thewordsmiths/wiki_stem · Datasets at Hugging Face

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c_e3engssgm0l9	Neigh (sound)	Summary	Neigh_(sound)	A neigh () is the sound made by horses, horse hybrids such as the hinny, and other equines, such as the zebra. It consists of a succession of jerky sounds, initially high-pitched and gradually lower. Produced on exhalation by the larynx and modulated, it enables the animal to express its emotions (such as fear or satisfaction) and to inform other animals through the sound produced.
c_rrgznybk5yy9	Neigh (sound)	Summary	Neigh_(sound)	The main function of neighing is to alert other equines to its presence in the absence of visual communication. However, horses rarely neigh. Buffon established a classification of neighs into five categories, according to the emotion expressed by the horse, which has been widely used in subsequent works.
c_n8hzzpd2avev	Neigh (sound)	Summary	Neigh_(sound)	Today, we only speak of neighing when the horse is vocalizing, and of squeaking or whinnying in other cases. In literary works, the horse neigh is often the means by which it makes itself known to its rider and communicates with them. In divination practices, examination of the sound produced and the horse's attitude has given rise to hippomancy. Horse neigh plays a particularly important role in Tibetan Buddhist beliefs.
c_z05aaufersks	Neigh (sound)	Etymology and terminology	Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology	In English and Germanic languages, the Middle High German nēgen gave rise to the Old English hnǣgan and Middle English neyen, then the modern English verb ‘to neigh’. As in French, its use is attested before the 11th century. In the Tibetan language, gsaṅs refers to voice in a general sense, and skad-gsaṅs to neigh, i.e., literally, "the horse's voice".
c_t2677og28baw	Neigh (sound)	Etymology and terminology	Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology	Tibetan dictionaries distinguish between two types of neighing, the one that resounds and the other one that becomes faint. In English, a similar distinction exists between nickering, whinnying and neighing, which designate three types of neighing. This terminological distinction does not exist in French.
c_ll6hwr58n5qu	Neigh (sound)	Etymology and terminology	Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology	In French language, 'hennissement' is a masculine noun that, according to the Trésor de la langue Française informatisé, was attested in the 13th century and it is in the Histoire de l'empereur Henri de Constantinopled by Henry of Valenciennes (a text dated around 1220). 'Hennissement' is derived from the verb 'hennir', attested in 1100 for human beings, and 30 years later for the "cry of a horse", in Philippe de Thaon's Bestiaire. Moreover, 'hennir' is a borrowing from the Latin 'hinnire' which, as Quintilian notes in his Institutio Oratoria, is formed on an onomatopoeia of the "horse cry": the repetition of the vowel "i" evokes the sound of neighing.
c_ofbuiqutcwrj	Neigh (sound)	Etymology and terminology	Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology	Other Romance verbs, such as the Italian 'nitrire', derive from it. An influence from Frankish 'kinni', meaning jaw, is also possible. The hinny neighs like a horse, while the mule bray like a donkey. In French, 'hennissement' and 'hennir' are also used for the zebra.
c_zl4s2sai65tj	Neigh (sound)	History	Neigh_(sound) > History	From the earliest times, mankind has been aware of the sounds made by horses, which have been domesticated since antiquity, and has attributed all kinds of meanings to them. In Western Europe, Buffon's study of horses, in which he follows Cardan, describes five types of neighs. This study has been an authority for centuries, and it is included in Encyclopédie, ou dicctionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et de métiers, among others. According to him, these five horse neighs are used to express joy, desire, anger, fear and pain respectively.
c_q5ogc50nepdb	Neigh (sound)	History	Neigh_(sound) > History	The five types of neighs are as follows: the neigh of joy, in which the voice is heard for quite a long time, rising and ending on higher notes. The horse kicks at the same time, but lightly, and does not try to strike; the neigh of desire, love and affection, in which the horse doesn't kick. It is heard for a long time, and the voice ends with lower, faster sounds; the neigh of anger, during which the horse kicks and strikes dangerously, very short and high-pitched; the neigh of fear, during which he also kicks, is hardly longer than that of anger.
c_jn3hzoc41c3t	Neigh (sound)	History	Neigh_(sound) > History	The voice is low, hoarse and seems to come entirely from the nostrils. This neigh is quite similar to the lion's roar; and the neigh of pain, less a neigh than a whinny, which is low-pitched and follows breathing.This classification, very popular and widely used, is no longer valid today. According to some 19th-century encyclopedias, in some countries, particularly Hungary, it was customary to split the horse's nostrils to prevent neighing, particularly in times of war. This information is modified by the fact that neighing is modulated in the larynx. The splitting of a donkey's nostril to prevent braying is, however, well attested during the World War I.
c_tftfwmbqjpz6	Neigh (sound)	Description	Neigh_(sound) > Description	The neigh is a succession of jerky sounds, first high-pitched, then gradually lower, producing a sort of long "Hiiiihiiiihiii". Intensity and pitch can vary considerably. It can be so loud that it can be heard by the human ear from a distance of several kilometers, which means that horses, whose hearing is better developed, can hear it from an even greater distance. When a horse neighs, it opens its mouth, and its jaw and nostrils move.
c_qirny6ffsxqy	Neigh (sound)	Description	Neigh_(sound) > Description	Neighing is more frequent in the entire horse than in the mare and gelding, and the timbre of their voices is not as strong. From birth, the male has a louder voice than the female. By the age of two or two-and-a-half, when puberty sets in, the voice of all horses becomes louder. The horse's vocalizations have complex sounds, a wide bandwidth and varied frequencies, making them richer than those of most domestic animals. Although the name "neigh" is generally applied to the horse's call, the hinny, a hybrid of stallion and donkey, readily neighs like a horse, while the mule, a hybrid of donkey and mare, is more likely to bray.
c_j7p8bgbqtkpc	Neigh (sound)	Mechanism	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Mechanism	The horse neighs by inhaling to fill its lungs and then expelling the air that passes through its larynx. Neighing occurs in the larynx during exhalation, which is why horses with an open trachea are unable to neigh, as the air no longer passes through it. The other parts of the respiratory system contribute to neighing in a secondary way. The lungs expel air into the larynx.
c_ifcnoebs6i9d	Neigh (sound)	Mechanism	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Mechanism	The pharynx and nasal cavities add power to the vocalization and modify it. The air expelled from the lungs pushes the lips away from the glottis, until the vocal cords return on themselves and momentarily close the respiratory tract, only to spread apart again, producing vibratory movements fast enough to give rise to sounds, much as happens when you blow into the reed of an oboe. The horse's throat, mouth and lips modify the nature of the sound emitted, while the power of the neigh is determined by the force with which air is expelled from the lungs.
c_bvostjkjpsd2	Neigh (sound)	Special features	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Special features	The Haflinger breed, originally from the Tyrol in the Alps, is said by its breeders to have a wider range of neighs than other horses. This may be due to the fact that, in mountainous environments, horses have difficulty seeing each other and rely more on auditory communication.
c_ybmr51fvkxpj	Neigh (sound)	Function and emotions	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions	Neighing is one of the horse's means of communication, but far from the most widely used. Not resorting to neighing is a precaution against possible predators of this large herbivore, who might spot potential prey by the sound. Horses mainly use body language. They only resort to neighing in very specific cases, notably when they can't see other horses to decipher their movements.
c_qvt6qlcjs1nj	Neigh (sound)	Function and emotions	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions	The primary function of neighing is to allow the animal to call other horses it can't see.Horses use neighing a lot when they're young. When Przewalski's foals wake up, they neigh and receive a response from their mother, more rarely from another horse. They may try to locate the source of adult horses' neighing.
c_6fsqn35yn42i	Neigh (sound)	Function and emotions	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions	The mare calls its foal by neighing if it wanders too far away, and the foal who is looking for its mother calls it in the same way: each probably recognizes the other's neigh very clearly. Horse neighs are also a way for them to express their intentions, concerns and satisfactions, generally when these give rise to strong emotions, such as those experienced by two stallions fighting, or a stallion who senses and approaches a mare. There are differences depending on the sensations the animal feels and communicates. Researchers have studied the emotions that horses communicate to other horses when they neigh: while the tone is constant, the harmonics are varied and increase in proportion to anxiety. Frequency plays a role in communication.
c_ebhhg1q5jh7i	Neigh (sound)	Neigh of satisfaction	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Neigh of satisfaction	This neigh is rather low-pitched and soft. It's a sign of friendship, emitted mainly at mealtimes, and also by the mare to reassure its foal. According to English-speaking authors, this type of neighing is divided into two quite distinct types. Whinnying refers to the neigh of satisfaction, a form of recognition that expresses the horse's joy. Nickering is the mare's neigh to reassure its foal, but can also be emitted by horses in the presence of people they particularly like: the animal then expresses its satisfaction at being at the person's side. The first type of neigh is louder and higher-pitched than the second.
c_u3f5akkhrjv1	Neigh (sound)	Neigh of worry and for calling	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Neigh of worry and for calling	This neigh is much louder and higher-pitched, and can be heard from a great distance. It can be heard by a worried animal preparing to flee, or by a horse separated from its companions, looking for signs of other horses in the vicinity. The animal is waiting for a response that will provide the information it is seeking.
c_xcd6jrv1dp2d	Neigh (sound)	Neigh of worry and for calling	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Neigh of worry and for calling	This cry is easily recognizable, deafening a person standing next to the horse at the same time. What's more, the animal emitting it generally adopts a very specific position, raising its head to clear its throat, which increases the power of the sound produced. Brood mares often neigh to call their foals close to them when they stray too far.
c_m7sdv5hb085f	Neigh (sound)	Other sounds	Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Other sounds	Other sounds produced by the horse are not neighs, but squeaks of mirth or pain, or whinnies of suffering. The loudest squeak is also a threat: it indicates that the horse is about to express its anger physically, for example during a group feeding or when a mare pushes a stallion away.
c_jsa33xlby7c8	Neigh (sound)	In culture	Neigh_(sound) > In culture	As with all animals in human contact, the horse neigh can take on a variety of symbolic meanings. It plays a role in hippomancy, myths, tales, legends and popular texts. According to dream interpretations, neighing heralds news of a friend or a happy event to be celebrated among friends. In the visual arts, the rendering of a horse's neighing is particularly elaborate in Picasso's Guernica, in which the horse neigh is intended to convey the pain of an entire people. Films, especially westerns, frequently add recorded neighs to scenes with horses, which can give the false impression that the animal makes extensive use of this mode of communication.
c_b620miwlluz5	Neigh (sound)	Music	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Music	A frequent theme in modern Greek folk songs is that of the woman who hears a horse neigh and recognizes the cry of her husband's mount, but not the man she has just spent the night with, whom she believes to be her lover. The neighing acts as a catalyst, preceding the punishment of the adulterous wife. In other songs, the neighing may be a decoy, a love code, an instrument of recognition to identify the horse rider, or a tribute from the equine to its departed master. All these meanings testify to the deep relationship between man and horse.
c_4ekwj956bnur	Neigh (sound)	Literature	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Literature	In the Roman d'Alexandre, the fifteen-year-old future king passes the place where the terrible Bucephalus is confined one day and hears a loud neigh. When he asks which animal it belongs to, one of his father's men replies that Bucephalus is locked up there because it feeds on human flesh, making it very dangerous. When he hears Alexander's voice, Bucéphale lets out another neigh, this time very soft, and leans towards the young man he recognizes as his master.One of the impressives of the Japanese language is that of a group of horses neighing to greet the departure or arrival of a person they recognize. In Ronsard's poem L'Ombre du cheval, the neighing gives a form of reality to an imaginary painting horse seen in a dream: the neighing awakens its master, becoming a clue to the animal's possible reality. Le vent du Nord set come le hennissement d'un Cheval noir is a 40-page story from the manga series Sabu to Ichi Torimono Hikae (1966-1972) by Shōtarō Ishinomori.
c_6woaijya3tne	Neigh (sound)	Beliefs, legends and divination	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination	Neighing can be an indicator in hippomancy, divination using horses. As with coat characteristics and white markings, various popular beliefs attribute qualities to the horse's neighing. According to French belief in the mid-nineteenth century, horses that neigh most often, especially with joy and desire, are the best and most generous.
c_9r4xsxkkkrwk	Neigh (sound)	Buddhism and Hinduism	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Buddhism and Hinduism	The horse neigh is a symbol of the wrathful Buddhist deity Hayagriva, whose head is surmounted by one to three green-necked neighing horses. This frightens Māra, Gautama Buddha's tempting demon (as well as his avatars), and restores his faith in attaining enlightenment. Ash-Vagosha, whose name means "horse neigh", was a renowned Indian Buddhist of the 1st century, who wrote a biography of the Buddha. In Hinduism, thunder is created when Indra's chariot passes by, by the neighing of his horses.
c_gdvuykpb7xxp	Neigh (sound)	Tibet	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Tibet	Various beliefs relating to neighs are particularly well documented in Tibet. According to the Tibetan hippologists who wrote the Touen-houang manuscripts (800-1035), a horse neigh sound comes from the wind, the force of life, from the base of its navel to its mouth. Depending on the sound and position of the horse when it neighs, it can be a good or bad omen for its master. Neighs that imitate the sound of a conch shell, large drum, lion, tiger, chariot roll, flute, bull, thunder or river; are signs of good fortune, especially if the animal lowers its head or turns it to the left when neighing.
c_xegytbzvk439	Neigh (sound)	Tibet	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Tibet	Similarly, a horse that neighs a lot when accompanying others, or makes others neigh, is a good sign. Conversely, if a horse neighs a lot while looking around, or if its cry resembles a donkey's bray, then it's a bad omen. A bad horse is one that imitates the cry of a camel, vulture, cat, jackal, dog, crow, monkey or owl.
c_y4fv4hqx92ef	Neigh (sound)	Tibet	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Tibet	A horse that neighs when looking to the right or when touched, and is ridden by a king, promises its rider to rule the whole Earth. A sick horse, on the other hand, will soon die if it neighs while looking and breathing sideways. Finally, Tibetan hippologists recommend not to draw omens from very young, very old, sick, hungry or thirsty horses, but to pay close attention to neighing in all other cases.
c_nv39kwpvz62l	Neigh (sound)	Hippomancy in the West	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Hippomancy in the West	Divination by means of neighing is also practiced in the West, but is less well documented. In his Dictionnaire Infernal, Collin de Plancy speaks of Celtic hippomancy, thanks to the neighing and movement of white horses fed and kept in consecrated forests, considered to be the guardians of divine secrets. In his Morales sur le livre de Job, Pope Gregory I describes the horse as a true preacher, and its neigh as the voice of preaching. The myth of Balius and Xanthus, the horses of Achilles, one of which speaks and predicts the death of its master, provides some evidence of hippomancy through neighing.
c_m8vlflgkzyt6	Neigh (sound)	Darius' horse	Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Darius' horse	According to a legend recounted by Herodotus, the neighing of a horse plays a major role in the choice of government in ancient Persia. As seven conspirators were unable to agree on the preferable form of government, it was decided that they would all ride to the same place the next morning before sunrise, and that whoever's horse was first to neigh in greeting to the sun would be made King of the Persians. Darius' squire learns of this, and cheats by leading his master's stallion to a mare placed where he will be the next morning. When Darius' horse arrives before sunrise, the smell and memory of the previous day's mare cause him to neigh with joy, and the kingdom falls to his master. The six other conspirators dismount and proclaim Darius I king of the Persians. In reality, Darius was probably chosen by consensus among the conspirators, but this legend illustrates the importance of the horse's neigh in defining the future king.
c_oq4hfxu2xps5	Fear of negative evaluation	Summary	Fear_of_negative_evaluation	Fear of negative evaluation (FNE) or fear of failure, also known as atychiphobia, is a psychological construct reflecting "apprehension about others' evaluations, distress over negative evaluations by others, and the expectation that others would evaluate one negatively". The construct and a psychological test to measure it were defined by David Watson and Ronald Friend in 1969. FNE is related to specific personality dimensions, such as anxiousness, submissiveness, and social avoidance.
c_vfzj4sxe90us	Fear of negative evaluation	Summary	Fear_of_negative_evaluation	People who score high on the FNE scale are highly concerned with seeking social approval or avoiding disapproval by others and may tend to avoid situations where they have to undergo evaluations. High FNE subjects are also more responsive to situational factors. This has been associated with conformity, pro-social behavior, and social anxiety.
c_ra9p6bb6f6uz	Fear of negative evaluation	FNE test	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > FNE test	The original Fear of Negative Evaluation test consists of thirty items with a sentence that was response format and takes approximately ten minutes to complete. Scale scores range from 0 (low FNE) to 30 (high FNE). In 1983, Mark Leary presented a brief version of the FNE consisting of twelve original questions on a 5-point Likert scale (BFNE). Scale scores range from 12 (low FNE) to 60 (high FNE).
c_4p28l8o3608x	Fear of negative evaluation	Reliability	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > FNE test > Reliability	Both the original thirty-item and the brief twelve-item FNE test have been demonstrated to have high internal consistency. The original and brief versions correlate very closely.
c_w8g7jg7rqu69	Fear of negative evaluation	Validity	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > FNE test > Validity	FNE does not correlate strongly with other measures of social apprehension, such as the SAD PERSONS scale and the Interaction Anxiousness Scale.
c_jy3k4g2wxr68	Fear of negative evaluation	Social anxiety	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Social anxiety	Social anxiety is, in part, a response to perceived negative evaluation by others. Whereas FNE is related to the dread of being evaluated unfavorably when participating in a social situation, social anxiety is defined as a purely emotional reaction to this type of social situation. When patients with social phobia evaluate their relationships, they are extremely fearful of negative evaluation and express high degrees of FNE. As discussed by Deborah Roth Ledley, subjects in a study were asked to give a speech after completing a dot-probe paradigm task.
c_e1umesfgunkq	Fear of negative evaluation	Social anxiety	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Social anxiety	After being presented with negative faces, low FNE participants did not display any increased apprehension, whereas high FNE participants displayed more apprehension.FNE is a direct cause of eating disorders caused by social anxieties, I.e., the fear of being negatively evaluated upon appearance. It ranks higher than depression and social comparison in causes of eating disorders. This is because FNE is the foundation for bulimic attitudes and body dissatisfaction.A research study was conducted on 64 students majoring in various engineering fields participated from VIT University-Chennai.
c_tbci5mrmh54w	Fear of negative evaluation	Social anxiety	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Social anxiety	Additionally, both daytime learners and hostel residents serve as samples for the study. Furthermore, the findings revealed a substantial positive link between anxiety and the concern of receiving a bad review. Also, there was a strong positive correlation between state-trait anxiety and a feeling of negativism.
c_643k988uw847	Fear of negative evaluation	Heritability	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Heritability	FNE has been suggested to have some genetic component, as are other personality characteristics such as trait anxiousness, submissiveness, and social avoidance. BFNE scores have been found to have a genetic component in twin studies. In addition, BFNE scores and the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire are genetically correlated. It has been suggested that the genes that influence negative evaluation fears affect a range of anxiety personality behaviors.
c_t5lxph6ny20q	Fear of negative evaluation	Judgment and perception	Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Judgment and perception	Winton, Clark and Edelmann (1995) found that individuals who score higher on the FNE are more accurate at identifying negative expressions. Individuals who score higher on the FNE were also found to overestimate negative social characteristics (e.g., awkwardness, long gaps in speech) and underestimate positive social characteristics (e.g., confidence, self-assurance) they exhibit during public speaking. Low-FNE speakers overestimate their effectiveness in public speaking. In contrast, high-FNE speakers were more effective in their communication, consistent with the listener's actual understanding. In the athletic arena, low-FNE basketball players were able to withstand higher levels of pressure and continue to maintain performance levels, whereas high-FNE basketball players showed a significant decrease in performance under pressure.
c_wopal4phr8b4	Canteen Kopje	Summary	Canteen_Kopje	Canteen Kopje is an archaeological site, formally protected as a grade 2 provincial heritage site, and approved in 2017 for re-grading to national status, situated outside Barkly West in the Northern Cape, South Africa. The place was previously known as Klipdrift, meaning stony drift, a translation from a still earlier !Ora name, !a \|aub. Canteen Kopje is best known for its long and exceptionally rich Earlier Stone Age sequence, spanning circa >0.5 to 1.7 million years, occurring within gravels exposed in late nineteenth/early twentieth century mining pits. Also attracting attention are more recent archaeological levels in the overlying Hutton Sands, which contain material known as Fauresmith, Middle Stone Age, Later Stone Age, and late Iron Age with evidence of protocolonial/colonial contact and interaction, probably, with nineteenth century diamond diggers.
c_bgfczs1l1g5g	Canteen Kopje	Summary	Canteen_Kopje	The importance of Canteen Kopje as a heritage site was recognized, and a 9 hectares (22 acres) area known as Erf 91 was proclaimed as a protected reserve in 1948. Gideon Retief, Mining Commissioner of Barkly West from 1942 to 1951, was instrumental in preserving the site and creating the first open air exhibit here.
c_0efprgsmf2u6	Canteen Kopje	Summary	Canteen_Kopje	Subsequently, in 2000, information panels were erected by the McGregor Museum. These were refurbished in 2016. A walking trail was laid out for visitors to view the early diamond diggings and archaeological research sites.
c_ldxmvc7z51ac	Canteen Kopje	Summary	Canteen_Kopje	The Barkly West Museum contains further information and examples of artefacts from the site, while material excavated by archaeologists is housed principally by the McGregor Museum, the approved archaeological repository for the Northern Cape Province in nearby Kimberley. In 2016 the protected heritage site was directly threatened after the Department of Minerals and Energy issued a permit for part of the site to be mined. Although a heritage permit had not been issued by the South African Heritage Resources Agency, mining commenced on 18 March 2016. An urgent interdicted was granted by the Northern Cape Division of the High Court of South Africa on 19 March, being made final on 19 April 2016.In the 1940s the archaeologist Clarence Van Riet Lowe predicted: "When the last diamond claim has been abandoned, archaeologists throughout the world will be interested in Canteen Kopje, in the Vaal River diggings, where lie the prehistoric remains of a million years of human evolution".
c_tnbx6enhvnm4	Canteen Kopje	Alluvial diamond diggings	Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings	One of the hills in the vicinity of Canteen Kopje was the site of the first alluvial diamond diggings (as opposed to surface prospecting) on the Diamond Fields of South Africa, which precipitated the rush to these parts in 1870. Digging continued here until the early 1940s. Batlhaping Kgosi (Chief) Jantjie Mothibi controlled, for as long as he could, the influx of white "diamond seekers" to the region. Prospectors were allowed to use sharp sticks, but were not permitted to "touch the ground with pick and shovel".
c_vh7q6mq8575v	Canteen Kopje	Alluvial diamond diggings	Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings	For their part, as noted by Jerome Babe in his 1872 book, The South African Diamond Fields, "Natives would form themselves in long lines, joined hand in hand, and walk slowly over the ground and look for diamonds, especially after rain; and if they found one they would take it to a trader... horses, wagons, cows, sheep, cash, goods, etc at a deuce of a pace".In January 1870 diggers from KwaZulu-Natal were working their way along the Vaal River, finding diamonds at Klipdrift, on the "Old Koppie", upslope from Canteen Kopje. Using "pick and shovel, in spite of the natives", they unearthed more, precipitating the diamond rush. Soon both banks of the Vaal River were thronging with diggers of many nationalities, and by the end of the year there were five thousand people at Klipdrift alone.The diggers formed a Mutual Protection Association and elected Stafford Parker as their leader.
c_ztpz5cf4j0he	Canteen Kopje	Alluvial diamond diggings	Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings	Klipdrift was renamed Parkerton (from 1873 it was called Barkly West), and a Diggers' Republic was proclaimed in July 1870. A popular early cradle sieve for recovery of diamonds was the so-called "Long Tom", which was reliant on large quantities of water. An improved version less dependent on water was developed by the American digger, author of The South African Diamond Fields, Jerome Babe.
c_yjaq2xqvu31e	Canteen Kopje	Alluvial diamond diggings	Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings	His 'dry sifter', known as the "Yankee Baby", is still used in the twenty first century by some small-scale diggers. At the time, its inventor was said to be "the first Babe to rock his own cradle". The centrifugal or rotary washing machine – now standard on diggings in the area – is more sophisticated.
c_fokv5rjd2cgy	Canteen Kopje	Alluvial diamond diggings	Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings	In a slurry, a concentrate of heavy diamond-bearing deposit is separated from lighter waste. Diggers staked their claims near the river, and dug the gravel where it was exposed at or near the surface. Where the gravel was buried deeper under silt and sand – such as at Canteen Kopje – large pits were dug. From these and from vertical shafts, the diggers tunnelled out precarious passageways in which a man could hardly stand.
c_di4fathxhcnp	Canteen Kopje	Geology	Canteen_Kopje > Geology	The sequence of geological deposits in the vicinity of Canteen Kopje comprises: Resistant 2 800 million year old andesitic lavas of the Ventersdorp Supergroup, underlying the entire area. Thin patches of circa 280 million year old basal Karoo Sequence sediments made up of tillite and shale locally. Shallow remnants of 19-17 million year old Older Gravels on the tops and upper slopes of adjacent hills. Up to circa 10 metres (33 ft) thickness of >0.5 to 1.7 million year old Younger Gravels formed largely from rock debris washed from adjacent hillsides.
c_0r8qrfaja1dj	Canteen Kopje	Geology	Canteen_Kopje > Geology	Up to 4 metres (13 ft) thick reddish windblown Hutton Sands that accumulated during drier intervals since about 0.3-0.5 million years ago.Diamonds at or near Canteen Kopje are confined to the Older and Younger Gravels. Around 90-120 million years ago, a swarm of volcanic pipes, centred on Kimberley to the east, brought diamond-bearing kimberlite to a higher surface formed of Karoo Sequence sediments. Subsequent erosion has lowered the entire regional landscape by over 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) and in the process the diamonds were released from their host rock. It has been estimated that at least 50 million carats of diamonds were set free in this way from the five kimberlite pipes in the vicinity of Kimberley alone. Most of those were flushed away to the sea long ago in past and present river channels, but along the way some were trapped in alluvial deposits such as the Older and Younger Gravels along rivers in this region.
c_kcaiy7flhlf9	Canteen Kopje	Recognition of archaeological significance	Canteen_Kopje > Recognition of archaeological significance	Earlier Stone Age artefacts were noted in the area by Colonel James Henry Bowker and Mary Elizabeth Barber at the time of the earliest diamond diggings. Eminent prehistorians including C. van Riet Lowe, the French prehistorian, the Abbé Henri Breuil and J. Desmond Clark visited and described it. Breuil was here in 1929 and again in the 1940s, when he famously noted that "not only are there enough specimens to fill a museum to overflowing but to build it of them also."
c_8x3cf7my5f1t	Canteen Kopje	Preserved and almost lost	Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost	On account both of the mining history as well as the finding of Acheulean artefacts at this spot, a 10 morgen portion of Canteen Kopje was declared a National Monument (since 2000 known as a provincial heritage site) in 1948. Mining recommenced in the vicinity in the 1990s and Canteen Kopje was nearly lost. Pressure was exerted for the site to be de-proclaimed as a heritage site, to allow for renewed diamond digging and 'empowerment' of small scale miners. The local community recognised the value of conserving heritage and supported the efforts of the then National Monuments Council and the McGregor Museum to preserve the site, which was then developed as an open-air museum.
c_q2gajcx9am64	Canteen Kopje	Preserved and almost lost	Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost	The new Barkly West Museum was created at the same time.Renewed threat was experienced in 2016. In 2014 the Department of Minerals (DMR) issued a permit for mining to take place on part of the declared site. The South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) was alerted and in response, because of the existing formal declaration, a Cease Works Order was put in place to prevent mining from taking place.
c_hemwa855kgj1	Canteen Kopje	Preserved and almost lost	Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost	Pressure was exerted however and in March 2016 the Cease Works Order was lifted, following which, on 16 March 2016, a diamond mining operation commenced work by fencing off an area around that for which they have a DMR mining permit. Public access to the remainder of the heritage site was blocked.
c_u64ecwb3i5fv	Canteen Kopje	Preserved and almost lost	Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost	Section 27(18) of the National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA) (Act 25 of 1999) states that: "No person may destroy, damage, deface, excavate, alter, remove from its original position, subdivide or change the planning status of any heritage site without a permit issued by the heritage resources authority responsible for the protection of such site." Section 51. (1) of the NHRA states that: "Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, any person who contravenes— (a) sections 27(18), 29(10), 32(13) or 32(19) is guilty of an offence and liable to a fine or imprisonment or both such fine and imprisonment as set out in item 1 of the Schedule." Since the mining concern has commenced mining operations without such a permit issued by SAHRA, it is clearly in contravention of an Act of the Republic of South Africa and therefore is guilty of an offence.
c_kx6iq39ywwvj	Canteen Kopje	Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s	Canteen_Kopje > Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s	Excavations in the late 1990s were carried out by Peter Beaumont of the McGregor Museum. John McNabb from the University of Southampton worked with Beaumont in analysing the Acheulean stone artefact technology. Further excavations have been carried out by archaeologists from the University of the Witwatersrand (inter alia for application of cosmogenic nuclide burial dating) and the University of Toronto. The current active programme of research has yielded an as yet unpublished basal date of some 2.3 million years, while excavations involving students from the Sol Plaatje University in Kimberley investigate the most recent circa 19th century contact period archaeology showing interaction between local communities and colonial diggers.
c_65k44wr1w62e	Canteen Kopje	Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s	Canteen_Kopje > Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s	Crucial to the interpretation of the archaeology of the site, is an understanding of site formation in relation to the adjacent hill and the Vaal River which at different periods cut down first to the north of the site and then the south west.In 2007-9 a 7-metre sequence through Hutton Sands and Gravels was excavated to carry out dating and a detailed analysis of the lithic profile. There is a marked 'Victoria West' Acheulean horizon (named for the town in the Karoo where these stone tools were first described) in the upper part of the gravels, subject to a current Southampton PhD project. The lower part of the sequence contains simpler, older Acheulean technology. Later Stone Age material at and just below the surface has been studied in two excavations by archaeologists from the University of the Witwatersrand and Toronto.
c_gblj7o3mdhqx	Canteen Kopje	Canteen Kopje Skull	Canteen_Kopje > Canteen Kopje Skull	The Canteen Kopje Skull was found in the vicinity in 1925 by diamond digger Kenneth Kemp, working 2.4 m down at an unrecorded locality at Canteen Kopje. A number of fitting skull fragments were presented by Kemp to the magistrate J.G. van Alphen, who in turn donated them to the McGregor Museum.
c_7bgzs8bemyjf	Canteen Kopje	Canteen Kopje Skull	Canteen_Kopje > Canteen Kopje Skull	They were studied soon afterwards by Robert Broom, who described it in Nature in 1929.In Broom's reconstruction, the skull appeared to have features similar to an allegedly archaic skeleton found at Boskop near Johannesburg. In 2011-12 X-ray Computerised Tomography scans of the skull, carried out at the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation near Pretoria, suggested it falls within the range of variation of Khoe-Sān populations of the Holocene (last 12 000 years), and is not 'archaic' as Broom had suggested. Reconsideration of the evidence also points to it having come from the Hutton Sands and not the Younger Gravels, as previously presumed.
c_urhxa1gzq7vz	Statistical parsing	Summary	Statistical_parsing	Statistical parsing is a group of parsing methods within natural language processing. The methods have in common that they associate grammar rules with a probability. Grammar rules are traditionally viewed in computational linguistics as defining the valid sentences in a language. Within this mindset, the idea of associating each rule with a probability then provides the relative frequency of any given grammar rule and, by deduction, the probability of a complete parse for a sentence.
c_r1xda2ek1ogk	Statistical parsing	Summary	Statistical_parsing	(The probability associated with a grammar rule may be induced, but the application of that grammar rule within a parse tree and the computation of the probability of the parse tree based on its component rules is a form of deduction.) Using this concept, statistical parsers make use of a procedure to search over a space of all candidate parses, and the computation of each candidate's probability, to derive the most probable parse of a sentence. The Viterbi algorithm is one popular method of searching for the most probable parse.
c_7y0rrz2nv5mj	Statistical parsing	Summary	Statistical_parsing	"Search" in this context is an application of search algorithms in artificial intelligence. As an example, think about the sentence "The can can hold water". A reader would instantly see that there is an object called "the can" and that this object is performing the action 'can' (i.e. is able to); and the thing the object is able to do is "hold"; and the thing the object is able to hold is "water".
c_us5yowzqgf4a	Statistical parsing	Summary	Statistical_parsing	Using more linguistic terminology, "The can" is a noun phrase composed of a determiner followed by a noun, and "can hold water" is a verb phrase which is itself composed of a verb followed by a verb phrase. But is this the only interpretation of the sentence? Certainly "The can can" is a perfectly valid noun-phrase referring to a type of dance, and "hold water" is also a valid verb-phrase, although the coerced meaning of the combined sentence is non-obvious.
c_w5pl42xszx6f	Statistical parsing	Summary	Statistical_parsing	This lack of meaning is not seen as a problem by most linguists (for a discussion on this point, see Colorless green ideas sleep furiously) but from a pragmatic point of view it is desirable to obtain the first interpretation rather than the second and statistical parsers achieve this by ranking the interpretations based on their probability. (In this example various assumptions about the grammar have been made, such as a simple left-to-right derivation rather than head-driven, its use of noun-phrases rather than the currently fashionable determiner-phrases, and no type-check preventing a concrete noun being combined with an abstract verb phrase.
c_i1a6gzyu8cx8	Statistical parsing	Summary	Statistical_parsing	None of these assumptions affect the thesis of the argument and a comparable argument can be made using any other grammatical formalism.) There are a number of methods that statistical parsing algorithms frequently use. While few algorithms will use all of these they give a good overview of the general field.
c_c7m7t8byh8a2	Statistical parsing	Summary	Statistical_parsing	Most statistical parsing algorithms are based on a modified form of chart parsing. The modifications are necessary to support an extremely large number of grammatical rules and therefore search space, and essentially involve applying classical artificial intelligence algorithms to the traditionally exhaustive search. Some examples of the optimisations are only searching a likely subset of the search space (stack search), for optimising the search probability (Baum-Welch algorithm) and for discarding parses that are too similar to be treated separately (Viterbi algorithm).
c_s109pqh83s7f	Statistical parsing	Notable people in statistical parsing	Statistical_parsing > Notable people in statistical parsing	Eugene Charniak Author of Statistical techniques for natural language parsing amongst many other contributions Fred Jelinek Applied and developed numerous techniques from Information Theory to build the field David Magerman Major contributor to turning the field from theoretical to practical by managing data James Curran Applying the MaxEnt algorithm, word representation, and other contributions Michael Collins (computational linguist) First very high performance statistical parser Joshua Goodman Hypergraphs, and other generalizations between different methods
c_8cge2c8weug7	Envirome	Summary	Envirome	"Envirome" is a concept that relates the core of environmental conditions with the successful biological performance of living beings. This concept was created in genetic epidemiology, in which an envirome is defined as the total set of environmental factors, both present, and past, that affect the state, and in particular the disease state, of an organism. The study of the envirome and its effects is termed enviromics. The term was first coined in the field of psychiatric epidemiology by J.C.
c_tobmhr95vxes	Envirome	Summary	Envirome	Anthony in 1995. More recently, use of the term has been extended to the cellular domain, where cell functional enviromics studies both the genome and envirome from a systems biology perspective. In plants, enviromics is directly related to complex ecophysiology, in which the wide environment of the plants, into an omics scale, can be dissected and understood as a mosaic of possible growing factors and the balance of diverse resources available.
c_nfn1mdz9lned	Envirome	Summary	Envirome	In ecology, this concept can be related to the Shelford's law of tolerance. The enviromics (study of the enviromes) is conceived as a pillar of the Modern Plant Breeding, capable to connect the design and development of breeding goals concealing it with the agronomic targets for a climate-smart agriculture. It also has the ability to bridge the knowledge gaps between the different levels of systems biology and phenomics in the context of Gene–environment interaction.
c_tmyk3f46mtj5	Envirome	Envirome classification in humans	Envirome > Envirome classification in humans	While there can be both positive and negative effects of the envirome on the organism, negative effects are often emphasized in discussing disease. A typology of envirome health hazards suggested by McDowall is natural physico-chemical, man-made physico-chemical, biological/organic, natural or man-made, macrosocial, micro- or psychosocial. One approach to classifying the envirome is to organize the factors based on their likely disease-specific causality such as cardiovascular disease The time-scale of the envirome hazard is another possible dimension of classification; an envirome hazard are said to be a sudden change (such as a disaster), a rapid environmental change, or a slow change or a static situation. In twin studies, envirome influences are often decomposed into shared environmental factors, common to both twins and non-shared environmental factors that differ between the twins.
c_ls04r4l0w4s0	Envirome	Envirome classification in plants	Envirome > Envirome classification in plants	In plants, the enviromics term was probably first scientifically mentioned by Xu, in his iconic article on Envirotyping, and also comprehensively described by Resende et al., which is the field of applied data science that integrates databases of environmental factors into quantitative genetics. Then, it can leverage an important plant ecophysiology knowledge capable to bridge the gaps about how the environment acts across different levels of the systems biology (genes, transcripts, proteins, and metabolites). Consequently, it can boost the ability to better understand/model the phenotypic plasticity of the main agronomic traits under diverse growing conditions. The plant breeding community has experienced reduced costs for acquiring environmental sensors (e.g., weather stations) to be installed in the field trials while increasing the reliability and resolution of the remote sensing techniques.
c_km05l3pg3fbm	Envirome	Envirome classification in plants	Envirome > Envirome classification in plants	The combination of those two factors has started the spring of enviromics-aided breeding in recent years. Recently, Costa-Neto et al. introduced the concept of enviromic-aided genomic prediction involving the use of adaptation typologies to process the raw environmental data into a reliable descriptor of the environmental diversity. This data is then used for training accurate GxE prediction models, mostly involving molecular breeding protocols in agriculture and forestry improvement.
c_1jsl3yodvkb4	Envirome	Envirome classification in plants	Envirome > Envirome classification in plants	Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism to express different traits in response to internal and external environmental factors, is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Similar to how genetics approaches have been used to identify and predict performance based on genetic markers, the contribution of environmental factors to phenotypic plasticity can be systematically analyzed and predicted. The Critical Environmental Regressor through Informed Search (CERIS ) uses whole-season environmental variants to identify major explicit environmental conditions that contribute to performance, similar to how QTL/ GWAS analysis identifies major genes from genome-wide markers. Enviromic prediction can be used to predict how an organism will perform under new growth conditions based on analysis of the whole-season environmental variants, akin to how genomic prediction is used to predict the performance of new genotypes.
c_h7cnscqncbaf	Envirome	Genotype-environment correlation and interaction	Envirome > Genotype-environment correlation and interaction	The effect of an envirome on an organism can be potentially modulated by its genetic makeup, i.e., its genome. The two main ways genes and environment may interact is through genotype-environment correlation and interaction. Genotype-environment correlation occurs because, for example, children both inherit genes from their parents and live under the influence of their parents. In the context of genetic epidemiology, interaction refers to the genes and the environment both participating in a causal way that departs from a simple additive model of the effects. An example of a genotype-environment interaction is the increased risk of getting Alzheimer's disease following a head injury in persons carrying the APOE ϵ 4 {\displaystyle \epsilon 4} allele.
c_ghf4eja44pei	Envirome	Criticism in human health	Envirome > Criticism in human health	Some researchers see envirome as a renaming of the already well-established nurture component of the nature-nurture dichotomy in explaining psychological behavior. Steven Rose has argued that in psychiatry, it is time to abandon the genome-envirome dichotomy altogether in favor of an integrative view of a person's life course.
c_eya1vrmpr622	European Federation of Periodontology	Summary	European_Federation_of_Periodontology	The European Federation of Periodontology (EFP) is a non-profit organisation dedicated to promoting awareness of periodontal science, the science and clinical practice of periodontics and implant dentistry, and the importance of gum health. Its guiding vision is “Periodontal health for a better life.” Founded in 1991, the EFP is a federation of 37 national periodontal societies and represents more than 16,000 periodontists, dentists, researchers, and oral-health professionals in Europe and around the world. It pursues evidence-based science in periodontal and oral health, promoting events and campaigns aimed at dental and medical professionals as well as the public.The EFP organises EuroPerio, a triennial congress in periodontology and implant dentistry – the largest European conference on periodontology whose most recent edition was attended by more than 10,000 people – as well as events for clinicians and researchers such as the Perio Master Clinic, the International Perio Master Clinic, and the Perio Workshop. Together with its member societies, the EFP organizes the annual Gum Health Day on 12 May, an awareness-raising initiative that has sought to bring key messages on gum health to millions of people across the world.
c_xt1l4seeoc1i	European Federation of Periodontology	Summary	European_Federation_of_Periodontology	It has also run a series of public-health campaigns on the links between periodontal and general health. The EFP’s "Journal of Clinical Periodontology", published monthly, is a leading scientific publication and has amongst the highest impact factors of journals in dentistry, oral surgery, and medicine. The federation also publishes a monthly digest of research (JCP Digest) in seven languages, as well as two issues per year of the magazines Perio Insight and Perio Life. The EFP plays an important role in education through its accredited programme for postgraduate education in periodontology and implant dentistry which is taught at 16 universities. It has also been campaigning, along with its member societies, for European Union recognition of periodontology as a speciality within dentistry.
c_j4nxzay9ow12	European Federation of Periodontology	Strategic vision and goals	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > Strategic vision and goals	The EFP’s strategic vision is “periodontal health for a better life,” which emphasises the interaction between periodontal health and overall health and the positive role that periodontology can play in public health. The federation seeks to serve both the professional periodontal and dentistry sector as well as patients and the public.Periodontology encompasses the art, science, and practice of attaining and maintaining healthy tissues supporting and surrounding teeth or their substitutes, replacing lost teeth by implantation of natural and/or synthetic devices, and reconstructing lost supporting structures by regeneration or repair with the goal of maintaining health, function and aesthetics to improve oral and general health and wellbeing.In seeking to fulfil its strategic vision, the EFP has four strategic objectives:1. Improved health and wellbeing: Improve and promote periodontal health globally as part of oral and general health and wellbeing, ensuring social and economic inclusion, by working in partnership with patients, governments, professional bodies, industry, consumer groups, and other organisations. 2.
c_ltxffstnplnq	European Federation of Periodontology	Strategic vision and goals	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > Strategic vision and goals	Education and training: Maintain, refine, harmonise, and further develop the highest standards of education and training in the art, science, and practice of periodontology and implant dentistry to increase knowledge/awareness on the importance of periodontal diseases and their consequences for other oral and non-oral health professionals. 3. Policy and influence: In collaboration with national member organizations and through strong leadership, influence policy at national and international levels, including the recognition of periodontal diseases as a public-health problem as well as source and consequence of social inequality.
c_qaas2wsxyfff	European Federation of Periodontology	Strategic vision and goals	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > Strategic vision and goals	The recognition of periodontology as a dental speciality in the EU is fundamental prerequisite. 4. Science and research: Promote research and knowledge-basis in all aspects of periodontology and implant dentistry, with global dissemination and application of research findings to enhance patient and public awareness and promote the practice of evidence-based and patient-centred care and, in turn, clinical outcomes.
c_cjp26pygbojy	European Federation of Periodontology	Strategic vision and goals	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > Strategic vision and goals	As set out in the federation’s by-laws: The EFP is a non-profit making organization whose goal is the promotion, by all means at its disposal, of periodontology and, more generally, oral health both in Europe and worldwide. In particular: To promote the development and practice of periodontology and of oral health in Europe and to ensure the development and recognition of the specialty of periodontology in Europe. To ensure a high level of knowledge in these disciplines by publications, collaborative scientific research and by any other means at its disposal. To oversee the dissemination of research and publications by its members and other research workers. To ensure the independence and the integrity of the profession of periodontology and/or dentists with a specific interest in periodontologyIn addition, the EFP also has a goal to promote and represent the interests of the discipline of periodontology in Europe and worldwide.
c_yr9lrqiiu34d	European Federation of Periodontology	History of the EFP	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > History of the EFP	The origins of the European Federation of Periodontology (EFP) date back to a conversation in 1985 between Dr Jean-Louis Giovannoli (France) and Professor Ubele van der Velden (the Netherlands). The concept of a united and cooperative body of European societies of periodontology emerged from this conversation. Subsequent discussions and meetings, over the following six years, led to the formation of the Federation. The European Federation of Periodontology was formally created at a meeting on 12–13 December 1991 in Amsterdam at which the federation’s objectives were adopted and its constitution and by-Laws were approved.
c_ajs1rs3zjxa9	European Federation of Periodontology	History of the EFP	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > History of the EFP	The newly formed EFP comprised the national societies of periodontology of 11 European countries: the Belgian, British, Dutch, French, German, Irish, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, and Swiss societies.The EFP’s constitution and by-Laws were amended in 1996, 2010, and 2016.The EFP’s first scientific congress, called EuroPerio1, was held at EuroDisney in Paris, France, on 12–15 May 1994. Since then, a further 10 editions of the EuroPerio congress have been held. The first European Workshop on Periodontology (later rebranded as Perio Workshop) was held in February 1993 in Ittingen Charterhouse, Thurgau, Switzerland, focused on “the clinical practice of periodontology”.
c_0t2btwm4i2ug	European Federation of Periodontology	History of the EFP	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > History of the EFP	A further 15 such workshops have since been held, some in partnership with other organisations. In 1998, the EFP gave its first accreditation to a postgraduate programme in periodontology, to the Academic Centre of Dentistry (ACTA) in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, followed by the University of Bern in Switzerland. By 2021, the number of accredited programmes stood at 16 in 12 countries.
c_3bng9xsrhcw3	European Federation of Periodontology	History of the EFP	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > History of the EFP	The EFP’s flagship publication is the Journal of Clinical Periodontology which has been published since 1974 and which became the official journal of the federation in December 1993. The publisher of the Journal since 2008 has been Wiley Online Library. The EFP organises, with its national-society members, an annual periodontal-health awareness day held on May 12.
c_nja5fy0ixwld	European Federation of Periodontology	History of the EFP	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > History of the EFP	Launched in 2014 as the European Day of Periodontology, this awareness day subsequently evolved into Gum Health Day, which aims to be a global event that raises the visibility of periodontology and gum health among the public.Since 2017, the EFP has run a series of workshops and awareness campaigns in conjunction with its commercial partners. The first of these focused on oral health and pregnancy and subsequent campaigns have covered the links between periodontal disease and caries, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.In November 2017, the EFP and the American Academy of Periodontology (AAP) joined forces at the World Workshop on Periodontal and Peri-implant Diseases and Conditions in Chicago, USA, to draw up a new classification of periodontal and peri-implant diseases and conditions. Subsequently, the EFP has encouraged clinicians to adopt the new classification and created an S3-level clinical practice guideline on the treatment of periodontitis in accordance with the new classification. At its general assembly in October 2020, the EFP launched its Sustainability Manifesto, which commits the federation to ensuring that sustainability is at the heart of all its activities.In May 2020, in response to the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic, the EFP published a Covid-19 safety protocol for dental practices.Purpose of the EFP The prime purpose of the EFP is the promotion of periodontology and, more generally, periodontal and general health both in Europe and worldwide by means of research, education and further development of its science.
c_tqakpe0bv5sg	European Federation of Periodontology	EFP member societies	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EFP member societies	The EFP has three categories of membership: full members, associate members, and international associate members. New members are accepted at the federation’s annual general assembly, usually held in March or April. As of March 2021, the EFP had 37 member societies (26 full members, four associate members, seven international associate members).Full members: Austrian Society of Periodontology, Belgian Society of Periodontology, British Society of Periodontology and Implant Dentistry, Croatian Society of Periodontology, Czech Society of Periodontology, Danish Society of Periodontology, Dutch Society of Periodontology, Finnish Society of Periodontology, French Society of Periodontology and Oral Implantology, German Society of Periodontology, Hellenic Society of Periodontology and Implant Dentistry, Hungarian Society of Periodontology, Irish Society of Periodontology, Israeli Society of Periodontology and Osseointegration, Italian Society of Periodontology and Implantology, Lithuanian Association of Periodontology, Norwegian Society of Periodontology, Polish Society of Periodontology, Portuguese Society of Periodontology and Implantology, Romanian Society of Periodontology, Serbian Society of Periodontology, Slovenian Society of Periodontology, Spanish Society of Periodontology and Osseointegration, Swedish Society of Periodontology and Implantology, Swiss Society of Periodontology, Turkish Society of Periodontology. Associate members: Azerbaijani Society of Periodontology, Georgian Association of Periodontology, Moroccan Society of Periodontology and Implantology, Russian Society of Periodontology. International associate members: Argentinian Society of Periodontology, Australian Society of Periodontology, Brazilian Society of Periodontology, Lebanese Society of Periodontology, Mexican Association of Periodontology, Society of Periodontology Singapore.
c_9stfb2a60kei	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	The triennial EuroPerio congress is the most important event organised by the EFP and one of the world’s biggest meetings in the field of periodontology (dentistry). The most recent edition – EuroPerio10 in Copenhagen (2022) – attracted more than 7,000 attendees from more than 100 countries and featured hundreds of scientific presentations and also included live surgery video transmissions.Since EuroPerio1 in 1994, a total of nine editions of the EuroPerio congress have been held. EuroPerio10 was due to be held in June 2021 but because of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic was postponed until June 2022. Each EuroPerio congress is organised by an organising committee that is selected at a general assembly of the EFP.
c_jsp5m8rlu0yq	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Each organising committee comprises a chair, a scientific chair, and a treasurer as well as other members including representatives of the EFP-affiliated society in the country that hosts the congress. Since EuroPerio7 in Vienna in 2012, the EFP has used the services of professional conference organiser Mondial Congress & Events to help organise the EuroPerio congresses. The full list of EuroPerio congresses, with their chairs and scientific chairs is: EuroPerio1: Paris, France, 12-15 May 1994.
c_8k44hithau5x	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Chair: Jean-Louis Giovannoli. Scientific chair: Pierre Baehni. EuroPerio2: Florence, Italy, 15-17 May 1997.
c_8ckuyp0pme51	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Chair: Massimo de Sanctis. Scientific chair: Mariano Sanz. EuroPerio3: Geneva, Switzerland, 8-11 June 2000.
c_o0vl0kdz2jzv	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Chair: Pierre Baehni. Scientific chair: Ubele van der Velden. EuroPerio4: Berlin, Germany, 19-21 June 2003.
c_th6m5wjyhblx	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Chair: Jörg Meyle. Scientific chair: Maurizio Tonetti. EuroPerio5: Madrid, Spain, 29 June-1 July 2006.
c_dk3czq9nkj5b	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Chair: Mariano Sanz. Scientific chair: Stefan Renvert. EuroPerio 6: Stockholm, Sweden, 4-6 June 2009.
c_spu7otn8evkq	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Chair: Stefan Renvert. Scientific chair: Pierpaolo Cortellini. EuroPerio 7: Vienna, Austria, 6-9 June 2012.
c_d2h7b7wf2yif	European Federation of Periodontology	EuroPerio congress	European_Federation_of_Periodontology > EuroPerio congress	Chair: Gernot Wimmer. Scientific chair: Richard Palmer. EuroPerio8: London, UK, 3-8 June 2015.

c_e3engssgm0l9

Neigh (sound)

Summary

Neigh_(sound)

A neigh () is the sound made by horses, horse hybrids such as the hinny, and other equines, such as the zebra. It consists of a succession of jerky sounds, initially high-pitched and gradually lower. Produced on exhalation by the larynx and modulated, it enables the animal to express its emotions (such as fear or satisfaction) and to inform other animals through the sound produced.

c_rrgznybk5yy9

Neigh (sound)

Summary

Neigh_(sound)

The main function of neighing is to alert other equines to its presence in the absence of visual communication. However, horses rarely neigh. Buffon established a classification of neighs into five categories, according to the emotion expressed by the horse, which has been widely used in subsequent works.

c_n8hzzpd2avev

Neigh (sound)

Summary

Neigh_(sound)

Today, we only speak of neighing when the horse is vocalizing, and of squeaking or whinnying in other cases. In literary works, the horse neigh is often the means by which it makes itself known to its rider and communicates with them. In divination practices, examination of the sound produced and the horse's attitude has given rise to hippomancy. Horse neigh plays a particularly important role in Tibetan Buddhist beliefs.

c_z05aaufersks

Neigh (sound)

Etymology and terminology

Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology

In English and Germanic languages, the Middle High German nēgen gave rise to the Old English hnǣgan and Middle English neyen, then the modern English verb ‘to neigh’. As in French, its use is attested before the 11th century. In the Tibetan language, gsaṅs refers to voice in a general sense, and skad-gsaṅs to neigh, i.e., literally, "the horse's voice".

c_t2677og28baw

Neigh (sound)

Etymology and terminology

Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology

Tibetan dictionaries distinguish between two types of neighing, the one that resounds and the other one that becomes faint. In English, a similar distinction exists between nickering, whinnying and neighing, which designate three types of neighing. This terminological distinction does not exist in French.

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Neigh (sound)

Etymology and terminology

Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology

In French language, 'hennissement' is a masculine noun that, according to the Trésor de la langue Française informatisé, was attested in the 13th century and it is in the Histoire de l'empereur Henri de Constantinopled by Henry of Valenciennes (a text dated around 1220). 'Hennissement' is derived from the verb 'hennir', attested in 1100 for human beings, and 30 years later for the "cry of a horse", in Philippe de Thaon's Bestiaire. Moreover, 'hennir' is a borrowing from the Latin 'hinnire' which, as Quintilian notes in his Institutio Oratoria, is formed on an onomatopoeia of the "horse cry": the repetition of the vowel "i" evokes the sound of neighing.

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Neigh (sound)

Etymology and terminology

Neigh_(sound) > Etymology and terminology

Other Romance verbs, such as the Italian 'nitrire', derive from it. An influence from Frankish 'kinni', meaning jaw, is also possible. The hinny neighs like a horse, while the mule bray like a donkey. In French, 'hennissement' and 'hennir' are also used for the zebra.

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Neigh (sound)

History

Neigh_(sound) > History

From the earliest times, mankind has been aware of the sounds made by horses, which have been domesticated since antiquity, and has attributed all kinds of meanings to them. In Western Europe, Buffon's study of horses, in which he follows Cardan, describes five types of neighs. This study has been an authority for centuries, and it is included in Encyclopédie, ou dicctionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et de métiers, among others. According to him, these five horse neighs are used to express joy, desire, anger, fear and pain respectively.

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Neigh (sound)

History

Neigh_(sound) > History

The five types of neighs are as follows: the neigh of joy, in which the voice is heard for quite a long time, rising and ending on higher notes. The horse kicks at the same time, but lightly, and does not try to strike; the neigh of desire, love and affection, in which the horse doesn't kick. It is heard for a long time, and the voice ends with lower, faster sounds; the neigh of anger, during which the horse kicks and strikes dangerously, very short and high-pitched; the neigh of fear, during which he also kicks, is hardly longer than that of anger.

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Neigh (sound)

History

Neigh_(sound) > History

The voice is low, hoarse and seems to come entirely from the nostrils. This neigh is quite similar to the lion's roar; and the neigh of pain, less a neigh than a whinny, which is low-pitched and follows breathing.This classification, very popular and widely used, is no longer valid today. According to some 19th-century encyclopedias, in some countries, particularly Hungary, it was customary to split the horse's nostrils to prevent neighing, particularly in times of war. This information is modified by the fact that neighing is modulated in the larynx. The splitting of a donkey's nostril to prevent braying is, however, well attested during the World War I.

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Neigh (sound)

Description

Neigh_(sound) > Description

The neigh is a succession of jerky sounds, first high-pitched, then gradually lower, producing a sort of long "Hiiiihiiiihiii". Intensity and pitch can vary considerably. It can be so loud that it can be heard by the human ear from a distance of several kilometers, which means that horses, whose hearing is better developed, can hear it from an even greater distance. When a horse neighs, it opens its mouth, and its jaw and nostrils move.

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Neigh (sound)

Description

Neigh_(sound) > Description

Neighing is more frequent in the entire horse than in the mare and gelding, and the timbre of their voices is not as strong. From birth, the male has a louder voice than the female. By the age of two or two-and-a-half, when puberty sets in, the voice of all horses becomes louder. The horse's vocalizations have complex sounds, a wide bandwidth and varied frequencies, making them richer than those of most domestic animals. Although the name "neigh" is generally applied to the horse's call, the hinny, a hybrid of stallion and donkey, readily neighs like a horse, while the mule, a hybrid of donkey and mare, is more likely to bray.

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Neigh (sound)

Mechanism

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Mechanism

The horse neighs by inhaling to fill its lungs and then expelling the air that passes through its larynx. Neighing occurs in the larynx during exhalation, which is why horses with an open trachea are unable to neigh, as the air no longer passes through it. The other parts of the respiratory system contribute to neighing in a secondary way. The lungs expel air into the larynx.

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Neigh (sound)

Mechanism

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Mechanism

The pharynx and nasal cavities add power to the vocalization and modify it. The air expelled from the lungs pushes the lips away from the glottis, until the vocal cords return on themselves and momentarily close the respiratory tract, only to spread apart again, producing vibratory movements fast enough to give rise to sounds, much as happens when you blow into the reed of an oboe. The horse's throat, mouth and lips modify the nature of the sound emitted, while the power of the neigh is determined by the force with which air is expelled from the lungs.

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Neigh (sound)

Special features

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Special features

The Haflinger breed, originally from the Tyrol in the Alps, is said by its breeders to have a wider range of neighs than other horses. This may be due to the fact that, in mountainous environments, horses have difficulty seeing each other and rely more on auditory communication.

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Neigh (sound)

Function and emotions

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions

Neighing is one of the horse's means of communication, but far from the most widely used. Not resorting to neighing is a precaution against possible predators of this large herbivore, who might spot potential prey by the sound. Horses mainly use body language. They only resort to neighing in very specific cases, notably when they can't see other horses to decipher their movements.

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Neigh (sound)

Function and emotions

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions

The primary function of neighing is to allow the animal to call other horses it can't see.Horses use neighing a lot when they're young. When Przewalski's foals wake up, they neigh and receive a response from their mother, more rarely from another horse. They may try to locate the source of adult horses' neighing.

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Neigh (sound)

Function and emotions

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions

The mare calls its foal by neighing if it wanders too far away, and the foal who is looking for its mother calls it in the same way: each probably recognizes the other's neigh very clearly. Horse neighs are also a way for them to express their intentions, concerns and satisfactions, generally when these give rise to strong emotions, such as those experienced by two stallions fighting, or a stallion who senses and approaches a mare. There are differences depending on the sensations the animal feels and communicates. Researchers have studied the emotions that horses communicate to other horses when they neigh: while the tone is constant, the harmonics are varied and increase in proportion to anxiety. Frequency plays a role in communication.

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Neigh (sound)

Neigh of satisfaction

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Neigh of satisfaction

This neigh is rather low-pitched and soft. It's a sign of friendship, emitted mainly at mealtimes, and also by the mare to reassure its foal. According to English-speaking authors, this type of neighing is divided into two quite distinct types. Whinnying refers to the neigh of satisfaction, a form of recognition that expresses the horse's joy. Nickering is the mare's neigh to reassure its foal, but can also be emitted by horses in the presence of people they particularly like: the animal then expresses its satisfaction at being at the person's side. The first type of neigh is louder and higher-pitched than the second.

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Neigh (sound)

Neigh of worry and for calling

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Neigh of worry and for calling

This neigh is much louder and higher-pitched, and can be heard from a great distance. It can be heard by a worried animal preparing to flee, or by a horse separated from its companions, looking for signs of other horses in the vicinity. The animal is waiting for a response that will provide the information it is seeking.

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Neigh (sound)

Neigh of worry and for calling

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Neigh of worry and for calling

This cry is easily recognizable, deafening a person standing next to the horse at the same time. What's more, the animal emitting it generally adopts a very specific position, raising its head to clear its throat, which increases the power of the sound produced. Brood mares often neigh to call their foals close to them when they stray too far.

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Neigh (sound)

Other sounds

Neigh_(sound) > Description > Function and emotions > Other sounds

Other sounds produced by the horse are not neighs, but squeaks of mirth or pain, or whinnies of suffering. The loudest squeak is also a threat: it indicates that the horse is about to express its anger physically, for example during a group feeding or when a mare pushes a stallion away.

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Neigh (sound)

In culture

Neigh_(sound) > In culture

As with all animals in human contact, the horse neigh can take on a variety of symbolic meanings. It plays a role in hippomancy, myths, tales, legends and popular texts. According to dream interpretations, neighing heralds news of a friend or a happy event to be celebrated among friends. In the visual arts, the rendering of a horse's neighing is particularly elaborate in Picasso's Guernica, in which the horse neigh is intended to convey the pain of an entire people. Films, especially westerns, frequently add recorded neighs to scenes with horses, which can give the false impression that the animal makes extensive use of this mode of communication.

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Neigh (sound)

Music

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Music

A frequent theme in modern Greek folk songs is that of the woman who hears a horse neigh and recognizes the cry of her husband's mount, but not the man she has just spent the night with, whom she believes to be her lover. The neighing acts as a catalyst, preceding the punishment of the adulterous wife. In other songs, the neighing may be a decoy, a love code, an instrument of recognition to identify the horse rider, or a tribute from the equine to its departed master. All these meanings testify to the deep relationship between man and horse.

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Neigh (sound)

Literature

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Literature

In the Roman d'Alexandre, the fifteen-year-old future king passes the place where the terrible Bucephalus is confined one day and hears a loud neigh. When he asks which animal it belongs to, one of his father's men replies that Bucephalus is locked up there because it feeds on human flesh, making it very dangerous. When he hears Alexander's voice, Bucéphale lets out another neigh, this time very soft, and leans towards the young man he recognizes as his master.One of the impressives of the Japanese language is that of a group of horses neighing to greet the departure or arrival of a person they recognize. In Ronsard's poem L'Ombre du cheval, the neighing gives a form of reality to an imaginary painting horse seen in a dream: the neighing awakens its master, becoming a clue to the animal's possible reality. Le vent du Nord set come le hennissement d'un Cheval noir is a 40-page story from the manga series Sabu to Ichi Torimono Hikae (1966-1972) by Shōtarō Ishinomori.

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Neigh (sound)

Beliefs, legends and divination

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination

Neighing can be an indicator in hippomancy, divination using horses. As with coat characteristics and white markings, various popular beliefs attribute qualities to the horse's neighing. According to French belief in the mid-nineteenth century, horses that neigh most often, especially with joy and desire, are the best and most generous.

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Neigh (sound)

Buddhism and Hinduism

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Buddhism and Hinduism

The horse neigh is a symbol of the wrathful Buddhist deity Hayagriva, whose head is surmounted by one to three green-necked neighing horses. This frightens Māra, Gautama Buddha's tempting demon (as well as his avatars), and restores his faith in attaining enlightenment. Ash-Vagosha, whose name means "horse neigh", was a renowned Indian Buddhist of the 1st century, who wrote a biography of the Buddha. In Hinduism, thunder is created when Indra's chariot passes by, by the neighing of his horses.

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Neigh (sound)

Tibet

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Tibet

Various beliefs relating to neighs are particularly well documented in Tibet. According to the Tibetan hippologists who wrote the Touen-houang manuscripts (800-1035), a horse neigh sound comes from the wind, the force of life, from the base of its navel to its mouth. Depending on the sound and position of the horse when it neighs, it can be a good or bad omen for its master. Neighs that imitate the sound of a conch shell, large drum, lion, tiger, chariot roll, flute, bull, thunder or river; are signs of good fortune, especially if the animal lowers its head or turns it to the left when neighing.

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Neigh (sound)

Tibet

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Tibet

Similarly, a horse that neighs a lot when accompanying others, or makes others neigh, is a good sign. Conversely, if a horse neighs a lot while looking around, or if its cry resembles a donkey's bray, then it's a bad omen. A bad horse is one that imitates the cry of a camel, vulture, cat, jackal, dog, crow, monkey or owl.

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Neigh (sound)

Tibet

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Tibet

A horse that neighs when looking to the right or when touched, and is ridden by a king, promises its rider to rule the whole Earth. A sick horse, on the other hand, will soon die if it neighs while looking and breathing sideways. Finally, Tibetan hippologists recommend not to draw omens from very young, very old, sick, hungry or thirsty horses, but to pay close attention to neighing in all other cases.

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Neigh (sound)

Hippomancy in the West

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Hippomancy in the West

Divination by means of neighing is also practiced in the West, but is less well documented. In his Dictionnaire Infernal, Collin de Plancy speaks of Celtic hippomancy, thanks to the neighing and movement of white horses fed and kept in consecrated forests, considered to be the guardians of divine secrets. In his Morales sur le livre de Job, Pope Gregory I describes the horse as a true preacher, and its neigh as the voice of preaching. The myth of Balius and Xanthus, the horses of Achilles, one of which speaks and predicts the death of its master, provides some evidence of hippomancy through neighing.

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Neigh (sound)

Darius' horse

Neigh_(sound) > In culture > Beliefs, legends and divination > Darius' horse

According to a legend recounted by Herodotus, the neighing of a horse plays a major role in the choice of government in ancient Persia. As seven conspirators were unable to agree on the preferable form of government, it was decided that they would all ride to the same place the next morning before sunrise, and that whoever's horse was first to neigh in greeting to the sun would be made King of the Persians. Darius' squire learns of this, and cheats by leading his master's stallion to a mare placed where he will be the next morning. When Darius' horse arrives before sunrise, the smell and memory of the previous day's mare cause him to neigh with joy, and the kingdom falls to his master. The six other conspirators dismount and proclaim Darius I king of the Persians. In reality, Darius was probably chosen by consensus among the conspirators, but this legend illustrates the importance of the horse's neigh in defining the future king.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Summary

Fear_of_negative_evaluation

Fear of negative evaluation (FNE) or fear of failure, also known as atychiphobia, is a psychological construct reflecting "apprehension about others' evaluations, distress over negative evaluations by others, and the expectation that others would evaluate one negatively". The construct and a psychological test to measure it were defined by David Watson and Ronald Friend in 1969. FNE is related to specific personality dimensions, such as anxiousness, submissiveness, and social avoidance.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Summary

Fear_of_negative_evaluation

People who score high on the FNE scale are highly concerned with seeking social approval or avoiding disapproval by others and may tend to avoid situations where they have to undergo evaluations. High FNE subjects are also more responsive to situational factors. This has been associated with conformity, pro-social behavior, and social anxiety.

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Fear of negative evaluation

FNE test

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > FNE test

The original Fear of Negative Evaluation test consists of thirty items with a sentence that was response format and takes approximately ten minutes to complete. Scale scores range from 0 (low FNE) to 30 (high FNE). In 1983, Mark Leary presented a brief version of the FNE consisting of twelve original questions on a 5-point Likert scale (BFNE). Scale scores range from 12 (low FNE) to 60 (high FNE).

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Fear of negative evaluation

Reliability

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > FNE test > Reliability

Both the original thirty-item and the brief twelve-item FNE test have been demonstrated to have high internal consistency. The original and brief versions correlate very closely.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Validity

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > FNE test > Validity

FNE does not correlate strongly with other measures of social apprehension, such as the SAD PERSONS scale and the Interaction Anxiousness Scale.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Social anxiety

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Social anxiety

Social anxiety is, in part, a response to perceived negative evaluation by others. Whereas FNE is related to the dread of being evaluated unfavorably when participating in a social situation, social anxiety is defined as a purely emotional reaction to this type of social situation. When patients with social phobia evaluate their relationships, they are extremely fearful of negative evaluation and express high degrees of FNE. As discussed by Deborah Roth Ledley, subjects in a study were asked to give a speech after completing a dot-probe paradigm task.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Social anxiety

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Social anxiety

After being presented with negative faces, low FNE participants did not display any increased apprehension, whereas high FNE participants displayed more apprehension.FNE is a direct cause of eating disorders caused by social anxieties, I.e., the fear of being negatively evaluated upon appearance. It ranks higher than depression and social comparison in causes of eating disorders. This is because FNE is the foundation for bulimic attitudes and body dissatisfaction.A research study was conducted on 64 students majoring in various engineering fields participated from VIT University-Chennai.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Social anxiety

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Social anxiety

Additionally, both daytime learners and hostel residents serve as samples for the study. Furthermore, the findings revealed a substantial positive link between anxiety and the concern of receiving a bad review. Also, there was a strong positive correlation between state-trait anxiety and a feeling of negativism.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Heritability

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Heritability

FNE has been suggested to have some genetic component, as are other personality characteristics such as trait anxiousness, submissiveness, and social avoidance. BFNE scores have been found to have a genetic component in twin studies. In addition, BFNE scores and the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire are genetically correlated. It has been suggested that the genes that influence negative evaluation fears affect a range of anxiety personality behaviors.

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Fear of negative evaluation

Judgment and perception

Fear_of_negative_evaluation > Judgment and perception

Winton, Clark and Edelmann (1995) found that individuals who score higher on the FNE are more accurate at identifying negative expressions. Individuals who score higher on the FNE were also found to overestimate negative social characteristics (e.g., awkwardness, long gaps in speech) and underestimate positive social characteristics (e.g., confidence, self-assurance) they exhibit during public speaking. Low-FNE speakers overestimate their effectiveness in public speaking. In contrast, high-FNE speakers were more effective in their communication, consistent with the listener's actual understanding. In the athletic arena, low-FNE basketball players were able to withstand higher levels of pressure and continue to maintain performance levels, whereas high-FNE basketball players showed a significant decrease in performance under pressure.

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Canteen Kopje

Summary

Canteen_Kopje

Canteen Kopje is an archaeological site, formally protected as a grade 2 provincial heritage site, and approved in 2017 for re-grading to national status, situated outside Barkly West in the Northern Cape, South Africa. The place was previously known as Klipdrift, meaning stony drift, a translation from a still earlier !Ora name, !a |aub. Canteen Kopje is best known for its long and exceptionally rich Earlier Stone Age sequence, spanning circa >0.5 to 1.7 million years, occurring within gravels exposed in late nineteenth/early twentieth century mining pits. Also attracting attention are more recent archaeological levels in the overlying Hutton Sands, which contain material known as Fauresmith, Middle Stone Age, Later Stone Age, and late Iron Age with evidence of protocolonial/colonial contact and interaction, probably, with nineteenth century diamond diggers.

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Canteen Kopje

Summary

Canteen_Kopje

The importance of Canteen Kopje as a heritage site was recognized, and a 9 hectares (22 acres) area known as Erf 91 was proclaimed as a protected reserve in 1948. Gideon Retief, Mining Commissioner of Barkly West from 1942 to 1951, was instrumental in preserving the site and creating the first open air exhibit here.

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Canteen Kopje

Summary

Canteen_Kopje

Subsequently, in 2000, information panels were erected by the McGregor Museum. These were refurbished in 2016. A walking trail was laid out for visitors to view the early diamond diggings and archaeological research sites.

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Canteen Kopje

Summary

Canteen_Kopje

The Barkly West Museum contains further information and examples of artefacts from the site, while material excavated by archaeologists is housed principally by the McGregor Museum, the approved archaeological repository for the Northern Cape Province in nearby Kimberley. In 2016 the protected heritage site was directly threatened after the Department of Minerals and Energy issued a permit for part of the site to be mined. Although a heritage permit had not been issued by the South African Heritage Resources Agency, mining commenced on 18 March 2016. An urgent interdicted was granted by the Northern Cape Division of the High Court of South Africa on 19 March, being made final on 19 April 2016.In the 1940s the archaeologist Clarence Van Riet Lowe predicted: "When the last diamond claim has been abandoned, archaeologists throughout the world will be interested in Canteen Kopje, in the Vaal River diggings, where lie the prehistoric remains of a million years of human evolution".

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Canteen Kopje

Alluvial diamond diggings

Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings

One of the hills in the vicinity of Canteen Kopje was the site of the first alluvial diamond diggings (as opposed to surface prospecting) on the Diamond Fields of South Africa, which precipitated the rush to these parts in 1870. Digging continued here until the early 1940s. Batlhaping Kgosi (Chief) Jantjie Mothibi controlled, for as long as he could, the influx of white "diamond seekers" to the region. Prospectors were allowed to use sharp sticks, but were not permitted to "touch the ground with pick and shovel".

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Canteen Kopje

Alluvial diamond diggings

Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings

For their part, as noted by Jerome Babe in his 1872 book, The South African Diamond Fields, "Natives would form themselves in long lines, joined hand in hand, and walk slowly over the ground and look for diamonds, especially after rain; and if they found one they would take it to a trader... horses, wagons, cows, sheep, cash, goods, etc at a deuce of a pace".In January 1870 diggers from KwaZulu-Natal were working their way along the Vaal River, finding diamonds at Klipdrift, on the "Old Koppie", upslope from Canteen Kopje. Using "pick and shovel, in spite of the natives", they unearthed more, precipitating the diamond rush. Soon both banks of the Vaal River were thronging with diggers of many nationalities, and by the end of the year there were five thousand people at Klipdrift alone.The diggers formed a Mutual Protection Association and elected Stafford Parker as their leader.

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Canteen Kopje

Alluvial diamond diggings

Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings

Klipdrift was renamed Parkerton (from 1873 it was called Barkly West), and a Diggers' Republic was proclaimed in July 1870. A popular early cradle sieve for recovery of diamonds was the so-called "Long Tom", which was reliant on large quantities of water. An improved version less dependent on water was developed by the American digger, author of The South African Diamond Fields, Jerome Babe.

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Canteen Kopje

Alluvial diamond diggings

Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings

His 'dry sifter', known as the "Yankee Baby", is still used in the twenty first century by some small-scale diggers. At the time, its inventor was said to be "the first Babe to rock his own cradle". The centrifugal or rotary washing machine – now standard on diggings in the area – is more sophisticated.

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Canteen Kopje

Alluvial diamond diggings

Canteen_Kopje > Alluvial diamond diggings

In a slurry, a concentrate of heavy diamond-bearing deposit is separated from lighter waste. Diggers staked their claims near the river, and dug the gravel where it was exposed at or near the surface. Where the gravel was buried deeper under silt and sand – such as at Canteen Kopje – large pits were dug. From these and from vertical shafts, the diggers tunnelled out precarious passageways in which a man could hardly stand.

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Canteen Kopje

Geology

Canteen_Kopje > Geology

The sequence of geological deposits in the vicinity of Canteen Kopje comprises: Resistant 2 800 million year old andesitic lavas of the Ventersdorp Supergroup, underlying the entire area. Thin patches of circa 280 million year old basal Karoo Sequence sediments made up of tillite and shale locally. Shallow remnants of 19-17 million year old Older Gravels on the tops and upper slopes of adjacent hills. Up to circa 10 metres (33 ft) thickness of >0.5 to 1.7 million year old Younger Gravels formed largely from rock debris washed from adjacent hillsides.

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Canteen Kopje

Geology

Canteen_Kopje > Geology

Up to 4 metres (13 ft) thick reddish windblown Hutton Sands that accumulated during drier intervals since about 0.3-0.5 million years ago.Diamonds at or near Canteen Kopje are confined to the Older and Younger Gravels. Around 90-120 million years ago, a swarm of volcanic pipes, centred on Kimberley to the east, brought diamond-bearing kimberlite to a higher surface formed of Karoo Sequence sediments. Subsequent erosion has lowered the entire regional landscape by over 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) and in the process the diamonds were released from their host rock. It has been estimated that at least 50 million carats of diamonds were set free in this way from the five kimberlite pipes in the vicinity of Kimberley alone. Most of those were flushed away to the sea long ago in past and present river channels, but along the way some were trapped in alluvial deposits such as the Older and Younger Gravels along rivers in this region.

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Canteen Kopje

Recognition of archaeological significance

Canteen_Kopje > Recognition of archaeological significance

Earlier Stone Age artefacts were noted in the area by Colonel James Henry Bowker and Mary Elizabeth Barber at the time of the earliest diamond diggings. Eminent prehistorians including C. van Riet Lowe, the French prehistorian, the Abbé Henri Breuil and J. Desmond Clark visited and described it. Breuil was here in 1929 and again in the 1940s, when he famously noted that "not only are there enough specimens to fill a museum to overflowing but to build it of them also."

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Canteen Kopje

Preserved and almost lost

Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost

On account both of the mining history as well as the finding of Acheulean artefacts at this spot, a 10 morgen portion of Canteen Kopje was declared a National Monument (since 2000 known as a provincial heritage site) in 1948. Mining recommenced in the vicinity in the 1990s and Canteen Kopje was nearly lost. Pressure was exerted for the site to be de-proclaimed as a heritage site, to allow for renewed diamond digging and 'empowerment' of small scale miners. The local community recognised the value of conserving heritage and supported the efforts of the then National Monuments Council and the McGregor Museum to preserve the site, which was then developed as an open-air museum.

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Canteen Kopje

Preserved and almost lost

Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost

The new Barkly West Museum was created at the same time.Renewed threat was experienced in 2016. In 2014 the Department of Minerals (DMR) issued a permit for mining to take place on part of the declared site. The South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) was alerted and in response, because of the existing formal declaration, a Cease Works Order was put in place to prevent mining from taking place.

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Canteen Kopje

Preserved and almost lost

Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost

Pressure was exerted however and in March 2016 the Cease Works Order was lifted, following which, on 16 March 2016, a diamond mining operation commenced work by fencing off an area around that for which they have a DMR mining permit. Public access to the remainder of the heritage site was blocked.

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Canteen Kopje

Preserved and almost lost

Canteen_Kopje > Preserved and almost lost

Section 27(18) of the National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA) (Act 25 of 1999) states that: "No person may destroy, damage, deface, excavate, alter, remove from its original position, subdivide or change the planning status of any heritage site without a permit issued by the heritage resources authority responsible for the protection of such site." Section 51. (1) of the NHRA states that: "Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, any person who contravenes— (a) sections 27(18), 29(10), 32(13) or 32(19) is guilty of an offence and liable to a fine or imprisonment or both such fine and imprisonment as set out in item 1 of the Schedule." Since the mining concern has commenced mining operations without such a permit issued by SAHRA, it is clearly in contravention of an Act of the Republic of South Africa and therefore is guilty of an offence.

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Canteen Kopje

Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s

Canteen_Kopje > Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s

Excavations in the late 1990s were carried out by Peter Beaumont of the McGregor Museum. John McNabb from the University of Southampton worked with Beaumont in analysing the Acheulean stone artefact technology. Further excavations have been carried out by archaeologists from the University of the Witwatersrand (inter alia for application of cosmogenic nuclide burial dating) and the University of Toronto. The current active programme of research has yielded an as yet unpublished basal date of some 2.3 million years, while excavations involving students from the Sol Plaatje University in Kimberley investigate the most recent circa 19th century contact period archaeology showing interaction between local communities and colonial diggers.

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Canteen Kopje

Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s

Canteen_Kopje > Archaeological and geological investigations from the 1990s

Crucial to the interpretation of the archaeology of the site, is an understanding of site formation in relation to the adjacent hill and the Vaal River which at different periods cut down first to the north of the site and then the south west.In 2007-9 a 7-metre sequence through Hutton Sands and Gravels was excavated to carry out dating and a detailed analysis of the lithic profile. There is a marked 'Victoria West' Acheulean horizon (named for the town in the Karoo where these stone tools were first described) in the upper part of the gravels, subject to a current Southampton PhD project. The lower part of the sequence contains simpler, older Acheulean technology. Later Stone Age material at and just below the surface has been studied in two excavations by archaeologists from the University of the Witwatersrand and Toronto.

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Canteen Kopje

Canteen Kopje Skull

Canteen_Kopje > Canteen Kopje Skull

The Canteen Kopje Skull was found in the vicinity in 1925 by diamond digger Kenneth Kemp, working 2.4 m down at an unrecorded locality at Canteen Kopje. A number of fitting skull fragments were presented by Kemp to the magistrate J.G. van Alphen, who in turn donated them to the McGregor Museum.

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Canteen Kopje

Canteen Kopje Skull

Canteen_Kopje > Canteen Kopje Skull

They were studied soon afterwards by Robert Broom, who described it in Nature in 1929.In Broom's reconstruction, the skull appeared to have features similar to an allegedly archaic skeleton found at Boskop near Johannesburg. In 2011-12 X-ray Computerised Tomography scans of the skull, carried out at the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation near Pretoria, suggested it falls within the range of variation of Khoe-Sān populations of the Holocene (last 12 000 years), and is not 'archaic' as Broom had suggested. Reconsideration of the evidence also points to it having come from the Hutton Sands and not the Younger Gravels, as previously presumed.

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Statistical parsing

Summary

Statistical_parsing

Statistical parsing is a group of parsing methods within natural language processing. The methods have in common that they associate grammar rules with a probability. Grammar rules are traditionally viewed in computational linguistics as defining the valid sentences in a language. Within this mindset, the idea of associating each rule with a probability then provides the relative frequency of any given grammar rule and, by deduction, the probability of a complete parse for a sentence.

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Statistical parsing

Summary

Statistical_parsing

(The probability associated with a grammar rule may be induced, but the application of that grammar rule within a parse tree and the computation of the probability of the parse tree based on its component rules is a form of deduction.) Using this concept, statistical parsers make use of a procedure to search over a space of all candidate parses, and the computation of each candidate's probability, to derive the most probable parse of a sentence. The Viterbi algorithm is one popular method of searching for the most probable parse.

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Statistical parsing

Summary

Statistical_parsing

"Search" in this context is an application of search algorithms in artificial intelligence. As an example, think about the sentence "The can can hold water". A reader would instantly see that there is an object called "the can" and that this object is performing the action 'can' (i.e. is able to); and the thing the object is able to do is "hold"; and the thing the object is able to hold is "water".

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Statistical parsing

Summary

Statistical_parsing

Using more linguistic terminology, "The can" is a noun phrase composed of a determiner followed by a noun, and "can hold water" is a verb phrase which is itself composed of a verb followed by a verb phrase. But is this the only interpretation of the sentence? Certainly "The can can" is a perfectly valid noun-phrase referring to a type of dance, and "hold water" is also a valid verb-phrase, although the coerced meaning of the combined sentence is non-obvious.

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Statistical parsing

Summary

Statistical_parsing

This lack of meaning is not seen as a problem by most linguists (for a discussion on this point, see Colorless green ideas sleep furiously) but from a pragmatic point of view it is desirable to obtain the first interpretation rather than the second and statistical parsers achieve this by ranking the interpretations based on their probability. (In this example various assumptions about the grammar have been made, such as a simple left-to-right derivation rather than head-driven, its use of noun-phrases rather than the currently fashionable determiner-phrases, and no type-check preventing a concrete noun being combined with an abstract verb phrase.

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Statistical parsing

Summary

Statistical_parsing

None of these assumptions affect the thesis of the argument and a comparable argument can be made using any other grammatical formalism.) There are a number of methods that statistical parsing algorithms frequently use. While few algorithms will use all of these they give a good overview of the general field.

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Statistical parsing

Summary

Statistical_parsing

Most statistical parsing algorithms are based on a modified form of chart parsing. The modifications are necessary to support an extremely large number of grammatical rules and therefore search space, and essentially involve applying classical artificial intelligence algorithms to the traditionally exhaustive search. Some examples of the optimisations are only searching a likely subset of the search space (stack search), for optimising the search probability (Baum-Welch algorithm) and for discarding parses that are too similar to be treated separately (Viterbi algorithm).

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Statistical parsing

Notable people in statistical parsing

Statistical_parsing > Notable people in statistical parsing

Eugene Charniak Author of Statistical techniques for natural language parsing amongst many other contributions Fred Jelinek Applied and developed numerous techniques from Information Theory to build the field David Magerman Major contributor to turning the field from theoretical to practical by managing data James Curran Applying the MaxEnt algorithm, word representation, and other contributions Michael Collins (computational linguist) First very high performance statistical parser Joshua Goodman Hypergraphs, and other generalizations between different methods

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Envirome

Summary

Envirome

"Envirome" is a concept that relates the core of environmental conditions with the successful biological performance of living beings. This concept was created in genetic epidemiology, in which an envirome is defined as the total set of environmental factors, both present, and past, that affect the state, and in particular the disease state, of an organism. The study of the envirome and its effects is termed enviromics. The term was first coined in the field of psychiatric epidemiology by J.C.

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Envirome

Summary

Envirome

Anthony in 1995. More recently, use of the term has been extended to the cellular domain, where cell functional enviromics studies both the genome and envirome from a systems biology perspective. In plants, enviromics is directly related to complex ecophysiology, in which the wide environment of the plants, into an omics scale, can be dissected and understood as a mosaic of possible growing factors and the balance of diverse resources available.

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Envirome

Summary

Envirome

In ecology, this concept can be related to the Shelford's law of tolerance. The enviromics (study of the enviromes) is conceived as a pillar of the Modern Plant Breeding, capable to connect the design and development of breeding goals concealing it with the agronomic targets for a climate-smart agriculture. It also has the ability to bridge the knowledge gaps between the different levels of systems biology and phenomics in the context of Gene–environment interaction.

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Envirome

Envirome classification in humans

Envirome > Envirome classification in humans

While there can be both positive and negative effects of the envirome on the organism, negative effects are often emphasized in discussing disease. A typology of envirome health hazards suggested by McDowall is natural physico-chemical, man-made physico-chemical, biological/organic, natural or man-made, macrosocial, micro- or psychosocial. One approach to classifying the envirome is to organize the factors based on their likely disease-specific causality such as cardiovascular disease The time-scale of the envirome hazard is another possible dimension of classification; an envirome hazard are said to be a sudden change (such as a disaster), a rapid environmental change, or a slow change or a static situation. In twin studies, envirome influences are often decomposed into shared environmental factors, common to both twins and non-shared environmental factors that differ between the twins.

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Envirome

Envirome classification in plants

Envirome > Envirome classification in plants

In plants, the enviromics term was probably first scientifically mentioned by Xu, in his iconic article on Envirotyping, and also comprehensively described by Resende et al., which is the field of applied data science that integrates databases of environmental factors into quantitative genetics. Then, it can leverage an important plant ecophysiology knowledge capable to bridge the gaps about how the environment acts across different levels of the systems biology (genes, transcripts, proteins, and metabolites). Consequently, it can boost the ability to better understand/model the phenotypic plasticity of the main agronomic traits under diverse growing conditions. The plant breeding community has experienced reduced costs for acquiring environmental sensors (e.g., weather stations) to be installed in the field trials while increasing the reliability and resolution of the remote sensing techniques.

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Envirome

Envirome classification in plants

Envirome > Envirome classification in plants

The combination of those two factors has started the spring of enviromics-aided breeding in recent years. Recently, Costa-Neto et al. introduced the concept of enviromic-aided genomic prediction involving the use of adaptation typologies to process the raw environmental data into a reliable descriptor of the environmental diversity. This data is then used for training accurate GxE prediction models, mostly involving molecular breeding protocols in agriculture and forestry improvement.

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Envirome

Envirome classification in plants

Envirome > Envirome classification in plants

Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism to express different traits in response to internal and external environmental factors, is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Similar to how genetics approaches have been used to identify and predict performance based on genetic markers, the contribution of environmental factors to phenotypic plasticity can be systematically analyzed and predicted. The Critical Environmental Regressor through Informed Search (CERIS ) uses whole-season environmental variants to identify major explicit environmental conditions that contribute to performance, similar to how QTL/ GWAS analysis identifies major genes from genome-wide markers. Enviromic prediction can be used to predict how an organism will perform under new growth conditions based on analysis of the whole-season environmental variants, akin to how genomic prediction is used to predict the performance of new genotypes.

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Envirome

Genotype-environment correlation and interaction

Envirome > Genotype-environment correlation and interaction

The effect of an envirome on an organism can be potentially modulated by its genetic makeup, i.e., its genome. The two main ways genes and environment may interact is through genotype-environment correlation and interaction. Genotype-environment correlation occurs because, for example, children both inherit genes from their parents and live under the influence of their parents. In the context of genetic epidemiology, interaction refers to the genes and the environment both participating in a causal way that departs from a simple additive model of the effects. An example of a genotype-environment interaction is the increased risk of getting Alzheimer's disease following a head injury in persons carrying the APOE ϵ 4 {\displaystyle \epsilon 4} allele.

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Envirome

Criticism in human health

Envirome > Criticism in human health

Some researchers see envirome as a renaming of the already well-established nurture component of the nature-nurture dichotomy in explaining psychological behavior. Steven Rose has argued that in psychiatry, it is time to abandon the genome-envirome dichotomy altogether in favor of an integrative view of a person's life course.

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