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c_7s15c9nerzgj | Kotava | Literature | Kotava > Literature | Literature has an important place in the Kotava-speaking community. There are hundreds of translations of novels (Leo Tolstoy, Émile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Octave Mirbeau, Albert Camus, Molière, Mikhail Sholokhov, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Victor Hugo, etc.), tales (La Fontaine, Charles Perrault, Brothers Grimm, Hans Christian Andersen, legends of the world) and other literary texts (Machiavelli, etc.). |
c_sixfyn3mpf7s | Kotava | In popular culture | Kotava > In popular culture | In Les Tétraèdres ("The Tetrahedra", a novel in French by Yurani Andergan, Verintuva, ISBN 978-2-9536310-0-5, 1274 p. ), a wide historical and fantastic fresco, Kotava is the spoken language that Neanderthals transmitted in secret to their descendants for many generations and is recited by some heroines as long oracles. There are additional translations at the end. |
c_w1kr67dxxt2b | Kotava | Sample texts | Kotava > Sample texts | From "The Princess and the Pea" by Hans Christian Andersen: Lekeon tiyir sersikye djukurese va sersikya, va sersanyikya. Ta da vaon trasir, va tawava anamelapiyir vexe kotviele koncoba me dojeniayar ; sersikya, jontika tiyid, vexe kas tiyid sersanyikya ? Batcoba tiyir voldrikafa karolara, kotviele koncoba ok arcoba nuvelayad mekotunafa. |
c_pq7uojcfvt9u | Kotava | Sample texts | Kotava > Sample texts | Gabenapaf in dimdenlapiyir, va sersanyikya loeke co-djudiyir. Once upon a time there was a prince who wanted to marry a princess; but she would have to be a real princess. He travelled all over the world to find one, but nowhere could he get what he wanted. |
c_mbdsejr3qcji | Kotava | Sample texts | Kotava > Sample texts | There were princesses enough, but it was difficult to find out whether they were real ones. There was always something about them that was not as it should be. So he came home again and was sad, for he would have liked very much to have a real princess.The Lord's Prayer: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights:Kot ayik sokoblir nuyaf is miltaf gu bagaliuca is rokeem. |
c_xtcl6q0usmeo | Kotava | Sample texts | Kotava > Sample texts | Va ova is jiluca sodir isen kottan is artan va sint beron gotegid. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |
c_afip9xys8grv | Cabaña pasiega | Summary | Cabaña_pasiega | The cabaña pasiega is a type of mixed popular architecture (housing-livestock building called a housebarn), typical of the Cantabrian mountains, above all, from the upper valleys of Asón and Pas, whose contrasted origin dates back to the 16th century. |
c_j5w8spel2swa | Cabaña pasiega | Typology | Cabaña_pasiega > Typology | Usually it is a warehouse buildings, divided into two levels, with support in the perimeter walls and in one or two pillars of the watershed of the roof. Are built on good-sized masonry, with limestone of the place, with roofs of slate flagstones. The access to ground floor, used as a stable for animals, is made directly from the field level by a door with wooden lintel. |
c_qvoh30e29p7t | Cabaña pasiega | Typology | Cabaña_pasiega > Typology | The upper floor, usually entitled to housing or warehouse, usually accessed through a Patín, consistent, in the most ancient examples, in a step ladder of slab, with a terrace or landing, which is usually covered with an extension of the eaves cover. Sometimes, when the cabin is on steep slope, is made from the side access located in the high altitude, although it is not usual. Holes in the walls are scarce and small in size, as a defense against the cold. |
c_jp8ulfd8144w | Cabaña pasiega | Character | Cabaña_pasiega > Character | These cabins were always linked to a livestock farm, and to the Pasiego system of transterminance called mudas between low areas and urbanizadas in the valleys, and high grasslands. In the warm season, the cattle were taken to these high fresh meadows, called branizas, for the summer, the family moved to the cabin during that period. By autumn, returning to the lowlands. Very rarely, the cabins were occupied throughout the year, in which case it could be the coexistence of two or more buildings in a single payment, and in recent times (19th and early 20th centuries), only were moved the younger members of the families.This character connected to a livestock farming, causes usually have attached a fence, closed by low stone wall, known as fincas or llave == References == |
c_fyezqk7pw0xj | Kinesthetic sympathy | Summary | Kinesthetic_sympathy | Kinesthetic sympathy is the state of having an emotional attachment to an object when it is in hand which one does not have when it is out of sight. |
c_xyn18el23x6f | Kinesthetic sympathy | Concept | Kinesthetic_sympathy > Concept | The concept of kinesthetic sympathy is associated with John Martin, a dance critic. He introduced it in a New York Times article that discussed how the audience members respond to movements of the dancers on stage. Such response is said to transpire subconsciously. According to Martin, "when we see a human body moving, we see movement which is potentially producible by any human body and therefore by our own." This link allows humans to reproduce the movement in their present muscular experience and even awaken its connotations as if the perceived movement was their own. What this means is that an individual - through kinesthetic sympathy - could perform movements that are beyond his body's capacities.Kinesthetic sympathy is linked to the concept of kinesthetic empathy, which pertains to the embodied experience of movement emotion. |
c_l820jwvqu6il | Kinesthetic sympathy | NSGCD Study | Kinesthetic_sympathy > NSGCD Study | In 2003, a study was conducted by the National Study Group On Chronic Disorganization (NSGCD), the purpose of which was to collect data on the effectiveness of using special techniques with clients to avoid kinesthetic sympathy. Organizers working with chronically disorganized clients at their desks were asked to use the kinesthetic sympathy avoidance process by asking their respective clients to hold a mug, drinking glass, or plastic or metal tumbler as a distracting device while working together. The survey was meant to see if, by holding a solid "distraction" item, the client would exhibit less noticeable kinetic sympathy and, therefore, have a more successful paper processing session. The survey achieved mixed results. |
c_tpiaypm9s7ux | Patois | Summary | Patois | Patois (, pl. same or ) is speech or language that is considered nonstandard, although the term is not formally defined in linguistics. As such, patois can refer to pidgins, creoles, dialects or vernaculars, but not commonly to jargon or slang, which are vocabulary-based forms of cant. In colloquial usage of the term, especially in France, class distinctions are implied by the very meaning of the term, since in French, patois refers to any sociolect associated with uneducated rural classes, in contrast with the dominant prestige language (Standard French) spoken by the middle and high classes of cities or as used in literature and formal settings (the "acrolect"). |
c_zd2ndxnoxt5m | Patois | Etymology | Patois > Etymology | The term patois comes from Old French patois, 'local or regional dialect' (originally meaning 'rough, clumsy or uncultivated speech'), possibly from the verb patoier, 'to treat roughly', from patte, 'paw', from Old Low Franconian *patta, 'paw, sole of the foot', plus the suffix -ois. |
c_2wyq1q9ilnj8 | Patois | Examples | Patois > Examples | In France and other Francophone countries, patois has been used to describe non-standard French and regional languages such as Picard, Occitan and Franco-Provençal, since 1643 and Catalan after 1700, when the king Louis XIV banned its use. The word assumes the view of such languages being backward, countrified and unlettered, thus patois being potentially considered offensive when used by outsiders. Jean Jaurès said "one names patois the language of a defeated nation". In France and Switzerland, however, the term patois no longer holds any offensive connotation, and has indeed become a celebrated and distinguished variant of the numerous local tongues.The vernacular form of English spoken in Jamaica is also referred to as Patois or Patwa. |
c_fn8un8n0s8j4 | Patois | Examples | Patois > Examples | It is noted especially in reference to Jamaican Patois from 1934. Jamaican Patois language comprises words of the native languages of the many ethnic and cultural groups within the Caribbean including Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Amerindian and English along with several African languages. Some islands have Creole dialects influenced by their linguistic diversity; French, Spanish, Arabic, Hebrew, German, Dutch, Italian, Chinese, Vietnamese and others. |
c_9qyvqu4arpg8 | Patois | Examples | Patois > Examples | Jamaican Patois is also spoken in Costa Rica and French Creole is spoken in Caribbean countries such as Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana in South America. Often these patois are popularly considered "broken English" or slang, but cases such as Jamaican Patois are classified with more correctness as a Creole language; in fact, in the Francophone Caribbean the analogous term for local basilectal languages is créole (see also Jamaican English and Jamaican Creole). Antillean Creole, spoken in several present or formerly French islands of the Lesser Antilles, includes vocabulary and grammar of African and Carib origin, in addition to French. |
c_p5iuqbzv3yds | Patois | Examples | Patois > Examples | Its dialects often contain folk-etymological derivatives of French words, for example lavier ("river, stream") which is a syncopated variant of the standard French phrase la rivière ("the river") but has been identified by folk etymology with laver, "to wash"; therefore lavier is interpreted to mean "a place to wash" (since such streams are often used for washing laundry). Other examples of Patois include Trasianka, Sheng and Tsotsitaal. Patois has also been spoken by some Uruguay citizens, generally immigrants located in the south of Uruguay, mainly arriving from Italy and France, coming from Piedmont. |
c_fdmcuslrrbt2 | Patois | Synonyms | Patois > Synonyms | Dominican, Grenadian, St. Lucian, Trinidadian and Venezuelan speakers of Antillean Creole call the language patois. It is also named Patuá in the Paria Peninsula of Venezuela and spoken since the eighteenth century by self-colonization of French people (from Corsica) and Caribbean people (from Martinique, Trinidad, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic) who moved for cacao production. Macanese Patois is also known as Patuá and was originally spoken by the Macanese community of the former Portuguese colony of Macau. == References == |
c_4w4mb2b5c6et | Individualism | Summary | Individualism | Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual. Individualists promote realizing one's goals and desires, valuing independence and self-reliance, and advocating that the interests of the individual should gain precedence over the state or a social group, while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government. Individualism makes the individual its focus, and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation".Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism and more corporate social forms.Individualism has been used as a term denoting "he quality of being an individual; individuality", related to possessing "n individual characteristic; a quirk". Individualism is also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors such as with humanist philosophical positions and ethics. |
c_wxaqj4j4xe8m | Individualism | Etymology | Individualism > Etymology | In the English language, the word individualism was first introduced as a pejorative by utopian socialists such as the Owenites in the late 1830s, although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came up with it independently. A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite. Although an early follower of Robert Owen, he eventually rejected Owen's collective idea of property and found in individualism a "universalism" that allowed for the development of the "original genius". Without individualism, Smith argued that individuals cannot amass property to increase one's happiness. William Maccall, another Unitarian preacher and probably an acquaintance of Smith, came somewhat later, although influenced by John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle and German Romanticism, to the same positive conclusions in his 1847 work Elements of Individualism. |
c_c121o1rrvu9h | Individualism | Individual | Individualism > Individual | An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person" as in "the problem of proper names". From the 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism. Individuality is the state or quality of being an individuated being; a person separated from everything with unique character by possessing their own needs, goals, and desires in comparison to other persons. |
c_jo86zhamspik | Individualism | Individuation principle | Individualism > Individual > Individuation principle | The principle of individuation, or principium individuationis, describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things. For Carl Jung, individuation is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and collective unconscious is brought into consciousness (by means of dreams, active imagination or free association to take examples) to be assimilated into the whole personality. It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place. Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development. |
c_ieji8j09wtja | Individualism | Individuation principle | Individualism > Individual > Individuation principle | In L'individuation psychique et collective, Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause. Thus, the individual atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation. Individuation is an always incomplete process, always leaving a "pre-individual" left-over, itself making possible future individuations. |
c_6by2zqr454ty | Individualism | Individuation principle | Individualism > Individual > Individuation principle | The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. For Stiegler, "the I, as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to we, which is a collective individual. The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits and in which a plurality of I's acknowledge each other's existence." |
c_ievwy8vfu47r | Individualism | Individualism and society | Individualism > Individualism and society | Individualism holds that a person taking part in society attempts to learn and discover what his or her own interests are on a personal basis, without a presumed following of the interests of a societal structure (an individualist need not be an egoist). The individualist does not necessarily follow one particular philosophy. He may create an amalgamation of elements of many philosophies, based on personal interests in particular aspects that he finds of use. On a societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. |
c_xd53jfzvtssw | Individualism | Individualism and society | Individualism > Individualism and society | Independent thinking and opinion is a necessary trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of general will in The Social Contract is not the simple collection of individual wills and that it furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason). Individualism versus collectivism is a common dichotomy in cross-cultural research. |
c_4ra7a2dwbdwh | Individualism | Individualism and society | Individualism > Individualism and society | Global comparative studies have found that the world's cultures vary in the degree to which they emphasize individual autonomy, freedom and initiative (individualistic traits), respectively conformity to group norms, maintaining traditions and obedience to in-group authority (collectivistic traits). Cultural differences between individualism and collectivism are differences in degrees, not in kind. Cultural individualism is strongly correlated with GDP per capita and venture capital investments. |
c_wfkmalogahv4 | Individualism | Individualism and society | Individualism > Individualism and society | The cultures of economically developed regions such as Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, North America and Western Europe are the most individualistic in the world. Middle income regions such as Eastern Europe, South America and mainland East Asia have cultures which are neither very individualistic nor very collectivistic. The most collectivistic cultures in the world are from economically developing regions such as the Middle East and Northern Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, South and South-East Asia, Central Asia and Central America.An earlier analysis by Ruth Benedict in her book The Chrysanthemum and the Sword states that societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and/or self-interested) behaviors, rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviors. Ruth Benedict made a distinction, relevant in this context, between guilt societies (e.g. medieval Europe) with an "internal reference standard" and shame societies (e.g. Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback on whether an action is acceptable or not.Individualism is often contrasted either with totalitarianism or with collectivism, but there is a spectrum of behaviors at the societal level ranging from highly individualistic societies through mixed societies to collectivist. |
c_6af0pptbfujs | Individualism | Competitive individualism | Individualism > Individualism and society > Competitive individualism | According to an Oxford Dictionary, "competitive individualism" in sociology is "the view that achievement and non-achievement should depend on merit. Effort and ability are regarded as prerequisites of success. Competition is seen as an acceptable means of distributing limited resources and rewards. |
c_x563obkj0rtt | Individualism | Methodological individualism | Individualism > Individualism and society > Methodological individualism | Methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents. In economics, people's behavior is explained in terms of rational choices, as constrained by prices and incomes. The economist accepts individuals' preferences as givens. Becker and Stigler provide a forceful statement of this view: On the traditional view, an explanation of economic phenomena that reaches a difference in tastes between people or times is the terminus of the argument: the problem is abandoned at this point to whoever studies and explains tastes (psychologists? |
c_ia3spm0hdlb4 | Individualism | Methodological individualism | Individualism > Individualism and society > Methodological individualism | anthropologists? phrenologists? sociobiologists?). On our preferred interpretation, one never reaches this impasse: the economist continues to search for differences in prices or incomes to explain any differences or changes in behavior. |
c_6r3q0yfu5q56 | Individualism | Political individualism | Individualism > Political individualism | Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as the state or religious morality). For L. Susan Brown, "Liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations. "Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports civil liberties, or which emphasizes the supremacy of individual rights and personal freedoms over and against any kind of authority (such as a state, a corporation and social norms imposed through peer pressure, among others). |
c_6qcyfuva33al | Individualism | Political individualism | Individualism > Political individualism | Civil libertarianism is not a complete ideology; rather, it is a collection of views on the specific issues of civil liberties and civil rights. Because of this, a civil libertarian outlook is compatible with many other political philosophies, and civil libertarianism is found on both the right and left in modern politics. For scholar Ellen Meiksins Wood, "there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism and non-Lockean individualism may encompass socialism".British historians such as Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives by the 1970s, demanding greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control, angrily complaining that the establishment was withholding it. Historians argue that this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal. |
c_gw5r4pels6k8 | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | Within anarchism, individualist anarchism represents several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. In 1793, William Godwin, who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice, which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism. Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. |
c_jdybph000vna | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism, or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner. Stirner's The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality. |
c_x8ac0ok5uuan | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the state. |
c_w1j3tz78qxl8 | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. Egoist anarchism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay. |
c_ovo286xibc1n | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist and The Peaceful Revolutionist, the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, was the first anarchist periodical published. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "t is apparent that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews. William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form". |
c_6iqn0l7boda7 | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist, who is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later, Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty. |
c_5m6yntkmc24g | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | From these early influences, anarchism and especially individualist anarchism was related to the issues of love and sex. In different countries, this attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals, free love and birth control advocates, individualist naturists nudists as in anarcho-naturism, freethought and anti-clerical activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as illegalism and individual reclamation, especially within European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France. These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde, Émile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Giménez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others. |
c_pxcl4tma3et6 | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | In his important essay The Soul of Man Under Socialism from 1891, Wilde defended socialism as the way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that "ith the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. |
c_xq8jy7rpouuu | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all". For anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man Under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist. |
c_7hewb6vtcw7k | Individualism | Anarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Anarchism | for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated. Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete". Woodcock finds that "he most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man Under Socialism" and finds that it is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin. |
c_rldrq4f6maz1 | Individualism | Autarchism | Individualism > Political individualism > Autarchism | Autarchism promotes the principles of individualism, the moral ideology of individual liberty and self-reliance whilst rejecting compulsory government and supporting the elimination of government in favor of ruling oneself to the exclusion of rule by others. Robert LeFevre, recognized as an autarchist by anarcho-capitalist Murray Rothbard, distinguished autarchism from anarchy, whose economics he felt entailed interventions contrary to freedom in contrast to his own laissez-faire economics of the Austrian School. |
c_27fl213bm60k | Individualism | Liberalism | Individualism > Political individualism > Liberalism | Liberalism is the belief in the importance of individual freedom. This belief is widely accepted in the United States, Europe, Australia and other Western nations, and was recognized as an important value by many Western philosophers throughout history, in particular since the Enlightenment. It is often rejected by collectivist ideas such as in Abrahamic or Confucian societies, although Taoists were and are known to be individualists. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote praising "the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed".Liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment and rejects many foundational assumptions that dominated most earlier theories of government, such as the Divine Right of Kings, hereditary status, and established religion. |
c_gs3mjlxup344 | Individualism | Liberalism | Individualism > Political individualism > Liberalism | John Locke is often credited with the philosophical foundations of classical liberalism, a political ideology inspired by the broader liberal movement . He wrote "no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions. "In the 17th century, liberal ideas began to influence European governments in nations such as the Netherlands, Switzerland, England and Poland, but they were strongly opposed, often by armed might, by those who favored absolute monarchy and established religion. |
c_t14uyjm0f8v1 | Individualism | Liberalism | Individualism > Political individualism > Liberalism | In the 18th century, the first modern liberal state was founded without a monarch or a hereditary aristocracy in the United States of America. The US Declaration of Independence includes the words which echo Locke that "all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to insure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. "Liberalism comes in many forms. According to John N. Gray, the essence of liberalism is toleration of different beliefs and of different ideas as to what constitutes a good life. |
c_gmnfpb8edw2g | Individualism | Egoist anarchism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Egoist anarchism | Egoist anarchism is a school of anarchist thought that originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner, a 19th-century Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism." According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality. Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state.Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. |
c_on0bqc8xxlin | Individualism | Egoist anarchism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Egoist anarchism | Egoism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy, but it has also gone beyond Stirner within anarchism. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay. John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called "Egoism" in which he states that "Modern egoism, as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche, and expounded by Ibsen, Shaw and others, is all these; but it is more. It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual; that, as far as they are concerned, they are the only individual." Stirner and Nietzsche, who exerted influence on anarchism despite its opposition, were frequently compared by French "literary anarchists" and anarchist interpretations of Nietzschean ideas appear to have also been influential in the United States. |
c_9937cmxfyqgn | Individualism | Ethical egoism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Ethical egoism | Ethical egoism, also called simply egoism, is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people do only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism which holds merely that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. However, these doctrines may occasionally be combined with ethical egoism. |
c_76070xpnrowq | Individualism | Ethical egoism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Ethical egoism | Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others. Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher regard than one has for others (as egoism does, by elevating self-interests and "the self" to a status not granted to others), but that one also should not (as altruism does) sacrifice one's own interests to help others' interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e. one's own desires or well-being) are substantially-equivalent to the others' interests and well-being. Egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of consequentialism, but egoism and altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that egoism and altruism are both agent-focused forms of consequentialism (i.e. subject-focused or subjective), but utilitarianism is called agent-neutral (i.e. objective and impartial) as it does not treat the subject's (i.e. the self's, i.e. the moral "agent's") own interests as being more or less important than if the same interests, desires, or well-being were anyone else's. |
c_viyewr0rgerq | Individualism | Ethical egoism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Ethical egoism | Ethical egoism does not require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being of others when making moral deliberation, e.g. what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Individualism allows for others' interest and well-being to be disregarded or not as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-interest of the agent. Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that in pursuing self-interest one ought always to do what one wants to do, e.g. in the long term the fulfilment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the self. |
c_f5jc1oday48c | Individualism | Ethical egoism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Ethical egoism | Fleeting pleasance then takes a back seat to protracted eudaemonia. In the words of James Rachels, "thical egoism endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness. "Ethical egoism is sometimes the philosophical basis for support of libertarianism or individualist anarchism as in Max Stirner, although these can also be based on altruistic motivations. These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action. |
c_yomy4s74b5mm | Individualism | Existentialism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Existentialism | Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who generally held, despite profound doctrinal differences, that the focus of philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of existence of the individual person and his or her emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts. The early 19th century philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism, maintained that the individual solely has the responsibilities of giving one's own life meaning and living that life passionately and sincerely, in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including despair, angst, absurdity, alienation and boredom.Subsequent existential philosophers retain the emphasis on the individual, but differ in varying degrees on how one achieves and what constitutes a fulfilling life, what obstacles must be overcome, and what external and internal factors are involved, including the potential consequences of the existence or non-existence of God. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy in both style and content as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Existentialism became fashionable after World War II as a way to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom.Nietzsche's concept of the superman is closely related to the idea of individualism and the pursuit of one's own unique path and potential. As is seen in the following quote, the concept of superman reflects Nietzsche's emphasis on the need to overcome traditional moral and societal norms in order to achieve personal growth and self-realization: |
c_r0kmqk4d2f4k | Individualism | Freethought | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Freethought | Freethought holds that individuals should not accept ideas proposed as truth without recourse to knowledge and reason. Thus, freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts, scientific inquiry and logical principles, independent of any logical fallacies or intellectually limiting effects of authority, confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, prejudice, sectarianism, tradition, urban legend and all other dogmas. Regarding religion, freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to scientifically validate the existence of supernatural phenomena. |
c_u3lea4xmv0iz | Individualism | Humanism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Humanism | Humanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural or to appeals to authority. Since the 19th century, humanism has been associated with an anti-clericalism inherited from the 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes. 21st century Humanism tends to strongly endorse human rights, including reproductive rights, gender equality, social justice, and the separation of church and state. The term covers organized non-theistic religions, secular humanism, and a humanistic life stance. |
c_l458a1oc0np1 | Individualism | Hedonism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Hedonism | Philosophical hedonism is a meta-ethical theory of value which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad. The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure (an umbrella term for all inherently likable emotions) is the only thing that is good in and of itself or by its very nature. This implies evaluating the moral worth of character or behavior according to the extent that the pleasure it produces exceeds the pain it entails. |
c_0ax9xsberz74 | Individualism | Libertinism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Libertinism | A libertine is one devoid of most moral restraints, which are seen as unnecessary or undesirable, especially one who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger society. Libertines place value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses. As a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain. Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester and the Marquis de Sade. During the Baroque era in France, there existed a freethinking circle of philosophers and intellectuals who were collectively known as libertinage érudit and which included Gabriel Naudé, Élie Diodati and François de La Mothe Le Vayer. The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester's libertinism to Hobbesian materialism. |
c_zangcekaddqe | Individualism | Objectivism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Objectivism | Objectivism is a system of philosophy created by philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand which holds that reality exists independent of consciousness; human beings gain knowledge rationally from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive and deductive logic; the moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness or rational self-interest. Rand thinks the only social system consistent with this morality is full respect for individual rights, embodied in pure laissez-faire capitalism; and the role of art in human life is to transform man's widest metaphysical ideas, by selective reproduction of reality, into a physical form – a work of art – that he can comprehend and to which he can respond emotionally. Objectivism celebrates man as his own hero, "with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." |
c_vwhknpfp0e2u | Individualism | Philosophical anarchism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Philosophical anarchism | Philosophical anarchism is an anarchist school of thought which contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy. In contrast to revolutionary anarchism, philosophical anarchism does not advocate violent revolution to eliminate it but advocates peaceful evolution to superate it. Although philosophical anarchism does not necessarily imply any action or desire for the elimination of the state, philosophical anarchists do not believe that they have an obligation or duty to obey the state, or conversely that the state has a right to command. |
c_1me2oskmtspj | Individualism | Philosophical anarchism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Philosophical anarchism | Philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism. Philosophical anarchists of historical note include Mohandas Gandhi, William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Max Stirner, Benjamin Tucker and Henry David Thoreau. Contemporary philosophical anarchists include A. John Simmons and Robert Paul Wolff. |
c_bxcr7epc7vv1 | Individualism | Subjectivism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Subjectivism | Subjectivism is a philosophical tenet that accords primacy to subjective experience as fundamental of all measure and law. In extreme forms such as solipsism, it may hold that the nature and existence of every object depends solely on someone's subjective awareness of it. In the proposition 5.632 of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote: "The subject doesn't belong to the world, but it is a limit of the world". Metaphysical subjectivism is the theory that reality is what we perceive to be real, and that there is no underlying true reality that exists independently of perception. |
c_ct3xsq3ifdve | Individualism | Subjectivism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Subjectivism | One can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that is reality (subjective idealism). In probability, a subjectivism stands for the belief that probabilities are simply degrees-of-belief by rational agents in a certain proposition and which have no objective reality in and of themselves. Ethical subjectivism stands in opposition to moral realism, which claims that moral propositions refer to objective facts, independent of human opinion; to error theory, which denies that any moral propositions are true in any sense; and to non-cognitivism, which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all. |
c_9o64qiwyoqqq | Individualism | Subjectivism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Subjectivism | The most common forms of ethical subjectivism are also forms of moral relativism, with moral standards held to be relative to each culture or society, i.e. cultural relativism, or even to every individual. The latter view, as put forward by Protagoras, holds that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in the world. Moral subjectivism is that species of moral relativism that relativizes moral value to the individual subject. |
c_uch9o8o7snnl | Individualism | Subjectivism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Subjectivism | Horst Matthai Quelle was a Spanish language German anarchist philosopher influenced by Max Stirner. Quelle argued that since the individual gives form to the world, he is those objects, the others and the whole universe. One of his main views was a "theory of infinite worlds" which for him was developed by pre-socratic philosophers. |
c_2m6ul3vjs1ai | Individualism | Solipsism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Subjectivism > Solipsism | Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist. The term comes from Latin solus ("alone") and ipse ("self"). Solipsism as an epistemological position holds that knowledge of anything outside one's own mind is unsure. |
c_yl1ao3w6arcg | Individualism | Solipsism | Individualism > Philosophical individualism > Subjectivism > Solipsism | The external world and other minds cannot be known, and might not exist outside the mind. As a metaphysical position, solipsism goes further to the conclusion that the world and other minds do not exist. Solipsism is the only epistemological position that, by its own postulate, is both irrefutable and yet indefensible in the same manner. Although the number of individuals sincerely espousing solipsism has been small, it is not uncommon for one philosopher to accuse another's arguments of entailing solipsism as an unwanted consequence, in a kind of reductio ad absurdum. In the history of philosophy, solipsism has served as a skeptical hypothesis. |
c_y2gw458nw0fa | Individualism | Economic individualism | Individualism > Economic individualism | The doctrine of economic individualism holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his or her own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the community, the corporation or the state for him or her. |
c_y1gcncklnl0p | Individualism | Classical liberalism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Classical liberalism | Liberalism is a political ideology that developed in the 19th century in the Americas, England and Western Europe. It followed earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to personal freedom and popular government, but differed from earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to classical economics and free markets.Notable liberals in the 19th century include Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. Classical liberalism, sometimes also used as a label to refer to all forms of liberalism before the 20th century, was revived in the 20th century by Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek and further developed by Milton Friedman, Robert Nozick, Loren Lomasky and Jan Narveson. |
c_q02e5k9xzuvh | Individualism | Libertarianism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Libertarianism | Libertarianism upholds liberty as a core principle. Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and political freedom, emphasizing free association, freedom of choice, individualism and voluntary association. Libertarianism shares a skepticism of authority and state power, but libertarians diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing economic and political systems. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private power, often calling for the restriction or dissolution of coercive social institutions. Different categorizations have been used to distinguish various forms of libertarianism. This is done to distinguish libertarian views on the nature of property and capital, usually along left–right or socialist–capitalist lines. |
c_61js9nf2ppuw | Individualism | Left-libertarianism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Libertarianism > Left-libertarianism | Left-libertarianism represents several related yet distinct approaches to politics, society, culture and political and social theory which stress both individual and political freedom alongside social justice. Unlike right-libertarians, left-libertarians believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights, and maintain that natural resources (land, oil, gold, trees) ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively. Those left-libertarians who support property do so under different property norms and theories, or under the condition that recompense is offered to the local or global community.Related terms include egalitarian libertarianism, left-wing libertarianism, libertarianism, libertarian socialism, social libertarianism and socialist libertarianism. Left-libertarianism can refer generally to these related and overlapping schools of thought: Anti-authoritarian varieties of left-wing politics, in particular within the socialist movement, usually known as libertarian socialism. |
c_brfqz68iug38 | Individualism | Left-libertarianism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Libertarianism > Left-libertarianism | Geolibertarianism, an American synthesis of libertarianism and Georgism. Left-wing market anarchism, stressing the socially transformative potential of non-aggression and anti-capitalist freed markets. Steiner–Vallentyne school, named after Hillel Steiner and Peter Vallentyne, whose proponents draw conclusions from classical liberal or market liberal premises. |
c_x6togszmycv0 | Individualism | Right-libertarianism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Libertarianism > Right-libertarianism | Right-libertarianism represents either non-collectivist forms of libertarianism or a variety of different libertarian views that scholars label to the right of libertarianism such as libertarian conservatism. Related terms include conservative libertarianism, libertarian capitalism and right-wing libertarianism. In the mid-20th century, right-libertarian ideologies such as anarcho-capitalism and minarchism co-opted the term libertarian to advocate laissez-faire capitalism and strong private property rights such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources. The latter is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States, where it advocates civil liberties, natural law, free-market capitalism and a major reversal of the modern welfare state. |
c_xsnq7wi93x09 | Individualism | Socialism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Socialism | With regard to economic questions within individualist socialist schools such as individualist anarchism, there are adherents to mutualism (Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Émile Armand and early Benjamin Tucker); natural rights positions (early Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner and Josiah Warren); and egoistic disrespect for "ghosts" such as private property and markets (Max Stirner, John Henry Mackay, Lev Chernyi, later Benjamin Tucker, Renzo Novatore and illegalism). Contemporary individualist anarchist Kevin Carson characterizes American individualist anarchism saying that "nlike the rest of the socialist movement, the individualist anarchists believed that the natural wage of labor in a free market was its product, and that economic exploitation could only take place when capitalists and landlords harnessed the power of the state in their interests. Thus, individualist anarchism was an alternative both to the increasing statism of the mainstream socialist movement, and to a classical liberal movement that was moving toward a mere apologetic for the power of big business." |
c_bjbz2v35x38c | Individualism | Libertarian socialism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Socialism > Libertarian socialism | Libertarian socialism, sometimes dubbed left-libertarianism and socialist libertarianism, is an anti-authoritarian, anti-statist and libertarian tradition within the socialist movement that rejects the state socialist conception of socialism as a statist form where the state retains centralized control of the economy. Libertarian socialists criticize wage slavery relationships within the workplace, emphasizing workers' self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political organization.Libertarian socialism asserts that a society based on freedom and justice can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite. Libertarian socialists advocate for decentralized structures based on direct democracy and federal or confederal associations such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions and workers' councils.All of this is generally done within a general call for liberty and free association through the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life. Within the larger socialist movement, libertarian socialism seeks to distinguish itself from Leninism and social democracy.Past and present currents and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include anarchism (especially anarchist schools of thought such as anarcho-communism, anarcho-syndicalism, collectivist anarchism, green anarchism, individualist anarchism, mutualism, and social anarchism) as well as communalism, some forms of democratic socialism, guild socialism, libertarian Marxism (autonomism, council communism, left communism, and Luxemburgism, among others), participism, revolutionary syndicalism and some versions of utopian socialism. |
c_462qq9lynsan | Individualism | Mutualism | Individualism > Economic individualism > Socialism > Mutualism | Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought which can be traced to the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a socialist society where each person possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank which would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate only high enough to cover the costs of administration. Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold, it ought to receive goods or services in exchange embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility" and that receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury. |
c_r49r8cbarw25 | Individualism | Criticisms | Individualism > Criticisms | Plato emphasized that individuals must adhere to laws and perform duties while declining to grant individuals rights to limit or reject state interference in their lives.German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel criticized individualism by claiming that human self-consciousness relies on recognition from others, therefore embracing a holistic view and rejecting the idea of the world as a collection of atomized individuals.Fascists believe that the liberal emphasis on individual freedom produces national divisiveness. |
c_v0zlwuxverqf | Individualism | As creative independent lifestyle | Individualism > Other views > As creative independent lifestyle | The anarchist writer and bohemian Oscar Wilde wrote in his famous essay The Soul of Man under Socialism that "Art is individualism, and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. There lies its immense value. For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine." |
c_1y07757j6w1a | Individualism | As creative independent lifestyle | Individualism > Other views > As creative independent lifestyle | For anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist, for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated. Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete." In this way, individualism has been used to denote a personality with a strong tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors.Anarchist writer Murray Bookchin describes a lot of individualist anarchists as people who "expressed their opposition in uniquely personal forms, especially in fiery tracts, outrageous behavior, and aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of fin de siècle New York, Paris, and London. |
c_yq5xvjj16tlu | Individualism | As creative independent lifestyle | Individualism > Other views > As creative independent lifestyle | As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for sexual freedom ('free love') and enamored of innovations in art, behavior, and clothing. "In relation to this view of individuality, French individualist anarchist Émile Armand advocated egoistical denial of social conventions and dogmas to live in accord to one's own ways and desires in daily life since he emphasized anarchism as a way of life and practice. In this way, he opined that "the anarchist individualist tends to reproduce himself, to perpetuate his spirit in other individuals who will share his views and who will make it possible for a state of affairs to be established from which authoritarianism has been banished. |
c_qbg5uwno6fsc | Individualism | As creative independent lifestyle | Individualism > Other views > As creative independent lifestyle | It is this desire, this will, not only to live, but also to reproduce oneself, which we shall call 'activity. '"In the book Imperfect Garden: The Legacy of Humanism, humanist philosopher Tzvetan Todorov identifies individualism as an important current of socio-political thought within modernity and as examples of it he mentions Michel de Montaigne, François de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de Sade, and Charles Baudelaire. In La Rochefoucauld, he identifies a tendency similar to stoicism in which "the honest person works his being in the manner of a sculptor who searches the liberation of the forms which are inside a block of marble, to extract the truth of that matter." |
c_tz9xuo8mcydi | Individualism | As creative independent lifestyle | Individualism > Other views > As creative independent lifestyle | In Baudelaire, he finds the dandy trait in which one searches to cultivate "the idea of beauty within oneself, of satisfying one's passions of feeling and thinking. "The Russian-American poet Joseph Brodsky once wrote that "he surest defense against Evil is extreme individualism, originality of thinking, whimsicality, even – if you will – eccentricity. That is, something that can't be feigned, faked, imitated; something even a seasoned imposter couldn't be happy with." |
c_s6alwqlafhoa | Individualism | As creative independent lifestyle | Individualism > Other views > As creative independent lifestyle | Ralph Waldo Emerson famously declared that "hoso would be a man must be a nonconformist" – a point of view developed at length in both the life and work of Henry David Thoreau. Equally memorable and influential on Walt Whitman is Emerson's idea that "a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of small minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines." Emerson opposed on principle the reliance on civil and religious social structures precisely because through them the individual approaches the divine second-hand, mediated by the once original experience of a genius from another age. According to Emerson, "nsist on one's self; never imitate", for if the relationship is secondary the connection is lost. |
c_fq2z6y58tpyp | Individualism | Religion | Individualism > Other views > Religion | Pope Leo XIII's letter Testem benevolentiae nostrae condemned 'Americanism', which is associated with individualism.People in Western countries tend to be more individualistic than communitarian. The authors of one study proposed that this difference is due in part to the influence of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. They pointed specifically to its bans on incest, cousin marriage, adoption, and remarriage, and its promotion of the nuclear family over the extended family.The Catholic Church teaches "if we pray the Our Father sincerely, we leave individualism behind, because the love that we receive frees us ... our divisions and oppositions have to be overcome" Many in the Church believed Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation were sources of individualism. |
c_5hflz65eg6ba | Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée | Summary | Maison_de_l'Orient_et_de_la_Méditerranée | The Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée (or MOM) is a research body in Lyon, France, that specialises in the Mediterranean and the Middle East and the first steps of humanity. It is dedicated to its founder, historian Jean Pouilloux. |
c_yw4ckeco76mr | Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée | Staff | Maison_de_l'Orient_et_de_la_Méditerranée > Staff | Anne Schmitt, CNRS, took over directorship from Rémy Boucharlat on 1 January 2011 and conducts research programs within the Archéométrie et archéologie laboratory - UMR 5138 of the MOM. Nathalie Donjon serves as secretary general since 2007 after being recruited in 1988 and attached to the CNRS research administration. |
c_zb3or2f6bffs | Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée | History | Maison_de_l'Orient_et_de_la_Méditerranée > History | Founded in 1975, MOM's activity has been characterised by a multidisciplinary working approach. It employs 350 people: archaeologists, epigraphists, historians, with the help of physicists, chemists and geologists. Geographers, political scientists and architects are also employed. It is classed as a research federation involving five joint research units (UMR) of CNRS and two other university teams. This federation is linked to the Lumière University Lyon 2 and is especially concerned with historico-morphological studies. The MOM has also created an online application, an atlas of near east archaeological sites 14000 to 5700 BP, presenting work by a large number of archaeologists. |
c_8y52cw4d1k9b | Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée | Research Units | Maison_de_l'Orient_et_de_la_Méditerranée > Research Units | HiSoMA, History and Sources of the ancient world: UMR 5189 CNRS. Archéorient, Environments and societies of the ancient East: UMR 5133 CNRS. GREMMO, Group Research and Studies on the Mediterranean and the Middle East: UMR 5195 CNRS. Archaeometry and Archaeology, originally dating and Materials Technology: HiSoMA-UMR 5138 CNRS. |
c_r86zk8f552ya | Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée | Research Units | Maison_de_l'Orient_et_de_la_Méditerranée > Research Units | APRI, Institute of Research onancient architecture: UMR 6222 CNRS, Lyon office. Romanitas: Young team 2409. Centre Jean Palerne: host team 3067, Saint Etienne. |
c_g5y59o1clxmk | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Summary | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) | Marshall Hall FRS (18 February 1790 – 11 August 1857) was an English physician, physiologist and early neurologist. His name is attached to the theory of reflex arc mediated by the spinal cord, to a method of resuscitation of drowned people, and to the elucidation of function of capillary vessels. |
c_37zk52wkl9a6 | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Biography | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Biography | Hall was born on 18 February 1790 at Basford, near Nottingham, England, where his father, Robert Hall, was a cotton manufacturer. He was a brother of the inventor Samuel Hall. Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard's academy at Nottingham, he entered a chemists shop at Newark-on-Trent, and in 1809 began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. |
c_9xa92u91wqq4 | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Biography | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Biography | In 1811 he was elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the following year he took the M.D. degree, and was immediately appointed resident house physician to the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. This appointment he resigned after two years, when he visited Paris and its medical schools, and, on a walking tour, those also of Berlin and Göttingen. |
c_6nu96dnzxp51 | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Biography | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Biography | In 1817, when he settled at Nottingham, he published his Diagnosis, and in 1818 he wrote the Mimoses, a work on the affections denominated bilious, nervous, &c. The next year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician to the Nottingham general hospital. In 1826 he removed to London, and in the following year he published his Commentaries on the More Important Diseases of Females. In 1835 (Principles of Investigation in Physiology), he outlined five principles to govern animal experimentation. |
c_ftbv4iczstx7 | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Biography | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Biography | An experiment should never be performed if the necessary information could be obtained by observations No experiment should be performed without a clearly defined and obtainable, objective Scientists should be well-informed about the work of their predecessors and peers to avoid unnecessary repetition of an experiment Justifiable experiments should be carried out with the least possible infliction of suffering (often through the use of lower, less sentient animals) Every experiment should be performed under circumstances that would provide the clearest possible results, thereby diminishing the need for repetition of experiments.In 1836 he issued his Observations on Blood-letting Founded on Researches on the Morbid and Curative Effects of Loss of Blood, denouncing the widespread practice of bloodletting, which was acknowledged by the medical profession to be of vast practical value, and in 1831 his Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the Blood in the Capillary Vessels, in which he was the first to show that the capillaries are intermediate channels between the arteries and the veins and put the blood in contact with biological tissues. In the following year he read before the Royal Society a paper On the Inverse Ratio which Subsists between Respiration and Irritability in the Animal Kingdom. His most important work in physiology was concerned with the theory of reflex action, embodied in a paper On the Reflex Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla Spinalis (1833), which was supplemented in 1837 by another On the True Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves. |
c_jeiu55yz9tqe | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Biography | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Biography | In this theory, he stated that the spinal cord is comprised by a chain of units that functions as an independent reflex arcs, and their activity integrates sensory and motor nerves at the segment of the spinal cord from which these nerves originate. He proposed in addition that those arcs are interconnected and interacting in the production of coordinated movement. The reflex function excited great attention on the continent of Europe, though in England some of his papers were refused publication by the Royal Society. |
c_usbsxxh3ujpw | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Biography | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Biography | Hall thus became the authority on the multiform deranged states of health referable to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and he gained a large practice. Hall also published books on neurological diseases including stroke (apoplexy) and epilepsy.In Asphyxia, its Rationale and its Remedy (1856), Hall developed a technique for preventing victims of drowning by freeing their respiratory airway and by providing immediate ventilation, as the initial steps in resuscitation. |
c_49j2s8mbhybi | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Biography | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Biography | He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1853.He died at Brighton of a throat infection, aggravated by lecturing, on 11 August 1857 and was buried in Nottingham. One of his grandsons was the musician Marshall Hall. ;) |
c_k1tz92pfj6wf | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Religious views | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Religious views | Hall was a devout Christian who believed in the divinity of Christ. A collection of his religious thoughts on his journals and letters was collected by his widow in the biographical book Memoirs of Marshall Hall, by his widow. There, he is quoted speaking about Christ: To meditate on Him who is my Saviour – to be, to live in Him – is to me the supreme good. In such a place would I accomplish my projected work, and await His coming! |
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