vital signs, protect its eyes and ears, and then inject antidotes when needed. Many large animals are acutely sensitive to stress and can easily die without careful treatment; in order to counter stress in targeted animals, the gun is quiet, and there is usually a valve on the gun to control the dart velocity by varying the amount of gas pressure used to propel it.\n", "Tranquillizer darts are not generally included in military or police less-than-lethal arsenals because no drug is yet known that would be quickly and reliably effective on humans without the risks of side effects or an overdose. This means that effective use requires an estimate of the weight of the target to be able to determine how many darts (if any) can be used. Shooting too few would result in partial effects only, while too many can kill the target. According to James Butts, former Chief of Police of Santa Monica, \"Tranquilizing agents don't affect everyone uniformly. Therefore you cannot predict whether or not you have a sufficient dose to tranquilize the individual. Second, any tranquillizer will take time to enter the bloodstream and sedate the individual. If someone is advancing on you with a deadly weapon or a threatening object, there's no way a tranquillizer would take effect in the two to three seconds it would take someone to seriously injure you.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In 1999 in Centralia, Illinois, a 3-year-old boy was suffocated during the night by an escaped pet African rock python. Bite marks around the boy's neck and ears may have resulted from an attempt to swallow him.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1979 in Waterberg District, Limpopo Province (then Northern Transvaal), South Africa, a 4.5-m African rock python killed a 13-year-old boy. The victim died due to suffocation and internal injuries; his body was released by the python after intervention by an adult man some 20 minutes after the attack began. The victim's head was covered in saliva, and scientists thought \"it could have easily succeeded in swallowing\" the 1.3-m, 45-kg boy had it not been interrupted.\n", "BULLET::::- On October 23, 2008, a 25-year-old Virginia Beach, Virginia, woman, Amanda Ruth Black, appeared to have been killed by a pet reticulated python. The apparent cause of death was asphyxiation. The snake was later found in the bedroom in an agitated state.\n\nBULLET::::- On January 21, 2009, a 3-year-old Las Vegas boy was wrapped in the coils of an pet reticulated python, turning blue. The boy's mother, who had been petsitting the python on behalf of a friend, rescued the toddler by gashing the python with a knife. The snake was later euthanized because of its wounds.\n", "Occasionally, a horse injected with these mixtures may display apparent seizure activity before death. This may be due to premature cardiac arrest. However, if normal precautions (e.g., sedation with detomidine) are taken, this is rarely a problem. Anecdotal reports that long-term use of phenylbutazone increases the risk of this reaction are unverified.\n\nAfter the animal has died, it is not uncommon for the body to have posthumous body jerks, or for the animal to have a sudden bladder outburst.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Inhalants.\n", "For thousands of years various peoples have used poisoned arrows (for example tipped with curare), to incapacitate animals before killing them, but the modern tranquillizer gun was invented only in the 1950s by New Zealander Colin Murdoch. While working with colleagues who were studying introduced wild goat and deer populations in New Zealand, Murdoch had the idea that the animals would be much easier to catch, examine, and release if a dose of tranquillizer could be administered by projection from afar. Murdoch went on to develop a range of rifles, darts, and pistols that have had an enormous impact on the treatment and study of animals around the world.\n", "It has been observed that orcas can exploit sharks' tonic immobility to prey on large sharks. Some orcas ram sharks from the side to stun them, then flip the sharks to induce tonic immobility and keep them in such state for sustained time. For some sharks, this prevents water from flowing through their gills and the result can be fatal.\n\nSection::::Tonic immobility.:In teleost fishes.\n", "BULLET::::- On 1 August 2002, in Raub, Pahang, Malaysia, 6-month-old Nurul Emilia Zulaika Nasaruddin, died after a coconut fell into the child's crib and struck the child\n\nBULLET::::- On 22 September 2003, in Raub, Pahang, Malaysia, Deraman Ghomat, 65, was waiting to catch a bus, the wind became stronger and it started to rain just before a coconut fell\n\nBULLET::::- In March 2009, 48-year-old Luelit Janchoom, in Nakhon Si Thammarat Province of Thailand, was killed when a monkey used to harvest coconuts furiously kicked them down to his master, hitting his head\n", "Therefore, such effects are not as reliable as physiological effects at stopping people. Animals will not faint or surrender if injured, though they may become frightened by the loud noise and pain of being shot, so psychological mechanisms are generally less effective against non-humans.\n\nSection::::Penetration.\n", "BULLET::::- In South America, tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó of western Colombia dip the tips of their blowgun darts in the poison found on the skin of three species of \"Phyllobates\", a genus of poison dart frog. In northern Chocó Department, \"Phyllobates aurotaenia\" is used, while \"P. bicolor\" is used in Risaralda Department and southern Chocó. In Cauca Department, only \"P. terribilis\" is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the batrachotoxins in \"P. terribilis\" are powerful enough that it is sufficient to dip the dart in the back of the frog without killing it.\n", "As this is comparatively recent research (2015), it is possible that other constrictors kill in other ways. It had previously been accepted that constrictors used their body to hold the prey tight and prevent the prey from drawing air into its lungs, resulting in death from asphyxia, or that the pressure of constriction causes a rise in the pressure in the prey's body cavity greater than the heart can counter, resulting in immediate cardiac arrest; data from earlier studies had also indicated that snakes can exert enough pressure for these to be plausible.\n", "BULLET::::- A man is stabbed in the head with a large knife, but eventually makes a full recovery / A crocodile expert routinely has the animals swallow a device that monitors their health; while they are tranquilized, he sticks his arm down their throats to retrieve the device after some time has passed / Willie McQueen, who lost his legs in a train accident and later became a football player / After experiencing a false pregnancy, a dog behaves as if cordless telephones are her puppies / Carey Hart successfully performs a 360-degree backflip on a motorcycle / Clothing made from latex that is painted onto the skin and allowed to dry.\n", "One particular case has been documented from Australia. In February 1995, a man committed suicide on parkland in Canberra. He took a pump action shotgun and shot himself in the chest. The load passed through the chest without hitting a rib, and went out the other side. He then walked fifteen meters, pulled out a pistol and shot himself in the head, once again surviving the shot. After reloading the shotgun, he leaned the shotgun against his throat, and shot his throat and part of his jaw. He then reloaded a final time, walked 200 meters to a hill, sat down on the slope, held the gun against his chest with his hands and operated the trigger with his toes. This shot entered the thoracic cavity and demolished the heart, killing him.\n", "Forty-one cases were reported to combine the two procedures: usually in these cases the patient drinks the potion, but this does not cause death. After a few hours, or earlier in the case of vomiting, the muscle relaxant is administered to cause death.\n\nBy far, most reported cases concerned cancer patients. Also, in most cases the procedure was applied at home.\n", "Poison darts are prepared by the Chocó by first impaling a frog on a piece of wood. By some accounts, the frog is then held over or roasted alive over a fire until it cries in pain. Bubbles of poison form as the frog's skin begins to blister. The dart tips are prepared by touching them to the toxin, or the toxin can be caught in a container and allowed to ferment. Poison darts made from either fresh or fermented batrachotoxin are enough to drop monkeys and birds in their tracks. Nerve paralysis is almost instantaneous. Other accounts say that a stick \"siurukida\" (\"bamboo tooth\") is put through the mouth of the frog and passed out through one of its hind legs. This causes the frog to perspire profusely on its back, which becomes covered with a white froth. The darts are dipped or rolled in the froth, preserving their lethal power for up to a year.\n", "An African rock python killed two boys in Campbellton, New Brunswick, Canada on August 5, 2013. The boys, who were aged four and six, were sleeping in an apartment above their friend's father's pet store. The python – which had been in a specially made enclosure in the apartment – had escaped, crawled through an air duct, and fallen through a ceiling tile above where the boys were sleeping. Following the incident, the python was euthanized. The python's owner was charged with criminal negligence for not preventing the deaths, but was found not guilty in a jury trial in November 2016.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, even the larger species, such as the reticulated python, \"P. reticulatus\", do not crush their prey to death; in fact, prey is not even noticeably deformed before it is swallowed. The speed with which the coils are applied is impressive and the force they exert may be significant, but death is caused by cardiac arrest.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Tonic immobility can be reliably induced in iguanas by a combination of inversion, restraint and moderate pressure. During TI, there are obvious changes in respiration including a decline in respiration rate, the rhythm becomes sporadic, and the magnitude irregular. The prolonged period of TI does not seem to be consistent with the fear hypothesis, but could be the result of a period of cortical depression due to increased brain stem activity.\n\nTonic immobility can also be induced in the Carolina anole. The characteristics of this TI vary as a function of the duration and condition of captivity.\n\nSection::::Tonic immobility.:In rabbits.\n", "Goldfish, trout, rudd, tench, brown bullhead, medaka, paradise fish, and topminnow have been reported to go limp when they are restrained on their backs. Oscars seem to go into shock when they are stressed (when their aquarium is being cleaned, for example): they lie on their side, stop moving their fins, start to breathe more slowly and deeply, and lose colour. A similar behavior has been reported for convict tangs in the field.\n\nSection::::Tonic immobility.:In reptiles.\n", "The only way to immediately incapacitate a person or animal is to damage or disrupt their central nervous system (CNS) to the point of paralysis, unconsciousness, or death. Bullets can achieve this directly or indirectly. If a bullet causes sufficient damage to the brain or spinal cord, immediate loss of consciousness or paralysis, respectively, can result. However, these targets are relatively small and mobile, making them extremely difficult to hit even under optimal circumstances.\n", "The blowgun can be used to fire darts, as well. Often, these are quite small, and do little harm by themselves; instead, they are effective due to poison spread onto their points, from (for example) dart frogs or curare.\n\nSection::::Other traditional darts.:Rope dart.\n", "Cervical dislocation, or displacement (breaking or fracturing) of the neck, is an older yet less common method of killing small animals such as mice. Performed properly it is intended to cause as painless death as possible and has no cost or equipment involved. The handler must know the proper method of executing the movement which will cause the cervical displacement and without proper training and method education there is a risk of not causing death and can cause severe pain and suffering. It is unknown how long an animal remains conscious, or the level of suffering it goes through after a correct snapping of the neck, which is why it has become less common and often substituted with inhalants.\n" ]

[ "Tranquilizer darts are used on people and causes the target to fall down.", "Tranquilized people or animals fall when they are tanquilized." ]

[ "Tranquilizer darts are only used on animals and slowly causes them to become sleepy and lay down.", "They don't actually fall over they slowly get sleepier and lay down." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Tranquilizer darts are used on people and causes the target to fall down.", "Tranquilized people or animals fall when they are tanquilized." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Tranquilizer darts are only used on animals and slowly causes them to become sleepy and lay down.", "They don't actually fall over they slowly get sleepier and lay down." ]

[ "Biological, psychological, and social factors are believed to be involved in the cause of depression, although it is still not well understood. Factors like socioeconomic status, life experience, and personality tendencies play a role in the development of depression and may represent increases in risk for developing a major depressive episode. There are many theories as to how depression occurs. One interpretation is that neurotransmitters in the brain are out of balance, and this results in feelings of worthlessness and despair. Magnetic resonance imaging shows that brains of people who have depression look different than the brains of people not exhibiting signs of depression. A family history of depression increases the chance of being diagnosed.\n", "Depression is a widespread, debilitating disease affecting persons of all ages and backgrounds. Depression is characterized by a plethora of emotional and physiological symptoms including feelings of sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, a general loss of interest in life, and a sense of reduced emotional well-being or low energy. Very little is known about the underlying pathophysiology of clinical depression and other related mood-disorders including anxiety, bipolar disorder, ADD, ADHD, and Schizophrenia.\n", "Historical figures were often reluctant to discuss or seek treatment for depression due to social stigma about the condition, or due to ignorance of diagnosis or treatments. Nevertheless, analysis or interpretation of letters, journals, artwork, writings, or statements of family and friends of some historical personalities has led to the presumption that they may have had some form of depression. People who may have had depression include English author Mary Shelley, American-British writer Henry James, and American president Abraham Lincoln. Some well-known contemporary people with possible depression include Canadian songwriter Leonard Cohen and American playwright and novelist Tennessee Williams. Some pioneering psychologists, such as Americans William James and John B. Watson, dealt with their own depression.\n", "MRI scans of patients with depression have revealed a number of differences in brain structure compared to those who are not depressed. Meta-analyses of neuroimaging studies in major depression reported that, compared to controls, depressed patients had increased volume of the lateral ventricles and adrenal gland and smaller volumes of the basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, and frontal lobe (including the orbitofrontal cortex and gyrus rectus). Hyperintensities have been associated with patients with a late age of onset, and have led to the development of the theory of vascular depression.\n", "Section::::Neuroanatomy.:Brain regions.\n\nResearch on the brains of people with MDD usually shows disturbed patterns of interaction between multiple parts of the brain. Several areas of the brain are implicated in studies seeking to more fully understand the biology of depression:\n\nSection::::Neuroanatomy.:Brain regions.:Subgenual cingulate.\n", "The cause is believed to be a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors. Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance abuse. About 40% of the risk appears to be related to genetics. The diagnosis of major depressive disorder is based on the person's reported experiences and a mental status examination. There is no laboratory test for major depression. Testing, however, may be done to rule out physical conditions that can cause similar symptoms. Major depression is more severe and lasts longer than sadness, which is a normal part of life. The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends screening for depression among those over the age 12, while a prior Cochrane review found that the routine use of screening questionnaires has little effect on detection or treatment.\n", "Depression and pain often co-occur. One or more pain symptoms are present in 65% of depressed patients, and anywhere from 5 to 85% of patients with pain will be suffering from depression, depending on the setting; there is a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics. The diagnosis of depression is often delayed or missed, and the outcome can worsen if the depression is noticed but completely misunderstood.\n", "Much of what we know about the genetic influence of clinical depression is based upon research that has been done with identical twins. Identical twins both have exactly the same genetic code. It has been found that when one identical twin becomes depressed the other will also develop clinical depression approximately 76% of the time. When identical twins are raised apart from each other, they will both become depressed about 67% of the time. Because both twins become depressed at such a high rate, the implication is that there is a strong genetic influence. If it happened that when one twin becomes clinically depressed the other always develops depression, then clinical depression would likely be entirely genetic.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nEndogenous depression occurs as the results of an internal stressor—commonly cognitive or biological—and not an external factor. Potential risk factors include these cognitive or biological factors. Patients with endogenous depression often are more likely to have a positive family history of disorders and fewer psychosocial and environmental factors that cause their symptoms. A family history of depression and perceived poor intimate relationships are internal risk factors associated with this type of depression. It is important to know these risk factors in order to take steps to recognize and help prevent this illness.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n", "A depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches, or digestive problems; physical complaints are the most common presenting problem in developing countries, according to the World Health Organization's criteria for depression. Appetite often decreases, with resulting weight loss, although increased appetite and weight gain occasionally occur. Family and friends may notice that the person's behavior is either agitated or lethargic. Older depressed people may have cognitive symptoms of recent onset, such as forgetfulness, and a more noticeable slowing of movements. Depression often coexists with physical disorders common among the elderly, such as stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n", "BULLET::::- West Nile virus (WNV); which can cause encephalitis has been reported to be a causal factor in developing depression in 31% of those infected in a study conducted in Houston, Texas and reported to the Center for Disease Control (CDC). The primary vectors for disease transmission to humans are various species of mosquito. WNV which is endemic to Southern Europe, Africa the Middle East and Asia was first identified in the United States in 1999. Between 1999 and 2006, 20,000 cases of confirmed symptomatic WNV were reported in the United States, with estimates of up to 1 million being infected. \"WNV is now the most common cause of epidemic viral encephalitis in the United States, and it will likely remain an important cause of neurological disease for the foreseeable future.\"\n", "Cognitive psychologists offered theories on depression in the mid-twentieth century. Starting in the 1950s, Albert Ellis argued that depression stemmed from irrational \"should\" and \"musts\" leading to inappropriate self-blame, self-pity, or other-pity in times of adversity. Starting in the 1960s, Aaron Beck developed the theory that depression results from a \"cognitive triad\" of negative thinking patterns, or \"schemas,\" about oneself, one's future, and the world.\n", "History of depression\n\nWhat was previously known as melancholia and is now known as \"clinical depression\", \"major depression\", or simply \"depression\" and commonly referred to as major depressive disorder by many Health care professionals, has a long history, with similar conditions being described at least as far back as classical times.\n\nSection::::Prehistory to medieval periods.\n", "The cause of major depressive disorder is unknown. The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. The preexisting vulnerability can be either genetic, implying an interaction between nature and nurture, or schematic, resulting from views of the world learned in childhood.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n\nThe pathophysiology of depression is not yet understood, but the current theories center around monoaminergic systems, the circadian rhythm, immunological dysfunction, HPA axis dysfunction and structural or functional abnormalities of emotional circuits.\n", "Major depressive episodes may show comorbidity (association) with other physical and mental health problems. About 20–25% of individuals with a chronic general medical condition will develop major depression. Common comorbid disorders include: eating disorders, substance-related disorders, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Up to 25% of people who experience a major depressive episode have a pre-existing dysthymic disorder.\n\nSome persons who have a \"fatal illness\" or are at the end of their life may experience depression, although this is not universal.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Depressive personality disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Depression (differential diagnoses)\n\nBULLET::::- Major depressive disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Mental breakdown\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "A half century ago, diagnosed depression was either endogenous (melancholic), considered a biological condition, or reactive (neurotic), a reaction to stressful events. Debate has persisted for most of the 20th century over whether a unitary or binary model of depression is a truer reflection of the syndrome; in the former, there is a continuum of depression ranked only by severity and the result of a \"psychobiological final common pathway\", whereas the latter conceptualizes a distinction between biological and reactive depressive syndromes. The publishing of DSM-III saw the unitarian model gain a more universal acceptance.\n", "Persons going through a major depressive episode often have a general lack of energy, as well as fatigue and tiredness, nearly every day for at least 2 weeks. A person may feel tired without having engaged in any physical activity, and day-to-day tasks become increasingly difficult. Job tasks or housework become very tiring, and the patient finds that their work begins to suffer.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Decreased concentration.\n", "Section::::Prevalence.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.:Men in the U.S..\n", "Theories unifying neuroimaging findings have been proposed. The first model proposed is the \"Limbic Cortical Model\", which involves hyperactivity of the ventral paralimbic regions and hypoactivity of frontal regulatory regions in emotional processing. Another model, the \"Corito-Striatal model\", suggests that abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex in regulating striatal and subcortical structures results in depression. Another model proposes hyperactivity of salience structures in identifying negative stimuli, and hypoactivity of cortical regulatory structures resulting in a negative emotional bias and depression, consistent with emotional bias studies.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Clinical assessment.\n", "IPT for children is based on the premise that depression occurs in the context of an individual's relationships regardless of its origins in biology or genetics. More specifically, depression affects people's relationships and these relationships further affect our mood. The IPT model identifies four general areas in which a person may be having relationship difficulties: \n\nBULLET::::1. grief after the loss of a loved one;\n\nBULLET::::2. conflict in significant relationships, including a client's relationship with his or her own self;\n\nBULLET::::3. difficulties adapting to changes in relationships or life circumstances; and\n\nBULLET::::4. difficulties stemming from social isolation.\n", "Section::::Neuroanatomy.:Brain regions.:Prefrontal cortex.\n", "Major depressive disorder affects approximately 216 million people in 2015 (3% of the global population). The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France. In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8–18% range. In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within a year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females. Major depression is about twice as common in women as in men, although it is unclear why this is so, and whether factors unaccounted for are contributing to this. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors. Depression is a major cause of disability worldwide.\n", "Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known simply as depression, is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of low mood that is present across most situations. It is often accompanied by low self-esteem, loss of interest in normally enjoyable activities, low energy, and pain without a clear cause. People may also occasionally have false beliefs or see or hear things that others cannot. Some people have periods of depression separated by years in which they are normal, while others nearly always have symptoms present. Major depressive disorder can negatively affect a person's personal life, work life, or education, as well as sleeping, eating habits, and general health. Between 2–8% of adults with major depression die by suicide, and about 50% of people who die by suicide had depression or another mood disorder.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:DSM and ICD criteria.\n\nThe most widely used criteria for diagnosing depressive conditions are found in the American Psychiatric Association's \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" and the World Health Organization's \"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems\" which uses the name \"depressive episode\" for a single episode and \"recurrent depressive disorder\" for repeated episodes. The latter system is typically used in European countries, while the former is used in the US and many other non-European nations, and the authors of both have worked towards conforming one with the other.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Ethical and medico-legal issues are embedded within the nature of Emergency Medicine. Issues surrounding competence, end of life care, and right to refuse care are encountered on a daily basis within the Emergency Department. Of growing significance are the ethical issues and legal obligations that surround the Mental Health Act, as increasing numbers of suicide attempts and self-harm are seen in the Emergency Department The Wooltorton case of 2007 in which a patient arrived at the Emergency Department post overdose with a note specifying her request for no interventions, highlights the dichotomy that often exists between a physicians ethical obligation to 'do no harm' and the legality of a patients right to refuse.\n", "Although the laws of medical malpractice differ significantly between nations, as a broad general rule liability follows when a health care practitioner does not show a fair, reasonable and competent degree of skill when providing medical care to a patient. If a practitioner holds himself out as a specialist a higher degree of skill is required. Jurisdictions have also been increasingly receptive to claims based on informed consent, raised by patients who allege that they were not adequately informed of the risks of medical procedures before agreeing to treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- In Canada, all provinces except Quebec base medical malpractice liability on negligence, while Quebec follows a civil law system.\n\nBULLET::::- Germany permits patients injured by medical negligence to bring a private action against the provider in contract, tort, or both.\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden has implemented a no fault system for the compensation of people injured by medical treatment. Patients who want to bring malpractice claims may choose between bringing a traditional tort claim or a no fault claim.\n\nBULLET::::- In New Zealand, the Accident Compensation Corporation provides no-fault compensation for victims.\n", "As laws vary by jurisdiction, the specific professionals who may be targeted by a medical malpractice action will vary depending upon where the action is filed. Among professionals that may be potentially liable under medical malpractice laws are,\n\nBULLET::::- Medical Practitioners - including physicians, surgeons, psychiatrists and dentists.\n\nBULLET::::- Nurses, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants.\n\nBULLET::::- Allied health professionals - including physiotherapists, osteopaths, chiropractors, podiatrists, occupational therapists, social workers, psychologists, pharmacists, optometrists, midwives, and medical radiation practitioners.\n", "A significant portion of emergency department visits are considered not to be EMCs as defined by EMTALA. The medical profession refers to these cases as \"non-emergent\". Regardless, this term is not recognized by the law as a condition defined by the EMTALA statute. A term more relevant for compliance with EMTALA is \"non-emergency medical condition\". If this \"non-emergent\" term is used in the context of EMTALA, it needs to be defined as medical conditions that fail to pass the criteria for determination of being a true EMC as defined by EMTALA statute.\n", "Medical professionals may obtain professional liability insurances to offset the costs of lawsuits based on medical malpractice. Further establishment of conditions of intention or malice may be applied where applicable.\n\nSection::::Frequency and cost of medical errors.\n", "In Ontario, paramedics are certified to administer symptom relief medications under a base hospital physician's license. The Ministry of Health and Long Term Care has established a minimum standard of care for the province, but base hospitals can add medications at their discretion. The number and type of medications beyond the minimum standard also varies with the paramedic scope of practice (primary, advanced or critical care).\n\nSection::::Standards.:Response times.\n", "Texas law creates the most difficult \"hurdles\" in the United States for a plaintiff to succeed in recovering damages for any medical malpractice, even for such objective cases such as an emergency room exposure to the Ebola virus disease.\n\nSection::::Arguments about the medical liability system.:Texas law and effect.\n", "Financial sanctions for use of emergency facilities in non-emergency situations were once an issue, but prudent layperson language now applies to all emergency-service utilization, and penalties are rare.\n\nSince the 1980s, under the ERISA Act passed in Congress in 1974 and its preemptive effect on state common law tort lawsuits that \"relate to\" Employee Benefit Plans, HMOs administering benefits through private employer health plans have been protected by federal law from malpractice litigation, on the grounds that the decisions regarding patient care are administrative rather than medical in nature. See \"Cigna v. Calad\", 2004.\n\nSection::::Types.:Independent practice association (IPA).\n", "In cases involving suicide, physicians and particularly psychiatrists may be to a different standard than other defendants in a tort claim. In most tort cases, suicide is legally viewed as an act which terminates a chain of causality. Although the defendant may be held negligent for another's suicide, he or she is not responsible for damages which occur after the act. An exception is made for physicians who are found to have committed malpractice that results in a suicide, with damages assessed based on losses that are proved likely to accrue after the act of suicide.\n", "India is an example of how family medicine can be a foundation for emergency medicine training. Many private hospitals and institutes have been providing Emergency Medicine training for doctors, nurses & paramedics since 1994, with certification programs varying from 6 months to 3 years. However, emergency medicine was only recognized as a separate specialty by the Medical Council of India in July 2009.\n\nSection::::Training.:Malaysia.\n", "Administrative Compensation:Sweden and New Zealand created health courts. Claims are sent to these courts that have the authority to settle a claim. Attorneys are not required and the claims are settled based the opinions of neutral experts. Compensation is awarded based on preset schedules and are based on the degree of injury.\n\nSection::::Arguments about the medical liability system.:Limits on recovery.\n\nMany jurisdictions placed non-economic damages caps that limit the amount that victims of medical malpractice can recover from negligent physicians, purportedly in an effort to decrease hospital and physician costs.\n", "The standard of care in malpractice cases is also well known. With unimportant variations in phrasing, we have consistently held that a physician is required to possess and exercise, in both diagnosis and treatment. The first question presented, accordingly, is whether the foregoing standard of care includes a requirement that the physician know how to diagnose and treat the battered child syndrome.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nAn area of medical specialization is defined by body of unique knowledge and skills required by practitioners in that field. In the United States, reputable medical specialties are credentialed by the American Board of Medical Specialties. It is important for readers to be aware that the \"Disaster Medicine Specialty\" described in this article is NOT an ABMS-credentialed board, limiting its impact on the physician community. The actual ABMS specialty certification that is generally accepted as the \"Disaster Medicine\" credential would be the EMS subspecialty of Emergency Medicine, administered under the ABMS-accredited American College of Emergency Physicians.\n", "Both medical practitioners and/or nurse practitioners involved must independently confirm via a written opinion both their agreement that a person has \"a grievous and irremediable medical condition\", and their agreement that the patient is capable and willing of receiving a medically assisted death. The medical or nurse practitioners making this determination must be independent (i.e., one cannot work under the authority of the other), and have no legal or financial interest in the outcome of the patient. A medical practitioner or nurse practitioner who helps in providing medical assistance in dying can be considered independent if they:\n", "Patterns vary by country and region. In the United States, the employment arrangement of emergency physician practices are either private (with a co-operative group of doctors staffing an emergency department under contract), institutional (physicians with or without an independent contractor relationship with the hospital), corporate (physicians with an independent contractor relationship with a third-party staffing company that services multiple emergency departments), or governmental (for example, when working within personal service military services, public health services, veterans' benefit systems or other government agencies).\n", "BULLET::::- The American Osteopathic Board of Emergency Medicine (AOBEM) certifies only emergency physicians with a DO degree. It is under the authority of the American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists.\n\nBULLET::::- The Board of Certification in Emergency Medicine (BCEM) grants board certification in emergency medicine to physicians who have not completed an emergency medicine residency, but have completed a residency in other fields (internists, family practitioners, pediatricians, general surgeons, and anesthesiologists).\n", "Medical malpractice in the United States\n\nMedical malpractice is professional negligence by act or omission by a health care provider in which the treatment provided falls below the accepted standard of practice in the medical community and causes injury or death to the patient, with most cases involving medical error. Claims of medical malpractice, when pursued in US courts, are processed as civil torts. Sometimes an act of medical malpractice will also constitute a criminal act, as in the case of the death of Michael Jackson.\n", "As an example of a shift away from the US Medicare system terms both advanced practice nurses and physician assistants as \"non-physician practitioner\" (NPP). Medicare will pay for emergency department services when these services meet the specific critical care services definition and requirements.\n\nSection::::MLPs by country.:United States.:Controversy.\n", "Under the old system, all levels of EMS personnel essentially functioned as an extension of their Medical Director's license to practice medicine. Under the new system, both Emergency Care Technicians and Emergency Care Practitioners are permitted considerable latitude with respect to independent practice. Standing orders or protocols do exist, and consultation with a physician (particularly for all levels of qualifications) is an option, but for the most part the ECP, CCA, and ECT (6) functions as a fully independent practitioner, similar to the Paramedic Practitioners in the UK. Protocols are currently as of 2016, being referred to and replaced by: Clinical Practice Guidelines; and will thus phase out the terminology of \"protocols\"\n", "In developed counties, training programs specifically relating to the international practice of emergency medicine are now available within many emergency medicine residencies. The curriculum that should be covered by such programs has been the subject of much discussion. Patient care, medical knowledge, practice-based learning, communication skills, professionalism, and system-based practice are the basic six competencies required of programs approved by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, but the application of these goals can take many forms.\n", "WEMT's and wilderness first responder can perform more advanced interventions, such as giving patients prescribed medications outside the scope of an urban EMT or first responder with off-line medical direction. Some of these medications include those for pain, fever and infections depending on what standing orders the WEMT or WFR has.\n\nWEMTs also are allowed some acts outside the scope of practice of urban EMTs, such as stopping CPR after all efforts have been exhausted, dislocation reductions and ruling out spinal injuries.\n", "The Trustees of Ambulance New Zealand submitted an application to the Minister of Health in June 2011 that requested Paramedic and Intensive Care Paramedic be included as registered health professions and this is expected to be approved later in 2013. Registration would mean that a responsible authority (RA) under the Health Practitioners Competency Assurance Act would become responsible for governing Paramedic practice in New Zealand that practitioners would ultimately be responsible to this professional body which would be a significant change from the current \"employer led\" regulation.\n\nSection::::Communications.\n", "\"In 2010, there were 157 allopathic and 37 osteopathic emergency medicine residency programs, which collectively accept about 2,000 new residents each year. Studies have shown that attending emergency physician supervision of residents directly correlates to a higher quality and more cost-effective practice, especially when an emergency medicine residency exists.\" Medical education is primarily funded through the Medicare program; payments are given to hospitals for each resident. \"Fifty-five percent of ED payments come from Medicare, fifteen percent from Medicaid, five percent from private payment and twenty-five percent from commercially insured patients.\" However, choices of physician specialties are not mandated by any agency or program, so even though emergency departments see many Medicare/Medicaid patients, and thus receive a lot of funding for training from these programs, there is still concern over a shortage of specialty-trained Emergency Medicine providers.\n", "By the early 1990s, the emergency medicine systems (EMSs) in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, and Singapore were largely mature, leading some practitioners to focus on developing the specialty in other countries. Thus, international emergency medicine as a subspecialty began in the 1990s, although some isolated efforts to achieve some of its goals had taken place in the late 1980s. There were several reasons for the heightened interest these practitioners had in developing emergency medicine abroad. One was the contrast between the EMSs of their countries and the EMSs of other countries. Another was the revolutions of 1989, overthrowing authoritarian regimes, which facilitated spread of new ideas, such as emergency medicine.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Identity confusion has also occurred because of the use of local Social Security numbers by the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau, whose numbers overlap with those of residents of New Hampshire and Maine.\n\nSection::::Replacement numbers.\n\nA person can request a new Social Security number, but only under certain conditions;\n\nBULLET::::- Where sequential numbers assigned to members of the same family are causing problems.\n\nBULLET::::- In the event of duplicates having been issued.\n", "Because Individual Taxpayer Identification Numbers (ITINs) are issued by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), they were not affected by this SSA change.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Historical structure.\n", "In 2004 Congress passed The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act; parts of which mandated that the Social Security Administration redesign the Social Security Number (SSN) Card to prevent forgery. From April 2006 through August 2007, Social Security Administration (SSA) and Government Printing Office (GPO) employees were assigned to redesign the Social Security Number Card to the specifications of the Interagency Task Force created by the Commissioner of Social Security in consultation with the Secretary of Homeland Security.\n\nThe new SSN card design utilizes both covert and overt security features created by the SSA and GPO design teams.\n\nSection::::Identity theft.\n", "Exacerbating the problem of using the Social Security number as an identifier is the fact that the Social Security card contains no biometric identifiers of any sort, making it essentially impossible to tell whether a person using a certain SSN truly belongs to someone without relying on other documentation (which may itself have been falsely procured through use of the fraudulent SSN). Congress has proposed federal laws that restrict the use of SSNs for identification and bans their use for a number of commercial purposes—e.g., rental applications.\n", "The Social Security Administration does not reuse Social Security numbers. It has issued over 450 million since the start of the program, and at a use rate of about 5.5 million per year. It says it has enough to last several generations without reuse or changing the number of digits. However, there have been instances where multiple individuals have been inadvertently assigned the same Social Security number.\n\nSection::::SSNs used in advertising.\n", "Section::::Purpose and use.\n\nThe original purpose of this number was to track individuals' accounts within the Social Security program. It has since come to be used as an identifier for individuals within the United States, although rare errors occur where duplicates do exist. As numbers are now assigned by the central issuing office of the SSA, it is unlikely that duplication will ever occur again. A few duplications did occur when prenumbered cards were sent out to regional SSA offices and (originally) Post Offices.\n\nEmployee, patient, student, and credit records are sometimes indexed by Social Security number.\n", "On June 25, 2011, the SSA changed the SSN assignment process to \"SSN randomization\". SSN randomization affects the SSN assignment process. Among its changes, it eliminates the geographical significance of the first three digits of the SSN, previously referred to as the Area Number, by no longer allocating the Area Numbers for assignment to individuals in specific states.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aadhaar\n\nBULLET::::- Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas\n\nBULLET::::- Death Master File\n\nBULLET::::- Feature creep\n\nBULLET::::- INSEE code\n\nBULLET::::- Italian fiscal code card\n\nBULLET::::- Kennitala\n\nBULLET::::- National Insurance number\n\nBULLET::::- National Registration Identity Card\n\nBULLET::::- NHI Number\n\nBULLET::::- NIE Number\n", "BULLET::::- Numbers with 666 or 900–999 (Individual Taxpayer Identification Number) in the first digit group.\n\nUntil 2011, the SSA published the last group number used for each area number. Since group numbers were allocated in a regular pattern, it was possible to identify an unissued SSN that contained an invalid group number. Now numbers are assigned randomly, and fraudulent SSNs are not easily detectable with publicly available information. Many online services, however, provide SSN validation.\n\nUnlike many similar numbers, no check digit is included.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Exhaustion and re-use.\n", "The Social Security Administration has suggested that, if asked to provide his or her Social Security number, a citizen should ask which law requires its use. In accordance with §7213 of the 9/11 Commission Implementation Act of 2004 and , the number of replacement Social Security cards per person is generally limited to three per calendar year and ten in a lifetime.\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 Drug addiction or alcoholism disability benefits could no longer be eligible for disability benefits. The Earnings limit doubled exemption amount for retired Social Security beneficiaries. Terminated SSI eligibility for most non-citizens\n\nBULLET::::- 1997 The law requires the establishment of federal standards for state-issued birth certificates and requires SSA to develop a prototype counterfeit-resistant Social Security card – still being worked on.\n\nBULLET::::- 1997 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, (TANF), replaces Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program placed under SSA\n", "As the system allows for a maximum of ten million numbers to be issued, and with numbers having been issued to both the Irish and the legal immigrant population, expatriates, and many people who are now deceased, the current system will be in need of expansion in the not distant future.\n", "The report put most of the responsibility and blame on state agencies, and recommended to the ACF and the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) to remind state agencies of SAVE requirements. ACF, however, believed that the problems were more the result of poor design of the system by INS.\n\nSection::::Critical reception and response.:Government audits, reviews, and reports.:2003 Government Accountability Office report on issuing Social Security numbers.\n", "As of 2003, the Social Security Administration used independent third-party verification of documentation submitted by noncitizens with the issuing agencies (U.S. Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Department of State) prior to issuing a Social Security Number. The verification of these documents involved using SAVE. A 2003 Government Accountability Office report highlighted potential weaknesses in the way SSA was using SAVE. In particular, it noted that whereas SAVE was able to verify the immigration status for the applicant based on the information provided by the applicant, SSA staff were neglecting to actually verify the authenticity of the documents themselves, making it possible to issue a SSN based on fake documentation corresponding to a real but different person. Other weaknesses in SSA's use of SAVE were also identified.\n", "More recently, Todd Davis distributed his SSN in advertisements for his company's LifeLock identity theft protection service, which allowed his identity to be stolen over a dozen times.\n\nSection::::List of Social Security Area Numbers.\n\nList showing the geographical location of the first three digits of the social security numbers assigned in the United States and its territories from 1973 until June 25 2011. Repeated numbers indicate that they have been transferred to another location or they're shared by more than one location.\n", "BULLET::::1. It eliminated the geographical significance of the first three digits of the SSN, referred to as the area number, by no longer allocating specific numbers by state for assignment to individuals.\n\nBULLET::::2. It eliminated the significance of the highest group number assigned for each area number, and, as a result, the High Group List is frozen in time and can be used for validation of only those SSNs issued prior to the randomization implementation date (see section \"Valid SSNs\").\n\nBULLET::::3. Previously unassigned area numbers have been introduced for assignment, excluding area numbers 000, 666 and 900–999.\n", "Since then, Social Security numbers have become de facto national identification numbers. Although some people do not have an SSN assigned to them, it is becoming increasingly difficult to engage in legitimate financial activities such as applying for a loan or a bank account without one. While the government cannot require an individual to disclose their SSN without a legal basis, companies may refuse to provide service to an individual who does not provide an SSN. The card on which an SSN is issued is still not suitable for primary identification as it has no photograph, no physical description, and no birth date. All it does is confirm that a particular number has been issued to a particular name. Instead, a driver's license or state ID card is used as an identification for adults.\n", "A DOD identification card number usually matches the holder's Social Security Number. But, on June 1, 2011, the DOD began phasing out use of the SSN to protect service members' identities. It was replaced with a 10-digit DOD ID Number and a 12-digit Benefits ID Number.\n\nSection::::Other identity documents.\n\nIn the absence of a national identity card, the typical adult in the United States often possesses a large number of documents issued by many different public and private entities to prove their identity.\n", "The Privacy Act of 1974 was in part intended to limit usage of the Social Security number as a means of identification. Paragraph (1) of subsection (a) of section 7 of the Privacy Act, an uncodified provision, states in part:\n\nHowever, the Social Security Act provides:\n\nFurther, paragraph (2) of subsection (a) of section 7 of the Privacy Act provides in part:\n\nThe exceptions under section 7 of the Privacy Act include the Internal Revenue Code requirement that social security numbers be used as taxpayer identification numbers for individuals.\n\nSection::::Current operation.:Demographic and revenue projections.\n", "Before 1986, people often did not obtain a Social Security number until the age of about 14, since the numbers were used for income tracking purposes, and those under that age seldom had substantial income. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 required parents to list Social Security numbers for each dependent over the age of 5 for whom the parent wanted to claim a tax deduction. Before this act, parents claiming tax deductions were simply trusted not to lie about the number of children they supported. During the first year of the Tax Reform Act, this anti-fraud change resulted in seven million fewer minor dependents being claimed. The disappearance of these dependents is believed to have involved either children who never existed or tax deductions improperly claimed by non-custodial parents. In 1988, the threshold was lowered to two years old, and in 1990, the threshold was lowered yet again to one year old. Today, an SSN is required regardless of the child's age to receive an exemption. Since then, parents have often applied for Social Security numbers for their children soon after birth; today, it can be done on the application for a birth certificate.\n", "Section::::Security issues and privacy.:Anonymous attribute systems.\n\nAn anonymous attribute is one that retains its uniqueness, but is put through a one-way hash so that it is represented in a string of characters that have no innate meaning or value. The one-way hash is an algorithm of inordinate complexity that generates the character string so that it is indecipherable compared to the original. In this way, a social security number, can be retained for attribute comparison, but the values used for comparison, while unique, would in no way resemble the original social security number.\n\nSection::::Legal issues.\n", "BULLET::::- Permanent account number\n\nBULLET::::- Personally identifiable information\n\nBULLET::::- PESEL\n\nBULLET::::- PPS number\n\nBULLET::::- Social Insurance Number\n\nBULLET::::- Tax file number\n\nBULLET::::- Uniform civil number\n\nBULLET::::- Unique Population Registry Code\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Social Security Administration\n\nBULLET::::- United States Social Security Death Index—Database listing over 85 million SSNs, all of which entered the public domain upon the death of their owners\n\nBULLET::::- \"Woolworth SSN Card\"—\"The background of the most misused Social Security number in history\" at Snopes\n\nBULLET::::- Social Security Cards Issued by Woolworth: \"The most misused SSN of all time was (078-05-1120).\"\n", "The U.S. Armed Forces has used the Social Security number as an identification number for Army and Air Force personnel since July 1, 1969, the Navy and Marine Corps for their personnel since January 1, 1972, and the Coast Guard for their personnel since October 1, 1974. Previously, the United States military used a much more complicated system of service numbers that varied by service.\n\nBeginning in June 2011, DOD began removing the Social Security number from military identification cards. It is replaced by a unique DOD identification number, formerly known as the EDIPI.\n\nSection::::Purpose and use.:Non-universal status.\n", "Social Security was originally a universal tax, but when Medicare was passed in 1965, objecting religious groups in existence prior to 1951 were allowed to opt out of the system. Because of this, not every American is part of the Social Security program, and not everyone has a number. However, a Social Security number is required for parents to claim their children as dependents for federal income tax purposes, and the Internal Revenue Service requires all corporations to obtain SSNs (or alternative identifying numbers) from their employees, as described below. The Old Order Amish have fought to prevent universal Social Security by overturning rules such as a requirement to provide a Social Security number for a hunting license.\n", "Individuals who are fleeing to avoid prosecution or incarceration for a felony or violating probation or parole are statutorily prohibited from receiving SSI or Title II Social Security benefits.\n\nThe Social Security Administration interpreted the statutes broadly to include individuals whose names were matched against a warrant database. Some individuals lost benefits even though the warrant in question was for a different person. For others, the presence of a warrant did not necessarily mean that an individual was \"fleeing,\" or that the individual had violated probation or parole.\n", "Some SSNs used in advertising have rendered those numbers invalid. One famous instance of this occurred in 1938 when the E. H. Ferree Company in Lockport, New York, decided to promote its product by showing how a Social Security card would fit into its wallets. A sample card, used for display purposes, was placed in each wallet, which was sold by Woolworth and other department stores across the country; the wallet manufacturer's vice president and treasurer Douglas Patterson used the actual SSN of his secretary, Hilda Schrader Whitcher.\n" ]

[ "Social Security numbers should be secure." ]

[ "Social Security numbers were never meant to be secure; they were meant for a single government program." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Social Security numbers should be secure." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Social Security numbers were never meant to be secure; they were meant for a single government program." ]

[ "BULLET::::- This tactic was used in an advertisement campaign by Sir-Tech in 1997 to advertise \"\". When the file is run, a full screen representation of the desktop appears. The software then begins simulating deletion of the Windows folder. When this process is complete, a message is slowly typed on screen saying \"Thank God this is only a game.\" A screen with the purchase information appears on screen and then returns to the desktop. No damage is done to the computer during the advertisement.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ransomware\n\nBULLET::::- Rogue security software\n\nBULLET::::- Winwebsec\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"3D Maze\" (possibly due to the Windows logo having been changed, although the Wingdings font with the old Windows logo is still present) and \"Channel Screen Saver\" screensavers were removed. The \"3D Pipes\" teapot easter egg also no longer works on Windows XP.\n\nSection::::Windows Explorer.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Small Icons\" view is no longer available in Windows Explorer.\n", "Section::::Known screens of death.\n\nBULLET::::- The Blue Screen of Death (also called BSoD, or stop error) is a common name for a screen displayed by the Microsoft Windows operating system when a critical system error occurs. By far, this is the most famous screen of death.\n\nBULLET::::- Two Black Screen of Death are known: One is a failure mode of Windows 3.x. One appears when the bootloader for Windows Vista and later fails.\n", "A famous instance of a Windows 9x BSoD occurred during a presentation of a Windows 98 Beta by Bill Gates at COMDEX on April 20, 1998: The demo PC crashed with a BSoD when his assistant, Chris Capossela, connected a scanner to the PC to demonstrate Windows 98's support for Plug and Play devices. This event brought thunderous applause from the crowd and Gates replied after a nervous pause: \"That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98 yet.\"\n\nSection::::Windows CE.\n", "Operating systems other than Windows (e.g., macOS, Unix, Linux, etc.) are not directly affected. However, a non-Windows system could become vulnerable if it runs software to view Windows WMF files. This could include software that incorporates or clones Windows' native Graphics Device Interface (GDI) Dynamic-link library (DLL) or that run Windows or Windows programs through an emulator or compatibility layer. A Unix-like system that uses Wine to emulate Windows, for example, could be exploited. Gibson wrote the program MouseTrap, which his company distributes as freeware, to detect Windows Metafile vulnerability in systems running Windows and Windows emulators.\n\nSection::::The vulnerability.\n", "In late 2009, several new reports of the Black Screen of Death in Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 emerged. At first several claims pointed at a Windows Update. It was later recanted by Prevx as an erroneous report. Microsoft reported that no security update was causing the issue, and it may be tied to malware. In other cases, the black screen was replaced with the Blue Screen of Death. The Black Screen of Death may also be caused by certain components of a computer overheating.\n", "BULLET::::- The AARD code, a block of code in the windows launcher (WIN.COM) and a few other system files of Windows 3.1. It was XOR encrypted, self-modifying, and deliberately obfuscated, using various undocumented DOS structures and functions to determine whether or not Windows really was running on MS-DOS. In the beta versions, it displayed an \"error\" message if the test for genuine MS-DOS failed, prompting the user to abort or continue, with abort the default. In the final release version, the code still ran, but the message and prompt were disabled by an added flag byte, rendering it (probably) ineffectual.\n", "The Pipes screensaver in Windows 95 (OSR2 onwards), 98, ME, NT 4.0 and 2000 occasionally insert a Utah teapot instead of a standard joint. It only appears if the pipes are \"multiple\", pipe-style \"standard\", joint-type \"multiple\" and texture \"solid\" under the screensaver's settings. Windows 2000 and Windows XP have an undocumented texture in the Pipes screensaver (codice_9) that makes the pipes red and white similar to candy canes.\n", "Section::::Devices.:Monitor.:Compromising reflections.\n\nWhat is displayed by the monitor is reflected on the environment. The time-varying diffuse reflections of the light emitted by a CRT monitor can be exploited to recover the original monitor image. This is an eavesdropping technique for spying at a distance on data that is displayed on an arbitrary computer screen, including the currently prevalent LCD monitors.\n", "Cascade (computer virus)\n\nThe Cascade virus (also known as \"Herbstlaub\" in Germany) is a prominent computer virus that was a resident written in assembly language, that was widespread in the 1980s and early 1990s. It infected .COM files and had the effect of making text on the screen cascade down and form a heap at the bottom of the screen. It was notable for using an encryption algorithm to avoid being detected. However, one could see that infected files had their size increased by 1701 or 1704 bytes. In response, IBM developed its own antivirus software.\n", "Section::::History.:Windows Vista.\n", "It is worth noting that 16 bit Windows (except the rarely used Real mode of Windows 3.0) was immune to the vulnerability because the pointer specified in the metafile can only point to data within the metafile, and 16 bit Windows always had a full no-execute-data enforcement mandated by the segmented architecture of 16 bit protected mode. Windows NT for CPU architectures other than 32 bit x86 (such as MIPS, PowerPC, Alpha, Itanium and x86_64) required return-oriented programming to exploit because those architectures had the no-execute functionality missing from older x86 processors.\n", "BULLET::::- There were features needed to be turned on while Windows 95 was tested, and the secret of turning them on was not removed. Some of the desktop features, including full window drag and anti-aliased fonts, could be turned on by placing the line codice_23 under the codice_24 section in codice_25.\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n\nPrevx stirred up controversy amongst the internet communities when they announced on November 27, 2009 that a recent Windows update was causing a \"Black Screen of Death\", affecting users of Windows XP, Vista and 7. They claimed this bug rendered the machine unusable. It was later discovered that the black screen was caused by a malware infection (with Daonol), unrelated to the Windows update. Prevx then apologized for its earlier claims.\n\nSection::::Acquisition.\n", "BULLET::::- Problems that occur with incompatible versions of DLLs: Windows loads these DLLs into memory when they are needed by application programs; if versions are changed, the next time an application loads the DLL it may be different from what the application expects. These incompatibilities increase over time as more new software is installed, and is one of the main reasons why a freshly installed copy of Windows is more stable than an \"old\" one.\n\nBULLET::::- Faulty or poorly written device drivers\n\nBULLET::::- Hardware incompatibilities\n\nDamaged hardware may also cause a BSoD.\n", "The malware drew considerable public attention when a software bug in its code caused some 32-bit Windows systems to crash upon installation of security update MS10-015. The malware was using a hard-coded memory address in the kernel that changed after the installation of the hotfix. Microsoft subsequently modified the hotfix to prevent installation if an Alureon infection is present, The malware author(s) also fixed the bug in the code.\n", "The technique exploits reflections of the screen's optical emanations in various objects that one commonly finds in close proximity to the screen and uses those reflections to recover the original screen content. Such objects include eyeglasses, tea pots, spoons, plastic bottles, and even the eye of the user. This attack can be successfully mounted to spy on even small fonts using inexpensive, off-the-shelf equipment (less than 1500 dollars) from a distance of up to 10 meters. Relying on more expensive equipment allowed to conduct this attack from over 30 meters away, demonstrating that similar attacks are feasible from the other side of the street or from a close by building.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Development.\n", "The discretionary labelling mechanism added security labels to files, application windows and the clipboard. The user's desktop display was augmented with a stripe across the top of the screen. This showed the security label of the application window that had focus and the security label of the clipboard. When data was copied to the clipboard the clipboard label was set to that of the source application window. When data was copied from the clipboard the destination application window's label \"floated up\" to the label of the new data. The user was free to change the label of a window or the clipboard at any time.\n", "What actually happened was that I was in the process of adding multiwindows to vi when we installed our VAX, which would have been in December of '78. We didn't have any backups and the tape drive broke. I continued to work even without being able to do backups. And then the source code got scrunched and I didn't have a complete listing. I had almost rewritten all of the display code for windows, and that was when I gave up. After that, I went back to the previous version and just documented the code, finished the manual and closed it off. If that scrunch had not happened, vi would have multiple windows, and I might have put in some programmability—but I don't know.\n", "A quasi-viral advertisement campaign for the game was started—one of the first of its kind. The advertisement, named Russ, was viewed in the form of a downloaded .exe file. When the file was run, a full screen representation of the desktop appeared. The software then began simulating deletion of the Windows folder. When this process was complete, a message was slowly typed on screen saying \"Thank god this is only a game.\" A screen with the purchase information appeared on screen and then returned to the desktop. No damage was done to the computer during the advertisement. This advertisement was not well received, most likely due to the scareware tactic involved.\n", "An important feature of the xscreensaver daemon's design is that the display modes are sandboxed into a separate process from the screen locking framework. This means that a programming error in one of the graphical display modes cannot compromise the screen locker itself (e.g., a crash in a display mode will not un-lock the screen).\n\nOn Unix systems, running the hacks from the command line will cause them to open their own non-full-screen window.\n", "On 28 January 2018, it was reported that Intel shared news of the Meltdown and Spectre security vulnerabilities with Chinese technology companies, before notifying the U.S. government of the flaws.\n\nOn 29 January 2018, Microsoft was reported to have released a Windows update that disabled the problematic Intel Microcode fix—which had, in some cases, caused reboots, system instability, and data loss/corruption—issued earlier by Intel for the Spectre Variant 2 attack. Concerns about installing the new Microsoft patch have been reported.\n", "Build 4029's name was displayed as \"onghornLay rofessionalPay ersionVay 2003\" (Pig Latin for Longhorn Professional Version 2003) in various places around the operating system. While some had presumed that screenshots of this build were fake because of this seemingly obvious mistake, Microsoft later explained that this was merely a test of some new code to locate and reduce the number of places in the operating system code that the name was defined.\n\nSection::::2003 and early 2004: New technology.:Milestone 6.\n", "The Windows Experience Index score is not displayed in Windows 8.1 and onwards because the graphical user interface for WinSAT was removed in these versions of Windows, although the command line winsat tool still exists and operates correctly along with a final score when launching the command \"shell:games\". According to an article in PC Pro, Microsoft removed the WinSAT GUI in order to promote the idea that all kinds of hardware run Windows 8 equally well.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "These cash counters do not examine each note or coin separately but work by using finely calibrated loadcells to assess a number of notes or coins at a time, and using a constantly updated, stored average weight to compute the number of pieces it has been presented with. These machines often use complex algorithms to take into consideration the variation in the condition of the money arising from wear, humidity and production variances.\n", "Also known as validators or acceptors, paper currency detectors scan paper currency using optical and magnetic sensors. Upon validation, the validator will inform the vending machine controller (VMC) or other host device of a credit via a parallel or serial interface. Various interfaces exist for the host device, including a single-line pulse interface, a multi-line parallel interface, a multi-line binary interface, and serial interfaces such as ccTalk, SSP, and MDB. Wrinkled or creased notes can cause these machines to reject them.\n", "The process involves examining the coins and/or notes that have been inserted into the machine, and conducts various tests to determine if the currency is counterfeit. Because the parameters are different for each coin or note, these currency acceptors must be correctly programmed for each item to be accepted.\n", "Currency and other financial instruments commonly use this second type of authentication method. Bills, coins, and cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features, such as fine printing or engraving, distinctive feel, watermarks, and holographic imagery, which are easy for trained receivers to verify.\n", "Each entry has a serial number embedded, together with denomination, currency, identifier of the issuing bank as well as layer of digital watermarks and digital signatures. Signatures are both in standard RSA format and on elliptic curves created by bank's HSM.\n", "Some new types of coin acceptors are able to recognize the coins through \"training\", so they will support any new types of coins or tokens when correctly introduced.\n\nSection::::Testing methods.\n\nVending and change machines use several methods of deciding whether a banknote is genuine. Adjusting these settings and the sensitivity of each is programmed via means of dip switches on the internal circuitry.\n\nSection::::Testing methods.:Optical sensing.\n", "Most of bill counters have counterfeit detection measures including ultraviolet (UV) and magnetic (MG) detection. This means the counter will scan the ultraviolet properties of the bills and the magnetic ink at the same time it is counting the currency. Most counters will stop and alert the user when a counterfeit banknote is detected.\n", "The free site, established by Hank Eskin, a computer consultant in Brookline, Massachusetts, allows people to enter their local postal code and the serial and series of any Canadian denomination from $5 up to $100 they want to track. Once a bill is registered, the site reports the time between sightings, the distance travelled and any comments from the finders, and anyone who registered the bill earlier learns about it by e-mail and/or text messaging.\n", "Today, sophisticated electronic coin acceptors are being used in some places that, in addition to examining the mass, weight and size, also scan the inserted coin using optics and match the image to a pre-defined list, or test the coin's \"metallic signature\" based on its alloy composition.\n", "Internal communication in vending machines is typically based on the MDB standard, supported by National Automatic Merchandising Association (NAMA) and European Vending & Coffee Service Association (EVA).\n\nAfter payment has been tendered, a product may become available by:\n\nBULLET::::- the machine releasing it, so that it falls in an open compartment at the bottom, or into a cup, either released first, or put in by the customer, or\n\nBULLET::::- the unlocking of a door, drawer, or turning of a knob.\n", "Electronic cash counters tend to be small in size, silent, battery operated, very fast and accurate. They are often used on the desktops of bank tellers to check customer deposits or withdrawals or by retailers to count money from cash registers. Although their capability varies by model, typically they can count both notes and coins and check standard bank bundles or bags/rolls of coin to ensure that they are correct. This technology was invented in 1979 by Edgar Biss who went on to form the global company Tellermate.\n\nSection::::Counterfeit detection.\n", "In normal operation, if any item such as a coin, banknote, card or ticket is accepted, it is retained within the machine and it falls into a storage container to allow a member of staff to collect it later when emptying the machine. If the item is rejected, the machine returns the item to the customer. If a coin or token is rejected, it usually falls into a tray or rolls out of a slot at the bottom where the customer can remove the coin. If a banknote, card or ticket is rejected, it is pushed back out through the machine so that the customer can remove it from the slot into which it was inserted.\n", "Optical sensing with a small light detector called a photocell or a miniature digital camera is one of the main techniques that vending machines use. Many countries' banknotes are pixelated—that is, they are made out of small dots. The dots are spaced differently and have different sizes, depending on the note. The optical sensors can look for these different patterns to determine what sort of note has been inserted. Some paper money is also fluorescent: it glows when ultraviolet light is shined on it. Some machines shine an ultraviolet light on the note and measure the glow to help determine the banknote's material composition.\n", "Dollar Bills with interesting serial numbers can also be collected. One example of this is radar or “palindrome“ notes, where the numbers in the serial number are the same if you read from left to right or right to left. Very low serial numbers, or a long block of the same or repeating digits may also be of interest to specialists. Another example is replacement notes, which have a star to the right of the serial number. The star designates that there was a printing error on one or more of the bills, and it has been replaced by one from a run specifically printed and numbered to be replacements. Star notes may have some additional value depending on their condition, their year series or if they have an unusual serial number sequence. To determine the rarity of modern star notes, production tables are maintained.\n", "To increase the chance of having a bill reported, users write or stamp text on the bills encouraging bill finders to visit whereswilly.com and track the bill's travels.\n\nSince Canada has replaced the one and two dollar bills with more durable coins, the $5 note is the smallest denomination tracked by Where's Willy.\n\nIn April 2003, \"USA Today\" named whereswilly.com one of its \"Hot Sites\".\n", "US counterfeiters bleach small denominations and print more valuable bills on the resulting blank paper to evade this test, although changes to the currency since 2004 have made this method easier to detect. This is one reason that many currencies use different sized notes for different denominations.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.:False positives.\n", "A stack of bills are placed in a compartment of the machine, and then one bill at a time is mechanically pulled through the machine. By counting the number of times a beam of light is interrupted, the machine can count the bills. By comparing an image of each bill to pattern recognition criteria, the machine can figure out the denominations of the bills and how much genuine money was placed in the compartment.\n\nSection::::Banknote and coin counters.\n", "In the TAU's cash handling mechanisms are several money cartridges. These can be equipped with different cash notes or coinage. The input into the controlling computer makes possible for this unit to disburse the correct amounts. Notes are tested to ensure that they are removed correctly from the cartridges and that no surplus notes are removed. False disbursements are possible, although very rare.\n", "BULLET::::- A test note generally has no identifiable denomination or has a fictitious currency and is used by independent printers or Government printers to showcase their printing technology or anti-counterfeiting measures, or as souvenirs at various industry tradeshows or collector events and expositions. Some test notes, generally much cruder, are issued by manufacturers of Automated Teller Machines, cash registers, banknote authenticating or counting machines for purposes of testing.\n", "Currency bill tracking\n\nCurrency bill tracking is the process (usually facilitated by any one of a number of websites set up for the purpose) of tracking the movements of banknotes, similar to how ornithologists track migrations of birds by ringing them. Currency bill tracking sites can track currency among the users of that website. A user may register a bill by entering its serial number, and if someone else has already registered the bill, then the \"route\" of the bill can be displayed.\n", "BULLET::::- Anti-Photocopy Circle Pattern: Small yellow \"05\"s are printed to the left of the portrait on the front of the bill and to the right of the Lincoln Memorial vignette on the back. The zeros in the \"05\"s form a \"EURion constellation\" to prevent photocopying of the bill. Photocopy machines detect the particular pattern of yellow circles and refuse to make a copy. Some machines make a record of the illegal photocopy attempt, which a repair technician may report to law enforcement.\n\nThe five dollar bill lacks the Optically variable ink of higher denomination US bills.\n\nSection::::Current design.:Design features.\n", "In 1981 computerized friction note counters were introduced in the form of the REI High-Speed machine, which sped up note counting to 72,000 notes per hour and eliminated the need manual sorting and counting completely. This innovative Sorter machine could also sort notes according to their value and remove counterfeit or heavily damaged notes. Many of these features are present in today’s note counting machines, some of which can detect a note's security features (e.g. magnetic ink, ultraviolet ink, magnetic strip, note density etc.) to identify counterfeit and damaged notes.\n", "End-users and consumers need to be educated to watch for signs of tampering, both at the primary means of entrance and at secondary or \"back door\" locations on a package.\n\nSection::::Credit cards, money, stamps, coupons.\n\nIn financial terms, tamper-evident design overlaps a lot with anti-forgery techniques, as ways to detect monetary tokens which are not what they seem.\n\nPostage stamps for example, may contain a layer of ultraviolet-reflective ink which changes state under pressure. The impact from a postmarking machine then leaves a UV-visible mark as well as an ink mark which identifies attempts to reuse stamps.\n", "Other extra features that facilitate everyday contact with cash may also be present.\n\nSection::::Electronic counters for bills/ money and coins.\n\nElectronic counting systems, with no moving parts, exist that count both notes and coins on the same machine and sum the value of all denominations counted. They are normally used to count individual deposits or the content of cash drawers and do not sort or check for counterfeit or damaged notes.The machine uses a LC display with a back light so that the total amount of the notes is shown brightly and is easy to see.\n", "In some modern automated teller machines, currency counters allow for cash deposits without envelopes, since they can identify which bills have been inserted instead of just how many. The user is given the chance to review the automatic counter's idea of the quantity and kinds of the inserted banknotes before the deposit is complete.\n\nSection::::Banknote-only counters.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Lisinopril\n\nLisinopril is a medication of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, and after heart attacks. For high blood pressure it is usually a first line treatment, although in black people calcium-channel blockers or thiazide diuretics work better. It is also used to prevent kidney problems in people with diabetes. Lisinopril is taken by mouth. Full effect may take up to four weeks to occur.\n", "Common side effects include muscle cramps, stuffy nose, cough, and high blood potassium. Severe side effects may include angioedema, low blood pressure, and kidney problems. Use during pregnancy may result in harm to the baby. Use is not recommended during breastfeeding. It is in the angiotensin receptor blocker family of medication. It works by blocking angiotensin II.\n", "Some medications may have the side effect of increasing blood pressure and may even suppress the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs. Pain and anti-inflammatory drugs like Indomethacin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and piroxicam would retain water in the systemic circulation, raising the blood pressure. Other types of medications like antidepressant, hormone and caffeine would also increase blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Iloprost\n\nIloprost is a drug used to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), scleroderma, Raynaud's phenomenon and other diseases in which the blood vessels are constricted and blood can't flow to the tissues. This damages the tissues and causes high blood pressure. Iloprost works by opening (dilating) the blood vessels to allow the blood to flow through again. It was developed by the pharmaceutical company Schering AG and is marketed by Bayer Schering Pharma AG in Europe and Actelion Pharmaceuticals in the USA.\n\nSection::::Clinical pharmacology.\n", "While used for high blood pressure, other better-studied medications are typically recommended. \"Prescrire\" has stated that aliskiren is potentially more harmful than beneficial and thus list it as a drug to avoid (as of 2014).\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "IV iloprost is usually administered diluted, via a peripheral vein or central venous catheter. The diluted iloprost should be delivered by an accurate rate delivery system such as a syringe driver. Doses vary with individuals as side effects are better tolerated by some patients than others. The duration of the treatment is typically 3 days. This is usually repeated every 8 to 12 weeks \n\nSection::::Important safety information.\n\nContraindications: \n", "Losartan\n\nLosartan, sold under the trade name Cozaar among others, is a medication mainly used to treat high blood pressure. It is also used for diabetic kidney disease, heart failure, and left ventricular enlargement. It is taken by mouth. It may be used alone or in addition to other blood pressure medication. Up to six weeks may be required for the full effects to occur.\n", "Common side effects when given to babies include decreased breathing, fever, and low blood pressure. When used for erectile dysfunction side effects may include penile pain, bleeding at the site of injection, and prolonged erection. Prostaglandin E1 is in the vasodilator family of medications. It works by opening blood vessels by relaxing smooth muscle.\n", "Section::::Contraindications.\n\nTreatment with lisinopril should be avoided for people who have a history of angioedema (hereditary or idiopathic) or who have diabetes and are taking aliskiren.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n\nThe incidence of adverse effects varies according to which disease state the patient is being treated for.\n\nPeople taking lisinopril for the treatment of hypertension may experience the following side effects:\n\nBULLET::::- Headache (3.8%)\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness (3.5%)\n\nBULLET::::- Cough (2.5%) Persons with the ACE I/D genetic polymorphism may be at higher risk for ACE inhibitor-associated cough.\n\nBULLET::::- Difficulty swallowing or breathing (signs of angioedema), allergic reaction (anaphylaxis)\n", "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has determined that the benefits of olmesartan continue to outweigh its potential risks when used for the treatment of patients with high blood pressure according to the drug label.\n\nSection::::Contraindications.\n\nContraindications for treatment with olmesartan include biliary obstruction. Another major contraindication is pregnancy; reports in the scientific literature reveal fetal malformations for pregnant women taking sartan-derived drugs.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n", "Common side effects include vomiting, fever, diarrhea, and excessive uterine contraction. In babies there may be decreased breathing and low blood pressure. Care should be taken in people with asthma or glaucoma and it is not recommended in those who have had a prior C-section. Prostaglandin E2 is in the oxytocics family of medications. It works by binding and activating the prostaglandin E2 receptor which results in the opening and softening of the cervix and dilation of blood vessels.\n", "During a U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) COX-2 advisory committee meeting, doctors have underlined the important role of small increase in blood pressure. They cited the \"CAMELOT\" trial which has concluded that even a small decrease in systolic blood pressure of 5 mmHg could lead to a reduction of 31% in cardiovascular events. Clinical studies about rofecoxib have shown that this drug increases the systolic blood pressure.\n", "Lisinopril was patented in 1978 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1987. It is available as a generic medication. In the United States the wholesale cost per month was less than 0.70 USD as of 2018. In the United Kingdom it cost the NHS about 10 pounds per month as of 2018. In 2016, it was the 2nd most prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 110 million prescriptions.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.\n\nLisinopril is typically used for the treatment of high blood pressure, congestive heart failure, acute myocardial infarction (heart attack), and diabetic nephropathy.\n", "According to some experts, cardiovascular risks induced by COX-2 inhibitors are caused by increases in blood pressure. Naproxcinod demonstrated in a clinical trial with 916 patients to have a blood pressure profile similar to placebo. Two phase II randomized controlled trials have shown a decreased systolic blood pressure by 2.1 mmHg after patients took naproxcinod (375 mg or 750 mg twice daily) for six weeks. These effects were especially pronounced in hypertensive populations.\n\nSection::::Safety profile.:Blood pressure profile.:Clinical relevance of small increase in blood pressure.\n", "CYT006-AngQb\n\nCYT006-AngQb was an investigational vaccine against angiotensin II, designed to lower blood pressure. It was somewhat effective in clinical trials, but less so than conventional drugs against hypertension (elevated blood pressure).\n\nSection::::Method of action.\n\nAngiotensin II causes blood vessels to constrict, and drives blood pressure up. CYT006-AngQb consists of virus-like particles covalently coupled to angiotensin II. Subcutaneous injection causes the immune system to produce antibodies which reduce angiotensin II blood levels, lowering blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Studies.\n", "Common side effects include headache, dizziness, feeling tired, cough, nausea, and rash. Serious side effects may include low blood pressure, liver problems, high blood potassium, and angioedema. Use during pregnancy is not recommended as it may harm the baby. Lisinopril works by inhibiting the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.\n", "In patients with pulmonary hypertension, inhaled epoprostenol reduces pulmonary pressure, and improves right ventricular stroke volume in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. A dose of 60 µg is hemodynamically safe, and its effect is completely reversed after 25 minutes. No evidence of platelet dysfunction or an increase in surgical bleeding after administration of inhaled epoprostenol has been found. The drug has been known to cause flushing, headaches and hypotension.\n\nSection::::Synthesis.\n\nSection::::Synthesis.:Biosynthesis.\n", "Labetalol\n\nLabetalol is a medication used to treat high blood pressure and in long term management of angina. This includes essential hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, and hypertension of pregnancy. In essential hypertension it is generally less preferred than a number of other blood pressure medications. It can be given by mouth or by injection into a vein.\n", "Terlipressin\n\nTerlipressin (trade names Teripress by New Medicon Pharma and Glypressin by Ferring Pharmaceuticals) is an analogue of vasopressin used as a vasoactive drug in the management of low blood pressure. It has been found to be effective when norepinephrine does not help.\n\nIndications for use include norepinephrine-resistant septic shock and hepatorenal syndrome. In addition, it is used to treat bleeding esophageal varices.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n\nTerlipressin is currently not available in the United States, or Canada, but it is available in New Zealand, Australia, much of Europe, India & UAE.\n\nAlso in pakistan\n\nSection::::Contraindications.\n\nTerlipressin must not be used during pregnancy.\n", "First-line medications for hypertension include thiazide-diuretics, calcium channel blockers, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs). These medications may be used alone or in combination (ACE inhibitors and ARBs are not recommended for use in combination); the latter option may serve to minimize counter-regulatory mechanisms that act to restore blood pressure values to pre-treatment levels. Most people require more than one medication to control their hypertension. Medications for blood pressure control should be implemented by a stepped care approach when target levels are not reached.\n", "Except for postural hypotension, which occurs due to short and fast mode of action of captopril, most of the side effects mentioned are common for all ACE inhibitors. Among these, cough is the most common adverse effect. Hyperkalemia can occur, especially if used with other drugs which elevate potassium level in blood, such as potassium-sparing diuretics. Other side effects are:\n\nBULLET::::- Itching\n\nBULLET::::- Headache\n\nBULLET::::- Tachycardia\n\nBULLET::::- Chest pain\n\nBULLET::::- Palpitations\n\nBULLET::::- Weakness\n", "The agents of choice for blood pressure control during eclampsia are hydralazine and/or labetalol. This is because of their effectiveness, lack of negative effects on the fetus, and mechanism of action.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Delivery.\n", "Drugs that may decrease the effects of phenylephrine may include calcium channel blockers, ACE inhibitors and benzodiazepines. Patients taking these medications may need a higher dose of phenylephrine to achieve a comparable increase in blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "Taurolidine is an antimicrobial agent used in an effort to prevent catheter infections. It however is not approved for this use in the United States as of 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- Catheter lock solution in home parenteral nutrition (HPN) or total parenteral nutrition (TPN): catheter-related blood stream infections (CRBSI) remains the most common serious complication associated with long-term parenteral nutrition. The use of taurolidine as a catheter lock solution shows a reduction of CRBSI. The overall quality of the evidence however is not strong enough to justify routine use.\n", "BULLET::::- Iloprost activates EP, EP, and EP receptors; it is in clinical use to treat diseases involving pathological constriction of blood vessels such as pulmonary hypertension, Raynauds disease, and scleroderma. Presumably, Iloprost works by stimulating EP, and EP receptors which have vasodilation actions.\n\nOther drugs are in various stages of clinical development or have been proposed to be tested for clinical development. A sampling of these includes:\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Flatscreen Plasma displays have a similar effect. The plasma pixels fade in brightness between refreshes.\n", "Flicker is used intentionally by developers on low-end systems to create the illusion of more objects or colors/shades than are actually possible on the system, or as a speedy way of simulating transparency. While typically thought of as a mark of older systems like 16-bit game consoles, the flicker technique continues to be used on new systems, such as the temporal dithering used to fake true color on most new LCD monitors.\n\nVideo hardware outside the monitor can also cause flicker through many different timing and resolution-related artifacts such as screen tearing, z-fighting and aliasing.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "Higher refresh rates, while they reduce flicker, may cause other problems. Simply redisplaying the fields may cause judder, particularly on fast moving images, as the image is displayed repeatedly in the same location, rather than moving smoothly. Conversely, interpolation (which avoids judder and may create more fluid motion than in the original video) can instead cause blurring, particularly visible on fast scrolling text. See motion interpolation for further discussion.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker (screen)\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker fusion threshold\n\nSection::::Notes.\n\nBULLET::::- Pulse Width Modulation Effects of PWM used in LCD brightness control\n", "Siggy Flicker\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nFlicker was born in Israel to Jewish parents and grew up in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, after moving to the United States as a five-year-old. Her mother named her Sigalit after the Hebrew word for \"violet.\" After graduating from Cherry Hill High School West, she attended Monmouth University. She supported herself as a waitress at TGI Friday's and earned a bachelor of arts degree in communications.\n\nSection::::Career.\n", "In computer displays this consists of changing the frame rate of the produced signal in the video card (and in sync with this, the displayed image on the display). This is limited by the clock speed of the video adapter and frame rate required of the program – for a given pixel clock speed, higher refresh rates require lower resolution or color depth, and higher frame rates require that the program producing the video recalculate the screen more frequently. For these reasons, refresh rates above 90–100 Hz to reduce flicker are uncommon on computers – these rates are sufficient to eliminate flicker.\n", "Much more of a concern is the LCD backlight. Earlier screens used fluorescent lamps which flickered at 100 or 120 Hz; most modern screens use an electronic ballast that flickers at 25–60 kHz which is far outside the human perceptible range. LED backlights should not flicker at all, though some designs may \"dim\" themselves by switching on and off rapidly and noticeably.\n", "Chewing something crunchy such as tortilla chips or granola can induce flicker perception due to the vibrations from chewing synchronizing with the flicker rate of the display.\n\nSection::::Software artifacts.\n\nSoftware can cause flicker effects by directly displaying an unintended intermediate image for a short time. For example, drawing a page of text by blanking the area to white first in the frame buffer, then drawing 'on top' of it, makes it possible for the blank region to appear momentarily onscreen. Usually this is much faster and easier to program than to directly set each pixel to its final value.\n", "Section::::Use with the Commodore Amiga.\n", "When it is not feasible to set each pixel only once, double buffering can be used. This creates an off-screen drawing surface, drawing to it (with as much flicker as you want), and then copying it all at once to the screen. The result is the visible pixels only change once. While this technique cuts down on software flicker, it can also be very inefficient.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, modern LCD monitors are not flicker free, since most of them use pulse-width modulation (PWM) for brightness control. As the brightness setting is lowered, the flicker becomes more noticeable, since the period when the backlight is active in each PWM duty cycle shortens. The problem is much more pronounced on modern LED backlit monitors, because LED backlight reacts faster to changes in current. \n\nSection::::Implementation.\n\nThe goal is to display images sufficiently frequently to exceed the human flicker fusion threshold, and hence create the impression of a constant (non-flickering) source.\n", "Televisions operating at these frequencies are often labelled as being 100 or 120 Hz without using the words \"flicker-free\" in the description.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n\nThe term is primarily used for CRTs, especially televisions in 50 Hz countries (PAL or SECAM) and computer monitors from the 1990s and early 2000s – the 50 Hz rate of PAL/SECAM video (compared with 60 Hz NTSC video) and the relatively large computer monitors and close viewing distances of 1990s/2000s computer monitors (hence making more of the screen in the viewer's peripheral vision) make flicker most noticeable on these devices.\n", "Flicker (screen)\n\nFlicker is a visible change in brightness between cycles displayed on video displays. It applies especially to the refresh interval on Cathode ray tube (CRT) televisions and computer monitors, as well as Plasma based computer screens and televisions.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "The human eye is most sensitive to flicker at the edges of the human field of view (peripheral vision) and least sensitive at the center of gaze (the area being focused on). As a result, the greater the portion of our field of view that is occupied by a display, the greater is the need for high refresh rates. This is why computer monitor CRTs usually run at 70 to 90 Hz, while TVs, which are viewed from further away, are seen as acceptable at 60 or 50 Hz (see Analog television Standards).\n", "In interlaced video, the horizontal scan lines of each complete frame are treated as if numbered consecutively, and captured as two \"fields\": an \"odd field\" (upper field) consisting of the odd-numbered lines and an \"even field\" (lower field) consisting of the even-numbered lines. Analog display devices reproduce each frame, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. When the image capture device acquires the fields one at a time, rather than dividing up a complete frame after it is captured, the frame rate for motion is effectively doubled as well, resulting in smoother, more lifelike reproduction of rapidly moving parts of the image when viewed on an interlaced CRT display.\n", "Other display technologies do not flicker noticeably, so the frame rate is less important. LCD flat panels do not \"seem\" to flicker at all, as the backlight of the screen operates at a very high frequency of nearly 200 Hz, and each pixel is changed on a scan rather than briefly turning on and then off as in CRT displays. However, the nature of the back-lighting used can induce flicker – LEDs cannot be easily dimmed, and therefore use pulse-width modulation to create the illusion of dimming, and the frequency used can be perceived as flicker by sensitive users.\n\nSection::::Technological considerations.:Lighting.\n", "In some cases, it is possible to see flicker at rates beyond 2000 Hz (2 kHz) in the case of high-speed eye movements (saccades) or object motion, via the \"phantom array\" effect. Fast-moving flickering objects zooming across view (either by object motion, or by eye motion such as rolling eyes), can cause a dotted or multicolored blur instead of a continuous blur, as if they were multiple objects. Stroboscopes are sometimes used to induce this effect intentionally. \n", "Flicker occurs on CRTs when they are driven at a low refresh rate, allowing the brightness to drop for time intervals sufficiently long to be noticed by a human eye – see persistence of vision and flicker fusion threshold. For most devices, the screen's phosphors quickly lose their excitation between sweeps of the electron gun, and the afterglow is unable to fill such gaps – see phosphor persistence. A refresh rate of 60 Hz on most screens will produce a visible \"flickering\" effect. Most people find that refresh rates of 70–90 Hz and above enable flicker-free viewing on CRTs. Use of refresh rates above 120 Hz is uncommon, as they provide little noticeable flicker reduction and limit available resolution.\n", "Televisions use interlaced video so the screen flickers at twice the rate (50 or 60 Hz) that the image changes (25 or 30 Hz). This was considered necessary even in the very first televisions which used very slow phosphors.\n\nThe exact refresh rate necessary to prevent the perception of flicker varies greatly based on the viewing environment. In a completely dark room, a sufficiently dim display can run as low as 30 Hz without visible flicker. At normal room and TV brightness this same display rate would produce flicker so severe as to be unwatchable.\n", "BULLET::::- Flicker can be noticed except at very high refresh rates, as each eye is effectively receiving only half of the monitor's actual refresh rate. However, modern LC glasses generally work in higher refresh rates and eliminate this problem for most people.\n\nBULLET::::- Until recently, the method only worked with CRT monitors; some modern flat-panel monitors now support high-enough refresh rates to work with some LC shutter systems. Many projectors, especially DLP-based ones, support 3D out of the box.\n", "Flicker\n\nFlicker may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Flickers, woodpeckers of the subgenus \"Colaptes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker (screen), a change in brightness between frames that occurs on a cathode-ray screen at low refresh rates\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker (light), is a directly visible change in brightness of a light source\n\nBULLET::::- Power-line flicker, a fluctuation in the voltage of AC power lines, whose compliance is regulated by IEC61000-3-3\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker noise, electrical noise with a 1/f spectrum.\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker, a guitar tremolo made by ESP Guitars in the late 1970s and early 1980s\n\nPeople\n\nBULLET::::- Tal Flicker (born 1992), Israeli judoka\n", "In LCD screens, the LCD itself does not flicker, it preserves its opacity unchanged until updated for the next frame. However, in order to prevent accumulated damage LCD displays quickly alternate the voltage between positive and negative for each pixel, which is called 'polarity inversion'. Ideally, this wouldn't be noticeable because every pixel has the same brightness whether a positive or a negative voltage is applied. In practice, there is a small difference, which means that every pixel flickers at about 30 Hz. Screens that use opposite polarity per-line or per-pixel can reduce this effect compared to when the entire screen is at the same polarity, sometimes the type of screen is detectable by using patterns designed to maximize the effect.\n", "Film recorded for the purposes of United Kingdom television production is usually recorded at 25 frames per second; there is an unrecorded temporal gap between each frame and the next. In contrast, video pictures are recorded as a stream of video fields. Each field can be loosely seen as half a frame, but each field is also a discrete image separated from the previous field by 1/50 second. This difference in the rate of change of the image is one of the factors contributing to the \"video look\", familiar to viewers as the more immediate, \"live\" feel seen in many soap operas and sports programmes.\n", "One computer capable of producing an interlaced image is the Commodore Amiga. The Amiga's default video mode is PAL or NTSC. NTSC and PAL interlaced screens have two fields called odd and even. The fields switch every 60th of a second on NTSC, or 50th of a second on PAL, which allows for higher resolution while using a narrower signal bandwidth than full 50 or 60 FPS progressive video would require, but it can also produce an alarming jittering effect for graphics with high contrast details between fields. This NTSC/PAL compatibility gave the Amiga a distinct edge in uses such as television production and gaming, but since the original Amigas were unable to produce vertically high-resolution displays without flickering this was unsuitable for office-like usage where one might need to work with a clear high-resolution image for several hours. Flicker fixers were devised to remedy this.\n", "Flicker of a CRT monitor can cause various symptoms in those sensitive to it such as headaches in migraine sufferers and seizures in epileptics.\n", "When film is scanned so that an electronic (video) copy can be made, various means are used to help ensure that the variations in frame position as a result of sprocket hole wear are minimized. The more effective these means are, the less of a 'film look' the result will have. On the contrary, if this compensation is reduced or disabled, the resulting electronic copy may exhibit more jump and weave, giving the result a sense of constant jitter.\n\nSection::::Filmized productions.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Computer and TV screens flicker when they are filmed with a camera." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Computer and TV screens don't actually flicker, there's a difference in the way the human eye and the camera's image sensor perceive the phosphor dots." ]

[ "BULLET::::- The music cost ranges based on length of composition, method of performance (live or synthesized), and composer experience. In 2003 a minute of high quality synthesized music cost between US$600-1.5k. A title with 20 hours of gameplay and 60 minutes of music may have cost $50k-60k for its musical score.\n\nBULLET::::- Voice acting is well-suited for outsourcing as it requires a set of specialized skills. Only large publishers employ in-house voice actors.\n\nBULLET::::- Sound effects can also be outsourced.\n", "Section::::Categories.:Industry statistics.\n\nBULLET::::- According to the Entertainment Software Association in 2010, 42% of gamers said they play online games one or more hours per week.\n\nSection::::Legislative Issues.\n", "Hollywood has shown interest in the video game industry as an ancillary market almost as far as video games have existed. The film industry's goal within the video game industry is to either seek control and therefore ownership of the video game market or to license products to video game producers. Once the video game profits are high, that is when Hollywood seeks control. On the other hand, when profits are down, that is when Hollywood offers the licensing. The collaboration had always been problematic since the film industry had been uncertain about the development of video games. Hollywood has seen video games as another promotional scheme for a film.\n", "The industry wide adoption of high-definition graphics during the seventh generation of consoles greatly increased development teams' sizes and reduced the number of high-budget, high-quality titles under development. In 2013 Richard Hilleman of Electronic Arts estimated that only 25 developers were working on such titles for the eighth console generation, compared to 125 at the same point in the seventh generation-console cycle seven or eight years earlier.\n\nBy 2018, the United States video game industry had matched that of the Unites States film industry on basis of revenue, with both industries having made around that year.\n\nSection::::Economics.:Retail.\n", "Video gaming in South Africa\n\nVideo gaming in South Africa is one of the largest markets in Africa. The market is overtaking the market in movies and music in the country.\n\nWhilst the American market for video games has declined, it is increasing in South Africa thanks to companies such as Game 4U.\n", "Video games are a rapidly growing ancillary market for feature films. Video game over-all gross income has consistently surpassed that of movie sales since 2004. Because of the increased interest in video games many major media and communication companies have begun to show interest in video games as a way to market, brand, and advertise for their product. Some movies that have benefited from this are the \"Harry Potter\", \"Lord of the Rings\", and \"James Bond\" series. Because the video game industry has been able to outplay and outgross many movies, video game manufacturers are beginning to look in the direction of producing their own movies as well. Microsoft's producers of \"Halo\" have decided to pass Hollywood studios and produce their own movie.\n", "Section::::Employment.:Job market.\n\nThe U.S. video game industry continues to function as a vital source of employment. Currently, video game companies directly and indirectly employ more than 120,000 people in 34 states. The average compensation for direct employees is $90,000, resulting in total national compensation of $2.9 billion.\n", "Section::::International practices.:United States.\n\nThe United States has the largest video games presence in the world in terms of total industry employees. In 2004, the U.S. game industry as a whole was worth US$10.3 billion. U.S. gaming revenue is forecast to reach $23.5 billion in 2017, making it the second largest market behind China.\n\nSection::::International practices.:United States.:History.\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n\nThe average age of a U.S. gamer is 35, the average number of years a U.S. gamer has been playing games is 13, and only 29% of the gamer population is under 18 years old. The American gamer population is 59% male and 41% female. Of those females, women 18 and older account for a greater portion of the population than males younger than 18. The average female video game player is 37 years old, while the average male video game player is 33. \n\nSection::::Market statistics.\n", "In 2005, a mainstream console video game cost from US$3M to $6M to develop. Some games cost as much as $20M to develop. In 2006 the profit from a console game sold at retail was divided among parties of distribution chain as follows: developer (13%), publisher (32%), retail (32%), manufacturer (5%), console royalty (18%). In 2008 a developer would retain around 17% of retail price and around 85% if sold online.\n", "BULLET::::- In the video game industry, the music category overtook the sports category as no. 2 top category in sales, behind action. 58 percent of players played music games, second only to 65 percent who played action games. About 50 percent played sports games, down from 55 percent in 2007 and 62 percent in 2005. The video game industry was worth $22 billion in 2008.\n", "Though sales of video games rival other forms of entertainment such as movies, the video game industry is extremely volatile. Game programmers are not insulated from this instability as their employers experience financial difficulty.\n", "The question rose to wide public attention in the mid-2000s when film critic Roger Ebert participated in a series of controversial debates and published colloquies. In 2005, following an online discussion concerning whether or not knowledge of the game \"Doom\" was essential to a proper appreciation of the film \"Doom\" (which Ebert had awarded one star) as a commentary on the game, Ebert described video games as a non-artistic medium incomparable to the more established art forms:\n", "In 2007, the game \"Fury\" was the most expensive game yet produced in Australia, costing AU$8.3 million. However, the game did not sell well on its release.\n", "During the seventh generation, AAA (or \"blockbuster\") games had marketing at a similar level to high-profile films, with television, billboard and newspaper advertising; a corresponding increasing reliance on sequels, reboots, and similarly franchised IP was also seen, in order to minimize risk. Costs at the end of the generation had risen as high as the hundreds of millions of dollars – the estimated cost of \"Grand Theft Auto V\" was approximately $265m. The same conditions also drove the growth of the indie game scene at the other end of the development spectrum, where lower costs enabled innovation and risk-taking.\n", "In the history, the Television engineer Ralph Baer, who conceived the idea of an interactive television while building a television set from scratch created the first video game. Video games are now also being exploited by pay-TV companies which allow you to simply attach your computer or console to the television cable system and you can simply download the latest game.\n", "Games are also advertised on different TV channels, depending on the age demographic they are targeting. Games targeted toward kids and young teenagers are advertised on Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon, while games targeted toward older teenagers and adults are advertised on MTV, G4, Comedy Central and in NFL Network.\n\nSection::::Gaming and popular culture.:Gaming as portrayed by the media.\n", "The birth of the 'interactive movie' genre was studded with unimpressive flops, though the genre later came into its own; at the time, video-capture technology was still in its infancy, with short (and often grainy and low-quality) video segments being the norm for games of any length.\n\nSection::::Video game and traditional media forms.\n\nWith the rapid convergence of all media types into a digital form, video games are also beginning to affect, and be affected by traditional media forms.\n", "In 2004, the total U.S. sales of video game hardware, software and accessories was $9.9 billion compared with $10 billion in 2003. Total software sales rose 8 percent over the previous year to $6.2 billion. Additionally, sales of portable software titles exceeded $1 billion for the first time. Hardware sales were down 27 percent for the year due in part to shortages during the holiday season and price reductions from all systems.\n\nSection::::Trends.:Video game consoles.\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo GameCube\n\nBULLET::::- Xbox\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation 2\n\nBULLET::::- Sony released an internal hard drive for the PlayStation 2 on March 23\n", "Cost was also an issue, as live action video with decent production values is expensive to film, while video shot on a low budget damages the overall image of the game. \"\" cost Sega around US$3 million, about the same as a low-budget movie would cost in 1994.\n", "The first video games, developed in the 1960s, were noncommercial. They required mainframe computers to run and were not available to the general public. Commercial game development began in the '70s with the advent of first-generation video game consoles and early home computers like the Apple I. At that time, owing to low costs and low capabilities of computers, a lone programmer could develop a full and complete game. However, in the late '80s and '90s, ever-increasing computer processing power and heightened expectations from \"gamers\" made it difficult for a single person to produce a mainstream console or PC game. The average cost of producing a triple-A video game slowly rose, from 1–4 million in 2000, to over $5 million in 2006, then to over $20 million by 2010.\n", "The industry expanded significantly at the time, with the arcade video game sector alone (representing the largest share of the gaming industry) generating higher revenues than both pop music and Hollywood films combined. The home video game industry, however, suffered major losses following the North American video game crash of 1983. In 1984 Jon Freeman warned in \"Computer Gaming World\":\n", "The U.S. computer and video game dollar sales growth of 2012 was 14.8 billion dollars, showing a drop of 1.6 billion from the year before. The Unit sales growth featured a similar drop with the report of 188 million units sold from 245.9 in 2011. U.S gaming consumers spent a total of $20.77 billion on the game industry alone and currently hard copies of video games are still dominating in sales compared to digital copies .\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:1940s.\n", "Section::::Behavioral effects.:Objections to video games.\n\nLike other media, such as rock music (notably heavy metal music and gangsta rap), video games have been the subject of objections, controversies and censorship, for instance because of depictions of violence, criminal activities, sexual themes, alcohol, tobacco and other drugs, propaganda, profanity or advertisements. Critics of video games include parents' groups, politicians, religious groups, scientists and other advocacy groups. Claims that some video games cause addiction or violent behavior continue to be made and to be disputed.\n", "Section::::Business models.:Video and multiplayer online games.\n\nThe adoption of video games and massively multiplayer online games such as Second Life as tools for education and training is starting to show a long-tailed pattern. It costs significantly less to modify a game than it has been to create unique training applications, such as those for training in business, commercial flight, and military missions. This has led some to envision a time in which game-based training devices or simulations will be available for thousands of different job descriptions. \n\nSection::::Business models.:Microfinance and microcredit.\n" ]

[ "Video games an movies provide similar entertainment value.", "Video games an movies provide similar entertainment value." ]

[ "Video games can be played much longer than a movie takes to watch, thus they provide more entertainment value than movies.", "Video games can be played much longer than a movie takes to watch, thus they provide more entertainment value than movies." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Video games an movies provide similar entertainment value.", "Video games an movies provide similar entertainment value.", "Video games an movies provide similar entertainment value." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Video games can be played much longer than a movie takes to watch, thus they provide more entertainment value than movies.", "Video games can be played much longer than a movie takes to watch, thus they provide more entertainment value than movies.", "Video games can be played much longer than a movie takes to watch, thus they provide more entertainment value than movies." ]

[ "One such tactic for cross-device tracking is called browser fingerprinting, and occurs when browsers, which are modifiable to the users’ tastes, produce a unique signal that companies or advertisers can use to single out the user. Browser fingerprinting has been a cause for concern because of its effectiveness and also since it does not allow for users to opt-out of the tracking.\n\nAnother tactic used by Google is called AdID and works on smartphones in tandem with cookies on a user’s computer to track behavior across devices.\n", "Android smartphones have the ability to report the location of Wi-Fi access points, encountered as phone users move around, to build databases containing the physical locations of hundreds of millions of such access points. These databases form electronic maps to locate smartphones, allowing them to run apps like Foursquare, Google Latitude, Facebook Places, and to deliver location-based ads. Third party monitoring software such as TaintDroid, an academic research-funded project, can, in some cases, detect when personal information is being sent from applications to remote servers.\n\nSection::::Security and privacy.:Technical security features.\n", "As part of the broader 2013 mass surveillance disclosures it was revealed in September 2013 that the American and British intelligence agencies, the National Security Agency (NSA) and Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), respectively, have access to the user data on iPhone, BlackBerry, and Android devices. They are reportedly able to read almost all smartphone information, including SMS, location, emails, and notes. In January 2014, further reports revealed the intelligence agencies' capabilities to intercept the personal information transmitted across the Internet by social networks and other popular applications such as \"Angry Birds\", which collect personal information of their users for advertising and other commercial reasons. GCHQ has, according to \"The Guardian\", a wiki-style guide of different apps and advertising networks, and the different data that can be siphoned from each. Later that week, the Finnish Angry Birds developer Rovio announced that it was reconsidering its relationships with its advertising platforms in the light of these revelations, and called upon the wider industry to do the same.\n", "Collection of device fingerprints from web clients (browser software) relies on the availability of JavaScript or similar client-side scripting language for the harvesting of a suitably large number of parameters. Two classes of users with limited clientside scripting are those with mobile devices and those running privacy software or browser extensions which block ads and trackers.\n", "BULLET::::- Android support on non-Google app stores: No support. This is the majority of Android app installations, since Google Play makes up less than 1/4 of the volume of Android apps downloaded.\n\nBULLET::::- Installs driven by Facebook ads (iOS and Android): Developers can bring users to the content inside the installed app with using Facebook's Deep Linking for Mobile Install Ads technology: \"When a person taps on a mobile app install ad on Facebook, the developer can choose to send them to a specific place in their app after it's downloaded, such as a product page rather than the homepage.\"\n", "BULLET::::- GO Keyboard virtual Android keyboard apps (GO Keyboard - Emoji keyboard and GO Keyboard - Emoticon keyboard) transmit personal information to its remote servers without explicit users' consent. This information includes user's Google account email, language, IMSI, location, network type, Android version and build, and device's model and screen size. The apps also download and execute a code from a remote server, breaching the Malicious Behavior section of the Google Play privacy policies. Some of these plugins are detected as Adware or PUP by many Anti-Virus engines, while the developer, a Chinese company GOMO Dev Team, claims in the apps' description that they will never collect personal data including credit card information. The apps with about 2 million users in total were caught spying in September 2017 by security researchers from AdGuard who then reported their findings to Google.\n", "Dishfire is typically exploited with an analytical tool known as the Prefer program (stylised PREFER), which processes SMS messages to extract information including contacts from missed call alerts, location from roaming and travel alerts, financial information from bank alerts and payments, and names from electronic business cards.\n\nSection::::Reactions.\n", "Other technologies such as supercookies, which stay on computers long after the user deletes his or her cookies, and web beacons, which are unique images from a URL, are also used by trackers and advertisers to gain increased insight into users’ behavior. However, advertisers were still limited in that only one device was able to be tracked and associated with a user.\n\nThus, cross-device tracking initially emerged as a means of generating a profile of users across multiple devices, not simply one.\n", "Section::::Types.:Technical targeting.\n\nTechnical targeting is associated with the user's own software or hardware status. The advertisement is altered depending on the user's available network bandwidth, for example if a user is on their mobile phone that has limited connection, the ad delivery system will display a version of the ad that is smaller for a faster data transfer rate.\n", "Web services are continually generating new business ventures and revenue opportunities for internet corporations. Companies have rapidly developing technological capabilities that allow them to gather information about web users. By tracking and monitoring what websites users visit, internet service providers can directly show ads that are relative to the consumer's preferences. Most of today's websites are using these targeting technologies to track users' internet behavior and there is much debate over the privacy issues present.\n\nSection::::Types.:Search engine marketing.\n", "Search engine marketing uses search engines to reach target audiences. For example, Google's Google Remarketing Campaigns are a type of targeted advertising where websites use the IP addresses of computers that have visited their websites to remarket their ad specifically to the user who has previously been on their website as they use websites that are a part of the Google display network, or when searching for keywords related to a product or service on the google search engine. Dynamic remarketing can improve the targeted advertising as the ads are able to include the products or services that the consumers have previously viewed on the advertisers' website within the ads.\n", "There are numerous services that FOXACID can exploit this way. The names of some FOXACID modules are given below:\n\nBULLET::::- alibabaForumUser\n\nBULLET::::- doubleclickID\n\nBULLET::::- rocketmail\n\nBULLET::::- hi5\n\nBULLET::::- HotmailID\n\nBULLET::::- Linkedin\n\nBULLET::::- mailruid\n\nBULLET::::- msnMailToken64\n\nBULLET::::- qq\n\nBULLET::::- Facebook\n\nBULLET::::- simbarid\n\nBULLET::::- Twitter\n\nBULLET::::- Yahoo\n\nBULLET::::- Gmail\n\nBULLET::::- YouTube\n\nBy collaboration with the British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) (MUSCULAR), Google services could be attacked too, including Gmail.\n", "Section::::Problems with tracking.:IP address.\n\nFor desktop web browsing, the network address of the client machine usually gives some form of user identification and location. For mobile web browsing, the client IP address refers to the internet gateway machine owned by the network operator. For devices such as the BlackBerry or for phones using Opera Mini browser software, the IP address refers to an operator-owned internet gateway machine in Canada or Norway.\n\nSection::::Collecting mobile web analytics data.\n", "- A new integration with Bing Ads allows marketers to capture call attribution data for Bing generated offline conversions. This announcement came on the heels of Bing's new Offline Conversion Import capability.\n\n- A new integration with AMP gives marketers the ability to leverage call tracking capabilities on their AMP pages. AMP, an open-source initiative, enables the creation of websites and ads that load near instantly, giving users a smooth, more engaging experience across all devices.\n", "There are many ways in which online tracking has manifested itself. Historically, when companies wanted to track users’ online behavior, they simply had users sign in to their website. This is a form of deterministic cross-device tracking, in which the user’s devices are associated with their account credentials, such as their email or username. Consequently, while the user is logged in, the company can keep a running history of what sites the user has been to and which ads the user interacted with between computers and mobile devices.\n", "Websites specifically targeted towards mobile phones, like NTT DoCoMo's I-Mode or Vodafone's Vodafone Live! portals, often rely heavily on user agent sniffing, since mobile browsers often differ greatly from each other. Many developments in mobile browsing have been made in the last few years, while many older phones that do not possess these new technologies are still heavily used. Therefore, mobile Web portals will often generate completely different markup code depending on the mobile phone used to browse them. These differences can be small, e.g., resizing of certain images to fit smaller screens, or quite extensive, e.g., rendering of the page in WML instead of XHTML.\n", "Since February 2012, Google has used its Google Bouncer malware scanner to watch over and scan apps available in the Google Play store. A \"Verify Apps\" feature was introduced in November 2012, as part of the Android 4.2 \"Jelly Bean\" operating system version, to scan all apps, both from Google Play and from third-party sources, for malicious behaviour. Originally only doing so during installation, Verify Apps received an update in 2014 to \"constantly\" scan apps, and in 2017 the feature was made visible to users through a menu in Settings.\n", "When an application passes the various security barriers, it can take the actions for which it was designed. When such actions are triggered, the activity of a malicious application can be sometimes detected if one monitors the various resources used on the phone. Depending on the goals of the malware, the consequences of infection are not always the same; all malicious applications are not intended to harm the devices on which they are deployed. The following sections describe different ways to detect suspicious activity.\n\nBULLET::::- Battery\n\nBULLET::::- Memory usage\n\nBULLET::::- Network traffic\n\nBULLET::::- Services\n", "For Android devices, a notification can be sent without having an app installed using the Eddystone-URL. The Google Nearby is an in-built service that scans for beacon signals and displays the message tied to that signal. Apps that are compatible with Physical Web can also do the same. Chrome has since withdrawn support for the Physical Web. In regions where Google is banned, Samsung's browser Close by does the same as Nearby. On iOS devices, the relevant app needs to be installed that can then receive messages from nearby beacons.\n", "For devices without GPS capability, and for computers unable to connect to GPS (either because they do not have a GPS receiver or because they are located indoors and, as such, beyond the reach of GPS satellite systems), if the device has a Wi-Fi interface, the device scans for Wi-Fi hotspots (it does not need to connect to any of them) and uses Wi-Fi positioning by means of the Google Location API to obtain location information\n", "Mobile browsing allows users to access Bing on their mobile devices through WAP or GPRS connection. The interface is optimized for viewing on mobile handsets. Users can:\n\nBULLET::::- Search the web for information\n\nBULLET::::- Get news information\n\nBULLET::::- Find local businesses in the user's local area\n\nBULLET::::- Get maps and driving directions\n\nBULLET::::- Get answers to questions\n\nBULLET::::- In the UK an Japan \"Find My Location\" to pinpoint a user's location\n\nIn the US on HTML-ready mobile devices such as iPhone, Android, and touch-screen Windows phones, further features are available:\n\nBULLET::::- Automatic location detection (geolocation)\n", "BULLET::::3. SearchFilterHost.exe, which hosts the IFilters and property handlers to extract metadata and textual content. It is a low integrity process, which means that it does not have any permission to change the system settings, so even if it encounters files with malicious content, and by any chance if they manage to take over the process, they will not be able to change any system settings.\n", "Google is suspected of collecting and aggregating data about Internet users through the various tools it provides to developers, such as Google Analytics, Google Play Services, reCAPTCHA, Google Fonts, and Google APIs. This could enable Google to determine a user's route through the Internet by tracking the IP address being used through successive sites (cross-domain web tracking). Linked to other information made available through Google APIs, which are widely used, Google might be able to provide a quite complete web user profile linked to an IP address or user. This kind of data is invaluable for marketing agencies, and for Google itself to increase the efficiency of its own marketing and advertising activities.\n", "This form of tracking is utilized primarily by technology companies and advertisers who use this information to piece together a cohesive profile of the user. These profiles inform and predict the type of advertisements the user receives.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Another interesting area for spyware vendors is the increasing amount of mobile devices being shipped. Distributors of advertisements have already turned their eyes to these devices. So far this development have not utilized the geographic position data stored in these devices. However, during the time of this writing companies are working on GPS-guided ads and coupons destined for mobile phones and hand-held devices. In other words, development of location-based marketing that allow advertising companies to get access to personal geographical data so that they can serve geographically dependent ads and coupons to their customers. Once such geographic data is being harvested and correlated with already accumulated personal information, another privacy barrier has been crossed.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "However, darkest black in a projected image is dependent on how dark the screen is. Because of this, some presenters and presentation-space planners prefer gray screens, which create higher-perceived contrast. The trade-off is that darker backgrounds can throw off color tones. Color problems can sometimes be adjusted through the projector settings, but may not be as accurate as they would on a white background.\n\nSection::::Throw ratio.\n", "A \"shade\" is produced by \"dimming\" a hue. Painters refer to this as \"adding black\". In our illustration, one projector is set to full intensity, a second is set to some intensity between zero and full, and third is set to zero. \"Dimming\" is accomplished by decreasing each projector's intensity setting to the same fraction of its start setting.\n\nIn the shade example, with any fully shaded hue, that all three projectors are set to zero intensity, resulting in black.\n", "The three LCD panels of the projector are the elements that receive the electronic signals to create the image which is to be projected. Each pixel on an LCD is covered by liquid crystals. By changing the electrical charge given to the liquid crystals, each pixel on an LCD can be darkened until it is totally opaque (for full black), lightened until it is totally transparent (allowing all the lamp light to pass through for full white) or shaded in varying degrees of translucence (for different shades of gray). This is similar to how a digital watch’s characters appear bold and black on its LCD when its battery is new, but start to fade gradually as its battery weakens. In this way, the brightness level on every pixel for each primary color can be very precisely controlled to produce the final pixel's specific color and brightness level required on the screen. \n", "BULLET::::- The way a single-chip DLP projector works sometimes causes viewers to see a \"rainbow\" or \"color breakup\" effect where false colors are briefly perceived when either the image or the observer's eye is in motion. As all three primary colors are displayed all the time by 3LCD projectors, they do not suffer from this effect.\n", "Section::::History.:Shadow masks.\n", "For multi-projector systems, in particular, display devices must have a low black level (i.e., project little or no light when no signal is sent to them) to allow for reasonable edge-blending between the different projector footprints. Otherwise, overlapping video images will have an additive effect, causing a complex pattern of grey to appear even when no image is being projected. This becomes particularly important for users in the planetarium field, who have a vested interest in projecting a dark night sky. The desire for projectors to “go to black” has resulted in continued use of CRT technology, even as newer and less expensive technologies have emerged.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms used in colour production.\n", "In manufacturing color CRTs, the shadow masks or aperture grilles were also used to expose photoresist on the faceplate to ultraviolet light sources, accurately positioned to simulate arriving electrons for one color at a time. This photoresist, when developed, permitted phosphor for only one color to be applied where required. The process was used a total of three times, once for each color. (The shadow mask or aperture grille had to be removable and accurately re-positionable for this process to succeed.)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dot pitch\n\nBULLET::::- Aperture grille\n\nBULLET::::- Cromaclear\n\nBULLET::::- Porta-Color\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n", "Section::::Color in DLP projection.:Single-chip projectors.:The color wheel \"rainbow effect\".\n", "The black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed. If the unused light is scattered to reflect and dissipate on the rough interior walls of the DMD / lens chamber, this scattered light will be visible as a dim gray on the projection screen, when the image is fully dark. Deeper blacks and higher contrast ratios are possible by directing unused HID light away from the DMD / lens chamber into a separate area for dissipation, and shielding the light path from unwanted internal secondary reflections.\n", "Section::::Color in DLP projection.:Three-chip projectors.\n\nA three-chip DLP projector uses a prism to split light from the lamp, and each primary color of light is then routed to its own DMD chip, then recombined and routed out through the lens. Three chip systems are found in higher-end home theater projectors, large venue projectors and DLP Cinema projection systems found in digital movie theaters.\n", "The basic unit was monochrome (PJ7000 line). Color display is accomplished in one of two ways:\n\nThe single lens color projector (PJ5000 line) use dichroic filters to separate the white light of the xenon bulb in two channels, Green and Magenta.\n", "Problems have been encountered attempting to use LED lighting on film and video sets. The color spectra of LED lighting primary colors does not match the expected color wavelength bandpasses of film emulsions and digital sensors. As a result, color rendition can be completely unpredictable in optical prints, transfers to digital media from film (DI's), and video camera recordings. This phenomenon with respect to motion picture film has been documented in an LED lighting evaluation series of tests produced by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences scientific staff.\n", "Section::::History of DIY painted screens.\n\nProjection screens are primarily white or gray. A white screen is better balanced and more accurate when it is close to D65 (the international standard illumination conditions). A gray screen is more accurate when it is closer to neutral, based on parameters such as color balance (L*ab and xyY values), spectral curve and color temperature.\n", "Rapidly toggling the mirror between these two orientations (essentially on and off) produces grayscales, controlled by the ratio of on-time to off-time.\n\nSection::::Color in DLP projection.\n\nThere are two primary methods by which DLP projection systems create a color image: those used by single-chip DLP projectors, and those used by three-chip projectors. A third method, sequential illumination by three colored light emitting diodes, is being developed, and is currently used in televisions manufactured by Samsung.\n\nSection::::Color in DLP projection.:Single-chip projectors.\n", "Modern day Digital Light Processing (DLP) projectors commonly use color wheels to generate color images, typically running at a multiple of the video frame rate.\n\nModern day LCD displays implement FSC by using several colors of LED backlight, by cycling the backlights, and gain several advantages such as brighter colors, darker blacks, and lower cost. These displays are used in LCD Camera viewfinders and other industrial applications.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- NTSC Broadcast system that encodes color information into a compatible signal\n\nBULLET::::- SECAM Broadcast system that sends color information sequentially by scan line\n\nBULLET::::- Mechanical television\n", "On certain stocks of Super 8 and 16 mm an iron-oxide sound recording strip was added for the direct synchronous recording of sound which could then be played by projectors with a magnetic sound head. It has since been discontinued by Kodak on both gauges.\n\nSection::::Sound.:Digital.\n", "BULLET::::- LCD projector: A lamp transmits light through a small LCD chip made up of individual pixels to create an image. The LCD projector uses mirrors to take the light and create three separate red, green, and blue beams, which are then passed through three separate LCD panels. The liquid crystals are manipulated using electric current to control the amount of light passing through. The lens system takes the three color beams and projects the image.\n", "A different kind of projection display is the class of \"laser projection displays\", where the image is built up sequentially either via line by line scanning or by writing one complete column at a time. For that purpose one beam is formed from three lasers operating at the primary colors, and this beam is scanned electro-mechanically (galvanometer scanner, micro-mirror array)) or electro-acousto-optically.\n\nSection::::Layout of picture elements.\n", "A projector using 3LCD technology works by first splitting the white light from the lamp into its three primary colors of red, green and blue by passing the lamp light through special dichroic filter / reflector assemblies called “dichroic mirrors.” Each dichroic mirror only allows specific colored wavelengths of light to pass through while reflecting the rest away. In this way, the white light is split into its three primary color beams and each is directed toward, and subsequently through its own LCD panel.\n\nImage Generation at the LCDs:\n", "The special case of one ray reduces the system to a monochromatic display as, for example, in black-and-white television. This principle applies to a display as well as to a (front or rear) projection technique with lasers (a laser video projector).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In a projector with a single DLP chip, colors are produced either by placing a color wheel between a white lamp and the DLP chip or by using individual light sources to produce the primary colors, LEDs or lasers for example. The color wheel is divided into multiple sectors: the primary additive colors: red, green, and blue, and in many cases white (clear). Newer systems substitute the primary subtractive colors cyan, magenta, and yellow for white. The use of the subtractive colors is part of the newer color performance system called BrilliantColor which processes the additive colors along with the subtractive colors to create a broader spectrum of possible color combinations on the screen.\n", "In 2009, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) issued a scientific paper stating that in addition to the typical white light brightness rating of display devices, there was a need for providing \"an equivalent measurement that will better describe a projector's color performance when rendering full color imagery\".\n\nIn 2010, over 8.5 million projectors were purchased. Although image quality consistently ranked at the top of purchase criteria, there was no standardized way to measure the color performance in displays, which is a key aspect of image quality, until the release of the Color Light Output specification .\n", "LCD projectors have fundamental limits on their ability to project true black as well as light, which has tended to limit their use in planetariums. LCOS and modified LCOS projectors have improved on LCD contrast ratios while also eliminating the “screen door” effect of small gaps between LCD pixels. “Dark chip” DLP projectors improve on the standard DLP design and can offer a relatively inexpensive solution with bright images, but the black level requires physical baffling of the projectors. As the technology matures and reduces in price, laser projection looks promising for dome projection as it offers bright images, large dynamic range and a very wide color space.\n", "In a conventional shadow mask television design the electron guns at the back of the tube are arranged in a triangle. They are individually focused, with some difficulty, so that the three beams meet at a spot when they reach the shadow mask. The mask cuts off any unfocussed portions of the beams, which then continue through the holes towards the screen. Since the beams approach the mask at an angle, they separate again on the far side of the mask. This allows the beams to address the individual phosphor spots on the back of the screen.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Video correction.\n\nAs far back as 1956, professional reel-to-reel audio tape recorders relying on mechanical stability alone were stable enough that pitch distortion could be below audible level without time base correction. However, the higher sensitivity of video recordings meant that even the best mechanical solutions still resulted in detectable distortion of the video signals. A video signal consists of picture information but also sync and subcarrier signals which allow the image to be framed up square on the monitor, reproduce colors accurately and, importantly, allow the combination and switching of two or more video signals.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "Theatrical features originally photographed at 24 frame/s are shown at 25 frame/s. While this is usually not noticed in the picture (but may be more noticeable during action speed, especially if footage was filmed undercranked), the 4% increase in playback speed causes a slightly noticeable increase in audio pitch by just over 0.679 semitones, which is sometimes corrected using a pitch shifter, though pitch shifting is a recent innovation and supersedes an alternative method of telecine for 25 frame/s formats.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Elegy for a Dying Planet\" (1982) Tape\n\nBULLET::::- \"New Age Synthesis II on Totally Wired\" (1986) Pennsylvania Public Radio Associates Cassette Series\n\nBULLET::::- \"What's the Big Hurry?\" (date unknown) from Sid Davis Productions\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mixed Emotions\" by Bebe Barron (2000) CD\n\nSection::::Notes.\n\nBULLET::::1. The first tape recorder given to the Barrons was the same type as used in recording Hitler's speeches.\n\nBULLET::::2. Speeding up and slowing down the tape in effect changed the pitch of the recorded material and individual sounds.\n", "The software generally goes through a two-step process to accomplish this. First, the audio file is played back at a lower sample rate than that of the original file. This has the same effect as playing a tape or vinyl record at slower speed - the pitch is lowered meaning the music can sound like it is in a different key. The second step is to use Digital Signal Processing (or DSP) to shift the pitch back up to the original pitch level or musical key.\n\nSection::::Transcription aids.:Pitch tracking software.\n", "Usually 24 Hz material from film is usually sped up by 4%, when it is of feature film origin. The sound is also raised in pitch slightly as a result of the 4% speedup but pitch correction circuits are typically used.\n\nBULLET::::- Older technology allows an alternative option where every 12th film frame is held for three video fields instead of two mostly fixing the problem.\n\nBULLET::::- More modern film playback technology allows for every 25th frame to be interpolated, with less objectionable results and no need for pitch modification.\n", "Support for VBR in AAC and MP3 files is found in most modern digital audio players, including those released by Apple, Microsoft, Creative Technology, and SanDisk. Early VBR algorithms occasionally introduced audible artifacts when encoding monotone or minimal tones (for example audiobooks and acoustic music). These artifacts often mimicked a \"digital chirp\" during the quiet portions of the song or when there was only speaking. As VBR encoding algorithms have improved, these problems have been resolved in subsequent generations of the VBR standard.\n\nSection::::Methods of VBR encoding.\n", "The simplest way to change the duration or pitch of a digital audio clip is through sample rate conversion. This is a mathematical operation that effectively rebuilds a continuous waveform from its samples and then samples that waveform again at a different rate. When the new samples are played at the original sampling frequency, the audio clip sounds faster or slower. Unfortunately, the frequencies in the sample are always scaled at the same rate as the speed, transposing its perceived pitch up or down in the process. In other words, slowing down the recording lowers the pitch, speeding it up raises the pitch. This is analogous to speeding up or slowing down an analogue recording, like a phonograph record or tape, creating the Chipmunk effect. Using this method the two effects cannot be separated. A drum track containing no pitched instruments can be moderately sample rate converted for tempo without adverse effects, but a pitched track cannot.\n", "Eventually, as the pressure in the cuff drops further, the sounds change in quality, then become muted, and finally disappear altogether. This occurs because, as the pressure in the cuff drops below the diastolic blood pressure, the cuff no longer provides any restriction to blood flow allowing the blood flow to become smooth again with no turbulence and thus produce no further audible sound.\n\nSection::::The five Korotkov sounds.\n\nThere are five Korotkov sounds:\n\nBULLET::::1. Phase I—The first appearance of faint, repetitive, clear tapping sounds which gradually increase in intensity for at least two consecutive beats is the systolic blood pressure.\n", "There are some differences in the behaviour of analog and digital systems when high level signals are present, where there is the possibility that such signals could push the system into overload. With high level signals, analog magnetic tape approaches saturation, and high frequency response drops in proportion to low frequency response. While undesirable, the audible effect of this can be reasonably unobjectionable. In contrast, digital PCM recorders show non-benign behaviour in overload; samples that exceed the peak quantization level are simply truncated, clipping the waveform squarely, which introduces distortion in the form of large quantities of higher-frequency harmonics. \n", "24p material can be converted to the PAL format with the same methods used to convert film to PAL. The most popular method is to speed up the material by 1/24 (≈4.1%). Each 24p frame will take the place of two 50i fields. This method incurs no motion artifacts other than the slightly increased speed, which is typically not noticeable. As for audio, the ≈4% increase in speed raises the pitch by 0.7 of a semitone, which again typically is not noticed. Sometimes the audio is pitch shifted to restore the original pitch.\n", "Temporal Theory posits that the cause is from looking at the phase locking to tell what the pitch is. This theory has a hard time explaining diplacusis. There are some examples of pitch which don’t have an \"edge\" on the basilar membrane, which this would account for—i.e. white noise, clicks, etc. (need a reference)\n", "This effect may be achieved by measuring the zero axis crossings of the master oscillator and retriggering the slave oscillator after every other crossing.\n\nThis form of oscillator sync is more common than soft sync, but is prone to generating aliasing in naive digital implementations.\n\nSection::::Soft Sync.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Error correction.:Pitch correction circuit.\n\nIn higher performance audio synchronizers, the rate of delay change is allowed to be much faster, generally in the order of 25%, and the resulting pitch error is corrected with a pitch correction circuit. The pitch correction circuitry is frequently a proprietary design, due to the difficulty in performing correction so the errors are imperceptible to critical listeners. These higher performance audio synchronizers allow the audio delay to track even large and quick video delay changes without generating any artifacts that are perceptible to even critical listeners for most audio program material.\n\nSection::::Error correction.:Recent developments.\n", "Recording is by mechanical means and the vibrations from acoustic energy, transferred to a cutting needle, make the needle cut a deeper or shallower groove. It is necessary to set the parameters of the cutting depth accurately: too shallow a groove on silent sections and the playback device, also a needle, will slip out of place; too deep a groove risks cutting through the thin layer of recording medium and/or creating excessive wear when the recording is played back. Due to mechanical noise generated by the recording system, the needle is never totally still; total silence would produce a flat even depth groove, so the hill and dale effect exists over all the audio recording section.\n", "When using analog tape recording technology, they may exhibit a type of noise known as tape hiss. This is related to the particle size and texture used in the magnetic emulsion that is sprayed on the recording media, and also to the relative tape velocity across the tape heads.\n", "Zappa pioneered the use of tape speed manipulation to produce unusual timbres and tonal colors. On \"Peaches en Regalia\", \"Son of Mr. Green Genes\", and \"It Must Be a Camel\" Zappa plays \"double-speed percussion\". After recording basic tracks (drums, bass, guitar and piano, etc.) at the fast speed of the recorder, Zappa played additional drum overdubs while listening to the basic tracks at half speed. On the finished recording, played at normal speed again, the overdubs are heard at twice the usual speed and pitch. This gives the drum overdubs a bizarre, comical quality, much like toy drums.\n", "BULLET::::- Ross Bagdasarian, aka David Seville, recorded his voice at one-half normal speed, raising its pitch a full octave when played back at normal speed, to create the early rock and roll novelty song \"Witch Doctor\". He later used the same technique, plus overdubbing his voice three times, to create Alvin and the Chipmunks. Numerous other creators of novelty, comedy, and children's records, such as Sheb Wooley, Sascha Burland, and Ray Stevens have since used this process.\n", "In motion pictures, the manipulation of time and space is a considerable contributing factor to the narrative storytelling tools. Film editing plays a much stronger role in this manipulation, but frame rate selection in the photography of the original action is also a contributing factor to altering time. For example, Charlie Chaplin's \"Modern Times\" was shot at \"silent speed\" (18 fps) but projected at \"sound speed\" (24 fps), which makes the slapstick action appear even more frenetic.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "A similar problem can also occur in videotape recordings, causing the picture to jitter slightly, or the top of the picture to wobble. This is known as flagwaving.\n\nSection::::Correction.\n", "The audio software also allows you to vary the playback speed without loss of pitch.\n\nSection::::Yepp T Series.:YP-T8.\n", "As far as the compressors are concerned, the authors performed two processing sessions, using a fast attack (0.5 ms) in one case, and a slow attack (50 ms) in the other. Make-up gain is deactivated, but the resulting file is normalized.\n\nSet with a fast attack, the tested compressors had the following influence on the signal:\n\nBULLET::::- slight increase of RMS power,\n\nBULLET::::- slight increase of EBU3341 loudness,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of crest factor,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of EBU3342 LRA,\n\nBULLET::::- slight decrease of clipped sample density.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nIn a tape loop, sound is recorded on a section of magnetic tape and this tape is cut and spliced end-to-end, creating a circle or loop which can be played continuously, usually on a reel-to-reel machine.\n\nBy accelerating the speed of a loop to a sufficient degree (e.g., 1,280 times faster), a sequence of events originally perceived as a rhythm becomes heard as a pitch, and variation of the rhythm in the original succession of events produces different timbres in the accelerated sound (; ).\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Our debut was at a fashion show at the \"Disco Airport\" (Discothèque), which was close to where we practiced in Buenos Aires. Nobody gave us so much as a nod. The three of us played on a very deficient sound system. But we were happy, even though no one paid attention. We really looked like a punk group, we didn't know how to play and the sound was loud, even though it was just that.\n", "BULLET::::- For a CO pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks (formula_4 ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the p\"K\" value (3.60), giving [HCO] [HCO] at high pressures.\n\nBULLET::::- A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.\n\nBULLET::::- Remark\n", "Beers can be carbonated with CO or with other gases such as Nitrogen. These gases are not as soluble in water as carbon dioxide, so they form bubbles that do not grow through Ostwald ripening. This means that the beer has smaller bubbles and a more creamy and stable head. This less soluble gas gives the beer a different and flatter texture. In beer terms, the mouthfeel is smooth, not bubbly like beers with normal carbonation. Nitro beer could taste less acidic than normal beer.\n\nSection::::Storage and degradation.\n", "Due to the rise in water level, Big Soda Lake became a meromictic lake. The denser lower layer is colder and more saline, and no longer mixes with the surface layer at any time of year. It is completely depleted of oxygen below the chemocline boundary.\n", "BULLET::::- Sweetness\n\nSweetness is produced by the presence of sugars, some proteins, and a few other substances. It is often connected to aldehydes and ketones, which contain a carbonyl group. Sweetness is detected by a variety of G protein-coupled receptors coupled to a G protein that acts as an intermediary in the communication between taste bud and brain, gustducin. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which account for sweet sensing in humans and other animals.\n\nBULLET::::- Saltiness\n", "Section::::History.:Me Verás Volver (2007).\n\nThe reunification of Soda stereo was a mandatory topic for journalists whenever faced with a former member. So much so, that Zeta Bosio once declared:\n\nOne day I dreamed that I was not going to be asked about a Soda reunion!.\n", "Sulfur-reducing bacteria are common in anoxic layers of soda lakes. These reduce sulfate and organic sulfur from dead cells into sulfide (S). Anoxic layers of soda lakes are therefore often rich in sulfide. As opposed to neutral lakes, the high pH prohibits the release of hydrogen sulfide (HS) in gas form. Genera of alkaliphilic sulfur-reducers found in soda lakes include \"Desulfonatronovibrio\" and \"Desulfonatronum\". These also play important an ecological role besides in the cycling of sulfur, as they also consume hydrogen, resulting from the fermentation of organic matter.\n", "BULLET::::- Top 5 bits: t mod 32\n\nBULLET::::- Middle 3 bits: an encoded value representing m\n\nBULLET::::- Bottom 24 bits: s\n\n\"(Note: since m must be encoded using 3 bits, the server is restricted to sending up to 8 unique values for m when SYN cookies are in use.)\"\n", "The ballroom has hosted concerts by many famous artists, including Kansas, Frank Zappa, Grateful Dead, Wishbone Ash, The Moody Blues, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, KISS, The Police, Alice Cooper, Janis Joplin, Jefferson Airplane & The Doors, among others.\n", "Club soda\n\nClub soda is a manufactured form of unflavored carbonated water, commonly used as a drink mixer. Potassium bicarbonate, potassium sulfate or sodium citrate are artificially added to replicate constituents commonly found in natural mineral waters.\n", "The song has two versions: version one is the version used in the music video, and version two being the album version. Some differences are the intro and outro - version one begins with a melodic piano piece, followed by the song, then an outro riff that is different from the album version.\n", "On another interesting note, \"Cl. sticklandii\" have two carbon dioxide fixation pathways, Wood-Ljundgahl and Glycine synthase/glycine reductase pathways. It is an oddity to find both of these methods of carbon dioxide fixation simultaneously. Only four other bacterial species have been observed to contain both of these pathways. Although, \"Cl. sticklandii\" has the ability to utilize both pathways, it has not been determined if they do utilize both pathways at the same time.\n\nSection::::Genome.\n", "Many soda lakes are strongly stratified, with well-oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and an anoxic lower layer (hypolimnion), without oxygen and often high concentrations of sulfide. Stratification can be permanent, or with seasonal mixing. The depth of the oxic/anoxic interface separating the two layers varies from a few centimeters to near the bottom sediments, depending on local conditions. In either case, it represents an important barrier, both physically and between strongly contrasting biochemical conditions.\n\nSection::::Biodiversity.\n", "BULLET::::- The solubility is given for \"pure water\", i.e., water which contain only CO. This water is going to be acidic. For example, at 25 °C the pH of 3.9 is expected (see carbonic acid). At less acidic pH values, the solubility will increase because of the pH-dependent speciation of CO.\n\nSection::::Vapor pressure of solid and liquid.\n", "Because bicarbonate is itself a recycling substrate and the kinetics of cyanase include a rapid and random equilibrium, bicarbonate can also act as an enzyme inhibitor. At low concentrations, bicarbonate shows uncompetitive inhibition, where it binds to the one of enzyme's anionic binding sites, and inhibit cyanate binding, or bicarbonate can bind once more so that the enzyme complex is bound to two bicarbonates in its double anion active site. At higher concentrations, the trend moves toward non-competitive inhibition, where the incorrect, dead-end complex must decompose to the initial separated units before the binding action can begin again.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Biodiversity.:Microbial diversity surveys and species richness.\n", "Brill Building songwriters Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil's \"Uptown\" gave the girls their second radio hit. Having an ethnic flavor with flamenco guitar and castanets, the more uptempo \"Uptown\" featured Alston once again emoting convincingly over a boy, though this time with class issues woven into the story. After the success of \"Uptown\", a pregnant Giraud was replaced by Dolores \"LaLa\" Brooks.\n", "The recurring theme of TaB cola was conceived due to the hot pink color of the can. Nagy thought that hot pink was the most unnatural color of the spectrum, so Cross's constant consumption of the cola is intended to convey her mental status as robotic. The robots that Cross begins to hallucinate also reflect her resentment against the machine-like status society has relegated her to.\n", "The balance of these carbonate species (which ultimately affects the solubility of carbon dioxide), is dependent on factors such as pH, as shown in a Bjerrum plot. In seawater this is regulated by the charge balance of a number of positive (e.g. Na, K, Mg, Ca) and negative (e.g. CO itself, Cl, SO, Br) ions. Normally, the balance of these species leaves a net positive charge. With respect to the carbonate system, this excess positive charge shifts the balance of carbonate species towards negative ions to compensate. The result of which is a reduced concentration of the free carbon dioxide and carbonic acid species, which in turn leads to an oceanic uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to restore balance. Thus, the greater the positive charge imbalance, the greater the solubility of carbon dioxide. In carbonate chemistry terms, this imbalance is referred to as alkalinity.\n", "BULLET::::- In the case of a weak monoacid (here we take acetic acid with p\"K\" = 4.76) with decreasing total acid concentration , we obtain:\n\nBULLET::::- The calculation in the case of phosphoric acid (which is the most widely used for domestic applications) is more complicated since the concentrations of the four dissociation states corresponding to this acid must be calculated together with [], [], [Ca], [H] and [OH]. The system may be reduced to a seventh degree equation for [H] the numerical solution of which gives\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cuttlebone\n\nBULLET::::- Cuttlefish\n\nBULLET::::- Gesso\n\nBULLET::::- Limescale\n\nBULLET::::- Marble\n", "Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n", "BULLET::::4. \"Sunny Sleeps Late\" – 2:58\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Spotlight\" – 2:47\n\nBULLET::::6. \"Done Me Wrong All Right\" – 2:57\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Bonus tracks on 2005 reissue.\n\nBULLET::::1. li value=13 \"Be with You Soon\" – 3:34\n\nBULLET::::2. \"You're Not Wrong for Loving Me\" – 2:44\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Alexander Graham Bell\" – 2:53\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Poppa Joe\" – 3:07\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Little Willy\" – 3:10\n\nBULLET::::6. \"Man from Mecca\" – 2:45\n\nBULLET::::7. \"Wig-Wam Bam\" – 3:01\n\nBULLET::::8. \"New York Connection\" – 4:01\n\nBULLET::::9. \"Paperback Writer\" – 2:18\n\nBULLET::::10. \"Lucille / Great Balls of Fire\" – 2:47\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Disc 2 of 2015 reissue.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Slow Motion\"\n", "The plasma pH can be altered by respiratory changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide; or altered by metabolic changes in the carbonic acid to bicarbonate ion ratio. The bicarbonate buffer system regulates the ratio of carbonic acid to bicarbonate to be equal to 1:20, at which ratio the blood pH is 7.4 (as explained in the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation). A change in the plasma pH gives an acid–base imbalance.\n", "It is dissolved in water to create a clear and odorless solution which is then drunk. While most consumers find the taste of macrogol itself to be very mild and unobjectionable, the electrolytes contained in formulations for purging and cleansing give the solution an extremely salty and bitter taste.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nBULLET::::- PEGylation\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Terminal velocity is higher for larger creatures, and thus potentially more deadly. A creature such as a mouse falling at its terminal velocity is much more likely to survive impact with the ground than a human falling at its terminal velocity. A small animal such as a cricket impacting at its terminal velocity will probably be unharmed. This, combined with the relative ratio of limb cross-sectional area vs. body mass (commonly referred to as the Square-cube law), explains why very small animals can fall from a large height and not be harmed.\n\nSection::::Very low Reynolds numbers: Stokes' drag.\n", "In the examples used the frequency used is 110 beats/s, which is the typical frequency found in insects. Butterflies have a much slower frequency with about 10 beats/s, which means that they can't hover. Other insects may be able to produce a frequency of 1000 beats/s. To restore the insect to its original vertical position, the average upward force during the downward stroke, F, must be equal to twice the weight of the insect. Note that since the upward force on the insect body is applied only for half the time, the average upward force on the insect is simply its weight.\n", "In all cases, the body is assumed to start from rest, and air resistance is neglected. Generally, in Earth's atmosphere, all results below will therefore be quite inaccurate after only 5 seconds of fall (at which time an object's velocity will be a little less than the vacuum value of 49 m/s (9.8 m/s × 5 s) due to air resistance). Air resistance induces a drag force on any body that falls through any atmosphere other than a perfect vacuum, and this drag force increases with velocity until it equals the gravitational force, leaving the object to fall at a constant terminal velocity. \n", "While rarely known to fly, adult males have fully developed wings and pigmented musculature typical of cockroaches able to meet the rapid energy requirements of sustained flight. In laboratory test launches from a ramp 2.5 m high, adult male \"B. dubia\" were able to right their dorso-ventral position and rapidly deploy their wings to control and direct their descent; however, active powered flight did not maintain or increase their altitude. Adult females have only rudimentary forewings and lack the muscles required for flight, and showed no flight control in test launches.\n\nSection::::Climbing.\n", "‘Kruse was having an incredibly difficult time simply trying to dress himself. He put his climbing harness on inside out, threaded it through the fly of his wind suit, and failed to fasten the buckle; fortunately, Fisher and Neal Beidleman noticed the screwup before Kruse started to descend. \"If he'd tried to rappel down the ropes like that,\" says Beidleman, \"he would have immediately popped out of his harness and fallen to the bottom of the Lhotse Face.\"\n", "This case, which applies to skydivers, parachutists or any body of mass, formula_10, and cross-sectional area, formula_11, with Reynolds number well above the critical Reynolds number, so that the air resistance is proportional to the square of the fall velocity, formula_12, has an equation of motion\n\nwhere formula_14 is the air density and formula_15 is the drag coefficient, assumed to be constant although in general it will depend on the Reynolds number.\n\nAssuming an object falling from rest and no change in air density with altitude, the solution is:\n\nwhere the terminal speed is given by\n", "BULLET::::- Toxic gas roaches - These cockroaches have green gas masks that protect them from the toxic slime. In level 8, the gas they leave behind explodes if ignited by fire ants or buddy bugs, so they may die without Rollie having to fight them.\n\nBULLET::::- Ghost ants - If you kill a spear throwing ant in level 9, he will rise again as a ghost ant. He cannot be kicked but he will die if he is in lava or water. If you hide for a while, he will dissipate.\n", "e.g. pressure, that varies with time and position: \n\nformula_3.\n\nIf the bug during the time interval from \n\nformula_4 \n\nto \n\nformula_5 \n\nmoves from \n\nformula_6 \n\nto \n\nformula_7\n\nthen the bug experiences a change formula_8 in the scalar value,\n\n(the total differential). If the bug is moving with a velocity\n\nformula_10 \n\nthe change in particle position is \n\nformula_11 \n\nand we may write\n\nwhere formula_13 is the gradient of the scalar field \"p\". So:\n", "In the case of flying animals, the wing loading would be increased if they were isometrically scaled up, and they would therefore have to fly faster to gain the same amount of lift. Air resistance per unit mass is also higher for smaller animals, which is why a small animal like an ant cannot be seriously injured from impact with the ground after being dropped from any height.\n", "The flows around birds and insects can be considered incompressible: The Mach number, or speed while moving through air, is typically 1/300 and the wing frequency is about 10–103 Hz. Using the governing equation as the Navier-Stokes equation being subject to the no-slip boundary condition, the equation is:\n", "The upward stroke then restores the insect to its original position. Typically, it may be required that the vertical position of the insect change by no more than 0.1 mm (i.e., h=0.1 mm). The maximum allowable time for free fall is then \n\nSince the up movements and the down movements of the wings are about equal in duration, the period T for a complete up-and-down wing is twice Δ\"r\", that is,\n\nThe frequency of the beats, f, meaning the number of wingbeats per second, is represented by the equation:\n", "Joyce-Armstrong takes his monoplane to a height of 40,000 feet and is nearly hit by three meteors. It is then that he learns that his speculations are right: entire ecosystems (air-jungles) exist high in the atmosphere, and are inhabited by huge, gelatinous, semi-solid creatures. After going through a flock of animals superficially resembling jellyfish and snakes, Joyce-Armstrong is attacked by a more solid-looking but amorphous creature with a beak and tentacles, from which he narrowly escapes. He then returns to the ground.\n", "Many insects are able to lift twenty times their own body weight like Rhinoceros beetle and may jump distances that are many times greater than their own length. This is because their energy output is high in relation to their body mass. \n", "Scaling factors also account for the relative disadvantage of the small cyclist in descending, although this is a result of physics, not physiology. A larger rider will be subject to a greater gravitational force because of their greater body mass. Additionally, as mentioned, the frontal area that creates aerodynamic drag increases only quadratically with the rider's size, and hence the larger rider would be expected to accelerate faster or attain a greater terminal velocity.\n", "Warner Brothers Looney Tunes had numerous examples of their own cartoon physics (such as in the Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner cartoons) or even acknowledged they ignore real world physics. In \"High Diving Hare\" (1948), when Yosemite Sam cuts through a high diving board Bugs Bunny is standing on, the ladder and platform that Sam is on falls, leaving the cut plank suspended in mid-air. Bugs turns to the camera and cracks: \"I know this defies the law of gravity, but, you see, I never studied law!\"\n", "Recent experiments have found organisms that can survive both the acceleration and jerk involved in reaching escape velocity. A major impact event was simulated using an air cannon to propel both ice and agar projectiles covered with chosen microorganisms to extreme speeds and then crashing the projectiles into a solid surface. Two species of bacteria were tested - \"R. erythropolis\" and \"B. subtilis\" - and while survival rates were low, at 100 GPa of peak pressure there was still a survival rate of 3.9x10 in the \"B. subtilis\". These findings have been replicated with other bacteria as well - \"D. radiodurans\" as well as when shot into liquid water - with similar low, but not zero, survival rates. Also, experimental methods have been varied, and survival rates have also been found when bacteria are subjected to acceleration at an extended time, through the use of a centrifuge as well as when shot into liquid water. While very small, these finite results show that some lifeforms could survive the impact from a major impact event.\n", "The equations ignore air resistance, which has a dramatic effect on objects falling an appreciable distance in air, causing them to quickly approach a terminal velocity. The effect of air resistance varies enormously depending on the size and geometry of the falling object — for example, the equations are hopelessly wrong for a feather, which has a low mass but offers a large resistance to the air. (In the absence of an atmosphere all objects fall at the same rate, as astronaut David Scott demonstrated by dropping a hammer and a feather on the surface of the Moon.) \n", "BULLET::::- Sputnik Bug, a small, blue, \"Eoarthropleura\"-like creature from High Gravity Planet named after Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite in orbit. It has spines to protect it from a dangerous fall. Whenever it does fall, it immediately rolls up in a ball shape when it starts to tumble.\n\nBULLET::::- Splatter Bug, a small, brown, Eurypterid-like creature from High Gravity Planet. It sadly has nothing to protect its soft body. It's an evolutionary dead-end.\n\nSection::::Plot.:Helliconia.\n", "Small insects rely almost exclusively on passive diffusion and physical activity for the movement of gasses within the tracheal system. However, larger insects may require active ventilation of the tracheal system (especially when active or under heat stress). They accomplish this by opening some spiracles and closing others while using abdominal muscles to alternately expand and contract body volume. Although these pulsating movements flush air from one end of the body to the other through the longitudinal tracheal trunks, diffusion is still important for distributing oxygen to individual cells through the network of smaller tracheal tubes. In fact, the rate of gas diffusion is regarded as one of the main limiting factors (along with weight of the exoskeleton) that prevents real insects from growing as large as the ones we see in horror movies. Periods in Earth's ancient history, however, such as the Carboniferous, featured much higher oxygen levels (up to 35%) that allowed horror movie sized insects, such as meganeura, along with arachnids, to exist.\n", "BULLET::::- 24 April – Small lasers capable of igniting a fuel/air mixture more efficiently, resulting in less pollution, may replace spark plugs in gasoline engines. (BBC) (CLEO)\n\nBULLET::::- 25 April\n\nBULLET::::- Some microbes can survive gravity more than 400,000 times that felt on Earth, a new study says. By contrast, most humans can tolerate three to five times Earth's surface gravity before losing consciousness. (\"National Geographic\")\n", "\"My own “felicitous fall” took place when I was working on a new gym for Portland State College (now University). I was three stories up, walking along scaffolding with a bucket of clip-ties in my arms when I happened to step on a plank that went only halfway between two platforms. I woke up a few moments later, sixty feet below, lying on the concrete floor. I had landed on the bucket, which cracked three ribs, but that and the hard hat I was wearing saved my life.\"\n", "BULLET::::10. Sky Dance by Scott Ciencin – Since he was small, Marc Clayton the 13-year-old human has wanted to be a tightrope walker – even though he has no sense of balance and a fear of heights. His buddy Gentle, a \"Parasaurolophus\", dreams of being a musician – even though his notes are wildly out of tune. Through sheer determination, the two join a troupe of traveling entertainers called Maxim's Cavalcade of Wonders. They learn quickly, but their newfound skills are put to the test when tragedy strikes. A Sky Galley is sent wildly out of control during a terrible storm. Only an aerialist like Marc can save the passengers. But performing isn't easy when lives are on the line!\n", "BULLET::::- breathing and heart rate formula_18 are both inversely proportional to body mass formula_5 raised to the formula_20 power:\n\nBULLET::::- mass transfer contact area formula_22 and body mass formula_5:\n\nBULLET::::- the proportionality between the optimal cruising speed formula_25 of flying bodies (insects, birds, airplanes) and body mass formula_5 raised to the power formula_27:\n\nSection::::Determinants of size in different species.\n", "Section::::Scenarios.:Height of lower-velocity trajectories.\n\nIgnoring all factors other than the gravitational force between the body and the object, an object projected vertically at speed formula_16 from the surface of a spherical body with escape velocity formula_6 and radius formula_18 will attain a maximum height formula_19 satisfying the equation\n\nwhich, solving for \"h\" results in\n\nwhere formula_22 is the ratio of the original speed formula_16 to the escape velocity formula_24\n\nUnlike escape velocity, the direction (vertically up) is important to achieve maximum height.\n\nSection::::Trajectory.\n", "Studies of nonhuman subjects support the theory that falling is an inborn fear. Gibson and Walk performed identical experiments with chicks, turtles, rats, kids, lambs, kittens, and puppies. The results were similar to those of the human infants, although each animal behaved a little differently according to the characteristics of its species.\n" ]

[ "If humans die from falling at extreme heights then so should bugs." ]

[ "Bugs are very strong for their weight and size, terminal velocity also cancels gravity which allows them to survive." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "If humans die from falling at extreme heights then so should bugs.", "If humans die from falling at extreme heights then so should bugs." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Bugs are very strong for their weight and size, terminal velocity also cancels gravity which allows them to survive.", "Bugs are very strong for their weight and size, terminal velocity also cancels gravity which allows them to survive." ]

[ "BULLET::::- Gaze-following: Social animals coordinate their communication by monitoring of each other's head and eye orientation. Such behaviour has long been recognized as an important component of communication during human development, and gaze-following has recently received much attention in animals. Studies have been conducted on apes, monkeys, dogs, birds, wolves and tortoises, and have focused on two different tasks: \"follow[ing] another’s gaze into distant space\" and \"follow[ing] another’s gaze geometrically around a visual barrier e.g. by repositioning themselves to follow a gaze cue when faced with a barrier blocking their view\". The first ability has been found among a broad range of animals, while the second has been demonstrated only for apes, dogs, wolves, and corvids (ravens); attempts to demonstrate this \"geometric gaze following\" in marmoset and ibis gave negative results. Researchers do not yet have a clear picture of the cognitive basis of gaze following, but developmental evidence indicates that \"simple\" gaze following and \"geometric\" gaze following probably rely on different cognitive mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Other animals.:Dyadic joint attention.\n\nInfant and parent chimpanzees show dyadic joint attention in an affectionate manner by looking at each other's eyes Non-human animals such as Japanese monkeys, baboons, and other Old World monkeys seldom engage in dyadic joint attention. For these animals, the eye contact involved in dyadic joint attention is deemed threatening.\n\nSection::::Other animals.:Shared gaze.\n", "In a 2001 study conducted in Germany examining German infants during their first 12 weeks of life, researchers studied the relationship between eye contact, maternal sensitivity and infant crying to attempt to determine if eye contact and maternal sensitivity were stable over time. In this correlational study, they began by categorizing the mother’s sensitivity placing them into one of four behavioral categories: inhibited/intense behavior, distortion of infant signals, over and understimulational, and aggressive behavioral. Next, the observer video-taped the mother and infant’s free-play interactions on a weekly basis for 12 weeks. When watching the videos, they measured the mutual eye contact between the mother and the infant by looking at the overlap in time when the mothers looked at their infant’s face and when the infants looked at their mother’s face. The mothers were also asked to record their infant’s crying in a diary.\n", "Section::::Eye contact.\n\nEye contact is the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the primary nonverbal way of indicating engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Some studies have demonstrated that people use their eyes to indicate interest. This includes frequently recognized actions of winking and movements of the eyebrows. Disinterest is highly noticeable when little or no eye contact is made in a social setting. When an individual is interested, however, the pupils will dilate.\n", "One consequence is that while an ape may be motivated to 'read' (that is, to infer) the mental states of others around it, it has little motive to reciprocate. Instead of making its own mental states transparent to potential rivals, it seeks to block others from 'reading' its own mind. For example, one way to infer what another primate might be thinking is to detect which way its head is pointed, so as to reconstruct what it might be looking at. In the case of gorillas and chimpanzees, adult apes have evolved eyes which give away very little information concerning direction of gaze. Their eyes are dark-on-dark: the iris is dark brown or even black and the same applies to the sclera and surrounding skin. Looking at the eyes, therefore, it is not easy to detect direction of gaze. In the human case, the eyes are very different, the dark iris standing out against a white surrounding sclera. This feature, combined with the relatively large size of the human eye and its horizontally elongated shape, assists neighbouring conspecifics to detect direction of gaze and, on that basis, engage in mind-reading.\n", "Unlike other primates, human beings have eyes with a distinct colour contrast between the white sclera, the coloured iris, and the black pupil. This is due to a lack of pigment in the sclera. Other primates have pigmented sclerae that are brown or dark in colour. There is also a higher contrast between human skin, sclera, and irises. Human eyes are also larger in proportion to body size, and are longer horizontally. Among primates, humans are the only ones where the outline of the eye and the position of the iris can be clearly seen.\n\nSection::::Studies.\n", "Gaze following, or shared gaze, can be found in a number of primates. Domesticated animals such as dogs and horses also demonstrate shared gaze. This type of joint attention is important for animals because gaze shifts serve as indicators alerting the animal to the location of predators, mates, or food.\n", "Within their first year, Infants learn rapidly that the looking behaviors of others conveys significant information. Infants prefer to look at faces that engage them in mutual gaze and that, from an early age, healthy babies show enhanced neural processing of direct gaze.\n\nEye contact is another major aspect of facial communication. Some have hypothesized that this is due to infancy, as humans are one of the few mammals who maintain regular eye contact with their mother while nursing. Eye contact serves a variety of purposes. It regulates conversations, shows interest or involvement, and establishes a connection with others.\n", "For clinical evaluation purposes in the practice of psychiatry and clinical psychology, as part of a mental status exam, the clinician may describe the initiation, frequency, and quality of eye contact. For example, the doctor may note whether the patient initiates, responds to, sustains, or evades eye contact. The clinician may also note whether eye contact is unusually intense or blank, or whether the patient glares, looks down, or looks aside frequently.\n\nSection::::Between species.\n\nEye contact can also be a significant factor in interactions between non-human animals, and between humans and non-human animals.\n", "According to Eckman, \"Eye contact (also called mutual gaze) is another major channel of nonverbal communication. The duration of eye contact is its most meaningful aspect.\" Generally speaking, the longer there is established eye contact between two people, the greater the intimacy levels.\n\nGaze comprises the actions of looking while talking and listening. The length of a gaze, the frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate are all important cues in nonverbal communication. \"Liking generally increases as mutual gazing increases.\"\n", "An important tool for communication in social interactions is the eyes. Even 12-month-old babies respond to the gaze of adults. This indicates that the eyes are an important way to communicate, even before spoken language is developed. People must detect and orient to people's eyes in order to utilize and follow gaze cues. Real-world examples show the degree to which we seek and follow gaze cues may change contingent on how close the standard is to a real social interaction. People may use gaze following because they want to avoid social interactions. Past experiments have found that eye contact was more likely when there was a speaker's face available, for longer periods of real-world time. Individuals use gaze following and seeking to provide information for gaze cuing when information is not provided in a verbal manner. However, people do not seek gaze cues when they are not provided or when spoken instructions contain all of the relevant information.\n", "Animals of many species, including dogs, often perceive eye contact as a threat. Many programs to prevent dog bites recommend avoiding direct eye contact with an unknown dog. According to a report in \"The New Zealand Medical Journal\", maintaining eye contact is one reason young children may be more likely to fall victim to dog attacks.\n\nOn the other hand, extended eye contact between a dog and its owner modulates the secretion of oxytocin, a neuromodulator that is known for its role in maternal-infant bonding.\n", "A 1985 study suggested that \"3-month-old infants are comparatively insensitive to being the object of another's visual regard\". A 1996 Canadian study with 3 to 6 month old infants found that smiling in infants decreased when adult eye contact was removed. A recent British study in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience found that face recognition by infants was facilitated by direct gaze. Other recent research has confirmed that the direct gaze of adults influences the direct gaze of infants. Within their first year, infants learn rapidly that the looking behaviors of others conveys significant information. Infants prefer to look at faces that engage them in mutual gaze and that, from an early age, healthy babies show enhanced neural processing of direct gaze.\n", "Various ways in which humans interpret the behaviour of animals, or give commands to them, are consistent with the definition of interspecies communication. Skillful interpretation of animal communications may be critical to the welfare of animals that are being cared for or trained by humans. For example, behaviours indicating pain need to be recognized. Indeed, the survival of both the animal and its human caretaker may be at stake if, for example, a human fails to recognize a signal for imminent attack. It is also important to take into account that non-human animal species may interpret the signals of humans differently than humans themselves. For instance, a pointing command refers to a location rather than an object in dogs.\n", "As previously discussed, the effect that eye movement has on human behavior has been widely studied. In some cultures, however, this study actually allows for insights into individuals whose only way of communication is by nonverbal means. Studies show that eye behavior shows special patterns with mental patients, autistic children, and persons from diverse cultures. In some countries, doctors use the study of oculesics to test stimulation among patients and interest levels in children who are not as expressive verbally. While lack of eye contact in many cultures can signal either disinterest or respect, depending on the culture of the individual, it may be an insight into a mental patient's brain functions on a particular day.\n", "These two areas activate when dynamic facial expressions are presented as well as in a communication context when participants are required to decode the intention of the presented face. Like the pSTS, this suggests that context could be a factor in this activation. However, some studies have shown higher activation in mPFC when averted gaze is perceived than direct gaze. This activation was in a slightly posterior position compared to the areas which had higher activation for direct gaze. \n\nSection::::Activation in the brain.:Amygdala.\n", "The cooperative eye hypothesis was first proposed by H. Kobayashi and S. Kohshima in 2002 and was subsequently tested by Michael Tomasello and others at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany. Researchers examined the effect of head and eye movement on changing gaze direction in humans and great apes. A human experimenter, observed by either a human infant, a gorilla, a bonobo, or a chimpanzee, did one of four actions:\n\nBULLET::::- Tilted his head up while closing his eyes\n\nBULLET::::- Looked at the ceiling with his eyes while keeping his head stationary\n", "Similar to humans, gray wolves have facial color patterns in which the gaze direction can be easily identified, although this is often not the case in other canid species. In 2014, a study compared the facial color pattern across 25 canid species. The results suggested that the facial color pattern of canid species is related to their gaze communication, and that especially gray wolves use the gaze signal in conspecific communication.\n\nSection::::Auditory.\n", "Eye contact provides some of the strongest emotions during a social conversation. This primarily is because it provides details on emotions and intentions. In a group if eye contact is not inclusive of a certain individual it can make that individual feel left out of the group, while on the other hand prolonged eye contact can tell someone you are interested in what they have to say.\n", "Within the interactive seduction game, non-verbal communication is a prominent feature in accessing the desirable potential mate. The purpose of this communication is to reduce the interpersonal distance between the desired individuals.\n\nPhysiological features such as pupil dilation are a salient cue, expressing attraction. Leading on from this, eye contact is a very notable sign of attraction. Although there are cross cultural differences in whether eye contact is used or not, in Western cultures, the duration of eye contact and the exchange between two individuals is important in the first stages of the biosocial model.\n", "In contrast to a direct stare, cats will lower their eyelids or slowly blink them to show trust and affection to their owners. According to Gary Weitzman, a licensed veterinarian and animal author, this type of feline body language is similar to a \"kitty kiss\". He further explains in his book, \"How To Speak Cat: A Guide to Decoding Cat Language,\" slow blinking could be a physiological response to lowered stress hormonal levels from being in a calm state.\n", "Other animals such as great apes, orangutans, chimpanzees, dogs, and horses also show some elements of joint attention.\n\nSection::::Humans.\n\nSection::::Humans.:Levels of joint attention.\n\nDefining levels of joint attention is important in determining if children are engaging in age-appropriate joint attention. There are three levels of joint attention: triadic, dyadic, and shared gaze.\n", "Studies have shown that the obedience training of domestic dogs can be explained using operant conditioning methods. Like humans, concentration as well as motivation must be present in order for learning to occur. Therefore, understanding the dog’s motivation and emotional states may result in more successful training. Attention to others can be assessed in dogs by measuring the amount of eye contact made with the trainer, as well as the position of the ears. It has been found that dogs that make eye contact with the trainer, as well as display a forward ear position, are most successful in learning achievement during operant conditioning.\n", "Consider for a moment how humans communicate using body language. Even without speaking, we can gain a lot of information about another person simply by observing that person's posture, behavior, and physical appearance. After we assess these various characteristics, we decide how to interact with the person we observed. For instance, we might choose to avoid a person who adopts an aggressive stance and has a flushed face characteristic of someone who is angry or upset. Alternatively, a different set of postures and behaviors can indicate that a person is friendly and welcoming, and we might choose to approach that person after assessing those characteristics.\n", "Sensitivity to eye contact is present in newborns. From as early as four months old cortical activation as a result of eye contact has suggested that infants are able to detect and orient towards faces that make eye contact with them . This sensitivity to eye contact remains as the presence of eye contact has an effect on the processing of social stimuli in slightly older infants. For example, a 9-month-old infant will shift its gaze towards an object in response to another face shifting its gaze towards the same object. \n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "When dealing with truecolor images, some video mixing equipment can employ the RGB triplet (0,0,0) (no red, no green, no blue: the darkest shade of black, sometimes referred as \"superblack\" in this context) as the transparent color. At design time, it is replaced by the so-called magic pink. The same way, typical desktop publishing software can assume pure white, RGB triplet (255,255,255) from photos and illustrations to be excluded in order to let the text paragraphs \"to invade\" the image's bounding box for irregular text arrangement around the image's subjects.\n", "Color 6 is treated differently; when using the formula above, color 6 would become \"dark yellow\", as seen to the left, but in order to achieve a more pleasing \"brown\" tone, special circuitry in most RGBI monitors, including the IBM 5153 color display, makes an \"exception\" for color 6 and changes its hue from dark yellow to brown by halving the analogue green signal's amplitude:\n", "With the advent of teletext, research was done into which primary and secondary light colors and combinations worked best for this new medium. Cyan or yellow on black was typically found to be optimal from a palette of black, red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan and white.\n\nThe opposite color scheme, dark-on-light color scheme, was originally introduced in WYSIWYG word processors, to simulate ink on paper. \n", "BULLET::::- Xcalib is one such loader, and although it is a command-line utility, it is quite easy to use.\n\nBULLET::::- dispwin is a part of Argyll CMS.\n\nBULLET::::- If, for any reason, the LUT cannot be loaded, it is still recommended to go through the initial stages of calibration where a user is asked by calibration software to make some manual adjustments to the monitor, as this will often improve display linearity and also provide information on its color temperature. This is especially recommended for CRT monitors.\n\nSection::::Requirements for a color-managed workflow.:Color-managed applications.\n", "If the palette bit is not set, the 4 colors available for the pixels in that byte are black, violet, green, and white\n", "It is also worth noting that video codecs can operate in RGB space as well. These codecs tend not to sample the red, green, and blue channels in different ratios, since there is less perceptual motivation for doing so—just the blue channel could be undersampled.\n", "It is possible to alter the colours between which the border alternates during loading, and/or to use more than two colours, in order to obtain more flashy visual effects during the loading process.\n", "Many early models output composite video YPbPr colors. When seen on TV devices, the perception of the colors may not correspond with the value levels for the YPbPr values employed (most noticeable with NTSC TV color system).\n\nFor current RGB display systems for PC's (Super VGA, etc.), see the 16-bit RGB and 24-bit RGB for HighColor (\"thousands\") and TrueColor (\"millions of colors\") modes.\n\nFor video game consoles, see the List of videogame consoles section.\n", "Media that transmit light (such as television) use additive color mixing with primary colors of red, green, and blue, each of which stimulates one of the three types of the eye's color receptors with as little stimulation as possible of the other two. This is called \"RGB\" color space. Mixtures of light of these primary colors cover a large part of the human color space and thus produce a large part of human color experiences. This is why color television sets or color computer monitors need only produce mixtures of red, green and blue light. See Additive color.\n", "Section::::Modern Red Wanting Blue recordings.:\"Little America\" (2014 – 2016).\n", "Color management\n\nIn digital imaging systems, color management (or colour management) is the controlled conversion between the color representations of various devices, such as image scanners, digital cameras, monitors, TV screens, film printers, computer printers, offset presses, and corresponding media.\n", "Section::::RGB devices.:RGB and cameras.\n\nIn color television and video cameras manufactured before the 1990s, the incoming light was separated by prisms and filters into the three RGB primary colors feeding each color into a separate video camera tube (or \"pickup tube\"). These tubes are a type of cathode ray tube, not to be confused with that of CRT displays.\n", "The colors correspond to the different functions of the terminals. Extra caution should be used to verify correct phase in relation to color coordination with foreign companies and equipment in traveling productions. The common American colors are: \n", "Section::::Modern Red Wanting Blue recordings.:\"From The Vanishing Point\" (2011–2014).\n", "See further details in the summary paragraph of the corresponding article.\n\nSection::::List of monochrome and RGB palettes.\n\nFor the purpose of this article, the term \"monochrome palette\" means a set of intensities for a monochrome display, and the term \"RGB palette\" is defined as the complete set of combinations a given RGB display can offer by mixing all the possible intensities of the red, green, and blue primaries available in its hardware.\n", "In order to organize the material, color palettes have been grouped following arbitrary but rational criteria. First, generic monochrome and full RGB repertories common to various computer display systems. Second, usual color repertories used for display systems that employ indexed color techniques. And finally, specific manufacturers' color palettes implemented in many representative early personal computers and videogame consoles of various brands.\n", "Section::::History of DIY painted screens.\n\nProjection screens are primarily white or gray. A white screen is better balanced and more accurate when it is close to D65 (the international standard illumination conditions). A gray screen is more accurate when it is closer to neutral, based on parameters such as color balance (L*ab and xyY values), spectral curve and color temperature.\n", "Some well known CMMs are ColorSync, Adobe CMM, LittleCMS, and ArgyllCMS.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Operating system level.\n\nApple's classic Mac OS and macOS operating systems have provided OS-level color management APIs since 1993, through ColorSync. macOS has added automatic color management (assuming sRGB for most things) automatically in the OS, and applications have to work around this to provide more accurate color management.\n", "There are many reference standards providing printed swatches of color shades. PANTONE, RAL, Munsell etc. are widely used standards of color communication across different media like printing, plastics, and textiles.\n\nSection::::Swatches.:Plastic swatches.\n\nCompanies manufacturing color masterbatches and pigments for plastics offer plastic swatches in injection molded color chips. These color chips are supplied to the designer or customer to choose and select the color for their specific plastic products.\n", "In general, all test pattern with a color bar, that includes red, green, blue, and the complementary colors cyan, magenta and yellow can be used to adjust hue and saturation in blue only mode.\n\nParticularly often the SMPTE test pattern or the HD version of the SMPTE is used for hue and saturation adjustment. These are in many cases already integrated in the recording and playback devices in the professional sector and are always available.\n", "Section::::Direct color.:More than 3 primaries.\n\nVirtually all television displays and computer displays form images by varying the strength of just three primary colors: red, green, and blue. For example, bright yellow is formed by roughly equal red and green contributions, with no blue contribution.\n", "Section::::Design.\n", "It is this \"RGBI with tweaked brown\" palette, shown in the complete palette to the right, that all later PC graphics standards such as EGA and VGA have retained for compatibility as a power-on default setting of their internal palette registers and/or DAC registers.\n\nSection::::Color palette.:With a composite color monitor/television set.\n", "According to an analysis by Raymond Soneira, president of DisplayMate Technologies, a video calibration equipment producer, the industry-standard color spaces used by content providers mean there is no existing source material that contains the fourth color channel. He therefore concludes that any \"extra\" colors displayed must be created in the television itself through video processing, resulting in exaggerated, less accurate color.\n", "BULLET::::- Palette support : If the system could translate a \"logical color\" into a (larger number) or true colors using a palette mechanism then this column lists the number of logical colors the palette could accept, and the number of colors it could translate to.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In July 2018, a study published by LSU's Pennington Biomedical Research Center shows that some video games can decrease or control obesity, lower the blood pressure and cholesterol in children if followed with proper coaching and a step tracker.\n\nSection::::Public concern and formal study.:General critiques on addiction research.\n", "Many video games can also have positive effects. Games like Wii Tennis and Wii Fit improve hand-eye coordination as well as general mental and physical health.\n", "Adolescents low in reward dependence may find conventional sources of reward unfulfilling (e.g., academic achievement or activities involving social affiliation), and eventually turn to unconventional reward sources (e.g., smoking and other forms of substance misuse) to derive satisfaction and pleasure. A study conducted using adolescents with Excessive Internet video Game Play (EIGP) showed that such addictive behaviors were correlated with higher RD scores on the TCI, whereas both low and high scores of RD were implicated in specific alcoholic and drug addictions.\n", "A study conducted in 2011 formalized the association of video game play and an increase in food intake in teens. A single session of video game play resulted in an increase in food intake, regardless of appetite. The recent trend of \"active video games\" revolving around the Wii and Xbox Kinect might be a way to help combat the aforementioned problem however this finding still needs confirmation from other studies. Furthermore, a study conducted in Baylor College of Medicine revolving around children claims that there is no evidence which supports the belief that acquiring an active video game under naturalistic circumstance would result in a beneficial outcome toward children. The study produced no results showing an increased amount of physical activity within the children receiving the active video games. It has been estimated that children in the United States are spending 25 percent of their waking hours watching television and playing video games. Statistically the children who watch the most hours of television or play video games have the highest incidence of obesity we can see.\n", "In 2017, researchers applied Uses and Gratification Theory to study user behavior among Pokémon Go users. Results show that enjoyment, physical activity, nostalgia, image, normative influences and flow drive various forms of user behavior. In addition, perceived physical risks (but not perceived privacy risks) lead to weaker forms of usage. Findings of this study show that Uses and Gratification theory provides a promising framework to study Augmented Reality, and that U&GT provides a robust framework that can be supplemented with other theories.\n\nSection::::Modern applications of uses and gratifications research.:Animated news.\n", "This new branch of research explores the U&G of starting to play games online. Achievement, enjoyment and social interaction are all motivations for starting to play an online game, and their success at the game as well as the extent to which their uses were gratified predicted their continuance in playing.\n\nSection::::Modern applications of uses and gratifications research.:Mobile Gaming and Augmented Reality.\n", "In response to the central importance that food plays in the collective enjoyment of social gaming, various websites have been created which allow gamers to rate their favorite foods to accompany play.\n", "Ryan, a motivational psychologist at Rochester, says that many video games satisfy basic psychological needs, and players often continue to play because of rewards, freedom, and a connection to other players.\n\nMichael Brody, M.D., head of the TV and Media Committee of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, stated in a 2007 press release that \"... there is not enough research on whether or not video games are addictive.\" However, Brody also cautioned that for some children and adolescents, \"... it displaces physical activity and time spent on studies, with friends, and even with family.\"\n", "Studies have shown that learning and memory improve after consuming carbohydrates. There are two kinds of carbohydrates people consume: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are often found in processed foods and release sugar into the bloodstream quickly after consumption. Complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and therefore cause sugar to be released into the bloodstream more slowly. Good sources of complex carbohydrates are whole-grain breads, pasta, brown rice, oatmeal, and potatoes. It is recommended that people consume more complex carbohydrates because consuming complex carbohydrates will cause the level of sugar in the bloodstream to be more stable, which will cause less stress hormones to be released. Consuming simple carbohydrates may cause the levels of sugar in the bloodstream to rise and fall, which can cause mood swings.\n", "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals. There is a biomedical and neurological science behind the usage of mini-pigs and lab rodents. In these animal species, there are similarities with humans in terms of cognition, development of food preferences and eating disorders, digestive anatomy and functions, as well as brain development. Research has demonstrated that, under certain conditions, rats can develop addiction-like behaviors with respect to sugar. The food addiction model asserts that excessive consumption of palatable foods may be understood within the same neurobiological framework as drug addiction. The test subjects have similar brain anomalies as those described in humans. Drug addiction has an impact on the brain's reward center and substance abuse. In drug addiction, there is a \"drug-seeking\" behavior, which is similar having a \"sweet tooth\" and seeking to satisfy the desire for a sweet item. Reward from eating is controlled by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway. In the animal study, a fructose and glucose diet induced modifications in several brain regions involved in reward and eating behavior. The observations from the study asserts that food and drug consumption share a common neurobiology that \"hijack\" a neural system that primarily processes natural rewards like foods. Sugar is believed to stimulate dopamine in the central nervous system. In summary, the research provided several clinical facts and evidences on the effects of sugar consumption on the central nervous system.\n", "Harris concluded that 8.5% \"can be classified as pathological or clinically 'addicted' to playing video games,\" but did not explain how this conclusion was reached.\n\nSince the American Psychiatric Association decision in 2007, studies have been conducted at Stanford University School of Medicine related to video game play. Researchers found evidence that video games do have addictive characteristics.\n\nAn MRI study found that the part of the brain that generates rewarding feelings is more activated in men than women during video game play.\n", "Section::::Case studies.:The effect of watching television on snacking.\n\nHarriëtte M. Snoek, Tatjana van Strien, Jan M.A.M. Janssens, and\n", "One of the most commonly used instruments for the measurement of addiction, the PVP Questionnaire (Problem Video Game Playing Questionnaire), was presented as a quantitative measure, not as a diagnostic tool.\n", "Though the critiques are present, studies on this topic are still relatively young and growing and there is much to still be explored in this realm.\n\nSection::::Public concern and formal study.:Physical health.\n\nVideo game addiction may indirectly lead to premature death. Video game addiction may also lead to other health problems.\n", "Section::::Behavioral effects.\n\nIt has been shown that action video game players have better hand–eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than nonplayers. Researchers found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with action games, involving challenges that switch attention between different locations, but not with games requiring concentration on single objects.\n\nIt has been suggested by a few studies that online/offline video gaming can be used as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of different mental health concerns.\n", "A recent study by Adriaanse et al. (2014) found that habits mediate the relationship between self-control and unhealthy snack consumption. The results of the study empirically demonstrate that high-self control may influence the formation of habits and in turn affect behavior.\n\nSection::::Goals.\n\nThe habit–goal interface or interaction is constrained by the particular manner in which habits are learned and represented in memory. Specifically, the associative learning underlying habits is characterized by the slow, incremental accrual of information over time in procedural memory. Habits can either benefit or hurt the goals a person sets for themselves.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Video games.\n\nThe majority of video games are designed around a compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing. This can lead to the pathology of video game addiction.\n", "One experimental study compared the impact of using 4 different technologies for off-task purposes including MSN, email, texting and FacebookTM, to three control groups during real classroom lectures. The three control groups included one group of students who were free to use any amount of technologies as they wished including any on-task or off-task purposes. The other two groups were on-task note-takers who took notes either on paper or on a laptop. The results showed that students in the MSN and FacebookTM conditions scored lower on a memory test than the paper notes control group. When examining the amount of multitasking instead of specific technologies, the results showed that greater levels of multitasking led to progressively lower grades.\n", "Online gaming addiction may be considered in terms of B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, which claims that the frequency of a given behavior is directly linked to rewarding and punishment of that behavior. If a behavior is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated. If it is punished, it becomes suppressed.\n", "In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged. The study examined a sample of 1495 human participants to determine if foods mainly containing sugar cause \"addiction-like\" problems that meet clinical Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for substance dependence. The researchers also investigated whether potential dependence on sugar relates to body weight and negative affectivity such as mood depression. The results revealed that the majority of participants experienced at least one symptom of food dependence for combined high-fat savoury (30%) and high-fat sweet (25%) foods while only a minority experienced such problems for low-fat/savoury (2%) and mainly sugar-containing foods (5%). Furthermore, while addictive-like symptoms for high-fat savoury and high-fat sweet foods correlated to overweight conditions, this was not found to be the case for foods mainly containing sugar. Consequently, the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain.\n", "Some authors have demonstrated that neuroeconomics may be useful not only to describe experiments involving rewarding but may also be applied in order to describe the psychological behavior of common psychiatric syndromes involving addiction as well as delusion.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "BULLET::::- Advertising - with interconnected, disposable computing coming along, touch-screen cereal boxes can become a reality. The games on them could be interactive and multiplayer, encouraging you to continue to buy and eat a certain brand of cereal - and even encouraging you to have your friends eat it too - just so you can play the same games.\n", "In various studies looking specifically at how video games with prosocial content effect behavior, it was shown that exposure influenced subsequent helping behavior in the video-game player. The processes that underlay this effect point to prosocial thoughts being more readily available after playing a video game related to this, and thus the person playing the game is more likely to behave accordingly. These effects were not only found with video games, but also with music, as people listening to songs involving aggression and violence in the lyrics were more likely to act in an aggressive manner. Likewise, people listening to songs related to prosocial acts (relative to a song with neutral lyrics) were shown to express greater helping behaviors and more empathy afterwards. When these songs were played at restaurants, it even led to an increase in tips given (relative to those who heard neutral lyrics).\n", "In a study published on the Royal Society Open Science a research team analyzed the activity of thousands of League of Legends (a popular MOBA) players and illustrated the effects of prolonged game sessions on performance that appear correlated with a decline in individual and team performance; however, this effect is significantly more pronounced in novice players than in experts.\n", "Karen Pierce, a psychiatrist at Chicago's Children's Memorial Hospital, sees no need for a specific gaming addiction diagnosis. Two or more children see her each week because of excessive computer and video game play, and she treats their problems as she would any addiction. She said one of her excessive-gaming patients \"...hasn't been to bed, hasn't showered...He is really a mess\".\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:American Psychiatric Association.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Another commonly considered model is the heat pump or refrigerator. Again there are four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A single cycle starts with the working body colder than the cold reservoir, and then energy is taken in as heat by the working body from the cold reservoir. Then the work reservoir does work on the working body, adding more to its internal energy, making it hotter than the hot reservoir. The hot working body passes heat to the hot reservoir, but still remains hotter than the cold reservoir. Then, by allowing it to expand without doing work on another body and without passing heat to another body, the working body is made colder than the cold reservoir. It can now accept heat transfer from the cold reservoir to start another cycle.\n", "Section::::Energy usage in the human body.\n\nThe human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.\n", "Although Carathéodory himself did not state such a definition, following his work it is customary in theoretical studies to define heat, , to the body from its surroundings, in the combined process of change to state from the state , as the change in internal energy, , minus the amount of work, , done by the body on its surrounds by the adiabatic process, so that .\n", "As a common noun, English \"heat\" or \"warmth\" (just as French \"chaleur\", German \"Wärme\", Latin \"calor\", Greek θάλπος, etc.) refers to (the human perception of) either thermal energy or temperature. Speculation on thermal energy or \"heat\" as a separate form of matter has a long history, see caloric theory, phlogiston and fire (classical element).\n\nThe modern understanding of thermal energy originates with Thompson's 1798 mechanical theory of heat (\"An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction\"), postulating a mechanical equivalent of heat.\n", "The rest of the chemical energy in O and the carbohydrate or fat is converted into heat: the ATP is used as a sort of \"energy currency\", and some of the chemical energy it contains is used for other metabolism when ATP reacts with OH groups and eventually splits into ADP and phosphate (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is converted into heat). Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work:\n", "Body heat is generated by metabolism. This refers to the chemical reactions cells use to break down glucose into water and carbon dioxide and, in so doing, generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high-energy compound used to power other cellular processes. Muscle contraction is a type of metabolic process that generates heat energy, and heat is also generated through friction when blood flows through the circulatory system.\n", "Section::::Control system.\n\nThe core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus. As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).\n\nSection::::In hot conditions.\n", "We can explain the expansion of air under heat: caloric is absorbed into the air, which increases its volume. If we say a little more about what happens to caloric during this absorption phenomenon, we can explain the radiation of heat, the state changes of matter under various temperatures, and deduce nearly all of the gas laws.\n\nSadi Carnot developed his principle of the Carnot cycle, which still forms the basis of heat engine theory, solely from the caloric viewpoint.\n", "BULLET::::- Eccrine sweat glands under the skin secrete sweat (a fluid containing mostly water with some dissolved ions), which travels up the sweat duct, through the sweat pore and onto the surface of the skin. This causes heat loss via evaporative cooling; however, a lot of essential water is lost.\n", "Section::::Heat transfer.\n\nSection::::Heat transfer.:Heat transfer between two bodies.\n\nReferring to conduction, Partington writes: \"If a hot body is brought in conducting contact with a cold body, the temperature of the hot body falls and that of the cold body rises, and it is said that a \"quantity of heat\" has passed from the hot body to the cold body.\"\n\nReferring to radiation, Maxwell writes: \"In Radiation, the hotter body loses heat, and the colder body receives heat by means of a process occurring in some intervening medium which does not itself thereby become hot.\"\n", "The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as body fat, triglycerides, or glycogen, transferred to cells and converted to chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP – a coenzyme) or related compounds, or dissipated as heat.\n\nSection::::Energy.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Intake.\n", "When an energy transfer to or from a body is only as heat, the state of the body changes. Depending on the surroundings and the walls separating them from the body, various changes are possible in the body. They include chemical reactions, increase of pressure, increase of temperature, and phase change. For each kind of change under specified conditions, the heat capacity is the ratio of the quantity of heat transferred to the magnitude of the change. For example, if the change is an increase in temperature at constant volume, with no phase change and no chemical change, then the temperature of the body rises and its pressure increases. The quantity of heat transferred, , divided by the observed temperature change, , is the body's heat capacity at constant volume:\n", "In mammals, temperature receptors innervate various tissues including the skin (as cutaneous receptors), cornea and urinary bladder. Neurons from the pre-optic and hypothalamic regions of the brain that respond to small changes in temperature have also been described, providing information on core temperature. The hypothalamus is involved in thermoregulation, the thermoreceptors allowing feed-forward responses to a predicted change in core body temperature in response to changing environmental conditions.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThermoreceptors have been classically described as having 'free' non-specialized endings; the mechanism of activation in response to temperature changes is not completely understood.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Earth's internal heat budget\n\nEarth's internal heat budget is fundamental to the thermal history of the Earth. The flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface is estimated at formula_1 terawatts (TW) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts: the \"radiogenic heat\" produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the \"primordial heat\" left over from the formation of the Earth.\n", "The sensing of temperature in cells is known as thermoception and is primarily mediated by transient receptor potential channels. Additionally, animal cells contain a conserved mechanism to prevent high temperatures from causing cellular damage, the heat-shock response. Such response is triggered when high temperatures cause the dissociation of inactive HSF1 from complexes with heat shock proteins Hsp40/Hsp70 and Hsp90. With help from the ncRNA \"hsr1\", HSF1 then trimerizes, becoming active and upregulating the expression of its target genes. Many other thermosensory mechanisms exist in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.\n\nSection::::Stimuli.:Light.\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Core temperature.\n\nMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.\n", "Acetylcholine stimulates muscle to raise metabolic rate.\n\nThe low demands of thermogenesis mean that free fatty acids draw, for the most part, on lipolysis as the method of energy production.\n\nA comprehensive list of human and mouse genes regulating cold-induced thermogenesis (CIT) in living animals (\"in vivo\") or tissue samples (\"ex vivo\") has been assembled and is available in CITGeneDB.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n\nHeat is primarily generated in muscle tissue, including the heart, and in the liver, while it is lost through the skin (90%) and lungs (10%). Heat production may be increased two- to four-fold through muscle contractions (i.e. exercise and shivering). The rate of heat loss is determined, as with any object, by convection, conduction, and radiation. The rates of these can be affected by body mass index, body surface area to volume ratios, clothing and other environmental conditions.\n", "Human power\n\nHuman power is work or energy that is produced from the human body. It can also refer to the power (rate of work per time) of a human. Power comes primarily from muscles, but body heat is also used to do work like warming shelters, food, or other humans.\n", "In microscopic terms, heat is a transfer quantity, and is described by a transport theory, not as steadily localized kinetic energy of particles. Heat transfer arises from temperature gradients or differences, through the diffuse exchange of microscopic kinetic and potential particle energy, by particle collisions and other interactions. An early and vague expression of this was made by Francis Bacon. Precise and detailed versions of it were developed in the nineteenth century.\n", "In the early modern period, heat was thought to be a measurement of an invisible fluid, known as the \"caloric\". Bodies were capable of holding a certain amount of this fluid, leading to the term \"heat capacity\", named and first investigated by Scottish chemist Joseph Black in the 1750s.\n", "Thermal conduction\n\nThermal conduction is the transfer of heat internal energy by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The microscopically colliding particles, that include molecules, atoms and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetically and potential energy, jointly known as internal energy. Conduction takes place in all phases of including solids, liquids, gases and waves. The rate at which energy is conducted as heat between two bodies is a function of the temperature difference temperature gradient between the two bodies and the properties of the conductive through which the heat is transferred. \n", "Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "The CNS can be divided into the brain and spinal cord. The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories. Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS. The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to homeostasis by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli. The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain. The brain is responsible for integrating most sensory information and coordinating body function, both consciously and unconsciously.\n", "The resting human body generates about two-thirds of its heat through metabolism in internal organs in the thorax and abdomen, as well as in the brain. The brain generates about 16% of the total heat produced by the body.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is \"sub-cooled nucleate boiling\", and is a very efficient heat transfer mechanism. At high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or DNB).\n", "Between and above T, a second flow regime may be observed. As more nucleation sites become active, increased bubble formation causes bubble interference and coalescence. In this region the vapor escapes as jets or columns which subsequently merge into slugs of vapor.\n", "Section::::Types.:Transition.\n\n\"Transition boiling\" may be defined as the unstable boiling, which occurs at surface temperatures between the maximum attainable in nucleate and the minimum attainable in film boiling.\n\nThe formation of bubbles in a heated liquid is a complex physical process which often involves cavitation and acoustic effects, such as the broad-spectrum hiss one hears in a kettle not yet heated to the point where bubbles boil to the surface.\n\nSection::::Types.:Film.\n", "Heat transfer and mass transfer during nucleate boiling has a significant effect on the heat transfer rate. This heat transfer process helps quickly and efficiently to carry away the energy created at the heat transfer surface and is therefore sometimes desirable—for example in nuclear power plants, where liquid is used as a coolant.\n\nThe effects of nucleate boiling take place at two locations:\n\nBULLET::::- the liquid-wall interface\n\nBULLET::::- the bubble-liquid interface\n", "The process of forming steam bubbles within liquid in micro cavities adjacent to the wall if the wall temperature at the heat transfer surface rises above the saturation temperature while the bulk of the liquid (heat exchanger) is subcooled. The bubbles grow until they reach some critical size, at which point they separate from the wall and are carried into the main fluid stream. There the bubbles collapse because the temperature of bulk fluid is not as high as at the heat transfer surface, where the bubbles were created. This collapsing is also responsible for the sound a water kettle produces during heat up but before the temperature at which bulk boiling is reached.\n", "BULLET::::- Nucleation in boiling can occur in the bulk liquid if the pressure is reduced so that the liquid becomes superheated with respect to the pressure-dependent boiling point. More often, nucleation occurs on the heating surface, at \"nucleation sites\". Typically, nucleation sites are tiny crevices where free gas-liquid surface is maintained or spots on the heating surface with lower wetting properties. Substantial superheating of a liquid can be achieved after the liquid is de-gassed and if the heating surfaces are clean, smooth and made of materials well wetted by the liquid.\n", "When a liquid reaches its boiling point bubbles of gas form in it which rise into the surface and burst into the air. This process is called boiling. If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly the temperature does not rise but the liquid boils more quickly.\n\nThis distinction is exclusive to the liquid-to-gas transition; any transition directly from solid to gas is always referred to as sublimation regardless of whether it is at its boiling point or not.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Phase diagram\n\nBULLET::::- Phase transition\n\nBULLET::::- Explosive boiling or phase explosion\n\nBULLET::::- Recovery time (culinary)\n\nBULLET::::- Broiling\n", "\"Nucleate boiling\" is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, which rises from discrete points on a surface, whose temperature is only slightly above the liquids. In general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature.\n", "Two different regimes may be distinguished in the nucleate boiling range. When the temperature difference is between approximately to above T, isolated bubbles form at nucleation sites and separate from the surface. This separation induces considerable fluid mixing near the surface, substantially increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient and the heat flux. In this regime, most of the heat transfer is through direct transfer from the surface to the liquid in motion at the surface and not through the vapor bubbles rising from the surface.\n", "BULLET::::3. When a liquid boils it turns into a gas. The resulting gas takes up far more space than the liquid did.\n", "There are three characteristics of liquids which are relevant to the discussion of a BLEVE:\n", "Section::::Fires.\n", "At atmospheric pressure the boiling point of water is - liquid water at atmospheric pressure does not exist at temperatures higher than . At that moment, the water would boil and turn to vapor explosively, and the liquid water turned to gas would take up significantly more volume (~1,600-fold) than it did as liquid, causing a vapor explosion. Such explosions can happen when the superheated water of a Boiler escapes through a crack in a boiler, causing a boiler explosion.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:BLEVEs without chemical reactions.\n", "Water is said to \"boil\" when bubbles of water vapor grow without bound, bursting at the surface. For a vapor bubble to expand, the temperature must be high enough that the vapor pressure exceeds the ambient pressure (the atmospheric pressure, primarily). Below that temperature, a water vapor bubble will shrink and vanish.\n\nSuperheating is an exception to this simple rule; a liquid is sometimes observed not to boil even though its vapor pressure does exceed the ambient pressure. The cause is an additional force, the surface tension, which suppresses the growth of bubbles.\n", "Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal, atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as CO, propane, and other similar industrial gases have boiling temperatures, at atmospheric pressure, far below room temperature. In the case of water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressurized chamber of water is heated far beyond the standard . That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, is capable of holding \"liquid\" water at very high temperatures.\n", "Section::::Bubble nucleation.\n", "When liquid coolant undergoes a change in phase due to the absorption of heat from a heated solid surface, a higher transfer rate occurs. The more efficient heat transfer from the heated surface (in the form of heat of vaporization plus sensible heat) and the motions of the bubbles (bubble-driven turbulence and convection) leads to rapid mixing of the fluid. Therefore, \"boiling heat transfer\" has played an important role in industrial heat transfer processes such as macroscopic heat transfer exchangers in nuclear and fossil power plants, and in microscopic heat transfer devices such as heat pipes and microchannels for cooling electronic chips.\n", "Bumping occurs when liquids are heated or has its pressure reduced very rapidly, typically in smooth, clean glassware. The hardest part of bubble formation is the formation of the small bubble; once a bubble has formed, it can grow quickly. Because the liquid is typically above its boiling point, when the liquid finally starts to boil, a large vapor bubble is formed that pushes the liquid out of the test tube, typically at high speed. This rapid expulsion of boiling liquid poses a serious hazard to others and oneself in the lab. Furthermore, if a liquid is boiled and cooled back down, the chance of bumping increases on each subsequent boil, because each heating cycle progressively de-gasses the liquid, reducing the number of remaining nucleation sites.\n", "The liquid is almost always methylene chloride, a solvent that is toxic and possibly carcinogenic. It is generally sealed in a glass vial or capsule to prevent its release; if it is broken, the area should be evacuated until the fumes have dissipated. Some early bubble lights instead used a lightweight oil or camphor (a white substance used in some moth balls) to create the low boiling point. In these older lamps, one can often see a white piece floating at the top of the vial, until the heat of the lamp dissolves it and it starts to bubble.\n", "Bubble point\n\nIn thermodynamics, the bubble point is the temperature (at a given pressure) where the first bubble of vapor is formed when heating a liquid consisting of two or more components. Given that vapor will probably have a different composition than the liquid, the bubble point (along with the dew point) at different compositions are useful data when designing distillation systems.\n\nFor a single component the bubble point and the dew point are the same and are referred to as the boiling point.\n\nSection::::Calculating the bubble point.\n\nAt the bubble point, the following relationship holds:br\n\nbr\n\nwherebr\n", "\"Boiling\" is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.\n", "Surface tension makes the bubble act like a rubber balloon (more precisely, one that is under-inflated so that the rubber is still elastic). The pressure inside is raised slightly by the \"skin\" attempting to contract. For the bubble to expand, the temperature must be raised slightly above the boiling point to generate enough vapor pressure to overcome both surface tension and ambient pressure.\n", "When bubbles are disturbed, they pulsate (that is, they oscillate in size) at their natural frequency. Large bubbles (negligible surface tension and thermal conductivity) undergo adiabatic pulsations, which means that no heat is transferred either from the liquid to the gas or vice versa. The natural frequency of such bubbles is determined by the equation:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2 is the specific heat ratio of the gas\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3 is the steady state radius\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4 is the steady state pressure\n\nBULLET::::- formula_5 is the mass density of the surrounding liquid\n", "In thermal inkjet printing, vapor bubbles are used as actuators. They are occasionally used in other microfluidics applications as actuators.\n", "The nucleate boiling process has a complex nature. A limited number of experimental studies provided valuable insights into the boiling phenomena, however these studies provided often contradictory data due to internal recalculation (state of chaos in the fluid not applying to classical thermodynamic methods of calculation, therefore giving wrong return values) and have not provided conclusive findings yet to develop models and correlations. Nucleate boiling phenomenon still requires more understanding.\n\nSection::::Boiling heat transfer correlations.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In 2010, Netflix moved to using Amazon EC2 for its information technology (IT) resources. Master copies of digital films from movie studios are stored on Amazon S3, and each film is encoded into over 50 different versions based on video resolution and audio quality using machines on the cloud. In total, Netflix has over 1 petabyte of data stored on Amazon, and the data is sent to content delivery networks (including Akamai Technologies, Limelight Networks and Level 3 Communications) that feed the content to local ISPs. Netflix uses a number of pieces of open-source software in its backend, including Java, MySQL, Gluster, Apache Tomcat, Hive, Chukwa, Cassandra and Hadoop.\n", "There are many ways to access the content stored in a CMS. Depending on the CMS vendor they offer either an Application programming interface (API), Web services, rebuilding a record by writing SQL queries, XML exports, or through the web interface.\n", "This can vary greatly in difficulty. If the protocol is not public, or there are various access controls or digital rights management implemented, this can involve substantial reverse engineering. Alternatively, one can hack an existing client to use the existing streaming extraction, and direct it to save the encoded stream, rather than decoding it. In any case, there may be legal issues, depending on jurisdiction.\n", "Many major film studios are now backing up their libraries by converting them to electronic media files, such as .AIFF or .WAV-based files via digital audio workstations. That way, even if the digital platform manufacturer goes out of business or no longer supports their product, the files can still be played on any common computer.\n\nThere is a detailed process that must take place previous to the final archival product now that a digital solution is in place. Sample rates and their conversion and reference speed are both critical in this process.\n", "BULLET::::- AAC-LC (the most widely used AAC profile defined in MPEG-4 Part 3)\n\nBULLET::::- HE-AAC (defined in MPEG-4 Part 3, sometimes referenced as \"aacPlus\" or other, similar trademarks)\n\nThe codecs are compliant with the ISO/IEC standard, with the exception of subtitles and chapter information. The video streams generated by Nero Digital can be played back on some stand-alone hardware players and software media players such as the company's own Nero Showtime.\n", "Section::::Recording.\n\nMedia that is live streamed can be recorded through certain media players such as VLC player, or through the use of a Screen Recorder. Live-streaming platforms such as Twitch may also incorporate a video on demand system that allows automatic recording of live broadcasts so that they can be watched later. The popular site, YouTube also has recordings of live broadcasts, including television shows aired on major networks. These streams have the potential to be recorded by anyone who has access to them, whether legally or otherwise. \n\nSection::::Copyright.\n", "Streamed content is encrypted by the Flash Media Server \"on the fly\", so that the source file itself does not need to be encrypted (a significant difference from Microsoft's DRM). For transmission (\"streaming\"), a special protocol is required, either RTMPE or RTMPS.\n", "BULLET::::- Video streaming: , Netflix had 3.14 petabytes of video \"master copies\", which it compresses and converts into 100 different formats for streaming.\n\nBULLET::::- Photos: , Facebook users had uploaded over 240 billion photos, with 350 million new photos every day. For each uploaded photo, Facebook generates and stores four images of different sizes, which translated to a total of 960 billion images and an estimated 357 petabytes of storage.\n\nBULLET::::- Music: One petabyte of average MP3-encoded songs (for mobile, roughly one megabyte per minute), would require 2000 years to play.\n", "After the merge with RightSmith, collections that offer video footage from NBC Universal and the US version of The Amazing Race.\n\nFramepool also is engaged in scanning and digitalizing footage from the NARA Archive, mainly old Newsreel. Framepool is a technology leader within the stock footage market and the first library implementing a visual search capability for stock footage.\n", "In October of 2018, pocket.watch launched 90 22-minute episodes of repackaged content from their YouTube creator partners on Hulu and Amazon Prime Video and partnered with Paramount Pictures to license them to international distributors.\n\nIn November 2018, Paramount Pictures entered an agreement with pocket.watch to develop with them, their first feature film code-named \"Unboxing.”\n\nSection::::History.:2019.\n", "BULLET::::- 1999: Ascent Media formed through the acquisition of three post-production companies: Todd-AO Corporation, Four Media Company, and certain assets of Soundelux Entertainment Group using Liberty Media stock valued at more than $400 million US dollars.\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Ascent Media announces deal with Sony Pictures Entertainment to convert Sony's library of more than 4,000 films and many of its vintage TV shows into digital files. \"As envisioned by Sony and Ascent Media, files that are now delivered manually to distributors such as the Starz Encore pay-TV service would be transferred instead as digital files over a secure network.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Stargate Command – streaming service\n\nBULLET::::- United Artists Digital Studios\n\nSection::::Assets.:Current.:Content libraries.\n\nBULLET::::- Post-April 1986 MGM film and TV library\n\nBULLET::::- MGM Animation library\n\nBULLET::::- Third-party animated films released by MGM\n\nBULLET::::- Post-1952 United Artists library, including:\n\nBULLET::::- 187 Monogram Pictures films released from 1931 to 1946\n\nBULLET::::- Ziv Television Programs library\n\nBULLET::::- Orion Pictures, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Filmways\n\nBULLET::::- American International Pictures\n\nBULLET::::- MCEG Sterling Entertainment\n\nBULLET::::- The Samuel Goldwyn Company\n\nBULLET::::- Motion Picture Corporation of America (1986–1996 library)\n\nBULLET::::- PolyGram Filmed Entertainment (pre-March 31, 1996 library), including:\n\nBULLET::::- Interscope Communications\n\nBULLET::::- The Virgin Films/Palace Pictures library\n", "Sometimes, metadata is included in purchased media which records information such as the purchaser's name, account information, or email address. Also included may be the file's publisher, author, creation date, download date, and various notes. This information is not embedded in the played content, like a watermark, but is kept separate, but within the file or stream.\n\nAs an example, metadata is used in media purchased from Apple's iTunes Store for DRM-free as well as DRM-restricted versions of their music or videos. This information is included as MPEG standard metadata.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Television.\n", "In 2015, Amazon launched the Streaming Partners Program (now known as Amazon Channels), a platform allowing subscription-based third-party channels and streaming services to be offered to Amazon Prime subscribers through the Amazon Video platform. These services are separate from the Amazon Video offering, and must be purchased separately. The original launch in the U.S. included services such as Curiosity Stream, Lifetime Movie Club, AMC's Shudder, Showtime, Starz, and others. The service subsequently added other partners, such as HBO and Cinemax, Fandor, PBS Kids, Seeso, Toku and Boomerang.\n", "Broadcasting rights vary from country to country and even within provinces of countries. These rights govern the distribution of copyrighted content and media and allow the sole distribution of that content at any one time. An example of content only being aired in certain countries is BBC iPlayer. The BBC checks a user's IP address to make sure that only users located in the UK can stream content from the BBC. The BBC only allows free use of their product for users within the UK as those users have paid for a television license that funds part of the BBC. This IP address check is not foolproof as the user may be accessing the BBC website through a VPN or proxy server. Broadcasting rights can also be restricted to allowing a broadcaster rights to distribute that content for a limited time. Channel 4's online service All 4 can only stream shows created in the US by companies such as HBO for thirty days after they are aired on one of the Channel 4 group channels. This is to boost DVD sales for the companies who produce that media.\n", "Sony Pictures (including Columbia Pictures titles), MGM, Universal, Disney, and 20th Century Fox have also started MOD services after the success of Warner Archives. Their services are named Sony Pictures Choice Collection (formerly Screen Classics By Request), MGM Limited Edition Collection, Universal Vault Series, Disney Generations Collection, and Fox Cinema Archives, respectively. Including Warner, this encompasses five of the six major film studios with Paramount as the lone exception. Lionsgate, CBS, MTV, and Nickelodeon have also started to offer MOD discs of catalog titles through Amazon CreateSpace. On April 13, 2011, Warner Bros. Home Entertainment Group and Sony Pictures Home Entertainment announced that Warner Archive will offer on-demand titles from Sony. MGM Limited Edition titles are also sold through Warner Archive.\n", "BULLET::::- City University of New York Television (CUNY TV)\n\nBULLET::::- National Library of Medicine (Washington DC)\n\nBULLET::::- University of Notre Dame Archives\n\nBULLET::::- University of Texas Libraries (FFV1 in MKV for DVD preservation)\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana University\n\nBULLET::::- New York Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- University of Georgia, Walter J. Brown Media Archives\n\nSection::::Video archiving.:Development and improvements.\n", "The infrastructure includes a migration asset management system developed inhouse that handles such things as communication with production systems, logistics (of both original carriers and resultant files), and metadata input and transfer. Once the digitization process is completed, automatic functions create new carrier database records, insert metadata, direct the new archive and browsing files to their final mass storage locations, and link files to the MARC based database for direct access.\n", "On behalf of studios such as Sony Pictures, Twentieth Century Fox, and Universal Pictures, Video Unlimited has distributed television episodes and new release films as well as a variety of older movies. In November 2010, Video Unlimited began distributing online content in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain and has since expanded into Japan, Canada, and Australia. Their redistribution content can be accessed through personal computers and other devices such as Sony Blu-ray players, PlayStation consoles, Xperia smartphones and Sony tablets, Bravia televisions and some portable music players.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation Music\n\nBULLET::::- PlayStation Vue\n", "Users of the Korsakow software \"SNUify\" their media by adding rules guiding the relationship between each SNU. Each SNU can be assigned \"in\" and \"out\" tags. Whenever a clip begins, the database will be queried for other SNUs whose \"in\" tags match the \"out\" tags of the current video. Any matches will be displayed as related options for viewing. Queries can be cued at specific points during the current SNU.\n", "Other distributors who have licensed content to Netflix include Warner Bros., Universal Pictures, Sony Pictures Entertainment and The Walt Disney Studios (including 20th Century Fox). Netflix also holds current and back-catalog rights to television programs distributed by Walt Disney Television, DreamWorks Classics, Kino International, Warner Bros. Television and CBS Television Distribution, along with titles from other companies such as Hasbro Studios, Saban Brands, Funimation, and Viz Media. Formerly, the streaming service also held rights to select television programs distributed by NBCUniversal Television Distribution, Sony Pictures Television and 20th Century Fox Television. Netflix also previously held the rights to select titles from vintage re-distributor The Criterion Collection, but these titles were pulled from Netflix and added to Hulu's library.\n", "The number of downloaded single tracks rose from 160 million in 2004 to 795 million in 2006 which accounted for a revenue boost from US$397 million to US$2 billion.\n\nSection::::Impact on traditional retail.:Videos.\n\nMany traditional network television shows, movies and other video content is now available online, either from the content owner directly or from third party services. YouTube, Netflix, Hulu, Vudu, Amazon Prime Video, DirecTV, SlingTV and other Internet-based video services allow content owners to let users access their content on computers, smart phones, tablets or by using appliances such as video game consoles, set-top boxes or Smart TVs.\n", "CSM solutions comply with the well known Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (OAIS), which is fundamental to long-term archive and content preservation in file-based environments and are characterized by a set of application-specific functionality, which can include:\n\nBULLET::::- Interfaces to proprietary media creation and consumption devices regardless of interface and storage topology\n\nBULLET::::- Transcoding and rewrapping technologies to ensure compatibility of content despite its source, format, encoding rates, aspect ratio, content container/wrapping standards\n\nBULLET::::- Direct integration to any type and format of storage device typically categorized as IT-centric storage devices allowing limitless or near limitless storage expansion\n", "Program listings data is compiled by various metadata providers throughout the world, which provide data to specific regions or countries. The most prominent provider of television program metadata is Gracenote, which assumed most responsibilities for program metadata dissemination from Tribune Media Services, following Tribune Media's acquisition of Gracenote (now owned by Nielsen), in 2014. Gracenote's On Entertainment service provides TV listings and synopses for approximately 85 countries – including the United States and Canada – and 35 languages, and maintains a database of program data for approximately six million television series and movies for guidance for various websites and electronic programming guides. Within the United Kingdom, Press Association, Red Bee Media Broadcasting Dataservices, REDNI and DigiGuide serve as the major providers of television listings metadata.\n", "When the completed movie is exported, MoviePlus uses this project file to build, render and encode the movie. If a media source has been moved to a different location on the hard disk, MoviePlus issues a warning and allows the operator to find the new location or to remove the source from that movie. If several media sources have been moved to similar new locations, MoviePlus can quickly re-connect with the whole group.\n\nSection::::Key Frames.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Influencing factors.:Relative humidity.:Interplay of temperature and humidity.\n\nVarious types of apparent temperature have been developed to combine air temperature and air humidity. \n\nFor higher temperatures, there are quantitative scales, such as the heat index.\n\nFor lower temperatures, a related interplay was identified only qualitatively:\n\nHigh humidity and low temperatures cause the air to feel chilly.\n\nCold air with high relative humidity \"feels\" colder than dry air of the same temperature because high humidity in cold weather increases the conduction of heat from the body.\n", "Apparent temperature\n\nApparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The measure is most commonly applied to the perceived outdoor temperature. However it also applies to indoor temperatures, especially saunas and when houses and workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled.\n\nBULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n", "Section::::Seasonal behavior.\n", "The UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes \n\nSection::::Diurnal behavior.\n", "However, over the Northern Hemisphere land areas where urban heat islands are most apparent, both the trends of lower-tropospheric temperature and surface air temperature show no significant differences. In fact, the lower-tropospheric temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America (about 0.28°C/decade using satellite data) than do the surface temperatures (0.27°C/decade), although again the difference is not statistically significant.\n", "The heat index and its counterpart the humidex both take into account only two variables, shade temperature and atmospheric moisture (humidity), thus providing only a limited estimate of thermal comfort. Wind passing over wet or sweaty skin causes evaporation and a wind chill effect that the heat index does not measure. The other major factor is sunshine; standing in direct sunlight can add up to to the apparent heat compared to shade. There have been attempts to create a universal apparent temperature, such as the wet-bulb globe temperature, \"relative outdoor temperature\", \"feels like\", or the proprietary \"RealFeel\".\n\nSection::::Meteorological considerations.\n", "Because the heat index is based on temperatures in the shade, while people often move across sunny areas, then the heat index can give a much lower temperature than actual conditions of typical outdoor activities. Also, for people exercising or active, at the time, then the heat index could give a temperature lower than the felt conditions. For example, with a temperature in the shade of at 60% relative humidity, then the heat index would seem , but movement across sunny areas of , would give a heat index of over , as more indicative of the oppressive and sweltering heat. Plus when actively working, or not wearing a hat in sunny areas, then the feels-like conditions would seem even hotter. Hence, the heat index could seem unrealistically low, unless resting inactive (idle) in heavily shaded areas.\n", "What thermal comfort humans, animals and plants experience is related to more than temperature shown on a glass thermometer. Relative humidity levels in ambient air can induce more or less evaporative cooling. Measurement of the wet-bulb temperature normalizes this humidity effect. Mean radiant temperature also can affect thermal comfort. The wind chill factor makes the weather feel colder under windy conditions than calm conditions even though a glass thermometer shows the same temperature. Airflow increases the rate of heat transfer from or to the body, resulting in a larger change in body temperature for the same ambient temperature.\n", "Diurnal temperature variation\n\nIn meteorology, diurnal temperature variation is the variation between a high temperature and a low temperature that occurs during the same day.\n\nSection::::Temperature lag.\n\nTemperature lag is an important factor in diurnal temperature variation: peak daily temperature generally occurs \"after\" noon, as air keeps net absorbing heat even after noon, and similarly minimum daily temperature generally occurs substantially after midnight, indeed occurring during early morning in the hour around dawn, since heat is lost all night long. The analogous annual phenomenon is seasonal lag.\n", "This model applies especially to occupant-controlled, natural-conditioned spaces, where the outdoor climate can actually affect the indoor conditions and so the comfort zone. In fact, studies by de Dear and Brager showed that occupants in naturally ventilated buildings were tolerant of a wider range of temperatures. This is due to both behavioral and physiological adjustments, since there are different types of adaptive processes. ASHRAE Standard 55-2010 states that differences in recent thermal experiences, changes in clothing, availability of control options, and shifts in occupant expectations can change people's thermal responses.\n", "There are several causes of an urban heat island (UHI); for example, dark surfaces absorb significantly more solar radiation, which causes urban concentrations of roads and buildings to heat more than suburban and rural areas during the day; materials commonly used in urban areas for pavement and roofs, such as concrete and asphalt, have significantly different thermal bulk properties (including heat capacity and thermal conductivity) and surface radiative properties (albedo and emissivity) than the surrounding rural areas. This causes a change in the energy budget of the urban area, often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas. Another major reason is the lack of evapotranspiration (for example, through lack of vegetation) in urban areas. The U.S. Forest Service found in 2018 that cities in the United States are losing 36 million trees each year. With a decreased amount of vegetation, cities also lose the shade and evaporative cooling effect of trees.\n", "Predfined output files and reports cover\n\nBULLET::::- Zone heat and energy balances: solar radiation, occupants, equipment, lights, mechanical ventilation, heating and cooling devices, air leakage, heat bridge losses and surface transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Control signals: window opening and shading, signals for secondary and primary systems\n\nBULLET::::- Building occupancy: for each zone or the whole building\n\nBULLET::::- Heat and mass transfer: detailed heat fluxes of surfaces and air streams\n\nBULLET::::- Indoor air quality: CO-content of indoor air and moisture levels, air change rate\n\nBULLET::::- Comfort indices: operative temperature, surface temperatures, PPD and PMV, unmet load hours, EN15251 comfort results and daylight availability\n", "The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report found that the instrumental temperature record for the past century included urban heat island effects but that these were primarily local, having a negligible influence on global temperature trends (less than 0.006 °C per decade over land and zero over the oceans).\n\nUncertainties in the temperature record, e.g., the urban heat island effect, are discussed further in a later section.\n\nSection::::Warmest periods.\n\nSection::::Warmest periods.:Warmest years.\n", "During winter months (Dec-Feb), high temperatures can vary between and , while night time temperatures can reach below . In the summer (Jun-Aug), temperatures peak around . The very high summer humidity (average 70%) and low cloud cover can mean that the heat index temperature is or more higher than the air temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- Climatic classification: zone D, 1416 GR/G\n\nBULLET::::- Atmospheric diffusivity: low, Ibimet CNR 2002\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient and medieval ages.\n", "There has been controversy over why damp cold air feels colder than dry cold air. Some believe it is because when the humidity is high, our skin and clothing become moist and are better conductors of heat, so there is more cooling by conduction.\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.:Natural ventilation.\n", "An individual's comfort level in a given environment may change and adapt over time due to psychological factors. Subjective perception of thermal comfort may be influenced by the memory of previous experiences. Habituation takes place when repeated exposure moderates future expectations, and responses to sensory input. This is an important factor in explaining the difference between field observations and PMV predictions (based on the static model) in naturally ventilated buildings. In these buildings, the relationship with the outdoor temperatures has been twice as strong as predicted.\n", "The IPCC stated that \"it is well-known that compared to non-urban areas urban heat islands raise night-time temperatures more than daytime temperatures.\" For example, Barcelona, Spain is cooler for daily maxima and warmer for minima than a nearby rural station. A description of the very first report of the UHI by Luke Howard in the late 1810s said that the urban center of London was warmer at night than the surrounding countryside by . Though the warmer air temperature within the UHI is generally most apparent at night, urban heat islands exhibit significant and somewhat paradoxical diurnal behavior. The air temperature difference between the UHI and the surrounding environment is large at night and small during the day. The opposite is true for skin temperatures of the urban landscape within the UHI.\n", "ASHRAE 55-2010 defines SET as \"the temperature of an imaginary environment at 50% relative humidity, average air speed, and mean radiant temperature equal to average air temperature, in which total heat loss from the skin of an imaginary occupant with an activity level of 1.0 met and a clothing level of 0.6 clo is the same as that from a person in the actual environment, with actual clothing and activity level.\"\"\"\n", "The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation. Temperature ranges can also be based on periods of a month, or a year. \n\nThe size of ground-level atmospheric temperature ranges depends on several factors, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- The average temperature\n\nBULLET::::- The average humidity\n\nBULLET::::- The regime of winds (intensity, duration, variation, temperature, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- The proximity to large bodies of water, such as the sea\n", "However, this is a theoretical approach as the level of insulation of a building affects the demand for heating. For example, temperatures often drop below the base temperature during night (daily low temperature in diurnal variation), but because of insulation, heating is unnecessary. In the end of spring and in the beginning of fall or in the winter depending on the climate, sufficient insulation keeps the indoor temperature higher than the outdoor temperature with little or no heating. For example, in southern California, during winter heating is not necessary in Los Angeles and San Diego if the insulation is sufficient to take into account the colder night temperatures. Also, buildings include thermal mass such as concrete, that is able to store energy of the sun absorbed in daytime. Thus, even if the heating degree days indicate a demand for heating sufficient insulation of a building can make heating unnecessary.\n", "Many if not most uses of ACH are actually referring to results of a standard blower door test in which 50 pascals of pressure are applied (ACH), rather than the volume of air changed under normal conditions. The Passive House standard requires airtightness so that there will be less than 0.6 ACH with a pressure difference between inside and outside of 50 Pa.\n\nSection::::Effects of ACH due to forced ventilation in a dwelling.\n", "In many post-occupancy comfort studies overheating is a frequently reported problem not only during the summer months but also during the transitions periods, also in temperate climates.\n\nSection::::Potentials and limitations.\n", "Some cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night. Seasonally, UHI shows up both in summer and winter.. The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields. The difference in temperature between an inner city and its surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports, as in \" downtown, in the suburbs\". \"The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as .\"\n", "Section::::Elements of an IAQ audit.\n\nAn IAC audit can be divided into two parts. One part is about the level of comfort experienced in a building and the other is about measures of IAQ. Levels of comfort in a building are determined by factors such as temperature, humidity, air velocity, air renewal, and ventilation pressure. The second part, the IAQ, is determined by factors such as inorganic toxic gases, VOCs, particulate matter (PM10), electromagnetic fields and radiation, and microbiological contaminants (fungi and bacteria such as Legionella).\n", "In cold climates, the outdoor temperature causes lower capacity for water vapor to flow about. Thus although it may be snowing and the relative humidity outdoors is high, once that air comes into a building and heats up, its new relative humidity is very low, making the air very dry, which can cause discomfort.\n\nDry cracked skin can result from dry air.\n" ]

[ "Temperature should feel like what it really is, not something else.", "If temperature if portrayed to be a set temperature, then it should always feel like that temperature." ]

[ "Temperature can feel different due to other environmental factors like being in the sun or shade, or wind. ", "Weather reports are likely provided by airport or governments, which means the temperature is closest to one of those and not every other area, other factors such as the Sun, shade and wind also effect the temperature." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Temperature should feel like what it really is, not something else.", "If temperature if portrayed to be a set temperature, then it should always feel like that temperature." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Temperature can feel different due to other environmental factors like being in the sun or shade, or wind. ", "Weather reports are likely provided by airport or governments, which means the temperature is closest to one of those and not every other area, other factors such as the Sun, shade and wind also effect the temperature." ]

[ "Similar relationships characterize the third type of corporate group, which was established around a major industrial producer. Members of this group are often subsidiaries or affiliates of the parent firm or are regular subcontractors. Subsidiaries and contracting corporations normally build components for the parent firm and, because of their smaller size, afford several benefits to the parent. The larger firm can concentrate on final assembly and high value-added processes, while the smaller firm can perform specialized and labor-intensive tasks. Cash payments to the subcontractors are supplemented by commercial bills whose maturity can be postponed when the need arose. In the late 1980s, subcontracting firms accounted for more than 60 percent of Japan's 6 million small and medium-sized enterprises (those having fewer than 300 employees).\n", "EDOs are sometimes confused with regional development organizations (RDOs) which have a similar focus but whose operations are often based on foreign aid or foreign assistance. EDOs may not even need to fund their operations, programs, and services as they might simply operate as a consortium rather than as an incorporation.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "The relations among the members of the first two types of groups are flexible, informal, and quite different from the holding company pattern of the prewar days. Coordination takes place at periodic gatherings of corporation presidents and chief executive officers. The purpose of these meetings is to exchange information and ideas rather than to command group operations in a formal way. The general trading firms associated with each group can also be used to coordinate group finance, production, and marketing policies, although none of these relationships is entirely exclusive. The practice of crossholding shares of group stock further cements these groups, and such holdings usually make up about 30 percent of the total group equity. Member corporations typically, although not exclusively, borrow from group banks.\n", "When it was still the transmission manufacturing division of Nissan, it partnered with Mazda, and thus Jatco, had long been supplying Nissan, Mazda, Subaru, Isuzu, Suzuki, BMW, Volkswagen, MG Rover Group and Land Rover. However, once it was independent, Jatco quickly began supplying other automakers:\n", "BULLET::::- Ciputra Group\n\nSection::::Asia.:Iran.\n\nBULLET::::- Ghadir Investment Company\n\nBULLET::::- Security Investment Company\n\nBULLET::::- IDRO Group\n\nBULLET::::- Iran Electronics Industries\n\nBULLET::::- Maadiran Group\n\nBULLET::::- Aabsal\n\nBULLET::::- Defense Industries Organization\n\nSection::::Asia.:Israel.\n\nBULLET::::- Africa Israel Investments\n\nBULLET::::- Delek\n\nBULLET::::- International Metalworking Companies\n\nBULLET::::- Israel Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- Zafar Corporation\n\nSection::::Asia.:Japan.\n\nBULLET::::- Asahi Breweries\n\nBULLET::::- Asahi Kasei\n\nBULLET::::- Bandai Namco Holdings\n\nBULLET::::- Fuji Heavy Industries\n\nBULLET::::- Furukawa Group\n\nBULLET::::- Hitachi\n\nBULLET::::- Itochu\n\nBULLET::::- Japan Post Holdings\n\nBULLET::::- Japan Railways Group\n\nBULLET::::- Japan Tobacco\n\nBULLET::::- JX Holdings\n\nBULLET::::- Kadokawa Dwango\n\nBULLET::::- Kawasaki Heavy Industries\n\nBULLET::::- Kirin Company, Limited\n\nBULLET::::- Kodenshi AUK Group\n\nBULLET::::- Konami\n\nBULLET::::- Kubota\n", "BULLET::::- Lotte\n\nBULLET::::- Marubeni\n\nBULLET::::- Mitsubishi\n\nBULLET::::- Mitsui\n\nBULLET::::- NEC\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo\n\nBULLET::::- Nippon Telegraph and Telephone\n\nBULLET::::- Nomura Group\n\nBULLET::::- Sapporo Brewery\n\nBULLET::::- Sega Sammy Holdings\n\nBULLET::::- Seiyu Group\n\nBULLET::::- Showa Denko\n\nBULLET::::- Sojitz\n\nBULLET::::- Sony\n\nBULLET::::- Square Enix (Taito Corporation)\n\nBULLET::::- Sumitomo Group\n\nBULLET::::- Suntory\n\nBULLET::::- Tokyu Group\n\nBULLET::::- Toray Industries\n\nBULLET::::- Toshiba\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Group\n\nBULLET::::- Ube Industries\n\nBULLET::::- Yamaha Corporation\n\nSection::::Asia.:Jordan.\n\nBULLET::::- Nuqul Group\n\nSection::::Asia.:Korea, South.\n\nBULLET::::- Aju Group\n\nBULLET::::- CJ Group\n\nBULLET::::- Daelim Group\n\nBULLET::::- Dongbu Group\n\nBULLET::::- Doosan Group\n\nBULLET::::- Eugene Group\n\nBULLET::::- GS Group\n\nBULLET::::- Halla Group\n\nBULLET::::- Hanwha Group\n\nBULLET::::- Hanjin\n", "BULLET::::- Golder Associates\n\nBULLET::::- PCL Construction\n\nSection::::China.\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei\n\nSection::::India.\n\nBULLET::::- Larsen & Toubro\n\nBULLET::::- Dabbawala\n\nBULLET::::- Amul\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Coffee House\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative\n\nBULLET::::- Adarsh Co-operative Bank\n\nBULLET::::- Pratibha Mahila Sahakari Bank\n\nBULLET::::- Horticultural Producers' Cooperative Marketing and Processing Society\n\nBULLET::::- Aavin\n\nBULLET::::- Kaira District Co-operative Milk Producers' Union\n\nBULLET::::- Karnataka Milk Federation\n\nBULLET::::- Kerala Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation\n\nBULLET::::- Orissa State Cooperative Milk Producers' Federation\n\nBULLET::::- Krishak Bharati Cooperative\n\nBULLET::::- Sant Muktabai Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana\n\nBULLET::::- Banas Dairy\n\nBULLET::::- Space Development Network\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Potash Limited\n\nBULLET::::- Co-optex\n\nBULLET::::- Working Women's Forum\n\nBULLET::::- Mother Dairy\n", "BULLET::::- 1988: Foundation of JEME Bocconi, the first Junior Enterprise in Italy, based in Milano. Foundation of the first Junior Enterprises (EJFGV, Poli Junior and UFBAjr) in Brazil.\n\nBULLET::::- 1989: Foundation of uniforce Consulting GmbH, the first Junior Enterprise in Austria, based in Vienna.\n\nBULLET::::- 1989: Foundation of Junior Consult, the first Junior Enterprise in Denmark, based in Aarhus.\n\nBULLET::::- 1990: Foundation of EJCM in Brazil, first JE of IT of America.\n\nBULLET::::- 1991: Foundation of EAA Consult, the first Junior Enterprise in Belgium, based in Liège.\n", "The INCJ is capitalized at 112 billion yen. The Japanese government also provides guarantees up to a total of 1,800 billion yen for INCJ investments. This funding is used partly as a combination of venture capital and “buyout fund” to provide risk arbitrage to support a growth strategy of small and mid-size companies and to facilitate consolidation among established companies for the purpose of helping them become global leaders, as well as directly invest in new ventures.\n\nThe breakup of investors and their investments made are the following,\n\nSection::::Investors.:Japanese Government.\n", "BULLET::::3. ESP Gakuen, founded as a Japan corporation in 2001, registered as a foreign non-profit corporation in California, active () — Hisatake Shibuya, President\n\nBULLET::::4. Schecter Guitar Research, acquired by Shibuya in 1987 — Hisatake Shibuya, President\n\nBULLET::::5. ESP Company, Limited, \"doing business as\" ESP Guitars, founded by Shibuya in 1975 — Hisatake Shibuya, President\n\nBULLET::::6. United Television Broadcasting Systems, Inc. , a Japanese language television station based in Los Angeles and syndicated in Japan\n\nBULLET::::7. E.S.P. Shibuya Enterprises, Inc., founded as a California corporation in 1998, active () — Hisatake Shibuya, President\n", "The \"keiretsu\" model is fairly unique to Japan. The closest foreign counterpart would be the Korean \"chaebol\", but many diversified non-Japanese businesses groups have been described as \"keiretsu\", such as the Virgin Group (UK), and Tata Group (India), and the Colombian Grupo Empresarial Antioqueño.\n", "Until the 1980s, \"sōgō shōsha\" operations were largely concentrated on supporting Japanese manufacturers' international transactions, particularly in the textile and chemical industries. Since then, Japanese manufacturers have taken a more direct role in international procurement, sales and marketing, and the \"sōgō shōsha\" have shifted their business focus to services such as finance, insurance, transportation, project management and real estate development, with much of this business conducted outside Japan through local subsidiaries and affiliates.\n", "Japan’s lifetime employment originated in large companies around 1910 but became widespread during the economic growth period following World War II. Before the war period, Japanese companies owed more its fund on direct financing. However, as the government started to take control of Zaibatsu, Japanese conglomerates, shareholders had difficulty in exerting their influence to them. In the enforcement of occupation policies GHQ dissolved Zaibatsu and emerging labor unions had started to claim for a higher standard of benefit.\n\nSection::::Regional examples.:Japan's Lifetime Employment.:Significance.\n", "BULLET::::- Toyota Systems (2019) – comprehensive IT solutions company; 100% owned by Toyota Motor\n\nBULLET::::- Hino Motors – manufacturer of diesel trucks and buses acquired by Toyota Motor in 2001\n\nBULLET::::- Aichi Steel (1940) – manufactures automotive steel; 30% owned by Toyota Industries and Toyota Motor\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Motor East Japan – formed in 2012 by the merger of Kanto Auto Works (1945), Toyota Motors Tohoku and Central Motors\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Tsusho (1946) – trading company (\"sogo shosha\") supporting global operations of Toyota Group companies; 33% owned by Toyota Industries and Toyota Motor\n", "Some of these subsidiaries have grown to expand into multiple branches effectively becoming autonomous conglomerates within their own parent companies. Sony for example started operations in Mexico in 1976 with a group of Mexican investors, and founded the joint venture, Sony de Mexico which produces LED panels, LCD modules, automotive electronics, appliances and printed circuit boards amongst other products for its Japanese parent company, Sony KG. Sony de Mexico has research facilities in Monterrey and Mexico City, designs many of the Sony products manufactured in Mexico and has now expanded to create its own finance, music and entertainment subsidiaries which are Mexican registered and independent of their Japanese parent corporation.\n", "BULLET::::- Aisin Seiki (1949) – manufactures automotive components; 30% owned by Toyota Industries and Toyota Motor\n\nBULLET::::- Toyoda Gosei (1949) – manufactures automotive components; 43% owned by Toyota Motor\n\nBULLET::::- Denso (1949) – manufactures air conditioners and other automotive components\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Boshoku (1918) – original Toyota company; manufactures filters, trim, liners and other automotive components\n\nBULLET::::- Towa Real Estate (1953) – commercial real estate developer in Nagoya area; holds stock in other Toyota Group companies as an anti-takeover measure\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Central R&D Labs., Inc. (1960) – performs research and development for other Toyota Group companies\n", "Before the statute was passed, many banks and other multinational corporations operated in Japan as foreign entities in order to avoid Japanese regulations requiring banking and securities businesses to be separated by Chinese walls. These companies, along with international chambers of commerce and other organizations, extensively lobbied the Japanese government to change the language of the draft bill.\n", "BULLET::::- Dec 2007: Capital increase from 24,000,000 yen to 57,000,000 yen\n\nBULLET::::- Feb 2008: Awarded as Small and Medium IT Management Enterprises in Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Jul 2008: Settlement of KAIHO THAILAND (Joint Venture in Thailand)\n\nBULLET::::- Mar 2009: Awarded as one of the Top 300 Japan High Service Company\n\nBULLET::::- Jun 2009: Settlement of MAEJI KAIHO (Joint Venture in Kenya)\n\nBULLET::::- May 2010: Settlement of KAIHO SINGAPORE (Joint Venture in Singapore)\n\nBULLET::::- Aug 2011: Settlement of KAIHO SANGYO CO. (NIG) (Joint Venture in Nigeria)\n\nBULLET::::- Sep 2011: Settlement of KAIHO SANGYO CO., GHANA (Joint Venture in Ghana)\n", "BULLET::::- 1988: Toyota Manufacturing Facility, KY completed\n\nBULLET::::- 1989: E.W. Howell Co., Inc. (EWH) joins the Obayashi Group\n\nBULLET::::- 1991: NEC Roseville Semiconductor Plant Mega-Line, CA completed\n\nBULLET::::- 1991: Delta Center/Utah Jazz Arena, UT completed\n\nBULLET::::- 1993: OC America Construction Inc. (OCAC) established in Los Angeles\n\nBULLET::::- 1994: OC Real Estate Management, LLC (OCREM) organized in Los Angeles\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Sumitomo Sitix of Phoenix, AZ completed\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Matsushita Semiconductor (MASCA), WA completed\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Komatsu Silicon America, OR completed\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: San Bernardino (Arrowhead) Medical Center, CA completed\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Applied Materials (AMAT), CA completed\n", "Two of the \"ie\", founded by merchants in the early 17th century, survive today as Mitsui and Sumitomo, both major modern Japanese corporations.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The of, in chronological order of founding, Sumitomo, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Yasuda are the most significant \"zaibatsu\" groups. Two of them, Sumitomo and Mitsui, have roots in the Edo period while Mitsubishi and Yasuda trace their origins to the Meiji Restoration. Throughout Meiji to Shōwa, the government employed their financial powers and expertise for various endeavors, including tax collection, military procurement and foreign trade.\n\nSection::::History and development.:New \"zaibatsu\".\n", "BULLET::::- Japan Entrepreneurs & Presidents Association\n\nSection::::Kenya.\n\nBULLET::::- Federation of Kenya Employers\n\nSection::::Latvia.\n\nBULLET::::- Latvian Confederation of Industrialists\n\nSection::::Mauritius.\n\nBULLET::::- Mauritius Employers' Federation\n\nSection::::Mexico.\n\nBULLET::::- Coparmex (Confederación Patronal de la República Mexicana)\n\nSection::::Morocco.\n\nBULLET::::- Confédération Générale des Entreprises du Maroc (CGEM)\n\nSection::::The Netherlands.\n\nBULLET::::- VNO-NCW (Verbond van Nederlandse Ondernemingen, Nederlands Christelijk Werkgeversverbond)\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n\nBULLET::::- BusinessNZ\n\nSection::::Norway.\n\nBULLET::::- Confederation of Norwegian Enterprise (NHO)\n\nBULLET::::- Enterprise Federation of Norway (Hovedorganisasjonen Virke)\n\nSection::::Poland.\n\nBULLET::::- Association of Industry, Commerce and Finance of Poland\n\nBULLET::::- Chamber of Economy of the Republic of Poland\n\nSection::::Portugal.\n\nBULLET::::- Portuguese Association of Industry\n\nSection::::Romania.\n", "Some industry consortiums and alliances have also been described this way. The most common examples are the airline code-sharing alliances, such as Oneworld and Star Alliance. While those arrangements link a broad range of companies around a common organization, they groupings tend to have minimal financial entanglement and are generally designed around gaining access to foreign markets within industries that governments consider sensitive such as mining and aviation when foreign ownership is limited or even banned.\n", "BULLET::::- 1997: Foundation of UniPartners - A network of Junior Enterprises in the Netherlands.\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Foundation of Quanta Jr., the Junior Enterprise of the Institute of Physics \"Gleb Wataghin\" and the Institute of Mathematics, Statistics and Scientific Computing, University of Campinas, Brazil. Quanta Jr. is the first Junior Enterprise of Physics and Math in Latin America.\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Foundation of the first Junior Enterprise in Poland - Junior Consulting Group (presently ConQuest Consulting).\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Foundation of BCJE (later called JADE Belgium), the Belgian Federation of Junior Enterprises, in order to unite the Belgian network.\n", "Iwao Nakamura has been an Outside Director of Mabuchi Motor Co. Ltd., since March 28, 2013 and of Nagase & Co. Ltd. since 2009. He previously served as Executive Officer at Nagase & Co. Ltd. and President of Nissan Diesel Motor Co. Ltd. of Volvo AB from 2002 to May 11, 2007. Nakamura was President of Nissan Diesel at AB Volvo from 2002 to July 11, 2007. Nakamura also presently serves as a Director of Nissan Diesel Motor Co. Ltd.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Scores for the ACT are mailed to the home of students usually one to two weeks after the date of the test. similar to the SAT, the maximum score of each portion of the test is 36. To quality for application to EEP, the student must have a minimum of 23 points in Mathematics and 22 points in the English section.\n\nAfter these requirements are met, ACT scores have no influence over the application process. In other words, an applicant to EEP with a score of 33 will have no advantage over another student who scored 25.\n", "Comparatively, the SAT is structured such that the test taker is allowed at least one minute per question, on generally shorter sections (25 or fewer questions). Times may be adjusted as a matter of accommodation for certain disabilities or other impairments.\n\nSection::::Score cumulative percentages and comparison with SAT.\n", "Each question answered correctly is worth one raw point, and there is no penalty for marking incorrect answers on the multiple-choice parts of the test; a student can answer all questions without a decrease in their score due to incorrect answers. This is parallel to several AP Tests eliminating the penalties for incorrect answers. To improve the result, students can retake the test: 55% of students who retake the ACT improve their scores, 22% score the same, and 23% see their scores decrease.\n\nSection::::Format.:English.\n", "Scores are sent to the student, his or her high school, and up to four colleges of the student's choice (optional).\n\nSection::::Test section durations.\n\nTime is a major factor to consider in testing.\n\nThe ACT is generally regarded as being composed of somewhat easier questions versus the SAT, but the shorter time allotted to complete each section increases difficulty. The ACT allows:\n\nBULLET::::- 45 minutes for a 75-question English section\n\nBULLET::::- 60 minutes for a 60-question Mathematics section\n\nBULLET::::- 35 minutes for a 40-question Reading section\n\nBULLET::::- 35 minutes for a 40-question Science section\n", "The second section is a 60-minute, 60-question math test with the usual distribution of questions being approximately 14 covering pre-algebra, 10 elementary algebra, 9 intermediate algebra, 14 plane geometry, 9 coordinate geometry, and 4 elementary trigonometry questions. However, the distribution of question topics varies from test to test. The difficulty of questions usually increases as you get to higher question numbers. Calculators are permitted in this section only. The calculator requirements are stricter than the SAT's in that computer algebra systems (such as the TI-89) are not allowed; however, the ACT permits calculators with paper tapes, that make noise (but must be disabled), or that have power cords with certain \"modifications\" (i.e., disabling the mentioned features), which the SAT does not allow. Standard graphing calculators, such as the TI-83 and TI-84, are allowed. Within the TI-Nspire family, the standard and CX versions are allowed while the CX CAS is not. This is the only section that has five answer choices per question instead of four.\n", "Rothstein also suggested that the hugely successful SAT and ACT test preparation courses are unwittingly emphasizing mathematical prowess over verbal acuity. He rationalized that successful test-taking techniques taught in these courses to boost test scores work very well for multiple-choice math questions.\n", "The consensus view is that these are important, although Mamlet and VanDeVelde feel the scores \"don't count as much as people think they do.\" There are many reports that admissions departments consider only the highest test results in different test subsections, sometimes called \"superscore\" results or \"superscoring\", so if a student takes a standardized test during multiple sittings, for example, admissions officers consider the highest math and verbal scores, regardless of test date. Two sources in \"The Washington Post\" suggested that colleges routinely \"superscore\" the SAT test but rarely the ACT, possibly because of difficulty processing five separate rounded numbers.\n", "At the high school level, the test consists of 60 questions, which must be completed in two hours. The first 20 questions involve biology, the second twenty questions involve chemistry, and the final twenty questions involve physics. No time warning is given, except that tests cannot be turned in until the proctor announces that 30 minutes have passed.\n\nThe questions may be answered in any order; there is no penalty for skipping questions.\n\nQuestions must be answered to the proper number of significant digits, with \"small variation\" in the final significant digit acceptable.\n", "In 1994, 89 students took the test given after three weeks: students scoring more than 50% on the quiz could enroll in Wilfried Schmid's Math 55 (15 students), students scoring between 10 and 50% could stay in Benedict Gross's Math 25 (55 students), and students scoring less than 10% were advised to enroll in a course such as Math 21, multivariate calculus (19 students). A take-home final ends the class.\n\nSection::::Description.:Historical retention rate.\n", "The main four ACT test sections are individually scored on a scale of 1–36, and a composite score (the rounded whole number average of the four sections) is provided.\n", "Sixty percent—about 2.03 million students—of the 2017 high school graduating class took the ACT. For the graduating class of 2017, the average composite score was a 21.0. Of these test-takers, 46% were male and 52% were female, with 2% not reporting a gender. 2,760 students in the graduating class of 2017 received the highest ACT composite score of 36.\n", "Section::::Math–verbal achievement gap.\n\nIn 2002, Richard Rothstein (education scholar and columnist) wrote in \"The New York Times\" that the U.S. math averages on the SAT and ACT continued their decade-long rise over national verbal averages on the tests.\n\nSection::::Reuse of old SAT exams.\n", "In 2010, approximately 40 students earned at least 3 dual credits or scored a 3 or above on an AP exam. These 40 students took nearly 100 dual credit or AP courses for a potential total of 300 semester hours. In 2011, only 12.2% of the 22 students sitting for AP exams passed.\n", "In many functional languages, including Scheme and other Lisps, and interactive languages such as APL, numbers are self-evaluating. In TI-BASIC, if the last line of a program is value returning, the returned value is displayed on the screen. Therefore, in such langages a program containing a single digit results in a 1-byte quine. Since such code does not \"construct\" itself, this is often considered cheating.\n\n1\n", "High scores on the AMC 10 or 12 can qualify the participant for the American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME). On the AMC 10, the top 2.5% make it; around 110 to 120 points. On the AMC 12, the top 5% make it; around 90 to 100 points.\n", "Ysseldyke, Betts, Thill, and Hannigan (2004) conducted a quasi-experimental study with third- through sixth-grade Title I students. They found that Title I students who used Accelerated Math outperformed students who did not. Springer, Pugalee, and Algozzine (2005) also discovered a similar pattern. They studied students that failed to pass the AIMS test in order to graduate. Over half of the students passed the test after taking a course in which Accelerated Math was used to improve their achievement. \n", "An EEP applicant's first step is taking the American College Test OR the SAT. The ACT is a standardized test for high school achievement and college admissions in the United States produced by ACT, Inc. It was first administered in fall 1959 by Everett Franklin Lindquist as a competitor to the College Board's Scholastic Aptitude Test, now the SAT Reasoning Test. Some students who perform poorly on the SAT find that they perform better on the ACT and vice versa. The ACT test has historically consisted of four tests: English, Math, Reading, and Science reasoning. In February 2005, an optional writing test was added to the ACT, mirroring changes to the SAT that took place later in March of the same year. All four-year colleges and universities in the U.S. accept the ACT, but different institutions place different emphases on standardized tests such as the ACT, compared to other factors of evaluation such as class rank, G.P.A., and extracurricular activities. If the ACT is taken at one of two annual testings administered at CSULA, the applicant does not complete the writing portion. The applicants to CSULA's PACE program also take this test. To qualify for the EEP, an applicant must score 23 or higher on the Math section and 24 or higher on the English section. To qualify with the SAT the applicant must score above a 510 on both the Critical Reading and Math sections.\n", "Each exam is scored based on the number of questions answered correctly and the number of questions left blank. A student receives 6 points for each question answered correctly, 1.5 points for each question left blank, and 0 points for incorrect answers. Thus, a student who answers 24 correctly, leaves 1 blank, and misses 0 gets 24x6 + 1x1.5 = 145.5 points. The maximum possible score is 6×25 = 150 points; in 2006, the AMC 12 had a total of 17 perfect scores between its two administrations, while the AMC 10 had 89.\n", "In a paper Review of Educational Research (66(3), 269-306) which reviewed by Greg Hancock, those problems are discussed:\n", "At the junior high level, the test consists of 50 questions and is limited to only 30 minutes. At the high school level, the test consists of 60 questions and is limited to only 40 minutes. Both tests are multiple choice.\n\nThere is no intermediate time signal given; at the end of the allotted time the students must immediately stop writing (they are not allowed to finish incomplete answers started before the stop signal). If contestants are in the process of writing down an answer, they \n\nmay finish; they may not do additional work on a test question.\n", "Each section may be completed at the applicant's convenience. The parts do not have to be taken on the same day or on consecutive days. Each section can be taken up to four times in a testing window, and the score credit carries over for up to two years from the date of the examination. The testing window starts on May 1 every year, and ends at the end of February. There are no tests available during the months of March and April, at which time the exams are updated with the latest changes in the laws and the regulations. After passing all three parts of the exam, test takers may apply for enrollment to practice before the IRS. To apply, Form 23, Application for enrollment to practice before the IRS and check for $30 should be submitted. An application may also be submitted on-line at the government payments site: pay.gov.\n", "During the 1990s it was not uncommon for fewer than 2,000 students to qualify for the AIME, although 1994 was a notable exception where 99 students achieved perfect scores on the AHSME and the list of high scorers, which usually was distributed in small pamphlets, had to be distributed several months late in thick newspaper bundles.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Calculator Applications is an 80-question exam that students are given only 30 minutes to solve. This test requires practice on the calculator, knowledge of a few crucial formulas, and much speed and intensity. Memorizing formulas, tips, and tricks will not be enough. In this event, plenty of practice is necessary in order to master the locations of the keys and develop the speed necessary. All correct questions are worth 5 points and all incorrect questions or skipped questions that are before the last answered questions will lose 4 points; answers are to be given with three significant figures.\n", "These were discontinued after January 2005 when the SAT II in Writing was incorporated into the SAT.\n\nSection::::Scoring and admissions.\n\nEach individual test is scored on a scale of 200 to 800; however, some of the tests are scored on such generous curves that it is impossible to get a 200; for example, if someone gets every question wrong on the Mathematics Level 2 test, he/she might receive a score of 310; it all depends on the version of the test. The one and only exception was the ELPT, which was scored on a scale of 901 to 999.\n", "Most colleges use ACT scores as only one factor in the admission process. A sampling of ACT admissions scores shows that the 75th percentile composite score was 24.1 at public four-year institutions and 25.3 at private four-year institutions. Students should check with their prospective institutions directly to understand ACT admissions requirements.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "answering every question means you get a perfect score." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "You could get some questions wrong." ]

[ "BULLET::::- Baroreceptors in low pressure receptor zones (mainly in the venae cavae and the pulmonary veins, and in the atria) result in feedback by regulating the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH/Vasopressin), renin and aldosterone. The resultant increase in blood volume results in an increased cardiac output by the Frank–Starling law of the heart, in turn increasing arterial blood pressure.\n\nThese different mechanisms are not necessarily independent of each other, as indicated by the link between the RAS and aldosterone release. When blood pressure falls many physiological cascades commence in order to return the blood pressure to a more appropriate level.\n", "BULLET::::- The myogenic response of blood vessels. In 1902 Bayliss described that many blood vessels respond to an elevation of transmural pressure by constriction, finally reaching a diameter that is smaller than the initial diameter at the lower pressure. This observation, which had not received much attention at the time, was studied by Folkow as part of his thesis work and subsequently for more than a decade. He described this mechanism as an essential element in vascular control. This is now well-established knowledge in cardiovascular physiology.\n", "Examples: (these are examples of WIDENING pulse pressure causes)\n\nBULLET::::- Anemia\n\nBULLET::::- Aortic dissection\n\nBULLET::::- Atherosclerosis\n\nBULLET::::- Arteriovenous fistula\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic aortic regurgitation\n\nBULLET::::- Aortic root aneurysm\n\nBULLET::::- Aortic root dilation\n\nBULLET::::- Beri beri\n\nBULLET::::- Distributive shock\n\nBULLET::::- Endocarditis\n\nBULLET::::- Fever\n\nBULLET::::- Heart block\n\nBULLET::::- Hyperkinetic heart syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Increased intracranial pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Patent ductus arteriosus\n\nBULLET::::- Pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- Thyrotoxicosis\n\nSection::::Relationship to heart disease.\n", "BULLET::::- Return of systemic blood to the heart is impeded by the pressure inside the chest. The output of the heart is reduced and stroke volume falls. This occurs from 5 to about 14 seconds in the illustration. The fall in stroke volume reflexively causes blood vessels to constrict with some rise in pressure (15 to 20 seconds). This compensation can be quite marked with pressure returning to near or even above normal, but the cardiac output and blood flow to the body remains low. During this time the pulse rate increases (compensatory tachycardia).\n\nBULLET::::3. Pressure release\n", "For those with heart valve regurgitation, a change in its severity may be associated with a change in diastolic pressure. In a study of people with heart valve regurgitation that compared measurements 2 weeks apart for each person, there was an increased severity of aortic and mitral regurgitation when diastolic blood pressure increased, whereas when diastolic blood pressure decreased, there was a decreased severity.\n\nSection::::Disorders of blood pressure.:Low blood pressure.\n", "Blood hammer\n\nThe blood hammer phenomenon is a sudden increase of the upstream blood pressure in a blood vessel (especially artery or arteriole) when the bloodstream is abruptly blocked by vessel obstruction. The term \"blood-hammer\" was introduced in cerebral hemodynamics by analogy with the hydraulic expression \"water hammer\", already used in vascular physiology to designate an arterial pulse variety, the \"water-hammer pulse\". Complete understanding of the relationship between mechanical parameters in vascular occlusions is a critical issue, which can play an important role in the future diagnosis, understanding and treatment of vascular diseases.\n", "In the past, most attention was paid to diastolic pressure; but nowadays it is recognized that both high systolic pressure and high pulse pressure (the numerical difference between systolic and diastolic pressures) are also risk factors. In some cases, it appears that a decrease in excessive diastolic pressure can actually increase risk, due probably to the increased difference between systolic and diastolic pressures (see the article on pulse pressure). If systolic blood pressure is elevated (140 mmHg) with a normal diastolic blood pressure (90 mmHg), it is called \"isolated systolic hypertension\" and may present a health concern.\n", "Section::::Types.:Internal.:Blood pressure.\n\nBlood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output are measured by stretch receptors found in the carotid arteries. Nerves embed themselves within these receptors and when they detect stretching, they are stimulated and fire action potentials to the central nervous system. These impulses inhibit the constriction of blood vessels and lower the heart rate. If these nerves do not detect stretching, the body determines perceives low blood pressure as a dangerous stimulus and signals are not sent, preventing the inhibition CNS action; blood vessels constrict and the heart rate increases, causing an increase in blood pressure in the body.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nHypertension, or abnormally high blood pressure, often signifies an elevated level of both psychological and physiological stress. Often, hypertension goes hand in hand with various atrial fibrillations including premature atrial contractions (PACs). Additional factors that may contribute to spontaneous premature atrial contractions could be: \n\nBULLET::::- Increased age\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal body height\n\nBULLET::::- History of cardiovascular disease (CV)\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal ANP levels\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated cholesterol\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nPremature atrial contractions are typically diagnosed with an electrocardiogram, Holter monitor, or cardiac event monitor.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Electrocardiogram.\n", "BULLET::::1. The blood pressure fall is detected by a decrease in blood flow and thus a decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).\n\nBULLET::::2. Decrease in GFR is sensed as a decrease in Na levels by the macula densa.\n\nBULLET::::3. The macula densa causes an increase in Na reabsorption, which causes water to follow in via osmosis and leads to an ultimate increase in plasma volume. Further, the macula densa releases adenosine which causes constriction of the afferent arterioles.\n\nBULLET::::4. At the same time, the juxtaglomerular cells sense the decrease in blood pressure and release renin.\n", "Blood pressure in the arteries supplying the body is a result of the work needed to pump the cardiac output (the flow of blood pumped by the heart) through the \"vascular resistance\", usually termed total peripheral resistance by physicians and researchers. An increase in the media to lumenal diameter ratio has been observed in hypertensive arterioles (arteriolosclerosis) as the vascular wall thickens and/or lumenal diameter decreases.\n", "Low blood pressure is sometimes associated with certain symptoms, many of which are related to causes rather than effects of hypotension:\n\nBULLET::::- chest pain\n\nBULLET::::- shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- irregular heartbeat\n\nBULLET::::- fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F)\n\nBULLET::::- headache\n\nBULLET::::- stiff neck\n\nBULLET::::- severe upper back pain\n\nBULLET::::- cough with sputum\n\nBULLET::::- Prolonged diarrhea or vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- dyspepsia (indigestion)\n\nBULLET::::- dysuria (painful urination)\n\nBULLET::::- acute, life-threatening allergic reaction\n\nBULLET::::- seizures\n\nBULLET::::- loss of consciousness\n\nBULLET::::- profound fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- temporary blurring or loss of vision\n\nBULLET::::- Black tarry stools\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Increased blood pressure in the capillaries of the lung causes pulmonary hypertension, leading to interstitial edema if the pressure increases to above 20 mmHg, and to pulmonary edema at pressures above 25 mmHg.\n\nSection::::Mean systemic pressure.\n\nIf the heart is stopped, blood pressure falls, but it does not fall to zero. The remaining pressure measured after cessation of the heart beat and redistribution of blood throughout the circulation is termed the mean systemic pressure or mean circulatory filling pressure; typically this is of the order of ~7mm Hg.\n\nSection::::Disorders of blood pressure.\n", "Hypotensive transfusion reaction\n\nA Hypotensive transfusion reaction or HTR is a rare condition that presents with low blood pressure associated with administration of blood products. The low blood pressure quickly resolves when the transfusion is stopped.\n", "Section::::Causes.:High blood pressure.\n\nAccording to the CHARGE Consortium both systolic and diastolic blood pressure are predictors of the risk of AF. Systolic blood pressure values close to normal limit the increase in the risk associated with AF. Diastolic dysfunction is also associated with AF, which increased pressure, left atrial volume, size, and left ventricular hypertrophy, characteristic of chronic hypertension. All atrial remodeling is related to a heterogeneous conduction and the formation of re-entrant electric conduction from the pulmonary veins.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Tobacco.\n", "Baroreceptors respond very quickly to maintain a stable blood pressure, but their responses diminish with time and thus are most effective for conveying short term changes in blood pressure. In people with essential hypertension the baroreceptors and their reflexes change and function to maintain the elevated blood pressure as if normal. The receptors then become less sensitive to change.\n\nElectrical stimulation of baroreceptors has been found to activate the baroreflex, reducing sympathetic tone throughout the body and thereby reducing blood pressure in patients with resistant hypertension.\n\nSection::::Low-pressure baroreceptors.\n", "BULLET::::1. A decrease in arterial blood pressure (that could be related to a decrease in blood volume) as detected by baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive cells). This is the most direct causal link between blood pressure and renin secretion (the other two methods operate via longer pathways).\n\nBULLET::::2. A decrease in sodium load delivered to the distal tubule. This load is measured by the macula densa of the juxtaglomerular apparatus.\n\nBULLET::::3. Sympathetic nervous system activity, which also controls blood pressure, acting through the β adrenergic receptors.\n", "Blood tests, particularly tests of thyroid gland function are also important baseline investigations (an overactive thyroid gland is a potential cause for palpitations; the treatment in that case is to treat the thyroid gland over-activity).\n", "People who present to the emergency department who are asymptomatic, with unremarkable physical exams, have non-diagnostic EKGs and normal laboratory studies, can safely be sent home and instructed to follow up with their primary care provider or cardiologist. Patients whose palpitations are associated with syncope, uncontrolled arrhythmias, hemodynamic compromise, or angina should be admitted for further evaluation.\n", "BULLET::::- Atrial fibrillation\n\nBULLET::::- Large 'v' wave (c–v wave)\n\nBULLET::::- Tricuspid regurgitation\n\nBULLET::::- Absent 'x' descent\n\nBULLET::::- Tricuspid regurgitation (sometimes 'x' wave is replaced by a positive wave)\n\nBULLET::::- Prominent 'x' descent\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiac tamponade\n\nBULLET::::- Slow 'y' descent\n\nBULLET::::- Tricuspid stenosis\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiac tamponade\n\nBULLET::::- Prominent & deep 'y' descent\n\nBULLET::::- Constrictive pericarditis\n\nBULLET::::- Parodoxical JVP (Kussmaul's sign: JVP rises with inspiration, drops with expiration)\n\nBULLET::::- Pericardial effusion\n\nBULLET::::- Constrictive pericarditis\n\nBULLET::::- Pericardial tamponade\n", "This phenomenon can be a sign of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy or of many other types of heart disease (see list below). Other causes include digitalis toxicity, induction of anesthesia, placement of surgical instrumentation into the thorax or as a benign, temporary phenomenon.\n", "The non-linear effect of the vascular wall decreases in bigger arteries. It is well known that good access to a “big” artery is at the wrist by palpating. Different mechanisms have been developed for the automatic noninvasive palpation on the arteria radialis. In order to obtain a stable blood pressure signal, the tonometric sensor must be protected against movement and other mechanical artifacts.\n\nSection::::Current noninvasive blood pressure technologies.:Pulse transit time.\n", "One of the core features of pre-eclampsia is high blood pressure. Blood pressure is a measurement of two numbers. If either the top number (systolic blood pressure) is greater than 140 mmHg or the bottom number (diastolic blood pressure) is greater than 90 mmHg, then the blood pressure is higher than the normal range and the person has high blood pressure. If the systolic blood pressure is greater than 160 or the diastolic pressure is greater than 110, the hypertension is considered to be severe.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Laboratory testing.\n", "An aggressive diagnostic approach is recommended for those at high risk and can include ambulatory monitoring or electrophysiologic studies. There are three types of ambulatory EKG monitoring devices: Holter monitor, continuous-loop event recorder, and an implantable loop recorder. \n", "Francis Arthur Bainbridge described this reflex in 1918 when he was experimenting on dogs. Bainbridge found that infusing blood or saline into the animal increased heart rate. This phenomenon occurred even if arterial blood pressure did not increase. He further observed that heart rate increased when venous pressure rose high enough to distend the right atrium, but denervation of the vagi to the heart eliminated these effects.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of Action.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Summary offences, such as most motoring offences, are much less serious and most must be tried in a magistrates' court, although a few may be sent for trial to the Crown Court along with other offences that may be tried there (for example assault). The vast majority of offences are also concluded in a magistrates' court (over 90% of cases).\n", "In criminal matters, magistrates’ courts (formerly known as a \"police courts\" in London, and petty sessions elsewhere) in England and Wales have been organised to deal with minor offences in a speedy manner. All criminal cases start in the magistrates' court and over 95 per cent of them will end there – only the most serious offences go to Crown Court.\n", "On 28 May 2013 the committal procedure was abolished in England. As a result, the serious matters are sent straight to the Crown Court from the Magistrates' Court for a pre-trial hearing. There is no committal procedure to determine sufficiency of evidence. Instead, the defendant charged with the offence may make an application to the Crown Court to have the case dismissed for lack of evidence. The idea behind this reform was to get cases to trial more quickly and reduce the number of pre-trial hearings. However, it is questionable whether this has been achieved given the number of pre-trial hearings that are often required in the Crown Court.\n", "Almost all criminal proceedings start at a magistrates' court. Summary offences are smaller crimes (such as public order offences or most driving matters) that can be punished under the magistrates' courts limited sentencing powers – community sentences, fines, short custodial sentences. Indictable offences, on the other hand, are serious crimes (e.g. rape, murder); if it is found at the initial hearing of the magistrates' court that there is a case to answer, they are committed to the Crown Court, which has a much wider range of sentencing power. Either-way offences (such as theft) will ultimately fall into one of the previous categories depending on how serious the particular crime in question is (a minor theft will be dealt with in a magistrates' court; a serious theft will be dealt with in a Crown Court), although a defendant also has the right in such cases to elect for trial by jury in the Crown Court.\n", "The Crown Court carries out four principal types of activity: appeals from decisions of magistrates; sentencing of defendants committed from magistrates’ courts, jury trials, and the sentencing of those who are convicted in the Crown Court, either after trial or on pleading guilty. The average time from receipt by the Crown Court to completion was 177 days by the start of 2016.\n\nRather than speaking of a location at which \"the\" Crown Court sits, it is common practice to refer to any venue as \"a\" Crown Court, e.g., Teesside Crown Court.\n\nSection::::Appeals from magistrates' courts.\n", "BULLET::::- With the passage of time, the memories of witnesses could dim, which could negatively impact on the trial and on the administration of justice.\n\nThe delay could not be ascribed, however, to a particular person or instance; it was due to a combination of factors, including the practice of continuing rolls, the overcrowding of rolls, the fact that certain matters had not been completed during the previous court term, the fact that certain prosecutors were unable to take on new matters, and the priority to be given to matters which were age-related, or where the accused were in custody.\n", "There are two kinds of criminal trial in England and Wales: 'summary' and 'on indictment'. For an adult, summary trials take place in a magistrates' court, while trials on indictment take place in the Crown Court. Despite the possibility of two venues for trial, almost all criminal cases, however serious, commence in the magistrates' courts.\n", "Section::::Prosecution of crime.:Prosecution within reasonable time, and prescription.:Constitution s 35(3)(d).:\"Sanderson v Attorney-General, Eastern Cape\".:Nature of the case.\n\nThe court held that it was not appropriate to specify \"normal delays\" for specific kinds of cases. This was better done by the Legislature. It is not simply a matter of contrasting simple and complex cases.\n\nThe prosecution should be aware of inherent delays and factor them into the decision of when to charge a suspect.\n", "Section::::Premise.:The trial portion.\n\nTowards the middle of a show, the police will begin to work with the prosecutors to make the arrest, though sometimes the CPS team will on occasion appear early on to arrange a plea-for-information deal or to decide if the detectives have enough evidence for search warrants and/or arrest warrants before arresting the suspect or suspects and an arraignment scene will follow.\n", "BULLET::::- 9 October – former Beatle Sir Paul McCartney married American heiress Nancy Shevell at a ceremony in London.\n\nBULLET::::- 10 October – the trial of Vincent Tabak, accused of murdering British landscape architect Joanna Yeates, began at Bristol Crown Court.\n\nBULLET::::- 12 October – a government ban on non-EU foreign spouses under the age of 21 coming to the UK was ruled unlawful by the UK Supreme Court.\n\nBULLET::::- 13 October – BP was given the go-ahead to proceed with a new £4.5 billion oil project west of the Shetland Islands.\n", "Section 45 and Schedule 17 of the Act establishes the statutory basis for deferred prosecution agreements under English law. Where previously, attempts to have English courts accept such agreements on the basis of their inherent jurisdiction met with difficulty, post the enactment of this Act, 3 such agreements were concluded in rapid succession. This included agreements with ICBC bank, and most recently in Jan 2017, Rolls Royce plc.\n\nSection::::Part 3: Miscellaneous and General.\n", "A criminal case that starts in the magistrates' courts may begin either by the defendant being charged and then being brought forcibly before magistrates, or by summons to the defendant to appear on a certain day before the magistrates. A summons is usually confined to very minor offences. The hearing (of the charge or summons) before the magistrates is known as a \"first appearance\".\n", "The first hearing in the Crown Court will be a Plea and Trial Preparation Hearing (PTPH), where a plea is taken and, if not guilty, a timetable for trial is set and directions given for service of further evidence, followed by the trial itself. There may be additional hearings in between (called 'mentions'). The PTPH was introduced on 5 January 2016 and replaced the previous procedure of having a separate initial Preliminary hearing followed by a Plea and Case Management Hearing (PCMH) in an attempt to reduce the number of pre-trial hearings.\n", "There are two kinds of criminal trial: 'summary' and 'on indictment'. For an adult, summary trials take place in a magistrates' court, while trials on indictment take place in the Crown Court. Despite the possibility of two venues for trial, almost all criminal cases, however serious, commence in a magistrates' courts. It is possible to start a trial for an indictable offence by a voluntary bill of indictment, and go directly to the Crown Court, but that would be unusual.\n", "There is no standard procedure for Pre-Trial Directions in the Multi Track, and the judge has discretion to use a number of case management approaches, including case management conferences and pre-trial reviews. The aim is to identify the issues as early as possible and, where appropriate,to try specific issues prior to the main trial. The number of expert witnesses is controlled by the court as its permission is needed for any party to use an expert to give evidence. All time limits are strictly enforced. The court may in the directions fix a trial date, or order a trial window (approximate date for the trial) with a date being fixed by the court closer to the trial window period. In the Multi Track there is usually some degree of flexibility to shift the date of a specific direction but, once a trial date is fixed, the court is very unlikely to agree to an adjournment without a compelling reason.\n", "Likewise, for litigation of commercial disputes arising out of unpredictable torts (as opposed to the prospective choice of law clauses in contracts discussed in the previous paragraph), certain jurisdictions attract an unusually high fraction of cases, because of the predictability afforded by the depth of decided cases. For example, London is considered the pre-eminent centre for litigation of admiralty cases.\n", "Section::::Allocation of cases.:Fast Track procedure.\n\nAll other cases require a process of 'Pre-Trial Directions' being a timetable for the ongoing management of the case. The idea is to simplify the case for the court. The Fast Track mandates a maximum delay of 30 weeks between the setting of Directions, and the trial date. Normally only one expert witness is allowed and, if the parties cannot agree on an expert, the court has the power to appoint one. The expert's evidence will be given in writing. There are fixed costs for the advocate at the trial.\n\nSection::::Allocation of cases.:Multi Track procedure.\n", "Offences are of three categories: indictable only, summary and either way. Indictable only offences such as murder and rape must be tried on indictment in the Crown Court. On first appearance, the magistrates must immediately refer the defendant to the Crown Court for trial, their only role being to decide whether to remand the defendant on bail or in custody.\n", "BULLET::::- 15 October – Charles Taylor arrives in the UK to serve the remainder of his 50-year prison sentence, the first head of state to be convicted of war crimes since World War II.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 October – a planned firefighters strike in England and Wales for the following day is called off at the eleventh hour, and following progress in talks over pensions.\n\nBULLET::::- 20 October – about 100 homes are damaged when a \"tornado\" hits Hayling Island in Hampshire.\n", "In July 2013, the new Criminal Procedure Act 2011 came fully into force. The Act sets out procedure for prosecuting a person for an offence. It also replaced indictable and summary offences with four new categories of offences:\n\nBULLET::::- A category 1 offence is an offence punishable by a fine, such as leaving a child without reasonable supervision or care. Trials are heard in the District Court before a judge alone.\n", "A court case in the crown court of the fictional town of Fulchester (a name later adopted by Viz) would typically be played out over three afternoons in 25-minute episodes. The most frequent format was for the prosecution case to be presented in the first two episodes and the defence in the third, although there were some later, brief variations.\n", "In June 2005, the accused was arrested and charged with murder, and was granted bail. In September and December 2005, he made further appearances in the magistrate's court. At the last such appearance, the case was remanded to the High Court for trial on October 9, 2006, but on that date the State applied for a further postponement on the following grounds:\n\nBULLET::::- that the Court roll was overcrowded, and that part-heard cases had to be given priority over new cases; and\n\nBULLET::::- that the prosecutor assigned to the case was herself involved in one such part-heard matter.\n", "In England and Wales, the Central Criminal Court Act 1856 permitted the venue for some high-profile cases to be changed to the Old Bailey in London. The Act was passed during the case of William Palmer and was based concerns that he would not be able get a fair trial in his native Staffordshire. They would make it easy for him to repeal the case by local publicity surrounding the case.\n\nSection::::Notable examples of controversial changes of venue.\n", "BULLET::::- 22 April – a London house goes on sale for a record £250 million, 700 times greater than the average £370,000 cost of a property in the city.\n\nBULLET::::- 23 April – businessman James McCormick is convicted on three counts of fraud at the Old Bailey after selling fake bomb detectors based on a device for finding golf balls to countries including Iraq and Georgia.\n\nSection::::Events.:May.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 May – James McCormick is jailed for ten years at the Old Bailey.\n\nBULLET::::- 3 May\n", "Before 1977, High Court trials were preceded by a preparatory examination in which evidence which tended to show the guilt of the accused was led, then the case was referred to the DPP to decide whether or not to prosecute the accused based on the findings in the preparatory examination. This was a time consuming and expensive exercise as all the evidence thus had to be brought before the court twice: once for the preparatory examination and again for the trial.\n" ]

[ "Some cases are brought to trial very quickly.", "Criminal cases are brought to trials very quickly in the UK." ]

[ "That is not trail, that is just when they are charged.", "The quick aspect is actually just the formal charge. The trial comes much later. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Some cases are brought to trial very quickly.", "Criminal cases are brought to trials very quickly in the UK." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "That is not trail, that is just when they are charged.", "The quick aspect is actually just the formal charge. The trial comes much later. " ]

[ "Only non-EU establishments that are subject to the GDPR are obliged to designate an EU Representative. It is worth reiterating the fact that a non-EU establishment shall be subject to the GDPR if it regularly undertakes one of the following activities: (a) the offering of goods or services, irrespective of whether a payment of the data subject is required, to data subjects in the EU; and/or (b) the monitoring of the behaviour of data subjects in the EU, as far as their behaviour takes place within the EU. This provision concerns any company that offers goods or services online to EU customers or uses cookies or similar technologies to track EU data subjects. Such establishments must comply with the GDPR, and thus are obliged to designate an EU Representative.\n", "Section::::Legal rights and court cases.:Europe.:General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).\n\nThe GDPR is a European regulation that was put in place to protect data and provide privacy to European citizens, regardless of whether they are physically in the European Union. This means that countries around the globe have had to comply with their rules so that any European citizen residing in them is afforded the proper protections. The regulation became enforceable in May 2018.\n", "On the effective date, some international websites began to block EU users entirely (including Instapaper, Unroll.me, and Tribune Publishing-owned newspapers, such as the \"Chicago Tribune\" and the \"Los Angeles Times\") or redirect them to stripped-down versions of their services (in the case of National Public Radio and \"USA Today\") with limited functionality and/or no advertising, in order to remove their liabilities. Some companies, such as Klout, and several online video games, ceased operations entirely to coincide with its implementation, citing the GDPR as a burden on their continued operations, especially due to the business model of the former. Sales volume of online behavioural advertising placements in Europe fell 25–40% on 25 May 2018.\n", "BULLET::::- 24 May 2016: The regulation entered into force, 20 days after its publication in the \"Official Journal of the European Union\".\n\nBULLET::::- 25 May 2018: Its provisions became directly applicable in all member states, two years after the regulations enter into force.\n\nBULLET::::- 20 July 2018: the GDPR became valid in the EEA countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway), after the EEA Joint Committee and the three countries agreed to follow the regulation.\n\nSection::::EU Digital Single Market.\n", "The GDPR was adopted on 14 April 2016, and became enforceable beginning 25 May 2018. As the GDPR is a regulation, not a directive, it is directly binding and applicable, but does provide flexibility for certain aspects of the regulation to be adjusted by individual member states.\n\nSection::::Contents.\n\nThe GDPR 2016 has eleven chapters, concerning general provisions, principles, rights of the data subject, duties of data controllers or processors, transfers of personal data to third countries, supervisory authorities, cooperation among member states, remedies, liability or penalties for breach of rights, and miscellaneous final provisions.\n\nSection::::Contents.:I General provisions.\n", "GDPR fines and notices\n\nThe General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is a European Union regulation that specifies standards for data protection and electronic privacy in the European Economic Area, and the rights of European citizens to control the processing and distribution of personally-identifiable information.\n\nViolators of GDPR may be fined up to €20 million, or up to 4% of the annual worldwide turnover of the preceding financial year, whichever is greater. The following is a list of fines and notices issued under the GDPR, including reasoning. \n", "The directive contains a number of key principles with which member states must comply. Anyone processing personal data must comply with the eight enforceable principles of good practice. They state that the data must be:\n\nBULLET::::1. Fairly and lawfully processed.\n\nBULLET::::2. Processed for limited purposes.\n\nBULLET::::3. Adequate, relevant and not excessive.\n\nBULLET::::4. Accurate.\n\nBULLET::::5. Kept no longer than necessary.\n\nBULLET::::6. Processed in accordance with the data subject's rights.\n\nBULLET::::7. Secure.\n\nBULLET::::8. Transferred only to countries with adequate protection.\n", "For viewers in the United States, Ripoff Report is currently displaying a notice at the top of the site explaining the reasons for this as follows: \"NOTICE! Those consumers located in the European Union, effective 5/24/2018 due to the GDPR, citizens of any GDPR applicable country or anyone sitting in, or operating from, such country are prohibited from using this site. Read our Terms of Service to learn more. By using our site you understand and agree to these terms. Don't blame us... blame Europe! This site uses cookies to store information on your computer which may track your browsing behavior on our site and provide you with ads or other offers that may be relevant to you. Some are essential to make our site work; others help us improve the user experience. Read our Privacy Policy to learn more.\"\n", "Organisations based outside the EU must also appoint an EU-based person as a representative and point of contact for their GDPR obligations (Article 27). This is a distinct role from a DPO, although there is overlap in responsibilities that suggest that this role can also be held by the designated DPO.\n\nSection::::Contents.:IV Controller and processor.:EU Representative.\n", "There are significant differences between the EU data protection and US data privacy laws. These standards must be met not only by businesses operating in the EU but also by any organization that transfers personal information collected concerning citizens of the EU. In 2001 the United States Department of Commerce worked to ensure legal compliance for US organizations under an opt-in Safe Harbor Program. The FTC has approved TRUSTe to certify streamlined compliance with the US-EU Safe Harbor.\n\nSection::::Current enforcement.\n", "In April 2019, the UK Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) issued a proposed code of practice for social networking services when used by minors, enforceable under GDPR, which also includes restrictions on like and \"streak\" mechanisms in order to discourage social media addiction, and use of this data for processing interests.\n\nSection::::Extraterritorial effects.\n\nThe American Bar Association published in 2018 that \"The GDPR applies extraterritorially.\"\n\nSection::::Extraterritorial effects.:Adequacy decisions.\n\nThe EU Commission, on the basis of Article 45 of GDPR, has determined that the following countries offer an adequate level of data protection:\n\nBULLET::::- Andorra\n\nBULLET::::- Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- Canada (for commercial entities)\n", "The EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) was set into place on 14 April 2016, but the current date of enforcement is set to be on 25 May 2018. The GDPR aims to bring a single standard for data protection among all member states in the EU. Changes include the redefining of geographical borders. It applies to entities that operate in the EU or deal with the data of any resident of the EU. Regardless of where the data is processed, if an EU citizen's data is being processed, the entity is now subject to the GDPR.\n", "BULLET::::- visits to the United Kingdom (also pre-Brexit) or Ireland (as EU states that have opted out of Schengen),\n\nIn addition to visa-exempt third country nationals, the ETIAS requirements will also apply to\n\nBULLET::::- non-national family members of EU citizens not holding a valid residence card\n\nBULLET::::- nationals of a third country enjoying the right to free movement but who do not hold a valid residence card\n", "If a foreign company that is subject to the GDPR refuses to designate an EU Representative as required, then the former is infringing the GDPR and runs the risk of being imposed an administrative fine of up to ten million Euros (10 000 000 EUR) or up to 2 percent of a company’s total worldwide annual turnover of the preceding financial year, whichever is higher. Ignorance of the GDPR would not be an excuse, and the intentional or negligent (willful blindness) character of the infringement (failure to designate an EU Representative) may rather constitute aggravating factors. It is for these very reasons that most foreign companies are in a haste to designate their respective EU Representatives, and EU-based data protection specialized companies have rendered things easier. These European data protection specialized companies offer cheap but efficient representation services, especially as data privacy is their day-to-day activity.\n", "Despite having had at least two years to prepare and do so, many companies and websites changed their privacy policies and features worldwide directly prior to GDPR's implementation, and customarily provided email and other notifications discussing these changes. This was criticised for resulting in a fatiguing number of communications, while experts noted that some reminder emails incorrectly asserted that new consent for data processing had to be obtained for when the GDPR took effect (any previously-obtained consent to processing is valid as long as it met the regulation's requirements). Phishing scams also emerged using falsified versions of GDPR-related emails, and it was also argued that some GDPR notice emails may have actually been sent in violation of anti-spam laws. In March 2019, a provider of compliance software found that many websites operated by EU member state governments contained embedded tracking from ad technology providers.\n", "The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) became enforceable on 25 May 2018.. As applies to consumers, the GDPR includes provision on scope of data collection, but also includes right of access, right to erasure, right to restriction of processing and right to data portability. Due to the multinational nature of some transactions, including data and internet transactions, and the possible implementation of corresponding regulations in some US states, it is likely that business and other entities will comply with the GDPR as well as US \"GLBA\" requirements.\n", "In addition, the GDPR limits the scope of data portability to cases where the processing is made on the basis of either consent of the data subject, or the performance of a contract.\n\nSection::::Rights of data subjects under the European Union's new GDPR.:Data portability in relation to the right of explanation.\n", "Facebook announced in April 2018 that it would implement parts of the GDPR globally. Sonos announced in April 2018 that it would implement the GDPR globally, and Microsoft announced in May 2018 that it would implement GDPR compliance for all its customers globally.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- 15 December 2015: Negotiations between the European Parliament, Council and Commission (Formal Trilogue meeting) resulted in a joint proposal.\n\nBULLET::::- 17 December 2015: The European Parliament's LIBE Committee voted for the negotiations between the three parties.\n\nBULLET::::- 8 April 2016: Adoption by the Council of the European Union. The only member state voting against was Austria, which argued that the level of data protection in some respects falls short compared to the 1995 directive.\n\nBULLET::::- 14 April 2016: Adoption by the European Parliament.\n", "BULLET::::- Other registrants have registered a .eu domain name to protect the brand name of their main website or domain, and redirect visitors to their pre-existing national ccTLD or .com website. \"(example: www.champagne.eu)\"\n\nBULLET::::- 12.8% of .eu websites are parking pages with Pay Per Click advertisements. ISPs and web hosters will often point unused domains to a parking webpage with PPC advertising. This percentage does not include .eu domains that are pointed to holding pages or not set up in DNS.\n\nBULLET::::- 26% of .eu domain names are redirects for existing national ccTLD or .com websites.\n", "Most of the data accessible via the EU Open Data Portal are covered by the legal notice of the Europa website. Generally, data can be used for free for commercial and non-commercial purposes, provided the source is acknowledged. Specific conditions for reuse, relating mostly to the protection of data privacy and intellectual property, apply to a small amount of data. A link to these conditions can be found for each dataset.\n\nSection::::Available data.\n", "United States privacy legislation tends to be adopted on an \"ad hoc\" basis, with legislation arising when certain sectors and circumstances require (e.g., the Video Privacy Protection Act of 1988, the Cable Television Protection and Competition Act of 1992, the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and the 1996 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, HIPAA (US)). Therefore, while certain sectors may already satisfy the EU Directive, at least in part, most do not. The United States prefers what it calls a 'sectoral' approach to data protection legislation, which relies on a combination of legislation, regulation, and self-regulation, rather than governmental regulation alone. Former US President Bill Clinton and former Vice-President Al Gore explicitly recommended in their \"Framework for Global Electronic Commerce\" that the private sector should lead, and companies should implement self-regulation in reaction to issues brought on by Internet technology.\n", "IT professionals expect that compliance with the GDPR will require additional investment overall: over 80 percent of those surveyed expected GDPR-related spending to be at least USD $100,000. The concerns were echoed in a report commissioned by the law firm Baker & McKenzie that found that \"around 70 percent of respondents believe that organizations will need to invest additional budget/effort to comply with the consent, data mapping and cross-border data transfer requirements under the GDPR.\" The total cost for EU companies is estimated at around €200 billion while for US companies the estimate is for $41.7 billion. It has been argued that smaller businesses and startup companies might not have the financial resources to adequately comply with the GDPR, unlike the larger international technology firms (such as Facebook and Google) that the regulation is ostensibly meant to target first and foremost. A lack of knowledge and understanding of the regulations has also been a concern in the lead-up to its adoption. A counter-argument to this has been that companies were made aware of these changes two years prior to them coming into effect and, therefore, should have had enough time to prepare.\n", "The data protection rules are applicable not only when the controller is established within the EU, but whenever the controller uses equipment situated within the EU in order to process data. (art. 4) Controllers from outside the EU, processing data in the EU, will have to follow data protection regulation. In principle, any online business trading with EU residents would process some personal data and would be using equipment in the EU to process the data (i.e. the customer's computer). As a consequence, the website operator would have to comply with the European data protection rules. The directive was written before the breakthrough of the Internet, and to date there is little jurisprudence on this subject.\n", "The EU has passed the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which will replace the Directive. The regulation was adopted on 27 April 2016. It becomes enforceable from 25 May 2018 after a two-year transition period and, unlike a directive, it does not require national governments to pass any enabling legislation, and is thus directly binding and applicable.\n" ]

[ "Due to the European GDPR, some American websites are not allowed to be viewed." ]

[ "Some American websites may choose to disable access for European users due to the site being unable to comply with GDPR requirements." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Due to the European GDPR, some American websites are not allowed to be viewed.", "Due to the European GDPR, some American websites are not allowed to be viewed." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Some American websites may choose to disable access for European users due to the site being unable to comply with GDPR requirements.", "Some American websites may choose to disable access for European users due to the site being unable to comply with GDPR requirements." ]

[ "Radio scanner\n\nA scanner (also referred to a police scanner, police scanner radio or radio scanner) is a radio receiver that can automatically tune, or \"scan\", two or more discrete frequencies, stopping when it finds a signal on one of them and then continuing to scan other frequencies when the initial transmission ceases.\n\nThe terms \"radio scanner\" or \"police scanner\" generally refer to a communications receiver that is primarily intended for monitoring VHF and UHF landmobile radio systems, as opposed to, for instance, a receiver used to monitor international shortwave transmissions.\n", "Retailers also use RFID tags to track inventory and prevent shoplifting. Most of these tags passively respond to RFID readers (e.g., at the cashier), but active RFID tags are available which periodically transmit location information to a base station.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Law enforcement.\n", "Section::::History and use.\n\nScanners developed from earlier tunable and fixed-frequency radios that received one frequency at a time. Non-broadcast radio systems, such as those used by public safety agencies, do not transmit continuously. With a radio fixed on a single frequency, much time could pass between transmissions, while other frequencies might be active. A scanning radio will sequentially monitor multiple programmed channels, or search between user defined frequency limits. The scanner will stop on an active frequency strong enough to break the radio's squelch setting and resume scanning other frequencies when that activity ceases.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Transmitter detection\": Cognitive radios must have the capability to determine if a signal from a primary transmitter is locally present in a certain spectrum. There are several proposed approaches to transmitter detection:\n\nBULLET::::- Matched filter detection\n", "A second method of prevention is by using cryptography. Rolling codes and challenge-response authentication (CRA) are commonly used to foil monitor-repetition of the messages between the tag and reader; as any messages that have been recorded would prove to be unsuccessful on repeat transmission. Rolling codes rely upon the tag's id being changed after each interrogation, while CRA uses software to ask for a cryptographically coded response from the tag. The protocols used during CRA can be symmetric, or may use public key cryptography.\n", "The simplest form of product detector mixes (or heterodynes) the RF or IF signal with a locally derived carrier (the Beat Frequency Oscillator, or BFO) to produce an audio frequency copy of the original audio signal and a mixer product at twice the original RF or IF frequency. This high-frequency component can then be filtered out, leaving the original audio frequency signal.\n\nSection::::A simple product detector.:Mathematical model of the simple product detector.\n\nIf \"m\"(\"t\") is the original message, the AM signal can be shown to be \n", "Some pulse emissions are more usefully characterized using an oscilloscope to capture the pulse waveform in the time domain.\n\nSection::::EMC control.:EMC testing.:Susceptibility testing.\n\nRadiated field susceptibility testing typically involves a high-powered source of RF or EM energy and a radiating antenna to direct the energy at the potential victim or device under test (DUT).\n\nConducted voltage and current susceptibility testing typically involves a high-powered signal generator, and a current clamp or other type of transformer to inject the test signal.\n", "A radio-frequency identification system uses \"tags\", or \"labels\" attached to the objects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called \"interrogators\" or \"readers\" send a signal to the tag and read its response.\n", "Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; \"blank\" tags may be written with an electronic product code by the user.\n", "Open Scan scans all 80 channels to find an active conversation. Some radios allow skipping selected channels when scanning.\n\nGroup Scan scans a small number of selected channels. For example, a caravanner travelling around the country may choose to group scan Channel 40 (Road Channel), 18 (Caravan Channel) and 5 (Emergency Channel) so they will hear any conversations relating to their travels.\n", "Section::::Frequency and phase modulation detectors.:Other FM detectors.\n\nLess common, specialized, or obsolescent types of detectors include:\n\nBULLET::::- Travis or double tuned circuit discriminator using two non-interacting tuned circuits above and below the nominal center frequency\n\nBULLET::::- Weiss discriminator which uses a single LC tuned circuit or crystal\n\nBULLET::::- Pulse count discriminator which converts the frequency to a train of constant amplitude pulses, producing a voltage directly proportional to the frequency.\n\nSection::::Phase-locked loop detector.\n", "Some probes contain a push button. Pressing the button will either disconnect the signal (and send a ground signal to the 'scope) or cause the 'scope to identify the trace in some other way. This feature is very useful when simultaneously using more than one probe as it lets the user correlate probes and traces on the 'scope screen.\n", "This form factor is useful for any application where the spectrum analyzer needs to be very light and small. Handheld analyzers usually offer a limited capability relative to larger systems. Attributes that contribute to a useful handheld spectrum analyzer include:\n\nBULLET::::- Very low power consumption.\n\nBULLET::::- Battery-powered operation while in the field to allow the user to move freely outside.\n\nBULLET::::- Very small size\n\nBULLET::::- Light weight (usually less than ).\n\nSection::::Form factor.:Networked.\n", "Many recent models will allow scanning of the specific DCS or CTCSS code used on a specific frequency should it have multiple users. One memory bank can be assigned to air traffic control, another can be for local marine communications, and yet another for local police frequencies. These can be switched on and off depending on the user's preference. Most scanners have a weather radio band, allowing the listener to tune into weather radio broadcasts from a NOAA transmitter.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Baby monitor\" - this is a cribside appliance for mothers of infants that transmits the baby's sounds to a receiver carried by the mother, so she can monitor the baby while she is in other parts of the house. Many baby monitors now have video cameras to show a picture of the baby.\n\nBULLET::::- Data communications\n", "BULLET::::- Shaped response: contain frequency dependent sensors that automatically weight the detected RF fields in accordance with frequency-dependent RF exposure limits.\n", "BULLET::::- Automated meter reading – electric power meters, water meters, and gas meters that, when triggered by an interrogation signal, transmit their readings by radio to a utility reader vehicle at the curb, to eliminate the need for an employee to go on the customer's property to manually read the meter.\n", "BULLET::::- Conducted immunity : Low frequency signals (usually 10 kHz to 80 MHz) are injected onto the data and power lines of a device. This test is used to simulate the coupling of low frequency signals onto the power and data lines, such as from a local AM radio station.\n\nBULLET::::- Conducted emissions : Similar to radiated emissions, except the signals are measured at the power lines with a filter device.\n", "Some ICs are designed (e.g., LMV831-LMV834, MAX9724) to have integrated RF filters or a special design that helps reduce any demodulation of high-frequency carrier.\n\nDesigners often need to carry out special tests for RF immunity of parts to be used in a system. These tests are often done in an anechoic chamber with a controlled RF environment where the test vectors produce a RF field similar to that produced in an actual environment.\n\nSection::::RFI in radio astronomy.\n", "In order to prevent radio-frequency interference (RFI) from outside sources, such as radio, TV and wireless communication signals, in the radio frequency band, the SIRE radar employs several techniques to suppress or extract these signals from the UWB radar data. Instead of conventional methods of screening like the notch filtering approach, the SIRE radar narrowband and wideband RFI screening process involve averaging repeated measurements from the same range-profile.\n\nSection::::Modes.\n", "Section::::How it worked.\n\nIn a GE Marc V system:\n\nBULLET::::- Electronics that determine which channel a conversation will occur on are inside each radio. When the user takes the microphone off-hook, the radio scans all available channels in the system to find an unused channel for a conversation. The user would hear a low-pitched error tone if they took the microphone off hook and no channels were available or the radio was out-of-range.\n\nBULLET::::- When idle, radios scan to look for a tone sequence initiating a conversation from another radio in their own group.\n", "Product detectors can be designed to accept either IF or RF frequency inputs. A product detector which accepts an IF signal would be used as a demodulator block in a superheterodyne receiver, and a detector designed for RF can be combined with an RF amplifier and a low-pass filter into a direct-conversion receiver.\n\nSection::::A simple product detector.\n", "In some cases the RF safety monitor comes in a version or mode for the general public. These meters can then be used to determine areas where the public might be exposed to high levels of RF energy or used to indicate the RF level in areas where the general public has access.\n\nSection::::Specification.\n", "Because these probes generally acquire one point at a time and at high sample speeds, acquisition of long (continuous) surface profiles is possible. Scanning can take place in hostile environments, including very hot or cryogenic temperatures, or in radioactive chambers, while the detector is located at a distance, in a human-safe environment.\n\nFiber-based probes are easily installed in-process, such as above moving webs or mounted onto a variety of positioning systems.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Road profilometery\n\nBULLET::::- Surface metrology\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Little Book of Profiling, the University of Michigan about road profiling\n", "Modern rebar detectors use different coil arrangements to generate several magnetic fields. Advanced signal processing supports not only the localization of rebars but also the determination of the cover and the estimation of the bar diameter. This method is unaffected by all non conductive materials such as concrete, wood, plastics, bricks, etc. However any kind of conductive materials within the magnetic field will have an influence on the measurement.\n\nAdvantages of the pulse induction method: \n\nBULLET::::- high accuracy\n\nBULLET::::- not influenced by moisture and heterogeneities of the concrete\n\nBULLET::::- unaffected by environmental influences\n\nBULLET::::- low costs\n" ]

[ "Radios know the difference between static and stations. " ]

[ "Radios know the difference between frequency levels, not the difference between static and stations. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Radios know the difference between static and stations. ", "Radios know the difference between static and stations. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Radios know the difference between frequency levels, not the difference between static and stations. ", "Radios know the difference between frequency levels, not the difference between static and stations. " ]

[ "Section::::Reception.:Commercial performance.\n", "Most television commercials are heavily compressed (typically to a dynamic range of no more than 3 dB) to achieve near-maximum perceived loudness while staying within permissible limits. This causes a problem that TV viewers often notice: when a station switches from minimally compressed program material to a heavily compressed commercial, the volume sometimes seems to increase dramatically. Peak loudness might be the same—meeting the letter of the law—but high compression puts much more of the audio in the commercial at close to the maximum allowable, making the commercial seem much louder.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Over-usage.\n", "The subject of controlling loudness in television broadcasts has garnered considerable publicity since the FCC moved to implement enforcement of the Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation or CALM Act on December 13, 2012. While consumer complaints about overly loud television commercials are almost as old as the medium itself, the CALM Act began as legislation was first sponsored by Representative Anna Eshoo, a Democratic congresswoman in California, in 2008. The law was passed in 2010 and went into full effect in 2011 and 2012.\n", "But loudness jumps are not limited to inter-channel differences; they also exist between programme material within the same channel. Loudness differences are a frequent source of audience complaints, especially TV commercials and promos that seem too loud. Complicating this is that many broadcasters use (quasi-)peak meters and peak-levelling. Unfortunately the peak level reading does not correlate well with the perceived loudness. It basically should only be used to prevent overmodulation.\n", "Section::::70mm Split Surround.\n\nEncoding Map\n\nDecoding Map\n", "As was alluded to above, the use of compressors to boost perceived volume is a favorite trick of broadcasters who want their station to sound \"louder\" at the same volume than comparable stations on the dial. The effect is to make the more heavily compressed station \"jump out\" at the listener at a given volume setting.\n", "Most television sets and small radios have only a single mid-range driver, or two for stereo sound. Since, in the case of television the most important aspect is the talking, it works out well. Since the ear is most sensitive to the middle frequencies produced by a mid-range the driver and amplifier can both be low power, while still delivering what is perceived to be good sound both in terms of volume and quality.\n\nSection::::Installation issues.\n", "Section::::Digital signal processing.:Sound around mode.\n\nSound around mode allows for real time overlapping of music and the sounds surrounding the listener in her environment, which are captured by a microphone and mixed into the audio signal. As a result, the user may hear playing music and external sounds of the environment at the same time. This can increase user safety (especially in big cities and busy streets), as a user can hear a mugger following her or hear an oncoming car.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "BULLET::::- A-weighting\n\nBULLET::::- Weighting filter\n\nBULLET::::- Equal-loudness contour\n\nBULLET::::- Fletcher-Munson curves\n\nBULLET::::- Loudness war\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- BS.1726 \"Signal level of digital audio accompanying television in international programme exchange\" (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- BS.1864 \"Operational practices for loudness in the international exchange of digital television programmes\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- BS.1770-3 \"Algorithms to measure audio programme loudness and true-peak audio level\" (2012)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- EBU Recommendation R68-2000\n\nBULLET::::- AES Preprint 4828 - Levels in Digital Audio Broadcasting by Neil Gilchrist (not free)\n\nBULLET::::- EBU Recommendation R117-2006 (against loudness war)\n\nBULLET::::- AES Convention Paper 5538 On Levelling and Loudness Problems at Broadcast Studios\n", "Replay volume normalization also helps when listening to playlists or shuffle play where otherwise variations in perceived loudness of recordings results in uncomfortable loudness shifts.\n\nSection::::Broadcasting.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Commercial performance.\n", "Section::::Broadcast and reception.\n", "On 21 August 2014, it was reported that the crews started the preparations for the shooting of the film on Northern Boulevard in Bayside, New York. The eight-week of filming began on 4 September 2014, in New York City.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "The \"loudness\" control associated with a loudness compensation feature on some consumer stereos alters the frequency response curve to correspond roughly with the equal loudness characteristic of the ear. Loudness compensation is intended to make the recorded music sound more natural when played at a lower levels by boosting low frequencies, to which the ear is less sensitive at lower sound pressure levels.\n\nSection::::Normalization.\n\nLoudness normalization is a specific type of audio normalization that equalizes perceived level such that, for instance, commercials do not sound louder than television programs. Loudness normalization schemes exist for a number of audio applications.\n\nSection::::Normalization.:Broadcast.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "The tested limiters had the following influence on the signal:\n\nBULLET::::- increase of RMS power,\n\nBULLET::::- increase of EBU3341 loudness,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of crest factor,\n\nBULLET::::- decrease of EBU3342 LRA, but only for high amounts of limiting,\n\nBULLET::::- increase of clipped sample density.\n\nIn other words, limiters increase both physical and perceptual levels, increase the density of clipped samples, decrease the crest factor and decrease macro-dynamics (LRA) given that the amount of limiting is substantial.\n\nSection::::Objective influence on the signal.:Compressors.\n", "Compressors are also used for hearing protection in some electronic \"active sound protection\" earmuffs and earplugs, to let sounds at ordinary volumes be heard normally while attenuating louder sounds, possibly also amplifying softer sounds. This allows, for example, shooters wearing hearing protection at a shooting range to converse normally, while sharply attenuating the much louder sounds of the gunshots, and similarly for musicians to hear quiet music but be protected from loud noises such as drums or cymbal crashes.\n", "Clutter is another type of noise. Russel and Lane (1996) define clutter as “\"non-program material carried during or between shows including commercials, public service announcements, and program promotional spots” (as cited in Wu & Newell, 2003). Therefore, if the television advertisement had been shown after a public service announcement, the receiver could be distracted, thinking about what was discussed within the announcement, as opposed to being fully focused on the television advertisement.\n", "Compression is often used in music production to make performances more consistent in dynamic range so that they \"sit\" in the mix of other instruments better and maintain consistent attention from the listener. Vocal performances in rock music or pop music are usually compressed to make them stand out from the surrounding instruments and add clarity.\n", "Section::::Recording.\n", "Section::::\"Romanticide\".\n", "Section::::Broadcast and reception.\n", "To place this problem in more common terms, imagine you are talking to someone 6 meters away. If the two of you are in a quiet, empty room then a conversation is quite easy to hold at normal voice levels. In a loud, crowded bar, it would be impossible to hear the same voice level, and the only solution (for that distance) is for both you and your friend to speak louder. Of course, this increases the overall noise level in the bar, and every other patron has to talk louder too (this is equivalent to power control runaway). Eventually, everyone has to shout to make themselves heard by a person standing right beside them, and it is impossible to communicate with anyone more than half a meter away. In general, however, a human is very capable of filtering out loud sounds; similar techniques can be deployed in signal processing where suitable criteria for distinguishing between signals can be established (see signal processing and notably adaptive signal processing.)\n", "Competition for listeners between radio stations has contributed to a loudness war in radio broadcasting. Loudness jumps between television broadcast channels and between programmes within the same channel, and between programs and intervening adverts are a frequent source of audience complaints. The European Broadcasting Union has addressing this issue in the EBU PLOUD Group with publication of the EBU R 128 recommendation. In the US, legislators passed the CALM act which led to enforcement of the formerly voluntary ATSC A/85 standard for loudness management.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Electronically reproduced audio and video is often processed to fit the original material with a wide dynamic range into a narrower recorded dynamic range that can more easily be stored and reproduced; this processing is called dynamic range compression.\n\nSection::::Human perception.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Standby. The energy needed to keep the engine running while it is not providing power to the wheels, i.e., when stopped, coasting or braking.\n\nFuel-efficiency decreases from electrical loads are most pronounced at lower speeds because most electrical loads are constant while engine load increases with speed. So at a lower speed a higher proportion of engine horsepower is used by electrical loads. Hybrid cars see the greatest effect on fuel-efficiency from electrical loads because of this proportional effect.\n\nSection::::Energy considerations.:Fuel economy-boosting technologies.\n\nSection::::Energy considerations.:Fuel economy-boosting technologies.:Future technologies.\n", "They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes and torque converters.\n", "For a person interested in sports car performance and appearance, the creation of a satisfying conversion will likely lead to a number of difficulties in such details as battery disposition, as such vehicles generally have available space distributed in small volumes around the vehicle. This leads to complexity in securing and wiring batteries. These vehicles can offer stunning performance in the lower speed ranges owing to light weight and rear wheel drive, and may also offer good range due to their superior aerodynamics.\n", "Closed Circuit Road racing, particularly any type of endurance racing, is one of the greatest challenges for EV's. Pound per pound, gasoline contains far more energy than even the most advanced of current batteries. An electric vehicle must be heavier or more efficient to run the same distance as its gasoline competitor. Endurance racing strategies include battery packs that can be changed quickly and \"Dump charging\"\n\nSection::::Vehicle types.:Custom chassis.\n", "Electric go-kart\n\nAn electric go-kart is a go-kart powered by one or two electric motors and batteries.\n\nMany manufacturers offer electric go-karts.\n\nSection::::Advantages / disadvantages.\n\nSection::::Advantages / disadvantages.:Advantages.\n\nAcceleration is usually better than thermic model and the speed is sufficient for use on most kart circuits. Torque in electric motors are greater than that of the gas engine. They are ideal for quick take offs and off road climbing.\n", "The range of electric cars are limited. To get maximum out of the battery, drivers sometimes use hypermiling. Some try to get a new record with one charging of battery. For example, a Tesla Model 3 ran more than 1000 km with one battery charge. The average speed was 38 km/h and the whole drive took around 30 hours. The tester used the autopilot of Tesla Model 3, running the car unmanned. The test car did not drive on a public road.\n\nSection::::Hypermiling with aircraft.\n", "BULLET::::- Street Rider 2011\n\nBULLET::::- EKO\n\nBULLET::::- Strike 2012, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- EV 60 Electric 2011\n\nBULLET::::- COSMIC - I\n\nBULLET::::- Electric City\n\nBULLET::::- Ventys 340 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Ventys 660 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Elmoto\n\nBULLET::::- Elmoto\n\nBULLET::::- E-max\n\nBULLET::::- 120S 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 120S-D 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 80L-3W 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 100L 2010, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 110S 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 120L 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 190L 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 80L/City 2010\n\nBULLET::::- 90S 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 140L 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- E-Ton\n\nBULLET::::- E-MO Plus: EV3E 2011, Jr. EV3D 2011\n\nBULLET::::- E-MO: EV3A 2011, EV3C 2011\n\nBULLET::::- E-MO XP\n\nBULLET::::- E-GO IBA2\n", "BULLET::::- The General Motors EV1 was rated in a test with a charging efficiency of 373 Wh-AC/mile or 23 kWh/100 km approximately equivalent to for petroleum-fuelled vehicles.\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet Volt in full electric mode uses , meaning it may approach or exceed the energy efficiency of walking if the car is fully occupied with 4 or more passengers, although the relative emissions produced may not follow the same trends if analyzing environmental impacts.\n", "List of electric cars currently available\n\nThis is a list of production electric cars, classified by type of vehicle according to its speed capabilities: highway-capable, urban or city car, low speed or neighbourhood electric vehicle, and race cars.\n\nSection::::Highway-capable.\n\n\"Road cars with a top speed above \"\n\nSection::::City speed.\n\n\"City cars with a top speed between and \"\n\nSection::::Low speed.\n\n\"Economy cars with a top speed of or less\n\nSection::::Race cars.\n\n\"Race cars with a top speed above \"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of production battery electric vehicles\n\nBULLET::::- List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Hiker 2.0 Electro\n\nBULLET::::- Galactica 2.0 Electro\n\nBULLET::::- KTM\n\nBULLET::::- Freeride E 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Li-ion Motors Corp.\n\nBULLET::::- Motorcycles\n\nBULLET::::- Mopeds\n\nBULLET::::- Mavizen\n\nBULLET::::- TTX02 2012, 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Mission Motors\n\nBULLET::::- One Ple 2012, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- R 2012, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- One 2010, 2009\n\nBULLET::::- Modenas\n\nBULLET::::- CTric\n\nBULLET::::- MZ\n\nBULLET::::- Charly 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Charly Classic\n\nBULLET::::- Charly EVO Gold Look\n\nBULLET::::- Charly EVO Carbon Look 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Charly EVO 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- 3Wheel Charly\n\nBULLET::::- E-Power Max\n\nBULLET::::- NextPower\n\nBULLET::::- BELER 2013\n\nBULLET::::- RETRO 2012\n\nBULLET::::- MILAN 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Oxygen\n\nBULLET::::- CargoScooter 2012\n", "Section::::Energy efficiency.\n\nInternal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%, while electric vehicles have efficiencies of 69-72%, when counted against stored chemical energy, or around 59-62%, when counted against required energy to recharge.\n", "Assumes a simple design of a DC or AC motor. \n\nBULLET::::- Obtain an electric motor, electric vehicle (EV) motor controller, and batteries which match the car size and the performance characteristics (range, speed, power) desired. Smaller vehicles can use smaller (\"8 inch\") motors, and larger vehicles will require larger electric motors.\n\nBULLET::::- Remove the combustion engine, fuel tank, muffler and exhaust, and other ICE related components.\n", "Large, high-current ESCs are used in electric cars, such as the Nissan Leaf, Tesla Roadster (2008), Model S, Model X, Model 3, and the Chevrolet Bolt. The energy draw is usually measured in kilowatts (the Nissan Leaf, for instance, uses an 160 kilowatt motor that produces up to 340 Nm torque ). Most mass-produced electric cars feature ESC's that capture energy when the car coasts or brakes, using the motor as a generator and slowing the car down. The captured energy is used to charge the batteries and thus extend the driving range of the car (this is known as regenerative braking). In some vehicles, such as those produced by Tesla, this can be used to slow down so effectively that the car's conventional brakes are only needed at very low speeds (the motor braking effect diminishes as the speed is reduced). In others, such as the Nissan Leaf, there is only a slight \"drag\" effect when coasting, and the ESC modulates the energy capture in tandem with the conventional brakes to bring the car to a stop.\n", "BULLET::::- CargoScooter eXtended Range 2012\n\nBULLET::::- CargoScooter Long Range 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Peugeot Motocycles\n\nBULLET::::- e-Vivacity\n\nBULLET::::- Quantya\n\nBULLET::::- Evo1 Track QuantayaParx 2012\n\nBULLET::::- MMX Junior 2012\n\nBULLET::::- vRone 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Evo1 Strada 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Evo1 Track 2011\n\nBULLET::::- MMX 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Squter P1 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Strada 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Track 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Rieju\n\nBULLET::::- Mius 40 2011\n\nBULLET::::- e-Bicy Alu 2010\n\nBULLET::::- e-Bicy Folding 2010\n\nBULLET::::- e-Bicy R126 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Sachs\n\nBULLET::::- Prima E 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Oliver Electro 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Suzuki\n\nBULLET::::- Burgman Fuel Cellhtml#y2009_BurgmanFCS 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Crosscagehtml#y2007_Crosscage 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Swaygo\n\nBULLET::::- 575 EVR-1 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Tauris\n", "Electric cars do not directly burn fuel, and so do not have fuel economy per se, but equivalence measures, such as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent have been created to attempt to compare them.\n\nSection::::Units of measure.\n\nFuel economy is the relationship between the distance traveled and fuel consumed.\n\nFuel economy can be expressed in two ways:\n", "Although electric cars often give good acceleration and have generally acceptable top speed, the lower specific energy of production batteries available in 2015 compared with carbon-based fuels means that electric cars need batteries that are fairly large fraction of the vehicle mass but still often give relatively low range between charges. Recharging can also take significant lengths of time. For journeys within a single battery charge, rather than long journeys, electric cars are practical forms of transportation and can be recharged overnight.\n\nElectric cars can significantly reduce city pollution by having zero tail pipe emissions.\n", "Some companies have been experimenting with battery swapping to eliminate delay while charging.A “Super Fast” charging location will currently charge most cars to around 80% in 45–50 minutes.  The final 20% – as with a mobile phone – takes longer, because the systems slow to safely fill the battery and avoid any risks.\n\nSection::::Batteries.:Charging.:Hybrid vehicles.\n\nSome electric vehicles have built in generators, these are considered a type of hybrid vehicle. \n\nSection::::Batteries.:Lifespan.\n", "Section::::Community design.\n\nSome communities are designed to separate neighborhoods from commercial and other areas, connecting them with relatively high speed thoroughfares on which NEVs cannot go, legally or safely. As a result, these vehicles are most common in communities that provide separate routes for them or generally accommodate slow speed traffic.\n\nCommunities designed specifically with NEVs and similarly sized vehicles in mind include:\n\nBULLET::::- Celebration, Florida\n\nBULLET::::- The Villages, Florida and Lady Lake, Florida\n\nBULLET::::- Peachtree City, Georgia\n\nBULLET::::- Avalon, California\n", "Section::::Performance.\n\nSection::::Performance.:Acceleration and drivetrain design.\n\nElectric motors can provide high power-to-weight ratios, batteries can be designed to supply the currents needed to support these motors. Electric motors have flat torque curve down to zero speed. For simplicity and reliability, many electric cars use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch.\n\nMany electric cars have higher acceleration than average internal combustion cars, largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses, and the more quickly available torque of an electric motor. However Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak motors.\n", "Electric cars use batteries to store electricity which is used to power electric motors. The battery delivers the power to the motor, which is either AC or DC. The difference between AC and DC motors is the sort of system that is required to run it in an electric vehicle. An AC motor is generally cheaper but the components required to run it in an electric vehicle such as the controller and inverter makes it more expensive than the DC motor. A unique feature of electric vehicles compared to its gasoline counterparts, the electric vehicle is more simple than the gasoline vehicle. The electric vehicle bypasses the gasoline car components such as the crankshaft which allows it to generate power much faster than gasoline. Because of the faster transfer of power, the electric vehicle is able to accelerate faster than gasoline cars.\n", "Electric vehicles may have shorter range compared to Internal Combustion Engines, however, the price per mile of electric vehicles is falling. Most owners opt to charge their vehicles primarily at their houses while not in use due to their typically slower charging times, and added convenience.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Advantages and disadvantages of EVs.:Heating of EVs.\n", "Section::::Vehicle types.:Other trucks – full size and most SUVs.\n", "BULLET::::- Audi Q7 e-tron: 17 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW i8: 7 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 2 Series Active Tourer 225xe: 6.0 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 330e iPerformance: 7.6 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 530e iPerformance: 9.2 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW X5 xDrive40e: 9.0 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet Volt: 16–18 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid: 16 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Fusion II / Ford C-Max II Energi: 7.6 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Fisker Karma: 20 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Accord PHEV (2013): 6.7 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Clarity PHEV (2018): 17 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Hyundai Ioniq Plug-in: 8.9 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Kia Niro Plug-in: 8.9 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Koenigsegg Regera: 4.5 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Mini Countryman Cooper S E: 7.6 kWh\n", "Electric motors produce 100% torque at zero RPM and this makes them quicker off the line compared to a piston-engined vehicle of the same power. Since Battery Technology has improved a great deal during the 1980s to present, the performance gap between piston-engined & electric-motor vehicles has narrowed. The weight of the battery packs can impact overall performance raising 1/4 mile times.\n\nSection::::Electric Drag Racing World Records.\n\nSection::::Electric Drag Racing World Records.:Motorcycles, 1/8 mile.\n", "The international body \"Naviga\" defines racing classes for Fast Electrics outside the USA, these classes being broadly divided by drive system (and hence racing format) and number of cells used in the drive battery. Racing bodies in the USA have their own racing classes based on the concept of \"sprint\" racing over a fixed number of laps, as opposed to Naviga's classes which are based on a fixed time.\n\nBULLET::::- Surface Drive classes race in a clockwise direction around a simple oval course.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Treatment.\n\nAfter exclusion of neck injury, observation should be continued for several hours. If repeated vomiting, worsening headache, dizziness, seizure activity, excessive drowsiness, double vision, slurred speech, unsteady walk, or weakness or numbness in arms or legs, or signs of basilar skull fracture develop, immediate assessment in an emergency department is warranted. After this initial period has passed, there is debate as to whether it is necessary to awaken the person several times during the first night, as has traditionally been done, or whether there is more benefit from uninterrupted sleep.\n", "Many closed-head injuries can be prevented by proper use of safety equipment during dangerous activities. Common safety features that can reduce the likelihood of experiencing a brain injury include helmets, hard hats, car seats, and safety belts. Another safety precaution that can decrease a person's risk for brain injury is \"not\" to drink and drive or allow oneself to be driven by a person who has been drinking or who is otherwise impaired.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Animal studies.\n\nAnimals studies showed that sleep deprivation prior to a brain injury might have healthy effects. Five days of complete sleep deprivation in rats before the traumatic brain injury, acted as protection against ischemic injury and a habitual deceased in total amount of sleep time before TBI reduced the severity.\n", "Patient education has been shown to be one of the most effective ways to decrease secondary symptoms seen with closed-head injuries. Patient education often includes working with a therapist to review symptom management and learn about returning to regular activities. Educational initiatives have also been shown to decrease the occurrence of PTSD in head-injury survivors.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Cognitive rehabilitation.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Acute stage.\n\nCertain facilities are equipped to handle TBI better than others; initial measures include transporting patients to an appropriate treatment center. Both during transport and in hospital the primary concerns are ensuring proper oxygen supply, maintaining adequate blood flow to the brain, and controlling raised intracranial pressure (ICP), since high ICP deprives the brain of badly needed blood flow and can cause deadly brain herniation. Other methods to prevent damage include management of other injuries and prevention of seizures. Some data supports the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy to improve outcomes.\n", "BULLET::::- Basilar skull fractures, those that occur at the base of the skull, are associated with Battle's sign, a subcutaneous bleed over the mastoid, hemotympanum, and cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea and otorrhea.\n\nBecause brain injuries can be life-threatening, even people with apparently slight injuries, with no noticeable signs or complaints, require close observation; They have a chance for severe symptoms later on. The caretakers of those patients with mild trauma who are released from the hospital are frequently advised to rouse the patient several times during the next 12 to 24 hours to assess for worsening symptoms.\n", "In the emergency setting, most people who has been subjected to forces strong enough to cause SCI are treated as though they have instability in the spinal column and have spinal motion restricted to prevent damage to the spinal cord. Injuries or fractures in the head, neck, or pelvis as well as penetrating trauma near the spine and falls from heights are assumed to be associated with an unstable spinal column until it is ruled out in the hospital. High-speed vehicle crashes, sports injuries involving the head or neck, and diving injuries are other mechanisms that indicate a high SCI risk. Since head and spinal trauma frequently coexist, anyone who is unconscious or has a lowered level of consciousness as a result of a head injury is spinal motion restricted.\n", "The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is a tool for measuring degree of unconsciousness and is thus a useful tool for determining severity of injury. The Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale is used in young children. The widely used PECARN Pediatric Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm helps physicians weigh risk-benefit of imaging in a clinical setting given multiple factors about the patient—including mechanism/location of injury, age of patient, and GCS score.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Location of brain damage predicts symptoms.\n", "On September 15, 2013, during a Week 2 game against the Philadelphia Eagles, Floyd was again carted off the field after an undisclosed head injury. He had feeling in all limbs and was awake and alert in the hospital, and it was announced he would fly to back to San Diego with his team, not needing to stay overnight at the hospital. He was placed on injured reserve on October 1, 2013 as a result of this neck injury.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Syriana\" (2005). During a torture scene where he was tied to a chair, George Clooney suffered head and spinal injuries and memory loss when he hit his head on the floor after the torturer knocked his chair over. The impact ruptured his dura mater, resulting in loss of cerebrospinal fluid. The injury was so painful that he contemplated committing suicide while recovering.\n", "Spinal immobilization was historically used routinely for people who had experienced physical trauma. There is; however, little evidence for its routine use. Long spine boards are often used in the prehospital environment as part of spinal immobilization. Due to concerns of side effects the National Association of EMS Physicians and the American College of Surgeons recommend its use only in those at high risk. This includes: those with blunt trauma who have a decreased level of consciousness, pain or tenderness in the spine, those with numbness or weakness believed to be due to a spinal injury and those with a significant trauma mechanism that are intoxicated or have other major injuries. In those with a definite spinal cord injury immobilization is also recommended.\n", "Medications may be prescribed to treat sleep problems and depression. Analgesics such as ibuprofen can be taken for headaches, but paracetamol (acetaminophen) is preferred to minimize the risk of intracranial hemorrhage. Concussed individuals are advised not to use alcohol or other drugs that have not been approved by a doctor as they can impede healing. Activation database-guided EEG biofeedback has been shown to return the memory abilities of the concussed individual to levels better than the control group.\n", "Airway management, monitoring, and management of injuries are all key guidelines when it comes to medical trauma care. Airway management is a key component of emergency on-scene care. Using a systematic approach, first responders must access that a patient's airway is not blocked in order to ensure the patient gets enough circulation and remain as calm as they can. Monitoring patients and making sure their body does not go into shock is another essential guideline when it comes to medical trauma care. Nurses are required to watch over patients and check blood pressure, heart rate, etc. to make sure that patients are doing well and are not crashing. When it comes to managing injuries, head and neck injuries require the most care post surgery. Head injuries are one of the major causes of trauma related death and disabilities worldwide. It is important for patients of head trauma to get CT scans post surgery to insure that there are no problems.\n", "In April 2012, Easterling was found dead from a self-inflicted gunshot wound in his home. An autopsy report concluded Easterling's brain had evidence of CTE, a degenerative brain disease associated with frequent blows to the head.\n\nOne month later, former San Diego Chargers player Junior Seau also died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, and a brain autopsy showed he suffered from CTE.\n\nLike Easterling and Seau, an autopsy of Bears safety Dave Duerson's brain after he committed suicide earlier that year revealed he also suffered from the same degenerative brain disease.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Clockwork Orange\" (1971). During the film's pivotal brainwashing scene, Malcolm McDowell suffered a scratched cornea and temporary blindness from having his eyes propped open for so long. McDowell also suffered a broken rib in the scene in which an actor taunts and attacks him to demonstrate his rehabilitation.\n", "Modern trauma care includes a step called clearing the cervical spine, ruling out spinal cord injury if the patient is fully conscious and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol, displays no neurological deficits, has no pain in the middle of the neck and no other painful injuries that could distract from neck pain. If these are all absent, no spinal motion restriction is necessary.\n", "Symptoms of a mild brain injury include headaches, confusions, ringing ears, fatigue, changes in sleep patterns, mood or behavior. Other symptoms include trouble with memory, concentration, attention or thinking. Mental fatigue is a common debilitating experience and may not be linked by the patient to the original (minor) incident. Narcolepsy and sleep disorders are common misdiagnoses.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Moderate/severe brain injuries.\n", "BULLET::::- A similar method of control by the Cybermen reappears in \"Army of Ghosts\". Workers at the Torchwood Institute wore a communication earpiece. As some workers were captured by the Cybermen, their earpieces were manipulated to control them with the worker reemerging with an earpiece in each ear. It was later found that the earpieces were connected to the brain through artificial tissue.\n", "Blast-related traumatic brain injuries are often closed-head injuries and result from rapid changes in atmospheric pressure, objects dislodged by the blast hitting people, or people being thrown into motion by the blast Blast-related injuries have shown a recent increase in occurrence with the return of veterans from Iraq such that traumatic brain injury has been coined the \"signature injury\" of Operation Iraqi Freedom \n\nClosed-head injuries can range from mild injuries to debilitating traumatic brain injuries and can lead to severe brain damage or death. Common closed-head injuries include:\n", "Mental fatigue, on the other hand, rather manifests in sleepiness or slowness. A person with mental fatigue may fall asleep, may react very slowly, or may be inattentive. With microsleeps, the person may be unaware that he was asleep. Without proper amount of sleep, it will feel like certain tasks seem complicated, concentration will drop and ultimately result in fatal mistakes\n\nSection::::Factors.\n\nThe Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration identifies three main factors in driver fatigue: Circadian rhythm effects, sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects, and industrial or \"time-on-task\" fatigue.\n", "Section::::Awake Craniotomy.:Technique.\n\nBULLET::::1. The operation is begun with the patient asleep to ensure patient comfort.\n\nBULLET::::2. The sedation is lifted slowly during the critical part of the surgery.\n\nBULLET::::3. The patient is asked to talk, move and follow commands from the neurology team during the operation.\n\nBULLET::::4. If stimulation hinders any of the tasks, then care is taken to avoid this area.\n\nBULLET::::5. Once the tumor is removed, the physicians anesthetize the patient to allow the neurosurgeon to finish the operation.\n\nSection::::Awake Craniotomy.:Advantages/Research Studies.\n", "Pain, especially headache, is a common complication following a TBI. Being unconscious and lying still for long periods can cause blood clots to form (deep venous thrombosis), which can cause pulmonary embolism. Other serious complications for patients who are unconscious, in a coma, or in a vegetative state include pressure sores, pneumonia or other infections, and progressive multiple organ failure.\n", "David Lloyd, a Marine in a nearby mortar bunker, rushed to the scene, took off his web belt and tied it around one of Cleland's legs to control bleeding. When the medics arrived, Lloyd left to help another injured soldier, one of the two who had gotten off the helicopter with Cleland.\n", "Vehicle-related SCI is prevented with measures including societal and individual efforts to reduce driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol, distracted driving, and drowsy driving. Other efforts include increasing road safety (such as marking hazards and adding lighting) and vehicle safety, both to prevent accidents (such as routine maintenance and antilock brakes) and to mitigate the damage of crashes (such as head restraints, air bags, seat belts, and child safety seats). Falls can be prevented by making changes to the environment, such as nonslip materials and grab bars in bathtubs and showers, railings for stairs, child and safety gates for windows. Gun-related injuries can be prevented with conflict resolution training, gun safety education campaigns, and changes to the technology of guns (such as trigger locks) to improve their safety. Sports injuries can be prevented with changes to sports rules and equipment to increase safety, and education campaigns to reduce risky practices such as diving into water of unknown depth or head-first tackling in association football.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Nonpharmacological treatments.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Thirst quenching varies among animal species, with dogs, camels, sheep, goats, and deer replacing fluid deficits quickly when water is available, whereas humans and horses may need hours to restore fluid balance.\n\nSection::::Neurophysiology.\n\nThe areas of the brain that contribute to the sense of thirst are mainly located in the midbrain and the hindbrain. Specifically, the hypothalamus appears to play a key role in the regulation of thirst.\n", "Section::::Detection.:Decreased volume.:Others.\n\nBULLET::::- Arterial baroreceptors sense a decreased arterial pressure, and signals to the central nervous system in the area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarii.\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiopulmonary receptors sense a decreased blood volume, and signal to area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarii as well.\n\nSection::::Detection.:Cellular dehydration and osmoreceptor stimulation.\n", "Section::::Detection.:Decreased volume.:Renin-angiotensin system.\n", "Section::::Detection.:Decreased volume.\n", "According to preliminary research, quenching of thirst – the homeostatic mechanism to stop drinking – occurs via two neural phases: a \"preabsorptive\" phase which signals quenched thirst many minutes before fluid is absorbed from the stomach and distributed to the body via the circulation, and a \"postabsorptive\" phase which is regulated by brain structures sensing to terminate fluid ingestion. The preabsorptive phase relies on sensory inputs in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and upper gastrointestinal tract to anticipate the amount of fluid needed, providing rapid signals to the brain to terminate drinking when the assessed amount has been consumed. The postabsorptive phase occurs via blood monitoring for osmolality, fluid volume, and sodium balance, which are collectively sensed in brain circumventricular organs linked via neural networks to terminate thirst when fluid balance is established.\n", "Osmoreception is the body's sensation of thirst. When the amount of water in one's body falls below a certain threshold, the concentration of osmolytes (e.g. salt) increase in one's blood. Osmoreceptors, or sensory receptors in the hypothalamus, detect these changes in osmotic concentration. These signals are then transferred to neural signals of thirst.\n\nSection::::Loss of sensation.\n", "The endocrine system is affected largely by many internal and external stimuli. One internal stimulus that causes hormone release is blood pressure. Hypotension, or low blood pressure, is a large driving force for the release of vasopressin, a hormone which causes the retention of water in the kidneys. This process also increases an individuals thirst. By fluid retention or by consuming fluids, if an individual's blood pressure returns to normal, vasopressin release slows and less fluid is retained by the kidneys. Hypovolemia, or low fluid levels in the body, can also act as a stimulus to cause this response.\n", "Section::::Active absorption.:Active non-osmotic water absorption.\n\nThis theory was given by Thimann (1951) and Kramer (1959). According to the theory, sometimes water is absorbed against a concentration gradient. This requires expenditure of metabolic energy released from respiration of root cells. There is no direct evidence, but some scientists suggest involvement of energy from respiration. In conclusion, it is said that, the evidences supporting active absorption of water are themselves poor.\n\nSection::::Passive absorption.\n", "By necessity, terrestrial animals in captivity become accustomed to drinking water, but most free-roaming animals stay hydrated through the fluids and moisture in fresh food. When conditions impel them to drink from bodies of water, the methods and motions differ greatly among species. Many desert animals do not drink even if water becomes available, but rely on eating succulent plants.\n", "There are receptors and other systems in the body that detect a decreased volume or an increased osmolite concentration. They signal to the central nervous system, where central processing succeeds. Some sources, therefore, distinguish \"extracellular thirst\" from \"intracellular thirst\", where extracellular thirst is thirst generated by decreased volume and intracellular thirst is thirst generated by increased osmolite concentration. Nevertheless, the craving itself is something generated from central processing in the brain, no matter how it is detected.\n\nSection::::Detection.\n", "For routine activities, thirst is normally an adequate guide to maintain proper hydration. Minimum water intake will vary individually depending on weight, environment, diet and genetics. With exercise, exposure to hot environments, or a decreased thirst response, additional water may be required. In athletes in competition drinking to thirst optimizes performance and safety, despite weight loss, and as of 2010, there was no scientific study showing that it is beneficial to stay ahead of thirst and maintain weight during exercise.\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "As the rainy season comes to an end Brian is relieved when the finally stop visiting him. His body becomes dry and dusty and begins to shrink, and he begins to experience blackouts which he dares to hope are a prelude to death and a final release from his suffering.\n\nBrian is not dying but merely entering a state of estivation, from which he will eventually awaken to the first of many more years of service to the .\n", "When, two days later, more do arrive, Brian manages by a supreme effort to prevent himself from absorbing their water. Unfortunately for him, many others have suffered the same fate before him, and from long experience the know how to overcome his resistance. They force him to absorb their moisture even more rapidly, which is exhilarating for them but traumatic for him.\n\nFor the rest of the rainy season Brian passively and helplessly absorbs the 's moisture while his thoughts turn inward and violently self-destructive. Meanwhile, his sight and hearing slowly deteriorate and his body becomes permanently bloated.\n", "Hypovolemia leads to activation of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) and is detected by cells in the kidney. When these cells detect decreased blood flow due to the low volume they secrete an enzyme called renin. Renin then enters the blood where it catalyzes a protein called angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then almost immediately converted by an enzyme already present in the blood to the active form of the protein, angiotensin II. Angiotensin II then travels in the blood until it reaches the posterior pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex, where it causes a cascade effect of hormones that cause the kidneys to retain water and sodium, increasing blood pressure. It is also responsible for the initiation of drinking behavior and salt appetite via the subfornical organ.\n", "Our people were in such distress from thirst that they bled their horses and asses and drank the blood; others let their girdles and handkerchiefs down into the cistern and squeezed out the water from them into their mouths; some urinated into one another's hollowed hands and drank; and others dug up the moist ground and lay down on their backs and spread the earth over their breasts to relieve the excessive dryness of thirst.\n", "A constant supply is needed to replenish the fluids lost through normal physiological activities, such as respiration, sweating and urination. Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake.\n\nIn the normal resting state, input of water through ingested fluids is approximately 1200 ml/day, from ingested foods 1000 ml/day and from aerobic respiration 300 ml/day, totaling 2500 ml/day.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Input.:Regulation of input.\n", "BULLET::::2. Increasing permeability of the inner medullary portion of the collecting duct to urea by regulating the cell surface expression of urea transporters, which facilitates its reabsorption into the medullary interstitium as it travels down the concentration gradient created by removing water from the connecting tubule, cortical collecting duct, and outer medullary collecting duct.\n\nBULLET::::3. Acute increase of sodium absorption across the ascending loop of Henle. This adds to the countercurrent multiplication which aids in proper water reabsorption later in the distal tubule and collecting duct.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Function.:Central nervous system.\n\nVasopressin released within the brain may have several actions:\n", "Horses normally require free access to all the fresh, clean water they want, and to avoid dehydration, should not be kept from water longer than four hours at any one time. However, water may need to be temporarily limited in quantity when a horse is very hot after a heavy workout. As long as a hot horse continues to work, it can drink its fill at periodic intervals, provided that common sense is used and that an overheated horse is not forced to drink from extremely cold water sources. But when the workout is over, a horse needs to be cooled out and walked for 30–90 minutes before it can be allowed all the water it wants at one time. However, dehydration is also a concern, so some water needs to be offered during the cooling off process. A hot horse will properly rehydrate while cooling off if offered a few swallows of water every three to five minutes while being walked. Sometimes the thirst mechanism does not immediately kick in following a heavy workout, which is another reason to offer periodic refills of water throughout the cooling down period.\n", "This behavior is thought to have been developed millions of years ago when plants began their journey onto dry land. While this migration led to much easier consumption of CO, it greatly reduced the amount of water readily available to the plants. Thus, strong evolutionary pressure was put on the ability to find more water.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "It is vital for organisms to be able to maintain their fluid levels in very narrow ranges. The goal is to keep the interstitial fluid, the fluid outside the cell, at the same concentration as the intracellular fluid, fluid inside the cell. This condition is called isotonic and occurs when the same level of solutes are present on either side of the cell membrane so that the net water movement is zero. If the interstitial fluid has a higher concentration of solutes than the intracellular fluid it will pull water out of the cell. This condition is called hypertonic and if enough water leaves the cell it will not be able to perform essential chemical functions. If the interstitial fluid becomes less concentrated the cell will fill with water as it tries to equalize the concentrations. This condition is called hypotonic and can be dangerous because it can cause the cell to swell and rupture. One set of receptors responsible for thirst detects the concentration of interstitial fluid. The other set of receptors detects blood volume.\n", "The human kidneys will normally adjust to varying levels of water intake. The kidneys will require time to adjust to the new water intake level. This can cause someone who drinks a lot of water to become dehydrated more easily than someone who routinely drinks less.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Output.\n\nBULLET::::- The majority of fluid output occurs via the urine, approximately 1500 ml/day (approx 1.59 qt/day) in the normal adult resting state.\n", "Input of water is regulated mainly through ingested fluids, which, in turn, depends on thirst. An insufficiency of water results in an increased osmolarity in the extracellular fluid. This is sensed by osmoreceptors in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, which trigger thirst. Thirst can to some degree be voluntarily resisted, as during fluid restriction.\n", "In addition, there are visceral osmoreceptors. These project to the area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarii in the brain.\n\nSection::::Detection.:Salt craving.\n\nBecause sodium is also lost from the plasma in hypovolemia, the body's need for salt proportionately increases in addition to thirst in such cases. This is also a result of the renin-angiotensin system activation.\n\nSection::::Detection.:Elderly.\n", "This study disproves the “hourglass” mechanism hypothesis for MASCO proposed by Ruis, et al. This hypothesis states that the spontaneous consumption of MAP in drinking water by rodents results in lengthened bouts of activity, followed by sleep. The cycle is reinforced when the animal awakes and drinks once more. Menaker and colleagues tested SCN-lesioned, arrhythmic mice in constant darkness and found that when the MAP was no longer consumed at rhythmic intervals, constant rhythms in locomotor behavior were still found. In another trial, MAP was alternated every other day with water, and locomotor rhythm persisted on days with just the water. Both of these findings made clear that the \"hourglass\" hypothesis for the mechanism of MASCO was not valid.\n" ]

[ "The absorption of water is what makes thirsty people feel better." ]

[ "The knowledge that water has been drunk is what makes thirsty people feel better." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The absorption of water is what makes thirsty people feel better." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "The knowledge that water has been drunk is what makes thirsty people feel better." ]

[ "This of course assumes that a new item will be already described by its attributes, which is not always the case. Consider the case of so called \"editorial\" features (e.g. director, cast, title, year), those are always known when the item, in this case movie, is added to the catalogue. However, other kinds of attributes might not be e.g. features extracted from user reviews and tags. Content-based algorithms relying on user provided features suffer from the cold-start item problem as well, since for new items if no (or very few) interactions exist, also no (or very few) user reviews and tags will be available.\n", "In December 2013, Google changed the way the system worked (seemingly to cover YouTube in case of lawsuits), leading to numerous content creation copyright notices being sent to gameplay videos YouTube content creators. Those notices led to ad revenues being automatically diverted to third parties, which sometimes had no connection to the games.\n", "This feature is reminiscent of what is common in the HL7 version 2 world, a so-called Interface Engine, which is designed to map pretty much anything to anything else, depending on the source and target.\n", "This ensures that content is consistent across the entire documentation set. The use of components can also reduce the amount of time it takes to update and maintain content as changes only need to be made once, in one component.\n\nEach component has its own lifecycle (owner, version, approval, use) and can be tracked individually or as part of an assembly. \n\nComponent content management is typically used for multi-channel customer-facing content (marketing, usage, learning, support). \n", "To continue having the ability to view new content users were forced to apply the patches, which also hardened the security of player applications.\n\nOn 23 May 2007 the Processing Key for the next version of the Media Key Block was posted to the comments page of a Freedom to Tinker blog post.\n", "Schema migration is also non-trivial, almost always requiring code. If other developers have access to and depend upon your data model, you may need to provide version translation code in addition to a new data model if your schema changes.\n\nSection::::History and genesis.\n\nCore Data owes much of its design to an earlier NeXT product, Enterprise Objects Framework (EOF).\n", "BULLET::::- Compliance requirements might require more functionality from the underlying store, examples would be a need to audit content access, improved security or records management.\n\nSection::::Business drivers.:Arguments against migrating content.\n", "The process of removing data clumps runs the risk of creating a different type of code smell (a data class, which is a class that only stores data and does not have any methods for actually operating on the data); however, the creation of the class will encourage the programmer to see functionality that might be included here as well.\n", "It is possible to create and distribute additional content (user made content, or UMC), such as campaigns, maps and multiplayer \"eras\" using an \"add-on\" system. These add-ons can be downloaded, updated and removed using an in-game add-on server; alternatively, they can be installed and updated by manually downloading the add-on's files and placing them in the appropriate directory, or they can be removed by deleting these files.\n\nBULLET::::- Editor\n", "A phenomenon of additional game content at a later date, often for additional funds, began with digital video game distribution known as downloadable content (DLC). Developers can use digital distribution to issue new storylines after the main game is released, such as Rockstar Games with \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" (\"\" and \"\"), or Bethesda with \"Fallout 3\" and its expansions. New gameplay modes can also become available, for instance, \"Call of Duty\" and its zombie modes, a multiplayer mode for \"Mushroom Wars\" or a higher difficulty level for \"\". Smaller packages of DLC are also common, ranging from better in-game weapons (\"Dead Space\", \"Just Cause 2\"), character outfits (\"LittleBigPlanet\", \"Minecraft\"), or new songs to perform (\"SingStar\", \"Rock Band\", \"Guitar Hero\").\n", "Maxis contended that it was not possible to include every feature in the new game that had been added over time in the six years \"The Sims 3\" was in development, and that these could always be added at a later date, although they did not confirm exactly how this would be done, or whether it would be free or at a cost. Some speculated that many new features would be released through paid expansion packs, but others speculated that some of the more \"basic, core\" content (i.e. pools, toddlers) would be released as free patch updates, similar to how some new features were patched free into \"The Sims 3, \"such as basement features.\n", "At this time features and levels are being finished at the highest rate and there is more new material to be tested than during any other time in the project. Testers need to carry out regression testing to make sure that features that have been in place for months still operate correctly. Regression testing is one of the vital tasks required for effective software development. As new features are added, subtle changes to the codebase can produce unexpected changes in different portions of the game. This task is often overlooked, for several reasons. Sometimes, when a feature is implemented and tested, it is considered \"working\" for the rest of the project and little attention is given to repeated testing. Also, features that are added late in development are prioritized and existing features often receive insufficient testing time. Proper regression testing is also increasingly expensive as the number of features increases and is often not scheduled correctly.\n", "The project originally began as a port of \"\" to the Unity game engine in 2012 by former \"Legions: Overdrive\" developers. After taking into consideration how much time and effort would be required, the team decided to make a full-fledged sequel to \"Legions: Overdrive\". However, in 2013 the developers decided to change plans and develop a new game altogether.\n\nAfter working with Unity for roughly a year the developers switched to Unreal Engine 4 shortly after the engine's release in March 2014.\n", "Data packs may come in formats of CSV and SQL that can easily be parsed or imported into a database management system.\n\nThe database may consist of a key-value pair, like an association list.\n\nData packs are commonly used within the gaming industry to provide minor updates within their games. When a user downloads an update for a game they will be downloading loads of data packs which will contain updates for the game such as minor bug fixes or additional content. An example of a data pack used to update a game can be found on the references.\n", "This process leaves the bulk of the work of defining the required transformations to the developer. The developer interprets the business user requirements and implements the related code/logic. This has the potential of introducing errors into the process (through misinterpreted requirements), and also increases the time to arrive at a solution.\n\nThis problem has given rise to the need for agility and self-service in data integration (i.e. empowering the user of the data and enabling them to transform the data themselves interactively).\n", "As it happens, one of the earliest games distributed with Game-Maker was GameLynk's \"Barracuda: Secret Mission 1\", a user-derived project that is most distinguished by its presentation whereby its file structure is hidden by LHarc compression and the portable Deluxe Paint Animation player is tacked onto the Game-Maker executable to provide intro and exit animations.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n\nThrough its history several aspects of Game-Maker's engine, design interface, and feature set have experienced scrutiny from its user base.\n", "In principle, this approach allows licensors to \"revoke\" a given player model (prevent it from playing back future content) by omitting to encrypt future title keys with the player model's key. In practice, however, revoking all players of a particular model is costly, as it causes many users to lose playback capability. Furthermore, the inclusion of a shared key across many players makes key compromise significantly more likely, as was demonstrated by a number of compromises in the mid-1990s.\n", "Content migrations entail risks. Even though some of the reasons like cost might be obvious, there are some less obvious reasons to avoid a migration exercise. These include corruption in transit and loss of context, particularly the unstructured content, which is typically one of the larger artefacts of business. There is also the risk of external references not being considered (broken links to content). The size of the data to be migrated makes the very resource intensive (Source- Destination- Temporary- storage, network bandwidth etc.), which means that auditing the migration process could also be complex and require consistency and traceability.\n", "As a game engine recreation, it therefore relies on but does not include the original assets of the game, such as art, textures, music, and other Bethesda-copyrighted material, meaning a copy of the original game (in any edition, including the Game of the Year Edition) is required to play Morrowind in OpenMW. Side projects have been started to create free assets to accompany OpenMW, and the OpenMW-CS content-development tool can also be used without the need for any third-party assets.\n", "The always-on requirement was quietly lifted for existing Uplay games towards the end of 2010, being changed to a single validation on game launch. However, the always-on requirement made a return in 2011 with the releases of \"\" and \"From Dust\", the latter having been explicitly stated by Ubisoft prior to release to only require a one-time online activation on install. \"From Dust\" was later patched to remove the always-on requirement.\n", "In the development branch, there is also support for \"Escape from Monkey Island\", which is completable with a few glitches, and The Longest Journey, which is completable with missing features.\n", "The longer a branch of code remains checked out, the greater the risk of multiple integration conflicts and failures when the developer branch is reintegrated into the main line. When developers submit code to the repository they must first update their code to reflect the changes in the repository since they took their copy. The more changes the repository contains, the more work developers must do before submitting their own changes.\n", "Content-based filtering algorithms, on the other hand, are in theory much less prone to the new item problem. Since content based recommenders choose which items to recommend based on the feature the items possess, even if no interaction for a new item exist, still its features will allow for a recommendation to be made.\n", "In a more mature or evolved state there is no distinction drawn between the two forms of configuration management and the process is continuous supporting the whole service delivery and service operation lifecycle. This has been referred to as Enterprise Configuration Management. Even here though the development-based artefacts should still be distinguished from and kept separate from the management of quality assured, definitive master versions available for deployment.\n", "Content management implementations must be able to manage content distributions and digital rights in content life cycle. Content management systems are usually involved with digital rights management in order to control user access and digital rights. In this step, the read-only structures of digital rights management systems force some limitations on content management, as they do not allow authors to change protected content in their life cycle. Creating new content using managed (protected) content is also an issue that gets protected contents out of management controlling systems. A few content management implementations cover all these issues.\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "However, by the mid-18th century, tomatoes were widely eaten in Britain, and before the end of that century, the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" stated the tomato was \"in daily use\" in soups, broths, and as a garnish. They were not part of the average person's diet, and though by 1820 they were described as \"to be seen in great abundance in all our vegetable markets\" and to be \"used by all our best cooks\", reference was made to their cultivation in gardens still \"for the singularity of their appearance\", while their use in cooking was associated with exotic Italian or Jewish cuisine.\n", "Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries. The scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nOriginally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits. \n", "In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they \"were to be sought only for their beauty\" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain, wrote, \"it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces\". Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.\n", "Aztecs and other peoples in Mesoamerica used the fruit in their cooking. The exact date of domestication is unknown; by 500 BC, it was already being cultivated in southern Mexico and probably other areas. The Pueblo people are thought to have believed that those who witnessed the ingestion of tomato seeds were blessed with powers of divination. The large, lumpy variety of tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller fruit, originated in Mesoamerica, and may be the direct ancestor of some modern cultivated tomatoes.\n\nSection::::History.:Spanish distribution.\n", "Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general. Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from the Indian subcontinent) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.\n\nSection::::Influence.:Crops.:Rice.\n", "Section::::Consumption.\n\nThough it is botanically a berry, a subset of fruit, the tomato is a vegetable for culinary purposes because of its savory flavor (see below).\n\nAlthough tomatoes originated in the Americas, they have become extensively used in Mediterranean cuisine. Ripe tomatoes contain significant umami flavor and they are a key ingredient in pizza, and are commonly used in pasta sauces.\n\nThey are also used in gazpacho (Spanish cuisine) and \"pa amb tomàquet\" (Catalan cuisine).\n", "Early tomato breeders included Henry Tilden in Iowa and a Dr. Hand in Baltimore.\n\nWhen Livingston began his attempts to develop the tomato as a commercial crop, his aim had been to grow tomatoes smooth in contour, uniform in size, and sweet in flavor. In 1870, Livingston introduced the Paragon, and tomato culture soon became a great enterprise in the county. He eventually developed over seventeen different varieties of the tomato plant. Today, the crop is grown in every state in the Union.\n", "Tomatoes were becoming a staple food in Europe by 1560s, they were shunned in North America since they were considered poisonous until the 1820s. Similarly, willow tree bark extract was ignored to provide relief of pain and fever, and it was not until the late 1800s with the commercial production of salicylate (also known as Aspirin) that this treatment was prescribed to patients.\n\nIn 1753, it was established that scurvy can be treated with lemon juice. Despite this knowledge, it was considered an imbalance of the humors until the mid 1800s.\n", "The US city of Reynoldsburg, Ohio calls itself \"The Birthplace of the Tomato\", claiming the first commercial variety of tomato was bred there in the 19th century.\n\nSeveral US states have adopted the tomato as a state fruit or vegetable (see above).\n", "The recorded history of tomatoes in Italy dates back to at least 31 October 1548, when the house steward of Cosimo de' Medici, the grand duke of Tuscany, wrote to the Medici private secretary informing him that the basket of tomatoes sent from the grand duke's Florentine estate at Torre del Gallo \"had arrived safely\". Tomatoes were grown mainly as ornamentals early on after their arrival in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they \"were to be sought only for their beauty\", and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. The tomato's ability to mutate and create new and different varieties helped contribute to its success and spread throughout Italy. However, even in areas where the climate supported growing tomatoes, their habit of growing to the ground suggested low status. They were not adopted as a staple of the peasant population because they were not as filling as other fruits already available. Additionally, both toxic and inedible varieties discouraged many people from attempting to consume or prepare any other varieties. In certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, the fruit was used solely as a tabletop decoration, until it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th or early 18th century. The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes was published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from Spanish sources.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle East and North Africa.\n\nThe tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in Aleppo \"circa\" 1799 to 1825. Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in the region \"within the last forty years\". Today, the tomato is a critical and ubiquitous part of Middle Eastern cuisine, served fresh in salads (e.g., Arab salad, Israeli salad, Shirazi salad and Turkish salad), grilled with kebabs and other dishes, made into sauces, and so on.\n\nSection::::History.:North America.\n", "John Hill once wrote – \"\"Those who are us'd to eat with the Portuguese Jews know the value of it\"\"; he was speaking of the tomato. John Custis IV, a Williamsburg resident, sent a letter to Peter Collinson, in 1741, inquiring about this thing called a \"tomato\". Tomatoes made their way to Colonial America by way of the West Indies Slave Trade – it was a staple food of the slaves who learned to discern the poisonous varieties from the edible varieties.\n", "Early tomatoes and cool-summer tomatoes bear fruit even where nights are cool, which usually discourages fruit set. There are varieties high in beta carotenes and vitamin A, hollow tomatoes and tomatoes that keep for months in storage. In 1973, Israeli scientists developed the world's first long shelf-life commercial tomato varieties.\n", "William Wood published in \"New England Prospect\" (published in 1633 in England) observations he made in 1629 in America: “The ground affords very good kitchin gardens, for Turneps, Parsnips, Carrots, Radishes, and Pompions, Muskmillons, Isquoter-squashes, coucumbars, Onyons, and whatever grows well in England grows as well there, many things being better and larger.”\n\nSection::::Cultivation history.:Age of Enlightenment and later.\n", "The earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when herbalist William Salmon reported seeing them in what is today South Carolina. They may have been introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast as well. Possibly, some people continued to think tomatoes were poisonous at this time; and in general, they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. Thomas Jefferson, who ate tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America.\n", "During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food and medicine. All of today's staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher-yielding varieties took place, possibly unknowingly, over hundreds to thousands of years. Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the regular diet: rice in East Asia, wheat and barley in the Middle east, and maize in Central and South America. By Greco-Roman times popular food plants of today, including grapes, apples, figs, and olives, were being listed as named varieties in early manuscripts. Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that \"\"cultivated plants are mankind's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity\"\".\n", "It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Tobacco, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatillos, and tomatoes are all members of the nightshade family and all of these plants bear some resemblance to the European nightshade that even an amateur could deduce just by simple observation of the flowers and berries; tomatoes and potatoes can be quite lethal if the wrong part of the plant is consumed at the wrong quantity or at least cause a person to experience copious amounts of vomiting and diarrhea. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. 16th-century physicians, thus, had good reason to be wary that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of \"melancholic humours\". In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548, the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici's private secretary that the basket of \"pomi d'oro\" \"had arrived safely\". At this time, the label \"pomi d'oro\" was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.\n", "Unique varieties were developed over the next several hundred years for uses such as dried tomatoes, sauce tomatoes, pizza tomatoes, and tomatoes for long-term storage. These varieties are usually known for their place of origin as much as by a variety name. For example, \"Pomodorino del Piennolo del Vesuvio\" is the \"hanging tomato of Vesuvius\" or the \"Pomodoro di Pachino\" and \"Pomodorino di Manduria.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Britain.\n", "The tomato was introduced to China, likely via the Philippines or Macau, in the 1500s. It was given the name \"fan chieh\" (barbarian eggplant), as the Chinese named many foodstuffs introduced from abroad, but referring specifically to early introductions.\n\nSection::::History.:Italy.\n", "Martu people would skewer bush tomatoes and dry them so the food was readily transportable.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.\n", "A machine-harvestable variety of tomato (the \"square tomato\") was developed in the 1950s by University of California, Davis's Gordie C. Hanna, which, in combination with the development of a suitable harvester, revolutionized the tomato-growing industry. This type of tomato is grown commercially near plants that process and can tomatoes, tomato sauce, and tomato paste. They are harvested when ripe and are flavorful when picked. They are harvested 24 hours a day, seven days a week during a 12- to 14-week season, and immediately transported to packing plants, which operate on the same schedule. California is a center of this sort of commercial tomato production and produces about a third of the processed tomatoes produced in the world.\n", "According to Pliny the Elder (\"The Natural History\", Book XIX, Chapter 23), the Ancient Greeks grew cucumbers, and there were different varieties in Italy, Africa, and Moesia.\n\nSection::::Cultivation history.:Roman Empire.\n", "The cucumber originated in India, where a great many varieties have been observed, from \"Cucumis hystrix\". It has been cultivated for at least 3,000 years, and was probably introduced to other parts of Europe by the Greeks or Romans. Records of cucumber cultivation appear in France in the 9th century, England in the 14th century, and in North America by the mid-16th century.\n\nSection::::Cultivation history.:Earliest cultivation.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe tomato is native to western South America. Wild versions were small, like cherry tomatoes, and most likely yellow rather than red. The Spanish first introduced tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish and Italian food. The French and northern Europeans erroneously thought them to be poisonous because they are a member of the deadly nightshade family. This was exacerbated by the interaction of the tomato's acidic juice with pewter plates. The leaves and immature fruit contains tomatine, which in large quantities would be toxic. However, the ripe fruit contains no tomatine.\n\nSection::::History.:Mesoamerica.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The system of rationed food distribution in Cuba was known as the \"Libreta de Abastecimiento\" (\"Supplies booklet\"). As of 2012 ration books at bodegas still procured rice, oil, sugar and matches, above government average wage £15 monthly.\n\nRaul Castro signed Law 313 in September 2013 in order to create a special economic zone in the port city of Mariel, the first in the country.\n\nOn 22 October 2013 the dual currency system was set to be ended eventually. As of 2018, the dual currency was still being used in Cuba.\n", "Cuba's tourism policies of the early 1990s, which were driven by the government's pressing need to earn hard currency, had a major impact on the underlying egalitarianism espoused by the Cuban revolution. Two parallel economies and societies quickly emerged, divided by their access to the newly legalized U.S. dollar. Those having access to dollars through contact with the lucrative tourist industry suddenly found themselves at a distinct financial advantage over professional, industrial and agricultural workers.\n", "In 1994 the possession and use of US dollars was legalised, and by 2004 the US dollar was in widespread use in the country. To capture the hard currency flowing into the island through tourism and remittances – estimated at $500–800 million annually – the government set up state-run \"dollar stores\" throughout Cuba that sold \"luxury\" food, household and clothing items, compared with basic necessities, which could be bought using national pesos. As such, the standard of living diverged between those who had access to dollars and those without. Jobs that could earn dollar salaries or tips from foreign businesses and tourists became highly desirable. It was common to meet doctors, engineers, scientists and other professionals working in restaurants or as taxicab drivers.\n", "During the latter half of 1933, Cuba passed a series of laws to enact the production of Silver certificates (Certificado De Plata). Cuban silver certificates were designed, engraved, and printed by the US Treasury’s Bureau of Engraving and Printing from 1934 to 1949 and circulated in Cuba between 1935 and the early 1950s. The eight series of notes were dated 1934, 1936, 1936A, 1938, 1943, 1945, 1948, and 1949 and ranged from one peso to 100 pesos. A Cuban representative was on-site in Washington DC to consult and approve designs.\n\nSection::::Banknotes.:Banco Nacional de Cuba.\n", "In 1905, the \"National Bank of Cuba\" (\"Banco Nacional de Cuba\") issued notes for 1, 2, 5 and 50 pesos. However, the 1905 banknotes were not issued (source: Pick's catalog) In 1934, the Government introduced silver certificates (\"certificados de plata\") in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 pesos, followed by 100 pesos in 1936 and 500 and 1000 pesos in 1944.\n\nSection::::Banknotes.:Silver certificates.\n", "Downtown Havana kiosks provided advice and resources for individual residents. Widespread farmers' markets gave easy access to locally grown produce; less travel time required less energy use.\n\nSection::::Other effects.\n", "Under the Spanish Administration, the \"Banco Español de la Habana\" introduced Cuba's first issue of banknotes in 1857 in denominations of 50, 100, 300, 500 and 1,000 dollars. The 25 peso denomination was introduced in 1867, and the 5 and 10 peso denominations in 1869. During the Ten Years' War, notes were issued dated 1869 in the name of the Republic of Cuba in denominations of 50 centavos, 1, 5, 10, 50, 500 and 1000 pesos.\n", "Section::::Dependence on the Soviet Union.\n\nDue to its historical dependence on sugar, the Cuban economy was tied to external markets and price fluctuations. Moreover, the United States remained the major source of capital and technology. After the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro's government sought to end the mono-production of sugar and shift the Cuban economy towards self-reliance through industrialization and economic diversification. However, the industrialization effort failed while sugar production decreased and Cuba was forced to return to sugar production.\n", "In 1872, 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavo, and 1 and 3 peso notes were introduced by the Banco Español de la Habana. In 1891, the Treasury issued notes for 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 pesos. In 1896, the name of the bank was changed to the \"Banco Español de la Isla de Cuba\", and it issued notes in denominations of 5 and 50 centavos and 1, 5 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 pesos, followed by 10 and 20 centavos in 1897.\n", "In July 1994, the government introduced bonuses for workers. They provided a USD$20 monthly pay package some incentives for workers to stimulate productivity in trade activities namely exports and import substitution (i.e. oil production, electrical generation, biotechnology and cement steel).\n\nOn December 20, 1994, the government announced a new free convertible peso, which was on par with the US dollar and could be used in dollar stores, was to exist alongside the old peso, and its ultimate intent was to substitute both the old peso and the dollar.\n", "Since its inception in the late 1990s, the paladares were subjected to limitations by the Cuban government concerning the amount and type of products they could offer, the hiring of labor force and the number of seats they could have. The process of renewal of the economic model started in 2010 led to a review of these measures, resulting in a substantial increase in the number of paladares and the diversification of their proposals.\n", "Cuba's average tariff rate is 10 percent. The country's planned economy deters foreign trade and investment. The state maintains strict capital and exchange controls.\n\nSection::::Sectors.:Currencies.\n\nCuba has two official currencies, both of which are called peso. One is sometimes called the \"national currency\" (or CUP) the other is the convertible peso (or CUC, often called \"dollar\" in the spoken language). There are currently 25 CUP per CUC.\n", "Before 1857, Spanish and Spanish colonial reales circulated in Cuba. From 1857, banknotes were issued specifically for use on Cuba. These were denominated in pesos, with each peso worth 8 reales. From 1869, decimal notes were also issued denominated in centavos, with 100 centavos for each peso. In 1881, the peso was pegged to the US dollar at par. The currency continued to be issued only in paper form until 1915, when the first coins were issued.\n", "Section::::Cuban economy prior to reform.\n\nThe Cuban Economy faced its lowest recessions during the War of Independence, 1890s, The Great Depression, 1930s, The Socialist Revolution, 1960s, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 1990s.\n", "Section::::Course of reform.:1993-1994.\n\nIn 1993 the Cuban government legalized the possession and circulation of foreign exchange In. July 1993, it was announced was now legal to possess American dollars, through Decree Law no 140, which was instated on 13 August 1993. The law aimed at stimulating external remittances from Cubans living in the United States transfer dollars during a time when there was a shortage of dollars in Cuba. This law made it possible for Cubans to sell goods and services to foreigners who were visiting the island and resulted in increase in capital.\n", "Cuban peso\n\nThe peso (ISO 4217 code: CUP, sometimes called the \"national currency\" or in Spanish \"moneda nacional\") is one of two official currencies in use in Cuba, the other being the convertible peso (ISO 4217 code: CUC, often called \"dollar\" in the spoken language). There are currently 25 CUP per CUC.\n", "Section::::CUP and CUC.\n\nEmployees of the Cuban state and of state enterprises are paid their basic salary in CUP, with some paid a performance-dependent bonus in CUC. Staple goods and services not oriented towards foreign visitors are usually paid for in CUP. 'Luxury' goods and services, including most imported goods and anything intended for consumption by foreign visitors, are generally paid for in CUC. Since around 2014, most state shops which previously accepted only CUC have accepted either currency, with exchange charts posted by the tills. State shops and markets selling basic foods continue to accept only CUP.\n", "When U.S. banknotes are exchanged, a 10% tax is applied, plus an exchange commission. The 10% tax is not applied to other currencies; hence, American visitors may benefit by first changing their money into euros, Canadian dollars, or other hard currencies before they convert them to pesos, although such a benefit would depend on the rate at which they can get the third currency. (Some U.S. banks charge exchange margins of 10% or more.)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean\n\nBULLET::::- Cuban peso\n\nBULLET::::- Economy of Cuba\n\nBULLET::::- Foreign exchange certificate\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1936–37 Ray Brown had a magnificent season, going 21-4 for a Santa Clara team that was 16-28 with its other pitchers. In a 3-game playoff, Brown beat Martín Dihigo of Marianao 6 to 1 in the first game, but Silvio García won the second game for Santa Clara. In the concluding game Dihigo came back with two days' rest to beat the Santa Clara Leopards 7 to 3.\n", "Following the decriminalization of the possession of American Dollars in 1993, the government created special stores in which individuals who possessed the USD could shop for items not available to individuals who only possessed the peso. Moreover, by September 1995, it was possible to deposit hard currency with interest in the Cuban National Bank, by October of that same year, the government had created Foreign Currency Exchange houses (Casas de Cambio, CADECA) with 23 branches throughout the island where Cubans could exchange USD for pesos at a rate similar to that of the Black Market.\n\nSection::::Reform in specific sectors.:Foreign Investment.\n", "In 1960, the peg to the US dollar was replaced by one to the Soviet ruble (at that time 1 US dollar was worth exactly 4 Soviet rubles). The peso lost value because of the United States embargo against Cuba and the suspension of the sugar quota. The suspension was the main economic force driving Cuba to seek out a new economic partner, the Soviet Union. When the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, the peso lost much of its value with the exchange rate falling to 125 pesos to the US dollar. Recently, it has become more valuable and fluctuated between 23 and 25 pesos to the US dollar.\n", "Brass 1 and 5 centavos were issued in 1943, and with copper nickel composition sporadically from 1915 to 1958. Beginning in 1915, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 40 centavos coins were occasionally minted. The last 10, 20, and 40 centavo coins were produced in 1952; these were commemorative issues celebrating the fiftieth year of the republic. As mentioned above, in 1953, silver 25 and 50 centavos commemorative coins were also issued. These were the last silver coins issued for circulation. The last US produced coin was the 1961 five centavo piece.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1945–46 Dick Sisler led the league with 9 home runs, including 3 homers in one game. Minnie Miñoso won the Rookie of the Year award.\n", "During Spanish administration of Cuba, the island became a substantial producer of sugarcane and in order to meet global demands, Spain began to import slaves from Africa to work in Cuba. This made the economy of Cuba highly volatile to world prices as its economy depended on one single crop.\n\nSection::::History.:Independence.\n", "Between 1988 and 1989, the National Institute of Tourism (\"Instituto Nacional de Turismo\", \"INTUR\") issued \"Visitors Coinage\" for use by tourists. In 1981, cupro-nickel 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavos and 1 peso were introduced, followed in 1988 by aluminium 1, 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavos. The INTUR coins were demonetized on October 15, 2001 and were replaced by fractional convertible pesos in 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 centavos and 1 peso, minted in Canada. In late 2004, a 5 convertible peso coin, dated 1999, was placed into circulation.\n\nSection::::Banknotes.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "An illustration of the base effect would be like: Price Index 100 goes to 150, and then to 200. The initial increase of 50, gives the percentage increase as 50% but the subsequent increase of 50 gives the percentage increase as 33.33%. This happens arithmetically as the base on which the percentage is calculated has increased from 100 to 150.\n", "Percent changes applied sequentially \"do not add up\" in the usual way. For example, if the 10% increase in price considered earlier (on the $200 item, raising its price to $220) is followed by a 10% decrease in the price (a decrease of $22), the final price will be $198, \"not\" the original price of $200. The reason for the apparent discrepancy is that the two percent changes (+10% and −10%) are measured relative to \"different\" quantities ($200 and $220, respectively), and thus do not \"cancel out\".\n", "The last element of the second balancing loop is the delay in investment, which happens for a variety of reasons, for example hesitation of management to invest in additional capacity.\n\nSection::::Elements of Archetype.:Behavior of Archetype.\n\nThe key to understanding the Growth and Underinvestment Archetype is in the delay in investment. This delay causes the second balancing loop to have longer cycle times than the first balancing loop. That in turn has the following effect:\n", "This can be expanded for a case where you do not have the same percent change. If the initial percent change is and the second percent change is , and the initial amount was , then the final amount is . To change the above example, after an increase of and decrease of , the final amount, $209, is 4.5% more than the initial amount of $200.\n\nAs shown above, percent changes can be applied in any order and have the same effect.\n", "In general, the term \"percentage point(s)\" indicates an absolute change or difference of percentages, while the percent sign or the word \"percentage\" refers to the relative change or difference.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Comparisons.\n\nCar \"M\" costs $50,000 and car \"L\" costs $40,000. We wish to compare these costs. With respect to car \"L\", the absolute difference is . That is, car \"M\" costs $10,000 more than car \"L\". The relative difference is,\n\nand we say that car \"M\" costs 25% \"more than\" car \"L\". It is also common to express the comparison as a ratio, which in this example is,\n", "Section::::Economy and industry.\n", "Section::::Example – Home Delivery Pizza.\n", "In this framework, a tendency of the rate of profit to decline would mean that input per worker is increased by business managers at a larger rate than output per worker, because:\n\nBULLET::::1. Overcapacity is encouraged to fend off competition.\n\nBULLET::::2. It results in a larger percentage increase of output per worker.\n", "One example of this balancing loop is a situation where a number of units manufactured is increasing (current state), which causes the manufacturing utilization to increase (end eventually exceed capacity). This will make each additional unit of manufacturing more expensive, reducing the growth in units manufacture. One can note that a rubber-banding effect occurs, since the more units are manufactured, the more expensive the manufacturing is. This loop taken in isolation would eventually find a stable state, independently of its beginning state.\n\nSection::::Elements of Archetype.:Second balancing loop.\n", "This mechanism is called the firm balance-sheet effects because it works through the effect on stock prices on the firm’s balance sheet. Expansionary policy rises the stock prices of the firm, which increases the net worth of the company. This decreased problems of moral hazard and adverse selection which means that funds to finance investments can rise. This again leads to a higher output of the economy. \n\n↑ M → ↑ stock price → ↑ NW → ↑ L → ↑ I → ↑ Y.\n\nSection::::Stock price channel.:Household liquidity and wealth effects.\n", "Generally, the variability in the cash flow will determine the size of the cash balance a business will tend to hold as well as the extent it may have to depend on such financial mechanisms as factoring. Cash flow variability is directly related to two factors:\n\nBULLET::::1. The extent cash flow can change, and\n\nBULLET::::2. The length of time cash flow can remain at a below average level.\n", "Economists and statisticians have determined that the farther the index is away from the amount that would indicate \"no change\" (50 percent), the rate of change is greater. Therefore, an index of 60% indicates a faster rate of increase than an index of 55% (increased activity is becoming more dispersed), and an index of 35% indicates a faster rate of decrease than an index of 40% (decreased activity is becoming more dispersed). A value of 100 indicates all respondents are reporting increased activity while 0 indicates that all respondents report decreased activity.\n\nSection::::Sections of the Reports.\n\nManufacturing:\n\nBULLET::::- PMI\n", "Export Price Over Import price times 100\n\nIf the percentage is over 100% then your economy is doing well (Capital Accumulation).\n\nIf the percentage is under 100% then your economy is not going well (More money going out than coming in).\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n", "If the demand for money is very sensitive to interest rates, so that the LM curve is almost horizontal, fiscal policy changes have a relatively large effect on output, while monetary policy changes have little effect on the equilibrium output. So, if the LM curve is horizontal, monetary policy has no impact on the equilibrium of the economy and the fiscal policy has a maximal effect.\n\nSection::::Crowding out from government borrowing.:Two extreme cases.:The Classical Case and crowding out.\n", "In general, if an increase of percent is followed by a decrease of percent, and the initial amount was , the final amount is ; thus the net change is an overall decrease by percent \"of\" percent (the square of the original percent change when expressed as a decimal number). Thus, in the above example, after an increase and decrease of , the final amount, $198, was 10% of 10%, or 1%, less than the initial amount of $200. The net change is the same for a decrease of percent followed by an increase of percent; the final amount is .\n", "In the case of interest rates, a very common but ambiguous way to say that an interest rate rose from 10% per annum to 15% per annum, for example, is to say that the interest rate increased by 5%, which could \"theoretically\" mean that it increased from 10% per annum to 10.05% per annum. It is clearer to say that the interest rate increased by 5 percentage points (pp). The same confusion between the different concepts of percent(age) and percentage points can potentially cause a major misunderstanding when journalists report about election results, for example, expressing both new results and differences with earlier results as percentages. For example, if a party obtains 41% of the vote and this is said to be a 2.5% increase, does that mean the earlier result was 40% (since 41 = ) or 38.5% (since 41 = )?\n", "Section::::Mainstream economics.\n\nSection::::Mainstream economics.:Equilibrium growth.\n", "Changes in percentages can be reported in at least two forms, percentage change and percentage point change. Percentage change represents the relative change between the two quantities as a percentage, while percentage point change is simply the number obtained by subtracting the two percentages.\n\nAs an example, suppose that 30% of widgets made in a factory are defective. Six months later, 20% of widgets are defective. The percentage change is %, while the percentage point change is −10 percentage points.\n\nSection::::In computing.\n", "where formula_5 denotes the partial derivative with respect to factor i, or for the case of capital and labor, the marginal products. With perfect competition this equation becomes:\n\nformula_6\n\nIf we divide through by Y and convert each change into growth rates we get:\n\nformula_7\n\nor denoting a growth rate (percentage change over time) of a factor as formula_8 we get:\n\nformula_9\n", "Due to inconsistent usage, it is not always clear from the context what a percentage is relative to. When speaking of a \"10% rise\" or a \"10% fall\" in a quantity, the usual interpretation is that this is relative to the \"initial value\" of that quantity. For example, if an item is initially priced at $200 and the price rises 10% (an increase of $20), the new price will be $220. Note that this final price is 110% of the initial price (100% + 10% = 110%).\n\nSome other examples of percent changes:\n", "This implies that the AD curve is flatter the smaller is the interest responsiveness of the demand for money and larger is the interest responsiveness of investment demand.\n\nAlso, the AD curve is flatter, the larger is the multiplier and the larger the income responsiveness of the demand for money.\n\nSection::::Effect of monetary expansion on the AD curve.\n", "Suppose the quantity of hot dogs demanded at halftime of football games is measured at two different games at which two different prices are charged: at one measurement the quantity demanded is 80 units, and at the other measurement it is 120 units. The percent change, measured against the average, would be (120-80)/((120+80)/2))=40%. If the measurements were taken in reverse sequence (first 120 and then 80), the absolute value of the percentage change would be the same.\n", "The extent to which interest rate adjustments dampen the output expansion induced by increased government spending is determined by:\n\nBULLET::::- Income increases more than interest rates increase if the LM (Liquidity preference—Money supply) curve is flatter.\n\nBULLET::::- Income increases less than interest rates increase if the IS (Investment—Saving) curve is flatter.\n\nBULLET::::- Income and interest rates increase more the larger the multiplier, thus, the larger the horizontal shift in the IS curve.\n\nIn each case, the extent of crowding out is greater the more interest rate increases when government spending rises.\n", "Section::::Factors of Determination.\n\nCap rates are determined by three major factors; \"the opportunity cost of capital\", \"growth expectations\", and \"risk\". \n\nCommercial real estate investments compete with other assets (e.g. stocks and bonds) for investment dollars. If the opportunity cost of capital is too high, investors will use their capital to purchase other assets and the resulting decreased demand will drive prices down and cap rates up. If the inverse is true, cap rates will be driven down by the increased demand stemming from lower opportunity cost of capital.\n", "Therefore Y%= Stock Multiplier * X% = (1+SD/t) * X%.\n\nIf SD=1 and t=1 the multiplier for the average supply chain is . If the change is more sudden, say, within 6 months, the multiplier is 2, and if the change is very sudden, say within 3 months, the multiplier is as high as 3.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The process of language change may also involve the splitting up of a language into a family of several daughter languages, leaving the common parent language \"dead\". This has happened to Latin, which (through Vulgar Latin) eventually developed into the Romance languages, and to Prakrit, which developed into the New Indo-Aryan languages. Such a process is normally not described as \"language death\", because it involves an unbroken chain of normal transmission of the language from one generation to the next, with only minute changes at every single point in the chain. Thus with regard to Latin, for example, there is no point at which Latin \"died\"; it evolved in different ways in different geographic areas, and its modern forms are now identified by a plethora of different names such as French, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Catalan, Galician, Venetian, etc.\n", "Some degree of misunderstanding can result from designating languages such as Old English and Old High German as extinct, or Latin dead, while ignoring their evolution as a language. This is expressed in the apparent paradox \"Latin is a dead language, but Latin never died.\" A language such as Etruscan, for example, can be said to be both extinct and dead: inscriptions are ill understood even by the most knowledgeable scholars, and the language ceased to be used in any form long ago, so that there have been no speakers, native or non-native, for many centuries. In contrast, Old English, Old High German and Latin never ceased evolving as living languages, nor did they become totally extinct as Etruscan did. Through time Latin underwent both common and divergent changes in phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon and continues today as the native language of hundreds of millions of people, renamed as different Romance languages and dialects (French, Italian, Spanish, Corsican, Asturian, Ladin, etc.). Similarly, Old English and Old High German never died, but developed into various forms of modern English and German. With regard to the written language, skills in reading or writing Etruscan are all but non-existent, but trained people can understand and write Old English, Old High German and Latin. Latin differs from the Germanic counterparts in that an approximation of its ancient form is still employed to some extent liturgically. This last observation illustrates that for Latin, Old English, or Old High German to be described accurately as dead or extinct, the language in question must be conceptualized as frozen in time at a particular state of its history. This is accomplished by periodizing English and German as Old; for Latin, the most apt clarifying adjective is Classical, which also normally includes designation of high or formal register.\n", "Not everyone agrees that the lingua franca came to an end with the fall of Rome, but argue that it continued and became the language of the reinstituted Carolingian Empire (predecessor of the Holy Roman Empire) under Charlemagne. Toward the end of his reign his administration conducted some language reforms. The first recognition that Late Latin could not be understood by the masses and therefore was not a lingua franca was the decrees of 813 AD by synods at Mainz, Rheims Tours that from then on preaching was to be done in a language more understandable to the people, which was stated by Tours Canon 17 as \"rustica Romana lingua\", identified as proto-Romance, the descendant of Vulgar Latin. Late Latin as defined by Meillet was at an end; however, Pucci's Harrington's \"Mediaeval Latin\" sets the end of Late Latin when Romance began to be written, \"Latin retired to the cloister\" and \"\"Romanitas\" lived on only in the fiction of the Holy Roman Empire.\" The final date given by those authors is AD 900.\n", "Of the two-style interpretations the Late Latin period of Erich Auerbach and others is one of the shortest: \"In the first half of the 6th century, which witnessed the beginning and end of Ostrogoth rule in Italy, Latin literature becomes medieval. Boethius was the last 'ancient' author and the role of Rome as the center of the ancient world, as \"communis patria\", was at an end.\" In essence, the lingua franca of classical vestiges was doomed when Italy was overrun by the Goths, but its momentum carried it one lifetime further, ending with the death of Boethius in AD 524.\n", "In contrast to an extinct language, which no longer has any speakers, or any written use, a historical language may remain in use as a literary or liturgical language long after it ceases to be spoken natively. Such languages are sometimes also referred to as \"dead languages\", but more typically as classical languages. The most prominent Western example of such a language is Latin, but comparable cases are found throughout world history due to the universal tendency to retain an historical stage of a language as liturgical language.\n", "Latin as a language did not disappear. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.\n", "Thus the Latin of classical antiquity changed from being a \"living natural mother tongue\" to being a language foreign to all, which could not be used or understood even by Romance-speakers except as a result of deliberate and systematic study. If a date is wanted \"we could say Latin 'died' in the first part of the eighth century\", and after a long period 650–800 A.D. of rapidly accelerating changes. Even after the end of Classical Latin, people had no other names for the languages they spoke than Latin, \"lingua romana\", or \"lingua romana rustica\" (to distinguish it from formal Latin) for 200–300 years. Modern people call these languages proto-Romance. The Romance languages, such as Catalan, French, Italian, Occitan, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish all evolved from Vulgar Latin and not from Classical Latin.\n", "Section::::Kaurna.\n\nKaurna is an Australian Aboriginal language of the Kaurna people in Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. It is currently being revived by the Kaurna Warra Pintyandi, a committee of Kaurna Elders and youth, teachers, linguists and other researchers based at the University of Adelaide.\n\nSection::::Latin.\n\nLatin was historically the language of the Roman Empire, but spread through Europe and beyond, thanks partially to its role in the Roman Catholic Church and in higher register.\n", "To some scholars, this suggests the form of Vulgar Latin that evolved into the Romance languages was around during the time of the Roman Empire (from the end of the first century BC), and was spoken alongside the written Classical Latin which was reserved for official and formal occasions. Other scholars argue that the distinctions are more rightly viewed as indicative of sociolinguistic and register differences normally found within any language. Both were mutually intelligible as one and the same language, which was true until very approximately the second half of the 7th century. However, within two hundred years Latin became a dead language since \"the Romanized people of Europe could no longer understand texts that were read aloud or recited to them,\" i.e. Latin had ceased to be a first language and became a foreign language that had to be learned, if the label Latin is constrained to refer to a state of the language frozen in past time and restricted to linguistic features for the most part typical of higher registers.\n", "Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a language undergoes language death by being directly replaced by a different one. For example, many Native American languages were replaced by English, French, Portuguese, Spanish or Dutch as a result of colonization.\n", "As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages. The decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a postclassical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses.\n", "Historical languages with living descendants that have undergone significant language change may be considered \"extinct\", especially in cases where they did not leave a corpus of literature or liturgy that remained in widespread use (see corpus language), as is the case with Old English or Old High German relative to their contemporary descendants, English and German.\n", "In the Eastern Roman Empire, Latin gradually faded as the court language over the course of the 6th century; it was used in Justinian's court, but during the reign of Heraclius in the early 7th century, Greek (which was already widely spoken in the eastern portions of the Roman empire from its inception) was made the official language. The Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkans north of Greece became heavily influenced by Greek and Slavic (Vulgar Latin already had Greek loanwords before the Roman Empire) and also became radically different from Classical Latin and from the proto-Romance of Western Europe.\n", "In time, some of Cruttwell's ideas become established in Latin philology. While praising the application of rules to classical Latin (most intensely in the Golden Age, he says \"In gaining accuracy, however, classical Latin suffered a grievous loss. It became cultivated as distinct from a natural language… Spontaneity, therefore, became impossible and soon invention also ceased… In a certain sense, therefore, Latin was studied as a dead language, while it was still a living.\"\n", "Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, and Catalan are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin derivatives in English as well as a few in German. Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church.\n\nSection::::Legacy.:Inscriptions.\n", "Faliscan language\n\nThe Faliscan language is the extinct Italic language of the ancient Falisci. Together with Latin, it formed the Latino-Faliscan languages group of the Italic languages. It seems probable that the language persisted, being gradually permeated with Latin, until at least 150 BC.\n\nSection::::Corpus.\n", "Section::::History of the languages.:Timeline of Latin.\n\nIn the history of Latin of ancient times, there are several periods:\n\nBULLET::::- From the archaic period, several inscriptions of the 6th to the 4th centuries BC, fragments of the oldest laws, fragments from the sacral anthem of the Salii, the anthem of the Arval Brethren were preserved.\n\nBULLET::::- In the pre-classical period (3rd and 2nd centuries BC), the literary Latin language (the comedies of Plautus and Terence, the agricultural treatise of Cato the Elder, fragments of works by a number of other authors) was based on the dialect of Rome.\n", "Section::::Linguistic legacy.\n\nAfter the decentralization of political power in late antiquity, Latin developed locally in the Western provinces into branches that became the Romance languages, including Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian and Catalan. As an international language of learning and literature, Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century, and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present.\n", "Much of historical linguistics scholarship postulates that Gaulish was indeed still spoken as late as the mid to late 6th century in France. Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul.\n\nSection::::Regional languages.:Germanic.\n", "However, Romanization did not always result in the extinction of all aspects of native cultures even when there was extensive acculturation. Many non-Latin provincial languages survived the entire period while sustaining considerable Latin influence, including the ancestor languages of Welsh, Albanian, Basque and Berber. Where there was language replacement, in some cases, such as Italy, it took place in the early imperial stage, while in others, native languages only totally succumbed to Latin \"after\" the fall of the Empire, as was likely the case with Gaulish. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible was when Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century (c. 560-575) that a shrine in Auvergne which \"is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue\" was destroyed and burnt to the ground. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including \"oui\", the word for \"yes\"), sound changes, and influences in conjugation and word order.\n", "The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language by its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could and restore Latin to what it had been and introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts. By no later than the 15th century they had replaced Medieval Latin with versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, by scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.\n", "In the modern period (c. 1500 CE–present; following the rise of colonialism), language death has typically resulted from the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favour of a foreign \"lingua franca\", largely those of European countries.\n\nAs of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Fairly extensive information about language in Roman Britain is available from Roman administrative documents attesting to place- and personal-names, along with archaeological finds such as coins, the Bloomberg and Vindolanda tablets, and Bath curse tablets. This shows that most inhabitants spoke British Celtic and/or British Latin. The influence and position of British Latin declined when the Roman economy and administrative structures collapsed in early 5th century.\n", "Starting with Charles Thomas Crutwell's \"A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius\", which first came out in 1877, English literary historians have included the spare century in Silver Latin. Accordingly, the latter ends with the death of the last of the five good emperors in 180 AD. Other authors use other events, such as the end of the Nervan–Antonine dynasty in 192 AD or later events. A good round date of 200 AD gives a canonical list of nearly no overlap.\n", "The Romance languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, comprise all languages that descended from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. The Romance languages have more than 700 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa, as well as in many smaller regions scattered through the world.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Latin is dead." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Latin is still alive, in it's evolved forms." ]

[ "While the network neutrality debate continues, network providers often enter into peering arrangements among themselves. These agreements often stipulate how certain information flows should be treated. In addition, network providers often implement various policies such as blocking of port 25 to prevent insecure systems from serving as spam relays, or other ports commonly used by decentralized music search applications implementing peer-to-peer networking models. They also present terms of service that often include rules about the use of certain applications as part of their contracts with users. Most consumer Internet providers implement policies like these. The MIT Mantid Port Blocking Measurement Project is a measurement effort to characterize Internet port blocking and potentially discriminatory practices. However, the effect of peering arrangements among network providers are only local to the peers that enter into the arrangements and cannot affect traffic flow outside their scope.\n", "As far as CDNs are concerned, the relation between caching and Net Neutrality is even more complex. In fact, CDNs are employed to allow a scalable and highly-efficient content delivery rather than to grant access to the Internet. Consequently, differently from ISPs, CDNs are entitled to charge content providers for caching their contents. Therefore, although this may be regarded as a form of paid traffic prioritization, CDNs are not subject of Net Neutrality regulations and are rarely included in the debate. Despite of this, it is argued by some that the Internet ecosystem has changed to such an extent that all the players involved in the content delivery can distort competition and should be therefore also included in the discussion around Net Neutrality. Among those, the analyst Dan Rayburn suggested that \"the Open Internet Order enacted by the FCC in 2015 was myopically focussed on ISPs\".\n", "Further issues related to security could be various end user privacy requirements in relation to the exchanged logs across different countries or authenticity of logs for delivery charging across CDNs. What consequences a security breakage would have depends on the interface and its function; for example, a corruption of the control interface could corrupt other interfaces, while a corrupted logging interface could enable a fraud in charging.\n\nSection::::Standardisation status.\n", "The Best Current Practice subseries collects administrative documents and other texts which are considered as official rules and not only \"informational\", but which do not affect \"over the wire data\". The border between standards track and BCP is often unclear. If a document only affects the Internet Standards Process, like BCP 9, or IETF administration, it is clearly a BCP. If it only defines rules and regulations for Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) registries it is less clear; most of these documents are BCPs, but some are on the standards track.\n", "According to a research article from MIS Quarterly, the authors stated their findings subvert some of the expectations of how ISPs and CPs act regarding Net Neutrality laws. The paper shows that even if an ISP is under restrictions, it still has the opportunity and the incentive to act as a gatekeeper over CPs by enforcing priority delivery of content.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Counterweight to server-side non-neutrality.\n", "At first glance, these principles appear noncontroversial in terms of standards regarding the freedom of the network. However, these principles do not address regulations with respect to the issues of differentiations in pricing, interconnection, and QoS. Further, the unregulated forms of net bias have the potential to create false congestion by the ISPs. More specifically, advanced Internet protocol technology can allow ISPs to fabricate congestion and drop packets when no real congestion takes place. In addition, existing peering and transit agreements between stakeholders such as small and large ISPs may lack a specific prohibition of deliberate packet loss.\n", "Throughout the history of the Internet, there have been a spectrum of kinds of agreements between peers, ranging from handshake agreements to written contracts as required by one or more parties. Such agreements set forth the details of how traffic is to be exchanged, along with a list of expected activities which may be necessary to maintain the peering relationship, a list of activities which may be considered abusive and result in termination of the relationship, and details concerning how the relationship can be terminated. Detailed contracts of this type are typically used between the largest ISPs, as well as the ones operating in the most heavily regulated economies. As of 2011, such contracts account for less than 0.5% of all peering agreements.\n", "Binnie examines the meaning of \"necessary\" as it applies to a provider's cache. He finds that a cache copy of a communication is content-neutral and is dictated by the technical requirements of the technology. Thus so long as it is for the purposes of \"economy and efficiency\" it does not make the role of the provider less of an intermediary. Therefore, an ISP can seek protection under section 2.4(1)(b) (\"intermediary exception\").\n", "These cases highlight the ambiguity surrounding the liability placed upon ISPs. A further question is whether ISPs will take it upon themselves to function as “moral guardians” of cyberspace. If over-fanatical ISPs start refusing to host certain Internet sites, this may, in turn, compromise rights for the freedom of speech and freedom of expression. In comparison, ambiguity about ISPs liability could mean ISPs permit content without regard to its potentially harmful effects.\n\nSection::::Cybersecurity.\n", "Subsequently, in some cases, peering, creating a physical connection between two networks to avoid other network transit services, has been used to bypass Internet bottlenecks by the user and content provider. There is some speculation that if there is no regulation of Internet bottlenecks, both users and content providers will simply create systems like peering to navigate around ISPs effectively neutralizing them. This may also lead to network security risks that would enable.\n", "Management of an ISP contract is typically a joint effort with both sides designating an ISP Manager. These managers will normally have quarterly review meetings to review performance and feedback with the customer's facility management team. Managers will also develop and review strategies related to spend management.\n\nISP firms may be required to hold certain permits or licenses in order to perform services. To obtain information on state requirements, a firm may check with the Contractor's License Reference website as well as the National Contractor's website.\n\nSection::::ISP provider example.\n", "Of these rules, set up by the FCC, only number 2 and number 3 apply to network bottlenecks. Network bottlenecks represent a specific part of that policy discussion in which ISPs are able to create network flows that are slower for competitors possibly leading customers to go to another website that is more easily accessed, which gives the parent or children companies of the ISPs an advantage. Thus, in the FCC's rule number 2 and 3 there are specific requirements that ISPs do not discriminate or restrict services to those companies who offer competing services similar to the ISP's services.\n", "The CCI said that at no point in the process would the ISPs reveal customer information to the CCI, the monitoring service, or the copyright owners.\n\nThe EFF said that because the system \"will not identify those who take steps to anonymize their Internet traffic using a VPN or Tor\" it would not stop dedicated infringers.\n", "Recent statutes in the United States (Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998) and the European Union have provided significant, though not total, immunity from primary copyright liability that, in the absence of those statutes, would exist for ISPs.\n\nThe DMCA states four safe harbors:\n\n(a) Transitory network communications\n\n(b) System caching\n\n(c) Information storage and\n\n(d) Information location tools. \n\nThe last three have so called “notice & take down” rules for specificity in notice of infringement, counter-notice and put-back and liability if false notice has been given.\n", "Internet interconnection is not regulated in the same way that public telephone network interconnection is regulated. Nevertheless, Internet interconnection has been the subject of several areas of federal policy in the United States. Perhaps the most dramatic example of this is the attempted MCI Worldcom/Sprint merger. In this case, the Department of Justice blocked the merger specifically because of the impact of the merger on the Internet backbone market (thereby requiring MCI to divest itself of its successful \"internetMCI\" business to gain approval). In 2001, the Federal Communications Commission's advisory committee, the Network Reliability and Interoperability Council recommended that Internet backbones publish their peering policies, something that they had been hesitant to do beforehand. The FCC has also reviewed competition in the backbone market in its Section 706 proceedings which review whether advanced telecommunications are being provided to all Americans in a reasonable and timely manner.\n", "BULLET::::- No blocking. Fixed broadband providers may not block lawful content, applications, services, or non-harmful devices; mobile broadband providers may not block lawful websites, or block applications that compete with their voice or video telephony services.\n\nBULLET::::- No unreasonable discrimination. Fixed broadband providers may not unreasonably discriminate in transmitting lawful network traffic.\n", "On the other hand, the host provider is not responsible for supervising the legality of the content. Nevertheless, the host provider is responsible for taking out the content when notified according to the IA. The host provider is also required to save the traffic information for the period which will be determined by the ordinance (between 1–2 years). The host provider shall present the information demanded by PTC and take the precautions instructed by the PTC. According to the new version of the IA, the hosting service provider is sanctioned with monetary fines instead of imprisonment, as it was stated in the previous legislation (Act No. 5651 Art. 5).\n", "Internet content regulation is governed by IA. According to the Act the main responsibility is placed on the content provider. As a rule content provider is not responsible for the linked content provided by another. However, if this content is obviously supported by the content provider he shall be responsible under general provisions (Act No. 5651 Art. 4).\n", "Organizations, such as the U.S. advocacy organization Free Press, argue that Internet bottlenecks are unnecessary and used by ISPs to arbitrarily lead users to alternate websites, which may or may not be companies of the ISPs. Groups like Free Press, Consumer Federation of America, and Consumers Union argue that the ISPs have no reason to remove bottlenecks from the network. The ISPs can charge more money to content providers to push past the Internet bottleneck. However, Free Press argues that ISPs could alleviate bottlenecks for all by increasing available bandwidth. Advocacy groups are not the only arm of pro-regulation; Google and other companies like Facebook and Wikipedia support regulatory policy that stops ISPs from placing network bottlenecks on content providers and consumers, which would force content providers to pay extra. The network neutrality rules mentioned above address the concerns of pro-regulatory groups, but are seen as somewhat weak with apparent loopholes.\n", "BULLET::::- Vigilance: The order creates an open Internet advisory committee to assist the commission in monitoring the state of Internet openness and the effects of the rules.\n", "Section::::Regulation history.:National regulations.\n\nThe EU has laid down a framework on net neutrality, but some of EU states have stronger laws nationally, or are discussing passing them. However Neelie Kroes, former European Commissioner for Digital Agenda, has asked \"national legislators and regulators to wait for better evidence before regulating on an uncoordinated, country-by-country basis that slows down the creation of a Digital Single Market\".\n\nSection::::Potential violations.\n", "It is not uncommon for an internet backbone service provider (or network service provider) to explicitly state its own SLA on its website. The U.S. Telecommunications Act of 1996 does not expressly mandate that companies have SLAs, but it does provide a framework for firms to do so in Sections 251 and 252. Section 252(c)(1) for example (\"Duty to Negotiate\") requires Incumbent local exchange carriers (ILECs) to negotiate in good faith about matters such as resale and access to rights of way.\n\nSection::::Specific examples.:WSLA.\n", "Previously existing FCC rules do not prevent telecommunications companies from charging fees to certain content providers in exchange for preferential treatment (the so-called \"fast lanes\"). Neutrality advocates Tim Wu and Lawrence Lessig have argued that the FCC does have regulatory power over the matter, following from the must-carry precedent set in the Supreme Court case Turner Broadcasting v. Federal Communications Commission.\n", "Given the information on footprint and capabilities, the uCDN may proceed to the initial selection of a dCDN—first on the basis of footprint and then on the basis of capabilities. However, such procedures may lead to suboptimal or incorrect decisions; for example when the dCDN is selected on the basis of footprint, it cannot provide the requested delivery technology. Therefore, a more approved procedure involves making the footprint information part of the capabilities requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- Domains & Jurisdiction: How can the neutrality of the internet’s technical layer be preserved when national laws are applied on the Domain Name System?\n\nSection::::Global Conferences of the Internet & Jurisdiction Policy Network.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "SHOCK OF PLEASURE has Appeared in 5 National Industry Recognized Charts:\n\nKKBB ARTIST/ALBUM SPECIALTY CHART RANK: 14\n\nKKBB SPECIALTY SINGLES CHART RANK: 8 (Spooky)\n\nFMQB SPECIALTY SINGLES CHART RANK: 12\n\nCMJ: #5 MOST ADDED RECORD IN THE NATION (14 ADDS - RPM CHART #1078)\n\nSection::::It's About Time.\n", "In Joe Simpson's 1988 book \"Touching the Void\", he talks about not being able to get the tune \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" by Boney M out of his head. The book tells of his survival, against the odds, after a mountaineering accident in the remote Siula Grande region of South America. Alone, badly injured, and in a semi-delirious state, he is confused as to whether he is imagining the music or really hearing it.\n", "Frank Zappa fans will also recognise \"PFIQ\" from the posthumous EIHN (Everything Is Healing Nicely) album, where excerpts are read out during the tracks Master Ringo and Wonderful Tattoo! Listen for the line \"Now air can get through.\" on the resolution of a problem with an intimate piercing that produces an odor, which results in a wave of hysterical laughter through the studio as non-English speaking members of Ensemble Modern hear the translation.\n\nTattoo Sammy appeared in \"PFIQ\" #18 (1983) and #19 as the magazine’s first documented tongue piercing.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "ἀκοήν translates to \"ear\", or a \"sense of hearing\". The use of ἀκοήν is often regarding an inner spiritual hearing. In , ἀκοὴ (Greek root) is used as \"the act of hearing\", and is describe as an action caused by faith (πίστις).\n", "Even when not coupled with \"touching\", sounds can be highly sexually arousing. Commercial erotic material (mainly produced for the male market) uses such sounds extensively. As early as the 1920s and 30s, several genres of singers turned to \"low moans\" for erotic effect. Vaudeville Jazz singers often incorporated sex sounds into the narrative of the lyrics. Even contemporary music such as Prince's \"Orgasm\" or Marvin Gaye's \"You Sure Love to Ball\" includes sounds of the female orgasm. Research has shown music to be an auditory sexual stimulant. In one mood induction study, exposure to certain music resulted in significantly greater penile tumescence and subjective sexual arousal for men. In a similar experiment, women did not show significant physiological responses to certain types of music but did report higher levels of sexual arousal. Further studies have looked at the connection between auditory stimulation and the experience of sexual pleasure. Whilst the highest levels of physiological and subjective arousal were found for visual stimuli, spoken-text was found to elicit sexual arousal in men, implicating sounds as a means of sexual stimulation. Phone sex is one type of arousal inducer that makes use of this effect.\n", "On September 30, 2016, Kid Cudi released \"Frequency\" and \"Surfin'\" featuring Pharrell Williams, as dual singles via digital distribution. The music video for \"Frequency\", which was directed by Kid Cudi himself, was released on October 13, 2016. The music video for \"Surfin'\", also directed by Cudi, later followed on October 31, 2016, featuring cameo appearances from Jaden Smith, Willow Smith, King Chip, ASAP Nast and ASAP Rocky, among others.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Shleep\n\nShleep is the seventh album by Canterbury scene and progressive rock veteran and musician Robert Wyatt, released in 1997.\n\nThe album brought together a diverse range of musicians from a range of genres. \"The Wire\" named \"Shleep\" its record of the year in its annual critics' poll.\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nAll tracks composed by Robert Wyatt and Alfreda Benge; except where indicated\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Heaps of Sheeps\" – 4:56\n\nBULLET::::2. \"The Duchess\" (Wyatt) – 4:18\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Maryan\" (Wyatt, Philip Catherine) – 6:11\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Was a Friend\" (Wyatt, Hugh Hopper) – 6:09\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Free Will and Testament\" (Wyatt, Mark Kramer) – 4:13\n", "Section::::History.:Your Scream Is Music.\n", "In 2001, Herbert issued \"Bodily Functions\". Similar in structure to \"Around the House,\" it featured sounds generated by manipulating human hair and skin as well as internal bodily organs. \"Bodily Functions\" benefited a record deal with Studio !K7, making it Herbert's first full-length work to receive worldwide distribution.\n", "Jean Harris, who murdered Herman Tarnower, was obsessed with the song \"Put the Blame on Mame\", which she first heard in the film \"Gilda\". She would recall this regularly for over 33 years and could hold a conversation while playing it in her mind.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nMark Twain's 1876 story \"A Literary Nightmare\" (also known as \"Punch, Brothers, Punch\") is about a jingle that one can get rid of only by transferring it to another person.\n", "According to the song's producer Easy Mo Bee, the track was originally intended for Apache, who was unable to record the song due to being on tour with the group Naughty by Nature at the time, and was not sure of future recordings at the time. As a result, Mo Bee gave the instrumental to Craig Mack after Bad Boy Records' founder Sean Combs gave him a substantial amount of money for the instrumental.\n", "The track \"Brush\" from Holly Pester's 2016 album and poetry collection \"Common Rest\" featured artist Claire Tolan, exploring ASMR and its relation to lullaby.\n\nSection::::In pop culture.:Film.\n\nThe hair-cutting scene of the film \"Battle of the Sexes\" deliberately included several ASMR triggers. Director Jonathan Dayton stated \"People work to make videos that elicit this response [...] and we were wondering, 'Could we get that response in a theater full of people?'\"\n", "Austrian writer Clemens J. Setz suggests that a passage from the novel \"Mrs Dalloway\" authored by Virginia Woolf and published in 1925, describes something distinctly comparable. In the passage from \"Mrs Dalloway\" cited by Setz, a nursemaid speaks to the man who is her patient 'deeply, softly, like a mellow organ, but with a roughness in her voice like a grasshopper's, which rasped his spine deliciously and sent running up into his brain waves of sound'.\n", "In Fritz Leiber's Hugo Award-nominated short story \"Rump-Titty-Titty-Tum-TAH-Tee\" (1959), the title describes a rhythmic drumbeat so powerful that it rapidly spreads to all areas of human culture, until a counter-rhythm is developed that acts as an antidote.\n", "Section::::Recording.\n", "Kimbra told \"American Songwriter\" that she was \"particularly excited\" by the song because \"it was sort of my moment to get really indulgent musically, and throw in lots of key changes and interesting rhythmic moments.\" She added: \"it's one of the more lyrically aggressive tracks on the record and has some really fun turnarounds and surprises.\" Deantoni Parks (then of The Mars Volta) plays drums on the song.\n", "BULLET::::- Barundi whispered Inanga or \"Inanga Chucotée\" in Africa\n\nThis music employs a fundamental drone and overtone harmonics. It consists of \"a whispered text, accompanied by the \"inanga\", a trough zither of eight strings. To listen correctly (using timbral listening), one must consider \"the effect of the combined timbres of the noisy whisper and the inanga\" as a whole sound.\n\nBULLET::::- Some forms of contemporary electronic music\n", "Later on, they encounter a gay male couple, one of whom offers Miles a \"hit off the orb\". Miles reports that he's \"cool\" and does not need to indulge. It appears the effect of the orb is more like social drinking or drug use, pleasurable rather than orgasmic.\n\nSection::::Similar concepts.\n\nSimilar devices are:\n\nSection::::Similar concepts.:In \"Barbarella\" (1964).\n", "Spectrum – Milesago\n\nLabel: Harvest – SHDW 50/51-D, EMI – SHDW 50/51-D\n\n2 × Vinyl LP Stereo\n\nSide 1\n\n1 But That's All Right 4:20\n\n2 Love's My Bag 4:14\n\n3 Your Friend And Mine 7:22\n\n4 Untitled 4:30\n\nSide 2\n\n1 Play A Song That I Know 3:45\n\n2 What The World Needs (Is A New Pair Of Socks) 7:30\n\n3 Virgin's Tale 3:30\n\n4 A Fate Worse Than Death 4:42\n\n5 Tell Me Why 1:47\n\nSide 3\n\n1a The Question 1:06\n\n1b The Answer 2:14\n\n1c Do The Crab 4:55\n\n1d Everybody's Walking Sideways 2:42\n", "The song's backing track was later sampled in the Jennifer Lopez and Ja Rule single, \"Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix),\" as well as the remix of \"U Blow My Mind\" by Blackstreet.\n\nSection::::Music video.\n\nThe music video for the song was directed by Craig Henry. It was filmed in and outside of the New York Hall of Science in Queens, New York City, as well as in front of the nearby Unisphere.\n\nSection::::Remix.\n", "BULLET::::- In some regions of Japan, earwigs are called \"Chinpo-Basami\" or \"Chinpo-Kiri\", which means \"penis cutter\". Kenta Takada, a Japanese cultural entomologist, has inferred that these names may be derived from the fact that earwigs were seen around old Japanese-style toilets.\n", "\"Viseaza\" (Dream) is a ragga-influenced collaboration with Romanian reggae act Camuflaj. Bucharest-based duo Agresiv produced the downtempo, reggae-funk infused instrumental and, as Guess Who sings his way through the chorus with lyrics about marijuana consumption and general considerations about life in general, Camuflaj complete the song with a soulful and conscious approach in discussing the use of cannabis in stress-related issues.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Snug Little Kingdom\", \"A Comedy of Bohemia\" in three acts, was performed at the Royalty Theatre, running from 31 January to 28 February 1903 (28 performances). It featured Charles Warner, Lyn Harding and H. B. Warner.\n", "The CD contains the audio for all the performances in \"Vieuphoria\", and includes extended versions of the music used in the video interludes. An exception is the performance of \"Silverfuck\" – \"Earphoria\" includes the tease of \"Over the Rainbow\" while \"Vieuphoria\" edits it out, possibly owing to prohibitive licensing costs.\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Chamberlin – drums\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Corgan – vocals, guitar\n\nBULLET::::- James Iha – guitar, vocals\n\nBULLET::::- D'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar, vocals, percussion on \"Mayonaise\"\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "In 2008, Bryant and Doria worked together to create and record music for the Lausanne Underground Film and Music Festival. To identify music and experimental sounds recorded at this time and over the next several years, the duo began calling themselves Hiss Tracts. \n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::In Canada.\n\nSection::::In Canada.:Broadcast networks.\n\nCanadian broadcasting networks, with six time zones and a much larger percentage of its audience residing in the Mountain Time Zone than in the Central Time Zone, are sometimes able to avoid the issues that affect American programming by airing pre-recorded programs on local time. CBC Television and CTV created delay centres in Calgary in the early 1960s in order to allow programming to air in each time zone based on the region.\n", "The vast majority of specialty cable and satellite television channels in Canada each operate a single feed which is distributed in all time zones. This includes all French language channels, as they predominantly serve Francophone areas of the country, mostly in Quebec (almost all of which observes Eastern Time). Even many long-standing specialty channels with a general entertainment format use a single national feed, though in many cases they will repeat core primetime programming three hours after first broadcast, such that programs can be promoted as airing at the same time in both the Eastern and Pacific time zones.\n", "Effects of time zones on North American broadcasting\n\nThe scheduling of television programming in North America (namely the United States, Canada, and Mexico) must cope with different time zones. The United States (excluding territories) has six time zones (Hawaii–Aleutian, Alaska, Pacific, Mountain, Central and Eastern), with further variation in the observance of daylight saving time. Canada also has six time zones (Pacific, Mountain, Central, Eastern, Atlantic and Newfoundland). Mexico has four time zones (Pacific, Mountain, Central, and Eastern). This requires broadcast and pay television networks in each country to shift programs in time to show them in different regions.\n", "In the United States, distant over-the-air broadcast stations affiliated with the six broadcast networks are offered by direct-broadcast satellite providers as well as C-band services that do not offer locally based affiliates for most individual markets, allowing viewers to choose between the east and west feeds of a given network. These designated stations are usually owned-and-operated stations and/or affiliates of ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox and The CW located in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones (usually those based in New York City and Los Angeles such as ABC's respective O&Os [network owned-and-operated] in those markets, WABC-TV and KABC-TV). Dish Network and C-band providers also provide CW and MyNetworkTV affiliates designated as superstations (such as WPIX in New York and KTLA in Los Angeles), with Dish mainly making them available in markets where it does not carry a low-power, digital subchannel-only or non-broadcast affiliate of either network (especially in markets served by The CW's quasi-national feed for areas ranked below #98 in Nielsen Media Research market rankings, The CW Plus).\n", "Few regularly scheduled prime time shows, both scripted and non-scripted, and sports and non-sports in genre, have been aired to totality at the same time live across all continental U.S. time zones. This format, similar to aforementioned major awards shows, involves airing live on prime time or late night in the East Coast (and late afternoon hours or on prime time, simultaneously and respectively, on the West Coast). As of 2020, NBC remains the foremost proponent of live television, with its broadcasts of \"Sunday Night Football\" and \"Saturday Night Live\" being transmitted live across the contiguous U.S. states (and for the former, including for U.S. time zones outside the mainland), with a corresponding prime time or late-night encore for viewers outside the Eastern and Central time zones.\n", "Section::::In the United States.:Cable and satellite television.\n\nSubscribers to cable or satellite television services may still only receive East Coast feeds for certain channels even if they reside on the West Coast. Some cable channels only offer one broadcast feed, where viewers see the same program in all time zones. For example, until it dropped the program in 2014, superstation-turned-basic cable channel WGN America telecast the noon (Central Time) newscast from WGN-TV in Chicago at 1:00 p.m. Eastern in Washington, D.C. and 10:00 a.m. Pacific in Los Angeles.\n", "Effectively, the East, Mountain and West network feeds allow prime time on broadcast television networks to end at 10:00 p.m. Central and Mountain and 11:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific. When it first expanded its programming into prime time in April 1987, Fox became the first major broadcast network in the U.S. to offer a \"common prime\" schedule; this type of scheduling subtracts an hour from the prime time schedule, reducing it to two hours on Monday through Saturdays and three hours on Sundays – ending evening network programming earlier than NBC, CBS and ABC did – and continue to do (Fox did expand its Sunday primetime schedule into the 10:00 p.m. timeslot in September 1987, before giving back that hour to its stations in September 1993). The WB and UPN followed the \"common prime\" scheduling model when they both launched in January 1995; the replacements for those networks, The CW and the MyNetworkTV program service, similarly used that model upon their launches in September 2006.\n", "With four time zones in the contiguous United States, American broadcast television networks generally broadcast at least two separate feeds to their owned-and-operated stations and affiliates, as do cable/satellite channels: the \"eastern feed\" that is aired simultaneously in the Eastern and Central Time Zones, and the \"western feed\" that is tape-delayed three hours for those in the Pacific Time Zone. This ensures that a program, for example, that airs at 8:00 p.m. EST on the East Coast is also shown locally at 8:00 p.m. on the West Coast. Networks may also broadcast a third feed specifically for the Mountain Time Zone, on which programs are usually broadcast on a one-hour delay from the Eastern Time Zone. Otherwise, some stations in the Mountain Time Zone use the western feed, while others get a mix of both the Eastern and Pacific feeds.\n", "Local stations and affiliates must schedule their local and syndicated programming around their respective network's feed. Because primetime programs on the East Coast feed are simulcast in two time zones, stations in the Central Time Zone are affected differently from those in the Eastern Time Zone. An hour of syndicated programming time (between 7:00 and 8:00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific time zones) is lost in the Central and Mountain time zones since network primetime in those areas starts at 7:00 p.m., forcing stations in Mountain or Central time (or in parts of both zones) to choose between airing their 6:00 p.m. newscast and another syndicated or locally produced program or airing shows in \"blocks\" preferred by syndicators (for example, \"Wheel of Fortune\" and \"Jeopardy!\" together or \"Entertainment Tonight\" and \"The Insider\" together).\n", "The Eastern Time Zone is commonly used as a \" de facto\" official time for the United States because it includes the nation's capital city, Washington D.C.; the most populous city, New York City; and half of the country's population.\n\nSection::::In the United States.:Broadcast television.\n", "With the revived prominence of live television as a major broadcast format in the U.S. in recent decades, networks have resorted into airing live shows by repeated live performances of the telecasts, or a single telecast in real time simultaneously across U.S. time zones.\n", "Occasionally, networks will produce and broadcast the same live event twice in one night – broadcasting once on an East Coast feed, and again on a West Coast feed three hours later. This permits more viewers to watch the broadcast live in prime time (although not all), as the show can air in its usual timeslot in all markets, but incurs the expense and difficulty of delivering two live broadcasts. In some cases, the two broadcasts may intentionally differ, prompting fans to compare notes and post scenes from each version online. While rare, the technique of multiple live broadcasts has been not uncommon for some special live episodes of scripted programs since the late 1990s, such as the \"30 Rock\" episodes \"Live Show\" and \"Live from Studio 6H\", \"Will & Grace\" with \"Alive and Schticking\", \"The West Wing\" with \"The Debate\", and \"ER\"'s fourth-season debut with \"Ambush\".\n", "BULLET::::- All times correspond to U.S. Eastern and Pacific Time scheduling (except for some live sports or events). Except where affiliates slot certain programs outside their network-dictated timeslots, subtract one hour for Central, Mountain, Alaska, and Hawaii-Aleutian times.\n", "Section::::In the United States.:Effects on local programming.\n", "For decades, the Super Bowl (currently aired on rotation by CBS, Fox and NBC) and most sports television programs, including other major national events, have been broadcast to totality live in all time zones across U.S. territories, but also present special problems for local stations. For such events, the networks may either advertise Eastern time only, or list the times in both Eastern and Pacific (e.g. \"8 p.m. Eastern/5 p.m. Pacific\"). As such, a live Sunday sporting event that is played from 1:00 to 4:00 p.m. Pacific Time preempts local 6:00 p.m. newscasts on the East Coast. Likewise, a State of the Union address that is televised at 9:00 p.m. Eastern Time preempts local 6:00 p.m. newscasts on the West Coast.\n", "Broadcasters offer East and West Coast feeds of some basic cable channels for viewing in all time zones. The usage of dual feeds of the same channel is a commonplace method for premium channels such as HBO, Showtime and Starz, in which the Pacific time zone feed of the primary channel is packaged with the East Coast feed of the main channel and the pay service's multiplex channels (if the premium channel has any). Most commonly, the Eastern and Pacific Time Zone feeds of only the main channel are packaged together, although some providers may also provide both coastal feeds of a premium service's multiplex channels. In some cases, cable networks (such as cable news and sports channels) \"fake\" the dual feed approach by recycling their same-day prime time programming during the overnight hours on a three (or four) hour cycle; in this case, the programs are automatically rebroadcast at the advertised time (or one hour later) in the Pacific Time Zone.\n", "Many stations that do not carry a newscast in the 6:00 p.m. timeslot in the Central Time Zone (commonly independent stations and most affiliates of non-historical networks like Fox – which has some stations that air a 6:00 p.m. newscast, though this is not entirely commonplace – The CW and MyNetworkTV) air situation comedies or other types of syndicated programming, such as reality series or game shows, during that hour. Many stations in the Central Time Zone tend to air one or both parts of the syndicated block at 5:00 p.m. or even earlier. Another more recent dilemma of the 7:00 p.m. primetime start is that a combination of longer commutes and work hours than in the past have caused many people to not come home from work until after 7:00 p.m., cutting into the potential ratings of shows that start at this time. Of course, the reverse is also true since simultaneous broadcasts offer viewers the chance to watch \"prime time television\" without having to stay awake until 11:00 p.m.\n", "The major U.S. terrestrial television networks broadcast without delay in the Eastern and Central time zones (UTC−5 and UTC−6, respectively), but delay programs by one and three hours respectively for the Mountain (UTC−7) and Pacific (UTC−8) time zones. The start of U.S. evening prime time programs is typically announced in the form of \"8, 7 Central\" (often written as \"8/7c\") or \"8 Eastern and Pacific\" (often written as \"8 ET/PT\").\n", "Similarly, media coverage of New Year's Eve celebrations in New York City often leave the Central Time Zone out. \"Late Night with Conan O'Brien\", though produced in New York City, when broadcast on New Year's Eve took advantage of its later time slot (11:37 p.m. Central time) to lampoon this inconsistency by presenting a New Year's celebration for the Central Time Zone. In some locations, New Year's Eve celebrations held in New York might be repeatedly performed live or delayed one hour to correspond to the Central Time Zone. News channels such as CNN and sports channels such as ESPN that frequently broadcast live events offer a single feed that airs in all time zones. About 80 percent of the U.S. population reside in the Central and Eastern time zones, where the nation's largest city (and the main anchor of television programming) New York is located.\n", "BULLET::::- For commercial stations in the Atlantic and Mountain time zones, add one hour for programming between 8:00 and 10:00 PM. Programs airing at 10:00 PM ET/PT will generally air at 8:00 PM local on stations in these areas. For viewers in the Newfoundland time zone, add an additional 30 minutes to the Atlantic time schedule.\n\nBULLET::::- Notwithstanding the above, timeslots may occasionally vary further in some areas due to local simultaneous substitution considerations, compliance with watershed restrictions, or other factors.\n", "The state of Acre and the southwest part of the state of Amazonas (both in Brazil), along with Colombia, Ecuador (except for the Galápagos Islands, which uses Central Standard Time), and Peru in South America also use EST year-round.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Effects of time zones on North American broadcasting\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official U.S. time in the Eastern time zone\n\nBULLET::::- North American Time Zone border data and images\n\nBULLET::::- World time zone map\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. time zone map\n\nBULLET::::- History of U.S. time zones and UTC conversion\n\nBULLET::::- Canada time zone map\n", "Section::::Legend.\n\nBULLET::::- New series are highlighted in bold.\n\nSection::::Schedule.\n\nBULLET::::- All times correspond to U.S. Eastern and Pacific Time scheduling (except for some live sports or events). Except where affiliates slot certain programs outside their network-dictated timeslots, subtract one hour for Central, Mountain, Alaska, and Hawaii-Aleutian times.\n", "Although the Primetime Emmy Awards, currently aired on rotation by ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC, began airing live coast-to-coast in the U.S. in 2010, the awards show followed suit with the Grammys in airing live simultaneously outside the contiguous U.S. time zones with CBS' telecast in 2017. As of 2020, the Tony Awards (which are usually broadcast live from New York City) remain the only major award show to have never conducted live coast-to-coast telecasts.\n", "Sporting events, including the Super Bowl, have been broadcast live in all U.S. time zones simultaneous with the primetime schedule of Eastern time zone, for decades, resulting in announcements such as \"4 Eastern, 1 Pacific\" (generally shown as \"4 ET/1 PT\"). In the event of a sporting event leading into prime time on the East Coast, the following programs are often said to be \"coming up next, except on the West Coast,\" as additional programming is shifted around to fill the time between the end of the event and the start of prime time on the West Coast. Many times, this is the programming which was preempted by the effectively earlier time slot in the western zones. International sporting events like the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games, beginning the late 2010s, are broadcast live in all U.S. territories at the same time with the actual live global broadcast regardless of the hosting nation, resulting in adjustments by networks as most of their games may fall outside the primetime slots of any of the U.S. time zones at the time of the event.\n", "In mid-2018, \"American Idol\" became the first ever reality competition series – and first ever non-weekend regularly scheduled prime time program – in all of U.S. television to broadcast live in all U.S. territories upon its revival on ABC after its initial first-run finale on Fox in 2016, beginning with its live shows in the final stages of the competition. In this manner, viewers in all U.S. territories are enabled to both view the episodes live at the same time, with the prime time East Coast telecast coinciding with the real-time afternoon telecasts across the Pacific to Hawaii, along with real-time voting with the revealing of its results integrated at the end of the performance nights. Despite the format having been in place for the show since 2015, as part of its nationwide voting expansion, a corresponding warning for viewers outside the Eastern and Central time zones regarding the closing of the voting window will be aired upon their local prime time encore broadcasts. The format would eventually extend to include the season finale round beginning 2019, making it the first ever primetime regular series in U.S. television history to air its season finale live all across the U.S.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Bubbles of carbon dioxide \"nucleate\" shortly after the pressure is released from a container of carbonated liquid.\n", "BULLET::::- Note: Acetylene cylinders contain an inert packing material, which may be agamassan, and are filled with a solvent such as acetone or dimethylformamide. The acetylene is pumped into the cylinder and it dissolves in the solvent. When the cylinder is opened the acetylene comes back out of solution, much like a carbonated beverage bubbles when opened. This is a workaround to acetylene's property to explode when pressurized above 200 kPa or liquified.\n\nBULLET::::- carbon dioxide in the form of a soft drink\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case IV.\n", "Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions are one type of mechanical explosion that can occur when a vessel containing a pressurized liquid is ruptured, causing a rapid increase in volume as the liquid evaporates. Note that the contents of the container may cause a subsequent chemical explosion, the effects of which can be dramatically more serious, such as a propane tank in the midst of a fire. In such a case, to the effects of the mechanical explosion when the tank fails are added the effects from the explosion resulting from the released (initially liquid and then almost instantaneously gaseous) propane in the presence of an ignition source. For this reason, emergency workers often differentiate between the two events.\n", "Section::::Igneous petrology.:Nucleation of bubbles.\n", "Calcium phosphide is also used in fireworks, torpedoes, self-igniting naval pyrotechnic flares, and various water-activated ammunition. During the 1920s and 1930s, Charles Kingsford Smith used separate buoyant canisters of calcium carbide and calcium phosphide as naval flares lasting up to ten minutes. It is speculated that calcium phosphide—made by boiling bones in urine, within a closed vessel—was an ingredient of some ancient Greek fire formulas.\n\nCalcium phosphide is a common impurity in calcium carbide, which may cause the resulting phosphine-contaminated acetylene to ignite spontaneously.\n\nSection::::Safety considerations.\n", "Plaintiff Gladys Escola was a waitress in a restaurant. She was putting away glass bottles of Coca-Cola when one of the bottles spontaneously exploded in her hand. She suffered a deep five-inch cut, which severed the blood vessels, nerves, and muscles of the thumb and palm of the hand.\n", "There, the relatively low pressure allows water and other volatiles (mainly CO, SO, Cl, and HO) dissolved in the magma to escape from solution, as occurs when a bottle of carbonated water is opened, releasing CO. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the plug (solidified blockage) of the volcanic vent is broken, leading to a sudden explosive eruption.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n", "BULLET::::- an entire class of spin-offs of the original recipe (Arctic Carbonite, Ammonkarbonit, etc.); their common feature is that the percentage of combustible materials (wood meal or flour starch) is so high that most of the carbon in the reaction is bound into carbon monoxide and the temperature of combustion is relatively low. Some of the safety dynamites are carbonites.\n", "Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal, atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as CO, propane, and other similar industrial gases have boiling temperatures, at atmospheric pressure, far below room temperature. In the case of water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressurized chamber of water is heated far beyond the standard . That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, is capable of holding \"liquid\" water at very high temperatures.\n", "Before and during volcanic eruptions, volatiles such as CO and HO partially leave the melt through a process known as exsolution. Magma with low water content becomes increasingly viscous. If massive exsolution occurs when magma heads upwards during a volcanic eruption, the resulting eruption is usually explosive.\n\nSection::::Magma usage for energy production.\n", "The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n", "BULLET::::- Some champagne stirrers operate by providing many nucleation sites via high surface-area and sharp corners, speeding the release of bubbles and removing carbonation from the wine.\n\nBULLET::::- The Diet Coke and Mentos eruption offers another example. The surface of Mentos candy provides nucleation sites for the formation of carbon-dioxide bubbles from carbonated soda.\n\nBULLET::::- Both the bubble chamber and the cloud chamber rely on nucleation, of bubbles and droplets, respectively.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Examples of the nucleation of crystals.\n", "Section::::Church key.\n", "If a large crack or other opening in the boiler vessel allows the internal pressure to drop very suddenly, the heat energy remaining in the water will cause even more of the liquid to flash into steam bubbles, which then rapidly displace the remaining liquid. The potential energy of the escaping steam and water are now transformed into work, just as they would have done in an engine; with enough force to peel back the material around the break, severely distorting the shape of the plate which was formerly held in place by stays, or self-supported by its original cylindrical shape. The rapid release of steam and water can provide a very potent blast, and cause great damage to surrounding property or personnel.\n", "A BLEVE need not be a chemical explosion—nor does there need to be a fire—however if a flammable substance is subject to a BLEVE it may also be subject to intense heating, either from an external source of heat which may have caused the vessel to rupture in the first place or from an internal source of localized heating such as skin friction. This heating can cause a flammable substance to ignite, adding a secondary explosion caused by the primary BLEVE. While blast effects of any BLEVE can be devastating, a flammable substance such as propane can add significantly to the danger.\n", "Upon an examination of the record, the evidence appears sufficient to support a reasonable inference that the bottle here involved was not damaged by any extraneous force after delivery to the restaurant by defendant. It follows, therefore, that the bottle was in some manner defective at the time defendant relinquished control, because sound and properly prepared bottles of carbonated liquids do not ordinarily explode when carefully handled. [\"Escola\", 24 Cal.2d at 459]\n", "In a fire, the pressure in a gas cylinder rises in direct proportion to its absolute temperature. If the internal pressure exceeds the mechanical limitations of the cylinder and there are no means to safely vent the pressurized gas to the atmosphere, the vessel will fail mechanically. If the vessel contents are ignitable or a contaminant is present this event may result in a \"fireball\".\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn 1874, Henry Fleuss made what was possibly the first Nitrox dive using a rebreather.\n", "A 2004 analysis of such a process states that:\n", "The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. In the carbonization process water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- For a CO pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks (formula_4 ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the p\"K\" value (3.60), giving [HCO] [HCO] at high pressures.\n\nBULLET::::- A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.\n\nBULLET::::- Remark\n", "BULLET::::- HummerTiny tube fireworks that are ejected into the air spinning with such force that they shred their outer coating, in doing so they whizz and hum.\n", "If the pressurized vessel, containing liquid at high temperature (which may be room temperature, depending on the substance) ruptures, the pressure which prevents the liquid from boiling is lost. If the rupture is catastrophic, where the vessel is immediately incapable of holding any pressure at all, then there suddenly exists a large mass of liquid which is at very high temperature and very low pressure. This causes a portion of the liquid to \"instantaneously\" boil, which in turn causes an extremely rapid expansion. Depending on temperatures, pressures and the substance involved, that expansion may be so rapid that it can be classified as an explosion, fully capable of inflicting severe damage on its surroundings.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Peak pressure and heat release rate.\n", "Carbonated drink\n\nCarbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide. The dissolution of CO in a liquid, gives rise to \"fizz\" or \"effervescence\". The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure. When the pressure is removed, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, resulting in carbonated water. Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released.\n", "As with any pressurized container, a keg can cause injury, even at normal operating pressure, whether with compressed air or carbon dioxide:\n\n\"The tapping system and pressure regulator both should be equipped with a pressure relief (blow off) device. If you are not familiar with tapping equipment, consult your retailer...\" (printed on an Anheuser-Busch's keg cap)\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Reuse of reclaimed water is an increasingly common response to water scarcity in many parts of the United States. Reclaimed water is being reused directly for various non-potable uses in the United States, including urban landscape irrigation of parks, school yards, highway medians and golf courses; fire protection; commercial uses such as vehicle washing; industrial reuse such as cooling water, boiler water and process water; environmental and recreational uses such as the creation or restoration of wetlands; as well as agricultural irrigation. In some cases, such as in Irvine Ranch Water District in Orange County it is also used for flushing toilets.\n", "\"The good Lord didn't make any new water today. The glass of water you had at breakfast is used water. It went through seven Indians, 10 settlers, and 50 buffaloes before you got it. But you like to think the good Lord made it new, just for you, today.\" \n\n\"Dilution is not the solution to pollution.\"\n\n\"Wastewater is not a liability to society but rather a resource out of place, and, if managed wisely, can be a valuable economic catalyst to any community.\"\n", "In 2011, the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" reported that, while low-flush toilets are estimated to have saved the city of San Francisco 20 million gallons of water per year, the reduction in water volume caused waste sludge to back up in the city sewer pipes, designed expecting a higher ratio of water to solids. The city was attempting to solve this by adding chlorine bleach to the pipes, a proposal that raised environmental objections.\n", "BULLET::::2. Low-flush toilets and composting toilets. These have a dramatic impact in the developed world, as conventional Western toilets use large volumes of water\n\nBULLET::::3. Dual flush toilets created by Caroma includes two buttons or handles to flush different levels of water. Dual flush toilets use up to 67% less water than conventional toilets\n\nBULLET::::4. Faucet aerators, which break water flow into fine droplets to maintain \"wetting effectiveness\" while using less water. An additional benefit is that they reduce splashing while washing hands and dishes\n\nBULLET::::5. Raw water flushing where toilets use sea water or non-purified water\n", "There are examples of communities that have safely used recycled water for many years. Los Angeles County's sanitation districts have provided treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in parks and golf courses since 1929. The first reclaimed water facility in California was built at San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1932. The Water Replenishment District of Southern California was the first groundwater agency to obtain permitted use of recycled water for groundwater recharge in 1962.\n", "BULLET::::- Greywater could be source-separated from the blackwater from toilets thus simplifying its treatment and providing opportunities for reuse.\n\nBULLET::::- Blackwater from toilets could be held in conservancy tanks instead of open septic tanks and cess pits and then emptied and transported to biogas reactors; alternatively the toilets could be connected to biogas reactors.\n\nBULLET::::- Cess (or drainage) pits e.g. from pour-flush toilets could be equipped with a safety zone of additional filter material to prevent contamination of ground water.\n", "Since 1994, there is a significant move towards using less water for flushing toilets. This has resulted in the emergence of low flush toilet designs and local or national standards on water consumption for flushing. As an alternative some people modify an existing high flush toilet to use less water by placing a brick or water bottle into the toilet's water tank. Other modifications are often done on the water system itself (such as by using greywater), or a system that pollutes the water less, for more efficient water use.\n", "Housing and commercial buildings account for 12 percent of America's freshwater withdrawals. A typical American single family home uses about per person per day indoors. This use can be reduced by simple alterations in behavior and upgrades to appliance quality.\n\nSection::::Water.:Indoor home appliances.:Toilets.\n\nToilets accounted for almost 30% of residential indoor water use in the United States in 1999. One flush of a standard U.S. toilet requires more water than most individuals, and many families, in the world use for all their needs in an entire day.\n", "In the U.S, in 2015, about 2.7 million people still lacked access to \"improved\" water. Regarding sanitation, in 2015, only around 36,000 people did not have access to \"improved\" sanitation.\n\nMore than 99% of the U.S. population has access to \"complete plumbing facilities\", defined as the following services within the housing unit:\n\nBULLET::::- hot and cold piped water,\n\nBULLET::::- bathtub or shower, and\n\nBULLET::::- flush toilet.\n", "Recycled grey water from domestic appliances also can be used to flush toilet. It application is based on standards set by plumbing codes. Indoor grey water reuse requires an efficient cleaning tank for insoluble waste, as well as a well regulated control mechanism.\n\nThe Uniform Plumbing Code, adopted in some U.S. jurisdictions, prohibits greywater use indoors.\n\nSection::::Grey water systems.:Construction of grey water systems.\n", "Demand-side management, including the reduction of leakage in the distribution network and water conservation, are other options that are being considered and, in some cases, also applied to address water scarcity. For example, Seattle has reduced per capita water use from per day in 1990 to per day in 2007 through a comprehensive water conservation program including pricing policies, education, regulations and rebates for water-saving appliances. Other cities such as Atlanta and Las Vegas have also launched water conservation programs that are somewhat less comprehensive than the one in Seattle concerning indoor water use. However, Las Vegas has intentionally focused on curbing outdoor water demand, which accounts for 70% of residential water use in the city, through reductions in turf area and incentives for the use of rains sensors, irrigation controllers and pool covers. At the federal level, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 set standards for water-efficient appliances, replacing the per flush (gpf) toilet with a new 1.6 gpf/6 litres per flush maximum standard for all new toilets.\n", "In July 2012, the Board decided to privatise tanker management system in the city to check pilferage of water.\n\nSection::::Challenges in meeting needs of workers and residents.\n\nA 2007 article in Newsweek profiled a ten-year veteran sewer worker of Delhi Jal, in preparation for the 2007 World Toilet Summit in New Delhi. \"The four-day event is exploring ways to bring sewage systems to the estimated 2.6 billion people in the world who don't have proper toilets, including 700 million in India alone.\"\n", "As with most design changes, improvements often involve a trade-off with other factors. In this case, although the toilet achieves its goal of saving water, it may cost somewhat more than a single-flush toilet. If retrofitting in place of an existing toilet, there could be some additional cost involving building modifications, but retrofitting systems have brought the price down significantly, costing about US$30.\n", "The UN Deputy Secretary-General, Jan Eliasson, was honored on World Toilet Day in 2016 in New York for his deep commitment to breaking the sanitation taboo. For example, he had delivered a video message to attendees of a WaterAid and Unilever joint event in the European Parliament on World Toilet Day 2014. In 2016, UN-Water supported “A Toast for Toilets” in New York with the United Nations Mission of Singapore.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Additionally, one can reduce toilet water sustainability by limiting total toilet flushing. For instance, instead of flushing small wastes, such as tissues, one can dispose of these items in the trash or compost.\n\nSection::::Water.:Indoor home appliances.:Showers.\n", "A better alternative to preemptively highly treating all water in case of contaminants for use in the drinking water supply may be to have a dual piping system, in which gray and black water are kept separate from the initial point of disposal to the treatment phase and the treated blackwater is used for non-potable reuses, as it is more likely to have higher concentrations of the potentially more harmful contaminants, while the treated graywater can be used for more sensitive purposes. For example, the blackwater from toilets can be kept separate, be treated to the point that it no longer has odor, color or pathogens, and be reused to flush the same toilets indefinitely, in a closed-loop system, remembering that no one touches or consumes the water in the toilet bowl. Other closed-loop recycling systems would also be entirely feasible, for example in laundries and car washes. This requires costly new infrastructure, but it will pay for itself via savings in water and health. The general consensus is that new infrastructure will be required regardless moving into the next few decades.\n", "Some water demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment where toilets can be flushed using greywater from baths and showers with little or no treatment.\n", "The global water resources are worsening. According to a report from United Nations states that 2.7 billion people will face the problem of water shortage by 2025, which means almost 1/2-1/3 of the total population of the world will be affected by this problem. Reusing the wastewater has become a good way to solve this problem, and wastewater reuse is also called recycled or reclaimed water.\n\nSection::::Reuse.:Benefits.\n", "On average, toilets are flushed 5 times a day per person and represent the single highest use of water in the average home. Toilet flushing makes up about 24% of overall household water consumption (at average daily volume of 33.1 gphd or 125 lphd). Currently, the average flushing volume for all sampled toilets is 2.6 gallons per flush (gpf) (or 9.8 liters per flush (lpf)). Future reduction in toilet end use will occur as more homes use low-flush toilets (1.6 gpf, or 6 lpf) mandated by the 1992 Energy Policy Act, or high efficiency toilets (1.28 gpf or 4.85 lpf) which meet the EPA WaterSense specifications. A recent study shows that about 21 percent of all toilets in 5 states (Arizona, California, Colorado, Georgia and Texas) have a flushing volume that exceeds 1.6 gallons/flush.\n", "BULLET::::4. increasing recognition of the resource value of wastewater, excreta and greywater.\n\nWater recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments.\n", "SSOs can cause gastrointestinal illnesses, beach closures and restrictions on fish and shellfish consumption.\n\nSection::::Magnitude of the problem.\n\nDeveloped countries such as the United States, Canada, most Western European nations (e.g. Italy and France), Australia, Singapore, South Korea and Japan are struggling with public health problems of SSO prevention. The magnitude of the problem is much greater in most developing countries.\n\nSection::::Magnitude of the problem.:United States.\n", "About 90% of public water systems in the U.S. obtain their water from groundwater. However, since systems served by groundwater tend to be much smaller than systems served by surface water, only 34% of Americans (101 million) are supplied with treated groundwater, while 66% (195 million) are supplied with surface water.\n\nFor a surface water system to operate without filtration it has to fulfill certain criteria set by the EPA under its Surface Water Treatment Rule, including the implementation of a watershed control program. The water system of New York City has repeatedly fulfilled these criteria.\n", "Based on the research conducted so far, spending money on pit additives is a waste of money. In 2011, one fifth of South African municipalities purchased various additives as part of their sanitation management programmes. Even at that time the Water Research Commission in South Africa advised against this practice. Instead they suggested spending that money on improved pit emptying methods and improved pit design, which might include use of low flush toilets with alternating leach pits.\n", "Cities, utilities, state governments and the federal government have addressed the above issues in various ways. To keep pace with demand from an increasing population, utilities traditionally have augmented supplies. However, faced with increasing costs and droughts, water conservation is beginning to receive more attention and is being supported through the federal WaterSense program. The reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable uses is also becoming increasingly common. Pollution through wastewater discharges, a major issue in the 1960s, has been brought largely under control.\n", "Household reverse-osmosis units use a lot of water because they have low back pressure. As a result, they recover only 5 to 15% of the water entering the system. The remainder is discharged as waste water. Because waste water carries with it the rejected contaminants, methods to recover this water are not practical for household systems. Wastewater is typically connected to the house drains and will add to the load on the household septic system. A reverse-osmosis unit delivering 19 L of treated water per day may discharge between 75–340 L of waste water daily. This has a disastrous consequence for mega cities like Delhi where large-scale use of household R.O. devices has increased the total water demand of the already water parched National Capital Territory of India.\n" ]

[ "We are not using non clean water in toilets.", "Humans should not flush toilets with clean drinking water." ]

[ "Some places do use non clean water but it requires more pipes to work.", "Some places do flush salt or grey water instead of clean water down their toilets, to add, the reason why many places don't, is the cost to implement is way too high." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "We are not using non clean water in toilets.", "Humans should not flush toilets with clean drinking water." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Some places do use non clean water but it requires more pipes to work.", "Some places do flush salt or grey water instead of clean water down their toilets, to add, the reason why many places don't, is the cost to implement is way too high." ]

[ "Cubital tunnel syndrome may be prevented or reduced by maintaining good posture and proper use of the elbow and arms, such as wearing an arm splint while sleeping to maintain the arm is in a straight position instead of keeping the elbow tightly bent. A recent example of this is popularization of the concept of cell phone elbow and game hand.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nWhile pain symptoms may be effectively controlled using medications such as NSAID, amitriptyline, or vitamin B6 supplementation, effective treatment generally requires resolving the underlying cause.\n", "The term \"Saturday Night Palsy\" refers to an injury to the radial nerve in the spiral groove of the humerus caused while sleeping in a position that would under normal circumstances cause discomfort. It can occur when a person falls asleep while heavily medicated and/or under the influence of alcohol with the underside of the arm compressed by a bar edge, bench, chair back, or like object. Sleeping with the head resting on the arm can also cause radial nerve palsy.\n\nBreaking the humerus and deep puncture wounds can also cause the condition.\n", "There are a number of colloquial terms used to describe radial nerve injuries, which are usually dependent on the causation factor:\n\nBULLET::::- Saturday night palsy from falling asleep with one's arm hanging over the arm rest of a chair, compressing the radial nerve at the spiral groove.\n", "Irritation to the nerve can also come from inflammation to the tissue. Joint conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and carpal tunnel syndrome are common sources of paresthesia. Nerves below the head may be compressed where chronic neck and spine problems exist and can be caused by, among other things, muscle cramps that may be a result of clinical anxiety or excessive mental stress, bone disease, poor posture, unsafe heavy lifting practices or physical trauma such as whiplash. Paresthesia can also be caused simply by putting pressure on a nerve by applying weight (or pressure) to the limb for extended periods of time.\n", "It is important to identify positions and activities that aggravate symptoms and to find ways to avoid them. For example, if the person experiences symptoms when holding a telephone up to the head, then the use of a telephone headset will provide immediate symptomatic relief and reduce the likelihood of further damage and inflammation to the nerve. For cubital tunnel syndrome, it is recommended to avoid repetitive elbow flexion and also avoiding prolonged elbow flexion during sleep, as this position puts stress of the ulnar nerve.\n", "Other nerves passing through give no supply to the arm. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- The median nerve, nerve origin C5-T1, which is a branch of the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus. This nerve continues in the arm, travelling in a plane between the biceps and triceps muscles. At the cubital fossa, this nerve is deep to the pronator teres muscle and is the most medial structure in the fossa. The nerve passes into the forearm.\n", "Since the nerve passes dorsally around the head of the radius, it is susceptible to traction or compression injuries when the elbow joint is injured, in particular, radial dislocation. Another area of potential entrapment is the arcade of Frohse, a fibrous arch formed from the proximal part of the superficial head of the supinator, under which the deep branch of the radial nerve passes. The passage for the nerve varies in size. In some cases of spontaneous paralysis of the nerve, releasing this fibrous band released pressure on the nerve and restored function \n", "The most common nerve injuries during surgery occur in the upper and lower extremities. Injuries to the nerves in the arm or shoulder can result in numbness, tingling, and decreased sensory or muscular use of the arm, wrist, or hand. Many operating room injuries could be solved by simply restraining the arms and legs. Other causes of nerve or muscular damage to the extremities is caused by pressure on the body by the surgical team leaning on the patient's arms and legs. The patient's arms can be protected from these risks by using an arm sled. Separation of the sternum during a heart procedure can also cause the first rib to put pressure on the nerves in the shoulder. The lithotomy position is also known to cause stress on the lower extremities.\n", "In most cases the nerve roots are stretched or torn from their origin, since the meningeal covering of a nerve root is thinner than the sheath enclosing the nerve. The epineurium of the nerve is contiguous with the dura mater, providing extra support to the nerve.\n", "The varicella zoster virus disease (shingles) can attack nerves causing numbness instead of pain commonly associated with shingles.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acroparesthesia.\n\nAcroparesthesia is severe pain in the extremities, and may be caused by Fabry disease, a type of sphingolipidosis.\n\nIt can also be a sign of hypocalcemia.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Dentistry.\n\nParesthesia or \"persistent anesthesia\" is a transient or potentially permanent condition of extended numbness after administration of local anesthesia and the injected anesthetic has terminated.\n", "BULLET::::- The ulnar nerve, origin C8-T1, is a continuation of the medial cord of the brachial plexus. This nerve passes in the same plane as the median nerve, between the biceps and triceps muscles. At the elbow, this nerve travels posterior to the medial epicondyle of the humerus. This means that condylar fractures can cause lesion to this nerve.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Blood supply.\n", "Obdormition\n\nObdormition (; from Latin \"obdormire\" \"to fall asleep\") is a medical term describing numbness in a limb, often caused by constant pressure on nerves or lack of movement. This is colloquially referred to as the limb \"going to sleep,\" and usually followed by paresthesia, colloquially called \"pins and needles\". \n", "The deep artery of the arm travels through the lower triangular space with the radial nerve. From here onwards it has an intimate relationship with the radial nerve. They are both found deep to the triceps muscle and are located on the spiral groove of the humerus. Therefore, fracture of the bone may not only lead to lesion of the radial nerve, but also haematoma of the internal structures of the arm. The artery then continues on to anastamose with the recurrent radial branch of the brachial artery, providing a diffuse blood supply for the elbow joint.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Veins.\n", "Injury to the brachial plexus may affect sensation or movement of different parts of the arm. Injury can be caused by the shoulder being pushed down and the head being pulled up, which stretches or tears the nerves. Injuries associated with malpositioning commonly affect the brachial plexus nerves, rather than other peripheral nerve groups. Due to the brachial plexus nerves being very sensitive to position, there are very limited ways of preventing such injuries. The most common victims of brachial plexus injuries consist of victims of motor vehicle accidents and newborns.\n", "The lack of development to the circulatory system can leave the arm with almost no ability to regulate its temperature, which often proves problematic during winter months when it would need to be closely monitored to ensure that the temperature of the arm was not dropping too far below that of the rest of the body. However the damage to the circulatory system also leaves the arm with another problem. It reduces the healing ability of the skin, so that skin damage takes far longer than usual to heal, and infections in the arm can be quite common if cuts are not sterilized as soon as possible. This will often cause many problems for children since they often injure themselves in the course of their childhoods.\n", "In indirect trauma, violent abduction and retroposition of the shoulder can stretch and the musculocutaneous nerve lesion. Those with this type of lesion is presented with pain, reduced sensation, and tingling at the antero-lateral part of the arm and lateral part of forearm with reduced strength of elbow flexion. Tinel's sign can be positive. Differential diagnosis includes C5 and C6 nerve root lesions of the brachial plexus where the abduction, external rotation, and elbow flexion is lost. On the other hand, rupture of the biceps can cause the loss of flexion of the elbow without sensory deficits. Electromyography test is negative.\n", "An injury to the axillary nerve normally occurs from a direct impact of some sort to the outer arm, though it can result from injuring a shoulder via dislocation or compression of the nerve. The axillary nerve comes from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus at the coracoid process and provides the motor function to the deltoid and teres minor muscles. An EMG can be useful in determining if there is an injury to the axillary nerve. The largest numbers of axillary nerve palsies arise due to stretch injuries which are caused by blunt trauma or iatrogenesis. Axillary nerve palsy is characterized by the lack of shoulder abduction greater than 30 degrees with or without the loss of sense in the low two thirds of the shoulder. Normally the patients that have axillary nerve palsy are involved in blunt trauma and have a number of shoulder injuries. Surgery is not always required to solve the problem (information from: Midha, Rajiv, Zager, Eric. Surgery of Peripheral Nerves: A Case-Based Approach. Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. 2008.)\n", "Injury in this nerve causes paralysis (as always) to the muscles innervated by it, most importantly deltoid muscle. This muscle is the main abductor of the shoulder joint from 18 to 90 degrees (from 0 to 18 by supraspinatus). Injury can result in a reduction in shoulder abduction. So a test can be applied to a patient with injury of axillary nerve by trying to abduct the injured shoulder against resistance.\n", "BULLET::::- In the hand, via the superficial branch of ulnar nerve:\n\nBULLET::::- Palmaris brevis\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nThe ulnar nerve can suffer injury anywhere between its proximal origin of the brachial plexus all the way to its distal branches in the hand. It is the most commonly injured nerve around the elbow. Although it can be damaged under various circumstances, it is commonly injured by local trauma or physical impingement (\"pinched nerve\"). Injury of the ulnar nerve at different levels causes specific motor and sensory deficits:\n\nAt the elbow\n", "The radial nerve, which is from the fifth cervical spinal nerve to the first thoracic spinal nerve, originates as the continuation of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. This nerve enters the lower triangular space (an imaginary space bounded by, amongst others, the shaft of the humerus and the triceps brachii) of the arm and lies deep to the triceps brachii. Here it travels with the deep artery of the arm, which sits in the radial groove of the humerus. This fact is very important clinically as a fracture of the shaft of the bone here can cause lesions or even transections in the nerve.\n", "Axillary nerve dysfunction is any disorder caused by damage to the axillary nerve. The axillary nerve is a branch of the brachial plexus that innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles. This nerve can be injured or damaged in a variety of ways - penetrating injury such as knife or gunshot wounds, surgical trauma, stretch injury (common after motor cycle accidents), and various metabolic or rheumatic conditions that may cause focal disruption of the blood supply to the nerve. The exact cause of the axillary nerve dysfunction cannot be identified with electromyography, but the way that the nerve has responded to the injury, and whether or not the nerve is healing, can.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Disabilities.\n\nBased on the location of the nerve damage, brachial plexus injuries can affect part of or the entire arm. For example, musculocutaneous nerve damage weakens elbow flexors, median nerve damage causes proximal forearm pain, and paralysis of the ulnar nerve causes weak grip and finger numbness. In some cases, these injuries can cause total and irreversible paralysis. In less severe cases, these injuries limit use of these limbs and cause pain.\n\nThe cardinal signs of brachial plexus injury then, are weakness in the arm, diminished reflexes, and corresponding sensory deficits.\n", "Damage to or deformity of the elbow joint increases the risk of cubital tunnel syndrome. Additionally, people who have other nerve entrapments elsewhere in the arm and shoulder are at higher risk for ulnar nerve entrapment. There is some evidence that soft tissue compression of the nerve pathway in the shoulder by a bra strap over many years can cause symptoms of ulnar neuropathy, especially in very large-breasted women.\n", "Acute brachial plexus neuritis is a neurological disorder that is characterized by the onset of severe pain in the shoulder region. Additionally, the compression of cords can cause pain radiating down the arm, numbness, paresthesia, erythema, and weakness of the hands. This kind of injury is common for people who have prolonged hyperabduction of the arm when they are performing tasks above their head.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Injury.:Sports injuries.\n", "Impingement syndrome may be confirmed when injection of a small amount of anesthetic (lidocaine hydrochloride) into the space under the acromion relieves pain.\n\nSection::::Tendinitis, bursitis, impingement syndrome, and rotator cuff tears.:Treatment.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "If the active ingredient of a tablet is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an enteric coating can be used, which is resistant to stomach acid, and dissolves in the less acidic area of the intestines. Enteric coatings are also used for medicines that can be negatively affected by taking a long time to reach the small intestine, where they are absorbed. Coatings are often chosen to control the rate of dissolution of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract. Some drugs are absorbed better in certain parts of the digestive system. If this part is the stomach, a coating is selected that dissolves quickly and easily in acid. If the rate of absorption is best in the large intestine or colon, a coating is used that is acid resistant and dissolves slowly to ensure that the tablet reaches that point before dispersing. To measure the disintegration time of the tablet coating and the tablet core, automatic disintegration testers are used which are able to determine the complete disintegration process of a tablet by measuring the rest height of the thickness with every upward stroke of the disintegration tester basket. \n", "Section::::Advantages of ODTs.\n\nVed Parkash et al. note the following advantages of ODTs:\n\nBULLET::::- they are easy to consume and as such are convenient for such patients as \"the elderly, stroke victims, bedridden patients, patients affected by renal failure, and patients who refuse to swallow, such as pediatric, geriatric, and psychiatric patients\";\n\nBULLET::::- increased bioavailability (rapid absorption) due to pregastric absorption;\n\nBULLET::::- don't require water to consume and thus suitable for \"patient compliant for disabled, bedridden patients, and for travelers and busy people who do not always have access to water\";\n\nBULLET::::- good mouth feel;\n", "Section::::Enteral formulations.\n\nOral drugs are normally taken as tablets or capsules.\n\nThe drug (active substance) itself needs to be soluble in aqueous solution at a controlled rate. Such factors as particle size and crystal form can significantly affect dissolution. Fast dissolution is not always ideal. For example, slow dissolution rates can prolong the duration of action or avoid initial high plasma levels. Treatment of active ingredient by special ways such as spherical crystallization can have some advantages for drug formulation.\n\nSection::::Enteral formulations.:Tablet.\n\nA tablet is usually a compressed preparation that contains:\n\nBULLET::::- 5-10% of the drug (active substance);\n", "Once in tablet form, the dissolution profile and the particle size of drugs manufactured using MeltDose® technology remain stable allowing for a long shelf-life.\n\nSection::::Product Pipeline.\n", "A study has shown that it is safe to consume dapagliflozin along with pioglitazone, metformin, glimepiride, or sitagliptin and dose adjustment is unnecessary for either medication. It is unlikely that food intake has clinical meaningful impact on the efficacy of dapagliflozin, therefore it can be administered without regard to meals.\n\nSection::::Members.\n\nThese are the known members of the gliflozin class:\n\nBULLET::::- Canagliflozin was the first SGLT2 inhibitor to be approved for use in the United States. It was approved in March 2013 under the brand name Invokana and it was also marketed throughout the EU under the same name.\n", "Elevated concentrations of eluxadoline were observed with co-administration of inhibitors of the transporter protein OATP1B1, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclosporine\n\nBULLET::::- Gemfibrozil\n\nBULLET::::- Certain antiretrovirals\n\nBULLET::::- Rifampin\n\nBULLET::::- Eltrombopag\n\nAlso, concurrent use of other drugs that cause constipation is not preferred, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Opioids\n\nBULLET::::- Alosetron\n\nBULLET::::- Anticholinergics\n\nBULLET::::- Bismuth subsalicylate, potentially dangerous synergism.\n\nEluxadoline increases the concentrations of drugs which are OATP1B1 and BCRP substrates. Also, co-administration of eluxadoline with rosuvastatin may increase the risk of rhabdomyolysis.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Mechanism of action.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Dosage forms.\n\nOmeprazole is available as tablets and capsules (containing omeprazole or omeprazole magnesium) in strengths of 10, 20, 40, and in some markets 80 mg; and as a powder (omeprazole sodium) for intravenous injection. Most oral omeprazole preparations are enteric-coated, due to the rapid degradation of the drug in the acidic conditions of the stomach. This is most commonly achieved by formulating enteric-coated granules within capsules, enteric-coated tablets, and the multiple-unit pellet system (MUPS). An immediate release formulation was approved by the FDA in the United States, which does not require enteric coating.\n", "The rate of omeprazole absorption is decreased by concomitant food intake. In addition, the absorption of lansoprazole and esomeprazole is decreased and delayed by food. It has been reported, however, that these pharmacokinetic effects have no significant impact on efficacy.\n", "Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the \"first pass effect\"), making them unsuitable for oral use. Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosa, so that they bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to be given in very high doses or by injection. For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects, the oral route may not be suitable. For example, salbutamol, used to treat problems in the respiratory system, can have effects on the heart and circulation if taken orally; these effects are greatly reduced by inhaling smaller doses direct to the required site of action. A proportion of the population have difficulties swallowing tablets either because they just don't like taking them or because their medical condition makes it difficult for them (dysphagia, vomiting). In such instances it may be better to consider alternative dosage form or administration route.\n", "A cross-over study in six healthy volunteers (median age 28 years) was conducted using single-dose pharmacokinetics of 5 mg clotiazepam drops, oral tablets, and sublingual tablets. The formulations had similar systemic availability. Compared with oral tablets, the sublingual route gave a lower peak concentration and a delayed peak time, while drops gave a greater maximum concentration with a similar peak time. The use of drops is suggested for a more marked initial effect and the sublingual route for easier administration, especially in the elderly.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n", "Most oral PPI preparations are enteric-coated, due to the rapid degradation of the drugs in the acidic conditions of the stomach. For example omeprazole is unstable in acid with a half-life of 2 min at pH 1–3, but is significantly more stable at pH 7 (half-life ca. 20 h).\n\nThe acid protective coating prevents conversion to the active principle in the lumen of the stomach, which then will react with any available sulfhydryl group in food and will not penetrate to the lumen of the secretory canaliculus\n", "Many drugs as tablets, capsules, or drops are taken orally. Administration methods directly into the stomach include those by gastric feeding tube or gastrostomy. Substances may also be placed into the small intestines, as with a duodenal feeding tube and enteral nutrition. Enteric coated tablets are designed to dissolve in the intestine, not the stomach, because the drug present in the tablet causes irritation in the stomach.\n", "Famotidine suffers from poor bioavailability (50%), as it is poorly soluble in the low pH of the stomach. When used in combination with antacids, it promotes local delivery of these drugs to the receptor of the parietal cell wall. Therefore, researchers are developing innovative formulations of tablets, such as gastroretentive drug delivery systems. Such tablets are retained in the stomach for a longer period of time, thereby improving the bioavailability of drugs. Local delivery also increases bioavailability at the stomach wall receptor site and increases the efficacy of drugs to reduce acid secretion.\n\nSection::::Preparations.\n", "Most enteric coatings work by presenting a surface that is stable at the intensely acidic pH found in the stomach, but breaks down rapidly at a higher pH (alkaline pH). For example, they will not dissolve in the gastric acids of the stomach (pH ~3), but they will in the alkaline (pH 7–9) environment present in the small intestine. The time required for an enteric-coated dosage form to reach the intestine mostly depends on the presence and type of food in the stomach. It varies from 30 minutes up to 7 hours, with an average time of 6 hours. Although some studies indicated that larger sized dosage forms may require additional time for gastric emptying, others suggested that the size, shape, or volume of the tablet possess no significant effects instead. Enteric coated granules emptying rate is, however, less affected by the presence of food and present the more uniform release and reproducible transit time typical of the multiparticulates dispersion.\n", "Pharmaceuticals designed to reduce stomach acid, such as the proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), are among the most widely sold drugs in the world. One PPI, omeprazole (Prilosec), has been found to lower the bioavailability of vitamin C by 12% after 28 days of treatment, independent of dietary intake. The probable mechanism of vitamin C reduction, intragastric pH elevated into alkalinity, would apply to all other PPI drugs, though not necessarily to doses of PPIs low enough to keep the stomach slightly acidic. In another study, 40 mg/day of omeprazole lowered the fasting gastric vitamin C levels from 3.8 to 0.7 µg/mL. Aspirin may also inhibit the absorption of vitamin C.\n", "The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time-release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended. The oral route is limited to formulations containing small molecules only while biopharmaceuticals (usually proteins) would be digested in the stomach and thereby become ineffective. Biopharmaceuticals have to be given by injection or infusion. However, recent research (2018) found an organic ionic liquid suitable for oral insulin delivery (a biopharmaceutical) into the blood stream.\n", "BULLET::::- 80% of fillers, disintegrants, lubricants, glidants, and binders; and\n\nBULLET::::- 10% of compounds which ensure easy disintegration, disaggregation, and dissolution of the tablet in the stomach or the intestine.\n\nThe dissolution time can be modified for a rapid effect or for sustained release.\n\nSpecial coatings can make the tablet resistant to the stomach acids such that it only disintegrates in the duodenum, jejunum and colon as a result of enzyme action or alkaline pH.\n\nPills can be coated with sugar, varnish, or wax to disguise the taste.\n\nSection::::Enteral formulations.:Capsule.\n", "Injectable maropitant is used in dogs to treat and prevent acute vomiting; tablets are used for preventing vomiting from a variety of causes, though it requires a higher dose to prevent vomiting from motion sickness. The injectable version is also licensed for preventing and treating acute vomiting in cats. \n", "BULLET::::- Drug solubility: The absorption of some drugs can be drastically reduced if they are administered together with food with a high fat content. This is the case for oral anticoagulants and avocado.\n\nBULLET::::- Formation of non-absorbable complexes:\n\nBULLET::::- Chelation: The presence of di- or trivalent cations can cause the chelation of certain drugs, making them harder to absorb. This interaction frequently occurs between drugs such as tetracycline or the fluoroquinolones and dairy products (due to the presence of Ca).\n", "Section::::Use.\n\nSection::::Use.:In medicine.\n\nVitamin tablets may be sold as effervescent tablets. Alka-selzer is an antacid and pain reliever sold as an effervescent powder. \n\nThere are several categories of active ingredients that may be best administered in the form of effervescent preparations:\n\nBULLET::::1. Those that are difficult to digest or disruptive to the stomach or esophagus\n\nBULLET::::2. Those that are pH–sensitive, such as amino acids and antibiotics.\n\nBULLET::::3. Those requiring a large dose.\n\nBULLET::::4. Those that are susceptible to light, oxygen, or moisture.\n\nOther\n", "The red-coloured capsule must be taken either 1 hour before breakfast or 2 hours after breakfast. After taking the capsule patients must not consume anything (except water) for at least an hour. The remaining 3\n\ntablets can be taken with food. These tablets can be taken together, i.e., all three with breakfast or lunch or dinner. The 3 tablets can also be taken separately after different meals, but the timings should be maintained.\n", "BULLET::::- Is a possible therapy for nausea and vomiting due to acute or chronic medical illness or acute gastroenteritis\n\nBULLET::::- Unlike most other 5HT3 antagonists, data is lacking for use of dolasetron with aprepitant in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV).\n\nBULLET::::- It is also sometimes used as an antiemetic (anti-vomiting medication) in veterinary medicine for dogs and cats.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n", "A three-year trial of pantoprazole, completed in 2019, did not find any significant adverse events.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Nutritional.\n\nGastric acid is important for breakdown of food and release of micronutrients, and some studies have shown possibilities for interference with absorption of iron, calcium, magnesium, and vitamin B. With regard to iron and vitamin B, the data are weak and several confounding factors have been identified.\n\nLow levels of magnesium can be found in people on PPI therapy and these can be reversed when they are switched to H2-receptor antagonist drugs.\n", "There are a number of methods by which tablets and capsules can be modified in order to allow for sustained release of the active compound as it moves through the digestive tract. One of the most common methods is to embed the active ingredient in an insoluble porous matrix, such that the dissolving drug must make its way out of the matrix before it can be absorbed. In other sustained release formulations the matrix swells to form a gel through which the drug exits.\n", "Common side effects of dolutegravir in clinical trials included insomnia and headache. Serious side effects included allergic reactions and abnormal liver function in patients who were also infected with hepatitis B or C. The package insert warns against a mean rise in serum creatinine of 0.11 mg/dL due to inhibition of tubular secretion of creatinine and does not affect GFR.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Hazards.\n\nAn occasional problem with amphibians is with ensuring the wheels are in the correct position for landing. In normal operation, the pilot uses a checklist, verifying each item. Since amphibians can land with them up or down though, the pilot must take extra care to ensure they are correct for the chosen landing place. Landing wheels up on land may damage the keel (unless done on wet grass, a technique occasionally used by pilots of pure flying boats), while landing wheels down on water will almost always flip the aircraft upside down, causing substantial damage.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Like conventional aircraft, greater power is needed for takeoff, and, like seaplanes, ground-effect vehicles must get on the step before they can accelerate to flight speed. Careful design, usually with multiple redesigns of hullforms, is required to get this right, which increases engineering costs. This obstacle is more difficult for GEVs with short production runs to overcome. For the vehicle to work, its hull needs to be stable enough longitudinally to be controllable yet not so stable that it cannot lift off the water.\n", "Section::::Safety improvements.\n", "Section::::Racing circuits.:Stock and modified outboard racing.\n", "The aircraft requires of flyable area to descend from altitude, scoop of water during a twelve-second run on the water at , then climb back to 15 m altitude. The aircraft can also pick up partial loads in smaller areas and can turn while scooping, if necessary.\n\nSection::::Operational history.\n", "A hydroplane (or \"hydro\", or \"thunderboat\") is a very specific type of motorboat used exclusively for racing. One of the unique characteristics about hydroplanes is that they only use the water they're on for propulsion and steering (not for flotation) - when going at full speed they are primarily held aloft by a principle of fluid dynamics known as \"planing\", with only a tiny fraction of their hull actually touching the water.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "While ditching is extremely uncommon in commercial passenger travel, small aircraft tend to ditch slightly more often because they usually have only one engine and their systems have fewer redundancies. According to the National Transportation Safety Board, there are about a dozen ditchings per year.\n\nSection::::Aircraft water landings.:In distress.:General aviation.\n", "General aviation includes all fields of aviation outside of military or scheduled (commercial) flights. This classification includes small aircraft, e.g., training aircraft, airships, gliders, helicopters, and corporate aircraft, including business jets and other for-hire operations. General aviation has the highest accident and incident rate in aviation, with 16 deaths per million flight hours, compared to 0.74 deaths per million flight hours for commercial flights (North America and Europe).\n\nSection::::Aircraft water landings.:In distress.:Commercial aircraft.\n", "Aircraft other than aeroplanes also fall under the general classification of ultra-light, in particular powered parachutes and powered paragliders. In such cases, the ultra-light pilot permit is restricted to the type used by the student for training and qualification.\n\nUltra-light aeroplanes are often equipped with floats, amphibious floats or designed as a seaplane, however, there is no seaplane rating for the ultra-light pilot permit. Any ultra-light pilot may operate on water within the regulations of the CARs and the capabilities of the ultra-light aeroplane used.\n\nSection::::Permits and licences.:Recreational pilot permit—aeroplane.\n", "Efforts have occasionally been made to use automotive engines, but they generally have not proven competitive.\n\nThe \"limited\" classes of inboard hydroplane racing are organized under the name Inboard Powerboat Circuit. These classes utilize automotive power, as well as two-stroke power. There are races throughout the country from April to October. Many Unlimited drivers got their start in the \"limited\" classes.\n", "A key aspect of hydroplanes is that they use the water they are on for lift rather than buoyancy, as well as for propulsion and steering: when travelling at high speed water is forced downwards by the bottom of the boat's hull. The water therefore exerts an equal and opposite force upwards, lifting the vast majority of the hull out of the water. This process, happening at the surface of the water, is known as ‘planing’.\n\nSection::::Hydroplane design.\n", "The frog kick pushes water backwards, and to a lesser degree upwards, rather than backwards with alternating up and down component, as with the flutter kick and dolphin kick also used by divers. The dolphin and flutter kicks can be efficiently performed without interruption, but the frog kick must allow a low drag glide period or energy will be wasted.\n\nSection::::Propulsion.:Frog kick.:Modified frog kick.\n", "Seven test flights with controlled-descent test over-water landings, including two with failed attempts to land on a floating landing platform, have been conducted by April 2015.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Aviation incidents by result from the Aviation Safety Network; see Off runway in water, CFIT into water, and Ditching.\n\nBULLET::::- (Corrected version of September; see here for some complaints.)\n\nBULLET::::- Reproduced on Equipped To Survive.\n\nBULLET::::- Ditching Myths Torpedoed, by Paul Bertorelli, cites data that show an 88% survival rate for general aviation water ditchings.\n", "For propulsion in or on the water some vehicles simply make do by spinning their wheels or tracks, while others can power their way forward more effectively using (additional) screw propeller(s) or water jet(s). Most amphibians will work only as a displacement hull when in the water – only a small number of designs have the capability to raise out of the water when speed is gained, to achieve high velocity hydroplaning, skimming over the water surface like speedboats.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Water landing\n\nA water landing is, in the broadest sense, a landing on a body of water. Some aircraft such as floatplanes land on water as a matter of course.\n\nThe phrase \"water landing\" is also used as a euphemism for crash-landing into water an aircraft not designed for the purpose, an event formally termed ditching. In this case, the flight crew knowingly make a controlled emergency landing on water. Ditching of commercial aircraft is a rare occurrence.\n\nSection::::Aircraft water landings.\n\nSection::::Aircraft water landings.:By design.\n", "All fixed-wing aircraft have some capability to glide with no engine power; that is, they do not sink straight down like a stone, but rather continue to glide moving horizontally while descending. For example, with a glide ratio of 15:1, a Boeing 747-200 can glide for from a cruising altitude of . After a loss of power, the pilot’s goal is to maintain a safe airspeed and fly the descending aircraft to the most suitable landing spot within gliding distance, then land with the least amount of damage possible. The area open for potential landing sites depends on the original altitude, local terrain, the engine-out gliding capabilities of the aircraft, original airspeed and winds at various altitudes. Part of learning to fly a fixed-wing aircraft is demonstrating the ability to fly safely without an engine until prepared to make (or actually making) a landing. Gliders, unless they have an auxiliary motor, do all their flying without power, and a trained pilot can touch down on virtually any spot he or she picks from the air.\n", "On cross-country flights on days when strong lift is forecast, pilots fly with water ballast stored in tanks or bags in the wings and fin. The fin tank is used to reduce trim drag by optimizing the center of gravity, which typically would shift forward if water is stored only in the wings ahead of the spar. Ballast enables a sailplane to attain its best lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) at higher speeds but slows its climb rate in thermals, in part because a sailplane with a heavier wing loading cannot circle within a thermal as tightly as one with a lower, unballasted wing loading. But if lift is strong, typically either from thermals or wave, the disadvantage of slower climbs is outweighed by the higher cruising speeds between lift areas. Thus, the pilot can improve the average speed over a course by several percent or achieve longer distances in a given time. If lift is weaker than expected, or if an off-field landing is imminent, the pilot can jettison the water ballast by opening the dump valves.\n", "Some non-amphibious seaplanes may be mistaken for amphibians (such as the Shin Meiwa PS-1) which carry their own beaching gear - usually this is a wheeled dolly or temporary set of wheels used to move a flying boat or floatplane from the water and allow it to be moved around on land but can also appear as a conventional undercarriage. These are not built to take the impact of the aircraft landing on them. An amphibian can leave the water without anyone getting in the water to attach beaching wheels (or even having to have any handy), yet a fully functional undercarriage is heavy and impacts the aircraft's performance, and isn't required in all cases, so an aircraft may be designed to carry its own.\n", "Sit-down hydrofoil\n\nThe sit-down hydrofoil, first developed in the late 1980s, is a variation on water skiing, a popular water sport. When towed at speed, by a powerful boat or some other device, the board of the hydrofoil 'flies' above the water surface and generally avoids contact with it, so the ride is largely unaffected by the wake or chop of the water and is relatively smooth. The air board is a modified hydrofoil where the skier stands up.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The WaterCar Panther is powered with a rear-mounted Honda Acura 3.7-liter engine, and a \"Panther\"-Jet boat drive engine. The vehicle can transition from land to sea and vice versa in under fifteen seconds, and has a hydraulic off-road suspension that retracts the wheels in less than eight seconds. This allows the Panther to drive into the water at 15 mph. Once in the water, the driver puts the vehicle in neutral, pulls a handle that switches the transfer case over to jet drive, pushes a lever to hydraulically lift the wheels and tires out of the water, and begins operating the vehicle just like a boat. The process is reversed when going from water to land.\n", "Aircraft also sometimes end up in water by running off the ends of runways, landing in water short of the end of a runway, or even being forcibly flown into the water during suicidal/homicidal events. Twice at LaGuardia Airport, aircraft have rolled into the East River.\n\nSection::::\"Water bird\" emergency helicopter landing technique.\n\nThe \"water bird\" emergency landing is a technique developed by the Canadian Forces to safely land the Sikorsky CH-124 Sea King helicopter if one engine fails while flying over water. The emergency landing technique allows the boat-hull equipped aircraft to land on the water in a controlled fashion.\n", "However this can be prevented by grooves on runways. In 1965, a US delegation visited the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough to view their grooved runway for reduced aquaplaning and initiated a study by the FAA and NASA. Grooving has since been adopted by most major airports around the world. Thin grooves are cut in the concrete which allows for water to be dissipated and further reduces the potential to aquaplane.\n\nSection::::In aircraft.:Types.\n\nSection::::In aircraft.:Types.:Viscous.\n", "Aircraft usually land at an airport on a firm runway or helicopter landing pad, generally constructed of asphalt concrete, concrete, gravel or grass. Aircraft equipped with pontoons (floatplane) or with a boat hull-shaped fuselage (a flying boat) are able to land on water. Aircraft also sometimes use skis to land on snow or ice.\n", "Section::::Unlimited hydroplane engines.\n\nThe aviation industry has been the main source of engines for the boats. For the first few decades after World War II, they used surplus World War II-era internal-combustion airplane engines, typically Rolls-Royce Merlins or Griffons, or Allison V-1710s, all liquid-cooled V-12s. The loud roar of these engines earned hydroplanes the nickname \"thunderboats\" or \"dinoboats\".\n", "Section::::Notable figures.\n\nSection::::Notable figures.:Current unlimited hydroplane drivers.\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Bernard\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Villwock\n\nSection::::Notable figures.:Notable unlimited hydroplanes—present and past.\n\nPresent\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Madison\n\nPast\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Budweiser\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Bardahl\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Thriftway\n\nBULLET::::- Gale V\n\nSection::::Notable figures.:Notable former unlimited hydroplane owners and drivers.\n\nBULLET::::- Bernie Little O\n\nBULLET::::- Chip Hanauer D\n\nBULLET::::- Ron Musson D\n\nBULLET::::- Ole Bardahl O\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Muncey D & O\n\nBULLET::::- Dean Chenoweth D\n\nBULLET::::- Gar Wood D & O\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Motorboat racing\n\nBULLET::::- Kyōtei – parimutuel hydroplane boat races in Japan and South Korea\n\nSection::::External links.\n" ]

[ "Planes should hydroplane on a wet runway" ]

[ "me" ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Planes should hydroplane on a wet runway", "Planes should hydroplane on a wet runway" ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "me", "Planes don't hydroplane on a wet runway because nothing is mechanically spinning the wheels, but planes can slide on a wet runway." ]

[ "BULLET::::7. John Winchester, dying as well in Mckendree Hospital.\n", "Guru Gobind Singh blessed those forty dead as the \"Chali Mukte\", Forty Liberated Ones. He took into his care Mai Bhago, who had suffered serious injury in the battle.\n\nSection::::Biography.:Mai Bhago Kaur residing with the Guru.\n", "Therefore, such effects are not as reliable as physiological effects at stopping people. Animals will not faint or surrender if injured, though they may become frightened by the loud noise and pain of being shot, so psychological mechanisms are generally less effective against non-humans.\n\nSection::::Penetration.\n", "During the tonic phase the patient or animal collapses and becomes rigid.\n\nDuring clonic muscles relax and some movement occurs.\n\nDuring recovery the patient or animal becomes aware.\n\nSection::::Livestock.\n\nElectronarcosis is one of the methods used to render animals unconscious before slaughter and unable to feel pain. Electronarcosis may be followed immediately by electrocution or by bleeding.\n", "Also a specialist stunt team from East 15 Acting School took part in filming the large battles under the Fight Direction of Richard Ryan.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nRomantic comedy concerning Richard and his efforts to win back his wife, whilst taking part in weekend re-enactments of Viking battles. At the same time he is bullied at work and his son is bullied at school because of his father's hobby.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Eddie Marsan as Richard\n\nBULLET::::- Ewen Bremner as Julian\n\nBULLET::::- Jessica Hynes as Cath\n\nBULLET::::- Bronagh Gallagher as Maggie\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Healy as Geoff\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Nicholls as Gary\n", "On the orders of general Creed of Khos all convicted prisoners and those deemed too unfit for duty are enlisted into the Army. One of them is Bull who was previously discharged from the army for assaulting his senior officer. He later became a pit-fighter. He was found drenched in the blood of Adrianos, a commander who led the last successful offensive against the Imperial Fourth Army.\n", "Bullets can indirectly disrupt the CNS by damaging the cardiovascular system so that it can no longer provide enough oxygen to the brain to sustain consciousness. This can be the result of bleeding from a perforation of a large blood vessel or blood-bearing organ, or the result of damage to the lungs or airway. If blood flow is completely cut off from the brain, a human still has enough oxygenated blood in their brain for 10–15 seconds of wilful action, though with rapidly decreasing effectiveness as the victim begins to lose consciousness.\n", "Proponents of this theory contend that the incapacitation effect is similar to that seen in non-concussive blunt-force trauma events, such as a knock-out punch to the body, a football player \"shaken up\" as result of a hard tackle, or a hitter being struck by a fastball. Pain in general has an inhibitory and weakening effect on the body, causing a person under physical stress to take a seat or even collapse. The force put on the body by the temporary cavity is supersonic compression, like the lash of a whip. While the lash only affects a short line of tissue across the back of the victim, the temporary cavity affects a volume of tissue roughly the size and shape of a football. Giving further credence to this theory is the support from the aforementioned effects of drugs on incapacitation. Pain killers, alcohol, and PCP have all been known to decrease the effects of nociception and increase a person's resistance to incapacitation, all while having no effect on blood loss.\n", "Vasopressin deficiency may play an important role in vasodilatory shock. In refractory vasodilatory shock, the patient have both vasopressin secretion deficit as well as an advanced resistance to vasopressin-induced blood pressure changes. Some hypothesized that patients with vasopressin deficiency including a decrease in baroreceptor stimulation appear to suffer from impaired autonomic reflexes. They also argued that tonic may be inhibited by atrial stretch receptors and vasopressin release may be inhibited by nitric oxide or high circulating levels of norepinephrine.\n", "BULLET::::- Grudged Spirit Palm - A rudimentary ki palm technique that is taught at Reunion, they are however rarely used at the present.\n\nBULLET::::- Lion's Roar - Creates a strong shock wave from the diaphragm using Ki to create a powerful vibration, the user's skill determines the radius of the sound. It causes damage towards the inner ear drums, which in turn causes the opponent to lose their sense of balance and their surroundings.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Reunion Student Council.:Rud Han (루드 한).\n", "Priests can perform an AoE fear every 30 seconds and they have the ability to Mind Control enemies. They also can shackle undead type enemies, rendering them unable to move or attack for 50 seconds.\n\nPaladins can stun enemies for six seconds with the Hammer of Justice spell every minute and fear undead and demon monsters, preventing attacks and forcing them to run away.\n", "The only death by \"peine forte et dure\" in American history was Giles Corey, who was pressed to death on September 19, 1692, during the Salem witch trials, after he refused to enter a plea in the judicial proceeding. According to legend, his last words as he was being crushed were \"More weight\", and he was thought to be dead as the weight was applied. This is referred to in Arthur Miller's political drama \"The Crucible\" (1953), where Giles Corey is pressed to death after refusing to plead \"aye or nay\" to the charge of witchcraft. In the 1996 film version of this play, the screenplay also written by Arthur Miller, Corey is crushed to death for refusing to reveal the name of a source of information.\n", "Ellison writes about a knife fight with a Baron who held a grudge against him, in which he sustains bad cuts. He leaves the gang after a rumble with the Puerto Rican Flyers gang in Prospect Park, where he is injured again and witnesses brutal behavior on all sides. \n", "He belonged to the Sidho clan in Kano, in the shores of the Lake Victoria. The Sidho clan occupies the present sugar belt at the foot of the Nandi escarpment. He was possessed of unearthly powers, and his flesh was made of stone. Arrows, spears and clubs simply deflected from his body, making him invincible during warfare. He was famously known for his capability to tear an entire army apart.\n\nSection::::Story.\n", "Albert met three German knights in 1192 who persuaded him to ride on horseback with them outside of Reims. Outside of the city they attacked Albert with their swords and struck him on the head which crushed his skull and caused him to fall, where they made sure they killed him prior to making an escape.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "Orthostatic intolerance occurs in humans because standing upright is a fundamental stressor and requires rapid and effective circulatory and neurologic compensations to maintain blood pressure, cerebral blood flow, and consciousness. When a human stands, approximately 750 mL of thoracic blood is abruptly translocated downward. People who suffer from OI lack the basic mechanisms to compensate for this deficit. Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and cerebral blood flow that produce OI may be caused by abnormalities in the interactions between blood volume control, the cardiovascular system, the nervous system and circulation control system.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "However, if a person is sufficiently enraged, determined, or intoxicated, they can simply shrug off the psychological effects of being shot. During the colonial era, when native tribesmen came into contact with firearms for the first time, there was no psychological conditioning that being shot could be fatal, and most colonial powers eventually sought to create more effective manstoppers.\n", "It was at this battle that Inigo Lopez de Loyola, better known as St. Ignatius of Loyola, suffered severe injuries, a Navarrese cannonball shattering his leg. It is said that after the battle the Navarrese so admired his bravery that they carried him all the way back to his home in Loyola. His meditations during his long recovery set him on the road of a conversion of life from soldier to priest. He would eventually found the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits), and create the Spiritual Exercises, which is the basis for the idea of \"retreats\" as an experience of prayer as practiced in the Roman Catholic Church.\n", "As mentioned, permissive hypotension is unwise. Especially if the crushing weight is on the patient more than 4 hours, but often if it persists more than one hour, careful fluid overload is wise, as well as the administration of intravenous sodium bicarbonate. The San Francisco emergency services protocol calls for a basic adult dose of a 2 L bolus of normal saline followed by 500 ml/h, limited for \"pediatric patients and patients with history of cardiac or renal dysfunction.\" \n\nIf the patient cannot be fluid loaded, this may be an indication for a tourniquet to be applied.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Initial hospital management.\n", "In June 2008, a team led by Professor Maria Fitzgerald of UCL Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology published research showing that infants may be experiencing discomfort when their body movements, blood pressure and facial expressions show them to be pain free. \n", "BULLET::::- Pressure point applications. In Taekwondo philosophy, the body has many sensitive areas that are susceptible to precise attack. These are known as pressure points or ji ap sul. There are three types of pressure point that can induce one or a combination of the following: pain, paralysis, or death. These can be targeted with gripping and/or striking in order to immobilize or cause substantial pain to submit the opponent.\n", "Section::::Publication history.:\"Dungeons & Dragons 5th Edition\".\n\nThe paladin has been included as a character class in the 5th edition \"Player's Handbook\".\n\nIn \"5th Edition\", paladins commit themselves to the path of righteousness and justice and can choose one of four sacred oaths that encompasses the nature of their holy quest.\n\nBULLET::::- Oath of Devotion: paladins who appeal to the loftiest ideals of justice, virtue, and honor. Those who take this oath are Lawful Good, following the tenets of honesty, courage, compassion, honor, and duty. Nicknamed cavaliers, white knights, or holy warriors.\n", "Joseph Jordania recently proposed a term battle trance for this mental state, when combatants do not feel fear and pain, and when they lose their individual identity and acquire a collective identity.\n\nThe Norse Berserkers induced a trance-like state before battle, called \"Berserkergang\". It is said to have given the warriors superhuman strength and made them impervious to pain during battle. This form of trance could have been induced partly due to ingestion of hallucinogenic mushrooms.\n\nSection::::History.:Mystics.\n", "\"I was listening to the song, and I heard the line about 'prisoners,' and I thought about 'The Running Man,'\" Kendall told Noisecreep. \"So I went back and watched that and 'Gladiator' again, and then I wrote the treatment, which added in some MMA fighting.\"\n", "For defensive and offensive maneuvers for superior position, various beats, parries, blocks, slaps, dodges, steps and jumps to stay out of range or spring into range are employed. Once superior striking position is achieved, the fighter will thrust or strike home and finish the fight.\n\nSection::::The shield.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In a 2015 study by Verena Kersken, Klaus Zuberbühler and Juan-Carlos Gomez, non-linguistic vocalizations of infants were presented to adults to see if the adults could distinguish from infant vocalizations indicating requests for help, pointing to an object, or indicating an event. Infants show different prosodic elements in crying, depending on what they are crying for. They also have differing outbursts for positive and negative emotional states. Decipherment ability of this information was determined to be applicable across cultures and independent of the adult’s level of experience with infants.\n\nSection::::Sex differences.\n", "Although crying is an infant's mode of communication, it is not limited to a monotonous sound. There are three different types of cries apparent in infants. The first of these three is a basic cry, which is a systematic cry with a pattern of crying and silence. The basic cry starts with a cry coupled with a briefer silence, which is followed by a short high-pitched inspiratory whistle. Then, there is a brief silence followed by another cry. Hunger is a main stimulant of the basic cry. An anger cry is much like the basic cry; however, in this cry, more excess air is forced through the vocal cords, making it a louder, more abrupt cry. This type of cry is characterized by the same temporal sequence as the basic pattern but distinguished by differences in the length of the various phase components. The third cry is the pain cry, which, unlike the other two, has no preliminary moaning. The pain cry is one loud cry, followed by a period of breath holding. Most adults can determine whether an infant's cries signify anger or pain. Most parents also have a better ability to distinguish their own infant's cries than those of a different child. A 2009 study found that babies mimic their parents' pitch contour. French infants wail on a rising note while German infants favor a falling melody.\n", "Section::::Adaptations.:Internet radio show.\n", "BULLET::::1. Undiscriminating social responsiveness (0–3 months) – Instinctual infant signals, such as crying, gazing, gasping, help facilitate caregiver interactions with infants. Infants do not consistently discriminate with whom they signal or how they respond.\n\nBULLET::::2. Preferential social responsiveness (3–6 months) – Infants now clearly respond differently to primary caregiver(s) than strangers. Infants have learned that this caregiver will consistently respond to their signals.\n", "Section::::Misconceptions.\n", "Intrinsic emotion-regulation efforts during infancy are believed to be guided primarily by innate physiological response systems. These systems usually manifest as an approach towards and an avoidance of pleasant or unpleasant stimuli. At three months, infants can engage in self-soothing behaviors like sucking and can reflexively respond to and signal feelings of distress. For instance, infants have been observed attempting to suppress anger or sadness by knitting their brow or compressing their lips. Between three and six months, basic motor functioning and attentional mechanisms begin to play a role in emotion regulation, allowing infants to more effectively approach or avoid emotionally relevant situations. Infants may also engage in self-distraction and help-seeking behaviors for regulatory purposes. At one year, infants are able to navigate their surroundings more actively and respond to emotional stimuli with greater flexibility due to improved motor skills. They also begin to appreciate their caregivers' abilities to provide them regulatory support. For instance, infants generally have difficulties regulating fear. As a result, they often find ways to express fear in ways that attract the comfort and attention of caregivers.\n", "Extrinsic emotion-regulation efforts by caregivers, including situation selection, modification, and distraction, are particularly important for infants. The emotion regulation strategies employed by caregivers to attenuate distress or to upregulate positive affect in infants can impact the infants' emotional and behavioral development, teaching them particular strategies and methods of regulation. The type of attachment style between caregiver and infant can therefore play a meaningful role in the regulatory strategies infants may learn to use.\n", "Sheila Kitzinger found a correlation between the mother's prenatal stress level and later amount of crying by the infant. She also found a correlation between birth trauma and crying. Mothers who had experienced obstetrical interventions or who were made to feel powerless during birth had babies who cried more than other babies. Rather than try one remedy after another to stop this crying, she suggested that mothers hold their babies and allow the crying to run its course. Other studies have supported Kitzinger's findings. Babies who had experienced birth complications had longer crying spells at three months of age and awakened more frequently at night crying.\n", "Starting at about 8–10 months, infants begin to engage in social referencing, in which they refer to another, often an adult or caregiver, to inform their reaction to environmental stimuli. In the classic visual cliff experiments, 12-month-old babies who were separated from their mothers by a plexiglass floor that appeared to represent a dangerous “cliff” looked to their mothers for a cue. When mothers responded to their infants with facial expressions signaling encouragement and happiness, most infants crossed over the cliff. In contrast, if mothers displayed fear or anger, most infants did not cross.\n", "BULLET::::2. Infant cry is a manifestation of instinct. The infant cannot otherwise protect itself for survival during its long period of maturation. The maternal instinct, manifest particularly in response to the infant cry, has long been respected as one of the most powerful. Its mechanism has been partly elucidated by observations with functional MRI of the mother’s brain.\n\nBULLET::::3. The herd instinct is found in human children and chimpanzee cubs, but is apparently absent in the young orangutans.\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "Those who realize that an infant can be in a situation where abuse is a possibility, support can be offered to give a parent or caregiver a break when needed. Education and understanding can let the parent know that dealing with a crying baby can be very frustrating—especially when they are tired or stressed, but infant crying is normal and it will pass. Parents can be encouraged to take a calming break if needed while the baby is safe in the crib. Others can be sensitive and supportive in situations when parents are trying to calm a crying baby.\n", "These tips are not collected in \"Tsubasa\" or \"Hane\", but were nonetheless written by Ryukishi07.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n", "The attention/interaction system is set within this state continuum (i.e., from deep sleep to cry) and represented by the infant's ability to adjust the robustness and increasing refinement of an alert, attentive state. The infant uses this state to take in cognitive and social information from the environment as well as to bring forth and modify inputs from the surrounding world; and\n", "Section::::Effects on young children.\n", "The cry response is increasingly important, as researchers are now able to differentiate between different kinds of cry: classed as \"hungry\", \"angry\", and \"fearful or in pain\". Interpretation is difficult, however, depending on the sensitivity of the listener, and varies significantly between observers.\n", "First, infants, even ones that seem vulnerable, are highly capable when they are born. \"A newborn already has nine months of experience when she is born,\" Dr. Brazelton notes. \"She is capable of controlling her behavior in order to respond to her new environment.\"\n\nSecond, babies \"communicate\" through their behavior, which, although it may not always seem like it, is a rational language. Not only do infants respond to cues around them, like their parents' faces, but they also take steps to control their environment, such as crying to get a response from their caregivers.\n", "Video feedback interventions, particularly VIPP-SD, have been created based on the attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby (1969) and Mary Ainsworth (1974). This theory suggests that an infant seeks comfort and protection from caregivers, and through their experiences they learn to seek this comfort selectively from caregivers they can rely on. Their behaviors with these caregivers depend on the infant's internal working models of these relationships. Bowlby explained in his writing of attachment theory that an infant should have an intimate, warm relationship with his caregiver in which they both find enjoyment The interventions seek to create positive interactions between the child and caregiver, in order to change the child's internal working models of these relationships, leading to a change in the child's behavior.\n", "The Pre-Eidetic Stage includes the smile response, stranger anxiety and separation anxiety. During this stage, the child gains the capacity to remember images of her parents to which she can then turn to feel that she is causing her parents to care for her while she explores more and more of her world. Most importantly, during this stage every experience and feeling the baby has is believed to be a result of intentional caregiving from the parent.\n\n\"Regulatory Intrapsychic Self Stage (12-14 months to approximately 3 years)\":\n", "Section::::Mammals.\n\nYoung mammals often demand resources from their parents by screaming, bleating or crying, and sometimes by direct tussling.\n", "William Sears determines crying as the child's pivotal mean of self-expression. Parents are challenged to \"read\" the crying – which is initially generalized – and to provide the child with empathic feedback in order help them to differentiate and elaborate the repertoire of their signals gradually. Furthermore, he recommends \"prevention\" of crying: parents are advised not only to practice breastfeeding, babywearing and co-sleeping as much as possible, but also to get into the habit of properly responding to the early warning signals so that crying doesn't happen in the first place. Likewise, parents must teach their child that some trivial occasions are no cause for alarm at all.\n", "BULLET::::- Attachment has evolved because it promotes the survival of helpless infants. Primates and other animals reflexively attach themselves physically to their parent, and have some calls that elicit parental attention. Human babies have adaptively developed signaling mechanisms such as crying, babbling, and smiling. These are seen as innate and not learned behaviors, because even children born blind and deaf begin to smile socially at 6 weeks, and cry and babble. These behaviors facilitate contact with the caregiver and increase the likelihood of infant survival.\n", "In hypothesizing the framework, \"the mind is mental\" because \"the human mind is social\". From the time they are born, humans define themselves within the context of their social interactions. The child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her caregivers, not only when they are in need of necessities such as food or a diaper change, but also when the child is in need of attention. Cooley best explains this interaction in \"On Self and Social Organization\", noting that \"a growing solidarity between mother and child parallels the child's increasing competence in using significant symbols. This simultaneous development is itself a necessary prerequisite for the child's ability to adopt the perspectives of other participants in social relationships and, thus, for the child's capacity to develop a social self.\" \n", "In a 2001 study conducted in Germany examining German infants during their first 12 weeks of life, researchers studied the relationship between eye contact, maternal sensitivity and infant crying to attempt to determine if eye contact and maternal sensitivity were stable over time. In this correlational study, they began by categorizing the mother’s sensitivity placing them into one of four behavioral categories: inhibited/intense behavior, distortion of infant signals, over and understimulational, and aggressive behavioral. Next, the observer video-taped the mother and infant’s free-play interactions on a weekly basis for 12 weeks. When watching the videos, they measured the mutual eye contact between the mother and the infant by looking at the overlap in time when the mothers looked at their infant’s face and when the infants looked at their mother’s face. The mothers were also asked to record their infant’s crying in a diary.\n" ]

[ "Babies know they will get attention by crying.", "Crying is done by babies to attract attention. " ]

[ "Crying is an evolved, instinctual behavior, since children who make noise when they are in need are more likely to survive than those who are silent.", "Crying by young babies is done out of instinct, yet crying by older toddlers and children is due to reinforcement. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Babies know they will get attention by crying.", "Crying is done by babies to attract attention. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Crying is an evolved, instinctual behavior, since children who make noise when they are in need are more likely to survive than those who are silent.", "Crying by young babies is done out of instinct, yet crying by older toddlers and children is due to reinforcement. " ]

[ "In professional sports of the United States and Canada, a trade is a sports league transaction between sports clubs that involves an exchange of players from one club/team to another. Though players are the primary trading assets, draft picks and/or cash are other assets that may be supplemented to consummate a trade, either packaged alongside players' contracts to be transferred to another team, or as standalone assets in exchange for players' contracts and/or draft picks in return. In Major League Baseball, a player to be named later can be used to finalize the terms of a trade at a later date, but draft picks are not admissible as trading assets (with one exception). In Major League Soccer, besides current MLS players and draft picks, clubs may also trade MLS rights to non-MLS players, allocation money, allocation rankings, and international player slots. Typically, trades are completed between two clubs, but there are instances where trades are consummated among three or more clubs.\n", "Each league usually has its own rules regarding these clauses; for example in the NBA, no-trade clauses can only be negotiated into contracts when a player has at least four years of service for the team he is signing the contract with and at least eight years total in the NBA. Other leagues have other varying rules, for example in MLB the \"Ten and Five\" rule gives most players limited control on their tradability once they meet the ten and five criteria, which means the player has played in the league ten seasons and with the current team for at least five.\n", "Conversely, a sports transaction involving a player who becomes a free agent and joins another club/team does not qualify as a trade as the player was not contractually bound to the previous team at the time of acquisition.\n\nSection::::No-trade clause.\n", "The purpose of a trade deadline is to keep competitive balance towards the end of the season.\n\nSection::::Trade deadline.:MLB.\n", "For many years, these rankings were used to place players into three tiers of value: Type A (top 20 percent of rankings), Type B (next 20 percent of rankings), or Non Compensation (remaining 60 percent). This was changed in the 2006 Collective Bargaining Agreement which eliminated Type C free agents and restricted Type A free agents from the top 30% to the top 20% and correspondingly shifted Type B free agents, and the effects were first experienced in the 2007 offseason. The type determined what kind of draft pick a team will receive as compensation if its player signs with another team:\n", "Section::::Professional career.\n\nSection::::Professional career.:Drafts and minor leagues.\n", "BULLET::::- If a Type A free agent is signed by a different team, the signing team must compensate the player's former team with its first round draft pick in the next rule 4 Amateur Draft. However, if the signing team's first round pick is in the top 15 then it surrenders its second round pick instead. Also the player's former team receives a \"sandwich\" pick in between the first and second rounds.\n", "Section::::Trade deadline.\n\nA trade deadline (or trading deadline) is a rule regulating the trading of professional players' contracts between clubs. In Major League Baseball and the National Hockey League, players acquired through trade after the trade deadline are ineligible for postseason play in that season, unless the respective league allows them to replace an injured player on the roster. In the National Football League, National Basketball Association and Major League Soccer, post-deadline trades are not allowed. This term is used mainly in North America. In the approach to the deadline, there is heightened activity and interest in trades.\n", "Before the 2013 draft, free agents were ranked by the Elias Sports Bureau based on their previous two years of playing, and against players of similar positions. Players were categorized as either Type A or Type B, or fell into the category of all other players. Below is a description of each free agent class and the compensation the free agent's former team received when the player signed with a different team.\n", "• A Type A free agent was ranked in the top 20 percent of players at his position. A team that signed a Type A player gave its top draft pick to the club that the player left; that club also received a supplemental pick in the \"sandwich\" round between the first and second rounds.\n\n• A Type B free agent was ranked below the top 20 percent but in the top 40 percent of players at his position. A team that lost a Type B player received a supplemental pick, but the signing team did not lose a pick.\n", "Section::::Socializers.:Multi-player appeal to the Socializer.\n", "BULLET::::- NHL 2 Pack: Jose Theodore V.S. Joe Thornton (Theodore: Canadiens White Jersey / Thornton: Bruins Black Jersey)\n\nBULLET::::- NHL 2 Pack: Tommy Salo V.S. Saku Koivu (Salo: Oilers Blue Jersey / Koivu: Canadiens White Jersey)\n", "When a PTBNL transaction occurs, the negotiating teams usually agree on a list of five to ten players that the PTBNL will ultimately be chosen from.\n\nThe deal must close within six months of the conclusion of the rest of the trade. If the teams can't agree on who the player will be, then they will agree on a price to be paid instead of a player. It is possible that a player could end up being traded for himself, as has happened four times in MLB history.\n", "In the NFL, one of the more notable examples is Tom Brady, who was drafted in the sixth round, and went on to win six Super Bowls and achieved more success than the players drafted before him. Similarly, two-time Super Bowl champion Roger Staubach was a tenth round pick in both the AFL and NFL drafts largely due to having a four-year commitment to serve in the U.S. Navy; Pro Football Hall of Fame Quarterback Brett Favre was a second round pick and fellow Hall of Famers Joe Montana, Aeneas Williams and Dan Fouts were all third round picks, with Montana slipping due to an average showing at the combine; Drew Brees, MVP of Super Bowl XLIV, dropped to the second round after being generally dismissed by scouts due to a mediocre performance at the combine and his height but went on to break or set NFL records for passing yards and touchdown passes and would eventually set the record for all-time passing yardage in 2018; Russell Wilson, Seattle Seahawks quarterback, was a third round pick due to his height (5'11\"), but went on to become the second-highest rated NFL passer of all time; Johnny Unitas, who is considered one of the greatest quarterbacks in the history of the game, was drafted in the ninth round and was actually cut by the team that drafted him; Quarterback Kirk Cousins would be drafted in the fourth round by the Washington Redskins in 2012 as a backup to Robert Griffin III, but became the team's full-time starter in 2015 and played out two more seasons in Washington before signing the first fully guaranteed contract for any player in NFL history with the Minnesota Vikings in 2018. Antonio Brown was drafted 195th overall by the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2010 but emerged as an All-Pro receiver in 2014 before being dealt to the Oakland Raiders in 2019, and Bart Starr, two-time Super Bowl MVP, was the 200th overall pick in 1956 due to concern about back injury problems.\n", "Draft (sports)\n\nA draft is a process used in some countries and sports to allocate certain players to teams. In a draft, teams take turns selecting from a pool of eligible players. When a team selects a player, the team receives exclusive rights to sign that player to a contract, and no other team in the league may sign the player.\n", "In the NBA, Manu Ginóbili, a key contributor to four San Antonio Spurs championships in the 21st century and centerpiece of Argentina's Olympic gold medal team in 2004, was the next-to-last pick in the 1999 draft. Another notable draft steal was Isaiah Thomas, selected as the 60th and last pick in 2011 but emerging as an All-Star in 2017. Draymond Green was selected as the 35th pick of the 2012 NBA draft then helped the Golden State Warriors win the 2015, 2017, and 2018 NBA Finals. Green also won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award in 2017.\n", "When the salary cap and floor are the same, the result is a standard form contract model of payment, in which each player is paid the same amount, sometimes varying by position. The standard form contract model is used extensively in North American minor leagues.\n\nSection::::Reserve clause.\n", "BULLET::::- Through the 2012 draft, free agents were evaluated by the Elias Sports Bureau and rated \"Type A\", \"Type B\", or not compensation-eligible. If a team offered arbitration to a player but that player refused and subsequently signed with another team, the original team was able to receive additional draft picks. If a \"Type A\" free agent left in this way, his previous team received a supplemental pick and a compensatory pick from the team with which he signed. If a \"Type B\" free agent left in this way, his previous team received only a supplemental pick. Since the 2013 draft, free agents are no longer classified by type; instead, compensatory picks are only awarded if the team offered its free agent a contract worth at least the average of the 125 current richest MLB contracts. However, if the free agent's last team acquired the player in a trade during the last year of his contract, it is ineligible to receive compensatory picks for that player.\n", "In 2007, Kobe Bryant was willing to waive his no trade clause with the Los Angeles Lakers in order to be dealt to either the Phoenix Suns or the Chicago Bulls, but in this case, Kobe Bryant's own pickiness as far as where he would like to play limited the Lakers' ability to move him, and eventually no trade was made at all.\n\nSection::::No-trade clause.:Waiver of no-trade clause.:NHL.\n", "NHL teams will receive compensation for losing a coach, general manager or president of hockey operations to another team while they are still under contract. Teams will receive a second-round draft pick if a transaction happens during the season and a third-round pick if one occurs in the off-season (a coach's season ends when his team is eliminated from the playoffs, while seasons for GMs and presidents of hockey operations finish after the conclusion of the NHL Draft in June). Teams will have a three-year window to choose from when to lose their draft pick.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "If a type A or type B free agent signs with a team that the player did not finish the previous season with, his former team will receive a sandwich pick for the departed player. As well as the sandwich pick, type A free agents will also net their former team a forfeited pick from the signing team. The forfeited pick is generally the signing team's 1st round draft choice; however, there are certain factors which could result in a different round for the pick. In order for the team to receive a compensation pick, the free agent must be offered arbitration or be signed by their new team prior to the arbitration deadline.\n", "Targeted allocation money and general allocation money may not be used in combination when signing or re-signing a player. Either targeted allocation money or general allocation money may be used on a player in a single season, not both.\n\nAmounts of allocation money held by each team are not disclosed to the general public. Only in the case of a trade will the amount of allocation money involved be made public.\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Kaman\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Kaminsky\n\nBULLET::::- Enes Kanter\n\nBULLET::::- Ralph Kaplowitz\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Kapono\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Kappen\n\nBULLET::::- Sergey Karasev\n\nBULLET::::- Coby Karl\n\nBULLET::::- George Karl\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tony Kaseta\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ed Kasid\n\nBULLET::::- Mario Kasun\n\nBULLET::::- Leo Katkaveck\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Kauffman\n\nBULLET::::- Sasha Kaun\n\nBULLET::::- Wibs Kautz\n\nBULLET::::- Clarence Kea\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Kearns\n\nBULLET::::- Tommy Kearns\n\nBULLET::::- Adam Keefe\n\nBULLET::::- Harold Keeling\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Keller\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Keller\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jack Keller\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Keller\n\nBULLET::::- Rich Kelley\n\nBULLET::::- Clark Kellogg\n\nBULLET::::- Arvesta Kelly\n\nBULLET::::- Jerry Kelly\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Kelly\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Kelly\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tony Keller\"\n\nBULLET::::- Greg Kelser\n", "BULLET::::- Troy Hudson\n\nBULLET::::- Marcelo Huertas\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Huerter\n\nBULLET::::- Josh Huestis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Marvin Huffman\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nate Huffman\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vern Huffman\"\n\nBULLET::::- Alfredrick Hughes\n\nBULLET::::- Eddie Hughes\n\nBULLET::::- Kim Hughes\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Hughes\n\nBULLET::::- Rick Hughes\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harold Hull\"\n\nBULLET::::- Robbie Hummel\n\nBULLET::::- John Hummer\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Humphrey\n\nBULLET::::- Isaac Humphries\n\nBULLET::::- Jay Humphries\n\nBULLET::::- Kris Humphries\n\nBULLET::::- Hot Rod Hundley\n\nBULLET::::- Brandon Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Cedric Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Les Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Lindsey Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Othello Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- R. J. Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Steven Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Vince Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- Bobby Hurley\n\nBULLET::::- Roy Hurley\n\nBULLET::::- Geoff Huston\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 (Los Angeles): Alan Oppenheimer, Arthur Burghardt, Bill Ratner, Clive Revill, Dan Gilvezan, Danny Mann, Daran Norris, David Kaye, David Mendenhall, David Sobolov, Frank Torado, Gregg Berger, Ian James Corlett, Jack Angel, Jason Marnocha, Jerry Houser, Jon Bailey, Laurie Faso, Marlene Aragon, Michael Bell, Michael Horton, Morgan Lofting, Neil Ross, Paul Eiding, Peter Renaday, Bill Forester, Bob Skir, Brandon Easton, Bryce Malek, Buzz Dixon, David Wise, Donald F. Glut, Douglas Booth, Flint Dille, Jim Sorenson, Mae Catt, Mairghread Scott, Marty Isenberg, Michael Charles Hill, Paul Davids, Ron Friedman, Alex Milne, Casey Coller, Derrick J. Wyatt, Eric Siebenaler, Jack Lawrence, Josh Burcham, Josh Perez, Sara Pitre-Durocher and Vince DiCola\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Unlike instant cold packs, that are stored at room temperature and quickly chill themselves when needed for one-time use, reusable hot cold packs are merely a material that holds its temperature well, so they are stored in a freezer or heated in water or a microwave oven to reach the desired temperature. The first hot and cold pack was introduced in 1948 with the name \"Hot-R-Cold-Pak\" and could be chilled in a refrigerator or heated in hot water. The first reusable hot cold pack that could be heated in boiling water or a microwave oven was first patented in 1973.\n", "A recombiner is a box that is open from the bottom and from the top. The catalyst is located at the lower part of the box. The reaction of hydrogen and oxygen on the catalyst surface generates heat, and temperature in the recombiner reaches hundreds of degrees Celsius. Hot steam is lighter than the air in the containment, so buoyancy is caused inside the recombiner, much like in a chimney. This causes a strong airflow through the recombiner, feeding hydrogen and oxygen from the containment to the device. \n", "Ice pack\n\nAn ice pack or gel pack is a portable plastic bag filled with water, refrigerant gel, or liquid. For use the contents are frozen in a freezer. Both ice and other non-toxic refrigerants (mostly water) can absorb a considerable amount of heat before they warm above 0 °C, due to the high latent heat of fusion of water. These packs are commonly used to keep food cool in portable coolers, or as a cold compress to alleviate the pain of minor injuries, or in insulated shipping containers to keep products cool during transport.\n", "When modeling ice, one takes formula_24, as all permissible vertex configurations are understood to be equally likely. In this case, the partition function formula_8 equals the total number of valid states. This model is known as the ice model (as opposed to an \"ice-type\" model).\n\nSection::::Specific choices of vertex energies.:The KDP model of a ferroelectric.\n\nSlater argued that KDP could be represented by an ice-type model with energies\n", "BULLET::::- σ is the fold surface free energy per unit area\n\nBULLET::::- T is the equilibrium melting temperature\n\nBULLET::::- k is equal to Boltzmann Constant\n\nBULLET::::- Δh is equal to the change of enthalpy of fusion per repeat unit at the standard temperature (Also known as the Latent Heat of Fusion per repeat unit)\n\nThis shows that in Region I, lateral nucleation along the front successfully dominates at temperatures close to the melting temperature, however at more extreme temperatures other forces such as diffusion can impact nucleation rates.\n", "One method often employed is to melt the reactants together and then later anneal the solidified melt. If volatile reactants are involved the reactants are often put in an ampoule that is evacuated -ofnt mixture \n\ncold e.g. by keeping the bottom of the ampoule in liquid nitrogen- and then sealed. The sealed ampoule is then put in an oven and given a certain heat treatment..\n\nSection::::Synthetic methods.:Oven techniques.:Solution methods.\n", "Gel packs are often made of non-toxic materials that will remain a slow-flowing gel, and therefore will not spill easily or cause contamination if the container breaks. Gel packs may be made by adding hydroxyethyl cellulose (Cellusize), sodium polyacrylate, or vinyl-coated silica gel.\n\nSection::::Instant ice packs.\n", "Water has a much higher latent heat of fusion than most substances, and a melting temperature which is convenient and easily attained with, for example, a household freezer. Additives to improve the properties of water are often used. For example, substances can be added to prevent bacterial growth in the pack, or to prevent the water from solidifying so it remains a thick gel throughout use.\n", "Some applications use the thermal capacity of water or ice as cold storage; others use it as heat storage. It can serve either application; ice can be melted to store heat then refrozen to warm an environment which is below freezing (putting liquid water at 0°C in such an environment warms it much more than the same mass of ice at the same temperature, because the latent heat of freezing is extracted from it, which is why the phase change is relevant), or water can be frozen to \"store cold\" then melted to make an environment above freezing colder (and again, a given mass of ice at 0°C will provide more cooling than the same mass of water at the same temperature).\n", "The most commonly available hand warmers make use of the oxidation of iron to achieve an exothermic reaction:\n\nSection::::Examples of exothermic reactions.\n\nBULLET::::- Combustion reactions of fuels or a substance\n\nBULLET::::- e.g.\n\nBULLET::::- Burning of natural gas: CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O\n\nBULLET::::- C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 +6H2O\n\nBULLET::::- Neutralization\n\nBULLET::::- The thermite reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Reactions taking place in a self-heating can based on lime aluminium\n\nBULLET::::- Many corrosion reactions such as oxidation of metals\n\nBULLET::::- Most polymerization reactions\n\nBULLET::::- The Haber process of ammonia production\n\nBULLET::::- Respiration\n\nBULLET::::- Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost\n", "Section::::AFPs.\n\nAFPs work through an interaction with small ice crystals that is similar to an enzyme-ligand binding mechanism which inhibits recrystallization of ice. This explanation of the interruption of the ice crystal structure by the AFP has come to be known as the \"adsorption-inhibition hypothesis\".\n", "An instant cold pack is a device that consists of two bags; one containing water, inside a bag containing ammonium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate or urea. When the inner bag of water is broken by squeezing the package, it dissolves the solid in an endothermic reaction. This reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings, quickly lowering the pack's temperature.\n\nInstant cold packs are a convenient direct replacement for crushed ice used as first aid on sport injuries, and can be carried as first aid to remote or wilderness areas where ice is unavailable.\n\nSection::::Hot-or-cold packs.\n", "Another established approach is by using a thermoelectric, such as those offered by Alphabet Energy, where a change in temperature across a semiconductor material creates a voltage through a phenomenon known as the Seebeck effect. A related approach is the use of thermogalvanic cells, where a temperature difference gives rise to an electric current in an electrochemical cell.\n\nSection::::Anthropogenic heat.\n", "Section::::Types of thermal batteries.:Other thermal batteries.\n\nThere are some other items that have historically been termed \"thermal batteries\". In this group is the molten salt battery which is a device for generating electricity. Other examples include the heat packs that skiers use for keeping hands and feet warm (see hand warmer). These are a chemical battery which when activated (with air in this case) will produce heat. Other related chemical thermal batteries exist for producing cold (see instant cold pack) generally used for sport injuries.\n", "Section::::Principles.:Simple salt and water system.\n\nA simple absorption refrigeration system common in large commercial plants uses a solution of lithium bromide and lithium chloride salt and water. Water under low pressure is evaporated from the coils that are to be chilled. The water is absorbed by a lithium bromide/water solution. The system drives the water off the lithium bromide solution with heat.\n\nSection::::Principles.:Water spray absorption refrigeration.\n", "The most common use of a frigorific mixture is to melt ice. When ammonium chloride salt is placed on ice when the ambient temperature is greater than −17.8 °C (0 °F), the salt melts some of the ice and the temperature drops to −17.8 °C. Since the mixture is colder than the ambient temperature, heat is absorbed and the temperature rises. This causes the salt to melt more of the ice to drive the temperature down again. The process continues until all of the salt is dissolved in the melted ice. If there is enough salt present, then all of the ice will be melted.\n", "There are many different approaches to transfer thermal energy to electricity, and the technologies to do so have existed for several decades. The organic Rankine cycle, offered by companies such as Ormat, is a very known approach, whereby an organic substance is used as working medium instead of water. The benefit is that this process can reject heat at lower temperatures for the production of electricity than the regular water steam cycle. An example of use of the steam Rankine cycle is the Cyclone Waste Heat Engine.\n", "In an independent space suit, the heat is ultimately transferred to a thin sheet of ice (formed by a separate feed water source). Due to the extremely low pressure in space, the heated ice sublimates directly to water vapor, which is then vented away from the suit.\n", "The Crosley Icyball was an example of a gas-absorption refrigerator, as can be found today in recreational vehicles or campervans. Unlike most refrigerators, the Icyball had no moving parts, and instead of operating continuously, was manually cycled. Typically it would be charged in the morning, and provide cooling throughout the heat of the day.\n", "For several years starting around 2004, the Coleman Company sold a version of the Twinbird \"SC-C925 Portable Freezer Cooler 25L\" under its own brand name, but it has since discontinued offering the product. The portable cooler can be operated more than a day, maintaining sub-freezing temperatures while powered by an automotive battery. This cooler is still being manufactured, with Global Cooling now coordinating distribution to North America and Europe. Other variants offered by Twinbird include a portable deep freezer (to −80 °C), collapsible coolers, and a model for transporting blood and vaccine.\n\nSection::::Low temperature difference engines.\n", "In contrast, in external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel fuel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft, and boats.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Thermal energy storage systems.\n", "When ice melts, it absorbs as much energy as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C. During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C. While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the \"heat of fusion\".\n", "Often RF (radio frequency) radiation is used to drive the hottest atoms from the trap. The RF radiation is commonly referred to as an RF knife, because it cuts the hottest atoms out of the trap.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nEvaporative cooling was developed to study the Bose–Einstein condensate, an exotic state of matter in which multiple atoms enter the same quantum state. This condensation only happens at very low temperatures: around 170 nanokelvins for rubidium atoms.\n", "Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell. In open cell systems, the electrolysis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental system. These experiments generally strive for a steady state condition, with the electrolyte being replaced periodically. There are also \"heat-after-death\" experiments, where the evolution of heat is monitored after the electric current is turned off.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Chemical reactions release energy." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Endothermic reactions absorb energy." ]

[ "Section::::Nuclear weapons tests.:Test preparation.:Test teams.\n", "Between 1945 and 1980, the United States, the U.S.S.R., the United Kingdom, France and China exploded 504 nuclear devices in atmospheric tests at thirteen primary sites yielding the explosive equivalent of 440 megatons of TNT. Of these atmospheric tests, 330 were conducted by the United States. Accounting for all types of nuclear tests, official counts show that the United States has conducted 1,054 nuclear weapons tests to date, involving at least 1,151 nuclear devices, most of which occurred at Nevada Test Site and the Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands, with ten other tests taking place at various locations in the United States, including Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico. There have been an estimated 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide; the number of nuclear tests conducted by the United States alone is currently more than the sum of nuclear testing done by all other known nuclear states (the USSR, Great Britain, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea) combined.\n", "Almost all new nuclear powers have announced their possession of nuclear weapons with a nuclear test. The only acknowledged nuclear power that claims never to have conducted a test was South Africa (although see Vela Incident), which has since dismantled all of its weapons. Israel is widely thought to possess a sizable nuclear arsenal, though it has never tested, unless they were involved in Vela. Experts disagree on whether states can have reliable nuclear arsenals—especially ones using advanced warhead designs, such as hydrogen bombs and miniaturized weapons—without testing, though all agree that it is very unlikely to develop significant nuclear innovations without testing. One other approach is to use supercomputers to conduct \"virtual\" testing, but codes need to be validated against test data.\n", "There have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted since 1945. In 1963, all nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, while China continued up until 1980. The last underground test by the United States was in 1992, the Soviet Union in 1990, the United Kingdom in 1991, and both France and China continued testing until 1996. After signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998.\n", "BULLET::::- United Kingdom: 45 tests (21 in Australian territory, including three at the Montebello Islands, nine in mainland South Australia at Maralinga and Emu Field, some at Christmas Island (Kiritimati) in the Pacific Ocean, plus 24 in the United States at the Nevada Test Site as part of joint test series) 43 safety tests (the \"Vixen\" series) are not included in that number, though safety experiments by other countries are. \"Link to the United Kingdom's summary table\"\n", "Since the Trinity test and excluding the combat use of nuclear weapons, mankind (those few nations with capability) has detonated roughly 1,700 nuclear explosions, all but 6 as tests. Of these, six were peaceful nuclear explosions. Nuclear tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 20th century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons had a staged test of them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under various conditions and how structures behave when subjected to a nuclear explosion. Additionally, nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength, and many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most nuclear weapons states publicly declared their nuclear status by means of a nuclear test.\n", "The table in this section summarizes all worldwide nuclear testing (including the two bombs dropped in combat which were not tests). The country names are links to summary articles for each country, which may in turn be used to drill down to test series articles which contain details on every known nuclear explosion and test. The notes attached to various table cells detail how the numbers therein are arrived at. As of 1993, worldwide, 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions (including 8 underwater) have been conducted with a total yield of 545 megaton (Mt): 217 Mt from fission and 328 Mt from fusion, while the estimated number of underground nuclear tests conducted in the period from 1957 to 1992 is 1,352 explosions with a total yield of 90 Mt.\n", "In 1963, the United States, Soviet Union, and United Kingdom signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground tests. Many other non-nuclear nations acceded to the Treaty following its entry into force; however, two nuclear weapons states have not acceded: France, China \n\nThe primary application to date has been military (i.e. nuclear weapons), and the remainder of explosions include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear pulse propulsion, including using a nuclear explosion as asteroid deflection strategy.\n\nBULLET::::- Power generation; see PACER\n", "In total nuclear test megatonnage, from 1945 to 1992, 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions (including eight underwater) have been conducted with a total yield of 545 megatons, with a peak occurring in 1961–1962, when 340 megatons were detonated in the atmosphere by the United States and Soviet Union. while the estimated number of underground nuclear tests conducted in the period from 1957 to 1992 is 1,352 explosions with a total yield of 90 Mt.\n\nSection::::Nuclear testing by country.\n\nThe nuclear powers have conducted more than 2,000 nuclear test explosions (numbers are approximate, as some test results have been disputed):\n", "On September 3, 2017, North Korea successfully detonated its first weapon self-designated as a hydrogen bomb. Initial yield estimates place it at 100 kt. Reports indicate that the test blast caused a magnitude 6.3 earthquake, and possibly resulted in a cave-in at the test site.\n\nSection::::Alleged tests.\n\nThere have been a number of significant alleged/disputed/unacknowledged accounts of countries testing nuclear explosives. Their status is either not certain or entirely disputed by most mainstream experts.\n\nSection::::Alleged tests.:Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Operation Agathe\", November 7, 1961 and 12 more: In Ekker, Algeria; underground\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Aldébaran\", July 2, 1966 and 45 more: Moruroa and Fangataufa; in the atmosphere;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Canopus\" first hydrogen bomb: August 28, 1968 (Fangataufa)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Achille\" June 5, 1975 and 146 more: Moruroa and Fangataufa; underground\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Xouthos\" last test: January 27, 1996 (Fangataufa)\n\nSection::::Known tests.:China.\n", "List of nuclear test sites\n\nThis article contains a list of nuclear weapon test sites used across the world. It includes nuclear test sites, nuclear combat sites, launch sites for rockets forming part of a nuclear test, and peaceful nuclear test (PNE) sites. There are a few non-nuclear test sites included, such as the Degelen Omega chemical blast sites, which are intimately involved with nuclear testing. Listed with each is an approximate location and coordinate link for viewing through GeoHack, and each site is linked to a Wikipedia page on the locality or the nuclear event(s) that occurred there.\n", "Additionally, the UK conducted nuclear tests in Australia in the 1950s.\n\nSection::::Alleged tests.:Russia.\n", "Section::::Tests of live warheads on rockets.\n\nMissiles and nuclear warheads have usually been tested separately, because testing them together is considered highly dangerous; they are certainly the most extreme type of live fire exercise. The only US live test of an operational missile was the following:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Frigate Bird\": on May 6, 1962, a UGM-27 Polaris A-2 missile with a live 600 kt W47 warhead was launched from the USS \"Ethan Allen\"; it flew , re-entered the atmosphere, and detonated at an altitude of over the South Pacific.\n", "The monitoring network consists of 337 facilities located all over the globe. As of May 2012, more than 260 facilities have been certified. The monitoring stations register data that is transmitted to the international data centre in Vienna for processing and analysis. The data are sent to states that have signed the Treaty.\n\nSection::::Monitoring.:Subsequent nuclear testing.\n", "BULLET::::- China: China has undertaken highly secretive atomic tests in remote deserts in a Central Asian border province. Anti-nuclear activists say there is no known government program for compensating victims.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atomic Testing Museum (in Nevada in the US)\n\nBULLET::::- Effects of nuclear explosions\n\nBULLET::::- High altitude nuclear explosion\n\nBULLET::::- List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union\n\nBULLET::::- List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country\n\nBULLET::::- History of nuclear weapons\n\nBULLET::::- \"How to Photograph an Atomic Bomb\"\n", "Section::::History.:Cold War.\n", "The United Kingdom has conducted 45 tests (21 in Australian territory, including 9 in mainland South Australia at Maralinga and Emu Field, 3 at Malden Island and 6 at Kiritibati (Christmas Island) in the Line Islands of the central Pacific, and 24 in the U.S. as part of joint test series). Often excluded from British totals are the 31 safety tests of Operation Vixen in Maralinga. British test series include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Hurricane\", October 3, 1952 (first atomic bomb)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Totem\", 1953\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Mosaic\", 1956\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Buffalo\", 1956\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operation Antler\", 1957\n", "Section::::Known tests.\n\nIn the following subsections, a selection of significant tests (by no means exhaustive) are listed, representative of the testing effort in each nuclear country.\n\nSection::::Known tests.:United States of America.\n\nThe standard \"official\" list of tests for American devices is arguably the United States Department of Energy DoE-209 document. The United States conducted around 1,054 nuclear tests (by official count) between 1945 and 1992, including 216 atmospheric, underwater, and space tests. Some significant tests conducted by the United States include:\n", "BULLET::::- Peaceful nuclear explosions were conducted to investigate non-military applications of nuclear explosives. In the United States these were performed under the umbrella name of Operation Plowshare.\n\nAside from these technical considerations, tests have been conducted for political and training purposes, and can often serve multiple purposes.\n\nSection::::Alternatives to full-scale testing.\n\nHydronuclear tests study nuclear materials under the conditions of explosive shock compression. They can create sub-critical conditions, or supercritical conditions with yields ranging from negligible all the way up to a substantial fraction of full weapon yield.\n", "BULLET::::- \"#21\", Largest hydrogen bomb tested by China (4 megatons) - November 17, 1976\n\nBULLET::::- \"#29\", Last atmospheric test – October 16, 1980. This would also be the last atmospheric nuclear test by any country\n\nBULLET::::- \"#45\", Last test – July 29, 1996, underground.\n\nSection::::Known tests.:India.\n", "In all, 24 British nuclear tests were conducted at the NTS.\n\nSection::::Subcritical testing.\n", "List of nuclear weapons tests\n\nNuclear weapons testing is defined in treaty language by specifying a space and time requirement.\n\nThis definition is inclusive of \"zero yield\" safety tests of warheads, whether the test is successful (there is no nuclear yield) or the test is unsuccessful (there is a nuclear yield).\n", "BULLET::::- Minor Scale and Misty Picture: Many very large detonations have been carried out in order to simulate the effects of nuclear weapons on vehicles and other military material. The largest publicly known test was conducted by the United States Defense Nuclear Agency (now part of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency) on 27 June 1985 at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. This test, called Minor Scale, used of ANFO, with a yield of about . Misty Picture was another similar test a few years later, slightly smaller at .\n", "It does not include hydronuclear, cold or subcritical tests because no nuclear explosions are possible, even in failure. In these sorts of tests there may be small amounts of chain reaction occurring, but they stop before materially adding to the chemical explosion that causes them. The line here is finely drawn, but, among other things, subcritical testing is not prohibited by the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, while safety tests are.\n\nSection::::Totals by country.\n" ]

[ "Nuclear weapons testing endangers the whole world." ]

[ "World nuclear powers are able to conceal nuclear fallout by limiting testing to underground which does not endanger the whole world. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Nuclear weapons testing endangers the whole world.", "Nuclear testing is ongoing in a way that is potentially dangerous." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "World nuclear powers are able to conceal nuclear fallout by limiting testing to underground which does not endanger the whole world. ", "Nuclear testing if done at all is done underground which protects civilization from the fallout. Also tests on the nuclear payload are not done as much anymore because the way it works is well understood. " ]

[ "Over time the position of adjectives can be seen changing, for example, between Cato the Elder (2nd century BC) and Columella (1st century AD). Adjectives describing the type of something, such as \"wooden\", \"designed for oil\" or \"new\" always follow the noun in Cato, but can come either before or after in Columella.\n\nIn Cato, the adjective \"big\" follows its noun in 7 out of 9 examples, e.g. \"big storms\", but in Caesar about 95% of examples go before the noun.\n", "Section::::Adjective position.:Factors affecting adjective position.:Semantic.\n\nOne factor affecting the order is semantic. As a general rule, adjectives which express an inherent property of the noun, such as \"gold\" in \"gold ring\", tend to follow it. Where the adjective is more salient or important than the noun, as \"Appian\" in \"Appian Way\" (), it also tends to follow it.\n", "It is been noted that in various languages when more than one adjective precedes a noun, they tend to come in a particular order. In English the order usually given is: Determiner Number Opinion Size Quality Age Shape Colour Participle forms Origin Material Type Purpose (for example, \"those two large brown Alsatian guard dogs\"). In general an adjective expressing a non-permanent state (such as \"hot\") will go further from the noun than an adjective of type or material which expresses an inherent property of the object.\n", "This means that in English, adjectives pertaining to size precede adjectives pertaining to age (\"little old\", not \"old little\"), which in turn generally precede adjectives pertaining to color (\"old white\", not \"white old\"). So, one would say \"One (quantity) nice (opinion) little (size) old (age) round (shape) [\"or\" round old] white (color) brick (material) house.\" When several adjectives of the same type are used together, they are ordered from general to specific, like \"lovely intelligent person\" or \"old medieval castle\".\n", "Section::::Grammar.:Nouns and noun phrases.:Adjectives.\n\nAdjectives modify a noun by providing additional information about their referents. In English, adjectives come before the nouns they modify and after determiners. In Modern English, adjectives are not inflected, and they do not agree in form with the noun they modify, as adjectives in most other Indo-European languages do. For example, in the phrases \"the slender boy\", and \"many slender girls\", the adjective \"slender\" does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun.\n", "This order may be more rigid in some languages than others; in some, like Spanish, it may only be a default (\"unmarked\") word order, with other orders being permissible. Other languages, such as Tagalog, follow their adjectival orders as rigidly as English.\n", "Owing partially to borrowings from French, English has some adjectives that follow the noun as postmodifiers, called postpositive adjectives, as in \"time immemorial\" and \"attorney general\". Adjectives may even change meaning depending on whether they precede or follow, as in \"proper\": \"They live in a proper town\" (a real town, not a village) vs. \"They live in the town proper\" (in the town itself, not in the suburbs). All adjectives can follow nouns in certain constructions, such as \"tell me something new\".\n\nSection::::Comparison (degrees).\n", "In Latin, when adjectives precede, they generally have the same order as in English: \n\nWhen the adjectives follow, the opposite order is usually used:\n\nThere are some apparent exceptions, however, such as the following, in which the adjective \"luxurious\" is placed next to the noun:\n\nThe demonstrative \"this\" normally goes before a number, as in English. However, the reverse order is also possible:\n\nWhen follows a noun, it goes close to it:\n\nAdjectives of the same semantic class are usually joined by a conjunction in Latin:\n\nQuite commonly also, one adjective precedes and another follows, as in:\n", "The other indefinite pronoun, (the adjectival form of ), similarly can either follow or precede its noun:\n\nOf these two, the phrase is slightly more common; and the phrase \"somehow or other\" is always in that order.\n\nSection::::Adjective position.:Stacked adjectives.\n", "Often adjectives are emphasised by separating them from the noun by other words (a technique known as hyperbaton). This is especially true of adjectives of size and quantity, but also superlatives, comparatives, demonstratives, and possessives.\n\nSection::::Adjective position.:Hyperbaton.:Premodifier hyperbaton.\n\nOften the adjective precedes the noun:\n\nThe separation can sometimes be a long one:\n\nPremodifying adjectives in hyperbaton often have focus or contrastive emphasis. In the following example, \"these particular\" floods are contrasted with some earlier ones which lasted a shorter time:\n", "For \"he did not dare\", Latin writers use all three orders: , , , but the first of these is the most common:\n\nSection::::Adjective position.\n\nIn Latin, an adjective can either precede or follow its noun: for example, \"a good man\" can be both or . Some kinds of adjectives are more inclined to follow the noun, others to precede, but \"the precise factors conditioning the variation are not always obvious\".\n\nIn Caesar and Cicero, it has been found that the majority (60%–80%) of ordinary adjectives, not counting pronominals and numerals, precede their nouns.\n\nSection::::Adjective position.:Factors affecting adjective position.\n", "Other factors such as focus and contrast may also affect the order. When there is contrastive focus the adjective will precede, even if it is one such as a geographical name which normally follows:\n\nEven when the contrast is not explicit, a strong focus may cause the adjective to come first:\n\nOn the other hand, an adjective which normally precedes, such as a number, can follow the noun when it is focussed or emphasised:\n\nContrast the following, where the emphasis is on :\n\nSection::::Adjective position.:Factors affecting adjective position.:Diachronic change.\n", "There is cross-linguistic validity, according to the multiple articles referenced in Cinque's article, which studied this adjective placement in Italian as well. Cinque discovered that exactly the same pattern was seen in Italian, because ambiguous interpretations only appeared when the adjective phrase was placed in pre-nominal position. Next, other research articles also confirm that this word order phenomenon exists in Mandarin Chinese, creating ambiguous interpretations. For example, an adjective phrase with the head adjective \"private\" in pre-object position, creates two interpretations. On the other hand, an adjective phrase with the head adjective \"private\" placed in post-object position only creates one interpretation.\n", "Livy uses this antique word order at a dramatic moment in his history when he reports the words of the magistrate announcing the news of the disaster at the battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC:\n\nAnother adjective which changes over time is \"all\". In Cato this word goes before or after the noun with equal frequency, but in Cicero's speeches 80% of the time it precedes, and in Caesar it goes before the noun even more commonly.\n\nSection::::Adjective position.:Factors affecting adjective position.:Stylistic preferences.\n", "In others, the position after the noun is more common but not fixed. The phrase \"civil war\" has the adjective following in about 60% of Cicero's examples.\n\nIn other commonly used phrases, the adjective always comes first. These include certain terms of relative position and certain adjectives of time:\n\nIn other common phrases, such as \"at first light\", the adjective usually comes first, but is also found.\n\nSection::::Adjective position.:Hyperbaton.\n", "As with other aspects of word order, stylistic preferences also play a part in adjective order. For example, the adjective in its literal sense of \"higher\" (e.g. \"from a higher place\") usually comes after the noun in Cicero and in Caesar, but in Livy the position before the noun () is much commoner. Vitruvius and Seneca the Younger also preferred the earlier position.\n\nSection::::Adjective position.:Factors affecting adjective position.:Commonly used phrases.\n\nIn certain commonly used phrases, the adjective comes after the noun without variation: \n", "Adjectives in German change their form for various features, such as case and gender, and so agree with the noun that they modify. The adjective \"alt\" (old), for example, develops a separate lexical entry that carries the morphological and syntactic requirements of the head noun that has been removed: the requirements are the inflectional endings of the language.\n", "Latin prose often follows the word order \"Subject, Direct Object, Indirect Object, Adverb, Verb\", but this is more of a guideline than a rule. Adjectives in most cases go before the noun they modify, but some categories, such as those that determine or specify (e.g. \"Via Appia\" \"Appian Way\"), usually follow the noun. In Classical Latin poetry, lyricists followed word order very loosely to achieve a desired scansion.\n\nSection::::Pragmatic word order.:Albanian.\n", "Adjectives often agree with the number of the noun they modify. For example, in French, one says \"un grand arbre\" \"a tall tree\", but \"deux grands arbres\" \"two tall trees\". The singular adjective \"grand\" becomes \"grands\" in the plural, unlike English \"tall\", which remains unchanged.\n", "For example, French (SVO) uses prepositions \"(dans la voiture, à gauche),\" and places adjectives after \"(une voiture spacieuse).\" However, a small class of adjectives generally go before their heads \"(une grande voiture)\". On the other hand, in English (also SVO) adjectives almost always go before nouns \"(a big car),\" and adverbs can go either way, but initially is more common \"(greatly improved).\" (English has a very small number of adjectives that go after the heads, such as \"extraordinaire\", which kept its position when borrowed from French.)\n\nSection::::Pragmatic word order.\n", "In some languages, adjectives alter their form to reflect the gender, case and number of the noun that they describe. This is called agreement or concord. Usually it takes the form of inflections at the end of the word, as in Latin:\n\nIn Celtic languages, however, initial consonant lenition marks the adjective with a feminine singular noun, as in Irish:\n", "Exocentric compounds occur more often in adjectives than nouns. A \"V-8 car\" is a car \"with\" a V-8 engine rather than a car that \"is\" a V-8, and a \"twenty-five-dollar car\" is a car \"with\" a worth of $25, not a car that \"is\" $25. The compounds shown here are bare, but more commonly, a suffixal morpheme is added, such as \"-ed\": a \"two-legged\" person is a person \"with\" two legs, and this is exocentric.\n", "The 1st-century A.D. teacher of oratory, Quintilian, remarks that hyperbaton (switching words round) is often used to make a sentence more euphonious. He gives the example of the following sentence from the opening of Cicero's :\n\nQuintilian says that would be correct, but \"harsh and inelegant\".\n\nIn another place he says that to end a sentence with the verb is best, because the verb is the most forceful part of the sentence (); but if putting a verb finally is rhythmically harsh, the verb is frequently moved.\n", "In fact, it is not only these three classes, but many others that also exhibit similar ordering restrictions not only in English, but in presumably all languages of the world. The question that emerges is how to theoretically account for these facts. In older versions of generative grammar, it was assumed that adjectives are adjuncts. However, an adjunct approach explicitly predicts that the order of the adjectives should be free which is against the empirical facts.\n\nSection::::Cartography of the clause.\n", "Adjectives feature as a part of speech (word class) in most languages. In some languages, the words that serve the semantic function of adjectives are categorized together with some other class, such as nouns or verbs. In the phrase \"a Ford car\", \"Ford\" is unquestionably a noun, but its function is adjectival: to modify \"car\". In some languages adjectives can function as nouns: \"uno rojo\", \"a red (one)\" (Spanish). As for \"confusion\" with verbs, rather than an adjective meaning \"big\", a language might have a verb that means \"to be big\", and could then use an attributive verb construction analogous to \"big-being house\" to express what English expresses as \"big house\". Such an analysis is possible for the grammar of Standard Chinese, for example.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The song was performed live on tour for the first time in November 2005 on the Stones' A Bigger Bang Tour. A performance from the 2006 leg of the tour was captured for the 2008 concert film \"Shine a Light\" and the accompanying soundtrack album. On 11 July in Milan the Stones performed the song with the Italian lyrics. The song was performed as a duet between Jagger and Taylor Swift on 3 June 2013 at the United Center in Chicago, Illinois, for the band's 50 & Counting tour.\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- Mick Jagger – lead vocals\n", "The Stones released a version with Italian lyrics as a single in Italy, under the title \"Con Le Mie Lacrime\" with the lyrics written by . \n", "As Tears Go By (song)\n\n\"As Tears Go By\" is a song written by Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, and Rolling Stones' manager Andrew Loog Oldham. It was released as a single by Marianne Faithfull in 1964 and peaked at number 9 in the United Kingdom. The Rolling Stones recorded their own version later, releasing the track in late 1965 on the album \"December's Children (And Everybody's)\" and subsequently as a single in North America.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "\"Salt tears sprang from my eyes, I could feel them\" (Mer- pg. 64). \n\n\"At the binding taste of salt, I begin to fall once more\" (Lasiren- pg. 46). \n\n\"Georgine let the salt water run freely from her eyes\" (pg. 33).\n\n\"I wriggled up beside her and held her until she was still again. I licked my lips, sucking salt\" (Jeanne, pg. 16). \n\n\"I was born in brackish water, salty as tears. Jeanne cries often. We have salt in common\" (Lasiren about Jeanne, pg. 157).\n", "\"As Tears Go By\" was one of the first original compositions by Jagger and Richards, as until that point The Rolling Stones had chiefly been performing blues standards. A story surrounding the song's genesis has it that Rolling Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham locked Jagger and Richards in a kitchen in order to force them to write a song together, even suggesting what type of song he wanted: \"I want a song with brick walls all around it, high windows and no sex.\" The result was initially named \"As Time Goes By\", the title of the song Dooley Wilson sings in the film \"Casablanca\". It was Oldham who replaced \"Time\" with \"Tears\".\n", "BULLET::::- In 2011, \"Crying\" was featured in the American comedy-drama film \"50/50\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crying\" was featured in an episode of \"Only Fools and Horses\". The episode \"Stage Fright\" featured Raquel and a guest character (Tony Angelino, played by Philip Pope) singing this song at a function. Angelino had a rhotacism, causing him to pronounce his \"R\"s incorrectly.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crying\" is featured near the start of the first of the Australian telemovie trilogy \"Small Claims\" starring Rebecca Gibney and Claudia Karvan.\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- David Schofield as the Owlman\n\nBULLET::::- Lexy Hulme as Eve Turner\n\nBULLET::::- Euan Douglas as James Findlay\n\nBULLET::::- Jamie Scott Gordon as Allen Milton (as Jamie Gordon)\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Ireby as Solicitor\n\nBULLET::::- Neil Cooper as Michael Milton\n\nBULLET::::- Nancy Joy Page as Flora May Findlay\n\nBULLET::::- Graham Robertson as Henry Findlay\n\nBULLET::::- Jock Ferguson as Taxi Driver\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "At one point during the recording process, Foster also had Neil Young re-record his line after singing the word \"innocence\" flat, to which Young famously quipped, \"That's my sound, man.\"\n\nSection::::Video.\n\nThe song's video opens with footage from Brian Stewart's original CBC News report on the famine, and then cuts to the performers singing the song in a studio. Near the end of the video, footage also appears from the 1985 NHL All-Star Game in Calgary, depicting the Campbell Conference All-Stars — including Wayne Gretzky — singing along as the audience waves flags and banners in the air.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Crying\" was featured in the 1997 dystopian art movie \"Gummo\". After huffing glue, Tummler remarks that his cross-dressing brother used to sing \"Crying\". Tummler then proceeds to weakly sing parts of the song. The original version of the song is used during the last scenes of the movie.\n\nBULLET::::- The song is featured in the 1999 film \"Paperback Hero\", sung by Hugh Jackman and Claudia Karvan.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Llorando\" was featured in a famous scene in \"Mulholland Drive\" and during the closing scenes of \"Prison Break\" in season 3.\n", "The B-side is the lyric-less classical version of the song, which was previously on Yoshiki's solo album \"Eternal Melody\". It was produced, arranged and conducted by famed music producer George Martin and performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra.\n\nA live performance of \"Tears\" was included as the B-side to their 1996 single \"Dahlia\". Yoshiki's MySpace streams a different version of the song entitled \"Tears (Unreleased Version)\".\n", "\"Crocodile tears syndrome\", also known as Bogorad's syndrome, is an uncommon consequence of nerve regeneration subsequent to Bell's palsy or other damage to the facial nerve in which efferent fibres from the superior salivary nucleus become improperly connected to nerve axons projecting to the lacrimal glands, causing one to shed tears (lacrimate) during salivation while smelling foods or eating. It is presumed that this would cause salivation while crying due to the inverse improper connection of the lacrimal nucleus to the salivary glands, but this would be less noticeable.\n", "Oldham played a demo for her with Jagger singing and Big Jim Sullivan on acoustic guitar. \"He handed me a scrawled lyric sheet and I went back into the studio and did it. As soon as I heard the cor anglais playing the opening bars I knew it was going to work. After a couples of takes it was done. Andrew came and gave be a big hug. Congratulations darling. You've got yourself a number six, he said\"\n", "Section::::Track listing.:Side one.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Pray Every Day\" (Buck Owens, Red Simpson) – 2:09\n\nBULLET::::2. \"When Jesus Calls All His Children In\" (Owens, Simpson) – 2:17\n\nBULLET::::3. \"I'll Go to the Church Again With Momma\" (Owens, Simpson) – 3:03\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Bring It to Jesus\" (Buck Owens, Bonnie Owens) – 2:12\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Jesus Saved Me\" (Owens, Simpson) – 2:25\n\nBULLET::::6. \"Would You Be Ready?\" (Don Rich) – 2:01\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Side two.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Dust on Mother's Bible\" (Owens) – 3:30\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Satan's Gotta Get Along Without Me\" (Owens, Simpson) – 2:04\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Where Would I Be Without Jesus\" (Don Sessions) – 2:11\n", "On December 22, 1985, CBC Television aired a 90-minute documentary by John Zaritsky on the song and its creation. A CBC reporter, Brian Stewart, had been the first Western journalist to bring the famine in Ethiopia to worldwide attention. The film was a shortlisted Genie Award finalist for Best Documentary Film at the 7th Genie Awards in 1986.\n\nBy 1990, the project had raised $3.2 million for famine relief projects in Africa. Ten percent of the funds raised were kept in Canada to assist Canadian food banks.\n\nSection::::Performers.\n\nSection::::Performers.:Heard in duos or trios.\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Reno (Loverboy) with Liberty Silver\n", "BULLET::::- Acoustic and Electric Piano: Greg Mathieson\n\nBULLET::::- Bass: Neil Stubenhaus\n\nBULLET::::- Drums: James Gadson\n\nBULLET::::- Guitar: Jay Graydon and Jeff Baxter\n\nBULLET::::- Background Vocals: Julia Waters, Maxine Waters, Luther Vandross\n\nBULLET::::- Produced By Gary Klein for The Entertainment Company in association with Giorgio Moroder Productions\n\nBULLET::::- Arranged and Conducted by Greg Mathieson\n\nBULLET::::- Vocals arranged by Bruce Roberts, Paul Jabara and Luther Waters\n\nBULLET::::- Engineered by Juergen Koppers and John Arrias\n\nBULLET::::- Recorded at Village Recorders and Rusk Sound Studios, Los Angeles\n\nSection::::Cover versions.\n", "We thought, what a terrible piece of tripe. We came out and played it to Andrew [Oldham], and he said 'It's a hit.' We actually sold this stuff, and it actually made money. Mick and I were thinking, this is money for old rope!\n\nAccording to Jagger biographer Philip Norman, the song was mainly created by Jagger, in co-operation with session guitarist Big Jim Sullivan.\n", "Salt- Salt is a unifying element of the women in the novel. They all shed salt tears and taste/smell the bitterness of salty sweat during sexual encounters. Lasiren is called forth by these heavily salted moments, and that is how she travels from woman to woman. \"I open my mouth to try to sing the three-twist chant I can hear, and tears i didn't know before this were called tears roll in a runnelled crisscross down the thing that is my face and past my...lips? to drip salt onto my tongue. At the binding taste of salt, I begin to fall once more\" (Lasiren beginning to travel through the salt she feels, pg. 46). \n", "BULLET::::- In \"Ally McBeal\", season 2 episode 6 \"Worlds Without Love\", \"Crying\" is sung by Vonda Shepard.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Sports Night\", season 2, episode 14 (\"And the Crowd Goes Wild\"), Casey McCall wears sunglasses during the course of a day following an eye exam. His colleagues ridicule him for this, one of them saying, \"Hit the high note in 'Crying' and I'll be impressed,\" in reference to Orbison and his trademark sunglasses.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Castle Rock\", Season 1, episode 4 (\"The Box\"), the song plays over character Dennis Zalewski's shooting rampage through Shawshank Prison.\n", "BULLET::::- Lyrics from \"The Diary of Alicia Keys\"\n\nBULLET::::1. Karma\n\nBULLET::::2. Heartburn\n\nBULLET::::3. You Don't Know My Name\n\nBULLET::::4. If I Ain't Got You\n\nBULLET::::5. Diary\n\nBULLET::::6. Dragon Days\n\nBULLET::::7. Wake Up\n\nBULLET::::8. So Simple\n\nBULLET::::9. When You Really Love Someone\n\nBULLET::::10. Slow Down\n\nBULLET::::11. Samsonite Man\n\nBULLET::::12. Nobody, Not Really\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "BULLET::::- // is found predominately from loanwords, but, in some dialects, also from the voicing of // (e.g. \"ḥašbunā\" /xa:ʒbu:na:/, \"counting\", from the root \"ḥ-š-b,\" \"to count\") as in the Jilu dialect or the splitting of // (e.g. \"Urmižnāyā\" /Uɾ:mɪ:ʒna:ya:/, “Urmian”).\n\nBULLET::::- In some Tyari and Chaldean dialects, // may be realised as [] or [].\n\nBULLET::::- /n/ can be pronounced [] before velar consonants [x] and [q] and as [] before labial consonants.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Klaus Tange as Dan Kristensen\n\nBULLET::::- Anna D'Annunzio as Barbara\n\nBULLET::::- Jean-Michel Vovk as The Inspector\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Louwyck\n\nBULLET::::- Ursula Bedena\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Koener\n\nBULLET::::- Birgit Yew\n\nBULLET::::- Hans De Munter\n\nBULLET::::- Manon Beuchot\n\nBULLET::::- Romain Roll\n\nBULLET::::- Lolita Oosterlynck\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Tears (Joseph Williams album)\n\nTears (2007) is part of a two album concept recorded by Joseph Williams, former lead singer of Toto, that contains 12 cover songs focused on the heartaches and ups and downs of relationships. \"Smiles\" is the other half of the album concept which contains more upbeat, joyful renditions of classic hit songs. In both albums, Williams' soulful, harmonious vocals is accompanied by David Harris on piano. Songs in \"Tears\" include main hit songs from popular artists including Elton John, James Taylor, Eric Clapton, Stevie Wonder, and Smokey Robinson.\n\nSection::::Tracks list.\n\nBULLET::::1. Against All Odds - 3:27\n", "In Korea, a thick drink called \"yulmu cha\" (율무차, literally \"Job's tears tea\") is made from powdered Job's tears. A similar drink, called \"yi ren jiang \" (薏仁漿), also appears in Chinese cuisine, and is made by simmering whole polished Job's tears in water and sweetening the resulting thin, cloudy liquid with sugar. The grains are usually strained from the liquid but may also be consumed separately or together.\n", "Section::::Tyrosine sulfation.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "This activation code is generated during the packaging phase of manufacture, so that every user is receiving the same software but a different activation code. If a user performs a \"casual copy\" of the software for a friend, that friend must have the license code as well as the software to install it on their system. Since the software itself cannot determine that it is a copy, this is a way to beat this basic system.\n\nWith the expansion of computer networking, two additional levels of software protection have evolved, \"network registration\" and \"online registration\".\n\nSection::::Primary methods.:Network registration.\n", "If a method of playback used in previously released content is revealed to have a weakness, either by review or because it has already been exploited, code embedded into content released in the future will change the method, and any attackers will have to start over and attack it again.\n\nSection::::Targeting compromised players.\n\nIf a certain model of players are compromised, code specific to the model can be activated to verify that the particular player has not been compromised. The player can be \"fingerprinted\" if found to be compromised and the information can be used later.\n\nSection::::Forensic marking.\n", "Code inserted into content can add information to the output that specifically identifies the player, and in a large-scale distribution of the content, can be used to trace the player. This may include the fingerprint of a specific player.\n\nSection::::Weaknesses.\n", "BULLET::::- Rung 0\n\nThe project has been analyzed by Coverity’s Scan infrastructure, but no representatives from the open-source software have come forward for the results.\n\nBULLET::::- Rung 1\n\nAt rung 1, there is collaboration between Coverity and the development team. The software is analyzed with a subset of the scanning features to prevent the development team from being overwhelmed.\n\nBULLET::::- Rung 2\n", "In October 2013, Absolute launched an integrated student and device protection initiative called Absolute Safe Schools, which educates students and staff of participating schools on the safe use of mobile devices and provides assistance in the event of device loss and theft. Through this program, which operates in conjunction with Absolute endpoint security products, the Absolute Investigations team works with local law enforcement agencies to recover protected devices after a theft.\n", "Prior to 2009, most games released on Steam had traditional anti-piracy measures, including the assignment and distribution of product keys and support for digital rights management software tools such as SecuROM or non-malicious rootkits. With an update to the Steamworks SDK in March 2009, Valve added its \"Custom Executable Generation\" (CEG) approach into the Steamworks SDK that removed the need for these other measures. The CEG technology creates a unique, encrypted copy of the game's executable files for the given user, which allows them to install it multiple times and on multiple devices, and make backup copies of their software. Once the software is downloaded and installed, the user must then authenticate through Steam to de-encrypt the executable files to play the game. Normally this is done while connected to the Internet following the user's credential validation, but once they have logged into Steam once, a user can instruct Steam to launch in a special offline mode to be able to play their games without a network connection. Developers are not limited to Steam's CEG and may include other forms of DRM and other authentication services than Steam; for example, some games from publisher Ubisoft require the use of their UPlay gaming service, and prior to its shutdown in 2014, some other games required Games for Windows – Live, though many of these games have since transitioned to using the Steamworks CEG approach.\n", "Traitor tracing is a copyright infringement detection system which works by tracing the source of leaked files rather than by direct copy protection. The method is that the distributor adds a unique salt to each copy given out. When a copy of it is leaked to the public, the distributor can check the value on it and trace it back to the \"leaker\".\n\nSection::::Primary methods.\n\nSection::::Primary methods.:Activation controls.\n\nThe main concept is that each licensee (the user) is given a unique key which unlocks the software or allows the media to be decrypted.\n", "The process of online registration is very similar to activation codes, but adds an additional step. Most modern companies are now not only internally networked, but are also connected to the internet. This allows the software manufacturers to add an additional check to their system during the installation process. When the user enters a valid license code, the software does not immediately install. Instead, it uses the active internet connection to contact a server being operated by the software manufacturer. The license code is transmitted to the server, and it waits for the server to tell it whether the install should be permitted. The server maintains a database of all the serial numbers that have been used to install their software. If a single serial number is used on a number of machines (a typical limit would be five machines) then the server tells the software that it is likely a copy and to abort the installation. The users are usually presented with a dialog instructing them to contact the manufacturer.\n", "The releasing agency will promptly provide a copy of the disclosed information to the VEP secretariat for record keeping. Additionally, the releasing agency is expected to follow-up so the ERB can determine whether the vendor’s action meets government requirements. If the vendor chooses not to address a vulnerability, or is not acting with urgency consistent with the risk of the vulnerability, the releasing agency will notify the secretariat, and the government may take other mitigation steps.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Since XXX, OPSWAT's certification program has certified the compatibility of endpoint security applications with access control and zero trust solutions. Over 100 endpoint security application vendors participate in OPSWAT certification. Over 100 million devices are protected by access control and zero trust vendor solutions that rely on OPSWAT certification to determine whether those devices are running trusted endpoint security applications. \n", "Some software that implements online registration extends this with a process commonly known as \"phoning home\". In this case, the software, either each time it is used or at some preset interval such as monthly, makes another connection back to the registration server. It does this to check in with the server to see if the serial number it is using has been determined to be one that is being used to install in many places. Serial numbers that have been identified as \"pirated\" (illegally distributed) are added to a blacklist on the server, a process referred to as being \"burned\". Burned serial numbers cannot be used to install or activate the product. Serial number lists are available on the internet that include a large number of valid registration codes for many software titles. It is common for software manufacturers to seek out these lists and invalidate the serial numbers that appear on these lists. This discourages individuals from giving out their registration codes for fear that this code will later be invalidated, disabling the original install of the software the next time that it \"phones home\".\n", "XCP.Sony.Rootkit installs a DRM executable as a Windows service, but misleadingly names this service \"Plug and Play Device Manager\", employing a technique commonly used by malware authors to fool everyday users into believing this is a part of Windows. Approximately every 1.5 seconds, this service queries the primary executables associated with all processes running on the machine, resulting in nearly continuous read attempts on the hard drive. This has been shown to shorten the drive's lifespan.\n", "BULLET::::- Google Compute Engine has support for virtualized TPMs (vTPMs) as part of Google Cloud's Shielded VMs product.\n\nBULLET::::- Infineon provides both TPM chips and TPM software, which is delivered as OEM versions with new computers, as well as separately by Infineon for products with TPM technology which complies to TCG standards. For example, Infineon licensed TPM management software to Broadcom Corp. in 2004.\n", "In 2017, the European Commission began investigating Valve and five other publishers—Bandai Namco Entertainment, Capcom, Focus Home Interactive, Koch Media and ZeniMax Media—for anti-competitive practices, specifically the use of geo-blocking through the Steam storefront and Steam product keys to prevent access to software to citizens of certain countries. Such practices would be against the Digital Single Market initiative set by the European Union. The French gaming trade group, Syndicat National du Jeu Vidéo, noted that geo-blocking was a necessary feature to hinder inappropriate product key reselling, where a group buys a number of keys in regions where the cost is low, and then resells them into regions of much higher value to profit on the difference, outside of European oversight and tax laws.\n", "Section::::Forensic process.\n\nThe forensics process for mobile devices broadly matches other branches of digital forensics; however, some particular concerns apply. Generally, the process can be broken down into three main categories: seizure, acquisition, and examination/analysis. Other aspects of the computer forensic process, such as intake, validation, documentation/reporting, and archiving still apply.\n\nSection::::Forensic process.:Seizure.\n", "It has become very common for software to require activation by entering some proof of legal purchase such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Name & Serial, a name and serial number that is given to the user at the time the software is purchased\n\nBULLET::::- A phone activation code, which requires the user to call a number and register the product to receive a computer-specific serial number.\n\nBULLET::::- Device ID, specifically tying a copy of software to a computer or mobile device based on a unique identifier only known to that device (like the IMEI of a smartphone).\n", "Software audits are a component of corporate risk management, and they certainly minimise the risk of prosecution for copyright infringement due to use of unlicensed software. Most vendors permit the company to settle without prosecution though in serious cases, prosecutions certainly occur. In addition with a strict software usage policy the risk of computer viruses are minimised by preventing uncontrolled software copying.\n\nSection::::Organizations.\n", "For protecting Linux systems against vulnerabilities, various other software packages are available, like rootkit detectors such as Rootkit Hunter and chkrootkit, auditing systems like lynis. Malware detection software like LMD and ClamAV add to the security of systems by scanning them based on the signatures of thousands of instances of known malware.\n\nFor malware signatures, LMD uses various sources, like the signatures database of ClamAV and the Malware Hash Registry of Team Cymru. Besides such third party signature databases, it also maintains its own database of signatures.\n", "The responsibility of assuring said integrity using TPM is with the firmware and the operating system. For example, Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) can use TPM to form a root of trust: The TPM contains several Platform Configuration Registers (PCRs) that allow secure storage and reporting of security relevant metrics. These metrics can be used to detect changes to previous configurations and decide how to proceed. Good examples can be found in Linux Unified Key Setup (LUKS), BitLocker and PrivateCore vCage memory encryption. (See below.)\n", "These tools can detect vulnerabilities of the finalized release candidate versions prior to shipping. Scanners simulate a malicious user by attacking and probing, identifying results which are not part of the expected result set.\n\nAs a dynamic testing tool, web scanners are not language dependent. A web application scanner is able to scan engine-driven web applications. Attackers use the same tools, so if the tools can find a vulnerability, so can attackers.\n\nSection::::Commercial and open-source scanners.:DAST Weaknesses.\n", "Section::::Data acquisition types.:Logical acquisition.:File system acquisition.\n", "This system enables users to install the game on multiple systems (as there is not a limited number of activations), while also discouraging sharing by noting that any user who has access to the owner's LGP account credentials could potentially lock the owner out of their own game.\n\nSection::::Copy protection.:Games published.\n\nCurrently, LGP has published nine games that contain their DRM technology:\n", "If the review board members cannot reach consensus, they will vote on a preliminary determination. If an agency with an equity disputes that decision, they may, by providing notice to the VEP secretariat, elect to contest the preliminary determination. If no agency contests a preliminary determination, it will be treated as a final decision.\n\nSection::::Process.:Handling and follow-on actions.\n\nIf vulnerability information is released, this will be done as quickly as possible, preferably within seven business days. \n", "BULLET::::- Fixed planning to allocate software usage to computers according to the policies a company specifies and to maintain a record of usage and attempted usage. A company can check out and check in licenses for mobile users, and can also keep a record of all licenses in use. This is often used when limited license counts are available to avoid violating strict license controls.\n", "In 2014, Samsung released a security service called Knox, which is a tool that prevents all modifying of system and boot files, and any attempts set an e-fuse to 0x1, permanently voiding the warranty.\n\nSection::::Legality.\n" ]

[ "Software distribution platforms (such as Steam or Play Store) verify the security of the software they offer.", "Distribution platforms such as Steam verify the security of the software they offer." ]

[ "Steam has no quality assurance at all, thus do not verify the security of the software they offer.", "Steam has no quality assurance at all." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Software distribution platforms (such as Steam or Play Store) verify the security of the software they offer.", "Distribution platforms such as Steam verify the security of the software they offer." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Steam has no quality assurance at all, thus do not verify the security of the software they offer.", "Steam has no quality assurance at all." ]

[ "In musical terms, they are often described as sounding hollow, and are therefore used as the basis for wind instrument sounds created using subtractive synthesis. Additionally, the distortion effect used on electric guitars clips the outermost regions of the waveform, causing it to increasingly resemble a square wave as more distortion is applied.\n\nSimple two-level Rademacher functions are square waves.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nThe square wave in mathematics has many definitions, which are equivalent except at the discontinuities:\n\nIt can be defined as simply the sign function of a sinusoid:\n", "It was also independently developed in a similar time frame by Michael McNabb, who used it in his 1978 composition \"Dreamsong\".\n\nSection::::Principle.\n", "In 1992, Heil and his team pioneered the field of modern line source array loudspeakers with their V-DOSC system, which benefitted from L-Acoustics’ new Wavefront Sculpture Technology (WST) theory. Based on principles developed by Heil and fellow physics colleague Professor Marcel Urban, WST defined five criteria for design and use of true line source arrays. At the heart of WST is the internationally-patented DOSC waveguide, which was the first high-frequency device capable of creating a rectangular, constant-phase planar output.\n", "The film documents the musical instrument's invention by Maurice Martenot, who conceived his instrument after being inspired by the humming and static sounds made by the telegraph machines he operated during the First World War. He built fewer than 300 of the instruments that bear his name during his lifetime, of which there are only about 70 left.\n", "Until the early 1980s, the tonal palette of commercial synthesizers was limited to that which could be obtained by combining a few simple waveforms such as sine, sawtooth, pulse. The result was shaped with VCFs and VCAs. Wolfgang Palm transcended this limitation by pioneering the concept of wavetable synthesis, where single cycle waveforms of differing harmonic spectra were stored in adjacent memory slots. Dynamic spectral shifts were achieved by scanning through the waveforms, with interpolation used to avoid noticeable 'jumps' between the adjacent waveforms.\n", "4. The çeng's resonator was constructed in two ways, either curved or straight. While the curved resonator is encountered in Iranian, Arab, Uygur, Chinese and even Japanese miniatures, the straight resonator appears only in Ottoman miniatures.\n", "Experiments of this kind, similar to those carried out earlier by Galileo Galilei around 1630 and by Robert Hooke in 1680, were later perfected by Chladni, who introduced them systematically in 1787 in his book \"Entdeckungen über die Theorie des Klanges\" (Discoveries on the theory of sound). This provided an important contribution to the understanding of acoustic phenomena and the functioning of musical instruments. The figures thus obtained (with the aid of a violin bow that rubbed perpendicularly along the edge of smooth plates covered with fine sand) are still designated by the name of \"Chladni figures\".\n", "Section::::SAW devices.:Application in electronic components.\n\nThis kind of wave is commonly used in devices called \"SAW devices\" in electronic circuits. SAW devices are used as filters, oscillators and transformers, devices that are based on the transduction of acoustic waves. The transduction from electric energy to mechanical energy (in the form of SAWs) is accomplished by the use of piezoelectric materials.\n", "DW expanded into larger facilities in Oxnard, California, and grew to oversee a new company, Pacific Drums and Percussion, a company offering lower-priced drumsets.\n\nDW pioneered the timbre-matching technique of grouping a set of drumshells together by listening to the note each shell holds before it is sanded. Each shell produced by the Oxnard DW factory is stamped with the note of that shell on the interior.\n", "When two waves having the same amplitude and frequency, and traveling in opposite directions, superpose each other, then a standing wave pattern is created. Note that, on a plucked string, the interfering waves are the waves reflected from the fixed end points of the string. Therefore, standing waves occur only at certain frequencies, which are referred to as resonant frequencies and are composed of a fundamental frequency and its higher harmonics. The resonant frequencies of a string are proportional to: the length between the fixed ends; the tension of the string; and inversely proportional to the mass per unit length of the string.\n", "Carvings in the Rosslyn Chapel from the 1560s may represent an early attempt to record the Chladni patterns produced by sound in stone representations, although this theory has not been conclusively proved.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994: V-DOSC and Network\n\nBULLET::::- 1995: ARCS Constant Curvature Array\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: dV-DOSC modular line source\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Soundvision simulation software\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Kudo and K-Louver variable directivity\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: P Series self-powered coaxials\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Amplified controllers, SB28 laminar vents\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: K1/Kudo pilot program\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: New Rental Network\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Kara, SB18 (laminar vent), System Integration Charter\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: ARCS II constant curvature line source\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: ARCS Wide/Focus (aka ARCS WiFo) constant curvature line sources\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: K2 variable curvature line source\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: X Series coaxials\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: KS28 subwoofer and LA12X amplified controller\n", "The study of vibrations on drums led mathematicians to pose a famous mathematical problem on whether the shape of a drum can be heard, with an answer being given in 1992 in the two-dimensional setting.\n\nSection::::Motivation.\n", "For the 1966 paper that made the question famous, Kac was given the Lester R. Ford Award in 1967 and the Chauvenet Prize in 1968.\n", "The speakers in the IBM PC (released in 1981) and its successors may be used to create sounds and music using a similar mechanism.\n\nSection::::Prior methods.:Square-wave synthesis.\n\nThe first specialized audio circuits in computers included simple analog oscillators that could be set to desired frequencies, generally approximating tones along the musical scale. An example of this is the Atari POKEY custom ASIC used in the Atari 800.\n\nSection::::Prior methods.:FM synthesis.\n", "Triangle (musical instrument)\n\nThe triangle is an idiophone type of musical instrument in the percussion family. It is a bar of metal, usually steel but sometimes other metals such as beryllium copper, bent into a triangle shape. The instrument is usually held by a loop of some form of thread or wire at the top curve. \"It is theoretically an instrument of indefinite pitch, for its fundamental pitch is obscured by its nonharmonic overtones.\"\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient and medieval period.\n", "Each voice has two DCOs, one VCF, one VCA, three ADSR envelopes, and a noise source.\n\nEach DCO can produce triangle, sawtooth, a predefined mix of sawtooth and triangle, and rectangular waves. The pulse width of the rectangular waves ranges from 0 to 100%, and has a dedicated knob. The relative levels of the two DCOs is set with a balance knob.\n\nThe pitch and pulse width of each DCO and the relative level of the two can be modulated.\n", "While a square wave is constructed from only odd harmonics, a sawtooth wave's sound is harsh and clear and its spectrum contains both even and odd harmonics of the fundamental frequency. Because it contains all the integer harmonics, it is one of the best waveforms to use for subtractive synthesis of musical sounds, particularly bowed string instruments like violins and cellos, since the slip-stick behavior of the bow drives the strings with a sawtooth-like motion.\n\nA sawtooth can be constructed using additive synthesis. The infinite Fourier series\n", "The processing procedure consists of four parts. Characteristic sound of each object will be generated first. Then the sound is created and attached to the moving objects. The third step is to calculate the convolutions. Finally the calculated convolutions will be applied to the sound sources we get in step two.\n", "Many revolutionary concepts regarding hearing and encoding sound in the brain were founded in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Various tool were used induce a response in auditory nerves that were to be recorded. Experiments by Helmholtz, Wever, and Bray often involved the use of organ pipes, stretched springs, loaded reeds, lamellas, vibrating forks, beats, and interruption tones to create “clicks”, harmonics, or pure tones. Today, electronic oscillators are often used to create sinusoidal or square waves of precise frequencies.\n\nSection::::Experimental evidence.:Electrophysiology.\n", "This process was first partially automated by with his \"step-by-step\" method of wave form measurement. This consisted of a special single-contact commutator attached to the shaft of a spinning rotor. The contact point could be moved around the rotor following a precise degree indicator scale and the output appearing on a galvanometer, to be hand-graphed by the technician. This process could only produce a very rough waveform approximation since it was formed over a period of several thousand wave cycles, but it was the first step in the science of waveform imaging.\n\nSection::::Automatic paper-drawn oscillograph.\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"On the curves produced by reflection from a polished revolving straight wire\", Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, volume 28, 1877, 273–276\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"On the toothing of un-round discs which are intended to roll upon each other\", Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, volume 28, 1877, 191–195\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"On the construction of the canon of sines, for the decimal division of the quadrant\", Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, volume 9, 1878, 343–349 link\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"Analysis of the vibration of wires\", The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, volume 12, 1832, 308–319 link\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"A new solution of that case of spherical trigonometry, in which it is proposed, from two sides and their contained angle, to determine the third side\", The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, volume 14, 1833, 311–314 link\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Sang, \"On the advantages of a short arc of vibration for the clock pendulum\"\n\nBULLET::::- The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, volume 15, 1833, 137–141, link\n", "Section::::Early systems.:Magnavox.\n\nPeter Jensen and Edwin Pridham of Magnavox began experimenting with sound reproduction in the 1910s. Working from a laboratory in Napa, California, they filed the first patent for a moving coil loudspeaker in 1911. Four years later, in 1915, they built a dynamic loudspeaker with a voice coil, a corrugated diaphragm and a horn measuring with a aperture. The electromagnet created a flux field of approximately 11,000 Gauss.\n", "Section::::Hand-drawn oscillograms.\n\nThe earliest method of creating an image of a waveform was through a laborious and painstaking process of measuring the voltage or current of a spinning rotor at specific points around the axis of the rotor, and noting the measurements taken with a galvanometer. By slowly advancing around the rotor, a general standing wave can be drawn on graphing paper by recording the degrees of rotation and the meter strength at each position.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Carbon fibers are usually combined with other materials to form a composite. When impregnated with a plastic resin and baked it forms carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (often referred to as carbon fiber) which has a very high strength-to-weight ratio, and is extremely rigid although somewhat brittle. Carbon fibers are also composited with other materials, such as graphite, to form reinforced carbon-carbon composites, which have a very high heat tolerance.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Carbon fibers\n\nCarbon fibers or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion. These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive when compared with similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic fibers.\n", "C/C is a hard material that can be made highly resistant to thermal expansion, temperature gradients, and thermal cycling, depending on how the fibre scaffold is laid up and the quality/density of the matrix filler.\n\nSection::::Mechanical properties.\n\nThe strength of carbon–carbon with unidirectional reinforcement fibres is up to 700 MPa. Carbon–carbon materials retain their properties above 2000 °C. This temperature may be exceeded with the help of protective coatings to prevent oxidation.\n\nThe material has a density between 1.6–1.98 g/cm.\n\nSection::::Similar products.\n", "Carbon fibre production began in the late 1950s and was used, though not widely, in British industry beginning in the early 1960s. Aramid fibres were being produced around this time also, appearing first under the trade name Nomex by DuPont. Today, each of these fibres is used widely in industry for any applications that require plastics with specific strength or elastic qualities. Glass fibres are the most common across all industries, although carbon-fibre and carbon-fibre-aramid composites are widely found in aerospace, automotive and sporting good applications. These three (glass, carbon, and aramid) continue to be the important categories of fibre used in FRP.\n", "The mechanical functionality of materials is heavily reliant on the combined performances of both the resin (AKA matrix) and fibers. For example, in severe temperature conditions (over 180 °C), the resin component of the composite may lose its functionality, partially due to bond deterioration of resin and fiber. However, GFRPs can still show significant residual strength after experiencing high temperatures (200 °C).\n\nSection::::Properties.:Types of glass fiber used.\n", "Many supercars over the past few decades have incorporated CFRP extensively in their manufacture, using it for their monocoque chassis as well as other components. As far back as 1971, the Citroën SM offered optional lightweight carbon fiber wheels.\n\nUse of the material has been more readily adopted by low-volume manufacturers who used it primarily for creating body-panels for some of their high-end cars due to its increased strength and decreased weight compared with the glass-reinforced polymer they used for the majority of their products.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Civil engineering.\n", "BULLET::::- Carbon fibers – or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion. These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive when compared with similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic fibers.\n", "BULLET::::- Papier-mâché, a composite of paper and glue, has been used for hundreds of years.\n\nBULLET::::- The first artificial fibre reinforced plastic was bakelite which dates to 1907, although natural polymers such as shellac predate it.\n\nBULLET::::- One of the most common and familiar composite is fibreglass, in which small glass fibre are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass fibre is relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible). Thus the resulting fibreglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, and ductile.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Composite materials.\n", "Section::::Structure and properties.\n", "Later, CNT yarns and laminated sheets made by direct chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or forest spinning or drawing methods may compete with carbon fiber for high-end uses, especially in weight-sensitive applications requiring combined electrical and mechanical functionality. Research yarns made from few-walled CNTs have reached a stiffness of 357 GPa and a strength of 8.8 GPa for a gauge length comparable to the millimeter-long CNTs within the yarn. Centimeter-scale gauge lengths offer only 2-GPa gravimetric strengths, matching that of Kevlar.\n", "BULLET::::- Void volume and water absorption: Fibers are fairly porous with a large volume of internal voids. As a result, when the fibers are immersed in the binding material, they absorb a large amount of matrix. High absorption can cause fiber shrinkage and matrix swelling. However, a high void volume contributes to reduced weight, increased acoustic absorption, and low thermal conductivity of the final composite material.\n\nBULLET::::- Tensile strength: Similar, on average, to the polypropylene's fibers.\n", "Section::::Process description.:Forming processes.:Mandrel wrapping.\n\nSheets of prepreg material are wrapped around a steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are typically batch cured by vacuum bagging and hanging in an oven. After cure, the cello and mandrel are removed leaving a hollow carbon tube. This process creates strong and robust hollow carbon tubes.\n\nSection::::Process description.:Forming processes.:Wet layup.\n", "CFRPs are extensively used in high-end automobile racing. The high cost of carbon fiber is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly is most widely used in the \"safety cell\" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars. The first carbon fiber monocoque chassis was introduced in Formula One by McLaren in the 1981 season. It was designed by John Barnard and was widely copied in the following seasons by other F1 teams due to the extra rigidity provided to the chassis of the cars.\n", "Fibre fabrics are web-form fabric reinforcing material that has both warp and weft directions. Fibre mats are web-form non-woven mats of glass fibres. Mats are manufactured in cut dimensions with chopped fibres, or in continuous mats using continuous fibres. Chopped fibre glass is used in processes where lengths of glass threads are cut between 3 and 26 mm, threads are then used in plastics most commonly intended for moulding processes. Glass fibre short strands are short 0.2–0.3 mm strands of glass fibres that are used to reinforce thermoplastics most commonly for injection moulding.\n\nSection::::Material requirements.:Carbon fibre.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Other applications.\n\nThe fire resistance of polymers and thermo-set composites is significantly improved if a thin layer of carbon fibers is moulded near the surface because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat.\n\nCFRP is also finding application in an increasing number of high-end products that require stiffness and low weight, these include:\n\nBULLET::::- Musical instruments, including violin bows, guitar picks and pick-guards, drum shells, bagpipe chanters, and entire musical instruments such as Luis and Clark's carbon fiber cellos, violas, and violins; and Blackbird Guitars' acoustic guitars and ukuleles; also audio components such as turntables and loudspeakers.\n", "LFRTs differ from the composite structures used in the aerospace industry for components such as aircraft parts. The fibers in LFRTs are relatively short (6.35 mm/0.25 in. or greater) compared to the fibres contained in composite aircraft components. High performance composites usually contain fibers as long as the component itself (6 metres or longer).\n", "Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being high strength and low weight. Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. By the 1980s aluminum welding techniques had improved to the point that aluminum tube could safely be used in place of steel. Since then aluminum alloy frames and other components have become popular due to their light weight, and most mid-range bikes are now principally aluminum alloy of some kind. More expensive bikes use carbon fibre due to its significantly lighter weight and profiling ability, allowing designers to make a bike both stiff and compliant by manipulating the lay-up. Virtually all professional racing bicycles now use carbon fibre frames, as they have the best strength to weight ratio. A typical modern carbon fiber frame can weighs less than .\n", "BULLET::::- Easton-Bell Sports, Inc. have been in partnership with Zyvex Performance Materials, using CNT technology in a number of their bicycle components – including flat and riser handlebars, cranks, forks, seatposts, stems and aero bars.\n\nBULLET::::- Amroy Europe Oy manufactures Hybtonite carbon nanoepoxy resins where carbon nanotubes have been chemically activated to bond to epoxy, resulting in a composite material that is 20% to 30% stronger than other composite materials. It has been used for wind turbines, marine paints and a variety of sports gear such as skis, ice hockey sticks, baseball bats, hunting arrows, and surfboards.\n", "\"Panex\" is made from an abundant textile-based precursor and manufactured in a proprietary high-throughput processes that allows it to be the lowest cost carbon fiber on the market. Panex is the dominant material in the wind turbine industry, and is on the forefront of many other applications including automotive, pressure vessels, offshore drilling, and other industrial applications.\n", "PMCs contain about 60 percent reinforcing fiber by volume. The fibers that are commonly found and used within PMCs include fiberglass, graphite and aramid. Fiberglass has a relatively low stiffness at the same time exhibits a competitive tensile strength compared to other fibers. The cost of fiberglass is also dramatically lower than the other fibers which is why fiberglass is one of the most widely used fiber.\n", "The majority of current commercialized wind turbine blades are made from fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs), which are composites consisting of a polymer matrix and fibers. The long fibers provide longitudinal stiffness and strength, and the matrix provides fracture toughness, delamination strength, out-of-plane strength, and stiffness. Material indices based on maximizing power efficiency, and having high fracture toughness, fatigue resistance, and thermal stability, have been shown to be highest for glass and carbon fiber reinforced plastics (GFRPs and CFRPs).\n", "Many CFRP parts are created with a single layer of carbon fabric that is backed with fiberglass. A tool called a chopper gun is used to quickly create these composite parts. Once a thin shell is created out of carbon fiber, the chopper gun cuts rolls of fiberglass into short lengths and sprays resin at the same time, so that the fiberglass and resin are mixed on the spot. The resin is either external mix, wherein the hardener and resin are sprayed separately, or internal mixed, which requires cleaning after every use.\n\nManufacturing methods may include the following:\n\nSection::::Manufacture.:Molding.\n", "BULLET::::- Carbon fiber reinforced polymer – or carbon fiber reinforced plastic, or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP, or often simply carbon fiber, carbon composite, or even carbon), is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers.\n", "Fiber reinforcement materials are added to the resin system increase the tensile strength and stiffness of the finished part. The selection of reinforcement material is based on the properties desired in the finished product. These materials do not react with the resin but are a distinct and integral part of the advanced composite system.\n\nThe three basic types of fiber reinforcement materials in use in the advanced composite industry are\n\nBULLET::::- carbon (Carbon (fibre), graphite, carbon nanotubes)\n\nBULLET::::- aramid\n\nBULLET::::- glass fibers\n", "Section::::Synthesis.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Wallowing in animals\n\nWallowing in animals is a comfort behaviour during which an animal rolls its body about in mud, water or snow. Some definitions include rolling about in dust, however, in ethology this is usually referred to as dust bathing. Wallowing is often combined with other behaviours to fulfil its purpose, for example, elephants will often blow dirt over themselves after wallowing to create a thicker \"coating\", or pigs will allow the mud to dry before rubbing themselves on a tree or rock to remove ectoparasites stuck in the mud.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n", "Section::::Food resources.:Mud-puddling behavior.\n", "Many mammals roll in sand or dirt, presumably to keep parasites away or to help dry themselves after exercise or becoming wet. A sand roll, which is a stall or yard covered with deep sand, is traditionally included as part of stable complexes for use by racehorses after exercise.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Feeding and diet.\n\nThe ruddy turnstone has a varied diet including carrion, eggs and plant material but it feeds mainly on invertebrates. Insects are particularly important in the breeding season. At other times it also takes crustaceans, molluscs and worms. It often flips over stones and other objects to get at prey items hiding underneath; this behaviour is the origin of the name \"turnstone\". It usually forages in flocks.\n", "Pigs lack functional sweat glands and are almost incapable of panting. To thermoregulate, they rely on wallowing in water or mud to cool the body. Adult pigs under natural or free-range conditions can often be seen to wallow when air temperature exceeds 20 °C. Mud is the preferred substrate; after wallowing, the wet mud provides a cooling, and probably protecting, layer on the body. When pigs enter a wallow, they normally dig and root in the mud before entering with the fore-body first. They then wriggle the body back and forth, and rub their faces in the mud so all of the body surface is covered. Before they leave the wallow, they often shake their heads and body, often finishing with rubbing against a tree or a stone next to the wallow. When indoors and hot, domestic pigs often attempt to wallow on wet floor surfaces and in the dunging areas.\n", "Carrion is usually more intentionally utilized. Carrion-feeders seem to represent a different feeding guild from \"classical\" mud-puddlers and fruit-feeders. They include diverse taxa, e.g. brush-footed butterflies such as \"Cirrochroa emalea\" of the Nymphalinae or the tawny rajah (\"Charaxes bernardus\") of the Charaxinae, as well as gossamer-winged butterflies like \"Curetis tagalica\" of the Curetinae or the common imperial (\"Cheritra freja\") of the Theclinae.\n", "Horses and ponies standing for hours in muddy, wet paddocks and at gates are a common sight during the winter months and early spring. It is in these conditions that mud fever thrives. Generally, those horses and ponies with white socks are more prone to the condition, although Mud Fever will affect horses of all breeds, ages and colours.\n", "Sand is ideal when looking at microbial growth. Sand is the most comfortable bedding because of its natural ability to form to the animals curvature. However, large sand particles can cause abrasions and bruising on an animal. Another downfall is sand is not very absorbent and causes a difficult clean up of soiled materials.\n\nSection::::Benefits of Bedding.\n", "Pigs are genetically related to animals such as hippopotamus and whales. It has been argued that wallowing behaviour and the desire to be in shallow, murky water could have been a step to the evolution of whales and other marine mammals from land-dwelling mammals.\n\nSection::::Sumatran rhinoceros.\n", "Bedding also creates an environment of moisture retention. Although incapable to prevent all microbial activity, bedding absorbs a substantial amount of moisture within the animal’s living environment. Soaking up excess urine, bedding assists in keeping the cage dry until the next change. A drier cage also promotes ventilation which decreases harmful levels of environmental pathogens.\n", "Section::::Heterolithic bedding types.:Wavy bedding.\n\nIf mud and sand deposits are equal, wavy bedding is produced. Wavy bedding occurs when mud is deposited over the whole area of a bed of rippled and/or cross stratified sand. It usually loosely follows the alternating concave-convex nature of the ripples creating a wavy appearance. In wavy bedding the ripples are laterally discontinuous. Wavy bedding marks the boundary between flaser and lenticular bedding.\n\nSection::::Heterolithic bedding types.:Lenticular bedding.\n", "Analysis of soils consumed by wild birds show that they often prefer soils with high clay content, usually with the smectite clay families being well represented.\n", "A 1956 Scrooge McDuck comic, \"Land Beneath the Ground!\", by Carl Barks, introduced Terries and Fermies (a play on the phrase \"terra firma\"), creatures who move from place to place by rolling. The Terries and Fermies have made a sport of their rolling abilities, causing earthquakes in the process.\n", "Because of their relative lack of sweat glands, pigs often control their body temperature using behavioural thermoregulation. Wallowing, which often consists of coating the body with mud, is a behaviour frequently exhibited by pigs. They do not submerge completely under the mud, but vary the depth and duration of wallowing depending on environmental conditions. Typically, adult pigs start wallowing once the ambient temperature is around 17-21 °C. They cover themselves from head to toe in mud. Pigs may use mud as a sunscreen, or as a method of keeping parasites away. Most bristled pigs will \"blow their coat\", meaning that they shed most of the longer, more-coarse stiff hair once a year, usually in spring or early summer, to prepare for the warmer months ahead.\n", "Section::::Building materials.:Collected materials.:Mud and stones.\n\nMud is used by a few species of a wide variety of families including wasps and birds. Mud is plastic when wet and provides compressive strength when dried. Amongst birds, 5% of all birds use mud and stones in their nest for toughness and compressive strength.\n\nSection::::Building materials.:Self-secreted materials.\n", "Although temperature regulation seems to be the main motivation for wallowing in pigs, they will still wallow in colder weather. While many have suggested that pigs wallow in mud because of a lack of sweat glands, pigs and other wallowing animals may have not evolved functional sweat glands because wallowing was a part of their behavioural repertoire.\n", "Many animals benefit from bedding, including livestock, poultry, rodents and reptiles. Bedding, in the simplest context, provides comfort for these animals. When constructed properly, these cushioned structures decrease irritability and rough textures that can cause pain, pressure, and stress on the subject. This also prevents bruising and sores to preserve the physical beauty of the animal.\n", "This species also helped launch Sir David Attenborough's career in 1954, when he was the producer on the new television program \"Zoo Quest\". The show's presenter Jack Lester was required to travel to Africa to record attempts to capture animals for display in zoos, with the focus of the series being on the white-necked rockfowl. However, when he fell ill, Attenborough took his place, which launched him into the limelight and starting his narrating career.\n\nSection::::Relationship with humans.:Conservation.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n", "Mud fever affects most horses and ponies during winter and early spring, resulting in painful sores and scabs, which in severe cases can make a horse lame. Mud fever most commonly affects the pastern and heel area but can also affect the upper leg, the belly, and in some cases the neck area (also known as Rain Scald). Non-pigmented skin tends to be more severely affected.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Sediment.\n", "As domestics, guineafowl are valuable pest controllers, eating many insects. They are especially beneficial in controlling the Lyme disease-carrying deer tick, as well as wasp nests. While they are rarely kept in large numbers, a few are sometimes kept with other fowl to be used as a security system against birds of prey. They will call with their loud, high shrieking voices if concerned about intruders. They are highly social birds and tend to languish when alone.\n", "Bedding (animals)\n\nBedding, in ethology and animal husbandry, is material, usually organic, used by animals to support their bodies when resting or otherwise stationary. It reduces pressure on skin, heat loss, and contamination by waste produced by an animal or those it shares living space with.\n\nSection::::Types of bedding.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nSquirrels that have lived in metal cages without bedding all their lives do all the actions that a wild squirrel does when burying a nut. It scratches at the metal floor as if digging a hole, it acts as if it were taking a nut to the place where it scratched though there is no nut, then it pats the metal floor as if covering an imaginary buried nut.\n\nLorenz observed that a starling bird snapped at the air when flying as if it were catching insects though there were no real insects there.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Most of the muscle in an alligator's jaw evolved to bite and grip prey. The muscles that close the jaws are exceptionally powerful, but the muscles for opening their jaws are comparatively weak. As a result, an adult human can hold an alligator's jaws shut bare-handed. It is common today to use several wraps of duct tape to prevent an adult alligator from opening its jaws when being handled or transported.\n", "Asian elephants may use tools in insightful problem solving. A captive male was observed moving a box to a position where it could be stood upon to reach food that had been deliberately hung out of reach.\n\nElephants have also been known to drop large rocks onto an electric fence to either ruin the fence or cut off the electricity.\n\nSection::::Definitions and terminology.:Cetaceans.\n", "Honey badgers both wild and captive have been filmed manipulating various objects to assist them in making climbs.\n", "An infant or toddler is more likely than other family members to be injured by an animal because they cannot defend themselves and are lower to the ground. Familiar family pets with no prior history of aggression are more likely to attack the child than unfamiliar pets from other households.\n\nSection::::Choking.\n\nToddlers and infants who can hold objects can choke when a small object is inhaled and blocks the trachea.\n\nSection::::Falls.\n\nHigh chairs can be hazardous due to the risk of falls.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In animal husbandry and training, the animals may be disciplined to perform specific task and activities without errors. Additionally, animals can discipline their young through numerous methods; including nips, bites, and grips.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nIf the prey is on the ground and pinned, most predators position themselves behind the animal to use their body's weight to help control the movements of the prey and reach around to grab the throat, usually twisting the head around, aiding in both their grasp and the blocking of the windpipe.\n", "At least some wild bottlenose dolphins use tools. In Shark Bay, dolphins place a marine sponge on their rostrum, presumably to protect it when searching for food on the sandy sea bottom. This has only been observed in this bay (first in 1997), and is predominantly practiced by females. Sea otters are the only other known marine mammalian tool users. A 2005 study showed mothers most likely teach the behavior to their offspring, evincing culture (behavior learned from other species members).\n", "BULLET::::- Soft Mouth Springers are taught to deliver game with a soft mouth, meaning he does not puncture it with his teeth. The game should always be \"fit for the table\". If a springer damages the bird, it may be hard mouthed. This is a serious fault, but it can be difficult to determine whether it may have been genetic or caused by poor training methods. Breeders generally avoid using any springer that is hard mouthed.\n", "BULLET::::- Soft Mouth It is desired that a springer deliver game with a soft mouth, meaning he does not puncture it with his teeth. The game should always be \"fit for the table\". If a springer damages the bird, it may be hard mouthed. This is a serious fault, but it can be difficult to determine whether it may have been genetic or caused by poor training methods. It is usually wise to avoid breeding any springer that is hard mouthed.\n", "Orangutans (genus \"Pongo\") were first observed using tools in the wild in 1994 in the northwest corner of Sumatra. As with the chimpanzees, orangutans use tools made from branches and leaves to scratch, scrape, wipe, sponge, swat, fan, hook, probe, scoop, pry, chisel, hammer, cover, cushion and amplify. They will break off a tree branch that is about 30 cm long, snap off the twigs, fray one end and then use the stick to dig in tree holes for termites. Sumatran orangutans use a variety of tools—up to 54 types for extracting insects or honey, and as many as 20 types for opening or preparing fruits such as the hard to access \"Neesia Malayana\". They also use an 'autoerotic tool'—a stick which they use to stimulate the genitals and masturbate (both male and female). In parts of Borneo, orangutans use handfuls of leaves as napkins to wipe their chins while orangutans in parts of Sumatra use leaves as gloves, helping them handle spiny fruits and branches, or as seat cushions in spiny trees. There have been reports that individuals in both captivity and in the wild use tools held between the lips or teeth, rather than in the hands. In captivity, orangutans have been taught to chip stone handaxes.\n", "Section::::Definitions and terminology.:Other carnivores.\n\nWild banded mongooses (\"Mungos mungo\") regularly use anvils to open food items with a hard shell such as rhinoceros beetles, bird eggs, snail shells or pupating dung beetles. They use a range of anvils commonly including rocks and the stems of trees, but will also use the side-walls of gullys and even dried elephant dung. Pups as young as 2 months of age are already showing the behavioural patterns associated with using an anvil, however, successful smashing is usually shown in individuals older than 6 months of age.\n", "Section::::Learning.:Social transmission.\n\nOtters forage independently, except for females with offspring, who feed with their single young. Twins are observed but very rare. This allows for the mother otters to focus their attention on the pup, especially because mating occurs without pair bonding, so the father of the pup is not present. Pups express the same preferences in tools, technique, and diet as their mothers, which is evidence of vertical social transmission.\n", "Wild orangutans (\"P. pygmaeus wurmbii\") in Tuanan, Borneo, were reported to use tools in acoustic communication. They use leaves to amplify the kiss squeak sounds they produce. The apes may employ this method of amplification to deceive the listener into believing they are larger animals.\n", "Other species appear to similarly teach their young through the provisioning of weakened or otherwise subdued prey. In both cheetahs and domestic cats, adults catch live prey animals and transport them back to cubs, allowing the cubs to learn and practice hunting skills.\n\nSection::::Teaching.:Using local enhancement.\n", "Section::::Definitions and terminology.:Borderline examples.:Fixed \"devices\".\n", "Born deaf and blind, kits or cubs require their mother's milk and complete supervision for the first four to five weeks out of the womb, but begin to be progressively weaned after the first month. Once fully weaned, kits seek out various insects. The parents supplement this diet with a variety of mammals and birds. During early to middle July, the kits are able to hunt on their own and soon move away from their parents.\n\nSection::::Domestication.\n", "Tribal peoples around the world have breastfed many types of animal. Travelers in Guyana observed native women breastfeeding a variety of animals, including monkeys, opossums, pacas, agoutis, peccaries and deer. Native Canadians and Americans often breastfed young dogs; an observer commented that the Pima people of Arizona \"withdrew their breasts sooner from their own infants than from young dogs.\"\n", "Baby elephants weigh around at birth. Almost immediately, they can stand up and move around, allowing the mother to roam around and forage, which is also essential to reduce predation. The baby suckles using its mouth while its trunk is held over its head. Their tusks do not come until around 16 months and calves are not weaned until they are roughly 4 or 5 years old. By this time, their tusks are around 14 cm long and begin to get in the way of sucking.\n", "The feeder's design enables the feeder to be activated by tongue and gum pressure, imitating the mechanics involved in breastfeeding, rather than by sucking. \n", "Other evidence of vocal learning in elephants occurred in a cross-fostering situation with a captive African elephant. At the Basel Zoo in Switzerland, Calimero, a male African elephant, was kept with two female Asian elephants. Recordings of his cries shows evidence of chirping noises, typically only produced by Asian elephants. The duration and frequency of these calls differs from recorded instances of chirping calls from other African elephants and more closely resembles the chirping calls of Asian elephants.\n\nSection::::Evidence of vocal learning in various species.:Controversial or limited vocal learners.\n", "Stoning by these baboons is done from the rocky walls of the canyon where they sleep and retreat when they are threatened. Stones are lifted with one hand and dropped over the side. The stones tumble down the side of the cliff or fall directly to the canyon floor. The researchers recorded 23 such incidents involving the voluntary release of 124 stones.\n", "Kea, a highly inquisitive New Zealand mountain parrot, have been filmed stripping twigs and inserting them into gaps in box-like stoat traps to trigger them. Apparently, the kea's only reward is the banging sound of the trap being set off. In a similarly rare example of tool preparation, a captive Tanimbar corella (\"Cacatua goffiniana\") was observed breaking off and \"shaping\" splinters of wood and small sticks to create rakes that were then used to retrieve otherwise unavailable food items on the other side of the aviary mesh. This behaviour has been filmed.\n", "Infants are born with their eyes open and fully furred and are able to groom themselves. The mother will carry her infant in her mouth and when she forages for food the mother will park the infant on a branch. Infant sounds are mostly clicks: \"k\", \"tk\", \"ki\", or a rapid \"kooih\" and can be heard when the infant is left alone or is cold. The mother stays in contact with their infants using high-pitched calls. Infants were found to first use the tails as support during resting at 7–10 days. Young leave their range at the onset of puberty, and find their own territory.\n", "Section::::Suckling of animals by humans.\n", "The device works by breaking the suction which is present during thumb sucking. This suction causes not only damage to the teeth and jaws, but also is responsible for the pleasure that the child seeks when engaging in the habit. By breaking the suction, the child ceases to receive pleasure, and thus, after 3 to 4 weeks of continuous use, stops thumb sucking altogether. The product is made out of a soft, flexible, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-listed plastic, and thus, is not designed to guard the thumb, but rather, to provide a means for air to flow which can then interrupt the habit.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.\n", "When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk is an effective way to relieve the burning sensation (due to caseins having a detergent effect on capsaicin); and room-temperature sugar solution (10%) at is almost as effective. The burning sensation will slowly fade away over several hours if no actions are taken.\n\nCapsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Effects on weight loss and regain.\n", "The sauce is made primarily of dried chili peppers, chili powder, douban paste, Sichuan peppercorns, clove, garlic, star anise, black cardamom, fennel, ginger, cinnamon, salt and sugar. These ingredients are simmered with beef tallow and vegetable oil for many hours, and packed into a jar. Other herbs and spices, such as sand ginger, \"Angelica\" \"dahurica\" and poppy seeds, can be added to create a unique flavour.\n", "Coconut milk can also be used in cheese and custard production, substituting at most 50% of dairy milk without lowering the overall quality of the products. By mixing skim milk with coconut milk, one procedure develops cheeses- including a garlic-spiced soft cheese called \"queso de ajo\", a Gouda cheese substitute, and a Roquefort substitute called \"Niyoblue\" (a portmanteau of Tagalog \"niyog\", \"coconut\", and \"blue\").\n\nSection::::Processed coconut milk products.:Soy milk enrichment.\n", "Miel de palma is used to accompany many pastries and desserts, such as pancakes and ice cream. The syrup is widely used in Southeast Asian cooking, in particular in West Bengal, where jhola gur, as it is known, is only obtainable in winter.\n\nIts sweetness tempers the flavours of spicy curries, adding its rich, molasses-like flavour to the food. It is also widely used as an ingredient in desserts, or drizzled over prepared foods.\n", "\"Salvia scabra\", mixed with the mother’s milk, is given as medicine to infants. The mixture is given to the baby to ingest for two months every day.\n\n\"Isicakathi\" is generally used to induce growth and prevent diseases. It is also used as an alternative to the mother’s milk and to counteract the milk’s sourness. The use of \"agapanthus praecox\" ensures that the baby is strong, whilst preventing bowel problems and crusts on its head.\n\nSection::::Use of Isicakathi in the Eastern Cape.:Other traditional medicine used on babies.\n", "BULLET::::- 1/2 Table Spoon of Saunf [Fennel]\n\nBULLET::::- 1/2 Spoon Ilaychi Powder [cardamom]\n\nBULLET::::- 1/2 Spoon Khashkhas [poppy seeds]\n\nBULLET::::- 10 Kali Mirch [black pepper]\n\nBULLET::::- 50 g Gulqand Gulkand or 20 dried/fresh Rose Petals\n\nMethod:\n\nSoak the sugar in about 0.5 liters of water. \n\nClean all the ingredients & soak them in 400 ml. of water. \n\nKeep the mixture for 2–3 hours. \n\nGrind the soaked ingredients for getting a paste. \n\nAdd the remaining water and put under strong stir. \n\nFilter the liquid, add sugar solution, milk and rose water. \n\nMix well. \n", "Similarly, unsweetened iced-tea powder can be tailored to individual taste with powdered spices, sugar, and (if desired for convenience and texture) dry nonfat milk and dry non-dairy creamer; the result can be mixed with hot water to produce a form of instant \"chai masala\". This form of dry mix has certain disadvantages, however; the powdered spices may leave a grainy residue at the bottom of the cup, and it may dissolve poorly in cold water, especially in the presence of dry milk/creamer powders.\n\nSection::::Consumption beyond the Indian subcontinent.:In Western cultures.\n", "In addition, Capsiate Capsicum extract is obtained from Tap de Cortí, which contains spicy substances (capsinoids), with the ability to increase the metabolism, thus increasing energy consumption and diminishing accumulation of fat in the body.\n\nSection::::Conservation and care.\n\nTo get the best yield, the paprika Tap de Cortí should be consumed within the first two years of life. During this period the aroma, taste and colour reflect the highest quality, after this time lose its properties.\n", "The seed pods contain a sweet and sour pulp which is eaten raw in Mexico and India as an accompaniment to various meat dishes and used as a base for drinks with sugar and water ('agua de guamúchil'). \n", "Coconut milk can be used in both sweet and savory dishes. In many tropical and Asian cuisines, it is a traditional ingredient in curries and other dishes, including desserts.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Food.:Southeast Asia.\n\nIn Indonesia, coconut milk is one of the ingredients of the rice pancake \"serabi\". It is also used in coconut rice, a widespread Southeast Asian dish of rice cooked in coconut milk which include the \"nasi lemak\" of Malaysia and the \"nasi uduk\" of Indonesia.\n", "Milk was historically one of the most important components of the southern African diet. Cattle were considered a man's most important possession, and in order to marry, a man had to compensate his prospective in-laws with a gift of cattle as a dowry for his bride. A married man was expected to provide a generous supply of milk to his wife and children, along with meat whenever he slaughtered cattle, sheep or goats. Because there was no refrigeration, most milks was soured into a kind of yogurt.\n", "In the Philippines, the very diverse class of dishes cooked in coconut milk are collectively known as \"ginataan\". They can range from savory to dessert dishes. Coconut milk is also widely used to make traditional Filipino \"kakanin\" (rice cakes), including \"bibingka\" and \"biko\", among others.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Food.:Latin America and the Caribbean.\n", "Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n", "Section::::Dishes that use coconut milk.:Indian.:Indian (Tamil Nadu & Kerala).\n\nBULLET::::- Ada Prathaman\n\nBULLET::::- Gothampu Payasam (Wheat Payasam)\n\nBULLET::::- Kerala Curries\n\nBULLET::::- Molugootal (sometimes used in conjunction with fresh grated coconut to enhance flavour)\n\nBULLET::::- Mutton Stew\n\nBULLET::::- Paal-Appam (sweetened coconut milk in the center of the Aapam for taste)\n\nBULLET::::- Parippu Prathaman\n\nBULLET::::- Puttu (Steam cake) Grated coconut is mixed with rice powder for taste\n\nSection::::Dishes that use coconut milk.:Indian.:Indian (Goan and Konkani cuisine in Karnataka, and Maharashtra).\n\nAlmost all dishes have coconut milk and paste as its base (called as \"\"Aapros\"\" in Konkani)\n\nBULLET::::- Solkadhi\n", "In the coastal Konkan region of India, Sorpotel, a dish of Portuguese origin is commonly cooked that includes parboiled meat and offal which is cooked in a spicy and vinegary sauce. Some people also use the animals' blood for boiling the curry. Sorpotel is primarily made by Catholics of Goa, Mangalore and East Indians of Mumbai. \n\nSection::::Dishes.:Asia.:Indonesia.\n", "There are multiple coconut laddu recipes. Its earliest form \"Narayl Nakru\" dates back to the time of the Chola Empire, when it was a sweet that was packed for travelers and warriors as a symbol of good luck for their expeditions.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Pedha.\n\nPedha (cream balls) is a popular dessert in the Indian subcontinent, prepared from Khoa (milk solids by evaporation). In India, among Hindus, it is often prepared as an offering to the gods.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Semolina or rava laddu.\n\nThis a laddu prepared from rava (semolina), sugar and ghee. A variant on the recipe includes khoa cheese as an additional ingredient.\n", "It is also used to reduce the symptoms of peripheral neuropathy, such as post-herpetic neuralgia caused by shingles. Capsaicin transdermal patch (Qutenza) for the management of this particular therapeutic indication (pain due to post-herpetic neuralgia) was approved as a therapeutic by the U.S. FDA, but a subsequent application for Qutenza to be used as an analgesic in HIV neuralgia was refused. One 2017 review of clinical studies having limited quality found that high-dose topical capsaicin (8%) compared with control (0.4% capsaicin) provided moderate to substantial pain relief from post-herpetic neuralgia, HIV-neuropathy, and diabetic neuropathy.\n", "Chhena is pressed and may be further processed to make paneer, a form of farmer cheese or only formed into balls to make desserts such as khira sagara, chhena kheeri, rasabali and ras malai, as well as sweets from the Indian subcontinent (\"mishti\" or \"mithai\") such as chhena jalebi, chhena gaja, chhena poda, pantua, rasgulla, and sandesh. For the sweets, mostly cow milk chhena is used.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Chhena is like paneer, except some whey is left and the mixture is beaten thoroughly until it becomes soft, of smooth consistency, and malleable but firm.\n\nBULLET::::- Sandesh is a confection made from chhena mixed with sugar then grilled lightly to caramelize, but removed from heat and molded into a ball or some shape.\n\nBULLET::::- Rasogolla is a confection made from mixture of chhena and semolina rolled into a ball and boiled in syrup.\n\nSection::::Non-curdled dairy products.\n\nBULLET::::- Khoa or Mawa is made by reducing milk in an open pan over heat.\n", "Besan laddu is a popular Indian sweet dish made of besan (chickpea flour or gram flour), sugar and ghee. Besan is roasted in ghee till golden brown appearance with nutty fragrance. Then sugar is added to it. Pistachio pieces are also mixed in this mixture optionally. Sweet balls are then made from this mixture. It has a long shelf life. It is often served at festivals, family events and religious occasions in India.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Coconut laddu.\n", "A traditional Ayurvedic recipe for ghee is to boil raw milk, let it cool to 110 °F (43 °C). After letting it sit covered at room temperature for around 12 hours, add a bit of dahi (yogurt) to it and let it sit overnight. This makes more yogurt. This is churned with water, to obtain cultured butter, which is used to simmer into ghee.\n\nSection::::Traditional medicine.\n", "In Brazil, coconut milk is mostly used in northeastern cuisine, generally with seafood stews and desserts. In Venezuela, pulp dishes are prepared with coconut milk and shredded fish in a dish called \"mojito en coco\". In Colombia and Panama, the grated flesh of coconut and coconut milk are used to make sweet \"titoté\".\n\nCoconut milk is used to make traditional Venezuelan dishes such as \"majarete\" (a typical Venezuelan dessert), and \"arroz con coco\" (the Venezuelan version of coconut rice).\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Drink.\n", "The indigenous peoples in Brazil have already chopped cassava roots for food.\n", "It is hard to determine when exactly sandesh started referring mainly to the chhena-based sweet instead of the kheer-based sweet. But it is known that by the second half of the 19th century, sandesh commonly referred to the chhena-based sweet. The Portuguese influence may have led to introduction of cheese (i.e. chhena) in sixteenth century.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "In extended-range electric vehicles, like those planned by Land-Rover/Range-Rover in conjunction with Bladon, or by Jaguar also in partnership with Bladon, the very poor throttling response (their high moment of rotational inertia) does not matter, because the gas turbine, which may be spinning at 100,000 rpm, is not directly, mechanically connected to the wheels. It was this poor throttling response that so bedeviled the 1950 Rover gas turbine-powered prototype motor car, which did not have the advantage of an intermediate electric drive train to provide sudden power spikes when demanded by the driver. \n", "Nowadays, when a discussion is established around the theme wind power generation, what is promptly addressed is the image of a big wind turbine getting turned by the wind. However, some alternative approaches have already been proposed in the latter decades, showing that wind turbines are not the only possibility for the exploitation of the wind for power generation purposes.\n", "The challenge has always been, and remains, installing, operating, and maintaining these structures for a cost that is less than the incremental value gained by their presence. Recent developments in material science, installation methodology and overall system integration have led to the far more realistic view that we are very close to this advent and the dawn of a new, highly sustainable class of wind turbine if the issues elucidated above can be dealt with which still remains highly questionable for the DAWT geometry.\n", "In 1954, Chrysler started its decade-long unsuccessful attempt to develop and market a viable car powered by a turbine engine when it installed an experimental turbine developed specifically for road vehicles in a Plymouth.\n\nSection::::History.:1960s.\n", "Several types can be made; these include windmill-only ships as well as hybrid ships which store wind power from the windmill when the ship does not need to be propelled. To reduce the energy required to propel the boat, windmill ships are often equipped with low-friction hull designs, such as multihulls, or they are hydrofoils. Boats without low-friction hulls or hydrofoils can be equipped with windmills, but often the force generated by the windmills alone is not sufficient to propel the craft. In this case, the windmills only provide supplemental force to conventional sails or other propulsion systems.\n", "The earliest Quasiturbine design used a three-wheeled \"carriage\" (French \"chariot\", hence \"avec chariots\" or \"AC\" for \"with carriages\") to support each vertex of the rotor. The wheels of these four carriages, making twelve wheels in total, ran around the periphery of the engine chamber.\n\nA prototype of an internal combustion engine to this design was constructed, and enthusiastically reviewed in European Automotive Design magazine September, 1999. The prototype was turned by an external engine for 40 hours.\n", "To travel along a circular path, an object needs to be subject to a centripetal acceleration (e.g.: the moon circles around the earth because of gravity; a car turns its front wheels inward to generate a centripetal force). If a vehicle traveling on a straight path were to suddenly transition to a tangential circular path, it would require centripetal acceleration suddenly switching at the tangent point from zero to the required value; this would be difficult to achieve (think of a driver instantly moving the steering wheel from straight line to turning position, and the car actually doing it), putting mechanical stress on the vehicle's parts, and causing much discomfort (causing jerk).\n", "Thus the minimum power required is directly proportional to the mass of the vehicle and to its velocity. The slower a vehicle is moving, the less power is required to perform a wheelie, and that is without even considering the power required to overcome air drag, which increases with the cube of velocity. Therefore, the least amount of power required is when the vehicle begins accelerating from rest.\n", "General Motors at one time manufactured a bus powered by a gas turbine, but due to crude oil prices rising exponentially in the 1970s this concept was abandoned. Rover, Chrysler, and Toyota also built prototypes of turbine powered cars, Chrysler building a short prototype series of them for real-world evaluation. Driving comfort was good, but overall economy lacked due to reasons mentioned above. This is also why gas turbines can be used for permanent and peak power electric plants. In this application they are only run at or close to full power where they are efficient or shut down when not needed.\n", "Mark Anthony Zimara, a 16th-century Italian scholar, proposed a self-blowing windmill.\n", "For open wheel racing, 1967's revolutionary STP-Paxton Turbocar fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend Andy Granatelli and driven by Parnelli Jones nearly won the Indianapolis 500; the Pratt & Whitney ST6B-62 powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish line. The next year the STP Lotus 56 turbine car won the Indianapolis 500 pole position even though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically. In 1971 Lotus principal Colin Chapman introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car, powered by a Pratt & Whitney STN 6/76 gas turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship-winning cars, but had to abandon the project because there were too many problems with turbo lag.\n", "The name of the 1955 General Motors Motorama car show where Cobb's model car was shown was General Motors Powerama. General Motors at the time said the car that showed futuristic capabilities was not practical because even if the solar cells ran at 100% efficiency they would only produce 12 horse-power, not enough to propel an average automobile of the time.\n", "The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360-degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.\n", "What was lacking from all of them was a suitable way to move the vehicles forward – since the whole idea of the hovertrain concept was to eliminate any physical contact with the running surface, \"especially\" wheels, some sort of contact-less thrust would have to be provided. There were various proposals using air ducted from the lift fans, propeller, or even jet engines, but none of these could approach the efficiency of an electric motor powering a wheel.\n\nSection::::Development.:LIM.\n", "The common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative.\n\nSection::::In surface vehicles.:Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses).:Concept cars.\n\nThe first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 1946 when two engineers, Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates, a New York engineering firm, came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car. After an article appeared in \"Popular Science\", there was no further work, beyond the paper stage.\n", "Section::::Other controls.:Electrical braking.\n\nBraking of a small wind turbine can be done by dumping energy from the generator into a resistor bank, converting the kinetic energy of the turbine rotation into heat. This method is useful if the kinetic load on the generator is suddenly reduced or is too small to keep the turbine speed within its allowed limit.\n", "In the great majority of the cases – e.g.: in civil buildings – such motions are useless and undesirable, in a manner that all the designing approaches are focused on avoiding them. However these instabilities may also be used in a profitable manner: if they are controlled and driven to a predictable motion, they can provide mechanical power supply to run, for example, turbines, machinery and electricity generators.\n", "The tight development schedules associated with most new automotive, aerospace and defense programs do not allow embedded system testing to wait for a prototype to be available. In fact, most new development schedules assume that HIL simulation will be used in parallel with the development of the plant. For example, by the time a new automobile engine prototype is made available for control system testing, 95% of the engine controller testing will have been completed using HIL simulation.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe first working steam-powered vehicle was designed — and quite possibly built — by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65-cm-long scale-model toy for the Chinese Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger. It is not known with certainty if Verbiest's model was successfully built or run.\n", "Section::::Economics.\n\nUltimately, any wind turbine design must be measured against economic realities. It must positively answer the question, \"is the cost to install and operate the system lower than the cost of other alternatives, including the local electric grid?\" Historically, CWAT/DAWT designs have failed to overcome this hurdle as compared to more conventional HAWT designs. However, there is reason to believe that this equation may be shifting towards these new designs. The two primary drivers of this equation have been the amount of augmentation and the structural implications of these additional design elements.\n\nSection::::Economics.:Augmentation.\n", "Using human manufacturing processes, wheeled systems of varying complexity have proven fairly simple to construct, and issues of power transmission and friction have proven tractable. It is not clear, however, that the vastly different processes of embryonic development are suited to—or even capable of—producing a functioning wheel, for reasons described below.\n", "The connection between the wheels and the rotor causes the rotor to rotate faster with increasing vehicle speed, thereby allowing the rotor blades to continue to obtain forward lift from the wind (as seen from the ground) or to propel the vehicle (as seen from the air stream).\n\nIn 2009, Mark Drela—an MIT professor of aeronautics and astronautics—produced the first equations, demonstrating the feasibility of \"Dead-Downwind Faster Than The Wind (DDWFTTW)\". Other authors have come to the same conclusion.\n\nSection::::Rotor-powered.:Fixed-course vehicles.\n", "Lotus had suffered the death of driver Jim Clark in a Formula 2 race in Germany. Mike Spence was killed at Indianapolis while testing one of four 56s built. The remaining three cars with Graham Hill, Joe Leonard, and Art Pollard were entered for the race, with Leonard claiming pole position. Unlike the year before, when the STP-Paxton Turbocar easily outperformed the other cars in the race, in the race the turbine cars were relatively evenly matched with the other top contenders, much of which must be attributed to aerodynamics and chassis design and not to the turbine engine. Hill's car crashed, Pollard's car broke down, while Leonard was leading with just a handful of laps to go when the a fuel pump shaft failed. Shortly thereafter, the USAC imposed additional restrictions on turbine cars that essentially removed them from competition. For the second year in a row STP turbine cars had brought innovation to the Indy 500 and had failed to win while leading within a few laps of the end of the race. USAC subsequently banned turbine cars and four-wheel drive completely, but it was unusual enough that Mattel produced a model of the \"Lotus Turbine\" as one of the popular mass-produced die cast Hot Wheels cars.\n", "BULLET::::- 1903–1906: The team of Armengaud and Lemale in France build a complete gas turbine engine. It uses three separate compressors driven by a single turbine. Limits on the turbine temperatures allow for only a 3:1 compression ratio, and the turbine is not based on a Parsons-like \"fan\", but a Pelton wheel-like arrangement. The engine is so inefficient, at about 3% thermal efficiency, that the work is abandoned.\n", "Wind-powered vehicle\n\nWind-powered vehicles derive their power from sails, kites or rotors and ride on wheels—which may be linked to a wind-powered rotor—or runners. Whether powered by sail, kite or rotor, these vehicles share a common trait: As the vehicle increases in speed, the advancing airfoil encounters an increasing apparent wind at an angle of attack that is increasingly smaller. At the same time, such vehicles are subject to relatively low forward resistance, compared with traditional sailing craft. As a result, such vehicles are often capable of speeds exceeding that of the wind.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Provides slight filtration of debris due to a small sieve plate\n\nSection::::Function.:Prevents splashing.\n", "On average, sinks were 15% of U.S. indoor water use in 1999. There are, however, easy methods to rectify excessive water loss. Available for purchase is a screw-on aerator. This device works by combining water with air thus generating a frothy substance with greater perceived volume, reducing water use by half. Additionally, there is a flip-valve available that allows flow to be turned off and back on at the previously reached temperature. Finally, a laminar flow device creates a 1.5-2.4 gpm stream of water that reduces water use by half, but can be turned to normal water level when optimal.\n", "Section::::Function.:Conservation and energy reduction.\n\nBecause the aerator limits the water flow through the faucet, water use is reduced as compared to the same time of flow without an aerator. In the case of hot water, because less water is used, less heat energy is used.\n\nSection::::Function.:Perceived water pressure.\n", "Fountains are a popular method of surface aerators because of the aesthetic appearance that they offer. However, most fountains are unable to produce a large area of oxygenated water. Also, running electricity through the water to the fountain can be a safety hazard.\n\nSection::::Surface aeration.:Floating surface aerators.\n", "There are a number of styles of wine aerators and approaches to accomplish aeration. While injection-style hand-held acrylic aerators are currently most common, in-bottle and decanter top aerators are also available. Sieve-style decanter top funnels have long been used for aeration and catching sediment. Aerators are made from food safe-plastic or glass, and decanter top aerators are commonly stainless steel.\n", "Solid ceramic sinks have many of the same characteristics as enamel over cast iron, but without the risk of surface damage leading to corrosion.\n\nPlastic sinks come in several basic forms:\n\nBULLET::::- Inexpensive sinks are simply made using injection-molded thermoplastics. These are often deep, free-standing sinks used in laundry rooms. Subject to damage by hot or sharp objects, the principal virtue of these sinks is their low cost.\n", "The simplest, most reliable way to provide backflow prevention is to provide an air gap. An air gap is simply an open vertical space between any device that connects to a plumbing system (like a valve or faucet) and any place where contaminated water can collect or pool. A simple air gap has no moving parts, other than flowing water. Many plumbing codes specify a minimum air gap distance required for various circumstances, such as a drain connection for a dishwasher, e.g., BS 6282.\n", "Section::::Surface aeration.:Paddlewheel aerators.\n", "Section::::Accessories.\n\nSome public restrooms feature automatic faucets, which use a motion-sensing valve to detect the user's hands moving beneath the tap and turn the water on. Some kitchen sinks also come equipped with a sink sprayer. \n\nSinks, especially those made of stainless steel, can be fitted with an integrated drainboard, allowing for the draining of washed dishes.\n\nSection::::Gallery.\n\nThere are many different shapes and sizes of sinks.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Countertop\n\nBULLET::::- Dipper well\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic water system\n\nBULLET::::- Floor plan\n\nBULLET::::- Garbage disposal\n\nBULLET::::- Lavabo\n\nBULLET::::- Plumbing\n\nBULLET::::- Plumbing fixture (drains)\n\nBULLET::::- Proverbial kitchen sink\n", "To further illustrate the air gap, consider what could happen if the air gap were eliminated by attaching a hose to the faucet and lowering the hose into a sink full of contaminated water. Under the right conditions (if the water supply loses pressure and the sink is higher than the point at which the water supply enters the house, for instance), the dirty water in the sink will be siphoned into the water pipes through the hose and faucet. The dirty water then will be dispersed throughout the drinking water system.\n\nSection::::Standards and codes.\n", "Jet aerators\n\nSection::::Working principle.\n", "BULLET::::1. Air is drawn into the water stream, breaking the stream into a flow of tiny droplets mixed with air.\n\nBULLET::::2. The mixture of air and water passes through a screen, further mixing the air and water and evenly spreading out the resulting stream.\n\nSection::::Design and features.\n\nThree major components of an aerator are: housing, insert and rubber washer.\n\nA faucet aerator can be classified on the basis of its flow rate and the type of water stream (aerated, non-aerated, spray) it produces.\n", "Section::::Applications, features and benefits.\n\nSection::::Applications, features and benefits.:Oxygen transfer efficiency and energy savings.\n\nIn most industrial wastewater and biosolids applications jet aerators exhibit superior oxygen transfer efficiency compared to other aeration technologies. The hydrodynamic conditions within the jet and fine bubble cloud produces continuous surface renewal at the gas/liquid interface resulting in higher alpha factors. This results in superior process oxygen transfer performance in the presence of surfactants, extracelluar enzymes and high MLS concentrations.\n\nSection::::Applications, features and benefits.:Process flexibility.\n", "Especially in respect of drinking water production, deep-water aeration allows a significant reduction of production costs and facilitates further technical treatment of the hypolimnic water. Since water for drinking water production is drawn from below the thermocline in most reservoirs, an improved hypolimnic water quality has direct influence on the production of drinking water. With regard to the applicable limiting values of drinking water regulations, the following effects can be achieved via deep-water aeration:\n\nSection::::Applications.:Drinking water production in water reservoir dams.:pH and corrosion.\n", "BULLET::::- High-end acrylic drop-in (lowered into the countertop) and undermount (attached from the bottom) sinks are becoming more popular, although they tend to be easily damaged by hard objects - like scouring a cast iron frying pan in the sink.\n", "Water aeration is often required in water bodies that suffer from hypoxic or anoxic conditions, often caused by upstream human activities such as sewage discharges, agricultural run-off, or over-baiting a fishing lake. Aeration can be achieved through the infusion of air into the bottom of the lake, lagoon or pond or by surface agitation from a fountain or spray-like device to allow for oxygen exchange at the surface and the release of gasses such as carbon dioxide, methane or hydrogen sulfide.\n", "Biological filters convert the nitrogenous wastes from the fish. This cycle is called the nitrogen cycle. A biofilter can be constructed in many different ways. It is important for the koi keeper to understand how the filter is to be cleaned before they install one. Proper and regular cleaning of the mechanical and biological filters is critical for the health and quality of the koi. Bio-filters are sometimes divided into sub groups such as aerated or non-aerated. Types of bio-filters include:\n\nBULLET::::- Moving bed filter - aerated\n\nBULLET::::- Bakki shower or Trickle filter - aerated\n", "When a sink becomes clogged, a person will often resort to use a chemical drain cleaner or a plunger, though most professional plumbers will remove the clog with a \"drain auger\" (often called a \"plumber's snake\").\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:United States.\n", "The company was founded in Racine, Wisconsin by John W. Hammes, who was working as an architect; the firm still has its headquarters there. Hammes is credited with inventing the \"in-sink\" food waste disposal in 1927, for his wife. It works by grinding and shredding solid food waste, using centrifugal force. He spent ten years improving the design and went into business selling the appliance. His company was called the In-Sink-Erator Manufacturing Company. The name is a play on the word \"incinerator\" and refers to the fact that the mouth of the disposal unit is located \"in\" the \"sink\".\n", "The use of aeration turbines in industry is still underdeveloped especially with waste water treatment. With raising population and the growing strain on clean water supplies such environmentally friendly solutions are becoming more important.\n\nThe technology allows a more decentralized approach to waste water treatment as sewage can be oxygenised at pumping stations for bacteria to start breaking down the sewage before it even arrives at centralized processing plants.\n", "Soapstone sinks were once common, but today tend to be used only in very-high-end applications or applications that must resist caustic chemicals that would damage more-conventional sinks.\n\nWood sinks are from the early days of sinks and baths were made from natural teak with no additional finishing. Teak is chosen because of its natural waterproofing properties – it has been used for hundreds of years in the marine industry for this reason. Teak also has natural antiseptic properties, which is a bonus for its use in baths and sinks.\n", "Fine bubble diffusers produce a plethora of very small air bubbles which rise slowly from the floor of a wastewater treatment plant or sewage treatment plant aeration tank and provide substantial and efficient mass transfer of oxygen to the water. The oxygen, combined with the food source, sewage, allows the bacteria to produce enzymes which help break down the waste so that it can settle in the secondary clarifiers or be filtered by membranes. A fine bubble diffuser is commonly manufactured in various forms: tube, disc, plate, and dome.\n\nSection::::Bubble size.\n", "Aerated water\n\nAerated water is, correctly speaking, water to which air is added.\n\nThe term is, however, frequently applied to carbonated water.\n\nSection::::Purpose of aeration.\n\nSulfur compounds dissolved in water are not necessarily dangerous, but can give the water a bad taste or foul smell. These compounds can be removed in several ways, the most effective being by exposure to chlorine gas. However, aeration can also be effective if the amount of sulfur in the water is relatively low.\n", "Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a major contributor to water quality. Not only do fish and most other aquatic animals need it, but aerobic bacteria help decompose organic matter. When oxygen concentrations become low, anoxic conditions may develop which can decrease the ability of the water body to support life.\n\nSection::::Aeration methods.\n", "Stainless steel is commonly used in kitchens and commercial applications because it represents a good trade-off between cost, usability, durability, and ease of cleaning. Most stainless steel sinks are made by drawing a sheet of stainless steel over a die. Some very deep sinks are fabricated by welding. Stainless steel sinks will not be damaged by hot or cold objects and resist damage from impacts. One disadvantage of stainless steel is that, being made of thin metal, they tend to be noisier than most other sink materials, although better sinks apply a heavy coating of vibration-damping material to the underside of the sink.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Equipment is accurate as of the 2018 WGC-Dell Technologies Match Play (March 20, 2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Driver: Callaway Rogue Sub Zero (9 degrees)\n\nBULLET::::- 3-wood: Callaway Rogue Sub Zero (13.5 degrees)\n\nBULLET::::- Hybrid: Callaway Rogue (19 Degrees)\n\nBULLET::::- Utility: Callaway X Forged UT (18 degrees)\n\nBULLET::::- Irons: Callaway Epic Pro (4 Iron), Callaway X Forged '18 (5–7), Callaway Apex MB '18 (8–PW)\n\nBULLET::::- Wedges: Callaway Mack Daddy PM Grind (56–13, 64–10), Callaway Mack Daddy PM Grind 2.0 (60–10)\n\nBULLET::::- Putter: Odyssey Versa #9\n\nBULLET::::- Ball: Callaway Chrome Soft X (2018)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of golfers with most European Tour wins\n", "Foley and Woods have made several changes to Woods' swing since late 2010. Foley has taught Woods to stay more centered over the ball and increase weight on the left side through the downswing. Foley also teaches forward shaft lean at impact, which has resulted in Woods saying that he has gotten the distance back that he had earlier in his career. Woods' swing is now steeper than it was when he worked with previous instructor Hank Haney, and he no longer bows his left wrist at the top of the swing as much as he did before hiring Foley. Perhaps the most notable swing difference is that Woods is now a fade-biased golfer for the first time in his career. Woods and Foley worked on a more out-to-in swing path, trying to avoid coming from the inside and getting \"stuck,\" which was an issue of Woods'. Woods had clear difficulty hitting draws in the earlier portion of this process, but began to work the ball both ways well in 2013.\n", "In regards to his approach, Miller has stated \"I've been forced to understand what the body could do, how the body got better and how I'm going to be good. So I think it's an advantage, not a disadvantage\".\n\nSection::::Coaching.\n\nAlongside earning his professional status and competing in various Professional Golf Tour's, Miller has coached at golf's highest level, and has given thousands of lessons in an effort to inspire others to overcome their own obstacles through golf.\n", "Molinari is now working with Irish caddie Colin Byrne, who has earned 20 wins with other golfers such as South African major champion Retief Goosen.\n\nSection::::Amateur career.\n", "Donald worked with Pat Goss as coach from his time at Northwestern University until 2013. He added Dave Alred from 2010-2012, during which period he reached world no.1. Donald stopped working with Alred after citing an 'over-analysis' of his game as a factor behind poor performance in the 2012 Majors.\n\nSection::::Sponsorship.\n", "BULLET::::- Gary Woodland – 2019 U.S. Open\n\nBULLET::::- Bubba Watson – 2012 & 2014 Masters Tournament\n\nBULLET::::- Keegan Bradley – 2011 PGA Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Stewart Cink – 2009 Open Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Lucas Glover – 2009 U.S. Open\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Curtis – 2003 Open Championship\n\nBULLET::::- John Daly – 1991 PGA, 1995 Open Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Furyk – 2003 U.S. Open\n\nBULLET::::- Lee Janzen – 1993 & 1998 U.S. Open\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Lehman – 1996 Open Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Shaun Micheel – 2003 PGA Championship\n\nBULLET::::- David Toms – 2001 PGA Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Zach Johnson – 2007 Masters Tournament, 2015 Open Championship\n", "Accuracy and consistency are typically stressed over pure distance. A player with a straight drive that travels only will nevertheless be able to accurately place the ball into a favourable lie on the fairway, and can make up for the lesser distance of any given club by simply using \"more club\" (a lower loft) on their tee shot or on subsequent fairway and approach shots. However, a golfer with a drive that may go but often doesn't fly straight will be less able to position their ball advantageously; the ball may \"hook\", \"pull\", \"draw\", \"fade\", \"push\" or \"slice\" off the intended line and land out of bounds or in the rough or hazards, and thus the player will require many more strokes to hole out.\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 Masters Tournament - Jordan Spieth\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 U.S. Open - Jordan Spieth\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 U.S. Open - Dustin Johnson\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 PGA Championship - Jimmy Walker\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 U.S. Open - Brooks Koepka\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Open Championship - Jordan Spieth\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 PGA Championship - Justin Thomas\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 U.S. Open (golf) - Brooks Koepka\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 PGA Championship - Brooks Koepka\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Masters Tournament - Tiger Woods\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 PGA Championship - Brooks Koepka\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 U.S. Open - Gary Woodland\n\nSection::::Players.\n\nThese are some big names on tour who use Cameron putters:\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Bohn\n", "BULLET::::- Allan Kournikova, 7, of West Palm Beach, Florida, is the younger brother of Anna Kournikova and considered the best male golfer in his age group. He lives in Florida with his mother and is good friends with Alexa. He is very opinionated and occasionally comes off as arrogant, such as when a trainer must reprimand him for showing excitement at his opponent doing poorly. He comes in first in his category.\n", "His teammate Kyle Moore said that: \"It's hard to gauge how long he hits. If he [were] on the PGA Tour, he'd be one of the longest drivers out there.\" His coach Pat Goss observed that his skill at hitting iron shots into the wind distinguished him from other golfers. Speaking of Merkow in 2007, Goss predicted: \"He is someone who is on the cusp of really doing something spectacular. He has a lot of talent.\"\n", "Section::::Coaching Jack Nicklaus.\n", "Woods finished in 18-over par, tying for 78th place (second-to-last place) in the WGC-Bridgestone Invitational on August 8. He posted his worst four-round result as a professional golfer.\n\nWoods began working with Canadian golf coach Sean Foley in August 2010; the two had been discussing a possible partnership for several previous weeks. In the 2010 PGA Championship, played at Whistling Straits in Wisconsin, Woods made the 36-hole cut but failed to mount a challenge, ending in a tie for 28th place.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 - WFDF Masters, Atlanta, GA : 1st overall Grand Masters\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 - PDGA World Championships, Port Arthur, TX : 2nd Grand Masters, 1st Doubles, partner Rick Voakes\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 - PDGA World Championships, South Bend, IN : 1st Grand Masters\n\nBULLET::::- 1997 - PDGA World Championships, Charlotte, NC : 2nd Grand Masters, 1st Doubles, partner Snapper Pierson\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 - PDGA World Championships, Cincinnati, OH : 1st Doubles, partner Snapper Pierson\n\nBULLET::::- 1999 - PDGA World Championships, Rochester, NY : 1st Grand Masters, 1st Doubles, partner Rick Voakes\n", "BULLET::::- 2004 Masters Tournament - Phil Mickelson\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 Masters Tournament - Tiger Woods\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 Open Championship - Tiger Woods\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 U.S. Open - Geoff Ogilvy\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 Open Championship - Tiger Woods\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 PGA Championship - Tiger Woods\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 PGA Championship - Tiger Woods\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Masters Tournament - Trevor Immelman\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 U.S. Open - Tiger Woods\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 U.S. Open - Rory McIlroy\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Open Championship - Darren Clarke\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 PGA Championship - Rory McIlroy\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 Masters Tournament - Adam Scott\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 PGA Championship - Jason Dufner\n", "According to professionals, flexibility, technique and form are very important in a drive, as a flexible player is able to generate a longer drive by having the ability to swing with a wider arc, creating more thrust. Some of the world's longest drivers who are not professional golfers but compete in Long Drive contests such as the RE/MAX World Long Drive Championship, such as Jamie Sadlowski and Mike Dobbyn, are capable of regularly hitting a ball over 400 yards and over 220 mph.\n", "Many of the world's top professional golfers have used Wilson equipment, including Gene Sarazen (who had a 75-year relationship with the company, the longest-running contract in sports history). Other golfers who have used Wilson Staff equipment include Sam Snead, Walter Hagen, Arnold Palmer, Patty Berg, Nick Faldo, Payne Stewart, John Daly, Ben Crenshaw, and Vijay Singh. Palmer and Crenshaw both used Wilson 8802 putters, with Crenshaw's receiving the moniker \"Little Ben\" due to his proficiency with it. Current Wilson Staff players include Open and USPGA champion Pádraig Harrington, Kevin Streelman and 2019 US Open champion, Gary Woodland.\n", "BULLET::::- The interview with Michael Campbell was shot twice because of technical problems - at the 2012 Maybank Malaysian Open and then at the 2012 Barclays Singapore Open. But in the seven months between the two interviews, Campbell had changed countries of residence from Switzerland to Spain - and re-found his form.\n\nBULLET::::- When Trevor Immelman was being interviewed at CIMB Classic, Jason Dufner arrived early for his interview and you could feel the tension in the air. The pair were fierce youth amateur rivals in the 1990s.\n", "BULLET::::- Both Martin Kaymer and Louis Oosthuizen were interviewed before the Maybank Malaysian Open a few days after missing the cut at the 2011 Masters Tournament.\n\nBULLET::::- The interview with Vijay Singh was conducted at the CIMB Classic on the Fijian's first trip to Malaysia in more than a decade: the nation where he worked as a club pro in the 1980s.\n\nBULLET::::- Ian Poulter was interviewed before a North Asian sales' seminar at Hong Kong's JW Marriott Hotel for his clothing brand, IJP Design and displayed a prominent shaving cut, suffered early that morning.\n", "BULLET::::- Sergio García - Interviewed in December 2012, aired in January 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Ernie Els - Interviewed in December 2012, aired in January 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Charl Schwartzel - Interviewed in March 2013, aired in May 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Bubba Watson - Interviewed in October 2013, aired in December 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Keegan Bradley - Interviewed in October 2013, aired in December 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Edoardo Molinari - Interviewed in December 2013, aired in December 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Graeme McDowell - Interviewed in March 2014, aired in June 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Thongchai Jaidee - Interviewed in March 2014, aired in June 2014\n", "Section::::Turning pro.\n", "Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.\n\nSection::::Career earnings and year-end ranking by year.\n\n*As of the 2018 seasons.br\n\n†Non-member earnings.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n\nBULLET::::- Driver – Taylormade M2 9.5°\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Wood – Taylormade M2 15°\n\nBULLET::::- Hybrid – Mizuno CLK 16°\n\nBULLET::::- Irons – Mizuno MP-18 MMC FLI-HI True Temper Dynamic Gold Tour issue S300 3-PW\n\nBULLET::::- Wedges – Mizuno T7 54° and 60°\n\nBULLET::::- Putter – Odyssey Works Versa #7HCS | 33in.\n\nBULLET::::- Ball – Titleist 2018 Pro V1x\n\nBULLET::::- Glove – Mizuno Retroflex Pro Glove\n\nBULLET::::- Shoe – Jordan Brand\n", "Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.\n\nSection::::PGA Tour career summary.\n\nSection::::PGA Tour career summary.:Summary of PGA Tour performances.\n\nBULLET::::- Starts – 394\n\nBULLET::::- Cuts made – 254\n\nBULLET::::- Wins – 4\n\nBULLET::::- 2nd place finishes – 1\n\nBULLET::::- Top 3 finishes – 5\n\nBULLET::::- Top 10 finishes – 58\n\nBULLET::::- Top 25 finishes – 125\n\n\"* Complete through the 2014–15 season.\"\n\nSection::::Team appearances.\n\nAmateur\n\nBULLET::::- Eisenhower Trophy (representing Trinidad and Tobago): 1986\n\nProfessional\n\nBULLET::::- WGC-World Cup (representing Trinidad and Tobago): 2000, 2002, 2003, 2006\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 1997 PGA Tour Qualifying School graduates\n", "BULLET::::- Roger Warren, Carolinas PGA Section, 2005–06\n\nBULLET::::- Brian Whitcomb, Southwest PGA Section, 2007–08\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Remy, New England PGA Section, 2009–10\n\nBULLET::::- Allen Wronowski, Middle Atlantic Section, 2011–12\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Bishop, Indiana PGA Section, 2013–14\n\nBULLET::::- Derek Sprague, Northeastern New York PGA Section, 2015–16\n\nBULLET::::- Paul K. Levy, Southern California PGA Section, 2017–2018\n\nBULLET::::- Suzy Whaley, Connecticut PGA Section, 2018–Current\n\nSection::::PGA properties.\n", "BULLET::::- 2009 Metropolitan PGA Teacher of the Year\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 and 2007 Metropolitan PGA Horton Smith Award Winner\n\nBULLET::::- Randolph-Macon College Hall of Fame Class of 2004\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 Metropolitan PGA Teacher of the Year\n\nBULLET::::- Played in the 1994 Greater Hartford Open on the PGA Tour\n\nBULLET::::- Played a number of events on the Ben Hogan Tour in 1991\n\nBULLET::::- Graduated from Randolph-Macon College in Ashland, Virginia in 1985\n\nSection::::Tour pros.\n", "During the offseason, Nicklaus addressed two problems that had hurt his performance. His lifelong teacher Jack Grout noticed that he had become much too upright with his full swing, which caused a steep, oblique approach into the ball, compared with a more direct hit; this was corrected by slightly flattening his backswing. Then Nicklaus' short game, never a career strength, was further developed with the help of Phil Rodgers, a friend for more than 20 years, and earlier PGA Tour rival, who had become a fine coach. Rodgers lived for a time at the Nicklaus home while this work was going on.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The neck of a bird is composed of 13–25 cervical vertebrae enabling birds to have increased flexibility. A flexible neck allows many birds with immobile eyes to move their head more productively and center their sight on objects that are close or far in distance. Most birds have about three times as many neck vertebrae as humans, which allows for increased stability during fast movements such as flying, landing, and taking-off. The neck plays a role in head-bobbing which is present in at least 8 out of 27 orders of birds, including Columbiformes, Galliformes, and Gruiformes. Head-bobbing is an optokinetic response which stabilizes a birds surroundings as they alternate between a thrust phase and a hold phase. Head-bobbing is synchronous with the feet as the head moves in accordance with the rest of the body. Data from various studies suggest that the main reason for head-bobbing in some birds is for the stabilization of their surroundings, although it is uncertain why some but not all bird orders show head-bob.\n", "The wings are large, and have eleven primary feathers; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds.\n\nIn a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr.Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant. It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr.Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant.\n\nSection::::Description.:Feathers.\n", "To obtain steady images while flying or when perched on a swaying branch, birds hold the head as steady as possible with compensating reflexes. Maintaining a steady image is especially relevant for birds of prey. Because the image can be centered on the deep fovea of only one eye at a time, most falcons when diving use a spiral path to approach their prey after they have locked on to a target individual. The alternative of turning the head for a better view slows down the dive by increasing drag while spiralling does not reduce speeds significantly.\n\nSection::::Perception.:Edges and shapes.\n", "Examples are the tonal sound produced by the tail-feathers of the Anna's hummingbird \"Calypte anna\", the drumming of the tail-feathers of the African snipe and common snipe, bill-clattering by storks or the deliberate territorial tapping practised by woodpeckers and certain members of the parrot family, such as palm cockatoos which drum on hollow trees using broken-off sticks. The clapper lark's (\"Mirafra apiata\") display flight includes a steep climb with wing rattling.\n", "Singing behaviour:\n", "Overall, the HVC auditory motor neurons in swamp sparrows are very similar to the visual motor mirror neurons discovered in primates. Like mirror neurons, the HVC neurons:\n\nBULLET::::- Are located in a premotor brain area\n\nBULLET::::- Exhibit both sensory and motor properties\n\nBULLET::::- Are action-specific – a response is only triggered by the \"primary song type\"\n", "There was once a crow who saw a partridge walking. The crow was intrigued by the walking style of the partridge and spent a long time trying to copy it. However, he could not succeed and so gave up. But when he tried to walk like a crow again, he could not do it properly and so he gained the worse walk of any bird.\n\nStory Thirteen - Awaiting gratitude for a misplaced favour\n\nMain Story - The tourist and the jeweller\n", "This bird has an cooing advertising call that consist of a loud, deep, guttural \"'neah-ah, neah-ah, neah-ah, neah-ah\" or \"naw-aw, naw-naw\" or \"uh-wah, uh-wah, uh-wah\". This call is so deep in timber that it is comes described as cow-like. A call, probably consisting of an excitement call, has been described as a crow-like \"krawk, krawk\".\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nStarting from sitting in Dandasana, one knee is bent, keeping the knee on the floor, so the foot is just in front of the groin, and the other leg is taken straight back. For the completed pose bend the knee of the rear leg, and grasp the foot or ankle with one or both hands. \n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nIn Supported [King] Pigeon or Salamba Kapotasana, the rear leg is straight out and the hands are on the ground beside the hips, so the backbend is reduced. If comfortable, the back may be arched and the gaze directed straight upwards.\n", "Earlier research indicates the birds lower their heads when running \"full tilt through the vegetation, brushing saplings aside and occasionally careening into small trees. The casque would help protect the skull from such collisions\". Cassowaries eat fallen fruit and consequently spend much time under trees where seeds the size of golfballs or larger fall from heights of up to ; the wedge-shaped casque may protect the head by deflecting falling fruit. \n", "The Spinifex pigeon and Crested pigeons have been recorded in versions of an Aboriginal Children's story from Central Australia, conveying rich symbolic meanings between the \"Geophaps\" species and associations by the Arandic people with 'kurdaitchas' (a person who sets out to kill or harm someone, often in revenge, and who leaves no trace.\n", "(\"Spermophilus tridecemlineatus\"), vigilance behaviour includes four postures: (1) quadrupedal alert (all four feet on the ground with head above the horizontal); (2) semiupright alert (on hind feet with a distinctive slouch); (3) upright alert (on hind feet with back straight and mostly perpendicular to the ground); (4) extended upright alert (similar to upright alert except that the squirrel extends its hind legs, (see image of meerkats). In meerkats (\"Suricata suricatta\"), the tripod stance may be adopted relatively briefly during foraging, in which case it is termed guarding behaviour, or for substantially longer periods when the animal is not foraging, in which case it is termed sentinel behaviour.\n", "In Colombia, the species is called \"Maria mulata\", and is the official bird of Cartagena de Indias. Cartagena artist, Enrique Grau, had an affinity for these birds and, because of this inspiration, many Colombian monuments and artistic works were created in honor of the bird's intelligence, adaptability, cheerfulness, sociability, collaborative tendencies, diligence, craftiness, and ability to take advantage of adversity.\n\nIn Austin, Texas, it is commonly found congregating near the city's numerous food trucks.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Symbolic uses.:In the arts.:Dance.\n\nBirds feature as central characters in dance traditions around the world.\n", "Section::::Calls.\n\nCalling consists of a short ‘pip’ repeated every 2-3 s, as well as a ‘pipipipreeeet’ single note repeated rapidly 3-6 times. Adults call during the breeding season when joining groups, flying, alarming, and attending chicks. The alarm call is a ‘qui qui qui qui’ whilst flapping wings. When the predator is clear a ‘tick tick’ sound can be heard.\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "The phrase \"\"Cría cuervos y te sacarán los ojos\"\" is said to originate with Don Álvaro de Luna of Castile during a hunting expedition. In the course of the hunt his party came across a beggar with terrible scarring in the place of eyes. The beggar explained that he had raised a raven for three years with affection and great care, but it attacked him one day, leaving him blind. The bon mot was Don Álvaro's reply.\n", "Motmots often move their tails back and forth in a wag-display that commonly draws attention to an otherwise hidden bird. Research indicates that motmots perform the wag-display when they detect predators (based on studies on turquoise-browed motmot) and that the display is likely to communicate that the motmot is aware of the predator and is prepared to escape. This form of interspecific pursuit-deterrent signal provides a benefit to both the motmot and the predator: the display prevents the motmot from wasting time and energy fleeing, and the predator avoids a costly pursuit that is unlikely to result in capture.\n", "Philip Manson-Bahr is credited with unravelling the mystery of how snipe create the drumming sound which is unlike vocal birdsong. He found out that the sound was created by placing two tail feathers at 90 degrees to the direction of flight. When diving these feathers create this unusual sound. He demonstrated this in front of the British Ornithologists' Union by inserting two snipe tail feathers into a cork which he then whirled around his head on a string.\n", "Section::::Habitat.\n", "Chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans, when walking, walk upright, and their limbs swing in opposition to one another for balance (unlike monkeys, apes lack a tail to use for balance). Disadvantages related to upright walking do exist for primates, since their primary mode of locomotion is quadrupedalism. This upright locomotion is called \"orthograde posture\". Orthograde posture in humans was made possible through millions of years of evolution. In order to walk upright with maximum efficiency, the skull, spine, pelvis, lower limbs, and feet all underwent evolutionary changes.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary significance.\n", "maneuverability, power of flight, and make the bird more conspicuous to predators. Ornaments, therefore, have a great effect on the fitness of the animals that carry them, but the benefits of having an ornament must outweigh the costs for them to be passed on.\n\nSection::::Parental favoritism in nestlings.\n", "As the eyes of humans and other animals are in different positions on the head, they present different views simultaneously. This is the basis of stereopsis, the process by which the brain exploits the parallax due to the different views from the eye to gain depth perception and estimate distances to objects. Animals also use \"motion parallax\", in which the animals (or just the head) move to gain different viewpoints. For example, pigeons (whose eyes do not have overlapping fields of view and thus cannot use stereopsis) bob their heads up and down to see depth.\n", "Leftward refixation occurs in music reading at all skill-levels. It involves a saccade back to the previous note/chord (occasionally even back two notes/chords), followed by at least one returning saccade to the right, to regain lost ground. Weaver reported that leftward regressions run from 7% to a substantial 23% of all saccades in the sight-reading of keyboard music. Goolsby and Smith reported significant levels of leftward refixation across all skill-levels in the sight-reading of melodies.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "A number of species, including storks, some owls, frogmouths and the noisy miner, use bill clapping as a form of communication.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Heat exchange.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Fine serration of the edge of the blade by micro-flaking. This step produces the sharpness of the blade.\n", "Among the first references in fiction to a \"monofilament\" as such is in John Brunner's \"Stand on Zanzibar\" (1968), where hobby terrorists deploy this over-the-shelf General Technics product across roads to kill or injure the people passing there. According to Brunner, the monofilament will easily cut through glass, metal and flesh, but in any non-strained structure the molecules will immediately rebond. No harm is done if the cut object is not under mechanical stress.\n", "The stress generated by a cutting implement is directly proportional to the force with which it is applied, and inversely proportional to the area of contact. Hence, the smaller the area (i.e., the sharper the cutting implement), the less force is needed to cut something. It is generally seen that cutting edges are thinner for cutting soft materials and thicker for harder materials. This progression is seen from kitchen knife, to cleaver, to axe, and is a balance between the easy cutting action of a thin blade vs strength and edge durability of a thicker blade.\n\nSection::::Metal cutting.\n", "Cutting\n\nCutting is the separation or opening of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.\n\nImplements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and science the scalpel and microtome. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even liquids can be used to cut things when applied with sufficient force (see water jet cutter).\n\nSection::::How it works.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "BULLET::::- Crush cut slitting. A male knife runs against an anvil. The system works well with certain materials including non-wovens and foams.\n", "An industrial air knife is a pressurized air plenum containing a series of holes or continuous slots through which pressurized air exits in a laminar flow pattern. The exit air velocity then creates an impact air velocity onto the surface of whatever object the air is directed. This impact air velocity can range from a gentle breeze to greater than Mach 0.6 (40,000 ft/min) to alter the surface of a product without mechanical contact.\n", "A recent development is the laser microtome, which cuts the target specimen with a femtosecond laser instead of a mechanical knife. This method is contact-free and does not require sample preparation techniques. The laser microtome has the ability to slice almost every tissue in its native state. Depending on the material being processed, slice thicknesses of 10 to 100 µm are feasible.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Sledge.\n", "Section::::Physics.:Materials.:Combined materials and heat-treatments.\n", "Air knives remove liquids, control the thickness of liquids, dry the liquid coatings, remove foreign particles, cool product surfaces or create a hold down force to assist in the mechanical bonding of materials to the surface. Electrical currents from anti-static bars can also be injected into the exit air knife stream to neutralize the static electricity charge on some surfaces.\n", "Methods of heat treatment: atmosphere furnace, molten salt, vacuum furnace, coal (coke) forge, oxy/acetylene torch. Quenching after heat treatment differs according to type of metal and personal preferences. Quenching can be done with oil, animal tallow, water, air, or brine.\n\nSection::::Blade making process.:Blade finishes.\n", "A general cleaving strategy that is employed is known as the scribe-and-tension strategy or the scribe-and-break strategy. This process involves introduction of a crack in the fiber, generally by means of cutting tool made from a material such as diamond, sapphire, or tungsten carbide, followed by the application of tensile stress in the vicinity of the crack. However, the specific implementations of the cleaving vary and result in cleaves of different qualities.\n", "Section::::MEMS basic processes.:Etching processes.:Dry etching.:Plasma etching.:Reactive ion etching (RIE).\n", "Section::::Physics.:Materials.:Non-metals.\n", "Carbide, ceramics (such as cubic boron nitride) and diamond, having higher hardness than HSS, all allow faster material removal than HSS in most cases. Because these materials are more expensive and brittler than steel, typically the body of the cutting tool is made of steel, and a small cutting edge made of the harder material is attached. The cutting edge is usually either screwed or clamped on (in this case it is called an insert), or brazed on to a steel shank (this is usually only done for carbide).\n\nSection::::Inserts.\n", "There are many different methods in cutting using lasers, with different types used to cut different material. Some of the methods are vaporization, melt and blow, melt blow and burn, thermal stress cracking, scribing, cold cutting and burning stabilized laser cutting.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Vaporization cutting.\n", "Tissue sections obtained by ultramicrotomy are compressed by the cutting force of the knife. In addition, interference microscopy of the cut surface of the blocks reveals that the sections are often not flat. With Epon or Vestopal as embedding medium the ridges and valleys usually do not exceed 0.5 µm in height, i.e., 5–10 times the thickness of ordinary sections (1). \n", "Bread knives are usually between 15 cm and 25 cm (6 and 10 inches).\n", "Most published academics believe this is the way to find cutter locations, and that the problem of collisions away from the point of contact is soluble. However, nothing printed so far comes close to handling real world cases.\n\nSection::::Against triangles.\n", "The monatomic sword (called by the protagonist \"the plane sword\") is an ideal melee weapon. Its blade is one atom thick. Due to such sharp blade, the sword can cut through any known material.\n\nAny strike or even a wave with the sword blunts the blade, making it thicker than one atom. The hilt contains a button that nearly instantly sharpens the sword back to its original thickness. However, this can be done only about 1500 times, after which the sword breaks down.\n", "Cutting has been at the core of manufacturing throughout history. For metals many methods are used and can be grouped by the physical phenomenon used.It is the process of producing a work piece by removing unwanted material from a block of metal,in the form of chips.\n\nBULLET::::- Chip forming – sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Shearing – punching, stamping, scissoring\n\nBULLET::::- Abrading – grinding, lapping, polishing, water-jet\n\nBULLET::::- Heat – flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting\n\nBULLET::::- Electrochemical – etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM)\n", "This deals with the atoms of the materials, and how they are arranged to give molecules, crystals, etc. Much of the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties of materials arise from this level of structure. The length scales involved are in angstroms(Å).\n\nThe way in which the atoms and molecules are bonded and arranged is fundamental to studying the properties and behavior of any material.\n\nSection::::Fundamentals.:Structure.:Nanostructure.\n", "The most important tool used for conversions is a hobby or craft knife, usually with a sharp and narrow blade, allowing the hobbyist to get the blade into the deepest folds and creases of the miniature.\n\nSection::::Tools and materials.:Modelling putty.\n", "Knife making\n\nKnife making is the process of manufacturing a knife by any one or a combination of processes: stock removal, forging to shape, welded lamination or investment cast. Typical metals used come from the carbon steel, tool, or stainless steel families. Primitive knives have been made from bronze, copper, brass, iron, obsidian, and flint.\n\nSection::::Materials for blades.\n\nDifferent steels are suited to different applications. There is a trade off between hardness, toughness, edge retention, corrosion resistance, and achievable sharpness. Some examples of blade material and their relative trade offs:\n", "In 1999, an experimentally proved methodology called feature-oriented scanning (FOS) was suggested. The feature-oriented scanning methodology allows precisely controlling the position of the probe of a scanning probe microscope (SPM) on an atomic surface at room temperature. The suggested methodology supports fully automatic control of single- and multiprobe instruments in solving tasks of mechanosynthesis and bottom-up nanofabrication.\n\nIn 2003, Oyabu \"et al.\" reported the first instance of purely mechanical-based covalent bond-making and bond-breaking, i.e., the first experimental demonstration of true mechanosynthesis—albeit with silicon rather than carbon atoms.\n\nIn 2005, the first patent application on diamond mechanosynthesis was filed.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The first set of questions concerned nuclear implosion. The first module, or fission trigger, exploded \"by compression of nuclear material or fission and fusion of materials by spherical explosion of chemical explosives, in which the spherical symmetry of the implosion was dictated by the initial spherically symmetric detonation of the explosive\".\n\nThere seemed to be no way in which \"a heterogeneous structure composed of a primary source (or sources) and a compressible secondary module\" could \"maintain the spherically symmetric 'nuclear implosion\".\n", "BULLET::::- Finally, the heat for fusion ignition comes not from the primary but from a second fission bomb called the spark plug, embedded in the heart of the secondary. The implosion of the secondary implodes this spark plug, detonating it and igniting fusion in the material around it, but the spark plug then continues to fission in the neutron-rich environment until it is fully consumed, adding significantly to the yield.\n", "Modern explosives engineering utilizes computational analysis methods which avoid this problem.\n\nSection::::Equations.\n\nSection::::Equations.:Cylindrical charge.\n\nFor the simplest case, a long hollow cylinder of metal is filled completely with explosives. The cylinder's walls are accelerated outwards as described by:\n\nformula_10\n\nThis configuration is a first-order approximation for most military explosive devices, including artillery shells, bombs, and most missile warheads. These use mostly cylindrical explosive charges.\n\nSection::::Equations.:Spherical charge.\n\nA spherical charge, initiated at its center, will accelerate a surrounding flyer shell as described by:\n\nformula_11\n\nThis model approximates the behavior of military grenades, and some cluster bomb submunitions.\n\nSection::::Equations.:Symmetrical sandwich.\n", "In a two-point system, if one detonator fires, one entire hemisphere of the pit will implode as designed. The high-explosive charge surrounding the other hemisphere will explode progressively, from the equator toward the opposite pole. Ideally, this will pinch the equator and squeeze the second hemisphere away from the first, like toothpaste in a tube. By the time the explosion envelops it, its implosion will be separated both in time and space from the implosion of the first hemisphere. The resulting dumbbell shape, with each end reaching maximum density at a different time, may not become critical.\n", "In the design of nuclear weapons, on the other hand, achieving prompt criticality is essential. Indeed, one of the design problems to overcome in constructing a bomb is to compress the fissile materials enough to achieve prompt criticality before the chain reaction has a chance to produce enough energy to cause the core to expand too much. A good bomb design must therefore win the race to a dense, prompt critical core before a less-powerful chain reaction disassembles the core without allowing a significant amount of fuel to fission (known as a fizzle). This generally means that nuclear bombs need special attention paid to the way the core is assembled, such as the implosion method invented by Richard C. Tolman, Robert Serber, and other scientists at the University of California, Berkeley in 1942.\n", "Another effect of moderation is that the time between subsequent neutron generations is increased, slowing down the reaction. This makes the containment of the explosion a problem; the inertia that is used to confine implosion type bombs will not be able to confine the reaction. The end result may be a fizzle instead of a bang.\n", "Holding an exploding bomb together is the greatest challenge of fission weapon design. The heat of fission rapidly expands the fission core, spreading apart the target nuclei and making space for the neutrons to escape without being captured. The chain reaction stops.\n", "Initially, gamma radiation from the fission products of an equivalent size fission-fusion-fission bomb are much more intense than Co-60: 15,000 times more intense at 1 hour; 35 times more intense at 1 week; 5 times more intense at 1 month; and about equal at 6 months. Thereafter fission drops off rapidly so that Co-60 fallout is 8 times more intense than fission at 1 year and 150 times more intense at 5 years. The very long-lived isotopes produced by fission would overtake the Co again after about 75 years.\n", "Separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage. The fissioning primary produces four types of energy: 1) expanding hot gases from high explosive charges that implode the primary; 2) superheated plasma that was originally the bomb's fissile material and its tamper; 3) the electromagnetic radiation; and 4) the neutrons from the primary's nuclear detonation. The interstage is responsible for accurately modulating the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary. It must direct the hot gases, plasma, electromagnetic radiation and neutrons toward the right place at the right time. Less than optimal interstage designs have resulted in the secondary failing to work entirely on multiple shots, known as a \"fissile fizzle\". The Castle Koon shot of Operation Castle is a good example; a small flaw allowed the neutron flux from the primary to prematurely begin heating the secondary, weakening the compression enough to prevent any fusion.\n", "Experimental studies have revealed some of the conditions needed for the propagation of such fronts. In confinement, the range of composition of mixes of fuel and oxidant and self-decomposing substances with inerts are slightly below the flammability limits and for spherically expanding fronts well below them. The influence of increasing the concentration of diluent on expanding individual detonation cells has been elegantly demonstrated. Similarly their size grows as the initial pressure falls. Since cell widths must be matched with minimum dimension of containment, any wave overdriven by the initiator will be quenched.\n", "However, this requires significant infrastructure to implement. Another approach uses dilution (i.e. with exhaust gases) to reduce the pressure and combustion rates (and output).\n\nIn the divided combustion chamber approach, there are two cooperating combustion chambers: a small auxiliary and a big main.br\n\nA high compression ratio is used in the auxiliary combustion chamber. br\n\nA moderate compression ratio is used in the main combustion chamber wherein a homogeneous air-fuel mixture is compressed / heated near, yet below, the auto-ignition threshold.br\n", "A thermobaric bomb's effective yield requires the most appropriate combination of a number of factors; among these are how well the fuel is dispersed, how rapidly it mixes with the surrounding atmosphere, and the initiation of the igniter and its position relative to the container of fuel. In some designs, strong munitions cases allow the blast pressure to be contained long enough for the fuel to be heated up well above its auto-ignition temperature, so that once the container bursts the super-heated fuel will auto-ignite progressively as it comes into contact with atmospheric oxygen.\n", "A similar ignition process occurs in HCCI. However, rather than part of the reactant mixture igniting by compression ahead of a flame front, ignition in HCCI engines occurs due to piston compression more or less simultaneously in the bulk of the compressed charge. Little or no pressure differences occur between the different regions of the gas, eliminating any shock wave and knocking, but the rapid pressure rise is still present and desirable from the point of seeking maximum efficiency from near-ideal isochoric heat addition.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Simulation of HCCI Engines.\n", "By comparison, CDP detonation is based on the rapid reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon with the abundant release of energy. Rather than produce typical waste gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and nitric oxides, CDP is different. Instead, the highly energetic reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon vaporizes and pressurizes excess dry ice at the wave front, which is the only gas released from the detonation. The velocity of detonation for CDP formulations can therefore be customized by adjusting the weight percentage of reducing agent and dry ice. CDP detonations produce a large amount of solid materials that can have great commercial value as an abrasive:\n", "For example, the Cs/Cs ratio provides an easy method of distinguishing between fallout from a bomb and the fission products from a power reactor. Almost no Cs-134 is formed by nuclear fission (because xenon-134 is stable). The Cs is formed by the neutron activation of the stable Cs which is formed by the decay of isotopes in the isobar (A = 133). So in a momentary criticality by the time that the neutron flux becomes zero too little time will have passed for any Cs to be present. While in a power reactor plenty of time exists for the decay of the isotopes in the isobar to form Cs, the Cs thus formed can then be activated to form Cs only if the time between the start and the end of the criticality is long.\n", "The mechanism of the high explosive lens (diagram item #6) is not shown in the Swedish drawing, but a standard lens made of fast and slow high explosives, as in Fat Man, would be much longer than the shape depicted. For a single high explosive lens to generate a concave wave that envelops an entire hemisphere, it must either be very long or the part of the wave on a direct line from the detonator to the pit must be slowed dramatically.\n", "To date most ICF experiments have used lasers to heat the targets. Calculations show that the energy must be delivered quickly to compress the core before it disassembles, as well as creating a suitable shock wave. The energy must also be focused extremely evenly across the target's outer surface to collapse the fuel into a symmetric core. Although other \"drivers\" have been suggested, notably heavy ions driven in particle accelerators, lasers are currently the only devices with the right combination of features.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "The process of detonation spraying was first developed in 1955 by H.B. Sargent, R.M. Poorman and H. Lamprey and was subsequently patented. It was first made commercially available as the 'D-Gun Process' by Union Carbide in the same year. It was further developed in the 1960s by the Paton Institute in Kiev (Ukraine), into a technology that is still currently commercially available in the US by Demeton Technologies (West Babylon).\n\nSection::::D-Gun.\n", "C-4 is very stable and insensitive to most physical shocks. C-4 cannot be detonated by a gunshot or by dropping it onto a hard surface. It does not explode when set on fire or exposed to microwave radiation. Detonation can only be initiated by a shockwave, such as when a detonator inserted into it is fired.\n\nWhen detonated, C-4 rapidly decomposes to release nitrogen, water and carbon oxides as well as other gases. The detonation proceeds at an explosive velocity of .\n", "BULLET::::- C, carbon-14 can be made (as above), and it is possible to convert the target material into simple inorganic and organic compounds. In most organic synthesis work it is normal to try to create a product out of two approximately equal sized fragments and to use a convergent route, but when a radioactive label is added, it is normal to try to add the label late in the synthesis in the form of a very small fragment to the molecule to enable the radioactivity to be localised in a single group. Late addition of the label also reduces the number of synthetic stages where radioactive material is used.\n", "Even using these isotopes, the Coulomb barrier is large enough that the nuclei must be given great amounts of energy before they will fuse. Although there are a number of ways to do this, the simplest is to heat the gas mixture, which, according to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, will result in a small number of particles with the required energy even when the gas as a whole is relatively \"cool\" compared to the Coulomb barrier energy. In the case of the D-T mixture, rapid fusion will occur when the gas is heated to about 100 million degrees.\n\nSection::::Background.:Confinement.\n", "In radiation implosion, the burst of X-ray energy coming from an exploding primary is captured and contained within an opaque-walled radiation channel which surrounds the nuclear energy components of the secondary. The radiation quickly turns the plastic foam that had been filling the channel into a plasma which is mostly transparent to X-rays, and the radiation is absorbed in the outermost layers of the pusher/tamper surrounding the secondary, which ablates and applies a massive force (much like an inside out rocket engine) causing the fusion fuel capsule to implode much like the pit of the primary. As the secondary implodes a fissile \"spark plug\" at its center ignites and provides neutrons and heat which enable the lithium deuteride fusion fuel to produce tritium and ignite as well. The fission and fusion chain reactions exchange neutrons with each other and boost the efficiency of both reactions. The greater implosive force, enhanced efficiency of the fissile \"spark plug\" due to boosting via fusion neutrons, and the fusion explosion itself provide significantly greater explosive yield from the secondary despite often not being much larger than the primary.\n", "A 2004 analysis of such a process states that:\n", "Modules use complex instruction sets and puzzle-like elements to be solved; for example, the Experts may need to guide the Defuser through a maze that the Defuser cannot see the walls of. Other modules use words that may be homophones of other similar words (\"sees\" to \"seas\") or be verbal tics (\"uhhh\" or \"uh huh\") that could easily be confused during communication between Defuser and Experts. Many modules have multiple stages that require the Experts to keep track of past actions as they work through each stage. Defusing some modules may also depend on the state of the bomb such as how many strikes it presently has, or external decorations on the bomb like the serial number or the presence of batteries.\n", "There are various approaches; one is to place metal plate over a die, with the intervening space evacuated by a vacuum pump, place the whole assembly underwater, and detonate a charge at an appropriate distance from the plate. For complicated shapes, a segmented die can be used to produce in a single operation a shape that would require many manufacturing steps, or to be manufactured in parts and welded together with an accompanying loss of strength at the welds. There is often some degree of work hardening from the explosive-forming process, particularly in mild steel.\n\nSection::::Tooling.\n" ]

[ "Nuclear explosions cannot be shaped.", "Nuclear explosions cannot be shaped to explode in a certain direction. " ]

[ "Shaped nuclear charges are theoretically possible.", "Theoretically, shaped nuclear explosions are possible, but because theres no need for them, they haven't been created." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Nuclear explosions cannot be shaped.", "Nuclear explosions cannot be shaped to explode in a certain direction. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Shaped nuclear charges are theoretically possible.", "Theoretically, shaped nuclear explosions are possible, but because theres no need for them, they haven't been created." ]

[ "The native Irish and the \"Old English\" (who had come to Ireland at the time of the Normans), while subject to the English crown, were overwhelmingly opposed to the Anglican and dissenting churches, and the vast majority remained Catholic, which had tragic implications for the later history of Ireland (such as the Irish Penal Laws). The Catholics of Ireland suffered the same penalties as recusants in England, which were exacerbated by impatience with the rebellious nature of the Irish, English contempt for a subject race and the desire for Irish land and property.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Divisions between Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants played a major role in the history of Ireland from the 16th to the 20th century, especially the Home Rule Crisis and the Troubles. While religion broadly marks the delineation of these divisions, the contentions were primarily political and related to access to power. For example, while the majority of Irish Catholics saw themselves as having an identity independent of Britain and were excluded from power, a number of the instigators in rebellions against British rule were in fact Protestant Irish nationalists, although most Irish Protestants opposed separatism. In the Irish Rebellion of 1798 Catholics and Presbyterians, who were not part of the established Church of Ireland, found common cause.\n", "Plowden tells of a similar assault on Catholics in Lurgan where influential Catholics and Protestants living east of the river Bann convened a meeting and succeeded in maintaining the peace in that area. But in Portadown the Catholic Defenders: \"remained under arms for three days successively, challenging their opponents to fight it out fairly in the field rather that harass them with murderous nocturnal visits\".\n", "Despite being the target of various penal laws, Dissenters remained vocal advocates of those that targeted Catholics so kept their complaints to a courteous tone. Indeed, penal laws similar to those passed by the Irish Parliament, were imposed against Protestants in France and Silesia, but in these cases it was by a majority against a minority, which was not the situation in Ireland.\n", "Roman Catholic support for the Kingdom of Ireland (1542-1800) had the full backing of the Holy See from 1555, with the papal bull \"Ilius per quem\" issued by Pope Paul IV during the reign of Queen Mary. Unfortunately only one monarch after her had been Catholic, James II (1685-89), who called the Parliament of 1689. The kingdom had mainstream support from Jacobites, in hopes that eventually a Catholic monarchy would reign. In general the Holy See had better relations with Europe's monarchies, particularly Spain, Austria, 1700s France and Portugal, and was seen as a conservative force. The Irish Catholic Hierarchy, and notably Archbishop Troy, supported the passage of the Acts of Union 1800, expecting that Catholic MPs would be elected, but this was delayed by three decades.\n", "Moore owned 5000 ha (50 km²) in Mayo, and 40 ha in County Roscommon. In 1852 Henry Wilberforce became Secretary, living in Ireland for two or three years. As Secretary he engaged in a correspondence on Church of Ireland proselytizing which was published as \"Proselytism in Ireland: the Catholic Defence Association versus the Irish Church Missions on the charge of bribery and intimidation; a correspondence between the Rev. Alex Dallas and the Rev. Henry Wilberforce\" (1852). \n", "The reign of James I (1603-25) started tolerantly, but the 1605 Gunpowder Plot confirmed an official anti-Catholic religious bias, and the recusant fines continued, but not at the higher levels imposed on English Catholics by the Popish Recusants Act 1605. Recusant fines were collected on a haphazard basis until the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649, after which all Catholic worship was banned. \n\nFrom the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 no fines or laws about recusancy persisted; state policy allowed for many different churches but preserved the official position of Anglicanism.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Nonconformism\n\nBULLET::::- Papist\n", "Sectarian conflict was continued in the late 18th century in the form of communal violence between rival Catholic and Protestant factions over land and trading rights (see Defenders, Peep O'Day Boys and Orange Institution). The 1820s and 1830s in Ireland saw a major attempt by Protestant evangelists to convert Catholics, a campaign which caused great resentment among Catholics.\n", "Sectarian conflict was continued in the late 18th century in the form of communal violence between rival Catholic and Protestant factions over land and trading rights (see Defenders (Ireland), Peep O'Day Boys and Orange Institution). The 1820s and 1830s in Ireland saw a major attempt by Protestant evangelists to convert Catholics, a campaign which caused great resentment among Catholics.\n", "[Reverend Devine] so worked up the minds of his audience, that upon retiring from service [...] they gave full scope to the anti-papistical zeal, with which he had inspired them; falling upon every Catholic they met, beating and bruising them without provocation or distinction, breaking the doors and windows of their houses, and actually murdering two unoffending Catholics in a bog.\n", "In the 1830s and 1840s, prominent Protestant leaders, such as Lyman Beecher and Horace Bushnell, attacked the Catholic Church as not only theologically unsound but an enemy of republican values. Some scholars view the anti-Catholic rhetoric of Beecher and Bushnell as having contributed to anti-Irish and anti-Catholic mob violence.\n", "Although some of the Penal Laws restricting Catholic access to landed property were repealed between 1778 and 1782, this did not end anti-Catholic agitation and violence. Catholic competition with Protestants in County Armagh for leases intensified, driving up prices and provoking resentment of Anglicans and Protestants alike. Then in 1793, the Roman Catholic Relief Act enfranchised forty shilling freeholders in the counties, thus increasing the political value of Catholic tenants to landlords. In addition, Catholics began to enter the linen weaving trade, thus depressing Protestant wage rates. From the 1780s the Protestant Peep O'Day Boys grouping began attacking Catholic homes and smashing their looms. In addition, the Peep O'Day Boys disarmed Catholics of any weapons they were holding. A Catholic group called the Defenders was formed in response to these attacks. This climaxed in the Battle of the Diamond on 21 September 1795 outside the small village of Loughgall between Peep O' Day boys and the Defenders. Roughly 30 Catholic Defenders but none of the better armed Peep O'Day Boys were killed in the fight. Hundreds of Catholic homes and at least one Church were burnt out in the aftermath of the skirmish. After the battle Daniel Winter, James Wilson, and James Sloan changed the name of the Peep O' Day Boys to the Orange Order devoted to maintaining the Protestant ascendency.\n", "Over the centuries, hostility increased towards the Irish, who steadfastly remained Roman Catholic in spite of coercive force by Edward VI and subsequent rulers to convert them to Protestantism. The religious majority of the Irish nation was ruled by a religious minority, leading to perennial social conflict. During the Great Famine in the middle of the 19th century, some evangelical Protestants sought to convert the starving Catholics as part of their relief efforts.\n\nDiscrimination against the Irish was rooted in anti-Catholicism and in disgust for their poverty-stricken lifestyle.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre-Modern era.\n", "During the 1641–1653 Irish Confederate Wars, nearly two-thirds of Ireland was controlled by the largely Catholic Confederacy. In 1644, Giovanni Battista Rinuccini became Papal Nuncio to Ireland; however, the Confederacy also included significant numbers of Royalist members of the Church of Ireland while Irish Catholicism had developed greater tolerance for Protestants and hostility to elaborate ritual. Rinuccini's refusal to compromise with the Church of Ireland and the re-introduction of ceremonies such as foot washing divided the Confederacy and contributed to its rapid collapse in the 1649-1652 Cromwell's re-conquest of Ireland.\n", "By the 1630s, more than a quarter of land in Ireland was owned by Protestants, by the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion of 1641, they held roughly three-fifths. Whilst the uprising initially targeted the English settlers in Ulster, the native Irish soon turned upon the Scots.\n", "As the 16th century progressed, the religious question grew in significance. Rebels such as James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald and Hugh O'Neill sought and received help from Catholic powers in Europe, justifying their actions on religious grounds. However, the Pale community and many Irish lords did not consider them to be genuinely religiously motivated. In the new century, the country would become polarised between Catholics and Protestants, especially after the planting of a large population of English into Ireland and Scots Presbyterians in Ulster (See Plantation of Ulster).\n", "After the turbulent election John Leslie complained to his sister that: ‘the priests attacked me in all their Chapels … they made it distinctly a matter of Eternal Damnation to vote for me & an atonement for Sin to vote against me’. The Catholic Association had already gained success in Co. Waterford and this election was a precursor to their further success two years later in Co. Clare.\n\nSection::::Catholic Emancipation.\n", "Ireland was deeply scarred by religious sectarianism following the Protestant Reformation as tensions between the native Catholic Irish and Protestant settlers from Britain led to massacres and attempts at ethnic cleaning by both sides during the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Irish Rebellion of 1798 and the Home Rule Crisis of 1912. The invasion of Ireland by English parliamentarian forces under Oliver Cromwell in 1659 was notoriously brutal and witnessed the widespread ethnic cleansing of the native Irish. The failure of the Rebellion of 1798, which sought to unite Protestants and Catholics for an independent Ireland, helped cause more sectarian violence in the island, most infamously the Scullabogue Barn massacre, in which Protestants were burned alive in County Wexford. The British response, which included the public executions of dozens of suspected rebels in Dunlavin and Carnew, along with other violence perpetrated by all sides, ended the hope that Protestants and Catholics could work together for Ireland.\n", "The Irish potato famine was due in part to Anti-Catholic laws. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Irish Catholics had been prohibited by the penal laws from purchasing or leasing land, from voting, from holding political office, from living in or within of a corporate town, from obtaining education, from entering a profession, and from doing many other things that were necessary for a person to succeed and prosper in society. The laws had largely been reformed by 1793, and in 1829, Irish Catholics could again sit in parliament following the Act of Emancipation.\n\nSection::::In primarily Protestant countries.:British Empire.:Canada.\n", "On 17 March 1642 these nobles signed the \"Catholic Remonstrance\" issued at Trim, County Meath that was addressed to King Charles I. On 22 March, at a synod in nearby Kells chaired by Hugh O'Reilly, Archbishop of Armagh, a majority of the Catholic bishops proclaimed that the rebellion was a just war.\n", "In Ireland the church had significant influence on public opinion. The introduction of the Irish Education Act (1831) of Lord Stanley placed Irish primary school education under it. It was associated with the Jacobite movement until 1766, and with Catholic emancipation until 1829. The church was resurgent between 1829 and the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1869–71, when its most significant leaders included Bishop James Doyle, Cardinal Cullen and Archbishop MacHale. The relationship to Irish nationalism was complex; most of the bishops and high clergy supported the British Empire, but a considerable number of local priests were more sympathetic to Irish independence. While the Church hierarchy was willing to work with Parliamentary Irish nationalism, it was mostly critical of \"Fenianism\"; i.e. – Irish republicanism. This continued right up until it was clear that the British-side was losing, then the Church partly switched sides. It supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty and therefore were formally Pro-Treaty in the Irish Civil War, excommunicating Anti-Treaty followers. Despite this, some Protestants in Ireland stated that they were opposing Irish self-government, because it would result in \"Rome Rule\" instead of home rule, and this became an element in (or an excuse for) the creation of Northern Ireland.\n", "In 1635, Lord Wentworth proposed a plantation of Connacht, which would have seen all Catholic land confiscated and settled with only English Protestants, with the hope of converting the Gaelic and Old English Catholics to the state religion. This plantation would not see the light of day as Wentworth alienated Protestant and Catholic alike in Ireland, and Charles I got into ever more trouble with Parliament.\n", "Anglican dominance in Ireland was ensured by the passage of the Penal Laws that curtailed the religious, legal, and political rights of anyone (including both Catholics and Protestant Dissenters, such as Presbyterians) who did not conform to the state church, the Anglican Church of Ireland. As the Penal Laws started to be phased out in the latter part of the 18th century, there was more competition for land, as restrictions were lifted on the Irish Catholic ability to rent. With Roman Catholics allowed to buy land and enter trades from which they had formerly been banned, tensions arose resulting in the Protestant \"Peep O'Day Boys\" and Catholic \"Defenders\". This created polarisation between the communities and a dramatic reduction in reformers among Protestants, many of whom had been growing more receptive to democratic reform.\n", "Finally, cultural and religious conflict also played a role in fomenting discontent. In the early 1570s, Sir John Perrot, the English Lord Deputy, had banned aspects of traditional Gaelic Irish culture, including Brehon law, bardic Irish language poetry and Irish dress. In addition, the English had introduced Protestantism as the state religion in Ireland, whereas the majority of the population were Roman Catholic. This was an increasingly important proof of loyalty to the Dublin administration after the promulgation of Pope Pius V's papal bull \"Regnans in Excelsis\" in 1570, when the Papacy excommunicated Elizabeth and her officials. Fitzmaurice appealed to both of these sentiments, speaking only Irish, wearing Irish dress and also championing the cause of the counter-reformation.\n", "Section::::Sectarianism in Ireland.\n\nThe overthrow, in 1613, of the Catholic majority in the Irish parliament was realised principally through the creation of numerous new boroughs, all of which were Protestant-dominated. By the end of the seventeenth century all Catholics, representing some 85% of Ireland's population then, were banned from the Irish parliament. Political power rested entirely in the hands of a British settler-colonial, and more specifically Anglican, minority while the Catholic population suffered severe political and economic privations.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "With the growth in the elderly population of humans, there has been a rise to myelomalacia. Because the human body begins to deteriorate with age, and because human population is living many years longer, there has been a growth in cases of myelomalacia. As the bones in the body begin to weaken in a process known as osteopenia, the body is more vulnerable to damage. A simple fall may damage the spinal cord and myelomalacia may soon ensue.\n\nSection::::Diagnosing.\n", "Like many other joints throughout the human body, facets can experience natural degeneration from normal aging. Over time, the cartilage within the joints can naturally begin to wear out, allowing it to become thin or disappear entirely which, in turn, allows the conjoining vertebrae to rub directly against one another with little or no lubricant or separation. A result of this rubbing is often swelling, inflammation causing pain.\n\nOver time, the body will naturally respond to the instability within the spine by developing bone spurs, thickened ligaments or even synovial cysts that contact nerve roots exiting the spinal column.\n", "For example, the height loss was measured by measuring the patient while he was standing straight (with exaggerated curves in his upper and lower back) and again after he fixed this issue (with no exaggerated curves), both of these measurements were taken in the morning with a gap of 6 months and the growth plates of the patient were checked to make sure that they were closed to rule out natural growth. The height loss occurs in the torso region and once the person fixes his back, his BMI will reduce since he is taller and his stomach will also appear to be slimmer. \n", "Body shape\n\nHuman body shape is a complex phenomenon with sophisticated detail and function. The general shape or figure of a person is defined mainly by the molding of skeletal structures, as well as the distribution of muscles and fat. Skeletal structure grows and changes only up to the point at which a human reaches adulthood and remains essentially the same for the rest of his or her life. Growth is usually completed between the ages of 13 and 18, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close, allowing no further growth (see Human skeleton).\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "Examples of atrophy as part of normal development include shrinking and the involution of the thymus in early childhood, and the tonsils in adolescence. In old age, effects include, but are not limited to, loss of teeth, hair, thinning of skin that creates wrinkles, weakening of muscles, loss of weight in organs and sluggish mental activity.\n\nSection::::Muscle atrophies.\n", "Spondylosis is caused from years of constant abnormal pressure, caused by joint subluxation, stress induced by sports, acute and/or repetitive trauma, or poor posture, being placed on the vertebrae and the discs between them. The abnormal stress causes the body to form new bone in order to compensate for the new weight distribution. This abnormal weight bearing from bone displacement will cause spondylosis to occur. Poor postures and loss of the normal spinal curves can lead to spondylosis as well. Spondylosis can affect a person at any age; however, older people are more susceptible.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Short stature can also be caused by the bone plates fusing at an earlier age than normal, therefore stunting growth. Normally, the bone age is the same as the biological age but for some people, it is older. For many people with advanced bone ages, they hit a growth spurt early on which propels them to average height but stop growing at an earlier age. However, in some cases, people who are naturally shorter combined with their advanced bone age, end up being even shorter than the height they normally would have been because of their stunted growth.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "Hassel & Farman (1995) developed an index based on the second, third, and fourth cervical vertebrae (C2, C3, C4) and proved that atlas maturation was highly correlated with skeletal maturation of the hand-wrist. Several smartphone applications have been developed to facilitate the use of vertebral methods such as \"Easy Age\".\n\nSection::::Height prediction.\n", "Merely slouching doesn't cause height loss even though it may make a person look shorter, slouching may lead to perceived height loss whereas lumbar hyperlordosis leads to actual and measured height loss. To make it easier to understand the difference, if a person loses a vertebrae (which is around 2 inches in height) in his spine, it doesn't matter if he slouches or not, he will be shorter regardless of his posture. Lumbar hyperlordosis, of course, doesn't make you lose a vertebrae but it bends them in such a way that your spine's vertical height is reduced.\n", "As a child grows the epiphyses become calcified and appear on the x-rays, as do the carpal and tarsal bones of the hands and feet, separated on the x-rays by a layer of invisible cartilage where most of the growth is occurring. As sex steroid levels rise during puberty, bone maturation accelerates. As growth nears conclusion and attainment of adult height, bones begin to approach the size and shape of adult bones. The remaining cartilaginous portions of the epiphyses become thinner. As these cartilaginous zones become obliterated, the epiphyses are said to be \"closed\" and no further lengthening of the bones will occur. A small amount of spinal growth concludes an adolescent's growth.\n", "An \"advanced\" bone age is common when a child has had prolonged elevation of sex steroid levels, as in precocious puberty or congenital adrenal hyperplasia.\n\nThe bone age is often marginally advanced with premature adrenarche, when a child is overweight from a young age or when a child has lipodystrophy. Those with an advanced bone age typically hit a growth spurt early on but stop growing at an earlier age.\n\nBone age may be significantly advanced in genetic overgrowth syndromes, such as Sotos syndrome, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome and Marshall-Smith syndrome.\n", "Often patients have tight hamstrings, which, again, is related to the body compensating for excessive spinal curvature, though this is also debated (for example, some suggest the tightness of ligament is the initial cause of the growth abnormality). In addition to the common lordosis, it has been suggested that between 20–30% of patients with Scheuermann's Disease also have scoliosis, though most cases are negligible. In more serious cases, however, the combination is classified as a separate condition known as kyphoscoliosis.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In general, modern spinal fusions have good outcomes with high degrees of correction and low rates of failure and infection. However a systematic review of PubMed papers in 2008 concluded \"Scoliosis surgery has a varying but high rate of complications\", although the non-standardised data on complications was difficult to assess and was incomplete. Patients with fused spines and permanent implants tend to have normal lives with unrestricted activities when they are younger; it remains to be seen whether those that have been treated with the newer surgical techniques develop problems as they age.\n\nSection::::Surgery.:Thoracoplasty.\n", "Section::::Human evolution.:Growth pattern of children.\n\nDesmond Collins who was an Extension Lecturer of Archaeology at London University said that the lengthened youth period of humans is part of neoteny.\n", "While these changes are occurring, the bones, which at first consist principally of cartilage, are gradually becoming ossified. By the time a normal child begins to walk, the lower limbs are prepared, both by their general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which form them, to support the weight of the body.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Blount's disease.\n", "At birth, only the metaphyses of the \"long bones\" are present. The long bones are those that grow primarily by elongation at an epiphysis at one end of the growing bone. The long bones include the femurs, tibias, and fibulas of the lower limb, the humeri, radii, and ulnas of the upper limb (arm + forearm), and the phalanges of the fingers and toes. The long bones of the leg comprise nearly half of adult height. The other primary skeletal component of height is the spine and skull.\n", "Werner syndrome is also a single-gene genetic disease. This syndrome starts to affect individuals during the teenage years, and prevents the teens from growing at puberty. Once the individual reaches the twenties, there is generally a change in hair color, skin, and voice. This condition can also affect the weight distribution between the arms, legs, and torso.\n\nSection::::Biogerontology.\n\nTheories of ageing affect efforts to understand and find treatments for age-related conditions:\n", "Cosier struggled with his weight throughout his career, in part due to his back trouble – a permanent condition since birth: a vertebrae is out of alignment. \"I can't do any heavy physical work at all\", he said in February 1977. \"I can't run or do gym work.\"\n\nSection::::Career.:Move to South Australia.\n", "A similar impact has also been noticed in male to female transpeople who have weaker muscles in the lower back due to increased estrogen intake and other such treatments.\n\nHowever, the cause of height loss in both situations is a little different even though the impact is similar. In the first scenario, it can be due to a genetic condition, trauma to the spine, pregnancy in women or a sedentary lifestyle (sitting too much causes muscle imbalances and is the most common reason for this issue) and in the second scenario, the estrogen weakens the muscles in the area. \n", "Bone age is the degree of maturation of a child's bones. As a person grows from fetal life through childhood, puberty, and finishes growth as a young adult, the bones of the skeleton change in size and shape. These changes can be seen by x-ray. The \"bone age\" of a child is the average age at which children reach this stage of bone maturation. A child's current height and bone age can be used to predict adult height. For most people, their bone age is the same as their biological age but for some individuals, their bone age is a couple years older or younger. Those with advanced bone ages typically hit a growth spurt early on but stop growing early sooner while those with delayed bone ages hit their growth spurt later than normal. Kids who are below average height do not necessarily have a delayed bone age; in fact their bone age could actually be advanced which if left untreated, will stunt their growth.\n", "Living bones are subject to Wolff's law, which states that bones are physically affected and remodeled by physical activity or inactivity. Increases in mechanical stress tend to produce bones that are thicker and stronger. Disruptions in homeostasis caused by nutritional deficiency or disease or profound inactivity/disuse/disability can lead to bone loss. While the acquisition of bipedal locomotion and body mass appear to determine the size and shape of children's bones, activity during the adolescent growth period seems to exert a greater influence on the size and shape of adult bones than exercise later in life.\n", "There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced \"C\" or \"S\" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Arthritis.\n", "The cause of spondylolysis remains unknown, however many factors are thought to contribute to its development. The condition is present in up to 6% of the population, majority of which usually present asymptomatically. Research supports that there are hereditary and acquired risk factors that can make one more susceptible to the defect. The disorder is generally more prevalent in males compared to females, and tends to occur earlier in males due to their involvement in more strenuous activities at a younger age. In a young athlete, the spine is still growing which means there are many ossification centers, leaving points of weakness in the spine. This leaves young athletes at increased risk, particularly when involved in repetitive hyperextension and rotation across the lumbar spine. Spondylolysis is a common cause of low back pain in preadolescents and adolescent athletes, as it accounts for about 50% of all low back pain. It is believed that both repetitive trauma and an inherent genetic weakness can make an individual more susceptible to spondylolysis.\n", "In a number of conditions involving atypical growth, bone age height predictions are less accurate. For example, in children born small for gestational age who remain short after birth, the bone age is a poor predictor of adult height.\n\nSection::::Clinical application of bone age readings.\n", "The available information about Daniel Cajanus' actual size is somewhat variable, however it is clear that his height reduced somewhat over the course of his life. Investigations into his preserved bones reveal a phenomenon typical of gigantism which explains this reduction: the overproduction of growth hormone leads to a thickening of the cartilage, which wears away in the course of time, leading to symptoms similar to osteoarthritis. The condyles of his bones show clear signs of erosion, which also explain his difficulties in walking in his later years.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The tree growth habit is an evolutionary adaptation found in different groups of plants: by growing taller, trees are able to compete better for sunlight. Trees tend to be tall and long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old. Several trees are among the oldest organisms now living. Trees have modified structures such as thicker stems composed of specialised cells that add structural strength and durability, allowing them to grow taller than many other plants and to spread out their foliage. They differ from shrubs, which have a similar growth form, by usually growing larger and having a single main stem; but there is no consistent distinction between a tree and a shrub, made more confusing by the fact that trees may be reduced in size under harsher environmental conditions such as on mountains and subarctic areas. The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants in response to similar environmental challenges, making it a classic example of parallel evolution. With an estimated 60,000-100,000 species, the number of trees worldwide might total twenty-five per cent of all living plant species. The greatest number of these grow in tropical regions and many of these areas have not yet been fully surveyed by botanists, making tree diversity and ranges poorly known.\n", "Section::::Maximum heights.\n\nThe tallest tree in the world is a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") growing in Northern California that has been named Hyperion. In September 2012, it was measured at tall. There are 7 other coastal redwoods known to be over in height, and 222 specimens over . There are only five species known to grow over in height worldwide.\n", "The Sacred Fig grows adventitious roots from its branches, which become new trunks when the root reaches the ground and thickens; a single sacred fig tree can have hundreds of such trunks. The multi-stemmed Hundred Horse Chestnut was known to have a circumference of when it was measured in 1780.\n\nThere are known more than 50 species of trees exceeding the diameter of 4.45 m or circumference of 14 m.\n\nSection::::Broadest.\n\nThe trees with the broadest crowns have the widest spread of limbs from a single trunk.\n\nSection::::Oldest.\n", "Section::::Trees with unusual forms.\n", "Different tree species tend to have different shapes and tree shapes also vary within a single tree species. As a general observation trees growing in an open setting tend to be shorter and have broader crowns, while those growing in a forested setting tend to be taller and have narrower crowns. In forested areas trees grow taller and put more energy into height growth as they compete with other trees for the available light. Often the tallest examples of many species are found where they are a secondary species on a site and competing for light with other taller tree species. The tall bay laurel (\"Umbellularia californica\") at 169.4 feet discovered by Zane Moore in Henry Cowell Redwoods State Park is an example of an exceptionally tall understory tree growing among other taller species.\n", "\"Thuja plicata\" is a large to very large tree, ranging up to tall and in trunk diameter, exceptionally even larger. Trees growing in the open may have a crown that reaches the ground, whereas trees densely spaced together will exhibit a crown only at the top, where light can reach the leaves. It is long-lived; some individuals can live well over a thousand years, with the oldest verified being 1460 years.\n", "Section::::Trees with unusual forms.\n", "A little farther south, at Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico, is the tree with the broadest trunk. It is a Montezuma cypress (\"Taxodium mucronatum\") known as Árbol del Tule and its diameter at breast height is giving it a girth of . The tree's trunk is far from round and the exact dimensions may be misleading as the circumference includes much empty space between the large buttress roots.\n", "Trees have a theoretical maximum height of , but the tallest known specimen on earth is believed to be a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") at Redwood National Park, California. It has been named Hyperion and is tall. In 2006, it was reported to be tall. The tallest known broad-leaved tree is a mountain ash (\"Eucalyptus regnans\") growing in Tasmania with a height of .\n", "A wild fig tree growing in Echo Caves near Ohrigstad, South Africa has roots going deep, giving it the deepest roots known of any tree. El Drago Milenario, a tree of species \"Dracaena draco\" on Tenerife, Canary Islands, is reported to have aerial roots.\n\nSection::::Thickest tree limbs.\n", "It is also possible that individual trees will again attain such heights. Author Bob Beale has recorded that the tallest trees in the Black Spur Range now measure about but – due to major bushfires in the 1920s and 30s – are less than 80 years old and have been growing consistently at the rate of about a year.\n\nSection::::Description.:In New Zealand.\n\nA \"Eucalyptus regnans\" stand in the Orokonui Ecosanctuary near Dunedin, New Zealand, where \"E. regnans\" is an introduced species, contains that country's tallest measured tree, standing high in 2012.\n", "\"Dendrocnide excelsa\" is a medium to large-sized tree with a buttressed base, sometimes over 40 metres tall and in excess of 6 metres wide at the butt.\n", "Total trunk volumes of the largest specimens are approximately , with some past giants possibly reaching . Photographic analysis of giants suggests volumes closer to .\n\nSection::::Description.:Dimensions.:Height.\n\n\"Pinus strobus\" grows approximately annually between the ages of 15 and 45 years, with slower height increments before and after that age range. The tallest presently living specimens are tall, as determined by the Native Tree Society (NTS). Three locations in southeastern United States and one site in northeastern United States have trees that are tall.\n", "Currently, the world's tallest living tree is also a Coast Redwood, \"Sequoia sempervirens\", named the Hyperion, that was discovered in California in 2006 in a remote section of the Redwood National Park. The measurement of this tree was undertaken by Professor Stephen Sillett, renowned tall tree and canopy researcher at Humboldt State University, who confirmed its status as the tallest living Redwood at a height of 115.55 metres.\n", "One endonymous name for the tree is the Halkomelem word , from the roots , meaning \"scratch\" or \"line\", and , \"bark\"; the former root may be in reference to both the lined or \"folded/braided\" appearance of the bark and the tree's ubiquity in carving and other forms of woodwork.\n\nSection::::Notable specimens.\n\nThe largest living specimen is the Cheewhat Giant, in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve on Vancouver Island, at . The tallest known individual is the Willaby Creek Tree south of Lake Quinault, in height.\n", "Section::::Definition.\n\nAlthough \"tree\" is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is, either botanically or in common language. In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the general form of an elongated stem, or trunk, which supports the photosynthetic leaves or branches at some distance above the ground. Trees are also typically defined by height, with smaller plants from being called shrubs, so the minimum height of a tree is only loosely defined. Large herbaceous plants such as papaya and bananas are trees in this broad sense.\n", "\"Eucalyptus regnans\" is the tallest of all flowering plants, and possibly the tallest of all plants, although no living specimens can make that claim. The tallest measured living specimen, named Centurion, stands tall in Tasmania. Before the discovery of Centurion, the tallest known specimen was Icarus Dream, which was rediscovered in Tasmania in January, 2005 and is high. It was first measured by surveyors at in 1962 but the documentation had been lost.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nIt can become a large tree, up to high and in diameter. One tree, felled by a storm in 1954, reportedly measured in diameter at the height of a man's chest and a total volume, including the branches, of 87 m³.\n", "Wood gives structural strength to the trunk of most types of tree; this supports the plant as it grows larger. The vascular system of trees allows water, nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around the plant, and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do. Trees, as relatively tall plants, need to draw water up the stem through the xylem from the roots by the suction produced as water evaporates from the leaves. If insufficient water is available the leaves will die. The three main parts of trees include the root, stem, and leaves; they are integral parts of the vascular system which interconnects all the living cells. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.\n", "but he's daily growing.\n\nFather, dear father,\n\nyou've done me great wrong\n\nYou have married me to a boy who is too young\n\nI'm twice twelve and he is but fourteen\n\nHe's young,\n\nbut he's daily growing.\n\nDaughter, dear daughter,\n\nI've done you no wrong\n\nI have married you to a great lord's son\n\nHe'll be a man for you when I am dead and gone\n\nHe's young,\n\nbut he's daily growing.\n\nFather, dear father, if you see fit\n\nWe'll send him to college for another year yet\n\nI'll tie blue ribbons all around his head\n", "\"Pseudotsuga menziesii\" var. \"menziesii\" has attained heights of 393 feet (120 m). That was the estimated height of the tallest conifer ever well-documented, the Mineral Tree (Mineral, Washington), measured in 1924 by Dr. Richard E. McArdle, former chief of the U.S. Forest Service. The volume of that tree was . The tallest living individual is the Brummitt (Doerner) Fir in Coos County, Oregon, tall. Only coast redwood and \"Eucalyptus regnans\" reach greater heights based on current knowledge of living trees (379 and 331 feet, respectively).\n", "The characteristic large size of the young growth is exploited by gardeners: by pollarding the tree and ensuring there is vigorous new growth every year, massive leaves are produced (up to 23in/60 cm across). These are popular in the modern style of gardening which uses large-foliaged and \"architectural\" plants.\n", "Tree height is influenced by species, genetics, age, stand density, soil type and depth, rainfall, aspect, altitude, protection from wind and snow damage, fire history and insect attack. Scientists believe that trees have a theoretical maximum height of , even though there are many historical accounts of taller trees. The main physiological factor limiting tree height is its ability to suck a continuous column of water up against the forces of gravity. The crowns of the tallest trees need to lift sap more than 10 times the surrounding atmospheric pressure by combining the complex physics of capillary action and leaf transpiration of the water pathway known as the Soil Plant Atmosphere Continuum. Contrary to popular belief, tree roots do not pump water.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nThe young plant grows straight upwards and has the form of a narrow cone with branches going out along the length of the trunk. However, as it gains in height, the lowest branches are shed, preventing vines from climbing. By maturity, the top branches form an imposing crown that stands out over all other native trees, dominating the forest canopy.\n", "Section::::The mystery of the trees.\n\nResearchers from the University of Patras, in Greece, have studied the structure and have the following comments:\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Deighton's cookstrips were seen by fellow student Raymond Hawkey who suggested that with the addition of a grid to increase legibility they could be a regular newspaper feature. Although the cookstrips were originally planned for the Daily Express they found a more permanent home as a weekly feature in The Observer. The first cookstrip, \"Cooking Beef: Part 1\", appeared in The Observer on March 18, 1962 eight months before the release of Deighton's debut novel, The IPCRESS File.\n", "Some small producers continued to use a batch process, notably in Maui. In 1980, inspired by the Maui Chip, an entrepreneur started Cape Cod Potato Chips to produce thicker, batch-cooked \"Hawaiian style\" potato chips, which came to be known as kettle-style (US) or hand-cooked (UK) chips and became a premium, \"gourmet\" item. Kettle chips are thicker and the surface starch is not rinsed off, resulting in a style of chip called \"hard bite\".\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.\n", "BULLET::::- Dredging - to coat the exterior of food with a dry material (such as breadcrumbs) prior to cooking\n\nBULLET::::- Dry roasting\n\nBULLET::::- Drying – to preserve food by removing moisture, either by use of a modern food dehydrator or by the traditional method of allowing sun and wind to evaporate moisture\n\nBULLET::::- Dum pukht – or slow oven cooking, is a cooking technique associated with the Awadh region of India, in which meat and vegetables are cooked over a very low flame, generally in sealed containers.\n", "BULLET::::- Braising – combination cooking method using both moist and dry heat; typically the food is first seared at a high temperature and then finished in a covered pot with a variable amount of liquid, resulting in a particular flavour.\n\nBULLET::::- Coddling – food is heated in water kept just below the boiling point.\n\nBULLET::::- Infusion – going to a health cafe and ordering tea without the milk or sugar.\n", "too simplistic to say \"unsuitable for boiling\"; it is unsuitable for steven boiling in the conventional way, but golden wonders make an excellent dry floury boiled potato if the boiling process is halted and the potato drained whilst it still retains a bone in it, before returning the pot to the hob at a low temp to allow the potato to continue cooking.\n", "BULLET::::- Instant mashed potatoes have been through an industrial process of cooking, mashing and dehydrating to yield a packaged convenience food that can be reconstituted in the home in seconds by adding hot water and/or milk, producing a close approximation of mashed potatoes with very little expenditure of time and effort. A similar product is dehydrated shredded potatoes.\n\nSection::::Plant foods.:Dried vegetables.:V.\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable chips can be prepared by simply drying or by frying sliced vegetables.\n\nSection::::Plant foods.:Dried seeds.\n", "Little consistency exists in the English-speaking world for names of fried potato slices, thick or thin. American and Canadian English use \"chips\" for the above-mentioned dish — this term is also used (but not universally) in other parts of world, and sometimes \"crisps\" for the same made from batter.\n", "Blumenthal said he was \"obsessed with the idea of the perfect chip\", and described how, from 1992 onwards, he worked on a method for making \"chips with a glass-like crust and a soft, fluffy centre\".\n\nHe researched the starch content of different varieties of potato and experimented with drying chips by microwaving, desiccating or even individually pinpricking them. Eventually Blumenthal developed the three-stage cooking process generally known as triple-cooked chips, which he identifies as \"the first recipe I could call my own\".\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Blumenthal's technique.\n", "Triple-cooked chips\n\nTriple-cooked chips are a type of chips or deep-fried potato that were developed by English chef Heston Blumenthal. Blumenthal began work upon the recipe in 1993, and eventually developed the three-stage cooking process for their preparation. The preparation process involves the chips first being simmered and then cooled and drained of water using a sous-vide technique or by freezing, deep fried at and again cooled, and finally deep fried again at The result is what Blumenthal calls \"chips with a glass-like crust and a soft, fluffy centre\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", ", titled \"Dehydrate Potatoes and Process of Preparing the Same\", and describing a product that was to be reconstituted in hot water, was applied for in 1905 and granted in 1912.\n\nFlake-form instant mashed potatoes date back at least to 1954, when two United States Department of Agriculture researchers were issued a patent for \"Drum drying of cooked mashed potatoes\" (), which describes the end product specifically being \"as a thin sheet or flake\".\n\nIn 1962, Canadian scientist Edward A. Asselbergs was issued , entitled \"Preparation of dehydrated cooked mashed potato\", for a particular industrial method of producing the product.\n", "This diagram shows four successive runs with learning from each run and improvements applied before the next.\n\nBULLET::::- Run 1 illustrates the original situation.\n\nBULLET::::- Run 2 shows what would happen if more changeovers were included.\n\nBULLET::::- Run 3 shows the impact of the improvements in changeover times that come from doing more of them and building learning into their execution.\n\nBULLET::::- Run 4 shows how these improvements can get you back to the same production time but now with more flexibility in production capacity.\n", "They were originally known as \"Pringles Newfangled Potato Chips\", but other snack manufacturers objected, saying Pringles failed to meet the definition of a potato \"chip\". The US Food and Drug Administration weighed in on the matter, and in 1975, they ruled Pringles could only use the word \"chip\" in their product name within the following phrase: \"potato chips made from dried potatoes\". Faced with such an unpalatable appellation, Pringles eventually opted to rename their product potato \"crisps\" instead of chips. \n", "BULLET::::- Any previously cooked foods that are reheated from a temperature below 135°F (57°C), provided they have been refrigerated or warm less than 2 hours\n\nBULLET::::- Any potentially hazardous foods cooked in a microwave, such as poultry, meat, fish, or eggs\n\n155°F (68°C) for 15 seconds\n\nBULLET::::- Ground meats (such as beef or pork)\n\nBULLET::::- Injected meats (such as flavor-injected roasts or brined hams)\n\nBULLET::::- Ground or minced fish\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs that will be held for a length of time before eaten\n\n145°F (63°C) for 15 seconds\n\nBULLET::::- Steaks and chops such as beef, pork, veal, and lamb\n\nBULLET::::- Fish\n", "Chips were long made in a batch process, where the potato slices are rinsed with cold water to release starch, fried at a low temperature (), and continuously raked to prevent them from sticking together.\n\nIndustrial advances resulted in a shift to production by a continuous process, running chips through a vat of hot oil and drying them in a conveyor process.\n", "The chips have a bright red color that comes naturally from the powdered peppers. Red Hot Riplets used to be fried in partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening, but they are now fried in liquid vegetable oils.\n\nOld Vienna has also made Red Hot Thins with same seasoning on thin-cut potato chips, Cheesy Red Hot Riplets with the addition of a cheese powder, and Red Hot Pork rinds. \n\nIn 2003 Esquire magazine included Red Hot Riplets in their article and list \"Best Potato Chips You've Never Tasted\".\n\nSection::::Manufacturer.\n", "BULLET::::- Keep warm – can be automatically activated after some of the programs end and can maintain a hot meal for several hours. The temperature is usually 70 °C or higher to prevent harmful bacteria from developing.\n\nBULLET::::- Reheat – warms-up a cold meal up to 50-70 °C.\n\nBULLET::::- Scheduled start – controls the start time for cooking (timer). This function is only applicable to programs which do not require user intervention throughout the process and in which ingredients may safely stay at room temperature for the delay.\n", "Wrapping the potato in aluminium foil before cooking in a standard oven will help to retain moisture, while leaving it unwrapped will result in a crisp skin. When cooking over an open fire or in the coals of a barbecue, it may require wrapping in foil to prevent burning of the skin. A potato buried directly in coals of a fire cooks very nicely, with a mostly burned and inedible skin. A baked potato is fully cooked when its internal temperature reaches .\n", "A variation is \"Hasselback potatoes\", where the potato is cut into very thin slices almost down the bottom, so that the potato still holds together, and is then baked in the oven, occasionally scalloped with cheese. The proper noun \"Hasselback\" refers to the luxurious Hasselbacken hotel and restaurant in Stockholm which originated this dish.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.:North America.\n", "Section::::Regional variations.:United Kingdom.\n\nA baked potato is sometimes called a jacket potato in the United Kingdom. The baked potato has been popular in the UK for many years. In the mid-19th century, jacket potatoes were sold on the streets by hawkers during the autumn and winter months. In London, it was estimated that some 10 tons of baked potatoes were sold each day by this method.\n\nCommon jacket potato fillings (or \"toppings\") in the United Kingdom include cheese and beans, tuna mayonnaise, chili con carne and chicken and bacon.\n", "Section::::Products.\n\nRegular flavours include Sea Salted, Sea Salt & Vinegar, Strong Cheese & Onion, Roast Ox and Jalapeño Pepper. The packets use a frosted greaseproof material, and feature jokes in the design such as the phrase \"We don't cut corners. If you find a corner in your packet, let us know.\" Each flavour has a different character on the bag; for example the Strong Cheese and Spring Onion flavour has a rugby player on the bag.\n", "BULLET::::- Well done () – ( and above core temperature) The meat is grey-brown in the center and slightly charred. In parts of England this is known as \"German style\".\n\nBULLET::::- Overcooked () – (much more than core temperature) The meat is blackened throughout and slightly crispy.\n", "Tripas are prepared in three levels:\n\nBULLET::::1. 'Soft' preparation is attained shortly after the water boils off while the tripas are still tender with a velvet like texture. Properly prepared, they should not be rubbery but should have some firmness to them.\n\nBULLET::::2. 'Medium Crispy' is reached by allowing the \"tripas\" to continue to cook in their own fat long enough for the exterior to crisp and harden. The center of the tripas are usually still soft and velvety.\n", "In 2003, a ruling by the UK Advertising Standards Authority determined that the corporation had acted in breach of the codes of practice in describing how its French fries were prepared. A McDonald's print ad stated that \"after selecting certain potatoes\" \"we peel them, slice them, fry them and that's it\". It showed a picture of a potato in a McDonald's fries box. In fact the product was sliced, pre-fried, sometimes had dextrose added, was then frozen, shipped, and re-fried and then had salt added.\n", "Other types of processing increase resistant starch content. If cooking includes excess water, the starch is gelatinized and becomes more digestible. However, if these starch gels are then cooled, they can form starch crystals resistant to digestive enzymes (Type RS3 or retrograded resistant starch), such as those occurring in cooked and cooled cereals or potatoes (e.g., potato salad). Cooling a boiled potato overnight increases the amount of resistant starch.\n\nSection::::Nutritional information.\n", "Batch Ovens can be used for a wide variety of heat processes including drying, curing, aging, annealing, stress relieving, bonding, tempering, preheating, and forming. Batch ovens are essentially heated boxes with insulated doors that process products one at a time or in groups. The part(s) to be processed are brought into the oven in batches on racks, carts, or trucks. Production requirements can accommodate manual or automated loading.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The first patient, identified in an article by the Washington Post as Timothy J. Atchison of Alabama, enrolled in the trial in October 2010. The patient was treated at the Shepherd Center in Atlanta, GA just two weeks after he sustained a spinal cord injury in a car accident. The Shepherd Center and six other spinal centers were recruited by Geron to participate in the clinical trial. The Washington Post reported that Atchison \"has begun to get some very slight sensation: He can feel relief when he lifts a bowling ball off his lap and discern discomfort when he pulls on hairs on some parts of his legs. He has also strengthened his abdomen.\" Atchison underwent therapy at the Shepherd Center for three months before returning home to Alabama.\n", "Section::::Induced progenitor stem cells.:Direct transdifferentiation.\n", "It can also be used for subsequent biotechnology applications such as for the creation of transgenic animals using innovative gene-editing techniques such as CRISPR/Cas9, TALENs and ZFNs for biomedical research. An example includes genetically engineered pigs with CD163 and CD1D genes knocked out. One of the ways these pigs were created was by injecting the CRISPR/Cas9 system into fertilised oocytes that were matured in vitro.\n", "The mutations introduced in the ES Cells are \"conditional\": this means that the initial mutation can be modified - by the application of particular DNA-altering enzymes (site specific recombinases) to make the knockout initially \"latent\" in the genome. The gene can be later knocked out (inactivated) at a specific time-point or tissue-type in mutant mice derived from the mutant ES Cells, by appropriate breeding to other transgenic mice. This conditionality is a \"key\" property of the entire resource, and it allows a more nuanced study of the effects of the gene-knockout.\n\nSection::::Use of stem cells.\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Weinberg, Ph.D, Whitehead Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Colman, Ph.D, Singapore Stem Cell Consortium\n\nBULLET::::- Sheng Ding, Ph.D, Scripps Research Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Rudolf Jaenisch, Ph.D, Whitehead Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon M. Keller, Ph.D, McEwen Centre for Regenerative Medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Ruth McKernan, Ph.D, Pfizer Regenerative Medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Roy Ogle, Ph.D, University of Virginia\n\nBULLET::::- Lee Rubin, Ph.D, Harvard Stem Cell Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Leonard Zon, Ph.D, Children's Hospital Boston\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::1. Warren, L. et al. (2010) Highly Efficient Reprogramming to Pluripotency and Directed Differentiation of Human Cells with Synthetic Modified mRNA Cell Stem Cell. Published online before print September 30, 2010.\n", "The human gastrointestinal tract is colonized by a vast community of symbionts and commensals. The researchers demonstrate the phenomenon of somatic cell reprograming by bacteria and generation of multipotential cells from adult human dermal fibroblast cells by incorporating Lactic acid bacteria This cellular transdifferentiation is caused by ribosomes and \"can occur via donor bacteria that are swallowed and digested by host cells, which may induce ribosomal stress and stimulate cellular developmental plasticity.\"\n\nSection::::Induced progenitor stem cells.:Conditionally reprogrammed cells.\n", "Section::::Career and research.:Stem cell research.\n\nEvans and Kaufman isolated the embryonic stem cells from early embryos (embryoblasts) of mice and established them in cell cultures. These early embryonic cells have the potential to differentiate into any of the cells of the adult organism. They modified these stem cells genetically and placed them in the wombs of female mice so they would give birth to genetically modified offspring.\n", "Taking this into account the research group applied their new technique in an attempt to produce human SCNT stem cells. In May 2013, the Oregon group reported the successful derivation of human embryonic stem cell lines derived through SCNT, using fetal and infant donor cells. Using MII oocytes from volunteers and their improved SCNT procedure, human clone embryos were successfully produced. These embryos were of poor quality, lacking a substantial inner cell mass and poorly constructed trophectoderm. The imperfect embryos prevented the acquisition of human ESC. The addition of caffeine during the removal of the ovum's nucleus and injection of the somatic nucleus improved blastocyst formation and ESC isolation. The ESC obtain were found to be capable of producing teratomas, expressed pluripotent transcription factors, and expressed a normal 46XX karyotype, indicating these SCNT were in fact ESC-like. This was the first instance of successfully using SCNT to reprogram human somatic cells. This study used fetal and infantile somatic cells to produce their ESC.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Initial epigenetic activation phase approach.\n\nSomatic cells are first transfected with pluripotent reprogramming factors temporarily (Oct4, Sox2, Nanog, etc.) before being transfected with the desired inhibitory or activating factors. Here is a list of \n\nexamples in vitro.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Pharmacological agents.\n\nThe DNA methylation inhibitor, 5-azacytidine is also known to promote phenotypic transdifferentiation of cardiac cells to skeletal myoblasts.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Mechanism of action.\n\nThe transcription factors serve as a short term trigger to an irreversible process. The transdifferentiation liver cells observed 8 months after one single injection of pdx1.\n", "Thomas et al., describe a forward programming strategy relying on the concurrent exogenous expression of 3 transcription factors: GATA1, FLI1 and TAL1. The forward programmed megakaryocytes proliferate and differentiate in culture for several months with megakaryocyte purity over 90% reaching up to 2x10 mature megakaryocytes per input hPSC. Functional platelets are generated throughout the culture allowing the prospective collection of several transfusion units from as few as one million starting hPSCs.\n\nSee also overview\n\nSection::::Induced progenitor stem cells.:Blood stem cells.:Immune cells.\n", "In January 2014, two articles were published claiming that a type of pluripotent stem cell can be generated by subjecting the cells to certain types of stress (bacterial toxin, a low pH of 5.7, or physical squeezing); the resulting cells were called STAP cells, for stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency.\n", "NYSCF Chief Scientific Officer Kevin Eggan First to Create Neurons from ALS Patients\n\nKevin Eggan, PhD, of Harvard University, applied induced pluripotent stem cell derivation techniques pioneered by Shinya Yamanaka, MD, to generate the first motor neurons from skin samples of ALS patients. These cells could be used to study the progression of motor neuron disease, which researchers cannot do in an ALS patient. This research was published in \"Science\" and cited by \"Time\" magazine as the #1 Medical Breakthrough of 2009.\n\nSection::::Innovator Programs.\n", "Late April 2014, the New York Stem Cell Foundation was successful in creating SCNT stem cells derived from adult somatic cells. One of these lines of stem cells was derived from the donor cells of a type 1 diabetic. The group was then able to successfully culture these stem cells and induce differentiation. When injected into mice, cells of all three of the germ layers successfully formed. The most significant of these cells, were those who expressed insulin and were capable of secreting the hormone. These insulin producing cells could be used for replacement therapy in diabetics, demonstrating real SCNT stem cell therapeutic potential.\n", "On January 23, 2009, Phase I clinical trials for transplantation of oligodendrocytes (a cell type of the brain and spinal cord) derived from human ES cells into spinal cord-injured individuals received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), marking it the world's first human ES cell human trial. The study leading to this scientific advancement was conducted by Hans Keirstead and colleagues at the University of California, Irvine and supported by Geron Corporation of Menlo Park, CA, founded by Michael D. West, PhD. A previous experiment had shown an improvement in locomotor recovery in spinal cord-injured rats after a 7-day delayed transplantation of human ES cells that had been pushed into an oligodendrocytic lineage. The phase I clinical study was designed to enroll about eight to ten paraplegics who have had their injuries no longer than two weeks before the trial begins, since the cells must be injected before scar tissue is able to form. The researchers emphasized that the injections were not expected to fully cure the patients and restore all mobility. Based on the results of the rodent trials, researchers speculated that restoration of myelin sheathes and an increase in mobility might occur. This first trial was primarily designed to test the safety of these procedures and if everything went well, it was hoped that it would lead to future studies that involve people with more severe disabilities. The trial was put on hold in August 2009 due to FDA concerns regarding a small number of microscopic cysts found in several treated rat models but the hold was lifted on July 30, 2010.\n", "Section::::Research.:Repopulation kinetics.\n", "Section::::Issues.:Transition from mouse to human cells.\n\nGenerally transdifferentiation that occurs in mouse cells does not translate in effectiveness or speediness in human cells. Pang et al. found that while transcription factors Ascl1, Brn2 and Myt1l turned mouse cells into mature neurons, the same set of factors only turned human cells into immature neurons. However, the addition of NeuroD1 was able to increase efficiency and help cells reach maturity.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Order of transcription factor expression.\n", "Artificial heart valves, working tracheas, as well as muscle, fat, bone, heart, neural and liver cells have all been engineered through use of amniotic stem cells. Tissues obtained from amniotic cell lines show promise for patients suffering from congenital diseases/malformations of the heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, and cerebral tissue.\n\nThe first amniotic stem cells bank in the US is active in Boston, Massachusetts.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chorionic villus sampling\n\nBULLET::::- Amniotic fluid\n\nBULLET::::- Amniotic stem cells\n\nBULLET::::- Elective genetic and genomic testing\n\nBULLET::::- Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling\n\nBULLET::::- Prenatal diagnosis\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Stem cells possess mechanical memory (they remember past physical signals) – with the Hippo signaling pathway factors: Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding domain (TAZ) acting as an intracellular mechanical rheostat—that stores information from past physical environments and influences the cells' fate.\n\nSection::::Induced progenitor stem cells.:Neural stem cells.\n", "Keilhoff et al. (2006) performed a study comparing the nerve regeneration capacity of non-differentiated and transdifferentiated MSCs to Schwann cells in devitalized muscle grafts bridging a 2-cm gap in the rat sciatic nerve. All cells were autologous. The transdifferentiated MSCs were cultured in a mixture of factors in order to promote Schwann cell-like cell formation. The undifferentiated MSCs demonstrated no regenerative capacity, while the transdifferentiated MSCs showed some regenerative capacity, though it did not reach the capacity of the Schwann cells.\n\nSection::::Cellular therapies.:Stem cells.:Ectomesenchymal stem cells (EMSCs).\n", "In 2013, Madeline Lancaster at the Austrian Academy of Sciences established a protocol for culturing cerebral organoids derived from stem cells that mimic the developing human brain's cellular organization.\n\nIn 2014, Artem Shkumatov et al. at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign demonstrated that cardiovascular organoids can be formed from ES cells through modulation of the substrate stiffness, to which they adhere. Physiological stiffness promoted three-dimensionality of EBs and cardiomyogenic differentiation.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Stem cells.\n\nStem cells, particularly induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), are utilized in translational neuroscience research as not only a treatment for nervous system disorders, but also as the source for models of neural dysfunction. For example, due to the central nervous system's limited regenerative abilities, human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), a type of pluripotent stem cell, has been used as a replacement for damaged neurons, a novel approach that involves the surgical transplantation of fetal stem cells \n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Neurodevelopmental disorders.\n", "What they built was circuit with enhanced ultrasensitive switch behavior by constitutively expressing a negative modulator, Msg5 which is one of MAPK phoaphatase and inducibly expressing a positive modulator, Ste50 which is pathway modulators outside of core cascade(Fig.2B). \n\nThe success of this recruitment-based engineering strategy suggests that it may be possible to reprogram cellular responses with high precision.\n\nSection::::Role in Cellular Processes.:Flagellar motors and chemotaxis.\n", "iCell Neurons have been used across several different research areas, including Parkinson’s disease, toxicity, autism, Alzheimer’s disease, and virology FCDI expanded their neural product portfolio by launching iCell Astrocytes and iCell Dopaminergic Neurons. Other manufacturers of stem cell derived neurons include ArunA Biomedical and ReproCell.\n\nSection::::Product Areas.:Hepatic.\n", "The technique for producing STAP cells was subsequently studied by Obokata at the Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH), while she was studying as a post doc under Charles Vacanti, and then at the RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology in Japan. In 2008, while working at Harvard Medical School, she verified at the request of Charles Vacanti that some of the cultured cells she was working with shrank to the size of stem cells after being mechanically injured in a capillary tube. She went on as directed, to test the effects of various stimuli on cells. After modifying the technique, Obokata was able to show that white blood cells from newborn mice could be transformed into cells that behaved much like stem cells. She repeated the experiment with other cell types including brain, skin, and muscle cells with the same result.\n", "Somatic cells have also been collected in the practice of cryoconservation of animal genetic resources as a means of conserving animal genetic material, including to clone livestock.\n\nSection::::Genetic Modifications.\n\nDevelopment of biotechnology has allowed for the genetic manipulation of somatic cells, whether for the modelling of chronic disease or for the prevention of malaise conditions.\n\nGenetic engineering of somatic cells has resulted in some controversies, although the International Summit on Human Gene Editing has released a statement in support of genetic modification of somatic cells, as the modifications thereof are not passed on to offspring.\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Earlier allusions to the myth possibly occur in the works of the poet Pindar, Plato, and Plato's student Xenocrates. A fragment from a poem, presumed to be by Pindar, mentions Persephone accepting \"requital for ancient wrong\", from the dead, which might be a reference to humans' inherited responsibility for the Titan's killing of Dionysus. Plato, in presenting a succession of stages whereby, because of excessive liberty, men degenerate from reverence for the law, to lawlessness, describes the last stage where \"men display and reproduce the character of the Titans of story\". This Platonic passage is often taken as referring to the anthropogony, however, whether men are supposed by Plato to \"display and reproduce\" this lawless character because of their Titanic heritage, or by simple imitation, is unclear. Xenocrates' reference to the Titans (and perhaps Dionysus) to explain Plato's use of the word \"custody\" (\"φρούρα\"), has also been seen as possible evidence of a pre-Hellenistic date for the myth.\n", "BULLET::::- The Titans appeared in an episode of \"Charmed\" titled \"Oh My Goddess\" where Cronus, Demtrieus and Meta battled the Charmed Ones who became Goddesses. Eventually, the Titans were destroyed by Piper Halliwell.\n", "BULLET::::- In John Milton's \"L'Allegro\", Aurora is described as a possible mother of Euphrosyne.\n\nSection::::Individual.:Epimetheus.\n\nBULLET::::- Appears in the 2010 video game \"God of War III\" as one of the Titans in the assault on Mt. Olympus. He is killed when Poseidon dives off Mount Olympus and through his chest, sending him off the mountain.\n\nSection::::Individual.:Hecate.\n", "Titans in popular culture\n\nThe familiar name and large size of the Titans have made them dramatic figures suited to market-oriented popular culture.\n\nSection::::General or collective references.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2011 movie \"Immortals\" starring Henry Cavill and Mickey Rourke, the Titans are locked away in Mount Tartarus until they are released by King Hyperion using the Epirus Bow. The Titans look like Gods but have dark orange helmets and their skin is a rock color. There appear to be more Titans in the film than in actual mythology.\n", "Greeks of the Classical Age knew of several poems about the war between the gods and many of the Titans. The dominant one, and the only one that has survived, is the \"Theogony\" attributed to Hesiod. A lost epic, \"Titanomachia\", attributed to the blind Thracian bard Thamyris, himself a legendary figure, was mentioned in passing in an essay \"On Music\" that was once attributed to Plutarch. The Titans also played a prominent role in the poems attributed to Orpheus. Although only scraps of the Orphic narratives survive, they show interesting differences from the Hesiodic tradition.\n", "BULLET::::- In episode 7 of \"\", \"The Titans\", Crius is awoken by Gabrielle alongside Theia and Hyperion.\n\nBULLET::::- Crius (as Krios) is the main hero in the 1962 sword-and-sandal film \"Arrivano I Titani\".\n", "BULLET::::- The Titans occasionally appear or are mentioned in Renaissance Pictures' Hercules/Xena franchise. In the \"\" episode \"The Titans,\" many Titans (far more than in the actual myths) were turned to stone by the Olympians, which Crius, Hyperion and Theia seek to undo. In the \"\" episode \"Let There Be Light,\" it is said that the Titans successfully defeated , but the battle left them too weak to resist the Olympians. Also, in the \"Hercules\" series finale \"Full Circle,\" Oceanus, Helios and Atlas appear, having made a deal with Ares to destroy the Olympians but spare him.\n", "BULLET::::- The videogame franchise Borderlands features various references to the Titans throughout each installment in the series. In the story, four characters called Vault Hunters end up on a planet called Pandora to search for a mythical alien Vault. The Vault is said to contain a cache of rare and powerful weapons. The Vault Hunters aren’t the only ones after this legendary stash. Among the others are the Atlas and Hyperion Corporations. The Hyperion Corporation builds a massive, H-shaped space station in Pandora’s orbit called Helios on which a fair portion of gameplay takes place in the third game of the franchise, Borderlands The Pre-Sequel. One of the playable characters for this game is a “gladiator” known as Athena, who is an ex-employee of the now non-existent Atlas Corporation.\n", "BULLET::::- In episode 7 of \"\", \"The Titans\", Hyperion is awoken by Gabrielle alongside Theia and Crius.\n\nSection::::Individual.:Iapetus.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1981 film \"Clash of the Titans\", the Kraken, actually an entity from Norse mythology, is presented as \"the last Titan\". It also describes the usage of the head of Medusa, who is actually a Gorgon, to fight him, as \"a titan against another titan\". In the 2010 remake, the Titans are mentioned at the beginning, when it is claimed Hades created the Kraken to defeat them. Kronos appears in the sequel \"Wrath of the Titans\", where Ares turned to darkness and planned to revive his grandfather with Zeus' life force.\n", "BULLET::::- In Rick Riordan's \"The Titan's Curse\" (of the \"Percy Jackson & the Olympians\" series), Atlas is freed from the burden of the sky by various ways of tricking people to carry it, but near the end Percy and Artemis force him back under the Sky, though he kills his daughter the nymph Zoe in battle. He was the main antagonist of the book. He appears in \"The Last Olympian\" and tells the other Titans one of them should take his burden so he can fight, but is told that due to his failure Kronos is keeping him there.\n", "BULLET::::- Oceanus appears in the 2010 video game \"God of War III\" as one of the Titans in the assault on Mt. Olympus, but is pulled off the mountain by Hades. He was originally to appear in the 2007 video game \"God of War II\" but was cut during development.\n\nBULLET::::- Oceanus appears in the book The Last Olympian and fights against Poseidon to prevent him helping the Gods against Typhon while the Titans attack Olympus. After the Titans are defeated he sinks into the ocean.\n\nSection::::Individual.:Perses.\n", "BULLET::::- In the manga \"Saint Seiya Episode.G\", the Titans are important villains, attempting to rule civilization once more, and Leo Aiolia and the Gold Saints are assigned to stop them.\n\nBULLET::::- The videogame \"Titan Quest\" tells the story of how the Telkine manage to cut off the gods from the mortal realms and attempt to free Typhon (identified in the game as a Titan) to have him assault Mount Olympus, with the player being a Greek soldier rising to the challenge and defending the world from the onslaught of mythological beasts and monsters.\n", "BULLET::::- The Italian sword-and-sandal film \"Arrivano i titani\" shows the Titans first as prisoners in Tartarus, but they are later liberated by Zeus to take down the megalomanic King Cadmus.\n\nBULLET::::- The video game series, \"God of War\", which is based on Greek mythology, features many of the Titans, mainly Gaia, Cronos and Atlas. They attempt to reignite their Great War with the Olympians with the help of a Spartan warrior named Kratos, who became the God of War after killing Ares.\n", "Section::::Individual.:Mnemosyne.\n\nBULLET::::- In the science fiction novel \"City at the End of Time\" by Greg Bear, Memnosyne plays a major, if largely invisible role in the plot, having created the protagonists (Ginny, Jack and Daniel) in order to restore her to her full power and save the future of the multiverse.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Sailor Moon Sailor Stars,\" there is a Sailor Senshi named Sailor Mnemosyne who appears alongside her twin, Sailor Lethe. They are a part of Shadow Galactica. Like her mythological counterpart, she is associated with memory.\n", "Titans of Myth (comics)\n\nThe Titans of Myth are mythological deities who appear in the \"Teen Titans\" and \"Wonder Woman\" comic book series by DC Comics.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre-\"Crisis\".\n", "BULLET::::- In the book \"Blood and Chocolate\", the \"loup-garou\" are said to be descended from people blessed by Selene with the power to shape shift.\n\nBULLET::::- John Keats's \"Endymion\" recounts Endymion's quest for this goddess, although terming her \"Cynthia\" which is normally a title of Artemis.\n\nSection::::Individual.:Tethys.\n\nBULLET::::- Tethys is a character in \"Greenwitch\", in Susan Cooper's \"Dark is Rising\" series.\n", "BULLET::::- In John C. Wright's \"Chronicles of Chaos\", the world the children are in is the world of Saturn; although they differ in what story they know about the origin of the world, all agree that Saturn created it.\n\nBULLET::::- In Rick Riordan's \"Percy Jackson & the Olympians\", Kronos is the main antagonist. In \"The Last Olympian\" he possesses Hermes's demigod son Luke Castellan as the leader of the Titan attack on Mount Olympus with an army of monsters. However, with Percy's help Luke is able to regain enough control to kill himself to stop Kronos destroying Olympus.\n", "BULLET::::- In the series \"Percy Jackson and the Olympians\", the Titans are the main villains, attempting to take over Olympus and rule civilization once more, after most of them were imprisoned in the Underworld.\n\nBULLET::::- In DC Comics the Titans were exiled to another world after their defeat, which they called New Cronos. Kronos, however, was imprisoned in a tree. The Titans raised Troia and gave her her powers.\n\nBULLET::::- Titans are depicted in Dante Alighieri's \"Inferno\".\n\nBULLET::::- The tabletop roleplaying game \"Exalted\" features a number of titan-like Primordials who were usurped by the gods prior to the First Age.\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"Brütal Legend\" video game, Titans are a race of benevolent creatures who invented music and left it for the modern world.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Dennou Boukenki Webdiver, there is the final giant robot named Ditalion, which based on a Titan.\n", "BULLET::::- In Uchu Sentai Kyuranger, Don Armage is based on Cronus/Saturn.\n\nSection::::Individual.:Eos/Aurora.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"The Awakening of Flora\", Aurora consoles Flora with the news that Apollo will soon herald the day.\n\nBULLET::::- Eos appears in the 2008 game \"\". She informs Kratos (main character) that he must seek out the Primordial Fires to awaken the Fire Steeds which will find her brother Helios in the Underworld. Kratos also acquires her magic the Light of Dawn. In the 2010 game \"God of War III\", she is referenced with a level called the Path of Eos.\n", "BULLET::::- One of the models of \"Ford\", \"Ford Atlas\" was named after the Titan.\n\nBULLET::::- The wizard SHAZAM gains Stamina from Atlas, and grants it to Captain Marvel (DC Comics)\n\nSection::::Individual.:Coeus.\n", "Religious practice would also involve the worship of heroes, people who were regarded as semi-divine. Such heroes ranged from the mythical figures in the epics of Homer to historical people such as the founder of a city. At the local level, the landscape was filled with sacred spots and monuments; for example, many statues of Nymphs were found near and around springs, and the stylized figures of Hermes could often be found on street corners.\n", "BULLET::::- Alcyoneus – In this show, Alcyoneus is featured as a Titan King despite the fact that he is actually a Gigantes and not a Titan. The actual King of the Titan was Cronus who was the father of Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Demeter, and Hestia.\n\nBULLET::::- Atlas – Atlas holds up the sky.\n\nBULLET::::- Epimetheus – Brother of Prometheus and the deity who brought animals into the world.\n", "Thousands of years had passed; the Titaness Thia had escaped, and a freed Hyperion had sought a new mate in Wonder Girl. Zeus and the Olympian Gods are joined against the avenging elder Titans by the rest of the Teen Titans, Donna's adopted mother Queen Hippolyta, and her Amazons of Paradise Island. Zeus and his daughter Athena ultimately convince Cronus that mankind must have free will to chart his own destiny, and not be controlled by the gods. Wonder Girl is released from her spell and the Titans of Myth return to Tartarus to forge a new life for themselves there.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "It has been widely reported that the financial crisis of 2007–2010 may have contributed to the rapid growth of online rental marketplaces, such as erento, as consumers are more likely to consider renting instead of buying in times of financial hardship. Environmental concerns, fast depreciation of goods, and a more transient workforce also mean that consumers are increasingly searching for rentals online.\n\nA 2010 US survey found 27% of renters plan to never buy a home.\n\nSection::::Growth of rental industry.:Rental investment.\n", "BULLET::::- In many jurisdictions (including India, Spain, Australia, United Kingdom and the United States) rent paid in a trade or business is tax deductible, whereas rent on a dwelling is not tax deductible in most jurisdictions.\n\nBULLET::::- Financial inadequacy, such as renting a house when one is unable to purchase, i.e \"renting by necessity\".\n\nBULLET::::- Reducing financial risk due to depreciation and transaction costs, especially for real estate which might be needed only for a short amount of time.\n\nBULLET::::- When something is needed only temporarily, as in the case of a special tool, a truck or a skip.\n", "Fractional renting\n\nFractional or weekday renting describes those individuals who rent on a part-time basis, typically renting a room in someone’s home for the working week.\n\nSection::::Benefits to participants.\n\nThe growth in popularity of weekday renting in the UK has arisen as individuals' work requirements draw them away from their homes, lengthening commuting distances and journey times. Busy people, tired of long distance commuting, look for somewhere to rent close to work so they can stay away during the working week and improve their work–life balance.\n", "BULLET::::- There is no need to worry about lifespan and maintenance.\n\nBULLET::::- Renting keeps off-balance-sheet the debt that would burden the balance sheet of a company in case the property would have been bought.\n\nBULLET::::- Renting is good for the environment if products are used more efficiently by maximizing utility rather than being disposed, overproduced and under utilized.\n\nSection::::Growth of rental industry.\n", "embodies a break in the work-reward causation ... [r]ewards of income and wealth for the rentier do not come as the result of work but rather are the result of chance or situation.\n", "The proliferation of short term rentals can affect those in the area who are looking for long term rentals. Through short term rental, landlords can make upwards of 20% more than they would on a rent controlled property. Thus landlords convert their properties into short term rental units, and there are less long term housing options available to permanent residents. Landlords also sometimes pressure and coerce people out of their homes, particularly if residents are low income. One of the effects of this is that diversity in the neighborhood decreases as no one can move in anymore. On neighborhood community group voices concern that these temporary residents do not have a stake in the community and therefore are less likely to be conscientious about how their behavior effects those around them. \n", "Houses and the land they sit on are expensive, and the combination of monthly mortgage, insurance, maintenance and repairs, and property tax payments are sometimes greater than monthly rental costs. Buildings may also gain and lose substantial value due to real estate market fluctuations, and selling a property can take a long time, depending on market conditions. This can make home ownership more constraining if the homeowner intends to move at a future date. Some home owners see their purchase as an investment and intend to either sell or rent the property after renovating or letting the house appreciate in value (known as flipping if done quickly).\n", "According to a Federal Trade Commission survey on the rent-to-own industry in the United States conducted in 2000, consumers reported that they chose to engage in rent-to-own transactions for a variety of reasons, including “the lack of a credit check”, “the ability to obtain merchandise they otherwise could not”, and “the convenience and flexibility of the transaction”. The most common reason cited for dissatisfaction within the survey was high prices. In addition, some survey respondents reported poor treatment by employees in connection with late rental payments, problems with repair services, and hidden or added costs.\n", "High rents have not just affected those in the lower half of the income distribution; who have always been lifelong renters. In the era of the Keynes–Beveridge consensus those in the upper half of the income distribution would typically rent a home while saving for a deposit to get onto the property ladder. This is no longer possible; money which would have been used in saving for a deposit now goes on rent. The majority of new households formed in the UK can now expect to rent from a private landlord for life. This phenomenon has been called \"generation rent\" and there is much debate about the social consequences of this change. See inequality for further information.\n", "Section::::Singles.\n", "Campbell Robb of Shelter said: \"It's heart-breaking to think that so many people are having to make a choice between paying the rent and putting food on the table, or living in fear that any drop in income would leave them unable to cover their housing costs. The sad truth is that far too many people in Britain right now are living in homes that just aren't up to scratch - from the thousands of families forced to cope with poor conditions, to a generation of renters forking out most of their income on housing each month and unable to save for the future.\"\n", "The effect of the neglect of repairing liabilities during and after the Second World War faced many tenants on short leases with huge bills for dilapidations to make good dwellings which had been originally let in a poor state of repair. Such tenants did not at that time have sufficient security of tenure to enable them to reap the benefit from carrying out major repairs.\n", "The overall U.S. homeownership rate increased from 64 percent in 1994 (about where it was since 1980) to a peak in 2004 with an all-time high of 69.2 percent. Bush's 2004 campaign slogan \"the ownership society\" indicates the strong preference and societal influence of Americans to own the homes they live in, as opposed to renting. However, in many parts of the United States, rent does not cover mortgage costs; the national median mortgage payment is $1,687 per month, nearly twice the median rent payment of $868 per month, although this ratio can vary significantly from market to market.\n", "Examples include letting out real estate (real property) for the purpose of housing tenure (where the tenant rents a residence to live in), parking space for a vehicle(s), storage space, whole or portions of properties for business, agricultural, institutional, or government use, or other reasons.\n", "The result of this requirement from the point of view of rented property maintenance was disastrous because the bulk of the money which should have been spent on repairs had to be used instead to pay the owner's rates. This is the short explanation of why so much deterioration of rented property took place throughout Scotland.\n", "Section::::Effects of owner-occupancy.\n\nBULLET::::- Imputed rents disappear from measures of national income and output, unless figures are added to take them into account.\n\nBULLET::::- The government loses the opportunity to tax the transaction. Sometimes, governments have attempted to tax the imputed rent (Schedule A of United Kingdom's income tax used to do that), but it tends to be unpopular. Some countries still tax the imputed rent, such as Belgium, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland. The absence of taxes on imputed rents is also referred to as \"Home-Ownership Bias\".\n", "Quasi-rent differs from pure economic rent in that it is a temporary phenomenon. It can arise from the barriers to entry that potential competitors face in the short run, such as the granting of patents or other legal protections for intellectual property by governments. It can also arise due to entrepreneurial address of market fluctuation, or it can arise due to the lack of real capital to meet near term demand increases. In the longer term the opportunity to profit will bring new capital into existence and the quasi rent will be competed away.\n", "Intermediate Rent (UK) is the practice of renting property at a subsidised rent from a Housing Association or Registered Social Landlord. The product was conceived to allow households without the money for a deposit to purchase a home the opportunity to obtain a home whilst still saving for a deposit. The product can be aimed at key workers (as defined by the UK government).\n", "In the past, ground rent was usually not onerous, at typically around £100 per year, and often freeholders would not request payment. But in the 2010s, developers and builders are often issuing leases for new residential units with ground rents as high as £1000 per annum, with escalation clauses doubling the rent every 5 or 10 years. This can result in subsequent mortgage refusals, and make the property unsellable. \n", "HMOs are somewhat cheaper than a one bedroom flat with a room for tenants. When comparing the average tenant from an HMO and the average tenant from a one bed flat, the HMO tenant could save £1608 more over the year. HMO agreements often include most utility bills with the rent. This is because it is difficult for landlords to apportion the cost of bills to each tenant fairly and it is also more appealing to potential tenants.\n\nSection::::Licensing.\n", "The report also showed that there has been great demand for downsizing properties but there has been nowhere near sufficient supply of suitable sized housing. Some social landlords have started subdividing their stock into 1- and 2- bedroom properties, which has more demand than the 3- bedroom properties that much of their stock had consisted of in large numbers; questions have been raised why it took them until now before they did this.\n", "Moreover, because control of the rent-producing resources is concentrated in the hands of the authorities, it may be used to alternately coerce or coopt their populace, while the distinction between public service and private interest becomes increasingly blurred. There is, in the words of Noah Feldman in his book \"After Jihad\",\n\nno fiscal connection between the government and the people. The government has only to keep its people in line so that they do not overthrow it and start collecting the oil rents themselves. (Feldman 139)\n\nSection::::Outcomes.\n", "Section::::Biography.:New millennium.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages of this arrangement.\n\nThe downsides are that the rent back tenancy is that in some circumstances the tenant is only provided with a limited tenure tenancy, in some cases for as little as 6 to 12 months after which the landlord may seek possession of the property with only two months notice. In addition subsequent refinancing can see a new owner taking control, which adds to\n\nthe uncertainty of tenure.\n\nIn recent years, the market for this option has swelled but\n\nthe openness or longevity of the companies operating in it can be questionable. \n", "Section::::Real estate.:Imperfect credit scores.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The shape with minimal critical mass and the smallest physical dimensions is a sphere. Bare-sphere critical masses at normal density of some actinides are listed in the following table. Most information on bare sphere masses is considered classified, since it is critical to nuclear weapons design, but some documents have been declassified.\n\nThe critical mass for lower-grade uranium depends strongly on the grade: with 20% U it is over 400 kg; with 15% U, it is well over 600 kg.\n", "Some satellite systems have been known to have gas interactions between objects. Notable examples include the Jupiter, Saturn and Pluto systems. The Io plasma torus is a transfer of oxygen and sulfur from the tenuous atmosphere of Jupiter's volcanic moon, Io and other objects including Jupiter and Europa. A torus of oxygen and hydrogen produced by Saturn's moon, Enceladus forms part of the E ring around Saturn. Nitrogen gas transfer between Pluto and Charon has also been modelled and is expected to be observable by the New Horizons space probe. Similar tori produced by Saturn's moon Titan (nitrogen) and Neptune's moon Triton (hydrogen) is predicted.\n", "For example, the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System. Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface.\n\nEach volatile substance has its own snow line, e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen, so it is important to always specify which material's snow line is meant. A tracer gas may be used for materials that are difficult to detect; for example diazenylium for carbon monoxide. \n", "If we were to take matter from the center of our white dwarf and slowly start to compress it, we would first see electrons forced to combine with nuclei, changing their protons to neutrons by inverse beta decay. The equilibrium would shift towards heavier, neutron-richer nuclei that are not stable at everyday densities. As the density increases, these nuclei become still larger and less well-bound. At a critical density of about 4 kg/m), called the neutron drip line, the atomic nucleus would tend to fall apart into protons and neutrons. Eventually we would reach a point where the matter is on the order of the density (c. 2 kg/m) of an atomic nucleus. At this point the matter is chiefly free neutrons, with a small amount of protons and electrons.\n", "where the factor \"f\" has been rewritten as \"f\"' to account for the fact that the two values may differ depending upon geometrical effects and how one defines Σ. For example, for a bare solid sphere of Pu criticality is at 320 kg/m, regardless of density, and for U at 550 kg/m. \n\nIn any case, criticality then depends upon a typical neutron \"seeing\" an amount of nuclei around it such that the areal density of nuclei exceeds a certain threshold.\n", "Cosmic rays are sufficiently energetic to break apart atoms in the top one or two metres of Mars' surface, releasing high-energy neutrons, which can be measured by FREND instrument. The distribution of neutron velocities measured reveals the hydrogen content, which are a good indicator of hydrogen abundance —water or hydrated minerals— in the shallow subsurface of Mars.\n", "Most of the natural neutron background is a product of cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere. The neutron energy peaks at around 1 MeV and rapidly drops above. At sea level, the production of neutrons is about 20 neutrons per second per kilogram of material interacting with the cosmic rays (or, about 100–300 neutrons per square meter per second). The flux is dependent on geomagnetic latitude, with a maximum near the magnetic poles. At solar minimums, due to lower solar magnetic field shielding, the flux is about twice as high vs the solar maximum. It also dramatically increases during solar flares. In the vicinity of larger heavier objects, e.g. buildings or ships, the neutron flux measures higher; this is known as \"cosmic ray induced neutron signature\", or \"ship effect\" as it was first detected with ships at sea.\n", "Proceeding inward, one encounters nuclei with ever-increasing numbers of neutrons; such nuclei would decay quickly on Earth, but are kept stable by tremendous pressures. As this process continues at increasing depths, the neutron drip becomes overwhelming, and the concentration of free neutrons increases rapidly. In that region, there are nuclei, free electrons, and free neutrons. The nuclei become increasingly small (gravity and pressure overwhelming the strong force) until the core is reached, by definition the point where mostly neutrons exist. The expected hierarchy of phases of nuclear matter in the inner crust has been characterized as \"nuclear pasta\", with fewer voids and larger structures towards higher pressures.\n", "Natural neutron background. A small natural background flux of free neutrons exists everywhere on Earth. In the atmosphere and deep into the ocean, the \"neutron background\" is caused by muons produced by cosmic ray interaction with the atmosphere. These high-energy muons are capable of penetration to considerable depths in water and soil. There, in striking atomic nuclei, among other reactions they induce spallation reactions in which a neutron is liberated from the nucleus. Within the Earth's crust a second source is neutrons produced primarily by spontaneous fission of uranium and thorium present in crustal minerals. The neutron background is not strong enough to be a biological hazard, but it is of importance to very high resolution particle detectors that are looking for very rare events, such as (hypothesized) interactions that might be caused by particles of dark matter. Recent research has shown that even thunderstorms can produce neutrons with energies of up to several tens of MeV. Recent research has shown that the fluence of these neutrons lies between 10 and 10 per ms and per m depending on the detection altitude. The energy of most of these neutrons, even with initial energies of 20 MeV, decreases down to the keV range within 1 ms.\n", "High-energy neutrons are very penetrating and can travel great distances in air (hundreds or even thousands of meters) and moderate distances (several meters) in common solids. They typically require hydrogen rich shielding, such as concrete or water, to block them within distances of less than a meter. A common source of neutron radiation occurs inside a nuclear reactor, where a meters-thick water layer is used as effective shielding.\n\nSection::::Cosmic radiation.\n", "Beyond the inner wall of the containment vessel one of several test blanket modules will be placed. These are designed to slow and absorb neutrons in a reliable and efficient manner, limiting damage to the rest of the structure, and breeding tritium for fuel from lithium-bearing ceramic pebbles contained within the blanket module following the following reactions:\n\nwhere the reactant neutron is supplied by the D-T fusion reaction.\n", "Drip lines are defined for protons and neutrons at the extreme of the proton-to-neutron ratio; at p:n ratios at or beyond the drip lines, no bound nuclei can exist. While the location of the proton drip line is well known for many elements, the location of the neutron drip line is only known for elements up to neon.\n\nSection::::General description.\n", "Section::::Sources.:Cosmogenic neutrons.\n\nCosmogenic neutrons, neutrons produced from cosmic radiation in the Earth's atmosphere or surface, and those produced in particle accelerators can be significantly higher energy than those encountered in reactors. Most of them activate a nucleus before reaching the ground; a few react with nuclei in the air. The reactions with nitrogen-14 lead to the formation of carbon-14, widely used in radiocarbon dating.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Hence, the gravitational force of a typical neutron star is huge. If an object were to fall from a height of one meter on a neutron star 12 kilometers in radius, it would reach the ground at around 1400 kilometers per second. However, even before impact, the tidal force would cause spaghettification, breaking any sort of an ordinary object into a stream of material.\n", "On July 24, 2006 NSF posted a solicitation for proposals for Critical Zone Observatories (CZO) within the Division of Earth Sciences. See https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=500044\n", "A NASA analysis of deflection alternatives, conducted in 2007, stated: \"Non-nuclear kinetic impactors are the most mature approach and could be used in some deflection/mitigation scenarios, especially for NEOs that consist of a single small, solid body.\"\n\nSection::::Funding status.\n\nThe B612 Foundation is a California 501(c)(3) non-profit, private foundation. Financial contributions to the B612 Foundation are tax-exempt in the United States. Its principal offices are in Mountain View, California; they were previously located in Tiburon, California.\n", "The risk of waste disposal is difficult to measure due to the necessity of gathering data over thousands of years.\n\nSection::::Facilities.\n", "Some authors use \"nuclear matter\" in a broader sense, and refer to the model described above as \"infinite nuclear matter\", and consider it as a \"toy model\", a testing ground for analytical techniques. However, the composition of a neutron star, which requires more than neutrons and protons, is not necessarily locally charge neutral, and does not exhibit translation invariance, often is differently referred to, for example, as \"neutron star matter\" or \"stellar matter\" and is considered distinct from nuclear matter. In a neutron star, pressure rises from zero (at the surface) to an unknown large value in the center.\n", "Even stronger neutron background radiation is produced at the surface of Mars, where the atmosphere is thick enough to generate neutrons from cosmic ray muon production and neutron-spallation, but not thick enough to provide significant protection from the neutrons produced. These neutrons not only produce a Martian surface neutron radiation hazard from direct downward-going neutron radiation but may also produce a significant hazard from reflection of neutrons from the Martian surface, which will produce reflected neutron radiation penetrating upward into a Martian craft or habitat from the floor.\n", "Nitrogen-13 and oxygen-15 are produced in the atmosphere when gamma rays (for example from lightning) knock neutrons out of nitrogen-14 and oxygen-16:\n", "Natural nitrogen (N) consists of two stable isotopes, nitrogen-14, which makes up the vast majority of naturally occurring nitrogen, and nitrogen-15, which is less common. Fourteen radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) have also been found so far, with atomic masses ranging from 10 to 25, and one nuclear isomer, N. All of these radioisotopes are short-lived, with the longest-lived one being nitrogen-13 with a half-life of 9.965 minutes. All of the others have half-lives below 7.15 seconds, with most of these being below 620 milliseconds. Most of the isotopes with atomic mass numbers below 14 decay to isotopes of carbon, while most of the isotopes with masses above 15 decay to isotopes of oxygen. The shortest-lived known isotope is nitrogen-10, with a half-life of about 200 yoctoseconds.\n", "be present in sufficient quantities in both soils probably with the\n\nexception of reactive nitrogen. Nitrogen in reactive form (NO3,\n\nNH4) is one of the essential minerals necessary for almost all plant\n\ngrowth. The major source of reactive nitrogen on Earth is the\n\nmineralization of organic matter. Nitrogen in reactive form (NO3, NH4) is one of the essential\n\nminerals necessary for almost all plant growth. Reactive\n\nnitrogen is part of the material in our solar system and is part of\n", "Like all elements heavier than lithium, the original source of nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15 in the Universe is believed to be stellar nucleosynthesis, where they are produced as part of the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle.\n\nNitrogen-14 is the source of naturally-occurring, radioactive, carbon-14. Some kinds of cosmic radiation cause a nuclear reaction with nitrogen-14 in the upper atmosphere of the Earth, creating carbon-14, which decays back to nitrogen-14 with a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years.\n\nSection::::Natural isotopes.:Nitrogen-15.\n", "On the Saturnian moon Titan, nitrogen clathrate is predicted to be stable and exist along with ice on the surface, and deeper into the crust. It may also exist as a solid layer beneath the interior ocean. Nitrogen is the predominant component of the atmosphere. The clathrate may serve as a reservoir for nitrogen, and clathrates may also store methane, hydrogen sulfide, krypton and xenon. Clathrates formed at −178 °C are predicted to be predominantly nitrogen clathrate, with a smaller proportion of methane clathrate. Propane and ethane only form minute constituents.\n", "Therefore, the only stable nuclides created by the end of Big Bang nucleosynthesis are protium (single proton/hydrogen nucleus), deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7. By mass, the resulting matter is about 75% hydrogen nuclei, 25% helium nuclei, and perhaps 10 by mass of Lithium-7. The next most common stable isotopes produced are lithium-6, beryllium-9, boron-11, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen (\"CNO\"), but these have predicted abundances of between 5 and 30 parts in 10 by mass, making them essentially undetectable and negligible.\n" ]

[ "1 liter of neutrons could be put into a bottle" ]

[ "Neutrons could not stay together under standard Earth pressure." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "1 liter of neutrons could be put into a bottle" ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Neutrons could not stay together under standard Earth pressure." ]

[ "The globe was built with a scale of 1:1,000,000, on which one inch represents sixteen miles. As with most globes, it's mounted at a 23.5 degree angle, the same axial tilt as the Earth itself; thus the equator is diagonal to the floor. It uses a cantilever mount with two motors, and simulates one day's revolution and rotation every 18 minutes, though it is possible for the motors to fully rotate the globe in as little as one minute. \n", "Modern inertial measurement units systems (IMU) are based on MEMS technology allows to track the orientation (roll, pitch, yaw) in space with high update rates and minimal latency.\n\nBut it is hard to rely only on inertial tracking to determine the precise position because dead reckoning leads to drift, so this one is not used in isolation in virtual reality.\n\nSection::::Sensor Fusion.\n", "Stationary orbit\n\nIn celestial mechanics, the term stationary orbit refers to an orbit around a planet or moon where the orbiting satellite or spacecraft remains orbiting over the same spot on the surface. From the ground, the satellite would appear to be standing still, hovering above the surface in the same spot, day after day.\n", "The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.\n\nSection::::Periods.\n\nSection::::Periods.:True solar day.\n", "where \"a\" is the semi-major axis, \"P\" is the orbital period, and \"μ\" is the geocentric gravitational constant, equal to 398,600.4418 km/s.\n\nIn the special case of a geostationary orbit, the ground track of a satellite is a single point on the equator. In the general case of a geosynchronous orbit with a non-zero inclination or eccentricity, the ground track is a more or less distorted figure-eight, returning to the same places once per sidereal day.\n\nSection::::Geostationary orbit.\n", "A special case of the geosynchronous orbit, the geostationary orbit, has an eccentrity of zero (meaning the orbit is circular), and an inclination of zero in the Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed coordinate system (meaning the orbital plane is not tilted relative to the Earth's equator). The \"ground track\" in this case consists of a single point on the Earth's equator, above which the satellite sits at all times. Note that the satellite is still orbiting the Earth — its apparent lack of motion is due to the fact that the Earth is rotating about its own center of mass at the same rate as the satellite is orbiting.\n", "As first explained by German engineer Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the Earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing at the center of the Earth when its support is suddenly displaced. Such a pendulum would have a length equal to the radius of the Earth. Consider a simple gravity pendulum, whose length equals the radius of the Earth, suspended in a uniform gravitational field of the same strength as that experienced at the Earth's surface. If suspended from the surface of the Earth, the bob of the pendulum would be at the center of the Earth. If it is hanging motionless and its support is moved sideways, the bob tends to remain motionless, so the pendulum always points at the center of the Earth. If such a pendulum were attached to the inertial platform of an inertial navigation system, the platform would remain level, facing \"north\", \"east\" and \"down\", as it was moved about on the surface of the Earth.\n", "Since titanium structures are detectable, MAD sensors do not directly detect deviations in the Earth's magnetic field. Instead, they may be described as long-range electric and electromagnetic field detector arrays of great sensitivity.\n", "Section::::Single axis trackers.:Horizontal.\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT)\n\nThe axis of rotation for horizontal single axis tracker is horizontal with respect to the ground.\n", "If a geosynchronous satellite's orbit is not exactly aligned with the Earth's equator, the orbit is known as an inclined orbit. It will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) to oscillate daily around a fixed point. As the angle between the orbit and the equator decreases, the magnitude of this oscillation becomes smaller; when the orbit lies entirely over the equator in a circular orbit, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface – it is said to be \"geostationary\".\n\nSection::::Application.\n\n, there are approximately 446 active geosynchronous satellites, some of which are not operational. \n", "The axes of rotation of many tip–tilt dual axis trackers are typically aligned either along a true north meridian or an east–west line of latitude.\n\nGiven the unique capabilities of the Tip-Tilt configuration and the appropriate controller, totally automatic tracking is possible for use on portable platforms. The orientation of the tracker is of no importance and can be placed as needed.\n\nSection::::Dual axis trackers.:Azimuth-altitude.\n", "Any SECOR satellite could be linked to four mobile ground stations: three were placed in accurately determined known locations, and a fourth one was placed in an unknown location. By measuring a satellite's distance from the three known stations, its position in space was determined. Then, the distance between the unknown ground station and the previously determined satellite's position was used to compute the unknown ground station's coordinates. This process was repeated many times, to enhance the accuracy of the measurement. Once the unknown station's position was accurately determined, it became a known station. Then one of the four stations was moved to a new unknown point, and the process began again.\n", "BULLET::::- Geostationary satellites have a \"geostationary orbit\" (GEO), which is from Earth's surface. This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to \"stand still\" in the sky. This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth. The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears.\n", "As first explained by Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing at the center of the earth when its support is suddenly displaced. This principle, called Schuler tuning, is used in inertial guidance systems in ships and aircraft that operate on the surface of the Earth. No physical pendulum is used, but the control system that keeps the inertial platform containing the gyroscopes stable is modified so the device acts as though it is attached to such a pendulum, keeping the platform always facing down as the vehicle moves on the curved surface of the Earth.\n", "Motion transverse to the line of sight causes the position of Vega to shift with respect to the more distant background stars. Careful measurement of the star's position allows this angular movement, known as proper motion, to be calculated. Vega's proper motion is (mas) per year in right ascension—the celestial equivalent of longitude—and in declination, which is equivalent to a change in latitude. The net proper motion of Vega is 327.78 mas/y, which results in angular movement of a degree every 11,000 years.\n", "There are some advantages of geosynchronous satellites:\n\nBULLET::::- Get high temporal resolution data.\n\nBULLET::::- Tracking of the satellite by its earth stations is simplified.\n\nBULLET::::- Satellite always in same position.\n", "BULLET::::- Earth observation satellites and spy satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the Earth clearly by being close to it. They are also able to traverse the surface of the Earth. A majority of artificial satellites are placed in LEO, making one complete revolution around the Earth in about 90 minutes.\n\nBULLET::::- The International Space Station is in a LEO about to above Earth's surface, and needs reboosting a few times a year due to orbital decay.\n\nBULLET::::- Iridium satellites orbit at about .\n", "Constant Hawk flew on Short 360-300s in Iraq under the command of Task Force ODIN. And the system was introduced to Afghanistan in 2009, where it is still in use aboard MC-12W Liberty aircraft.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nInitial work on Constant Hawk began in the early 2000s (decade) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory as part of the Sonoma Persistent Surveillance Program, a U.S. Department of Energy effort to monitor nuclear proliferation.\n\nIn 2005, Constant Hawk was passed to the U.S. Department of Defense, which led to its development under the Army Research Laboratory in Aberdeen, MD. \n", "This is essentially Kepler's law of periods, which happens to be relativistically exact when expressed in terms of the time coordinate \"t\" of this particular rotating coordinate system. In the rotating frame, the satellite remains at rest, but an observer aboard the satellite sees the gyroscope's angular momentum vector precessing at the rate ω. This observer also sees the distant stars as rotating, but they rotate at a slightly different rate due to time dilation. Let τ be the gyroscope's proper time. Then\n", "A special case of geosynchronous orbit is the geostationary orbit, which is a circular geosynchronous orbit in Earth's equatorial plane (that is, directly above the Equator). A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears stationary, always at the same point in the sky, to observers on the surface. Popularly or loosely, the term \"geosynchronous\" may be used to mean geostationary. Specifically, geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) may be a synonym for \"geosynchronous equatorial orbit\", or \"geostationary Earth orbit\". Communications satellites are often given geostationary or close to geostationary orbits so that the satellite antennas that communicate with them do not have to move, but can be pointed permanently at the fixed location in the sky where the satellite appears.\n", "The Earth is a ball in space perpetually intercepting a cylinder of parallel energy rays from the sun. (Think of a tennis ball being held in the wind.) The angle of any earthly site to the solar beam is determined by\n\nBULLET::::- The site’s latitude, which gives its position on the curve of the Earth between the Equator and one of the Poles.\n\nBULLET::::- The time of day at the site, measured by its progress eastward around the Earth’s axis from sunrise to sunset.\n\nBULLET::::- The date, which locates the Earth on its annual orbit of the sun.\n", "Defining the position and orientation of a real object in space is determined with the help of special sensors or markers. Sensors record the signal from the real object when it moves or is moved and transmit the received information to the computer.\n\nSection::::Wireless tracking.\n", "A pendulum bob at rest at the Equator is still rotating with the Earth and there is no spin on the bob.\n", "One of the earliest examples of an earth battery was built by Alexander Bain in 1841 in order to drive a \"prime mover\"—a device that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. Bain buried plates of zinc and copper in the ground about one meter apart and used the resulting voltage, of about one volt, to operate a clock. Carl Friedrich Gauss, who had researched Earth's magnetic field, and Carl August von Steinheil, who built one of the first electric clocks and developed the idea of an \"Earth return\" (or \"ground return\"), had previously investigated such devices.\n", "In amusement parks, pendulum rides and centrifuges provide rotational force. Roller coasters also do, whenever they go over dips, humps, or loops. When going over a hill, time in which zero or negative gravity is felt is called air time, or \"airtime\", which can be divided into \"floater air time\" (for zero gravity) and \"ejector air time\" (for negative gravity).\n\nSection::::Linear acceleration.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "However, for vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with little or no need for battery energy, especially for short trips.\n", "Performance testing simulates the drive cycles for the drive trains of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) as per the required specifications of car manufacturers (OEMs). During these drive cycles, controlled cooling of the battery can be performed, simulating the thermal conditions in the car.\n\nIn addition, climatic chambers assure constant environmental conditions during the characterization and allow the simulation to be performed for the full automotive temperature range covering climatic conditions.\n\nSection::::Specifics.:Patents.\n", "Lithium-ion batteries operate best at certain temperatures. The Model S motor, controller and battery temperatures are controlled by a liquid cooling/heating circuit. Waste heat from the motor heats the battery in cold conditions, and battery performance is reduced until a suitable battery temperature is reached.\n", "To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and the Tesla Model S and 3 can be pre-heated while the vehicle is plugged in.\n", "Section::::Energy efficiency.:Cabin heating and cooling.\n\nWhile heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater, higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump. PTC junction cooling is also attractive for its simplicity — this kind of system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster.\n", "BULLET::::- Instrumentation specific to the operation and maintenance of the conversion\n\nSection::::Hobbyists and conversions.\n\nHobbyists often build their own EVs by converting existing production cars to run solely on electricity. There is a cottage industry supporting the conversion and construction of BEVs by hobbyists. Universities such as the University of California, Irvine even build their own custom electric or hybrid-electric cars from scratch.\n", "Section::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:Honda.\n\nHonda also develops a module based on a Rankine Cycle to improve overall efficiency of hybrid vehicles, by recovering the heat of the engine and turning it into electricity for the battery pack.\n\nIn the US highway cycle, the Rankine cycle system regenerated three times as much energy as the vehicle's regenerative braking system.\n\nSection::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:Exoès.\n", "BULLET::::4. In the air conditioning test, the ambient temperature of the test cell is raised to 35 °C. The vehicle's climate control system is then used to lower the internal cabin temperature. Starting with a warm engine, the test averages 35 km/h and reaches a maximum speed of 88 km/h. Five stops are included, with idling occurring 19% of the time.\n", "The use of commodity cells, similar to those found in laptops and mobile phones, is in contrast to every other electric vehicle manufacturer who use specialized large format Li-Ion cells. The liquid-cooled battery pack uses an intumescent gel to aid in fireproofing and even heat distribution.\n\nSection::::Tesla Model S manufacturing process.:Body construction.\n\nSection::::Tesla Model S manufacturing process.:Body construction.:Aluminium coil blanking.\n", "For especially large EVs, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the diesel-electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. \"See Nuclear Power\"\n\nA few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity.\n\nSection::::Electricity sources.:Onboard storage.\n\nThese systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until needed.\n", "A worker then installs the differential and other sections of the gearbox, attaching it together using bolts. An air leak test is then conducted. The three phase tripole power inverter is then installed onto the top of the motor to convert direct current from the battery into alternating current for the motor to use. The motor then undergoes a series of automated tests taking 4 minutes to ensure correct function, and then is moved to the general assembly area to be installed into the car.\n\nSection::::Tesla Model S manufacturing process.:Battery pack construction.\n", "Section::::Models.\n\nSection::::Models.:First model.\n\nThe first model, produced from 2001 to 2007, was simply called REVA (G-Wiz in the United Kingdom). Its power flowed through a 400 amp motor controller to a DC motor rated at , with a maximum of . Power came from eight 6 V, 200 A h, lead-acid batteries located under the front seats and wired in series to create 48 V. This model did not have the strengthened chassis that allows subsequent models to pass a crash test at .\n\nSection::::Models.:REVAi.\n", "Once the electricity has been generated by the fuel cell, it is then either fed directly into the motors, or used to charge the batteries.\n\nDuring normal driving, the power for the motors is fed directly from the fuel cell, though if a boost is needed, then power from the batteries is also used.\n", "Roderick Wilde and Suckamps EV Racing, the Land Rover EV converted by Wilde Evolutions, and the 1988 Jeep Cherokee EV converted by Nick Viera.\n\nSection::::Vehicle types.:Classic Cars.\n", "Section::::Mechanical Description.:In the Road.\n", "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell performance.\n\nA battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.\n\nSection::::Capacity and discharge.\n", "Section::::Mechanical Description.:On the OLEV.\n\nAttached beneath the vehicle, are \"pick-up\" modules, or the secondary coils, that consist of wide W-shaped ferrite cores with wires wrapped around the center. When the pick-ups \"pick up\" the flux from the primary coils, each pick-up gains about 17 kW of power from the induced current. This power is sent to the electric motor and battery through a regulator (a managing device that can distribute power based on need), thereby charging the OLEV wirelessly.\n\nSection::::Models.\n", "The main unique characteristic of the car is its appearance, the whole car is covered by the solar cells on the car surface, almost everywhere in which could be visually observed, like the roof, sides, Rear and the hood of the vehicle\n", "Section::::Tesla Model S manufacturing process.:Drive unit installation.\n\nThe car is raised and the drive unit is installed into the rear axle assembly. The drive unit provides power directly to the wheels without a drive shaft.\n\nSection::::Tesla Model S manufacturing process.:Battery pack installation.\n", "Some electric cars, for example the Citroën Berlingo Electrique, use an auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline-fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice \"green\" and \"Zero emissions\" credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked. Two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nThe safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues:\n", "Once electric power is supplied to the motor (from the controller), the magnetic field interaction inside the motor will turn the drive shaft and ultimately the vehicle's wheels.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- All-electric range\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive battery\n\nBULLET::::- Battery balancer\n\nBULLET::::- Car battery\n\nBULLET::::- Electric boat\n\nBULLET::::- Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA)\n\nBULLET::::- Electric-vehicle battery\n\nBULLET::::- Electric vehicle warning sounds\n\nBULLET::::- Global Electric Motorcars\n\nBULLET::::- Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles\n\nBULLET::::- Greenpower\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- List of electric cars currently available\n\nBULLET::::- List of electric vehicle battery manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- List of production battery electric vehicles\n", "BULLET::::- Audi Q7 e-tron: 17 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW i8: 7 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 2 Series Active Tourer 225xe: 6.0 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 330e iPerformance: 7.6 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW 530e iPerformance: 9.2 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- BMW X5 xDrive40e: 9.0 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet Volt: 16–18 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid: 16 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Ford Fusion II / Ford C-Max II Energi: 7.6 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Fisker Karma: 20 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Accord PHEV (2013): 6.7 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Honda Clarity PHEV (2018): 17 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Hyundai Ioniq Plug-in: 8.9 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Kia Niro Plug-in: 8.9 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Koenigsegg Regera: 4.5 kWh\n\nBULLET::::- Mini Countryman Cooper S E: 7.6 kWh\n", "98% of the Tesla Model S body is constructed from aluminium and is produced from between 50 and 60 separate coils of aluminium each for various components. The coils are unwound, flattened and cut in a blanking machine; additional cutting is also done using laser cutter. The total weight of the aluminium used in the Model S is around\n\nSection::::Tesla Model S manufacturing process.:Body construction.:Tandem press lines.\n", "2008 - SSC announced plans to unveil the Ultimate Aero EV (Electric Vehicle). SSC expects to roll out its first prototype in February 2009. The car was advertised in the original press release as rechargeable in 10 minutes from a 240 V outlet, which has been criticized as impossible in some articles. The press release has since changed.\n\nAugust 23, 2010 - A USA Today article details the rivalry between Shelby and Bugatti for the title of World's fastest Car and CEO Jerod Shelby announces a next generation version of the SSC Ultimate Aero is in the works\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 - Michigan State University builds the first wave disk engine. An internal combustion engine which does away with pistons, crankshafts and valves, and replaces them with a disc-shaped shock wave generator.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of rocket and missile technology - Rockets can be considered to be heat engines. The heat of their exhaust gases is converted into mechanical energy.\n\nBULLET::::- History of thermodynamics\n\nBULLET::::- History of the internal combustion engine\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of motor and engine technology\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of steam power\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Sources.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "There are many types of in-depth specialized technical evaluations and audits. These validations generally require time, a major effort by the customer group, and a high level of funding. Normally, the most valuable methods and tools are comprehensive scans which are performance based and include metrics that can easily be measured without lab-type instruments.\n\nEvaluations and reviews, are integral part of asset and portfolio management, design, construction, commissioning.\n", "Uncertainties in building design and building energy assessment\n\nThe detailed design of buildings needs to take into account various external factors, which may be subject to uncertainties. Among these factors are prevailing weather and climate; the properties of the materials used and the standard of workmanship; and the behaviour of occupants of the building. Several studies have indicated that it is the behavioural factors that are the most important among these. Methods have been developed to estimate the extent of variability in these factors and the resulting need to take this variability into account at the design stage.\n", "Measurements of conditions in existing buildings are used as part of post occupancy evaluations. Post occupancy evaluations may also include surveys of building occupants to gather data on occupant satisfaction and well-being and to gather qualitative data on building performance that may not have been captured by measurement devices.\n\nMany aspects of building science are the responsibility of the architect (in Canada, many architectural firms employ an architectural technologist for this purpose), often in collaboration with the engineering disciplines that have evolved to handle 'non-building envelope' building science concerns: \n", "BULLET::::- Where do specialized service inputs and outputs (telecommunications, electricity, water, gas, wastewater, supply and exhaust air) occur and how are these flow mechanisms constructed ?\n\nBULLET::::- What parts of the building are subject to the most stresses from climate?\n\nBULLET::::- What parts of the building are most subject to wear from human use and change from aesthetic preference ?\n\nBULLET::::- What parts of the building are most subject to alteration based upon functional, economic, life-expectancy, or technological requirements?\n", "An altered building may look the same on the exterior, but its interior may be completely different spatially. The interior architect must therefore be sensitive not only to the place of the building in its physical and socio-political context, but to the temporal requirements of changing owners and users. In this sense, if the building has “good bones” the original architectural idea is therefore the first iteration of an internal spatial hierarchy for that structure, after which others are bound to follow\n", "BULLET::::- Building biology\n\nBULLET::::- Building enclosure commissioning\n\nBULLET::::- Central Building Research Institute, India\n\nBULLET::::- Civil engineering, Earthquake engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Earthquake engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Galvanic corrosion\n\nBULLET::::- Green Business Certification Inc.\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas Building Science Institute\n\nBULLET::::- National Institute of Building Sciences\n\nBULLET::::- Passive House\n\nBULLET::::- Seismic analysis\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Green Building Council\n\nBULLET::::- Vapor barrier\n\nBULLET::::- Whole Building Design Guide\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Green Building Council\n\nBULLET::::- Green Building Certification Inc.\n\nBULLET::::- BC Building Science\n\nBULLET::::- Construction Specifications Institute\n\nBULLET::::- www.buildingscience.com\n\nBULLET::::- IRC Group\n\nBULLET::::- JRS Engineering Group\n\nBULLET::::- Building Science Textbook for Building Enclosures\n", "Engineers must also be aware of other actions that may affect a structure, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Foundation settlement or displacement\n\nBULLET::::- Fire\n\nBULLET::::- Corrosion\n\nBULLET::::- Explosion\n\nBULLET::::- Creep or shrinkage\n\nBULLET::::- Impact from vehicles or machinery vibration\n\nBULLET::::- Construction loads\n\nSection::::Loads on architectural and civil engineering structures.:Load combinations.\n", "Innovative decision-support methodologies are taking place in building sector. There are some tools explicitly based on the demand and supply concepts and other ones which employ standardized performance metrics that for the first time link facility\n\ncondition to the functional requirements of organizations and their customers. Projects can be planned, prioritize, and budgeted using a multi-criteria approach, that is transparent, comprehensive and auditable.\n", "One of the methodologies that can be used is a gap analysis based on calibrated scales that measure both the levels of requirements and the capability of the asset that is either already used, or being designed, or offer to be bought, or leased. Such methodology is an ASTM and American National (ANSI) standard and is currently being considered as an ISO standard.\n\nIt is particularly useful when the information about the “gap”, if any, can be presented in support of funding decisions and actions.\n", "The fast-track nature of the design and construction process (experience in 2011) often leads to missed planning, design, and even construction items. Items missed during the design and construction process can often be identified by the CxA during development of the functional and performance test procedures or during functional and performance tests.\n", "Energy model might be a source of error during LEED design phase. Stoppel and Leite evaluated the predicted and actual energy consumption of two twin buildings using the energy model during the LEED design phase and the utility meter data after one year of occupancy. The study’s results suggests that mechanical systems turnover and occupancy assumptions significantly differing from predicted to actual values.\n", "The protocols identify what to measure, how it is to be measured (instrumentation and spatial resolution), and how often it is to be measured for inclusion in the building’s operation and maintenance plan. For each of the six measure categories (energy, water, thermal comfort, IAQ, lighting, and acoustics), protocols are developed at three levels: low, medium and high cost and accuracy, providing a range of choices for levels of effort, detail, and rigor to characterize the building stock, and comparison to appropriate benchmarks.\n\nFor each measure category and each level, the following characteristics are described: \n", "In many jurisdictions, mandatory certification or assurance of the completed work or part of works is required. This demand for certification entails a high degree of risk - therefore, regular inspections of the work as it progresses on site is required to ensure that is in compliance with the design itself as well as with all relevant statutes and permissions.\n\nSection::::Practice.:Alternate practice and specializations.\n", "Operational evaluation begins to set the limitations on what will be monitored and how the monitoring will be accomplished. This evaluation starts to tailor the damage identification process to features that are unique to the system being monitored and tries to take advantage of unique features of the damage that is to be detected.\n\nSection::::Health assessment of engineered structures of bridges, buildings and other related infrastructures.:Data acquisition, normalization and cleansing.\n", "Section::::Building codes.\n\nIn the case of construction of new (or remodeled) apartments, condominiums, hospitals and hotels, many U.S. states and cities have stringent building codes with requirements of acoustical analysis, in order to protect building occupants from exterior noise sources and sound generated within the building itself. With regard to exterior noise, the codes usually require measurement of the exterior acoustic environment in order to determine the performance standard required for exterior building skin design.\n", "As current buildings are now known to be high emitters of carbon into the atmosphere, increasing controls are being placed on buildings and associated technology to reduce emissions, increase energy efficiency, and make use of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources may be developed within the proposed building or via local or national renewable energy providers. As a result, the architect is required to remain abreast of current regulations which are continually tightening. Some new developments exhibit extremely low energy use.\n", "Despite this, the building process remained relatively conventional for the next 50 years, based solely on experience and codes, regulations prescribed by law which stifled innovations and change. The prescription approach is a technical procedure based on past experience which consists of comparing the proposed design with standardized codes, so no simulation or verification tools are needed for the design and building process.\n", "This type of approach is strictly mandated by a combination of law, codes, standards, and regulations, etc., and is based on past experience and consolidated know-how. The content of prescriptive codes and standards is usually a consequence of an accident causing injury or death which requires a remedy to avoid a repeat, as a consequence of some hazardous situation, or as a consequence of some recognized social need. In many countries, in both the public and private sector, research is taking place into a different set of codes, methods and tools based on performance criteria to complement the traditional prescriptive codes.\n", "Section::::Sustainable building consulting.\n\nA sustainable building consultant may be engaged early in the design process, to forecast the sustainability implications of building materials, orientation, glazing and other physical factors, so as to identify a sustainable approach that meets the specific requirements of a project.\n\nNorms and standards have been formalized by performance-based rating systems e.g. LEED and Energy Star for homes. They define benchmarks to be met and provide metrics and testing to meet those benchmarks. It is up to the parties involved in the project to determine the best approach to meet those standards.\n\nSection::::Changing pedagogues.\n", "The critic's task is to assess how successful the architect and others involved with the project have been in meeting both the criteria the project set out to meet and those that the critic himself feels to be important. Specific criteria include:\n\nBULLET::::- Aesthetics\n\nBULLET::::- Proportion\n\nBULLET::::- Functionality\n\nBULLET::::- Architectural style\n\nBULLET::::- Choice and use of building materials\n\nBULLET::::- Built environment or context\n\nBULLET::::- Sustainability\n\nSection::::Architectural journalists and critics.\n", "Multiple techniques have been developed to address interior sound levels, many of which are encouraged by local building codes. In the best case of project designs, planners are encouraged to work with design engineers to examine trade-offs of roadway design and architectural design. These techniques include design of exterior walls, party walls, and floor and ceiling assemblies; moreover, there are a host of specialized means for damping reverberation from special-purpose rooms such as auditoria, concert halls, entertainment and social venues, dining areas, audio recording rooms, and meeting rooms.\n", "BULLET::::1. Environmental. Uncertainty in weather prediction under changing climate; and uncertain weather data information due to the use of synthetic weather data files: (1) use of synthetic years that do not represent a real year, and (2) use of a synthetic year that has not been generated from recorded data in the exact location of the project but in the closest weather station.\n\nBULLET::::2. Workmanship and quality of building elements. Differences between the design and the real building: Conductivity of thermal bridges, conductivity of insulation, value of infiltration (air leakage), or U-values of walls and windows.\n", "Section::::Health assessment of engineered structures of bridges, buildings and other related infrastructures.\n\nCommonly known as Structural Health Assessment (SHA) or SHM, this concept is widely applied to various forms of infrastructures, especially as countries all over the world enter into an even greater period of construction of various infrastructures ranging from bridges to skyscrapers. Especially so when damages to structures are concerned, it is important to note that there are stages of increasing difficulty that require the knowledge of previous stages, namely:\n\nBULLET::::1. Detecting the existence of the damage on the structure\n\nBULLET::::2. Locating the damage\n", "BULLET::::3. Behavioural. All other parameters linked to human behaviour, e.g. opening of doors and windows, use of appliances, occupancy patterns or cooking habits.\n\nSection::::Weather and climate.\n\nSection::::Weather and climate.:Climate change.\n", "Finally, the data acquisition, normalization, and cleansing portion of SHM process should not be static. Insight gained from the feature selection process and the statistical model development process will provide information regarding changes that can improve the data acquisition process.\n\nSection::::Health assessment of engineered structures of bridges, buildings and other related infrastructures.:Feature extraction and data compression.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "As it ferments, sometimes for several days, the volume of the starter is increased by periodic additions of flour and water, called \"refreshments\". As long as this starter culture is fed flour and water regularly it will remain active.\n", "Under optimal conditions, ascospores mature and are released to initiate new infections . Conditions necessary for spore maturation differ among species. Asexual reproduction is where the mother fungi and offspring are genetically identical. Powder mildew fungi offspring of wheat and barley species are more successful from asexual reproduction compared to sexual reproduction counterparts. \n\nSection::::Reproduction.:Vectors of transmission.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nThe most common management practice for controlling Fusarium crown rot of wheat is to use resistant varieties. While no fully resistant variety exists, resistance in the form of tolerance to the disease can be used. A few of the resistant wheat varieties include 2–49, Sunco, Kukri, Brundage, Gene, Weatherford, Madson, Temple, and Tubbs. Tolerance still allows the host to become infected by the pathogen, but it provides the host with the ability to withstand the infection and produce an acceptable yield.\n", "Since the urediniospores are produced on the cereal host and can infect the cereal host, it is possible for the infection to pass from one year's crop to the next without infecting the alternate host (barberry). For example, infected volunteer wheat plants can serve as a bridge from one growing season to another. In other cases the fungus passes between winter wheat and spring wheat, meaning that it has a cereal host all year round. Since the urediniospores are wind dispersed, this can occur over large distances. Note that this cycle consists simply of vegetative propagation - urediniospores infect one wheat plant, leading to the production of more urediniospores that then infect other wheat plants.\n", "BULLET::::- Grain drying and selection: Prior to storage, dry grain below 13-15% to halt mold growth. Prior to storage, clean dried grain by removing lighter, damaged kernels, cobs and fines. Routinely screen grain and store the most infected grain separately to reduce disease spread.\n\nBULLET::::- Others: Burying corn residue provides some degree of disease control. Cool infected grain below 50 °F (19 °C) soon after harvest and store at 30 °F (-1.1 °C) to delay the development of infection.\n\nSection::::Management.:Host resistance.\n", "The mold spores are inhaled and provoke the creation of IgE antibodies that circulate in the bloodstream, these types of immune response are most often initiated by exposure to thermophilic actinomycetes (most commonly \"Saccharopolyspora rectivirgula\"), which generate IgG-type antibodies. Following a subsequent exposure, IgG antibodies combined with the inhaled allergen to form immune complexes in the walls of the alveoli in the lungs. This causes fluid, protein, and cells to accumulate in the alveolar wall which slows blood-gas interchange and compromises the function of the lung. After multiple exposures, it takes less and less of the antigens to set off the reaction in the lung.\n", "Attempts to hybridize \"Thinopyrum intermedium\" with wheat have also been done. This has some distinct advantages. First, there is wide evidence that hybridization of \"Thinopyrum intermedium\" with wheat is a method to confer fungal resistance to domestic wheat plants. However, which specific genes that protect against which specific fungus has not been as well studied. \"Thinopyum elongatum\" and \"Thinopyrum intermedium\" impart a total of four leaf rust resistance genes, while \"Thinopyrum intermedium\" confers two powdery mildew genes. There's evidence that \"Thinopyrum intermedium\" also has resistance to wheat streak mosaic virus, the Aceria tosichella mite, Barley yellow dwarf, and others. These conferred genes in wheat help increase yield and hardiness in times of environmental strain. Second, \"Thinopyrum intermedium\" also has genes that improve bread making when hybridized common wheat. While this may not seem like an important characteristic, better bread may mean more calories, feeding more people. In addition, bread that stays fresh longer may provide more opportunities for people to be adequately fed, and/or the bread can be transported to areas without much food access.\n", "The most common management practice for grains and legumes is the use of aeration systems. Air is pushed through the storage bins at low flow rates, which removes excess moisture and heat. Regulation of air flow allows the moisture content in harvested products to remain at a constant level and decreases the temperature within the bins. Temperature levels can decrease enough so insects and mites are dormant, which reduces rapid growth of the pathogen.\n", "The disease cycle of \"F. pseudograminearum\" includes both sexual and asexual stages, however the sexual stage has been observed to not play an important role in the establishment of the disease. Overwintering on crop residue, seeds, or in the soil is easily accomplished for this Fusarium species due to the formation of survival structures called chlamydospores. As spring arrives the chlamydospores are signaled to germinate, producing asexual structures called conidia. As mentioned previously, the formation of sexual structures are rare in the field, but the pathogen's teleomorph would produce structures called perithecia. As the perithecia form they would produce asci that contain ascospores inside. The perithecia forcibly discharge the ascospores and then those airborne spores are disseminated either by wind, rain, or animal. These sexual spores then land on a mature wheat host and would start to colonize the stem and area around the crown as summer proliferates. However, the asexual stage of \"F. pseudograminearum\" is a much simpler cycle that produces the most damage to the wheat.\n", "Section::::Development of infection.\n\nIt is more severe if wheat is grown continuously in same field over the same period. The fungus grows as \"mycelium\" which penetrates successive leaf sheaths throughout the growing season. High humidity, cool, and damp weather at the soil surface favours disease development. Whilst dry and hot weather causes the leaf sheaths of the plant to dry and fall off, taking the inoculum with it, thus lessening disease.\n\nSection::::Invasion of fungi.\n", "Diapause, also known as hibernation, in European corn borers is induced by temperature and changes in daylight length. At higher temperatures, shorter photoperiods are sufficient to induce diapause. At 13.5 hours of light followed by 10.5 hours of dark, 100% of European corn borer larva entered diapause regardless of temperature with the range of 18 to 29 degrees Celsius. At high temperatures and long photoperiods, fewer larva enter diapause.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Eggs.\n", "\"Puccinia graminis\" is a macrocyclic heteroecious fungus that causes wheat stem rust disease. The repeating stage in this fungus occurs on wheat and not the alternate host, barberry. The repeating stage allows the disease to persist in wheat even though the alternate host may be removed. Planting resistant crops is the ideal form of disease prevention, however, mutations can give rise to new strains of fungi that can overcome plant resistance. Although the disease cannot be stopped by removal of the alternate host, the life cycle is disrupted and the rate of mutation is decreased because of reduced genetic recombination. This allows resistance bred crops to remain effective for a longer period of time.\n", "Increased in-row spacing also causes more severe disease. In an infected field, yield decreased linearly when spacing was greater than 15 cm (6 in), so a spacing of 6 inches or less is recommended.\n\nThe bacteria can also utilize nitrogen fertilizer to accelerate their growth, thus limiting or eliminating the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied will lessen the disease severity. For example, when fertilizer was applied to an infected field the infection rate per root increased from 11% (with no added nitrogen) to 36% (with 336 kg nitrogen/hectare), and sugar yields decreased.\n\nSection::::Management.:Resistance.\n", "O. mercator is one of the most commonly encounter pests in grain and grain products, and will feed on any foodstuffs of vegetable origin. Broken grain kernels are the principal food source but whole kernels may be penetrated and fed on. This feeding results in the destruction of grain (shrinkage). Further, the metabolism of a population of insects results in an increase of water absorption into the grain, which can cause mold growth\n\nSection::::Control.\n", "Section::::Environment.:Foot and root rot (FRR).\n\nThe development of FRR can be affected by several factors, such as residue management, previous crop, plant density, nitrogen fertilization and environmental conditions. Wheat monoculture and rotation with other cereal crops contribute to maintaining the survival of inoculum in the soil and then increases the FRR severity. High planting density and nitrogen fertilization level are shown to boosts the chance of FRR. Warm and drought conditions that may trigger water stress also increase the pathogen sensitivity and make the FRR severe.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Once the fungus penetrates the wheat cell wall, the fungal cell wall materials (i.e. chitin) act as elicitors which interact with plant receptors and induce the plant defence mechanism. One product of this is reinforcement of the cell wall in an attempt to stop the invasion. The plant starts forming the papillae - a callose matrix (cellulose, suberin, protein, gums, calcium and silicon) which provides extra resistance to penetration, however this barrier does remain effective for long if the level of micro-organisms present is high.\n", "A short evolutionary time does not necessarily mean a short chronological time. When DNA is replicated, mistakes occur which become genetic mutations. The buildup of these mutations over time leads to the evolution of a species. During the \"B. anthracis\" lifecycle, it spends a significant amount of time in the soil spore reservoir stage, in which DNA replication does not occur. These prolonged periods of dormancy have greatly reduced the evolutionary rate of the organism.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Related Strains.\n", "This theme resonates with Prus' last major — and only historical — novel, \"Pharaoh\" (1895), and still more with his first major novel, \"The Outpost\" (1886). The latter depicts the struggle of the stolid Polish peasant Ślimak (\"Snail\") to hang onto his farmstead against the encroachments of German settlers who are buying up adjacent land, encouraged by their government's policy of expansion into ethnically Polish lands.\n", "The impacts of \"C. graminicola\" are predicted to increase as the use of Bt corn becomes more common. Bt engineered corn has been seen to have a greater proportion of stalk rot and be more susceptible to \"C. graminicola\" compared to strains without Bt.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "Infection is favored by frost, hail, and wind as well as other ways that create wounds to the plant. Infection occurs at a moderate temperature between 14 and 28 °C. Optimum temperature for growth of pathogen is higher at a range of 20-25 °C. A high relative humidity favors production of conidia and further infection.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "Location is an important characteristic in the spread of wheat rust. Some places wheat rust can easily flourish and spread. In other areas, the environment is marginally suited for the disease. Urediniospores of the wheat rusts initiate germination within one to three hours of contact with free moisture over a range of temperatures depending on the rust. Urediniospores are produced in large numbers and can be blown considerable distances by the wind, but most urediniospores are deposited close to their source under the influence of gravity. Urediniospores are relatively resilient and can survive in the field away from host plants for periods of several weeks. They can withstand freezing if their moisture content is lowered to 20 to 30 percent. Viability rapidly decreases at moisture contents of more than 50 percent. Long-distance spread of urediniospores is influenced by wind patterns and the orientation of the spore to latitude. In general, spores move west to east due to the winds resulting from the rotation of the earth. At progressively higher latitudes, winds tend to take a more southerly component in the Northern Hemisphere and a northerly component in the Southern Hemisphere. \"Puccinia triticina \"can survive the same environmental conditions as the wheat leaf, provided infection but no sporulation has occurred. The fungus can infect in less than three hours in the presence of moisture and temperatures below 20 °C; however, more infections occur with longer exposure to moisture. (Stubbs, Chester)\n", "Proliferation of the fungus inside the plant leads to disease symptoms such as chlorosis, anthocyanin formation, reduced growth, and the appearance of tumors harboring the developing teliospores.\n\nMature spores are released from the tumors and spread by rain and wind. Under appropriate conditions, a metabasidium is formed in which meiosis occurs. Resulting haploid nuclei migrate into elongated single cells. These cells detach from the metabasidium to become the sporidia, thus completing the life cycle.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Host/pathogen conflict.\n", "If conditions such as temperature are off, the stem becomes filled with dark-colored, sand-like fungal spores instead of swelling into a vegetable, ruining the crop. Also, there are two known strains of the fungus. One causes the swelling of the stem tissues which produces the vegetable, but the other does not; instead, it fills the stem with spores.\n", "Section::::Life cycle.\n\nLife cycle: Wheat leaf rust spreads via airborne spores. Five types of spores are formed in the life cycle: Urediniospores, teliospores, and basidiospores develop on wheat plants and pycniospores and aeciospores develop on the alternate hosts. The germination process requires moisture, and works best at 100% humidity. Optimum temperature for germination is between 15–20 °C. Before sporulation, wheat plants appear completely asymptomatic.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Thalictrum flavum.\n", "Calcium propionate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Flour.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "DeCODE genetics\n\ndeCODE genetics, Inc. (Icelandic: Íslensk erfðagreining) is a biopharmaceutical company based in Reykjavík, Iceland. The company was founded in 1996 by Kári Stefánsson to identify human genes associated with common diseases using population studies, and apply the knowledge gained to guide the development of candidate drugs. The company isolated genes believed to be involved in cardiovascular disease, cancer and schizophrenia, among other diseases (the company's research concerning the latter is said to represent the first time a gene has been identified by two independent studies to be associated with schizophrenia).\n", "BULLET::::- Molecular Genetics – Using genetic sequencing techniques, scientists at the MMRI are studying inherited cardiac arrhythmia syndromes, including sudden cardiac death syndromes such as the Long QT syndrome, Short QT syndrome, Brugada syndrome and Early Repolarization syndrome.\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular Biology – Genes suspected of causing genetic mutations are cloned and the mutation is inserted into a heterologous expression system so that the functional effect of the mutation can be evaluated, to further determine whether the genetic variant is the true cause of the disease.\n", "Based on this Cab:luc fusion technology, Kay set up luciferase imaging assays for large scale forward genetics screening and identified the first short period mutant of TOC1 gene. TOC1 was proved to be a core clock gene in \"Arabidopsis\" and was cloned by Kay lab after a long period of time Kay also revealed the biochemical function of TOC1 and found that TOC1 and LHY/CCA1 reciprocally regulate each other, and further studied the mechanism of this regulation.\n", "In December 1998, with lobbying from deCODE, the Icelandic Parliament passed the Act on Health Sector Database which permitted public bidding for the right of a company to create this health database and use it for various purposes. The parliament shortly thereafter granted deCODE the right to create this database after the company made a successful bid to do so.\n\nSection::::deCODEme.\n", "As shown in Figure 1, the base mutations in kataegis regions were found to be almost exclusively cytosine to thymine in the context of a TpC dinucleotide(p denotes the phosphoribose backbone). At DNA lesion sites, APOBEC enzyme can have access to long ssDNA and induce a C→U mutations. APOBEC family is processive and can continue to induce multiple mutations in a small region. If this part of DNA is replicated before such mutation is repaired, the mutation gets passed on to the subclones. The original CG pair will become a TA pair after one round of replication, hence the predominantly seen C→T mutation in kataegis.\n", "Section::::Career and research.:Gene mapping.\n", "A study on the Chinese Uyghur population indicated that rs1801131 polymorphism in MTHFR was associated with nsCL/P in Chinese Uyghur population. Given the unique genetic and environmental characters of the Uyghur population, these findings may be helpful for exploring the pathogenesis of this complex disease.\n\nSection::::Epigenetics.\n", "In 1967, at the University of Texas, Thiessen was awarded a five-year Career Development from National Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH) to study gene substitutions on behavior and physiology of mice. Over the years he has held appointments as research article reviewer, editor, or membership in a number of professional organizations, including\n\nBULLET::::- Phi Kappa Phi\n\nBULLET::::- American Association for the Advancement of Science\n\nBULLET::::- Alumni Association, Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME\n\nBULLET::::- American Psychological Association\n\nBULLET::::- Sigma Xi\n\nBULLET::::- Psychonomic Society\n\nBULLET::::- Animal Behavior Society\n\nBULLET::::- Southwestern Psychological Association\n\nBULLET::::- International Society for Developmental Psychobiology\n", "In 2004, Qiu et al. developed a mutation detection technology based on CEL II, also known as Surveyor Nuclease. Since then the method has been used to detect mutations and polymorphisms in many different organisms and cell types (see applications).\n\nSurveyor nuclease was licensed from the Fox Chase Cancer Center by Transgenomic, Inc. and was subsequently sold to IDT, which currently distributes it.\n\nSection::::Surveyor nuclease assay workflow.\n\nSection::::Surveyor nuclease assay workflow.:DNA Extraction.\n", "The Human Genome Project has allowed scientists to directly genotype the sequence of human DNA nucleotides. Once genotyped, genetic variants can be tested for association with a behavioural phenotype, such as mental disorder, cognitive ability, personality, and so on.\n", "Section::::Application.\n", "If the level 0 modules contains any unwanted restriction site, they can be mutated in silico by removing one nucleotide from the type IIS restriction site. In this process, one needs to make sure that the introduced mutation will not affect the genetic function encoded by the sequence of interest. A silent mutation in the coding sequence is preferred, for it neither changes the protein sequence nor the function of the gene of interest.\n\nSection::::Cloning Standards.:MoClo System.:Level 0 Modules.:Level -1 Fragments.\n", "Brown and his colleagues created a robotic dispenser that could deposit minute quantities of tens of thousands of individual genes onto a single glass slide, a “DNA microarray” or \"gene chip.\" By flooding the slide with fluorescently labeled genetic material derived from a living sample, a researcher could see which genes were being expressed in cells. Shortly after their first description of DNA microarrays, the Brown laboratory published a “how-to” manual on the Web that helped these robotic devices become standard equipment in life science labs throughout the world.\n", "BULLET::::2. Random transposition occurs, inserting the reporter gene randomly. The insertion tends to occur near actively transcribed genes, as this is where the chromatin structure is loosest, so the DNA is most accessible.\n\nBULLET::::3. Grow flies and cross to remove genetic variation between the cells of the organism (see above).\n\nBULLET::::4. Look for flies expressing the reporter gene. These have experienced a successful transposition, so can be investigated to determine the phenotype due to mutation of existing genes.\n\n\"Possible mutations:\"\n", "The deCODEme service was discontinued in January 2013 and deCODE genetics stopped selling personal genetic tests altogether.\n\nSection::::Appearances in popular culture.\n\nThe work of deCODE is criticised by Arnaldur Indriðason's novel \"Jar City\" from 2000, which was adapted into a 2006 film of the same name.\n\ndeCODE and Kári Stefánsson are satirised as VikingDNA and Professor Lárus Jóhannsson in \"Dauðans óvissi tími\" by Þráinn Bertelsson (Reykjavík: JPV Útgáfu, 2004).\n", "SNP density can be predicted by the presence of microsatellites: AT microsatellites in particular are potent predictors of SNP density, with long (AT)(n) repeat tracts tending to be found in regions of significantly reduced SNP density and low GC content.\n\nSection::::Frequency.:Within a population.\n", "CEL I was shown to cut DNA with high specificity on both strands at the 3′ side of base-substitution mismatches, and can therefore be used in enzyme mutation detection methods to identify mutations and polymorphisms. Olekowski and colleagues demonstrated this technique by using this enzyme to detect a variety of mutations and polymorphisms in the human BRCA1 gene.\n", "deCODE's approach to identifying genes, and in particular its proposal to set up an Icelandic Health Sector Database (HSD) containing the medical records of all Icelanders, was controversial, and prompted national and international criticism for its approach to the concepts of privacy and consent. \n\nThe company was removed from the NASDAQ Biotechnology Index in November 2008.\n", "Some of a patient's single nucleotide polymorphismsslight differences in their DNAcan help predict how quickly they will metabolise particular drugs; this is called pharmacogenomics. For example, the enzyme CYP2C19 metabolises several drugs, such as the anti-clotting agent Clopidogrel, into their active forms. Some patients possess polymorphisms in specific places on the 2C19 gene that make poor metabolisers of those drugs; physicians can test for these polymorphisms and find out whether the drugs will be fully effective for that patient. Advances in molecular biology have helped show that some syndromes that were previously classed as a single disease are actually multiple subtypes with entirely different causes and treatments. Molecular diagnostics can help diagnose the subtypefor example of infections and cancersor the genetic analysis of a disease with an inherited component, such as Silver-Russell syndrome.\n", "Pseudocholinesterase (also called butyrylcholinesterase or \"BCHE\") hydrolyzes a number of choline-based compounds including cocaine, heroin, procaine, and succinylcholine, mivacurium, and other fast-acting muscle relaxants. Mutations in the BCHE gene lead to deficiency in the amount or function of the protein, which in turn results in a delay in the metabolism of these compounds, which prolongs their effects. Succinylcholine is commonly used as an anaesthetic in surgical procedures, and a person with BCHE mutations may suffer prolonged paraylasis. Between 1 in 3200 and 1 in 5000 people carry BCHE mutations; they are most prevalent in Persian Jews and Alaska Natives. As of 2013 there are 9 genetic tests available.\n", "For each new DNA clone a polymorphism is identified and tested in the mapping population for its recombination frequency compared to the mutant phenotype. When the DNA clone is at or close to the mutant allele, the recombination frequency should be close to zero. If the chromosome walk proceeds through the mutant allele, the new polymorphisms will start to show increase in recombination frequency compared to the mutant phenotype. Depending on the size of the mapping population, the mutant allele can be narrowed down to a small region (<30 Kb). Sequence comparison between wild type and mutant DNA in that region is then required to locate the DNA mutation that causes the phenotypic difference.\n", "In the 1950s, five men of various nationalities served in the same unit of the French Foreign Legion. After their time with the Legion was finished, four of those men returned to their respective countries and constructed their own criminal empires. The remaining one, Dr. Otto Ort-Meyer, ran a mental institution which he used as a cover for genetic experiments. In exchange for research funding, Ort-Meyer provided his former comrades with donor organs harvested from clone bodies, those organs significantly extending their longevity.\n", "PGH uses information regarding family history in conjunction with the use of linked polymorphic markers such as short tandem repeats (STRs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to locate genes responsible for disease. Both STRs and SNPs are variations in gene nucleotides, and it is estimated that there are tens of millions of each type of variation in human DNA. High frequency of STRs or SNPs in alleles of affected individuals in comparison to their unaffected direct relatives indicates the origin of a disease causing mutation. They thus \"mark\" alleles as having a mutation without having to specifically identify the mutation. Because the number of potential STRs and SNPs is so high, a family pedigree helps to narrow the scope of alleles to analyze. Further, understanding how the gene of interest gets expressed over time helps ultimately determine which haplotype is responsible for the alleles linked to the mutation. A haplotype map is thus created, not only exhibiting genes the offspring will contain, but also the parental origin of the genes. Once the alleles that correlate with a mutation are characterized, PGH of the embryos is possible and only embryos carrying the low risk haplotypes are selected for transfer. PGH is performed in vitro until this point, when the chosen embryos get placed in the uterus of a surrogate mother for further development.\n", "Molecular genetic testing is used for more than an initial diagnosis. It is used to confirm diagnostic testing, for carrier testing females, prenatal diagnosis, and preimplantation genetic diagnosis. There are three types of clinical molecular genetic testing. In approximately 85% of males, mis-sense and splice mutations of the NDP gene and partial or whole gene deletions are detected using sequence analysis. Deletion/duplication analysis can be used to detect the 15% of mutations that are submicroscopic deletions. This is also used when testing for carrier females. The last testing used is linkage analysis, which is used when the first two are unavailable. Linkage analysis is also recommended for those families who have more than one member affected by the disease.\n", "These Researchers used snp selecting web tools and again could have used FESD Version II to select their SNPs. They hypothesized that the polymorphisms in circadian genes may be associated with prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. The circadian negative feedback regulation genes- CRY1, CRY2, PER1, PER2 and PER3 were identified based on a comprehensive literature review and the potentially functional SNPs were selected through web tools. Finally, a total of twelve potentially functional SNPs in five genes were selected, including CRY1: rs1056560, rs3809236; CRY2: rs6798, rs2292910; PER1: rs2585405, rs3027178; PER2: rs934945, rs2304669; PER3: rs2640908, rs172933, rs2859390, rs228669. When the dominant genetic model was tested, their data showed that only SNP rs2640908 in PER3 gene was significantly associated with overall survival of hepatocellular carcinoma patients. Patients carrying at least one variant allele of rs2640908 had a significantly decreased risk of death when compared with those carrying homozygous wild-type alleles.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Lack of motion detection. Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects the movement of an object into the field of view and remaining still for a user definable time. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or used to trigger changes in other internal features.\n", "BULLET::::- High definition 2.0 megapixel video\n\nBULLET::::- High definition 7.6 megapixel still photos (interpolated)\n\nBULLET::::- Built-in microphone\n\nBULLET::::- Wide-angle Lens\n\nBULLET::::- 3X digital Zoom\n\nBULLET::::- Pan, tilt and zoom\n\nBULLET::::- Made specifically for notebook PCs\n\nThere is a known problem for this particular unit. Several laptops have their wireless antenna placed along the top of the laptop display. Clipping the microphone to a laptop display like this may cause interference with the microphone, resulting in a great deal of static.\n\nSection::::VX Models.\n\nSection::::VX Models.:VX-1000.\n\nBULLET::::- 640 x 480 pixel video and still photo\n\nBULLET::::- Universal attachment base\n\nBULLET::::- Built-in microphone\n", "Some camera monitors also offer a recording function. These recorders typically encode footage in a higher quality (using CODECs such as Apple ProRes or Avid Technology's DNxHR codec) and to larger storage mediums than many consumer cameras provide internally. Additionally, many cameras output higher quality video (with less or no chroma subsampling and potentially a higher color depth) through their external connections than they can record internally. For example, some cameras output 10-bit color with 4:2:2 chroma subsampling through their HDMI connections, while only recording 8-bit color with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling internally.\n", "On most digital cameras a display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Still vs movie cameras.\n\nA \"still camera\" is an optical device that creates a single image of an object or scene and records it on an electronic sensor or photographic film.\n", "BULLET::::- Closed-circuit television (CCTV) generally uses pan tilt zoom cameras (PTZ), for security, surveillance, and/or monitoring purposes. Such cameras are designed to be small, easily hidden, and able to operate unattended; those used in industrial or scientific settings are often meant for use in environments that are normally inaccessible or uncomfortable for humans, and are therefore hardened for such hostile environments (e.g. radiation, high heat, or toxic chemical exposure).\n\nBULLET::::- Webcams are video cameras which stream a live video feed to a computer.\n\nBULLET::::- Many smartphones have built-in video cameras.\n", "BULLET::::- A better solution (not provided by Canon) is to connect the camera to the TV or a computer. This may completely solve the problem. If not, it may at least allow an extra 10-15 shots. There are several forums on the net that mention that connecting the camera to the TV completely resolved the E18 error.\n", "A common alternative is the use of a card reader which may be capable of reading several types of storage media, as well as high speed transfer of data to the computer. Use of a card reader also avoids draining the camera battery during the download process. An external card reader allows convenient direct access to the images on a collection of storage media. But if only one storage card is in use, moving it back and forth between the camera and the reader can be inconvenient. Many computers have a card reader built in, at least for SD cards.\n", "The input must be held steady in a period around the rising edge of the clock known as the aperture. Imagine taking a picture of a frog on a lily-pad. Suppose the frog then jumps into the water. If you take a picture of the frog as it jumps into the water, you will get a blurry picture of the frog jumping into the water—it's not clear which state the frog was in. But if you take a picture while the frog sits steadily on the pad (or is steadily in the water), you will get a clear picture. In the same way, the input to a flip-flop must be held steady during the aperture of the flip-flop.\n", "Section::::Headroom in television.\n\nIn television broadcast camera work, the amount of headroom seen by the production crew is slightly greater than the amount seen by home viewers, whose frames are reduced in area by about 5%. To adjust for this, broadcast camera headroom is slightly expanded so that home viewers will see the correct amount of headroom. Professional video camera viewfinders and professional video monitors often include an overscan setting to compare between full screen resolution and \"domestic cut-off\" as an aid to achieving good headroom and lead room.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Highlight headroom\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Cameras such as Apple's older external iSight cameras include lens covers to thwart this. Some webcams have built-in hardwired LED indicators that light up whenever the camera is active, sometimes only in video mode. However, it is possible for malware to circumvent the indicator and activate the camera surrepticiously, as researchers demonstrated in the case of a MacBook's built-in camera in 2013.\n", "Early TV cameras, such as the video camera tube, did not have a shutter. Not using shutter in raster systems may alter the shape of the moving objects on the screen. On the other hand, the video from such a camera looks shockingly \"live\" when displayed on a CRT display in its native format.\n\nSection::::Transmission.\n", "Image persistence can occur as easily as having something remain unchanged on the screen in the same location for a duration of even 10 minutes, such as a web page or document. Minor cases of image persistence are generally only visible when looking at darker areas on the screen, and usually invisible to the eye during ordinary computer use.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Saving uncompressed digital recordings takes up an enormous amount of hard drive space, and a few hours of uncompressed video could quickly fill up a hard drive. Holiday uncompressed recordings may look fine but one could not run uncompressed quality recordings on a continuous basis. Motion detection is therefore sometimes used as a work around solution to record in uncompressed quality.\n", "Camera monitor\n\nA camera monitor (or external monitor) is a monitor that attaches externally to a digital camera to aid with photography and cinematography . Camera monitors typically have larger displays than the built-in monitors on consumer cameras, and are also usually brighter and able to reproduce color better. Consumer friendly units use HDMI for connecting to the camera, while higher end camera monitors may also offer SDI connections.\n", "Photographs of a TV screen taken with a digital camera often exhibit moiré patterns. Since both the TV screen and the digital camera use a scanning technique to produce or to capture pictures with horizontal scan lines, the conflicting sets of lines cause the moiré patterns. To avoid the effect, the digital camera can be aimed at an angle of 30 degrees to the TV screen.\n\nSection::::Implications and applications.:Marine navigation.\n", "Because of this, cameras are sometimes forbidden in movie theaters.\n\nSection::::File formats of warez.\n", "The electronic screens of some bridge cameras do not work as well as the OVF of DSLRs in situations of low light (although some work better, allowing high gain and slow refresh). For bridge cameras with EVFs, the LCD screen might be difficult to see and use for framing in bright daylight. Also, especially with older or lower-end cameras, the screen resolution and refresh rate may be limiting compared to the very high resolution and real time view provided by an optical path in the OVF of DSLRs. Low resolution impedes some forms of manual focusing, but most modern bridge cameras implement a method called focus zoom which automatically magnifies a central frame within the screen (manual focus point) to allow easier manual focusing. A slow refresh rate means that the image seen on the screen will have a fraction of a second lag or delay from the real scene being photographed. The electronic screens used in modern bridge cameras are gradually improving in their size, resolution, visibility, magnification and refresh rate.\n", "The aggregate of fine details available on-screen. The higher the definition of an image, the greater the number of details [that can be discerned by the human eye or displayed]. During video recording and subsequent playback, several factors can conspire to cause a loss of definition. Among these are the limited frequency response of magnetic tapes and signal losses associated with electronic circuitry employed in the recording process. These losses occur because fine details appear in the highest frequency region of a video signal and this portion is usually the first casualty of signal degradation. Each additional generation of a videotape results in fewer and fewer fine details as losses are accumulated.\n", "Video cameras are either analogue or digital, which means that they work on the basis of sending analogue or digital signals to a storage device such as a video tape recorder or desktop computer or laptop computer.\n\nSection::::Video cameras.:Analogue.\n", "For LCD monitors the pixel brightness changes are much slower than CRT or plasma phosphors. Typically LCD pixel brightness changes are faster when voltage is applied than when voltage is removed, resulting in an asymmetric pixel response time. With 3D shutter glasses this can result in a blurry smearing of the display and poor depth perception, due to the previous image frame not fading to black fast enough as the next frame is drawn.\n\nSection::::Televisions.\n", "BULLET::::- the image in the EVF and LCD screen is bright and the light is amplified. An optical viewfinder instead does not amplify the light, so that it becomes difficult to frame and manually focus when there is not sufficient light.\n\nBULLET::::- technically no dust problems, since the DSC-R1 has a fixed lens, though dust can enter the lens itself while zooming\n\nBULLET::::- silent operation, as there is no swinging mirror or physical shutter system\n", "BULLET::::- Recording is to a professional medium like some variant of Betacam or DVCPRO or Direct to disk recording or flash memory. If as in the latter two, it's a data recording, much higher data rates (or less video compression) are used than in consumer devices.\n\nSection::::Usage types.:EFP cameras.\n", "In addition to providing a larger display, many camera monitors provide additional tools to assist camera operators. Such tools include framing guides, focus peaking, zebra stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an \"RGB parade\"), vectorscopes and false color to highlight areas of the image critical to the operator. Most typically provide the ability to apply a LUT to the video in real-time allowing filmmakers to view their footage with their color grading already applied.\n\nSection::::Recorders.\n", "Section::::Function.:Image sharpening.\n\nAs the color and brightness values for each pixel are interpolated some image softening is applied to even out any fuzziness that has occurred. To preserve the impression of depth, clarity and fine details, the image processor must sharpen edges and contours. It therefore must detect edges correctly and reproduce them smoothly and without over-sharpening.\n\nSection::::Models.\n", "Section::::LCDs and EVFs as principal viewfinders.:Electronic viewfinder (EVF) vs DSLR optical viewfinder (OVF) comparison.:Live-preview EVF disadvantages.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Pungency\n\nPungency is the condition of having a strong, sharp smell or flavor that is often so strong that it is unpleasant. \"Pungency\" is the technical term used by scientists to refer to the characteristic of food commonly referred to as spiciness or hotness and sometimes heat, which is found in foods such as chili peppers.\n\nThe term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a lower degree of pungency that are \"agreeably stimulating to the palate.\" Examples of piquant food include mustard and curry.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "[eosinophil]]s in response to capsaicin, can trigger further sensory sensitization to the molecule. Patients with chronic cough also have an enhanced cough reflex to pathogens even if the pathogen has been expelled. In both cases, the release of eosinophils and other immune molecules cause a hypersensitization of sensory neurons in bronchial airways that produce enhanced symptoms. It has also been reported that increased immune cell secretions of neurotrophins in response to pollutants and irritants can restructure the peripheral network of nerves in the airways to allow for a more primed state for sensory neurons.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "BULLET::::- Gustatory rhinitis - spicy and pungent food may in some people produce rhinorrhea, nasal stuffiness, lacrimation, sweating and flushing of face. It can be relieved by ipratropium bromide nasal spray (an anticholinergic), a few minutes before meal.\n\nBULLET::::- Non-air flow rhinitis - it is seen in patients of laryngectomy, tracheostomy and choanal atresia. Nose is not used for air flow and the turbinates become swollen due to loss of vasomotor control. In choanal atresia there is an additional factor of infection due to stagnation of discharge in the nasal cavity which should otherwise drain freely into nasopharynx.\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n", "Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "The fruit of most species of \"Capsicum\" contains capsaicin (methyl-n-vanillyl nonenamide), a lipophilic chemical that can produce a strong burning sensation (pungency or spiciness) in the mouth of the unaccustomed eater. Most mammals find this unpleasant, whereas birds are unaffected. The secretion of capsaicin protects the fruit from consumption by insects and mammals, while the bright colors attract birds that will disperse the seeds.\n", "In people with nasal polyps due to aspirin or NSAID sensitivity, the underlying mechanism is due to disorders in the metabolism of arachidonic acid. Exposure to cycloxygenase inhibitors such as aspirin and NSAIDs leads to shunting of products through the lipoxygenase pathway leading to an increased production of products that cause inflammation. In the airway, these inflammatory products lead to symptoms of asthma such as wheezing as well as nasal polyp formation.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Physiology and ecology.\n", "Another way to isolate the sense of retronasal smell is to use the “nose pinch test.” When eating while pinching the nostrils closed, the flavor of food appears to dissipate, namely because the pathway for air exiting the nose that creates the flavor image is blocked.\n\nSection::::Speculative evolutionary significance.\n", "The pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Rhinitis is pronounced , while coryza is pronounced .\n\n\"Rhinitis\" comes from the Ancient Greek ῥίς \"rhis\", \"gen\".: ῥινός \"rhinos\" \"nose\". \"Coryza\" has a dubious etymology. Robert Beekes rejected an Indo-European derivation and suggested a Pre-Greek reconstruction . According to physician Andrew Wylie, \"we use the term [\"coryza\"] for a cold in the head, but the two are really synonymous. The ancient Romans advised their patients to clean their nostrils and thereby sharpen their wits.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Infectious coryza in chickens\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Sinus Infection And Allergic Rhinitis\n", "BULLET::::- Rhinitis of pregnancy - pregnant women may develop persistent rhinitis due to hormonal changes. Nasal mucous become edematous and block the airway. Some may develop secondary infection and even sinusitis in such cases. Care should be taken while prescribing drugs. Generally, local measures such as limited use of nasal drops, topical steroids and limited surgery (cryosurgery) to turbinates are sufficient to relate the symptoms. Safety of developing fetus is not established for newer antihistamines and they should be avoided.\n\nBULLET::::- Honeymoon rhinitis - this usually follows sexual excitement, leading to nasal stuffiness.\n", "A systematic review on non-allergic rhinitis reports improvement of overall function after treatment with capsaicin (the active component of chili peppers). The quality of evidence is low, however.\n\nSection::::Types.:Allergic.\n\nAllergic rhinitis or hay fever may follow when an allergen such as pollen, dust, or Balsam of Peru is inhaled by an individual with a sensitized immune system, triggering antibody production. These antibodies mostly bind to mast cells, which contain histamine. When the mast cells are stimulated by an allergen, histamine (and other chemicals) are released. This causes itching, swelling, and mucus production.\n", "Yellow ají is one of the ingredients of Peruvian cuisine and Bolivian cuisine. It is used as a condiment, especially in many dishes and sauces. In Peru the chilis are mostly used fresh, and in Bolivia dried and ground. Common dishes with ají \"amarillo\" are the Peruvian stew \"Ají de gallina\" (\"Hen Chili\"), \"Papa a la Huancaína\" and the Bolivian \"Fricase Paceno\", among others. In Ecuadorian cuisine, Ají amarillo, onion, and lemon juice (amongst others) are served in a separate bowl with many meals as an optional additive.\n", "Section::::Human disease.\n", "Sores or ulcerations can become infected by virus, bacteria or fungus. Pain and loss of taste perception makes it more difficult to eat, which leads to weight loss. Ulcers may act as a site for local infection and a portal of entry for oral flora that, in some instances, may cause septicaemia (especially in immunosuppressed patients). Therefore, oral mucositis can be a dose-limiting condition, disrupting a patient’s optimal cancer treatment plan and consequentially decreasing their chances of survival.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Transmission.\n\nEating raw or semi-cooked infected liver or lymph nodes infected with nymphal \"L. serrata\" causes severe symptoms in the human nasopharynx. Submaxillary and cervical lymph nodes sometimes enlarge and the neck is swollen. Complications include abscesses in the auditory canals, facial paralysis, and enlarged tonsils producing asphyxiation. These symptoms are well recognized as a disease call “halzoun syndrome” in Lebanon and nearby countries.\n", "Halitosis (bad breath) is often stated to be a symptom of chronic rhinosinusitis; however, gold standard breath analysis techniques have not been applied. Theoretically, there are several possible mechanisms of both objective and subjective halitosis that may be involved.\n", "Section::::Raw chilli taste.\n\nWhen eating a whole white chili and chewing for at least 10 seconds before swallowing (not recommended for untrained tasters) the heat may be first felt aggressively in the back of the throat, up the nose, then eventually moves to the roof of the mouth and finally the tongue where the pain is intense, at which point there can be gustatory sweating and tears from the eyes. Some tasters note the strong, fruity Fatalii flavour, which is quite distinct, as being almost identical to the yellow version. Others find it milder.\n", "BULLET::::- Herbal inhibitors – Many herbal substances have been observed since antiquity for reducing flatulence, particularly gas from eating legumes. Cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and garlic are potent in reducing gas. The potency of garlic increases when heated, whereas the potency of cinnamon decreases. Other spices have a lesser effect in reducing gas, including turmeric, black pepper, asafoetida and ginger. Other common Indian spices, cumin, aniseed, ajowan, and cardamom do \"not\" inhibit gas production, in fact they exacerbate it significantly.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of action.:Relieving gas.\n", "BULLET::::- Acute: Any sinus infection which lasts for a maximum of three weeks can be referred to as acute sinusitis; with the affected individual displaying symptoms such as congestion, post nasal drip, halitosis, a runny nose as well as sinus pressure and pain in the affected areas.\n", "NALT in mice has strategic position for incoming pathogens and it's the first site of recognition and elimination of inhaled pathogens. It has a key role in inducing mucosal and systemic immune response. NALT is inductive site of MALT similarly to Peyer's patches in a small intestine.\n", "\"Colletotrichum capsici\" has a broad host range, but prefers peppers, yams and eggplants. On chili peppers, \"Capsicum annuum\" L., \"C. capsici\" infect the stem, fruit, and leaves of the plant, causing anthracnose, die-back and ripe fruit rot. \"C. capsici\" infection tends to infect ripe red fruit, and lead to the development of brown necrotic lesions containing concentric acervuli that will eventually appear black from the setae and sclerotia (Srinivasan, Vijayalakshmi Kothandaraman, Vaikuntavasan, & Rethinasamy, 2014). Additionally, the fruit content of capsaicin and oleoresin is reduced, which results in a decrease of its medicinal potency (Madhavan, Paranidharan, & Velazhahan, 2016).\n", "BULLET::::- Gulai Sumsum, gulai of cow bone marrow\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Gajeboh, cow fat gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Itiak, duck gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Talua, boiled eggs gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Kepala Ikan Kakap Merah, red snapper's head gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Jariang, jengkol stinky bean gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Dendeng Batokok, thin crispy beef\n\nBULLET::::- Dendeng Balado, thin crispy beef with chili\n\nBULLET::::- Paru goreng, fried cow lung\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam bakar, grilled spicy chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam balado, chicken in chili\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam goreng, fried chicken with spicy granules\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam Lado Ijo, chicken in green chili\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Plants are referred to as annuals which live only one year, biennials which live two years, and perennials which live longer than that. The longest-lived perennials, woody-stemmed plants such as trees and bushes, often live for hundreds and even thousands of years (one may question whether or not they may die of old age). A giant sequoia, General Sherman is alive and well in its third millennium. A Great Basin Bristlecone Pine called Methuselah is 4,848 years old (as of 2017) and the Bristlecone Pine called Prometheus was a little older still, at least 4,844 years (and possibly as old as 5,000 years), when it was cut down in 1964. The oldest known plant (possibly oldest living thing) is a clonal Quaking Aspen (\"Populus tremuloides\") tree colony in the Fishlake National Forest in Utah called Pando at about 80,000 years. Lichen, a symbiotic algae and fungal proto-plant, such as \"Rhizocarpon geographicum\" can live upwards of 10,000 years.\n", "The rate of ageing varies substantially across different species, and this, to a large extent, is genetically based. For example, numerous perennial plants ranging from strawberries and potatoes to willow trees typically produce clones of themselves by vegetative reproduction and are thus potentially immortal, while annual plants such as wheat and watermelons die each year and reproduce by sexual reproduction. In 2008 it was discovered that inactivation of only two genes in the annual plant \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" leads to its conversion into a potentially immortal perennial plant. The oldest animals known so far are 15,000-year-old Antarctic sponges, which can reproduce both sexually and clonally.\n", "The century plant in the genus \"Agave\", some terrestrial bromeliads of the genus \"Puya\", \"Tillandsia utriculata\", some yuccas, and many bamboos can take 8 to 20 years or in the case of some bamboos even over 100 years to bloom and then die. Hawaiian silverswords and their relatives in the genus \"Wilkesia\" may take 10–50 years before flowering.\n", "BULLET::::- King Clone is a creosote bush (\"Larrea tridentata\") in the Mojave Desert estimated at 11,700 years old. Another creosote bush has been said to be 12,150 years old, but this is as yet unconfirmed.\n\nBULLET::::- A Huon pine colony on Mount Read, Tasmania, is estimated at 10,000 years old, with individual specimens living over 3,000 years.\n", "Some Actinobacteria found in Siberia are estimated to be half a million years old.\n\nSection::::List of longest-living organisms.:Clonal plant and fungal colonies.\n\nAs with all long-lived plant and fungal species, no individual part of a clonal colony is alive (in the sense of active metabolism) for more than a very small fraction of the life of the entire colony. Some clonal colonies may be fully connected via their root systems, while most are not actually interconnected, but are genetically identical clones which populated an area through vegetative reproduction. Ages for clonal colonies, often based on current growth rates, are estimates.\n", "Above the species level, plant lineages clearly vary in their tendency for annuality or perenniality (e.g., wheat vs. oaks). On a microevolutionary timescale, a single plant species may show different annual or perennial ecotypes (e.g., adapted to dry or tropical range), as in the case of the wild progenitor of rice (\"Oryza rufipogon\"). Indeed, ability to perennate (live more than one year) may vary within a single population of a species.\n\nSection::::Underlying mechanisms: Trade-offs.\n", "Ramets are vegetative, clonal extensions of a central genet. Common examples are rhizomes (modified stem), tillers, and stolons. A plant is perennial if the birth rate of ramets exceeds their death rate. Several of the oldest known plants are clonal. Some genets have been reported to be many thousands of years old, and a steady rate of branching likely aids in avoiding senescence. The oldest reported minimum age of a single genet is 43,600 years, for \"Lomatia tasmanica\" W.M.Curtis. It is hypothesized that some perennial plants even display negative senescence, in which their fecundity and survival increase with age.\n", "BULLET::::- Yareta is a tiny flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to South America, occurring in the Puna grasslands of the Andes in Peru, Bolivia, the north of Chile, and the west of Argentina between 3,200 and 4,500 m altitude. Some yaretas could be up to 3,000 years old.\n\nBULLET::::- The Panke Baobab in Zimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldest angiosperm ever documented, and two other trees — Dorslandboom in Namibia and Glencoe in South Africa — were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old.\n", "BULLET::::- The Cypress of Abarkuh is estimated to be between 4,000 and 5,000 years old.\n\nBULLET::::- Llangernyw Yew is believed to be aged between 4,000 years and 5,000 years old, this ancient yew (\"Taxus baccata\") is in the churchyard of the village of Llangernyw in North Wales.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fitzroya cupressoides\" is the species with the second-oldest verified age, a specimen in Chile being measured by ring count as years old.\n\nBULLET::::- The President, located in Sequoia National Park, California, is the oldest known living giant sequoia at approximately 3,200 years of age.\n", "Many of the genes involved in this process are conserved across all the plants studied. Sometimes though, despite genetic conservation, the mechanism of action turns out to be different. For example, rice is a short-day plant, while \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" is a long-day plant. Both plants have the proteins \"CO\" and \"FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT)\", but, in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", \"CO\" enhances \"FT\" production, while in rice, the \"CO\" homolog represses \"FT\" production, resulting in completely opposite downstream effects.\n\nSection::::Evolution of plant morphology.:Factors influencing floral diversity.:Theories of flower evolution.\n", "BULLET::::- Fortingall Yew, an ancient yew (\"Taxus baccata\") in the churchyard of the village of Fortingall in Perthshire, Scotland, is one of the oldest known individual trees in Europe. Various estimates have put its age between 2,000 and 5,000 years, although now believed to be at the lower end of this range.\n\nBULLET::::- Numerous olive trees are purported to be 2,000 years old or older. An olive tree in Ano Vouves, Crete, claiming such longevity, has been confirmed on the basis of tree ring analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- A sacred fig (\"Ficus religiosa\"), the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, is years old (planted in 288 BC). It is the oldest known living to date human-planted tree in the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Great sugi of Kayano, the cryptomeria deemed planted by humans in Kaga, Ishikawa, Japan, had an estimated age of 2,300 years in 1928.\n\nBULLET::::- Jōmon Sugi, the cryptomeria naturally grown in Yakushima Island, Kagoshima, Japan, is 2,170 to 7,200 years old.\n\nBULLET::::- A specimen of \"Lagarostrobos franklinii\" in Tasmania is thought to be about 2,000 years old.\n", "Plant senescence\n\nPlant senescence is the process of aging in plants. Plants have both stress-induced and age-related developmental aging. Chlorophyll degradation during leaf senescence reveals the carotenoids, and is the cause of autumn leaf color in deciduous trees. Leaf senescence has the important function of recycling nutrients, mostly nitrogen, to growing and storage organs of the plant. Unlike animals, plants continually form new organs and older organs undergo a highly regulated senescence program to maximize nutrient export.\n\nSection::::Hormonal regulation of senescence.\n", "The olive tree also can live for centuries. The oldest verified age is 900 years at Gethsemane (Mount of Olives, as mentioned in the Bible), while several other olive trees are suspected of being 2,000 to 3,000 years old.\n\nThe pond cypress, \"Taxodium ascendens\", has been known to live more than 1,000 years. One specimen in particular, named \"The Senator\", was estimated to be more than 3,400 years old at the time of its demise in early 2012.\n\nSection::::Deepest and longest tree roots.\n", "BULLET::::- Stems and leaves: Leaves usually wavey, dissected, with lateral lobes that are about as long as width of central undivided portion, usually conspicuously covered with fine hairs. The edges are serrated. Leaves alternate one leaf per node along the stem.\n\nBULLET::::- Seeds: The oldest collection of seeds recorded was 16 years; average germination change for these was from 100% to 82.5%, with a mean storage period 13 years.\n", "Section::::Retirement.\n", "Plant habit can also refer to whether the plant possesses any specialised systems for the storage of carbohydrates or water, allowing the plant to renew its growth after an unfavourable period. Where the amount of water stored is relatively high, the plant is referred to as a succulent. Such specialised plant parts may arise from the stems or roots. Examples include plants growing in unfavourable climates, very dry climates where storage is intermittent depending on climatic conditions, and those adapted to surviving fires and regrowing from the soil afterwards.\n\nSome types of plant habit include:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eupatorium lasioneuron\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium leptodictyon\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium mairetianum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium malacolepis\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium monanthum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium morifolium\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium muelleri\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium nelsonii\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium odoratum\": herb – \"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium oerstedianum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium oresbium\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium ovaliflorum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium pauperculum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium pazcuarense\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium pichinchense\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium polybotryum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium quadrangulare\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium ramireziorum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium rhomboideum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium scabrellum\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium sinaloense\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium sonorae\": shrub\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eupatorium vitifolium\": shrub\n", "BULLET::::- A seed from the previously extinct Judean date palm was revived and managed to sprout after nearly 2,000 years. Named 'Methuselah', it is currently growing at Kibbutz Keturah, Israel.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silene stenophylla\" was grown from fruit found in an ancient squirrel's cache. The germinated plants bore viable seeds. The fruit was dated to be 31,800 years old ± 300 years.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus (\"Nelumbo nucifera\"), dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully germinated.\n", "One major difference is the totipotent nature of plant cells, allowing them to reproduce asexually much more easily than most animals. They are also capable of polyploidy – where more than two chromosome sets are inherited from the parents. This allows relatively fast bursts of evolution to occur, for example by the effect of gene duplication. The long periods of dormancy that seed plants can employ also makes them less vulnerable to extinction, as they can \"sit out\" the tough periods and wait until more clement times to leap back to life.\n", "The age of some herbaceous perennial plants can be determined by herbchronology, the analysis of annual growth rings in the secondary root xylem.\n", "Section::::Hormonal regulation of senescence.:Annual versus perennial benefits.\n\nSome plants have evolved into annuals which die off at the end of each season and leave seeds for the next, whereas closely related plants in the same family have evolved to live as perennials. This may be a programmed \"strategy\" for the plants.\n", "Programmed senescence seems to be heavily influenced by plant hormones. The hormones abscisic acid, ethylene, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid are accepted by most scientists as promoters of senescence, but at least one source lists gibberellins, brassinosteroids and strigolactone as also being involved. Cytokinins help to maintain the plant cell and expression of cytokinin biosynthesis genes late in development prevents leaf senescence. A withdrawal of or inability of the cell to perceive cytokinin may cause it to undergo apoptosis or senescence. In addition, mutants that cannot perceive ethylene show delayed senescence. Genome-wide comparison of mRNAs expressed during dark-induced senescence versus those expressed during age-related developmental senescence demonstrate that jasmonic acid and ethylene are more important for dark-induced (stress-related) senescence while salicylic acid is more important for developmental senescence.\n", "Seed germination performance is a major determinant of crop yield. Deterioration of seed quality with age is associated with accumulation of DNA damage. In dry, aging rye seeds, DNA damages occur with loss of viability of embryos. Dry seeds of \"Vicia faba\" accumulate DNA damage with time in storage, and undergo DNA repair upon germination. In \"Arabidopsis\", a DNA ligase is employed in repair of DNA single- and double-strand breaks during seed germination and this ligase is an important determinant of seed longevity. In eukaryotes, the cellular repair response to DNA damage is orchestrated, in part, by the DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM. ATM has a major role in controlling germination of aged seeds by integrating progression through germination with the repair response to DNA damages accumulated during the dry quiescent state.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Taxus\" (yew)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tecoma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tecomanthe\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tecomaria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tecophilaea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Telekia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Telephium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tellima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Telopea\" (waratah)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Templetonia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Terminalia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ternstroemia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetracentron\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetradium\" (bee tree)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetranema\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetraneuris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetrapanax\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetrastigma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetratheca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Teucrium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thalia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thalictrum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thelesperma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thelocactus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thelypteris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thermopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thespesia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thevetia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thlaspi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thrinax\" (thatch palm)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thryptomene\" (heath myrtle)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thuja\" (thuja, arborvitae)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thujopsis\" (hiba)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thunbergia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thymophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thymus\" (thyme)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tiarella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tibouchina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tigridia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tilia\" (linden)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tillandsia\" (air plant, Spanish moss)\n" ]

[ "Lifespans for plants is important in the same way lifespan is important for animals. " ]

[ "Lifespans for plants is not important in the same way lifespans are important to animals. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Lifespans for plants is important in the same way lifespan is important for animals. ", "Lifespans for plants is important in the same way lifespan is important for animals. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Lifespans for plants is not important in the same way lifespans are important to animals. ", "Lifespans for plants is not important in the same way lifespans are important to animals. " ]

[ "In stock index arbitrage a trader buys (or sells) a stock index futures contract such as the S&P 500 futures and sells (or buys) a portfolio of up to 500 stocks (can be a much smaller representative subset) at the NYSE matched against the futures trade. The program trade at the NYSE would be pre-programmed into a computer to enter the order automatically into the NYSE’s electronic order routing system at a time when the futures price and the stock index were far enough apart to make a profit.\n", "BULLET::::- The direction of the line changes when the price reaches a preset reversal amount, which is usually set at 4%. When a direction change occurs, a short horizontal line is drawn between the lines of opposite direction.\n\nAlternatively, thin and thick lines can be replaced with lines of different colours.\n\nChanges in line thickness are used to generate transaction signals. Buy signals are generated when the Kagi line goes from thin to thick and sell signals are generated when the line turns from thick to thin.\n\nThe basic algorithm used is:\n", "The movements of the prices in a market or section of a market are captured in price indices called stock market indices, of which there are many, e.g., the S&P, the FTSE and the Euronext indices. Such indices are usually market capitalization weighted, with the weights reflecting the contribution of the stock to the index. The constituents of the index are reviewed frequently to include/exclude stocks in order to reflect the changing business environment.\n\nSection::::Derivative instruments.\n", "This increased market liquidity led to institutional traders splitting up orders according to computer algorithms so they could execute orders at a better average price. These average price benchmarks are measured and calculated by computers by applying the time-weighted average price or more usually by the volume-weighted average price.\n", "In some circumstances, such as equities in the United States, an average price for the aggregate market order can be applied to all of the shares allocated to the individual accounts which participated in the aggregate market order. In other circumstances, such as Futures or Brazilian markets, each account must be allocated specific prices at which the market order is executed. Identifying the price that an account received from the aggregate market order is a regulated and scrutinized post-trade process of trade allocation.\n", "Circuit breakers are also in effect on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) and all subsidiary exchanges where the same thresholds that the NYSE has are applied to equity index futures trading. However, there is a CME specific price limit that prevents 5% increases and decreases in price during after hours trading. Base prices for which the percentage thresholds are applied are derived from the weighted average price on the future during the preceding trading day's last thirty seconds of trading. Price limits for equity index and foreign exchange futures are posted on the CME website at the close of each trading session.\n", "The behaviour of stock prices have shown properties of universality. By taking historical share price data of a company, calculating the daily returns and then plotting this in a histogram would produce a Gaussian distribution. Stock prices will fluctuate with small variations constantly and larger changes much more rarely; a stock exchange could be interpreted as the force responsible to bring the share price to equilibrium by adjusting the price to the supply and demand quota.\n", "The Chaikin Oscillator was developed in the 1970s. The indicator is based upon the momentum of the Accumulation/Distribution (AD). AD calculates the position of a stock's daily closing price as a fraction of the daily price range of the stock—a fraction that is multiplied by the daily volume in order to quantify the net accumulation or distribution of a stock. AD is expressed mathematically as:\n\nformula_1\n\nor\n\nformula_2\n", "Investors trading shares of a listed company know there are certain events that cause the share price to rise or fall — sudden changes in energy prices, a labor strike at a supplier, a poor month for the sales, for example. Trading the news is the technique of making a profit by trading financial instruments (stock, currency, etc.) just in time, and in accordance to the occurrence of those events.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Automatic.\n", "Financial markets with fully electronic execution and similar electronic communication networks developed in the late 1980s and 1990s. In the U.S., decimalization, which changed the minimum tick size from 1/16 of a dollar (US$0.0625) to US$0.01 per share in 2001, may have encouraged algorithmic trading as it changed the market microstructure by permitting smaller differences between the bid and offer prices, decreasing the market-makers' trading advantage, thus increasing market liquidity.\n", "For example, if a company has 4 million shares outstanding and the closing price per share is $20, its market capitalization is then $80 million. If the closing price per share rises to $21, the market cap becomes $84 million. If it drops to $19 per share, the market cap falls to $76 million. This is in contrast to mercantile pricing where purchase price, average price and sale price may differ due to transaction costs.\n", "This can be simulated in the previous example by having a period where the fund distributes a large amount and the index dives :\n", "BULLET::::5. LPP (Last Purchase Price) method\n\nBULLET::::6. BNM (Bottle neck method)\n\nThe calculation can be done for different periods.\n\nIf the calculation is done on a monthly basis, then it is referred to the periodic method.\n\nIn this method, the available stock is calculated by:\n\nADD Stock at beginning of period\n\nADD Stock purchased during the period\n\nAVERAGE total cost by total qty to arrive at the Average Cost of Goods for the period.\n\nThis Average Cost Price is applied to all movements and adjustments in that period. \n", "where p are the prices of the component stocks and d is the \"Dow Divisor\".\n\nEvents such as stock splits or changes in the list of the companies composing the index alter the sum of the component prices. In these cases, in order to avoid discontinuity in the index, the Dow Divisor is updated so that the quotations right before and after the event coincide:\n\nThe Dow Divisor was 0.14744568353097 on April 2, 2019. Presently, every $1 change in price in a particular stock within the average equates to a 6.782 (or 1 ÷ 0.14744568353097) point movement.\n\nSection::::Assessment.\n\nSection::::Assessment.:Market performance.\n", "The above example is an aggregation of different sources of data, as quote data (bid, ask, bid size, ask size) and trade data (last sale, last size, volume) are often generated over different data feeds.\n\nSection::::Delivery of data.\n\nDelivery of price data from exchanges to users is highly time-sensitive. Specialized software and hardware systems called \"ticker plants\" are designed to handle collection and throughput of massive data streams, displaying prices for traders and feeding computerized trading systems fast enough to capture opportunities before markets change. When stored, historical market data is also called time-series data.\n", "Market making involves placing a limit order to sell (or offer) above the current market price or a buy limit order (or bid) below the current price on a regular and continuous basis to capture the bid-ask spread. Automated Trading Desk, which was bought by Citigroup in July 2007, has been an active market maker, accounting for about 6% of total volume on both NASDAQ and the New York Stock Exchange.\n\nSection::::High-frequency trading.:Statistical arbitrage.\n", "This trading or \"betting with positive edge\" method involves a [[Money management|risk management]] component that uses three elements: number of shares or [[Futures contracts|futures]] held, the current market price, and current market [[Volatility (finance)|volatility]]. An initial risk rule determines position size at time of entry. Exactly how much to buy or sell is based on the size of the trading account and the volatility of the issue. Changes in price may lead to a gradual reduction or an increase of the initial trade. On the other hand, adverse price movements may lead to an exit from the entire trade.\n", "Every trade and quote is stored in the system for both on-line and after hours processing. Each system maintains a master database by symbol. CTS maintains in its database, by symbol, a consolidated high, low, last price and volume; and for each market center that trades that symbol, the market’s last sale and volume information. This information is updated with each trade.\n", "\"The most common strategy which is implemented by following the trend in moving averages, channel breakouts, price level movements, and related technical indicators\".\n\nBULLET::::- Volume-weighted average price\n\n\"Volume weighted average price strategy breaks up a large order and releases dynamically determined smaller chunks of the order to the market using stock-specific historical volume profiles.\" \n\nBULLET::::- Mean reversion (finance)\n\nThis strategy is based on the idea that the values/prices of assets will revert to their mean prices/values.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The Mark-to-Market Margin (MTM margin) on the other hand is the margin collected to offset losses (if any) that have already been incurred on the positions held by a firm. This is computed as the difference between the cost of the position held and the current market value of that position. If the resulting amount is a loss, the amount is collected from the firm; else, the amount may be returned to the firm (the case with most clearing houses) or kept in reserve depending on local practice. In either case, the positions are 'marked-to-market' by setting their new cost to the market value used in computing this difference. The positions held by the clients of the exchange are marked-to-market daily and the MTM difference computation for the next day would use the new cost figure in its calculation.\n", "Individual trade data collected at a certain interval within a time series. There are two main variables to describe a single point of trade data: the time of the transaction, and a vector known as a 'mark', which characterizes the details of the transaction event.\n\nSection::::High frequency data forms.:Trade and quote data.\n", "The simple entry technique involves placing the entry order 1 tick above the H or 1 tick below the L and waiting for it to be executed as the next bar develops. If so, this is the entry bar, and the H or L was the signal bar, and the protective stop is placed 1 tick under an H or 1 tick above an L.\n\nSection::::Breakout.\n", "This analysis tool was used both, on the spot, mainly by market professionals for day trading and scalping, as well as by general public through the printed versions in newspapers showing the data of the negotiations of the previous day, for swing and position trades.\n\nSection::::Charting terms and indicators.\n\nSection::::Charting terms and indicators.:Concepts.\n\nBULLET::::- Average true rangeaveraged daily trading range, adjusted for price gaps.\n\nBULLET::::- Breakoutthe concept whereby prices forcefully penetrate an area of prior support or resistance, usually, but not always, accompanied by an increase in volume.\n", "When the current market price is less than the average price, the stock is considered attractive for purchase, with the expectation that the price will rise. When the current market price is above the average price, the market price is expected to fall. In other words, deviations from the average price are expected to revert to the average.\n\nThe standard deviation of the most recent prices (e.g., the last 20) is often used as a buy or sell indicator.\n", "Section::::Sales synchronization.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Cloud-based supplementary features.\n\n\"Incus\" is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A cumulonimbus incus cloud top is one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air currents hitting the stability layer at the tropopause where the air no longer continues to get colder with increasing altitude.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Species.:Ragged.\n\nThe species \"fractus\" shows \"variable\" instability because it can be a subdivision of genus-types of different physical forms that have different stability characteristics. This subtype can be in the form of ragged but mostly \"stable\" stratiform sheets (stratus fractus) or small ragged cumuliform heaps with somewhat greater instability (cumulus fractus). When clouds of this species are associated with precipitating cloud systems of considerable vertical and sometimes horizontal extent, they are also classified as \"accessory clouds\" under the name \"pannus\" (see section on supplementary features).\n", "High-level genus-types particularly show this duality with both short-wave albedo cooling and long-wave greenhouse warming effects. On the whole, \"ice-crystal\" clouds in the upper troposphere (cirrus) tend to favor net warming. However, the cooling effect is dominant with mid-level and low clouds, especially when they form in extensive sheets. Measurements by NASA indicate that on the whole, the effects of low and mid-level clouds that tend to promote cooling outweigh the warming effects of high layers and the variable outcomes associated with vertically developed clouds.\n", "All cloud varieties fall into one of two main groups. One group identifies the opacities of particular low and mid-level cloud structures and comprises the varieties \"translucidus\" (thin translucent), \"perlucidus\" (thick opaque with translucent or very small clear breaks), and \"opacus\" (thick opaque). These varieties are always identifiable for cloud genera and species with variable opacity. All three are associated with the stratiformis species of altocumulus and stratocumulus. However, only two varieties are seen with altostratus and stratus nebulosus whose uniform structures prevent the formation of a perlucidus variety. Opacity-based varieties are not applied to high clouds because they are always translucent, or in the case of cirrus spissatus, always opaque.\n", "Another variety, \"duplicatus\" (closely spaced layers of the same type, one above the other), is sometimes found with cirrus of both the fibratus and uncinus species, and with altocumulus and stratocumulus of the species stratiformis and lenticularis. The variety \"undulatus\" (having a wavy undulating base) can occur with any clouds of the species stratiformis or lenticularis, and with altostratus. It is only rarely observed with stratus nebulosus. The variety \"lacunosus\" is caused by localized downdrafts that create circular holes in the form of a honeycomb or net. It is occasionally seen with cirrocumulus and altocumulus of the species stratiformis, castellanus, and floccus, and with stratocumulus of the species stratiformis and castellanus.\n", "The largest free-convective clouds comprise the genus cumulonimbus, which have towering vertical extent. They occur in highly unstable air and often have fuzzy outlines at the upper parts of the clouds that sometimes include anvil tops. These clouds are the product of very strong convection that can penetrate the lower stratosphere.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Levels and genera.\n", "Low level clouds have no height-related prefixes, so stratiform and stratocumuliform clouds based around 2 kilometres or lower are known simply as stratus and stratocumulus. Small cumulus clouds with little vertical development (species humilis) are also commonly classified as low level.\n", "Air below the cloud base can be quite turbulent due to the thermals that formed the clouds, giving occupants of light aircraft an uncomfortable ride. To avoid turbulence where such clouds are present, pilots may climb above the cloud tops. However, glider pilots actively seek out the rising air to gain altitude.\n\nThese clouds may later metamorphose into cumulus clouds when convection is intense enough, though the presence of these types of clouds usually indicates fair weather.\n\nSection::::Forecasting.\n", "Clouds in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth, are classified according to the height at which they are found, and their shape or appearance. There are five \"forms\" based on physical structure and process of formation. \"Cirriform\" clouds are high, thin and wispy, and are seen most extensively along the leading edges of organized weather disturbances. \"Stratiform\" clouds are non-convective and appear as extensive sheet-like layers, ranging from thin to very thick with considerable vertical development. They are mostly the product of large-scale lifting of stable air. Unstable free-convective \"cumuliform\" clouds are formed mostly into localized heaps. \"Stratocumuliform\" clouds of limited convection show a mix of cumuliform and stratiform characteristics which appear in the form of rolls or ripples. Highly convective \"cumulonimbiform\" clouds have complex structures often including cirriform tops and stratocumuliform accessory clouds.\n", "Under Luke Howard's first systematized study of clouds, carried out in France in 1802, three general cloud \"forms\" were established based on appearance and characteristics of formation: \"cirriform,\" \"cumiliform\" and \"stratiform.\" These were further divided into upper and lower types depending on altitude. In addition to these three main types, Howard added two names to designate multiple cloud types joined together: \"cumulostratus,\" a blending of cumulus clouds and stratus layers, and \"nimbus,\" a complex blending of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation.\n", "Multi-level nimbostratus is physically related to other stratiform genus-types by way of being non-convective in nature. However, the other sheet-like clouds usually each occupy only one or two levels at the same time. Stratus clouds are low-level and form from near ground level to at all latitudes. In the middle level are the altostratus clouds that form from to in polar areas, in temperate areas, and in tropical areas. Although altostratus forms mostly in the middle level of the troposphere, strong frontal lift can push it into the lower part of the high-level. The main high-level stratiform cloud is cirrostratus which is composed of ice crystals that often produce halo effects around the sun. Cirrostratus forms at altitudes of in high latitudes, in temperate latitudes, and in low, tropical latitudes. Of the non-stratiform clouds, cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus are the most closely related to nimbostratus because of their vertical extent and ability to produce moderate to heavy precipitation. The remaining cumuliform (cumulus) and stratocumuliform (stratocumulus, altocumulus, and cirrocumulus) clouds have the least in common with nimbostratus.\n", "Cumuliform clouds generally appear in isolated heaps or tufts. They are the product of localized but generally \"free-convective\" lift where no inversion layers are in the troposphere to limit vertical growth. In general, small cumuliform clouds tend to indicate comparatively weak instability. Larger cumuliform types are a sign of greater atmospheric instability and convective activity. Depending on their vertical size, clouds of the cumulus genus type may be low-level or multi-level with moderate to towering vertical extent.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Physical forms.:Cumulonimbiform.\n", "Many storms contain shelf clouds, which are often mistaken for wall clouds, since an approaching shelf cloud appears to form a wall made of cloud and may contain turbulent motions. Wall clouds are inflow clouds and tend to slope inward, or toward the precipitation area of a storm. Shelf clouds, on the other hand, are outflow clouds that jut outward from the storm, often as gust fronts. Also, shelf clouds tend to move outward away from the precipitation area of a storm.\n", "Mid-level stratocumuliform clouds of the genus altocumulus are not always associated with a weather front but can still bring precipitation, usually in the form of virga which does not reach the ground. Layered forms of altocumulus are generally an indicator of limited convective instability, and are therefore mainly stratocumuliform in structure.\n\nSection::::Cloud identification and classification in the troposphere.:Mid-level stratocumuliform and stratiform.:Genus altocumulus.:Mid-level stratocumuliform species.\n\nBULLET::::- Altocumulus stratiformis (always dividable into opacity-based varieties)brSheets or relatively flat patches of altocumulus.\n\nBULLET::::- Altocumulus lenticularis (V-26)Lens-shaped middle cloud. Includes informal variant altocumulus Kelvin–Helmholtz cloud, lenticular spiral indicative of severe turbulence.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Accessory clouds.\n\nSupplementary cloud formations detached from the main cloud are known as accessory clouds. The heavier precipitating clouds, nimbostratus, towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), and cumulonimbus typically see the formation in precipitation of the \"pannus\" feature, low ragged clouds of the genera and species cumulus fractus or stratus fractus.\n", "These clouds have low- to mid-level bases that form anywhere from near the surface to about and tops that can extend into the high-altitude range. Nimbostratus and some cumulus in this group usually achieve moderate or deep vertical extent, but without towering structure. However, with sufficient airmass instability, upward-growing cumuliform clouds can grow to high-towering proportions. Although genus types with vertical extent are often informally considered a single group, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) distinguishes towering vertical clouds more formally as a separate group or sub-group. It is specified that these very large cumuliform and cumulonimbiform types must be identified by their standard names or abbreviations in all aviation observations (METARS) and forecasts (TAFS) to warn pilots of possible severe weather and turbulence. Multi-level clouds are of even larger structure than low clouds, and are therefore identifiable by their forms and genera, (and even species in the case of cumulus congestus) using satellite photography.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Stratocumulus fields.\n\nStratocumulus clouds can be organized into \"fields\" that take on certain specially classified shapes and characteristics. In general, these fields are more discernible from high altitudes than from ground level. They can often be found in the following forms:\n\nBULLET::::- Actinoform, which resembles a leaf or a spoked wheel.\n\nBULLET::::- Closed cell, which is cloudy in the center and clear on the edges, similar to a filled honeycomb.\n", "The Latin names for applicable \"high-level\" genera in the troposphere carry a \"cirro\"- prefix, and an \"alto\"- prefix is added to the names of the \"mid-level\" genus-types. Clouds with sufficient vertical extent to occupy more than one altitude level are officially classified as \"low-\" or \"mid-level\" according to the altitude range at which each initially forms. However they are also more informally classified as \"multi-level\" or \"vertical\", which along with low level clouds, do not carry any altitude related prefixes. Most of the genera can be subdivided into \"species\" and further subdivided into \"varieties\". Very low stratiform clouds that extend down to the Earth's surface are given the common names fog and mist, but have no Latin names.\n", "BULLET::::3. Add the results from step (2) to the field elevation to obtain the altitude of the cloud base above mean sea level.\n\nSection::::Weather and climate relevance.\n\nIn well-defined air masses, many (or even most) clouds may have a similar cloud base because this variable is largely controlled by the thermodynamic properties of that air mass, which are relatively homogeneous on a large spatial scale. This is not the case for the cloud tops, which can vary widely from cloud to cloud, as the depth of the cloud is determined by the strength of local convection.\n", "Clouds of this structure have both cumuliform and stratiform characteristics in the form of rolls, ripples, or elements. They generally form as a result of \"limited convection\" in an otherwise mostly stable airmass topped by an inversion layer. If the inversion layer is absent or higher in the troposphere, increased airmass instability may cause the cloud layers to develop tops in the form of turrets consisting of embedded cumuliform buildups. The stratocumuliform group is divided into cirrocumulus (high-level), altocumulus (mid-level), and stratocumulus (low-level).\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Physical forms.:Cumuliform.\n", "A pileus (; Latin for \"cap\"), also called scarf cloud or cap cloud, is a small, horizontal, lenticular cloud appearing above a cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. Pileus clouds are often short-lived, with the main cloud beneath them rising through convection to absorb them. They are formed by strong updraft at lower altitudes, acting upon moist air above, causing the air to cool to its dew point. As such, they are usually indicators of severe weather, and a pileus found atop a cumulus cloud often foreshadows transformation into a cumulonimbus cloud, as it indicates a strong updraft within the cloud.\n", "List of cloud types\n\nThe list of cloud types groups the tropospheric types as \"high\" (cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus), \"middle\" (altocumulus, altostratus), \"multi-level\" (nimbostratus, cumulus, cumulonimbus), and \"low\" (stratocumulus, stratus) according to the altitude level or levels at which each cloud is normally found. Small cumulus are commonly grouped with the low clouds because they do not show significant vertical extent. Of the multi-level genus-types, those with the greatest convective activity are often grouped separately as \"towering vertical\". The genus types all have Latin names.\n", "Section::::Meteorological effects.\n\nThe effect of actinoform clouds on weather systems and climate patterns is still being analyzed. Meteorology professor Bjorn Stevens of the University of California, Los Angeles theorizes that they, in conjunction with open-cell stratocumulus clouds, are associated with drizzle formation. Observations from field studies in both the Northeast and Southeast Pacific seem to indicate that when marine stratus and stratocumulus clouds exist alone, in the absence of these open cells, the cloud formations are associated with light, or no, drizzle.\n", "The height at which the cloud forms depends on the amount of moisture in the thermal that forms the cloud. Humid air will generally result in a lower cloud base. In temperate areas, the base of the cumulus clouds is usually below above ground level, but it can range up to in altitude. In arid and mountainous areas, the cloud base can be in excess of .\n", "Cumuliform and cumulonimbiform heaps and deep stratiform layers often occupy at least two tropospheric levels, and the largest or deepest of these can occupy all three levels. They may be classified as low or mid-level, but are also commonly classified or characterized as vertical or multi-level. Nimbostratus clouds are stratiform layers with sufficient vertical extent to produce significant precipitation. Towering cumulus (species congestus), and cumulonimbus may form anywhere from near the surface to intermediate heights of around 3 kilometres. Of the vertically developed clouds, the cumulonimbus type is the tallest and can virtually span the entire troposphere from a few hundred metres above the ground up to the tropopause. It is the cloud responsible for thunderstorms.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "The use of copyrighted material to create new content is a hotly debated topic. The emergence of the musical \"mashup\" genre has compounded the issue of creative licensing. A moral conflict is created between those who believe that copyright protects any unauthorized use of content, and those who maintain that sampling and mash-ups are acceptable musical styles and, though they use portions of copyrighted material, the end result is a new creative piece which is the property of the creator, and not of the original copyright holder. Whether or not the mashup genre should be allowed to use portions of copyrighted material to create new content is one which is currently under debate.\n", "The United States treatment of mechanical royalties differs markedly from international practice. In the United States, while the right to use copyrighted music for making records for public distribution (for private use) is an exclusive right of the composer, the Copyright Act provides that \"once\" the music is so recorded, anyone else can record the composition/song without a negotiated license but on the payment of the statutory compulsory royalty. Thus, its use by different artists could lead to several separately owned copyrighted \"sound recordings\".\n", "Sound-alikes are usually made as budget copies or \"knockoffs\" of popular recordings. The cost of writing and recording a new song that sounds similar to a popular song is usually negligible compared to the cost of royalties for playing the original recording or the licensing fees to record a cover version. If the sound-alike recording is dissimilar enough to avoid infringing the original writer's copyright, the user of a sound-alike can evoke the spirit of a song, or sometimes make listeners believe that the work being played has been recorded by a particular artist, without the expense of engaging a highly paid artist. \n", "Sampling has long been an area of contention from a legal perspective. Early sampling artists simply used portions of other artists' recordings, without permission; once hip hop and other music incorporating samples began to make significant money, the original artists began to take legal action, claiming copyright infringement. Some sampling artists fought back, claiming their samples were fair use (a legal doctrine in the USA that is not universal). International sampling is governed by agreements such as the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act.\n", "Another court case related to threshold of originality was the 2008 case \"Meshwerks v. Toyota Motor Sales U.S.A.\" In this case, the court ruled that wire-frame computer models of Toyota vehicles were not entitled to additional copyright protection since the purpose of the models was to faithfully represent the original objects without any creative additions.\n", "In United Kingdom intellectual property law, a derived work can demonstrate originality, and must do so if it is to respect copyright.\n\nSection::::Originality under the United States Copyright Law.\n", "\"Imitation\" was Darnell's response to people who were constantly telling him about new British bands they felt were ripping off Kid Creole's music, and also a riposte to ZE label boss Michael Zilkha who had told him to write something less obviously Latin-sounding and \"more funky\": \"As I explained to Zilkha later I'd been inspired by funk, just like I'd been inspired by salsa, but you don't find me writing pure cha-cha's or pure reggae because why should I do that? ... I'd rather take pride in knowing I've created a fusion of those worlds ... My motto has been 'Emulation not imitation is the healthy way to go'.\"\n", "An often-mentioned example is Zombie Nation's 1999 hit \"Kernkraft 400\", which was a remake of David Whittaker's song for the 1984 Commodore 64 game \"Lazy Jones\". Legal action is pending. Another example is the Dutch hit \"You've Got My Love\", for which the artist Bas \"Bastian\" Bron sampled the drums from Jeroen Tel's and Reyn Ouwehand's song made for the Rubicon game. Both of the cases were won by the original authors in court.\n\nThe Fitts for Fight case also involved copied chipmusic.\n", "Copyright finds its international commonality in the Berne Convention that creates the foundation of several concepts of international copyright law, however the threshold for attracting copyright is not defined. This threshold is up to each jurisdiction to determine. While works that do not meet these thresholds are not eligible for copyright protection, they may still be eligible for protection through other intellectual property laws, such as trademarks or design patents (particularly in the case of logos).\n\nSection::::Originality in specific types of works.\n\nSection::::Originality in specific types of works.:Pre-positioned recording devices.\n", "In the United States, the case of \"Lotus v. Borland\" allows programmers to clone the public functionality of a program without infringing its copyright. \n", "Sounds-alikes have sometimes been the subject of litigation. In the 1980s, singer Bette Midler sued over a sound-alike version of her recording of \"Do You Wanna Dance?\" being used in a commercial which sounded too close to the original. \"Old Cape Cod\" was the subject of a 1990 lawsuit subsequent to a sound-alike version of the Patti Page hit which was featured in a 1989 commercial for American Savings Bank. Page sued the advertising agency responsible for the commercial, alleging the commercial implied that Page, herself, endorsed the bank. Guitarist Carlos Santana sued over a commercial music bed which closely imitated his playing and arranging style. \n", "However, they may still argue that their use of the sample is a \"fair use\"—that is, that the use is transformative, for noncommercial purpose, copied only a small amount, the original had a thin copyright, or the copying did not harm the market for the original work or its derivatives.\n\nSection::::Influence of the case.\n\nNew York University musicologist and sampling expert Lawrence Ferrara describes the effects of the Bridgeport case on sample-based music as, \"extremely chilling, because it basically says that whatever you sample has to be licensed, in its most extreme interpretation.\"\n", "In May 2016, Judge Percy Anderson ruled that remastered versions of musical recordings are eligible to receive a new copyright if they contain \"multiple kinds of creative authorship, such as adjustments of equalization, sound editing and channel assignment\", that are perceptible from the original work. This applies even if the work was only subject to common law state copyright as a sound recording published prior to 1972, thus making them become eligible for compulsory licenses under federal copyright law.\n\nSection::::Uses of the concept of originality by country.:United States.:Typefaces and geometry.\n", "Section::::Copyright issues.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, the Copyright Act of 1976 acts as the basis of copyright law to protect the rights of the original creators. It protects the original works of authorship. To some extent, it allows artists to reproduce the work and create derivative works of the original work.\n\nFair use is a limitation and exception to the copyright law. According to the \"Hofstra Law Review\", “If mashup artists could prove that they use others’ songs or clips to criticize, comment, or teach, then mashup artists might be able to use the copyrighted material without authorization.\" \n", "In 2011, the US producer Timbaland won a copyright infringement case after sampling parts of a composition owned by the Finnish record label Kernel Records without permission, claiming it to be sampling. Under US copyright law, a work must first be registered with the US copyright office to become the subject of a copyright infringement lawsuit. The court held that by being published online, the composition had been simultaneously published in every country with internet service, including the US. The work, therefore, satisfied the definition of a US work, and as it had not been registered with the US copyright office it could be sampled without permission.\n", "For example: Puff Daddy wants to sample the opening riff from “Every Breath You Take” by The Police. He contacts the copyright holder of the underlying musical work and gets a mechanical license to use all or part of The Police’s song in his composition. He now has the right to reproduce all or part of “Every Breath You Take” in his new song. He cannot, however, purchase The Police’s Greatest Hits, take the CD (or MP3 from iTunes) into the studio, pull the track off of the phonorecord, and sample the riff into his new song. For Puff Daddy to sample from the phonorecord of The Police’s music, he must get both a mechanical license from the copyright holder of the underlying musical work, \"and\" a license from the copyright holder of the phonorecord from which he copies the sample. He is free to hire musicians to reproduce the Police's sound, but he cannot copy from any phonorecord with only a mechanical license.\n", "The question of whether an artistic work is an authentic expression depends on the artist's background, beliefs and ideals. Andrew Potter cites the example of Avril Lavigne, a teenage singer from Napanee, Ontario who released her debut album in 2002. She claimed to be a small-town skateboarder, with her background providing the subjects of her songs, and said these songs were her own compositions. These claims of authenticity of expression and of provenance were both challenged. However, her work could have been authentic in expression even if Lavigne had not written it, or authentic in provenance if she had written it but not authentic in expression if the carefully cultivated skater-girl image were false.\n", "Generally, copying cannot be proven without some evidence of access; however, in the seminal case on striking similarity, \"Arnstein v. Porter\", the Second Circuit stated that even absent a finding of access, copying can be established when the similarities between two works are \"so striking as to preclude the possibility that the plaintiff and defendant independently arrived at the same result.\"\n\nSection::::Substantial similarity in copyright infringement.:Misappropriation.\n", "In 2008 RCA classical and pop division took notice of a demo that Brian and Michelle had worked on together that was a hybrid of opera and electronica. RCA pop division was bought up by Jive records, but Michelle and Brian continued working on their project, which eventually became Syren. Michelle changed her name to Micaela Haley for the record due to the genre switch of the Be Still my Soul album and the musical theater album \"Michelle Culbertson Sings Broadway Favorites\" that was done for \n", "Sound-alike recordings have been used in movie soundtracks and radio and television commercials since their origin, while sound-alike artists have long recorded jingles and other musical material for commercial use. \n", "Creating clones of older hardware is legal where the patents have expired. In 1997, Mackie sued Behringer for copying its mixer designs, but lost as circuit board designs were not protected under US copyright at the time. In 2006, the Roland Corporation and Behringer reached a settlement after Roland claimed Behringer's effects units were too close to its Boss pedals. In 2017, Behringer announced it would replicate the CEM3340 VCO chips used in the OB-Xa synthesizer. The widow of chip creator Doug Curtis released a statement clarifying that the replica was made without permission and that Curtis \"would be deeply saddened by the attempt of others to trade on his name and to make unsubstantiated claims of equivalency to his original inventions\".\n", "There are two obvious extremes with regard to derivative works. If the song is substantively dissimilar in form (for example, it might only borrow a motif which is modified, and be completely different in all other respects), then it may not necessarily be a derivative work (depending on how heavily modified the melody and chord progressions were). On the other hand, if the remixer only changes a few things (for example, the instrument and tempo), then it is clearly a derivative work and subject to the copyrights of the original work's copyright holder.\n", "In \"Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.\", the Supreme Court ruled that a rap parody of \"Oh, Pretty Woman\" by 2 Live Crew was fair use, as the parody was a distinctive, transformative work designed to ridicule the original song, and that \"even if 2 Live Crew's copying of the original's first line of lyrics and characteristic opening bass riff may be said to go to the original's 'heart,' that heart is what most readily conjures up the song for parody, and it is the heart at which parody takes aim.\"\n", "Section::::Uses of the concept of originality by country.:Japan.\n\nIn Japanese copyright law, a work is considered eligible for protection when it is \"a production in which thoughts or sentiments are expressed in a creative way and which falls within the literary, scientific, artistic or musical domain.\"\n\nSection::::Uses of the concept of originality by country.:Switzerland.\n\nCopyright law of Switzerland defines works as being \"creations of the mind, literary or artistic, that have an individual character.\"\n", "IG Culture produced an album by Japanese jazz artist Monday Michiru - \"Jazz Brat\" - in 1995 and appeared on the Roots Manuva album \"Brand New Second Hand\" in 1999.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Not much is definitely known about this incident. The best account comes from the \"Scalacronica\" by Thomas Grey, whose father, also called Thomas Grey, was present. A fracas broke out at a court being held by Heselrig, but Wallace was able to escape with help from a girl who may have been his wife. He then came back with some supporters and attacked Heselrig and his men, killed Heselrig, nearly killed Thomas Grey senior, and set fire to some houses. Wallace then continued with his rebellion, which culminated in his victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge four months later.\n", "Section::::Raid of Ruthven, the Gowrie Regime, and exile.\n", "With these allegations of an extended plot established, Arran sent his ambassadors the Master of Gray and then Sir Lewis Bellenden to England to lay the same charges of treason successfully applied to Drumquhassle in Edinburgh to the lords in exile. However, events did not follow the same course as they had in Scotland; indeed, the banished lords gained greater favour from the English while Arran fell further in their estimation by his obvious subversion.\n\nSection::::Political influence.:Later part of reign of James VI, 1585–1625.\n", "There have been several stories regarding Wallace and what he did after the Battle of Falkirk. It is said by some sources that Wallace travelled to France and fought for the French King against the English during their own ongoing war while Bishop Lamberton of St Andrews, who gave much support to the Scottish cause, went and spoke to the pope.\n", "In 1670 Sir Alexander Cunninghame had some of his horses seized for payment of a debt and brought to Irvine cross to be sold. Sir Alexander had complained to the Earl of Eglinton who was Bailie of Cunninghame without success, so he got together a party of twenty men, well mounted, with swords, pistols, and plate sleeves and went to Irvine to recover his property. Alexander Kennedy had threatened some of the crowd with his gun and was knocked off his horse by the townsfolk. John Reid, a towns officer emerged from the tolbooth with his halbert and attacked Kennedy, who died nine days later. Several shots were fired before Robertland's party rode off. John Reid was not punished for his actions.\n", "Another significant event from Stewarton's history involves the Cunninghame family. In the 16th century Ayrshire was divided into three regions or bailiaries - Kyle, Carrick and Cunninghame. The two powerful families residing in Cunninghame - the Cunninghame's and the Montgomeries - had been involved in a dispute over landholdings which came to a head in 1586 when Hugh, 4th the Earl of Eglinton was attacked at the ford on the Annick Water (which flows through Stewarton) by 30 or so members of the Cunninghame clan and shot dead by John Cunninghame of Clonbeith. Hugh is said to have been on his way to attend the court of King James VI at Stirling when he decided to stop off at Langshaw House (now Lainshaw house which was for a long time a home for the elderly) to dine with his associates. The lady of the house Lady Montgomery - told several of her Cunninghame associates who lived in the area of the Earl's planned visit. As a response to the killing the Montgomery family declared they would kill every Cunninghame who had been at the river that day and a series of 'tit for tat' killings were carried out between the two families. John Cunninghame of Clonbeith was eventually slain in Hamilton, Scotland, but several of those responsible for the murder fled to Denmark and were eventually granted a pardon by King James upon his marriage to Anne of Denmark.\n", "Drumquhassle was released to live under curfew at his own house for a time, attending the Privy Council when required. Following the successful prosecution and execution of the Earl of Gowrie, the Earl of Arran started to pursue any sympathisers of the Banished Lords, Angus, Mar, and the Master of Glamis, who had tried to hold Stirling Castle against Arran in April 1584. Drumquhassle's younger brother, Captain James Cunningham had been a companion of these lords at their failed coup in Stirling and in their exile in England. Charges of treason devised in July 1583 were now raised against James Edmonstone of Duntreath, Drumquhassle and his son-in-law, Malcolm Douglas of Mains in January 1584/5. Drumquhassle and Douglas of Mains were arrested in their own houses and taken to Edinburgh. The circumstances of Mains' relationship to Angus (notwithstanding his Douglas lineage) and Drumquhassle's relationship to both Mains (as father-in-law) and involvement in previous regencies sealed their fate.\n", "Section::::Background.:Angus Mackay's account.\n", "James Sinclair was pardoned completely by James V, despite his blatant rebellion. Romantic historians believe this was because James V feared losing Orkney to Norway and Denmark.\n", "In 1590 John, Master of Forbes was accused of imprisoning his father in a chamber at Druminnor and hitting him on the head with the pommel of his sword. Two younger sons, Robert Forbes Commendator of Monymusk and James Forbes of Fechell brought their father's complaint to the Privy Council, but John Forbes denied it. The Council declared that Drumminor should be kept by William Forbes of Tolquhoun and others till Lord Forbes came to Edinburgh or sent further testimony. In May 1591 John Master of Forbes claimed that his brothers had turned his father against him, and while Lord Forbes was lying sick at Dundee they had entered and robbed the House of Druminnor. The younger Forbes brothers obtained royal letters against the Master of Forbes to support their occupation of Druminnor.\n", "Section::::St. Andrew's Day, 1335.\n\nIn the late autumn of 1335 Strathbogie was operating north of the Forth, attempting, so the sources allege, to eradicate all freeholders, who from the time of William Wallace had been the backbone of Scottish resistance. Strathbogie's actions mirrored the policy of King Edward in southern Scotland, where over one hundred freeholders were forfeited in the period from 1335 to 1337. John of Fordun, a Scottish chronicler, reports the situation thus;\n", "In 1600 the Clan MacAlister attacked the Clan Montgomery. They seized everything belonging to the Chief John Montgomery of Skelmorlie including £12,000 worth of possessions. Two years later, chief Archibald MacAlister along with Angus Og MacDonald carried out a similar attack on the inhabitants of the Isle of Bute against the Clan Stuart. A year afterwards Archibald MacAlister and Angus Og MacDonald were accused of being rebels, charged with treason and hanged in Edinburgh Tollbooth.\n\nSection::::History.:17th century & Civil War.\n", "This measure may have been encouraged or incited by the United Scotsmen, a secret society spread throughout Scotland who were believed to be intent on insurgence and the setting up of a Scottish government under Muir of Huntershill. It is believed they had been involved in similar protests elsewhere over the 1797 Militia Act.\n", "When Scotland finally paid the ransom in 1424, James, aged 32, returned with his English bride determined to assert this authority. Several members of the Albany family were executed, and he succeeded in centralising control in the hands of the crown, but at the cost of increasingly unpopularity and he was assassinated in 1437. His son James II when he came of age in 1449, continued his father's policy of weakening the great noble families, most notably taking on the powerful Black Douglas family that had come to prominence at the time of Robert I. His attempt to take Roxburgh from the English in 1460 succeeded, but at the cost of his life as he was killed by an exploding artillery piece.\n", "BULLET::::- Mackenzie of Kintail against Macleods in Lewis in 1596/7, which was intermittently renewed and led ultimately to Mackenzie’s annexation of Lewis.\n\nBULLET::::- Earl of Argyll against royalists in Atholl and Angus in 1640.\n\nBULLET::::- Mackintosh of Torcastle against Macdonald of Keppoch in 1681 and 1688, resulting in the Battle of Mulroy.\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Hector Og Maclean, 15th Chief against the Sir James MacDonald, 9th of Dunnyveg resulting in the Battle of Benbigrie.\n\nSection::::Political control.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1550, Alexander \"\"the rebel\"\" Brodie of that Ilk, the 12th chief, with his clansmen, and the assistance of the Dunbars and Hays, attacked Clan Cumming at Altyre, seeking to slay their chief, Alexander Cumming of Altyre. As a result, he was put to the horn as a rebel for not appearing to a charge of waylaying, but was pardoned the year following.\n", "1597 in Scotland\n\nEvents from the year 1597 in the Kingdom of Scotland.\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nMonarch – James VI\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- 4 February – Battle of Logiebride, a skirmish between men of the Clan Mackenzie against those of the Clan Munro and the Bain family of Tulloch Castle.\n\nBULLET::::- March–October – The Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1597.\n\nBULLET::::- 14 July – poet Alexander Montgomerie is declared an outlaw after the collapse of a Catholic plot.\n\nBULLET::::- 23 July – Earthquake in the Highlands.\n\nBULLET::::- Lands of the Clan MacLeod are forfeit to the Crown.\n", "1600 in Scotland\n\nEvents from the year 1600 in the Kingdom of Scotland\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nBULLET::::- Monarch – James VI\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 January – today is adopted as New Year's Day following the partial adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in Scotland\n\nBULLET::::- 5 August – the Gowrie House affair, a plot to kidnap James VI in Perth, in which Robert Logan of Restalrig is implicated, devised by John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie (who dies in the attempt, together with his brother Alexander Ruthven)\n", "In December 1404 the king granted the royal Stewart lands in the west, in Ayrshire and around the Firth of Clyde, to James in regality protecting them from outside interference and providing the prince with a territorial centre should the need arise. Yet, in 1405 James was under the protection and tutelage of Bishop Henry Wardlaw of St Andrews on the country's east coast. Douglas animosity was intensifying because of the activities of Orkney and Fleming who continued to expand their involvement in border politics and foreign relations with England. Although a decision to send the young prince to France and out of Albany's reach was taken in the winter of 1405–06, James's departure from Scotland was unplanned. In February 1406 Bishop Wardlaw released James to Orkney and Fleming who, with their large force of Lothian adherents, proceeded into hostile Douglas east Lothian. James's custodians may have been giving a demonstration of royal approval to further their interests in Douglas country. This provoked a fierce response from James Douglas of Balvenie and his supporters who, at a place called Long Hermiston Muir, engaged with and killed Fleming while Orkney and James escaped to the comparative safety of the Bass Rock islet in the Firth of Forth. They endured more than a month there before boarding the France-bound \"Maryenknyght\", a ship from Danzig. On 22 March 1406 the ship was seized, in an act of piracy, by an English vessel part-owned by the MP and royal official Hugh Fenn that resulted in James becoming the hostage of King Henry IV of England. Robert III was at Rothesay Castle when he learned of his son's capture, and he died soon after on 4 April 1406 and was buried in the Stewart foundation abbey of Paisley.\n", "\"See that this be putt in execution without feud or favour, else you may expect to be dealt with as one not true to King nor Government, nor a man fitt to carry Commissione in the Kings service.\" As Captain of the Argylls' Grenadier company, Drummond was senior to Glenlyon; his presence appears to have been to ensure the orders were enforced, since witnesses gave evidence he shot two people who asked Glenlyon for mercy.\n", "Section::::Personal rule.:Highland problem.\n\nIn July 1428, the king convened a general council at Perth aimed at obtaining finance for an expedition to the Highlands against the semi-autonomous Lord of the Isles. The council initially resisted granting James the funds – even with royal support from the powerful Earls of Mar and Atholl – but eventually gave in to the king's wishes. Although it seemed that an all-out attack on the Gaels of the north was not the king's intention, James had resolved to use a degree of force to strengthen royal authority. He told the assembly:\n", "After David II's death, Robert II, the first of the Stewart kings, came to the throne in 1371. He was followed in 1390 by his ailing son John, who took the regnal name Robert III. During Robert III's reign (1390–1406), actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother, Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany. After the suspicious death (possibly on the orders of the Duke of Albany) of his elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay in 1402, Robert, fearful for the safety of his younger son, the future James I, sent him to France in 1406. However, the English captured him en route and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom. As a result, after the death of Robert III, regents ruled Scotland: first, the Duke of Albany; and later his son Murdoch. When Scotland finally paid the ransom in 1424, James, aged 32, returned with his English bride determined to assert this authority. Several of the Albany family were executed; but he succeeded in centralising control in the hands of the crown, at the cost of increasing unpopularity, and was assassinated in 1437. His son James II (reigned 1437–1460), when he came of age in 1449, continued his father's policy of weakening the great noble families, most notably taking on the powerful Black Douglas family that had come to prominence at the time of the Bruce.\n", "A Parliamentary Commission was set up to determine whether there was a case to answer under the charge of 'Slaughter under trust.' This 1587 law was intended to reduce endemic feuding by requiring opponents to use the Crown to settle disputes and applied to murder committed in 'cold-blood', i.e., once articles of surrender had been agreed or hospitality accepted. It was subject to interpretation; in 1597, James MacDonald was charged under the law for assembling 200 men outside his parents' house, locking them inside and setting fire to it but this was later judged 'hot-blooded' and excluded.\n", "In 1515 Glasgow's Bishop's Castle was rifled by John Mure, Laird of Caldwell during the earliest days of what was to become the Scottish Reformation. The laird besieged with artillery and took the castle, he then \"made off with the bishop's principal goods and chattels as fair and legitimate booty.\" James V was a child still and the Duke of Albany was the regent. He was made to answer to the Lords of Council, found guilty and was forced to pay reparation. His actions reflected the people's growing unease with the power and wealth of the church.\n", "1591 in Scotland\n\nEvents from the year 1591 in the Kingdom of Scotland.\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nMonarch – James VI\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- February – Brian O'Rourke, rebel lord of West Bréifne in Ireland, seeks right of asylum in Scotland\n\nBULLET::::- 3 April – Brian O'Rourke is arrested in Glasgow and delivered to the English\n\nBULLET::::- December – James VI's \"Newes from Scotland – declaring the damnable life and death of Dr. John Fian\" is published in London\n\nBULLET::::- Burgh of Cockenzie created by James VI\n\nBULLET::::- Canongate Tolbooth built in Edinburgh\n\nSection::::Births.\n" ]

[ "England was a separate country from Scotland during the Uprisings when William Wallace was alive.", "England was independent from Scotland during the time of William Wallace." ]

[ "At that time, England and Scotland were not separate countries.", "England was not a separate country from Scotland during the time of William Wallace." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "England was a separate country from Scotland during the Uprisings when William Wallace was alive.", "England was independent from Scotland during the time of William Wallace." ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "At that time, England and Scotland were not separate countries.", "England was not a separate country from Scotland during the time of William Wallace." ]

[ "Truss rods are required for instruments with steel (high tension) strings. Without a truss rod, the guitar's wooden neck would gradually warp (i.e. bend) beyond repair due to applied high tension. Such devices are not normally needed on instruments with lower tension strings, such as the classical guitar, which uses nylon (previously catgut) strings.\n", "The truss rod tension is usually controlled using an adjustment bolt (a hex nut or allen key). Depending on the model of guitar, this bolt can be located:\n\nBULLET::::- On older Fender-style electric guitars with bolt-on necks (and vintage re-issues) — on the heel of the neck. Adjustment of such truss rods can be done by a Phillips screwdriver and requires prior removal of the guitar's pickguard or neck.\n\nBULLET::::- On newer Fender-style electric guitars — behind the nut, uncovered and can usually be adjusted by a 1/8\" (3 mm) Allen wrench.\n", "The truss rod is not specifically for adjusting intonation or action (height of the strings above the fingerboard) though adjusting it can make an instrument more easily playable.\n\nSection::::Construction and action.\n\nTruss rods are frequently made out of steel, though graphite and other materials are sometimes used.\n", "The truss rod can be adjusted to compensate for expansion or contraction in the neck wood due to changes in humidity or temperature, or to compensate for changes in the tension of the strings (the thicker the guitar string, the higher its tension when tuned to correct pitch) or using different tunings (the lower the pitch of each string, the lower its tension).\n", "Terminal strip construction, which is often referred to as point-to-point construction within the tube guitar amplifier community, uses terminal strips (also called \"tag boards\"). A terminal strip has stamped tin-plated copper terminals, each with a hole through which wire ends could be pushed, fitted on an insulating strip, usually made of a cheap, heat-resistant material such as synthetic-resin bonded paper (FR-2), or bakelite reinforced with cotton. The insulator has an integral mounting bracket, sometimes electrically connected to one or more of the stamped loops to ground them to the chassis.\n", "The trapezoid framework is generally made out of either walnut or maple wood. The top and bottom boards sometimes can be either plywood or veneer. On the top board, also known as the soundboard, wooden bridges are placed, in order to seat stretched metal strings across. The strings, grouped in units of 3 or 4, are tied on nails or pins on the left side of the instrument and are stretched over the sound board on top of the bridges to the right side. On the right side there are steel tuning pegs or tuning pins, as they are commonly known, that allows tuning each unit of strings to a desired musical note or a frequency or a pitch.\n", "Adjusting the truss rod affects the intonation of a guitar as well as the height of the strings from the fingerboard, called the action. Some truss rod systems, called \"double action\" truss systems, tighten both ways, pushing the neck both forward and backward (standard truss rods can only release to a point beyond which the neck is no longer compressed and pulled backward). The artist and luthier Irving Sloane pointed out, in his book \"Steel-String Guitar Construction,\" that truss rods are intended primarily to remedy concave bowing of the neck, but cannot correct a neck with \"back bow\" or one that has become twisted. Classical guitars do not require truss rods, as their nylon strings exert a lower tensile force with lesser potential to cause structural problems. However, their necks are often reinforced with a strip of harder wood, such as an ebony strip that runs down the back of a cedar neck. There is no tension adjustment on this form of reinforcement.\n", "BULLET::::- On set-neck electrics — under a cover-plate behind the nut. Gibson & Epiphone guitars have their truss rod bolt covered with a signature bell-shaped plate. Most Gibson electrics have a 5/16” (8 mm) or a 1/4\" (6 mm) hex adjustable truss rod nut that can be adjusted with a hex box spanner wrench.\n\nBULLET::::- On acoustic guitars — inside the guitar body, accessible through the sound hole, or on the headstock. Martins use a 3/16\" (5 mm) Allen wrench and Gibson uses the same as for the Gibson electrics above.\n", "Modern designs also include adjustment from the side of the heel of a bolt-on neck. When looking from the body of the guitar to the head, counterclockwise adjustment decreases the truss rod tension (correct an underbow) and clockwise adjustment increases the truss rod tension (correct an overbow).\n\nInstalling a truss rod in a newly constructed guitar requires woodworking capabilities. Special tools are required including a router with a variety of bits and ability to work with metals. Completed truss rods can be purchased through suppliers or manufactured according to specifications given in literature.\n\nSection::::Dual action truss rod.\n", "Usually, the truss rod of a brand-new instrument is adjusted by the manufacturer before sale. Normally, turning the truss rod's adjustment bolt clockwise tightens it, counteracting the tension of the strings and straightening the neck or creating a backward bow. Turning the bolt counter-clockwise loosens it, allowing string tension to act on the neck and creating a forward bow (higher string action).\n\nSome guitars (notably Rickenbackers) come with dual truss rods that are more stable and not affected by seasonal climate changes. These rods are regarded as being more difficult to adjust.\n\nSection::::Location and adjustment.\n", "The truss rod is a thin, strong metal rod that runs along the inside of the neck. It is used to correct changes to the neck's curvature caused by aging of the neck timbers, changes in humidity, or to compensate for changes in the tension of strings. The tension of the rod and neck assembly is adjusted by a hex nut or an allen-key bolt on the rod, usually located either at the headstock, sometimes under a cover, or just inside the body of the guitar underneath the fretboard and accessible through the sound hole. Some truss rods can only be accessed by removing the neck. The truss rod counteracts the immense amount of tension the strings place on the neck, bringing the neck back to a straighter position. Turning the truss rod clockwise tightens it, counteracting the tension of the strings and straightening the neck or creating a backward bow. Turning the truss rod counter-clockwise loosens it, allowing string tension to act on the neck and creating a forward bow.\n", "The tops of most steel string acoustic guitars are braced using the X-brace system, or a variation of the X-brace system, generally attributed to Christian Frederick Martin between 1840 and 1845 for use in gut string guitars.\n", "A hard-tail guitar bridge anchors the strings at or directly behind the bridge and is fastened securely to the top of the instrument. These are common on carved-top guitars, such as the Gibson Les Paul and the Paul Reed Smith models, and on slab-body guitars, such as the Music Man Albert Lee and Fender guitars that are not equipped with a vibrato arm.\n", "The internal forces in the members of the truss can be calculated in a variety of ways, including graphical methods:\n\nBULLET::::- Cremona diagram\n\nBULLET::::- Culmann diagram\n\nBULLET::::- Ritter analytical method (method of sections)\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Design of members.\n", "The \"stop\" part comes from the fact that the string ends are held in place or they \"stop\" inside the bar. The bar is mounted on top of the guitar body usually by means of sturdy threaded metal studs screwed into threaded sleeves embedded into the body of the guitar. The studs and stopbar are located behind the separate bridge piece.\n", "Truss rod\n\nThe truss rod is part of a guitar or other fretted, stringed-instruments that stabilizes the lengthwise forward curvature (also called \"relief\"), of the neck. Usually it is a steel bar or rod that runs inside the neck, beneath the fingerboard. Some are non-adjustable, but most modern truss rods have a nut at one or both ends that adjusts its tension. The first truss rod patent was applied for by Thaddeus McHugh, an employee of the Gibson company, in 1921, though the idea of a \"truss rod\" appears in patents as early as 1908.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "On the soundboard, \"anjok\" (movable bridges) support the strings. These bridges move to adjust the tuning and intonation. The strings enter the top of the body from \"tolgwae\" (string pegs) beneath. At the other end, the strings wind around loops at the end of thick cords which pass over the nut then looped through holes at the bottom of the instrument and secured, and then the cords are all tied in a decorative coil (Choi 2005) (KCMPC 2001).\n", "Smallman's design was inspired by research by Torres who made a guitar with a papier mâché back and sides to show that the soundboard was the most important factor in guitar sound projection. Smallman also uses two 45 degree pole supports from the bottom to the sound board that transfer sound.\n\nSection::::Steel string flat-top guitar bracing.\n", "Early V1 guitars have string tuners that are held in place with a set-screw (Type A). Later ones have tuners that are held in place with a recessed pin (Type B). V1 guitars were made in China.\n", "GuitarBot's movable fret system is configured as a slide mechanism and remains in constant contact with the string. To reduce friction between GuitarBot's wire-wound strings and the movable fret, flatwound strings are used. The flatwound strings' lack of ridges allow the movable bridge to slide over the string smoothly.\n\nOther mechatronic guitar and string-playing systems that employ similar pitch-shifting mechanisms include Nicholas A. Baginsky's Aglaopheme self-playing guitar, Trimpin's prototype KrautKontrol guitar systems, James McVay's MechBass, and Festo Automation's Sound Machines.\n\nSection::::Mechanical.:String picking and damping.\n", "Most pickups for bowed string instruments, such as cello, violin, and double bass, are piezoelectric. These may be inlaid into the bridge, laid between the bridge feet and the top of the instrument, or, less frequently, wedged under a wing of the bridge. Some pickups are fastened to the top of the instrument with removable putty.\n\nSection::::Piezoelectric pickups.:Preamps.\n\nPiezoelectric pickups have a very high output impedance and appear as a capacitance in series with a voltage source. They therefore often have an instrument-mounted buffer amplifier fitted to maximize frequency response.\n", "The fourth type of system employs string-through body anchoring. The strings pass over the bridge saddles, then through holes through the top of the guitar body to the back. The strings are typically anchored in place at the back of the guitar by metal ferrules. Many believe this design improves a guitar's sustain and timbre. \n\nA few examples of string-through body guitars are the Fender Telecaster Thinline, the Fender Telecaster Deluxe, the B.C. Rich IT Warlock and Mockingbird, and the Schecter Omen 6 and 7 series.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Pickups.\n", "Guitar technicians usually adjust a guitar neck to have a slight relief (forward bend) to achieve reasonably low action in high fretboard positions, while letting strings ring clearly in low positions. A lower action in the high fret positions also facilitates more accurate intonation with less compensation at the bridge.\n", "Yet another type of multi-part bridge is common on instruments with a curved sound plate, such as an arch-top guitar or mandolin. Such instruments often have a bridge with a base and separate saddle that can be adjusted for height. On classical and flat-top guitars the bridge is glued to the top. A bridge held on to the top by string tension, as in banjos and archtop jazz guitars, is called a \"floating bridge\", and requires a separate tailpiece to anchor the strings. Electric guitars typically have a metal bridge, often with adjustable intonation screws.\n\nSection::::Bridge pin.\n", "Nuts are synthetic and tuners are of PRS's own design, although some models feature Korean-made Kluson-style tuners. PRS guitars feature three original bridge designs: a one-piece pre-intonated stoptail, a vibrato, and a wrapover tailpiece. The Vibrato was designed with the help of guitar engineer John Mann. It was an update on the classic Fender vibrato and used cam-locking tuners, which offered wide pitch bending with exceptional tuning stability.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Pickups.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "In broadcasting equipment, this is termed the Maximum Permitted Level, which is defined by European Broadcasting Union standards. These devices use peak programme meters instead of VU meters, which gives the reading a different meaning.\n\n\"Mic level\" is sometimes defined as −60 dBV, though levels from microphones vary widely.\n\nIn video systems, nominal levels are 1 V for synched systems, such as baseband composite video, and 0.7 V for systems without sync. Note that these levels are measured peak-to-peak, while audio levels are time averages.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alignment level\n\nBULLET::::- Programme levels\n\nBULLET::::- Transmission level point\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "A recording system must handle these peaks; they can be measured using a peak responding meter with an integration time of 0.5 ms or less (not a standard IEC type PPM which has a longer integration time).\n\nThe sound level meter is useless for properly assessing noise levels, since the commonly used A-weighting is based on equal-loudness contours for pure tones, and is not valid for the random noise.\n", "The master recording process, using current 24-bit techniques, offers around 99 dB of \"true\" dynamic range (based on the \"ITU-R 468 noise weighting\" standard); identical to the dynamic range of a good studio microphone, though very few recordings will use just one microphone, and so the noise on most recordings is likely to be the sum of several microphones after mixing, and probably at least 6 dB worse than shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Audio system measurements\n\nBULLET::::- Noise measurement\n\nBULLET::::- Weighting filter\n\nBULLET::::- Equal-loudness contour\n\nBULLET::::- Fletcher-Munson curves\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- EBU Recommendation R68-2000\n", "In many compressors the attack and release times are adjustable by the user. Some compressors, however, have the attack and release times determined by the circuit design and these cannot be adjusted by the user. Sometimes the attack and release times are \"automatic\" or \"program dependent\", meaning that the behavior may change dependent on the input signal.\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Soft and hard knees.\n", "The incorporation of (switchable) level compression in domestic music systems and car in-car systems would allow higher quality on systems capable of wide dynamic range and in situations that allowed realistic reproduction. Such compression systems have been suggested and tried from time to time, but are not in widespread use — a 'chicken and egg' problem since producers feel they must make programmes and recordings that sound good in car with high ambient noise or on cheap low-power music systems. In the UK, some DAB receivers do incorporate a menu setting for automatic loudness compensation which adds extra gain on BBC Radio 3 and BBC Radio 4, to allow for the fact that these programmes adopt lower levels than, for example, the pop station Radio 1. Some television receivers also have a menu setting for loudness normalisation, aimed at helping to reduce excessive loudness on advertisements. However, there is no common agreement to reduce compression and limiting and leave these tasks to the receiver.\n", "The highest ratio of ∞:1 is often known as \"limiting\". It is commonly achieved using a ratio of 60:1, and effectively denotes that any signal above the threshold is brought down to the threshold level once the \"attack\" time has expired.\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Attack and release.\n", "Live sound covers an enormous range of levels, but this is not something that can be demonstrated with a conventional sound level meter. Sound level meters respond quite slowly, even on a \"fast\" setting: they use a root mean square (RMS) rectifier which by definition must take a slow running average of the square of the input voltage. Music is complex, and constantly varying, with brief peaks originating from many sources including the initial impact of sticks on cymbals and drums. A loud band might measure 100 dB SPL on a sound level meter, yet have peaks reaching 130 dB SPL or higher.\n", "The HEVC standard defines two tiers: Main and High. The Main tier is a lower tier than the High tier. The tiers were made to deal with applications that differ in terms of their maximum bit rate. The Main tier was designed for most applications while the High tier was designed for very demanding applications.\n\nSection::::Levels.\n", "The usual way of limiting sound volume on devices driving headphones is by limiting output power. This has the additional undesirable effect of being dependent of the efficiency of the headphones; a device producing the maximum allowed power may not produce adequate volume when paired with low-efficiency, high-impedance equipment, while the same amount of power can reach dangerous levels with very efficient earphones.\n", "But loudness jumps are not limited to inter-channel differences; they also exist between programme material within the same channel. Loudness differences are a frequent source of audience complaints, especially TV commercials and promos that seem too loud. Complicating this is that many broadcasters use (quasi-)peak meters and peak-levelling. Unfortunately the peak level reading does not correlate well with the perceived loudness. It basically should only be used to prevent overmodulation.\n", "Line level sits between other levels of audio signals. There are weaker signals such as those from microphones (Mic Level/Microphone Level) and instrument pickups (Instrument Level), and stronger signals, such as those used to drive headphones and loudspeakers (Speaker Level). The \"strength\" of these various signals does not necessarily refer to the output voltage of the source device; it also depends on its output impedance and output power capability.\n", "Some models have adjustable gain on the microphone itself to be able to accommodate different level sources, such as loud instruments or quiet voices. Adjustable gain helps to avoid clipping and maximize signal to noise ratio.\n\nSome models have adjustable squelch, which silences the output when the receiver does not get a strong or quality signal from the microphone, instead of reproducing noise. When squelch is adjusted, the threshold of the signal quality or level is adjusted.\n\nSection::::Products.\n", "Nominal level is the operating level at which an electronic signal processing device is designed to operate. The electronic circuits that make up such equipment are limited in the maximum signal they can handle and the low-level internally generated electronic noise they add to the signal. The difference between the internal noise and the maximum level is the device's dynamic range. The nominal level is the level that these devices were designed to operate at, for best dynamic range and adequate headroom. When a signal is chained with improper gain staging through many devices, the dynamic range of the signal is reduced. \n", "Audio levels within analog disk, tape and broadcasting have traditionally been adjusted to keep peak levels within the physical and legal modulation limits of the medium. While this practice has resulted in relatively consistent dialog levels and has minimized audibility of channel noise, it has come with a severe penalty in the form of excessive audio compression and limited dynamic range.\n", "This chart is based on the assumption that what goes in should come out—true high-fidelity—and so an Alignment Level (AL) corresponding to 100 dB SPL has been assumed throughout. Any lower level would imply severe clipping at the first stage; the master recording. Top quality microphones do not present a problem; most will handle 130 dB SPL without severe distortion, and a few manage more than 140 dB SPL.\n", "All clients feed data at 0 dB to the server, regardless of local monitoring levels. When setting up, the NINJAM client \"local\" level is set to 0 dB. \"Local\" does not affect transmitted volume. The slider labelled \"local\" only affects what the user hears locally, not what others hear. The user must adjust their input level - before the NINJAM client in the signal path - to affect what remote players are hearing. There is limited headroom in an audio channel, so it is considered good practice never to let audio level peak above 12 dB, and to set one's \"loud\" level at around 18 dB; this ensures space in the mix for others.\n", "A single signal can pass through a large number of level controls, e.g. individual channel fader, subgroup master fader, master fader and monitor volume control. According to audio engineer Tomlinson Holman, problems are created due to the multiplicity of the controls. Each and every console has their own dynamic range and it is important to utilize the controls correctly to avoid excessive noise or distortions.\n\nSection::::Multiple level controls in signal path.:Processes that affect levels.\n", "The subjective loudness of noise is best measured using a noise-meter to the ITU-R 468 noise weighting standard. The chart below shows, on this basis, the real range of live music, and then the level capabilities of various stages in the audio chain, from microphone to loudspeaker.\n\nSection::::Analysing programme levels.\n", "The \"unmasked threshold\" is the quietest level of the signal which can be perceived without a masking signal present. The \"masked threshold\" is the quietest level of the signal perceived when combined with a specific masking noise. The amount of masking is the difference between the masked and unmasked thresholds.\n", "Because a downward compressor only reduces the level of the signal, the ability to add a fixed amount of \"make-up gain\" at the output is usually provided so that an optimum output level is produced.\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Look-ahead.\n", "Line level\n\nLine level is the specified strength of an audio signal used to transmit analog sound between audio components such as CD and DVD players, television sets, audio amplifiers, and mixing consoles.\n", "The performances were created using 10 Sony VAIO laptops containing Mobile Intel Pentium 4 M processors. Four were used for audio, running Steinberg Cubase SX, the remaining 6 provided the video system.\n", "LKFS is standardized in ITU-R BS.1770. In March 2011, the ITU introduced a loudness gate in the second revision of the recommendation, ITU-R BS.1770-2. In August 2012, the ITU released the third revision of this recommendation ITU-R BS.1770-3. In October 2015, the ITU released the fourth revision of this recommendation ITU-R BS.1770-4.\n", "Note: the chosen M6/M3 metering standard does not affect the relative audible balance of sounds panned to one side versus the centre – that is determined solely by the panning law of the mixing console’s pan-pot.\n\nThe M6 standard is deemed a simpler form of metering for untrained broadcasters to use as it keeps the M meter at '4' for Alignment Level and '6' for peaks, without the operator having to remember to subtract 3 dB.\n", "A variety of terms such as 'line-up level' and 'operating level' exist, and their meaning may vary from place to place. In an attempt bring clarity to level definitions in the context of programme transmission from one country to another, where different technical practices may apply, ITU-R Rec. BS.645 defined three reference levels: Measurement Level (ML), Alignment Level (AL) and Permitted Maximum Level (PML). This document shows the reading corresponding to these levels for several types of meter. Alignment Level is the level of a steady sine-wave alignment tone. Permitted Maximum Level refers to the permitted maximum \"meter indication\" that operators should aim for on speech, music etc., not tone.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Lipman, Samuel,\"The House of Music: Art in an Era of Institutions\", 1984. See the chapter on \"Getting on Record\", pp. 62–75, about the early record industry and Fred Gaisberg and Walter Legge and FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording).\n\nBULLET::::- Millard, Andre J., \"America on record : a history of recorded sound\", Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995.\n\nBULLET::::- Millard, Andre J., \" From Edison to the iPod\", UAB Reporter, 2005, University of Alabama at Birmingham.\n", "Section::::Music and record production.:1960s.\n\nBULLET::::- The Revels\n", "Section::::1950s to 1980s.\n", "BULLET::::- Moogk, Edith Kathryn. \"Title Index to Canadian Works Listed in Edward B. Moogk's \"Roll Back the Years, History of Canadian Recorded Sound, Genesis to 1930\"\", in series, \"C.A.M.L. Occasional Papers\", no. 1. Ottawa, Ont.: Canadian Association of Music Libraries, 1988. \"N.B\".: Title and fore-matter also in French; supplements the index within E. B. Moogk's book.\n\nBULLET::::- Read, Oliver, and Walter L. Welch, \"From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph\", Second ed., Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Same & Co., 1976. \"N.B\".: This is an historical account of the development of sound recording technology. pbk.\n", "The first 45 rpm record created for sale was \"PeeWee the Piccolo\" RCA 47-0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant, Indianapolis on December 7, 1948, by R. O. Price, plant manager.\n\nIn the 1970s, the government of Bhutan produced now-collectible postage stamps on playable vinyl mini-discs.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "BULLET::::- The company RCA Victor presents to the public the first real LP record, the 35 cm diameter and 33.33 RPM give sufficient playing time for an entire orchestral work. But the new turntables are initially so expensive that they are only gain broad acceptance after the Second World War - then as vinyl record.\n\nBULLET::::- The French physicist René Barthélemy leads in Paris the first public television with clay before. The BBC launches first Tonversuche in the UK.\n", "The history of sound recording can cover mechanical, acoustical, electrical, magnetic and digital recording. Methods and media for sound recording are varied and have undergone significant changes between the first time sound was actually recorded for later playback until now. Engineers at AEG, working with the chemical giant IG Farben a German chemical industry in Frankfurt am Main, created the world's first practical magnetic tape recorder, the \"K1\", which was first demonstrated in 1935. The three major firms BASF, Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms Agfa, Cassella and some other companies.\n", "Section::::The revival of vinyl.\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 : The Hammond Organ Company commissioned John Hanert to design the Hanert Synthesizer\n\nBULLET::::- 1946 : Jennings Musical Instruments releases the Univox\n\nBULLET::::- 1946 : Raymond Scott patented the Orchestra Machine\n\nBULLET::::- 1947 : Constant Martin constructed the Clavioline\n\nBULLET::::- 1948 : Bell Laboratories reveal the first transistor\n\nBULLET::::- 1948 : The microgroove 33-1/3 rpm vinyl record (LP) is introduced by Columbia Records\n\nBULLET::::- 1951 : Pultec introduces the first passive program equalizer, the EQP-1\n\nBULLET::::- 1952 : Harry F. Olson and Herbert Belar invent the RCA Synthesizer\n", "Record press\n\nA record press is a machine for manufacturing vinyl records. It is essentially a hydraulic press fitted with thin nickel stampers which are negative impressions of a master disc. Labels and a pre-heated vinyl patty (or \"biscuit\") are placed in a heated mold cavity. Two stampers are used, one for each of side of the disc. The record press closes under a pressure of about 150 tons. The process of compression molding forces the hot vinyl to fill the grooves in the stampers, and take the form of the finished record.\n", "BULLET::::- Read, Oliver, \"The Recording and Reproduction of Sound\", Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Sams & Co., 1952. \"N.B\".: This is a pioneering engineering account of sound recording technology.\n\nBULLET::::- , San Diego University\n\nBULLET::::- St-Laurent, Gilles, \"Notes on the Degradation of Sound Recordings\", \"National Library [of Canada] News\", vol. 13, no. 1 (Jan. 1991), p. 1, 3-4.\n", "BULLET::::- Oral history of recorded sound Interviews with practitioners in all areas of the recording industry. British Library\n\nBULLET::::- History of Recorded Sound. New York Public Library\n\nBULLET::::- Noise in the Groove – A podcast about the history of the phonograph, gramophone, and sound recording/reproduction.\n\nBULLET::::- Audio Engineering online course under Creative Commons Licence\n\nBULLET::::- Archival Sound Recordings – tens of thousands of recordings showcasing audio history from 19th century wax cylinders to the present day. British Library\n\nBULLET::::- International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA)\n\nBULLET::::- Recorded Music at A History of Central Florida Podcast\n", "History of sound recording\n\nThe history of sound recording - which has progressed in waves, driven by the invention and commercial introduction of new technologies — can be roughly divided into four main periods:\n\nBULLET::::- the \"Acoustic\" era, 1877 to 1925\n\nBULLET::::- the \"Electrical\" era, 1925 to 1945 (including sound on film)\n\nBULLET::::- the \"Magnetic\" era, 1945 to 1975\n\nBULLET::::- the \"Digital\" Era, 1975 to the present day.\n", "The Gramophone and Typewriter Company, the precursor to EMI, purchased the site in the early 20th century and began constructing the first buildings in 1907. The company originally sold gramophones, and began making its own records in London in 1898 They were pressed at a factory in Germany until the Hayes Record Factory opened. From 1910, records bore the His Master's Voice label. The tenor Edward Lloyd took part in the groundbreaking ceremony. Vinyl records were produced from 1952.\n", "Section::::New York.\n", "Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the first commercial digital recordings in the early 1970s, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called \"electrical recording\", in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the \"horn sound\" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured.\n", "BULLET::::- More advanced stylus tip shapes (Shibata, Van den Hul, MicroLine, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- Direct Metal Mastering\n\nBULLET::::- Noise-reduction (CX encoding, dbx encoding), starting from 1973\n", "BULLET::::1. \"A Project For Your Art Department\"Jim KeysorCentury Records7\" 45 RPM, promo, yellow translucent discRecorded in the early 1960sSide A: \"A Project For Your Art Department\"Side B: \"Helpful Hints\"B1: \"Producing Your Album Covers\"B2: \"How To Record\"B3: \"Tape Editing\"B4: \"Marketing Your Records\"\n\nBULLET::::2. \"The Sound of a Secure Future\"James B. KeysorCentury Records FV 13957Vinyl LPRecorded 1961Side A: Matrix ® XY 13957-1Side B: Matrix ® XY 13957-2This was a promo for the Century Records franchise associate programInterviewee – James B. KeysorInterviewer (uncredited) – Gabe Bartold\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Century discography, by Robert S. Plante (retrieved May 12, 2017)\n\nSection::::Selected publications.\n", "Electric sound recording and reproduction are electrical or mechanical techniques and devices for the inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a small microphone diaphragm that can record sound waves on a phonograph (in which a stylus senses grooves on a record) or magnetic tape. The first practical sound recording and reproduction device was the mechanical phonograph cylinder, invented by Thomas Edison in 1877 and patented in 1878. \n", "Greg Beets of Austin Chronicle praised the book writing that, \"Enjoy the Experience chronicles the golden age of private pressings with contagious aplomb.\" Andrew Frisicano of Time Out Magazine praised the book concept and how it traces the stories behind the creation of those records and their creators along with the study of the recordings themselves.\n", "A gramophone record, commonly known as a record, or a vinyl record, is an analog sound storage medium consisting of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. Ever since Thomas Edison invented the phonograph in 1877, it produced distorted sound because of gravity's pressure on the playing stylus. In response, Emile Berliner invented a new medium for recording and listening to sound in 1887 in the form of a horizontal disc, originally known as the \"platter\".\n\n1887 Slot machine\n", "Scott's early recordings languished in French archives until 2008, when scholars keen to resurrect the sounds captured in these and other types of early experimental recordings tracked them down. Rather than using rough 19th century technology to create playable versions, they were scanned into a computer and software was used to convert their sound-modulated traces into digital audio files. Brief excerpts from two French songs and a recitation in Italian, all recorded in 1860, are the most substantial results.\n\nSection::::Acoustical recording.:Phonograph/Gramophone.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Development of novel devices.:Early sound spatialisation system.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Development of novel devices.\n", "Section::::Unusual grooves.:Inside-to-outside recording and hill-and-dale recording.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Secret handshakes cannot be traced back to a specific dated origin, but it can be determined that it is as old as any form of greeting or identification. The Freemason Society is one of the most well-known and longstanding implementations of secret handshakes. However, Biblical records also show evidence of secret greetings or handshakes. Although not a technical handshake, the account in the Gospel of John of the kiss of Judas, by which Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus, can be viewed as a form of secret greeting.\n", "BULLET::::- In India and several nearby countries, the respectful Namaste gesture, sometimes combined with a slight bow, is traditionally used in place of handshakes. However, handshakes are preferred in business and other formal settings.\n\nBULLET::::- In Norway, where a firm handshake is preferred, people will most often shake hands when agreeing on deals, both in private and business relations.\n", "BULLET::::- Scouts will shake hands with their left hand as a gesture of trust, which originated when the founder of the movement, Lord Baden-Powell of Gillwell, then a British cavalry officer, met an African tribesman.\n\nBULLET::::- In some areas of Africa, handshakes are continually held to show that the conversation is between the two talking. If they are not shaking hands, others are permitted to enter the conversation.\n\nBULLET::::- Masai men in Africa greet one another by a subtle touch of palms of their hands for a very brief moment of time.\n", "Handshakes are very common even today. The usage of secret handshakes in modern society is much more informal compared to the historical usage of secret handshakes. Where historically, a secret handshake would have a more formal, serious tone, today, secret handshakes are shared by mostly people in grade school who share a friendship type relational bond with one another. Secret handshakes are not commonly used to gain access to secret meetings today, but are more commonly used in an informal setting. Most likely one will see young school-aged children exchanging a complex, whimsical secret handshake on the playground during break time. \n", "Section::::Modern customs.\n\nThere are various customs surrounding handshakes, both generically and specific to certain cultures:\n\nThe handshake is commonly done upon meeting, greeting, parting, offering congratulations, expressing gratitude, or completing an agreement. In sports or other competitive activities, it is also done as a sign of good sportsmanship. Its purpose is to convey trust, respect, balance, and equality. If it is done to form an agreement, the agreement is not official until the hands are parted.\n\nUnless health issues or local customs dictate otherwise, usually a handshake is made with bare hands. However, it depends on the situation.\n", "Self-clasping handshake\n\nA self-clasping handshake is a gesture in which one hand is grasped by the other and held together in front of the body or over the head. In the United States, this gesture is a sign of victory, being made by the winning boxer at the end of a fight. Russian leaders of the Soviet Union, such as Khrushchev, used the gesture to symbolise friendship when visiting the United States, and so risked misunderstanding. \n", "BULLET::::- In Liberia, the snap handshake is customary, where the two shakers snap their fingers against each other at the conclusion of the handshake.\n\nSection::::Germ spreading.\n\nHandshakes are known to spread a number of microbial pathogens. Certain diseases such as scabies are known to spread the most through direct skin-to-skin contact. A medical study has found that fist bumps and high fives spread fewer germs than handshakes.\n", "Handshakes are popular in the United States and are appropriate for use between men and women. However, in Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing their hands as if praying.\n\nA firm, friendly handshake has long been recommended in the business world as a way to make a good first impression, and the greeting is thought to date to ancient times as a way of showing a stranger you had no weapons.\n", "BULLET::::- In Anglophone countries, handshaking is common in business situations. In casual non-business situations, men are more likely to shake hands than women.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Netherlands and Belgium, handshakes are done more often, especially on meetings.\n\nBULLET::::- In Switzerland, it may be expected to shake the women's hands first.\n\nBULLET::::- Austrians shake hands when meeting, often including with children.\n\nBULLET::::- In the United States a traditional handshake is firm, executed with the right hand, with good posture & eye contact.\n\nBULLET::::- In Russia, a handshake is performed by men and rarely performed by women.\n", "Various sources have attributed the origin of the handshake, as an ancient sign of bravery and respect, to Lord Baden-Powell's encounter after battle with Prempeh I, or to earlier published works by Ernest Thompson Seton. There exist various versions of the Prempeh story, all centering on African warriors using the left hand to hold their shields and to lower it and shake the left hand of the person was to show they trusted each other.\n", "Handshake\n\nA handshake is a globally widespread, brief greeting or parting tradition in which two people grasp one of each other's like hands, in most cases accompanied by a brief up-and-down movement of the grasped hands. Handshakes are sometimes used to signify romantic relationships.\n\nUsing the right hand is generally considered proper etiquette. Customs surrounding handshakes are specific to cultures. Different cultures may be more or less likely to shake hands, or there may be different customs about how or when to shake hands.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Archaeological ruins and ancient texts show that handshaking – also known as dexiosis – was practiced in ancient Greece as far back as the 5th century BC; a depiction of two soldiers shaking hands can be found on part of a 5th-century BC funerary stele on display in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin (stele SK1708) and other funerary steles like the one of the 4th century BC which depicts Thraseas and his wife Euandria handshaking (see images on the right). The handshake is believed by some to have originated as a gesture of peace by demonstrating that the hand holds no weapon. Meanwhile, Muslim scholars tell that custom of handshaking was introduced by the people of Yemen.\n", "A secret handshake can also be a useful form of familiar interaction between friends, colleagues, and family members. As a form of cryptography, secret handshakes are shared only with select and elect peoples. Usually a secret handshake has underlying meanings that differ from person to person. Secret handshakes involve a precise, sometimes complex series of movements and contact between two individuals or even a group. Usually, these movements involve the primary use of hands, but could also involve a series of touching feet, elbows, or in some cultures a friendly kiss.\n\nSection::::Historical usage.\n", "Some epochs and cultures have had very elaborate greeting rituals, e.g. greeting a sovereign. Conversely, secret societies have often furtive or arcane greeting gestures and rituals, such as a secret handshake, which allow members to recognize each other.\n\nIn some languages and cultures, the same word or gesture is used as both greeting and farewell. Examples are \"Good day\" in English, \"Sat Shri Akaal\" in Punjabi, \"As-Salamualaikum\" in Arabic, \"Aloha\" in Hawaiian, \"Shalom\" in Hebrew, \"Namaste\" in Hindi and \"Ciao\" in Italian. The bow and handshake are also used for both greeting and leave taking.\n\nSection::::Greeting gestures.\n", "Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and commonly done on meeting, greeting, offering congratulations or after the completion of an agreement. They usually indicate the level of confidence and emotion level in people. Studies have also categorized several handshake styles, e.g. the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc. \n", "It has been discovered as a part of a research in the Weizmann Institute, that human handshakes serve as a means of transferring social chemical signals between the shakers. \n\nIt appears that there is a tendency to bring the shaken hands to the vicinity of the nose and smell them. They may serve an evolutionary need to learn about the person whose hand was shaken, replacing a more overt sniffing behavior, as is common among animals and in certain human cultures (such as Tuvalu, Greenland or rural Mongolia, where a quick sniff is part of the traditional greeting ritual).\n", "Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings. In Western cultures the handshake is very common, though it has numerous subtle variations in the strength of grip, the vigour of the shake, the dominant position of one hand over the other, and whether or not the left hand is used. \n", "In light of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, the dean of medicine at the University of Calgary, Tomas Feasby, suggested that fist bumps may be a \"nice replacement of the handshake\" in an effort to prevent transmission of the virus.\n", "BULLET::::- In China, where a weak handshake is also preferred, people shaking hands will often hold on to each other's hands for an extended period after the initial handshake.\n\nBULLET::::- In Japan, it is appropriate to let the Japanese initiate the handshake, and a weak handshake is preferred. The Japanese do not have a tradition of shaking hands, they prefer to formally bow (with hands open by their sides) to each other but they will greet non-Japanese with a handshake.\n", "Secret handshake\n\nA secret handshake is a distinct form of handshake or greeting which conveys membership in or loyalty to a club, clique or subculture. The typical secret handshake involves placing one's fingers or thumbs in a particular position, one that will be recognized by fellow members while seeming to be a normal handshake to non-members. This is most frequently associated in the popular consciousness with college fraternities, fraternal orders and secret societies.\n", "BULLET::::- In the United States, \"a firm handshake, accompanied by direct eye contact, is the standard greeting. Direct eye contact in both social and business situations is very important.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In the People's Republic of China, \"the Western custom of shaking a person's hand upon introduction has become widespread throughout the country. However, oftentimes a nod of the head or a slight bow will suffice.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In Korea, a senior person will initiate a handshake, where it is preferred to be weak. It is a sign of respect to grasp the right arm with the left hand when shaking hands. It is also disrespectful to have your free hand in your pocket while shaking hands. It is considered disrespectful to put one's hand in your pocket while shaking another person's hand. Bowing is the preferred and conventional way of greeting a person in Korea.\n", "BULLET::::- In some countries such as Turkey or the Arabic-speaking Middle East, handshakes are not as firm as in the West. Consequently, a grip which is too firm is rude. Hand shaking between men and women is not encouraged in the Arabic world. You should only use your right hand as well.\n\nBULLET::::- Moroccans also give one kiss on each cheek (to corresponding genders) together with the handshake. Also, in some countries, a variation exists where instead of kisses, after the handshake the palm is placed on the heart.\n", "The Freemasons have at least 12 known universal secret handshakes that were implemented in their society. However, there are believed to be many more unrecorded masonic secret handshakes. The secretiveness of this society is prevalent in their greetings. Fellow masons shake hands using secret handshakes, but within the society, apprentices and masters have distinctly different handshakes to identify one from another. Additionally, the Freemasons make use of the aforementioned secret signals to subtly indicate who is of what level. For instance, one handshake used between a master from an apprentice includes distinct touches on the knuckles.\n\nSection::::Modern usage.\n", "A Chinese greeting features the right fist placed in the palm of the left hand and both shaken back and forth two or three times, it may be accompanied by a head nod or bow. The gesture may be used on meeting and parting, and when offering thanks or apologies.\n\nIn India, it is common to see the Namaste greeting (or \"Sat Sri Akal\" for Sikhs) where the palms of the hands are pressed together and held near the heart with the head gently bowed.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Potatoes have phosphoric acid and work well; they are the basis for commercial \"potato clock\" kits. Potato batteries with LED lighting have been proposed for use in poor countries or by off-grid populations. International research begun in 2010 showed that boiling potatoes for eight minutes improves their electrical output, as does placing slices of potatoes between multiple copper and zinc plates. Boiled and chopped plantain pith (stem) is also suitable, according to Sri Lankan researchers.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"The Big Bang Theory\" Season 6 episode \"The Proton Resurgence\", Leonard and Sheldon's childhood hero Professor Proton (Bob Newhart) attempts to show the group a potato battery, which amazes Penny.\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"Bones\" Season 6 episode \"The Blackout in the Blizzard\", Angela and the other \"squints\" build a massive potato battery array in an attempt to power a cell phone. Illustrating the pathetically low output of such a system, it is successful for only a handful of seconds while using dozens of potatoes.\n", "Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals into a lemon, potato, etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. \"Two-potato clocks\" are also widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, et cetera) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock. Homemade cells of this kind are of no practical use.\n", "The generator consists of four voltage multipliers (Marx generators), each one containing 24 capacitors. At the maximum charging voltage of 100 kilo-volts, an output voltage of 2.4 million volts is produced and delivered into the load section.\n", "Section::::Process.\n\nThere are different configurations for continuous ohmic heating systems, but the most basic process is outlined in Figure 1. A power supply or generator is needed to produce electrical current. Electrodes, in direct contact with food, pass electric current through the matrix. The distance between the electrodes can be adjusted to achieve the optimum electrical field strength.\n", "Researchers at Georgia Tech have built a micro generator 10 mm wide, which spins a magnet above an array of coils fabricated on a silicon chip. The device spins at 100,000 revolutions per minute, and produces 1.1 watts of electrical power, sufficient to operate a cell phone. Their goal is to produce 20 to 50 watts, sufficient to power a laptop computer.\n\nScientists at Lehigh University are developing a hydrogen generator on a silicon chip that can convert methanol, diesel, or gasoline into fuel for a microengine or a miniature fuel cell.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"MythBusters\" episode tested a potato cannon held together by duct tape compared to one held together using PVC bonding agent. Another episode, testing MacGyver myths, supplied Adam and Jamie with the materials to build a potato cannon as part of a challenge to \"MacGyver\" up a way to signal a rescue helicopter; however, they used the piping and other supplies present to build a large kite instead.\n", "New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the world, ranging between 60 and 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88 tonnes potatoes per hectare.\n", "Microbial fuel cells can create energy when bacteria breaks down organic material, this process a charge that is transferred to the anode. Taking something like human saliva, which has lots of organic material, can be used to power a micro-sized microbial fuel cell. This can produce a small amount of energy to run on-chip applications. This application can be used in things like biomedical devices and cell phones.\n", "Uses of somatic fusion include making potato plants resistant to potato leaf roll disease. Through somatic fusion, the crop potato plant \"Solanum tuberosum\" – the yield of which is severely reduced by a viral disease transmitted on by the aphid vector – is fused with the wild, non-tuber-bearing potato \"Solanum brevidens\", which is resistant to the disease. The resulting hybrid has the chromosomes of both plants and is thus similar to polyploid plants.\n\nSomatic hybridization was first introduced by Carlson et al. in \"Nicotiana glauca\".\n\nSection::::Process for plant cells.\n\nThe somatic fusion process occurs in four steps:\n", "One particularly interesting approach for generating the high voltage fields needed to accelerate ions in a neutron tube is to use a pyroelectric crystal. In April 2005 researchers at UCLA demonstrated the use of a thermally cycled pyroelectric crystal to generate high electric fields in a neutron generator application. In February 2006 researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute demonstrated the use of two oppositely poled crystals for this application. Using these low-tech power supplies it is possible to generate a sufficiently high electric field gradient across an accelerating gap to accelerate deuterium ions into a deuterated target to produce the D + D fusion reaction. These devices are similar in their operating principle to conventional sealed-tube neutron generators which typically use Cockcroft–Walton type high voltage power supplies. The novelty of this approach is in the simplicity of the high voltage source. Unfortunately, the relatively low accelerating current that pyroelectric crystals can generate, together with the modest pulsing frequencies that can be achieved (a few cycles per minute) limits their near-term application in comparison with today's commercial products (see below). Also see pyroelectric fusion.\n", "BULLET::::- Potatoes (mainly Russets) are commonly used in plant research. The consistent parenchyma tissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity provide a very nice \"model tissue\" for experimentation. Wound-response studies are often done on potato tuber tissue, as are electron transport experiments. In this respect, potato tuber tissue is similar to \"Drosophila melanogaster\", \"Caenorhabditis elegans\" and \"Escherichia coli\": they are all \"standard\" research organisms.\n\nBULLET::::- Potatoes have been delivered with personalized messages as a novelty. Potato delivery services include Potato Parcel and Mail A Spud.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Latin America.\n", "Traditionally a maize and cattle farmer, Buchan decides to plant potatoes. Scientists had warned the farmers not to plant that season unless they had irrigation. Because of the unprecedented drought, planting potatoes would be a massive risk. Believing he is led by the Lord, he plants potatoes in the dry dust. When harvest time comes, there is a crop of giant potatoes.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\n\"Faith Like Potatoes\" was produced by Frans Cronje from Global Creative Studios. Most of the filming took place at Shalom Farm, the famous Buchan farm in Kwa-Zulu Natal.\n\nSection::::Release and reception.\n", "Section::::Impacts of climate change on potato production.:Carbon dioxide.\n\nPotato plants and potato crop yields are predicted to benefit from increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere.\n\nThe major benefit of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide for potatoes (and other plants) is an increase in their photosynthetic rates which can increase their growth rates.\n\nPotato crop yields are also predicted to benefit because potatoes partition more starch to the edible tubers under elevated carbon dioxide levels.\n", "A potato spinner is connected to a tractor through the three-point linkage. Older machines were drawn by horse and were driven by a ground drive. It works by a flat piece of metal which runs horizontal to the ground lifting the potatoes up and a large wheel with spokes on it called a reel pushing the clay and potatoes out to the side. The potatoes are then gathered by hand, placed into containers and transported from the field for further packaging.\n", "Zamboni piles of more modern construction were manufactured as recently as the 1980s for providing the accelerating voltage for image intensifier tubes, particularly in military use. Today such voltages are obtained from transistorised inverter circuits powered by conventional (low-voltage) batteries.\n\nThe EMF per element is approximately 0.8 volts; with thousands of stacked elements, Zamboni piles have output potential differences in the kilovolt range, but current output in the nanoampere range. The famous Oxford Electric Bell, which has been ringing continuously since 1840, is thought to be powered by a pair of Zamboni piles.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Voltaic pile\n", "Potatoes are delivered to the starch plants via road or rail transport. Unloading of potatoes could be done in two ways: \n\nBULLET::::1. dry - using elevators and tippers,\n\nBULLET::::2. wet - using strong jet of water.\n\nSection::::Potato starch production.:Cleaning.\n", "A food mill can be used as a substitute for a ricer.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n", " Many types of potatoes are grown; for the production of potato starch, potato varieties with high starch content and high starch yields are selected. Recently, a new type of potato plant was developed that only contains one type of starch molecule: amylopectin, the waxy potato starch. Waxy starches, after starch gelatinisation, retrograde less during storage.\n\nThe cultivation of potatoes for starch mainly takes place in Germany, the Netherlands, China, Japan, France, Denmark, and Poland, but also in Sweden, Finland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Canada, and India.\n", "Section::::History.:The \"New Improved\" Electric Prunes.\n", "Most potato varieties are maintained in plant tissue culture and micropropagation methods are used to increase the amount of planting material. Since tissue culture plants perform poorly when planted into field soil, they are instead planted into greenhouses or screenhouses to generate tubers, which are referred to as minitubers. In many countries, it is common for NFT or aeroponic systems to be used for production of minitubers from tissue culture plantlets. The minitubers are planted into the field 6 to 14 months after harvest to grow a crop of potatoes. This first crop of field-grown potatoes is typically replanted to generate more potatoes rather than consumed.\n", "Tomatoes have been used as a model organism to study the fruit ripening of climacteric fruit. To understand the mechanisms involved in the process of ripening, scientists have genetically engineered potatoes.\n", "Seed Potatoes\n", "Piezoelectric nanofibers in clothing could generate enough electricity from the wearer's body movements to power small electronic devices, such as iPods or some of the electronic equipment used by soldiers on the battlefield, based on research by University of California, Berkeley Professor Liwei Lin and his team. One million such fibers could power an iPod, and would be altogether as large as a grain of sand. Researchers at Stanford University are developing \"eTextiles\" — batteries made of fabric — that might serve to store power generated by such technology.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "Persons having the HLA-DR4 type of human leucocyte antigen appear to have a higher risk of PMR.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nNo specific test exists to diagnose polymyalgia rheumatica; many other diseases can cause inflammation and pain in muscles, but a few tests can help narrow down the cause of the pain. Limitation in shoulder motion, or swelling of the joints in the wrists or hands, are noted by the doctor. A patient's answers to questions, a general physical exam, and the results of tests can help a doctor determine the cause of pain and stiffness.\n", "Following the fever, strong joint pain or stiffness occurs; it usually lasts weeks or months, but may last for years. The joint pain can be debilitating, often resulting in near immobility of the affected joints. Joint pain is reported in 87–98% of cases, and nearly always occurs in more than one joint, though joint swelling is uncommon. Typically the affected joints are located in both arms and legs, and are affected symmetrically. Joints are more likely to be affected if they have previously been damaged by disorders such as arthritis. Pain most commonly occurs in peripheral joints, such as the wrists, ankles, and joints of the hands and feet as well as some of the larger joints, typically the shoulders, elbows and knees. Pain may also occur in the muscles or ligaments.\n", "Inflammatory myopathies are caused by the immune system inappropriately attacking components of muscle, leading to signs of muscle inflammation. They may occur in conjunction with other immune disorders, such as systemic sclerosis, and include dermatomyositis, polymyositis, and inclusion body myositis.\n\nSection::::Inflammatory disorders.:Leukocyte defects.\n", "Fever is not a symptom of intussusception. However, intussusception can cause a loop of bowel to become necrotic, secondary to ischemia due to compression to arterial blood supply. This leads to perforation and sepsis, which causes fever.\n\nIn rare cases, intussusception may be a complication of Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP), an immune-mediated vasculitis disease in children. Such patients who develop intussusception often present with severe abdominal pain in addition to the classic signs and symptoms of HSP.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "About 95% of symptomatic cases report joint pain. This is typically symmetrical and with acute onset, affecting the fingers, toes, ankles, wrists, back, knees and elbows. Fatigue occurs in 90% and fever, myalgia and headache occur in 50–60%.\n", "BULLET::::- Fever (especially when infectious, e.g., in rheumatic fever)\n\nBULLET::::- Symptoms in young children tend to be more nonspecific, with generalized malaise, poor appetite, abdominal pain, and chronic cough. Later stages of the illness will present with respiratory symptoms with increased work of breathing, and is often mistaken for asthma.\n\nSince myocarditis is often due to a viral illness, many patients give a history of symptoms consistent with a recent viral infection, including fever, rash, diarrhea, joint pains, and easily becoming tired.\n", "Acute mediastinitis is an infectious process and can cause fever, chills, tachycardia. Pain can occur with mediastinitis but the location of the pain depends on which part of the mediastinum is involved. When the upper mediastinum is involved, the pain is typically retro-sternal pain. When the lower mediastinum is involved, pain can be located between in the scapulae and radiate around to the chest.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Chronic.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Etiology.:Splenic abscess.\n\nFever is the most common symptom of splenic abscess, followed by abdominal pain and a tender mass on palpation of the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. The common signs and symptoms described of a splenic abscess include the triad of fever, left upper quadrant tenderness, and leukocytosis is present only in one-third of the cases.\n\nSection::::Etiology.:Splenic rupture.\n", "BULLET::::3. Chest attacks include pleuritis (inflammation of the pleura) and pericarditis (inflammation of the pericardium). Pleuritis occurs in 40% of patients and makes it difficult to breathe or lie flat, but pericarditis is rare.\n\nBULLET::::4. Scrotal attacks due to inflammation of the tunica vaginalis are somewhat rare but may be mistaken for testicular torsion.\n\nBULLET::::5. Myalgia (rare in isolation)\n\nBULLET::::6. Erysipeloid (a skin reaction on the legs that can mimic cellulitis, rare in isolation)\n", "Infectious tenosynovitis occurs between 2.5% - 9.4% of all hand infections. Kanavel's cardinal signs is used to diagnose infectious tenosynovitis. They are: tenderness to touch along the flexor aspect of the finger, fusiform enlargement of the affected finger, the finger being held in slight flexion at rest, and severe pain with passive extension. Fever may also be present but is uncommon.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "BULLET::::- Inflammatory back pain:brChronic, inflammatory back pain is defined when at least four out of five of the following parameters are present: (1) Age of onset below 40 years old, (2) insidious onset, (3) improvement with exercise, (4) no improvement with rest, and (5) pain at night (with improvement upon getting up)\n\nBULLET::::- Past history of inflammation in the joints, heels, or tendon-bone attachments\n\nBULLET::::- Family history for axial spondyloarthritis\n\nBULLET::::- Positive for the biomarker HLA-B27\n\nBULLET::::- Good response to treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)\n\nBULLET::::- Signs of elevated inflammation (C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate)\n", "BULLET::::- Erysipelas (ignis sacer, Saint Anthony's fire)\n\nBULLET::::- Erysipeloid of Rosenbach\n\nBULLET::::- Erythema marginatum\n\nBULLET::::- Erythrasma\n\nBULLET::::- External otitis (otitis externa, swimmer's ear)\n\nBULLET::::- Felon\n\nBULLET::::- Flea-borne spotted fever\n\nBULLET::::- Flinders Island spotted fever\n\nBULLET::::- Flying squirrel typhus\n\nBULLET::::- Folliculitis\n\nBULLET::::- Fournier gangrene (Fournier gangrene of the penis or scrotum)\n\nBULLET::::- Furunculosis (boil)\n\nBULLET::::- Gas gangrene (clostridial myonecrosis, myonecrosis)\n\nBULLET::::- Glanders (equinia, farcy, malleus)\n\nBULLET::::- Gonococcemia (arthritis–dermatosis syndrome, disseminated gonococcal infection)\n\nBULLET::::- Gonorrhea (clap)\n\nBULLET::::- Gram-negative folliculitis\n\nBULLET::::- Gram-negative toe web infection\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Blood tests.\n\nIf the diagnosis is suspected, serology can be performed:\n\nBULLET::::- One test is for antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor; the test has a reasonable sensitivity of 80–96%, but in ocular myasthenia, the sensitivity falls to 50%.\n\nBULLET::::- A proportion of the patients without antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor have antibodies against the MuSK protein.\n\nBULLET::::- In specific situations, testing is performed for Lambert-Eaton syndrome.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Electrodiagnostics.\n", "Section::::Setting.\n", "Of 64 patients meeting the CDC criteria before October 29, 2014, 80% had had a preceding respiratory illness and 75% reported fever in the days leading up to limb weakness, the onset of which was generally abrupt. By November 20, the number of confirmed cases stood at 88 from 29 states.\n\nThe CDC requested that physicians provide information about cases meeting these criteria: patients diagnosed after August 1, 2014, who are no older than 21 years of age, showing acute onset of focal limb weakness, with a spinal cord lesion largely restricted to grey matter visualized by MRI.\n", "Among people who do use intravenous drugs and have a fever in the emergency department, there is about a 10% to 15% prevalence of endocarditis. This estimate is not substantially changed by whether the doctor believes the patient has a trivial explanation for their fever. Weisse found that 13% of 121 patients had endocarditis. Marantz also found a prevalence of endocarditis of 13% among such patients in the emergency department with fever. Samet found a 6% incidence among 283 such patients, but after excluding patients with initially apparent major illness to explain the fever (including 11 cases of manifest endocarditis), there was a 7% prevalence of endocarditis.\n", "BULLET::::- Skin/subcutaneous tissue disease is a septic phlegmon that develops classically in the hand and forearm after a cat bite. Inflammatory signs are very rapid to develop; in 1 or 2 hours, edema, severe pain, and serosanguineous exudate appear. Fever, moderate or very high, can be seen, along with vomiting, headache, and diarrhea. Lymphangitis is common. Complications are possible, in the form of septic arthritis, osteitis, or evolution to chronicity.\n\nBULLET::::- Sepsis is very rare, but can be as fulminant as septicaemic plague, with high fever, rigors, and vomiting, followed by shock and coagulopathy.\n", "Bacterial myelitis includes \"Mycoplasma Pneumoniae\", which is a common agent for respiratory tract. Studies have shown respiratory tract infections within 4–39 days prior to the onset of transverse myelitis. Or, tuberculosis, syphilis, and brucellosis are also known to cause myelitis in immune-compromised individuals. Myelitis is a rare manifestation of bacterial infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Fungal myelitis\n", "A group in Texas reported having observed a pattern in 2013 of one to four cases per year with similar polio-like characteristics.\n\nIn 2014, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report and a CDC Clinician Outreach and Communication Activity (COCA) conference call, noted that many cases had neck, back, or extremity pain, but otherwise those affected generally had normal sensation in their limbs. A few participants in the conference call discussed whether pain, later abating, might precede the onset of paralysis.\n", "In the laboratory MG is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015, scientists developed an in vitro functional all-human, neuromuscular junction assay from human embryonic stem cells and somatic-muscle stem cells. After the addition of pathogenic antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor and activation of the complement system, the neuromuscular co-culture shows symptoms such as weaker muscle contractions.\n", "In the acute phase of chikungunya, the virus is typically present in the areas where symptoms present, specifically skeletal muscles, and joints. In the chronic phase, it is suggested that viral persistence (the inability of the body to entirely rid itself of the virus), lack of clearance of the antigen, or both, contribute to joint pain. The inflammation response during both the acute and chronic phase of the disease results in part from interactions between the virus and monocytes and macrophages. \"Chikungunya virus\" disease in humans is associated with elevated serum levels of specific cytokines and chemokines. High levels of specific cytokines have been linked to more severe acute disease: interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1β, RANTES, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG), and interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10). Cytokines may also contribute to chronic \"Chikungunya virus\" disease, as persistent joint pain has been associated with elevated levels of IL-6 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). In those with chronic symptoms, a mild elevation of C-reactive protein (CRP) has been observed, suggesting ongoing chronic inflammation. However, there is little evidence linking chronic \"Chikungunya virus\" disease and the development of autoimmunity.\n", "BULLET::::- Contaminants: Unidentified contaminants in rapeseed oil cause the toxic oil syndrome and in commercial batches of the amino acid, L-tryptophan, cause the eosinophilia–myalgia syndrome.\n\nBULLET::::- Vaccinations: Tetanus toxoid, smallpox, and diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus vaccinations.\n\nSection::::Cause.:DRESS syndrome.\n", "There are a number of known causes of myopathy, and it is only once these have been ruled out that a clinician will assign an idiopathic inflammatory myopathy (IIM) syndrome to a case. The usual criteria for a diagnosis of PM are weakness in muscles of the head, neck, trunk, upper arms or upper legs; raised blood serum concentrations of some muscle enzymes such as creatine kinase; unhealthy muscle changes on electromyography; and biopsy findings of (i) muscle cell degeneration and regeneration and (ii) chronic inflammatory infiltrates in muscle cells. If heliotrope (purple) rash or Gottron's papules are also present, then the diagnosis is DM. In DM, myositis may not be clinically apparent but detectable via biopsy or MRI. If the criteria for PM are met but muscle weakness also affects the hands and feet or is not accompanied by pain IBM should be suspected, and confirmed when muscle cell biopsy reveals (i) cytoplasmic vacuoles fringed by basophilic granules and (ii) inflammatory infiltrate comprising mostly CD8 T lymphocytes and macrophages; and electron microscopy reveals filamentous inclusions in both cytoplasm and nucleus.\n", "BULLET::::8. Anatomy and Physiology, vol. vi p. 216 1872\n\nBULLET::::9. 1870 — On the Shoulder Tip Pain, and other Sympathetic Pains in Diseases of the Pancreas and Spleen, and on the symmetry of these organs.\n\nBULLET::::- Letter from physicians to governors of Fever Hospital\n\nBULLET::::1. 1877 — Case of univentricular or tricoelian heart; with Dr. Rob. Elliot\n\nBULLET::::2. 1882 — Address delivered at the anniversary meeting of the Northern Branch of the British Medical Association in Newcastle, 13 July 1882\n\nBULLET::::3. 1882 – On the treatment of sea-sickness. Journal of Medicine, No 32 1882\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "BULLET::::- Comparison between U.S. states and countries by GDP (nominal)\n\nBULLET::::- List of country subdivisions by GDP over USD 100 billions\n\nBULLET::::- List of US state economies\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- California's homepage\n\nBULLET::::- California Department of Finance\n\nBULLET::::- Financial & Economic Data\n\nBULLET::::- Latest California Economic Data\n\nBULLET::::- California Legislative Analyst's Office — California's Nonpartisan Fiscal and Policy Advisor\n\nBULLET::::- Cal Facts: California's Economy and Budget in Perspective\n\nBULLET::::- California's Fiscal Outlook: LAO Projections, 2004-05 Through 2009-10\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of Economic Analysis — an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce\n\nBULLET::::- California's Commerce & Economic Development Program\n", "California in 2010, when measured as a percentage of GDP, had the 4th highest tax burden of all the fifty states at 13.4% of the state GDP.\n", "Being a MSA, aggregate GDP figures are reported by the Bureau of Economic Analysis annually. The Inland Empire ranks 25th in the nation with a 2011 GDP of $109.8 billion, roughly a third of San Francisco-Oakland-Fremont, CA MSA despite their close population numbers. Per capita GDP was $25,993.34 in 2011, nearly half among the nation's top 50 Gross Metropolitan Product. Due to housing crisis, the GDP fell from $114.8 billion in 2007, despite a heavy influx of residents.\n", "In 2017 a miscalculation of the costs for the state's Medi-Cal program of $1.9 billion in 2016 led Governor Jerry Brown to project the state of California will face a $1.6 billion budget deficit. As of January 2017, California and Kansas were the only two western states with an AA- bond credit rating\n\nSection::::California public borrowing.\n", "One notable side effect of California's tax structure is that a substantial portion of the state's income comes from a small proportion of wealthy citizens. For example, it is estimated that in 2004 the richest 3% of state taxpayers (those with tax returns showing over $200,000 in yearly income) paid approximately 60% of state income taxes.\n\nSection::::California Surplus.\n\nCalifornia has been running budget surpluses since 2011.\n\nSection::::California public spending.\n", "In 2005, Pew Research Center's Government Performance Project gave California a grade C-, tied for last with Alabama. By 2008, when the last report was issued, California had a C, which placed it near the bottom of the states. In discussing the results, the report noted that the personnel system is known to be dysfunctional, and that the Human Resources Modernization Project was underway to address the issue.\n\nSection::::Local government.\n", "Unlike many major metropolitan areas, the Inland Empire does not have quite a robust public transportation system as it needs. When combined with the large physical size of the region, more people use automobiles for convenient travel. Less than five percent of the IE's 1,249,224 working-age residents use public transportation to get to work.\n", "and the Province of Alberta in Canada.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n\nCalifornia's economy ranks among the largest in the world. , the gross state product (GSP) was $3.0 trillion ($76,000 per capita), the largest in the United States. California is responsible for 1/7 of the United States' approximate $20 trillion gross domestic product (GDP). , California's nominal GDP is larger than all but 4 countries (the United States, China, Japan and Germany). In terms of Purchasing Power Parity, it is larger than all but 8 countries (the United States, China, India, Japan, Germany, Russia, Brazil and Indonesia).\n", "Southern California is witnessing historic change at the global, national, and regional level. As the world continues to change in sometimes dramatic ways, Southern California is increasingly faced with tougher policy choices that will shape our region for generations to come:\n\nAs the SCAG regions adds about four million more residents to the region by 2040, the ability to coordinate growth and infrastructure will determine how the region consumes its finite resources, whether it’s open space, water, or even roadway capacity. \n", "The five largest sectors of employment in California are trade, transportation, and utilities; government; professional and business services; education and health services; and leisure and hospitality. In output, the five largest sectors are financial services, followed by trade, transportation, and utilities; education and health services; government; and manufacturing. , California has an unemployment rate of 5.5%.\n\nCalifornia's economy is dependent on trade and international related commerce accounts for about one-quarter of the state's economy. In 2008, California exported $144 billion worth of goods, up from $134 billion in 2007 and $127 billion in 2006.\n", "Section::::Statewide.:Watchdog evaluations.\n\nIn a 2015 review by the nonprofit The Center for Public Integrity of how effectively states promote transparency and procedures to reduce corruption, California received a C-, the second-highest grade in the country. It ranked particularly low in public access to information and judicial transparency.\n", "State spending increased from $56 billion in 1998 to $131 billion in 2008, and the state was facing a budget deficit of $40 billion in 2008. California is facing another budget gap for 2010, with $72 billion in debt. California faces a massive and still-growing debt.\n\nSection::::California public spending.:California's 2009-2010 Crisis.\n", "Section::::Taxes.\n", "As of 2018, the agency has $360 billion in assets, and is underfunded by an estimated $150 billion, with current assets below 70% of necessary to provide for liabilities. In an effort to reduce this shortfall, at the end of 2016 the board lowered their expected annual rate of return on investments from 7.5% to 7.0%, increasing the costs California cities must pay toward their workers' pensions.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Sectors.:Agriculture.\n\nCompared to other states, California has a large agriculture industry (including fruit, vegetables, dairy, and wine production), but at less than 2% of the GDP, it makes a relatively minor direct contribution to the state's overall economy. The total economic contribution is likely more than double this value (see below). Airborne exports of perishable fruits and vegetables amounted to approximately $579 million in 2007. By way of comparison, California exported more agricultural products by air that year than 23 other states did by all modes of transport. California agriculture is dependent on undocumented labor.\n", "BULLET::::- 0.25% - State - Fiscal Recovery Fund\n\nBULLET::::- 0.50% - State - Local Revenue Fund\n\nBULLET::::- 0.50% - State - Local Public Safety Fund\n\nBULLET::::- 1.00% - Bradley-Burns Uniform Local Tax Law\n\nBULLET::::- 0.25% - Local County - Transportation funds\n\nBULLET::::- 0.75% - Local City/County - Operational funds\n\nBULLET::::- 0.50% - AB 1077 (1977) Transportation formula - Bay Area Rapid Transit, San Francisco Municipal Railway, AC Transit\n\nBULLET::::- 0.50% - Local/regional transportation\n", "In 2010, there were more than 663,000 millionaires in the state, more than any other state in the nation. In 2010, California residents were ranked first among the states with the best average credit score of 754.\n\nSection::::Economy.:State finances.\n", "Government is California's largest industry, like most states, with about 2.5 million employees. The second largest industry, according to the Census, is Healthcare and Social Assistance.\n\nSection::::Sectors.:International trade and tourism.\n", "California property tax rates are ranked 17th highest in the nation having been capped by the Proposition 13 overwhelmingly passed in 1978. Property taxes in California amounted to over $54.0 billion (2011) and are one of the largest taxes in California of which about $12.0 billion of the $54.0 billion collected was for voter approved \"extras\". The property tax, despite being used primarily to finance local governments, has a significant effect on the state budget. The state's convoluted education finance system attempts to \"equalize\" school district property tax revenue for K–14 districts by using the states general funds collected mostly from income and sales taxes. The state has changed the laws regarding property tax allocation many times to attempt to limit its extensive education costs.\n", "If the state were considered separately, it would rank as the fifth largest economy in the world, behind rest of the United States, China, Japan, and Germany as of 2017. The state recently overtook the United Kingdom to take the fifth spot. The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis reported that California’s GDP was $2.751 trillion in 3rd quarter 2017.\n\nSection::::Sectors.\n\nIn 2002, the U.S. government began to use the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) system of classifying economic activities, to better reflect today's economy.\n", "State spending increased from $56 billion in 1998 to $127 billion in 2011. California, with 12% of the United States population, has one-third of the nation's welfare recipients. California has the third highest per capita spending on welfare among the states, as well as the highest spending on welfare at $6.67 billion. In January 2011 the California's total debt was at least $265 billion. On June 27, 2013, Governor Jerry Brown signed a balanced budget (no deficit) for the state, its first in decades; however the state's debt remains at $132 billion.\n", "BULLET::::- John Diaz, the editorial page editor of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\", has written, \"The proposed ballot language for the Financial Accountability in Redistricting Act makes the laughably absurd argument that this is about money: That a state facing an \"unprecedented economic crisis\" with a political leadership that \"has failed us\" cannot afford the cost of outsourcing this duty to a commission. A more honest title of this initiative, which is being conceived by a small group of Democratic insiders, would be the Incumbent Protection Act.\"\n", "California faced a $26.3 billion budget deficit for the 2009–2010 budget year. While the legislative bodies appeared to address the problem in 2008 with the three-month delayed passage of a budget they in fact only postponed the deficit to 2009 and due to the late 2008 decline in the economy and the credit crisis the problem became urgent in November 2008.\n\nSection::::California public spending.:State debt and budget deficit.\n", "Political party strength in California\n\nCalifornia is largely a Democratic stronghold and one of the three largest Democratic states in presidential elections alongside New York and Illinois.\n\nThe following table indicates the party of elected officials in the U.S. state of California:\n\nBULLET::::- Governor\n\nBULLET::::- Lieutenant Governor\n\nBULLET::::- Attorney General\n\nBULLET::::- Secretary of State\n\nBULLET::::- Treasurer\n\nBULLET::::- Controller\n\nBULLET::::- Insurance Commissioner\n\nBULLET::::- California Superintendent of Public Instruction\n\nThe table also indicates the historical party composition in the:\n\nBULLET::::- Board of Equalization\n\nBULLET::::- State Senate\n\nBULLET::::- State Assembly\n\nBULLET::::- State delegation to the U.S. Senate\n", "Although the region's large industries have been affected by the Great Recession, the Inland Empire is projected to remain California's fastest-growing region for some time to come. The area is also projected to remain one of the least educated areas of the state with the lowest average in annual wages in the country. A 2006 study of salaries in 51 metropolitan areas of the country ranked the Inland Empire second to last, with an average annual wage of $36,924. However, inexpensive land prices and innovative institutional support networks have attracted some small businesses and technology startups into the area.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Because snakes digest nearly all of their prey, they do not require additional sources of vitamins or minerals. Moreover, at this time, there exist no data to suggest otherwise.\n\nSection::::Captivity.:Heat, lighting and substrate.\n", "After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place. Digestion is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being ectothermic (\"cold-blooded\"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is . So much metabolic energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake (\"Crotalus durissus\"), surface body temperature increases by as much as during the digestive process. Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitate its prey to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient, with the snake's digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or feathers) and claws, which are excreted along with waste.\n", "Common agamas are primarily insectivores, but they have been known to eat small mammals, reptiles and vegetation. They catch their prey using their tongue, the tip of which is covered by mucous glands that enable the lizard to hold to smaller prey.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "All snakes are strictly carnivorous, eating small animals including lizards, frogs, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs, fish, snails or insects. Because snakes cannot bite or tear their food to pieces, they must swallow prey whole. The body size of a snake has a major influence on its eating habits. Smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out feeding on lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.\n", "The diet consists of mainly reptiles, including snakes, but they will eat mammals if available. Because black-headed pythons live in the desert, they heat up quicker and stay warmer for longer. This means they can eat more because they digest food quicker in warmer conditions. When ingesting large prey, this species positions one or two coils just ahead of its distended mouth and by constriction makes the task of swallowing easier.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Another common form of live food, most commonly used to feed snakes, is small rodents. The most commonly known small rodent used for live food is likely the mouse; many pet stores which carry snakes or cater to snake owners also carry \"feeder mice\" for this reason (see \"Fancy mouse\"). It is also common to feed reptiles freshly killed or frozen/thawed rodents as most reptiles will readily accept them.\n", "After capturing the prey, \"P. clarus\" settles in one spot and does not move again until it has discarded the undigestible hard remains of the prey. If \"P. clarus\" has gone without food for a few days, it eats slowly.\n", "\"Charlotte, N.C., March 25 (AP) - Pete, a thirty-foot python, had a late luncheon today - six months late. Pythons, Harry Lewiston, keeper of the reptile, explained, eat only about once every three months. Pete hurt his throat nine months ago and had to pass up two meals. Today, with an eight-foot rubber hose, he was fed a snack of thirty pounds of chopped meat, fifteen dozen eggs and fifteen pounds of crushed bone. It took eighteen men to hold Pete while they fed him.\"\n", "Meet the Slithers — a family with a bit of a slob prob! Raging rodents are lunching on leftovers in their dirty den, and the Slithers realize they need an exterminator. The solution? Bucky, a boa constrictor with a big appetite. But digesting mouse lumps causes snake slowdown, and for a while Bucky's the ultimate cage potato. Until the peckish pet needs a fresh supply. Time to visit the neighbors!\n", "Section::::Diet.:Digestion.\n\nThe digestive response of Burmese pythons to such large prey has made them a model species for digestive physiology. A fasting python has a reduced stomach volume and acidity, reduced intestinal mass, and a 'normal' heart volume. After ingesting prey, the entire digestive system undergoes a massive remodelling, with rapid hypertrophy of the intestines, production of stomach acid, and a 40% increase in mass of the ventricle of the heart to fuel the digestive process.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n", "Conant (1929) gave a detailed account of the feeding behavior of a captive specimen from South Carolina. When prey was introduced, the snake quickly became attentive and made an attack. Frogs and small birds were seized and held until movement stopped. Larger prey was approached in a more cautious manner; a rapid strike was executed after which the snake would withdraw. In 2.5 years, the snake had accepted three species of frogs, including a large bullfrog, a spotted salamander, water snakes, garter snakes, sparrows, young rats, and three species of mice. Brimley (1944) described a captive specimen that ate copperheads (\"A. contortrix\"), as well as members of its own species, keeping its fangs embedded in its victims until they had been immobilized.\n", "Ophiophagy\n\nOphiophagy (Greek \"snake eating\") is a specialized form of feeding or alimentary behavior of animals which hunt and eat snakes. There are ophiophagous mammals (such as the skunks and the mongooses), birds (such as snake eagles, the secretarybird, and some hawks), lizards (such as the common collared lizard), and even other snakes, such as the Central and South American mussuranas and the North American common kingsnake. The genus of the venomous king cobra (\"Ophiophagus hannah\") is named for this habit.\n\nSection::::Ophiophagy in myth and legend.\n", "Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.\n", "Many owners have resorted to force feeding their \"Dasypeltis\" because the animal seems not to be eating. However, evidence has shown that, like large constrictors, these snakes may go for very long periods (months) without eating after a large meal. As long as the snake is behaving normally and does not appear to be in physical distress, force feeding is not advised. When a specimen seems to be \"off\" its food, offering it eggs approximately monthly is appropriate. If the snake does not eat but continues to drink, is active, and sheds, then it does not need to be force fed.\n", "Adult \"Elaphe\" spp. primarily prey on rodents (\"i.e\"., mice and chipmunks), bird eggs, and young birds. Juveniles feed on small lizards, young mice, and occasionally small frogs (\"i.e\"., tree frogs). Species such as \"E. guttata\" do not feed on a daily basis, but every few days. \"Elaphe\" spp. hunt by waiting motionless in a fixed position until the prey comes near enough to attack. Then, they strike the prey and bite it. They use their Jacobson's organ to track and find their prey.\n", "Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent \"soup\". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.\n\nSection::::Digestive system.:Secretion systems.\n\nBacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.\n\nSection::::Digestive system.:Secretion systems.:Channel transport system.\n", "Larger specimens usually eat animals about the size of a house cat, but larger food items are known; some large Asian species have been known to take down adult deer, and the African rock python, \"Python sebae\", has been known to eat antelope. In 2017, there was a recorded case of a human devoured by a python in Sulawesi, Indonesia. All prey is swallowed whole, and may take several days or even weeks to fully digest.\n", "Tawny frogmouths do not consume prey collected on the ground or in flight on the spot unless it is very small. The captured prey is held in the tip of the beak and taken to a nearby branch, where it is then processed. Insects are generally pulped at the rim of the beak before being swallowed, and larger prey such as lizards or mice are generally killed before consumption by being bashed against a branch with great force.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and ecology.:Bonding and breeding.\n", "In the wild, the western hognose snake feeds predominately on amphibians, such as large and medium-sized tree frogs, as well as small or medium-sized toads and small lizards. There have been accounts of \"H. nasicus\" eating the occasional rodent in the wild as well. Not being a true constrictor, \"Heterodon\" bites and chews, driving the rear fangs into the prey as a way of introducing the saliva to help break down the toxins from toads. There have been many cases of hognose snakes in captivity that will not eat for about two to three-and-a-half months, from the months January to mid March. This is because hognose snakes' instinct is to brumate underground during the winter months.\n", "A wide range of animals will eat anoles, such as large spiders, centipedes, predatory katydids, snakes, large frogs, lizards, birds, monkeys, and carnivoran mammals. At least in part of their range, snakes may be the most significant predator of anoles. For example, the Caribbean \"Alsophis\" and \"Borikenophis\" racers, and the Mexican, Central American and South American \"Oxybelis\" vine snakes feed mostly on lizards like anoles. Some reptile-eating snakes have a specialized venom that has little effect on humans, but it rapidly kills an anole. On some Caribbean Islands anoles make up as much as 40–75% of the diet of American kestrels. Large anoles may eat smaller individuals of other anole species and cannibalism—eating smaller individuals of their own species—is also widespread. There is a documented case of a small anole being captured and killed by an outside potted Venus flytrap plant.\n", "A king cobra, like other snakes, receives chemical information via its forked tongue, which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a special sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth. This is akin to the human sense of smell. When the scent of a meal is detected, the snake flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location (the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo); it also uses its keen eyesight; king cobras are able to detect moving prey almost away. Its intelligence and sensitivity to earth-borne vibration are also used to track its prey.\n", "Rattlesnakes consume mice, rats, small birds , and other small animals. They lie in wait for their prey, or hunt for it in holes. The prey is killed quickly with a venomous bite as opposed to constriction. If the bitten prey moves away before dying, the rattlesnake can follow it by its scent. When it locates the fallen prey, it checks for signs of life by prodding with its snout, flicking its tongue, and using its sense of smell. Once the prey has become incapacitated, the rattlesnake locates its head by odors emitted from the mouth. The prey is then ingested head-first, which allows wings and limbs to fold at the joints in a manner which minimizes the girth of the meal. The gastric fluids of rattlesnakes are extremely powerful, allowing for the digestion of flesh, as well as bone. Optimal digestion occurs when the snake maintains a body temperature between 80 and 85 °F (25 and 29 °C). If the prey is small, the rattlesnake often continues hunting. If it was an adequate meal, the snake finds a warm, safe location in which to coil up and rest until the prey is digested.\n", "In fish, the tongue is largely bony and much less mobile and getting the food to the back of the pharynx is helped by pumping water in its mouth and out of its gills.\n\nIn snakes, the work of swallowing is done by raking with the lower jaw until the prey is far enough back to be helped down by body undulations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dysphagia\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusion\n\nBULLET::::- Speech and language pathology\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Overview at nature.com\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomy and physiology of swallowing at dysphagia.com\n\nBULLET::::- Swallowing animation (flash) at hopkins-gi.org\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Feeding.\n", "Section::::Feeding Ecology.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Snakes should not be able to digest a whole animal" ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Snakes use sulfuric acid and energy to digest whole animals." ]