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c_gker4r2dbkua | History of tuberculosis | A romantic disease | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > A romantic disease | It was during this century that tuberculosis was dubbed the White Plague, mal de vivre, and mal du siècle. It was seen as a "romantic disease". Individuals with tuberculosis were thought to have heightened sensitivity. The slow progress of the disease allowed for a "good death" as those affected could arrange their affairs. |
c_a2orkvyg7pef | History of tuberculosis | A romantic disease | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > A romantic disease | The disease began to represent spiritual purity and temporal wealth, leading many young, upper-class women to purposefully pale their skin to achieve the consumptive appearance. British poet Lord Byron wrote, "I should like to die from consumption", helping to popularize the disease as the disease of artists. George Sand doted on her phthisic lover, Frédéric Chopin, calling him her "poor melancholy angel".In France, at least five novels were published expressing the ideals of tuberculosis: Dumas's La Dame aux camélias, Murger's Scènes de la vie de Bohème, Hugo's Les Misérables, the Goncourt brothers' Madame Gervaisais and Germinie Lacerteux, and Rostand's L'Aiglon. |
c_kzshh42wwt6s | History of tuberculosis | A romantic disease | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > A romantic disease | The portrayals by Dumas and Murger in turn inspired operatic depictions of consumption in Verdi's La traviata and Puccini's La bohème. Even after medical knowledge of the disease had accumulated, the redemptive-spiritual perspective of the disease has remained popular (as seen in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge based in part on La traviata and the musical adaptations of Les Misérables). In large cities the poor had high rates of tuberculosis. Public-health physicians and politicians typically blamed both the poor themselves and their ramshackle tenement houses (conventillos) for the spread of the dreaded disease. People ignored public-health campaigns to limit the spread of contagious diseases, such as the prohibition of spitting on the streets, the strict guidelines to care for infants and young children, and quarantines that separated families from ill loved ones. |
c_qw0jdo13joie | History of tuberculosis | Scientific advances | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Scientific advances | Though removed from the cultural movement, the scientific understanding advanced considerably. By the end of the 19th century, several major breakthroughs gave hope that a cause and cure might be found. One of the most important physicians dedicated to the study of phthisiology was René Laennec, who died from the disease at the age of 45, after contracting tuberculosis while studying contagious patients and infected bodies. Laennec invented the stethoscope which he used to corroborate his auscultatory findings and prove the correspondence between the pulmonary lesions found on the lungs of autopsied tuberculosis patients and the respiratory symptoms seen in living patients. |
c_k1ndtxw3e550 | History of tuberculosis | Scientific advances | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Scientific advances | His most important work was Traité de l'Auscultation Médiate which detailed his discoveries on the utility of pulmonary auscultation in diagnosing tuberculosis. This book was promptly translated into English by John Forbes in 1821; it represents the beginning of the modern scientific understanding of tuberculosis. |
c_vhjcfc65amyc | History of tuberculosis | Scientific advances | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Scientific advances | Laennec was named professional chair of Hôpital Necker in September 1816 and today he is considered the greatest French clinician.Laennec's work put him in contact with the vanguard of the French medical establishment, including Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis. Louis would go on to use statistical methods to evaluate the different aspects of the disease's progression, the efficacy of various therapies and individuals' susceptibility, publishing an article in the Annales d'hygiène publique entitled "Note on the Relative Frequency of Phthisis in the Two Sexes". Another good friend and co-worker of Laennec, Gaspard Laurent Bayle, published an article in 1810 entitled Recherches sur la Pthisie Pulmonaire, in which he divided pthisis into six types: tubercular phthisis, glandular phthisis, ulcerous phthisis, phthisis with melanosis, calculous phthisis, and cancerous phthisis. He based his findings on more than 900 autopsies.In 1869, Jean Antoine Villemin demonstrated that the disease was indeed contagious, conducting an experiment in which tuberculous matter from human cadavers was injected into laboratory rabbits, which then became infected.On 24 March 1882, Robert Koch revealed the disease was caused by an infectious agent. In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the X-ray, which allowed physicians to diagnose and track the progression of the disease, and although an effective medical treatment would not come for another fifty years, the incidence and mortality of tuberculosis began to decline. |
c_eqpw2hx0lchk | History of tuberculosis | Robert Koch | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Robert Koch | Villemin's experiments had confirmed the contagious nature of the disease and had forced the medical community to accept that tuberculosis was indeed an infectious disease, transmitted by some etiological agent of unknown origin. In 1882, Prussian physician Robert Koch utilized a new staining method and applied it to the sputum of tuberculosis patients, revealing for the first time the causal agent of the disease: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or Koch's bacillus.When he began his investigation, Koch knew of the work of Villemin and others who had continued his experiments like Julius Conheim and Carl Salmosen. He also had access to the "pthisis ward" at the Berlin Charité Hospital. Before he confronted the problem of tuberculosis, he worked with the disease caused by anthrax and had discovered the causal agent to be Bacillus anthracis. |
c_ghnvo91kesag | History of tuberculosis | Robert Koch | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Robert Koch | During this investigation he became friends with Ferdinand Cohn, the director of the Institute of Vegetable Physiology. Together they worked to develop methods of culturing tissue samples. |
c_asbetmolm9sb | History of tuberculosis | Robert Koch | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Robert Koch | 18 August 1881, while staining tuberculous material with methylene blue, he noticed oblong structures, though he was not able to ascertain whether it was just a result of the coloring. To improve the contrast, he decided to add Bismarck Brown, after which the oblong structures were rendered bright and transparent. He improved the technique by varying the concentration of alkali in the staining solution until the ideal viewing conditions for the bacilli was achieved. |
c_kkq5j3iwxugu | History of tuberculosis | Robert Koch | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Robert Koch | After numerous attempts he was able to incubate the bacteria in coagulated blood serum at 37 degrees Celsius. He then inoculated laboratory rabbits with the bacteria and observed that they died while exhibiting symptoms of tuberculosis, proving that the bacillus, which he named tuberculosis bacillus, was in fact the cause of tuberculosis.He made his result public at the Physiological Society of Berlin on 24 March 1882, in a famous lecture entitled Über Tuberculose, which was published three weeks later. Since 1882, 24 March has been known as World Tuberculosis Day.On 20 April 1882, Koch presented an article entitled Die Ätiologie der Tuberculose in which he demonstrated that Mycobacterium was the single cause of tuberculosis in all of its forms.In 1890 Koch developed tuberculin, a purified protein derivative of the bacteria. |
c_pe35vcect7nn | History of tuberculosis | Robert Koch | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Robert Koch | Data on experimental inquiry published in Deutsche Landwirthschafts-Zeitung provided immediate practical industry benefits in the form of the Tuberculin test as an aide to diagnosis in both sick and healthy cattle. Tuberculin proved to be an ineffective means of immunization but in 1908, Charles Mantoux found it was an effective intradermic test for diagnosing tuberculosis. If the importance of a disease for mankind is measured from the number of fatalities which are due to it, then tuberculosis must be considered much more important than those most feared infectious diseases, plague, cholera, and the like. Statistics have shown that 1/7 of all humans die of tuberculosis. |
c_uey2xq0dzhv1 | History of tuberculosis | Sanatorium movement | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Sanatorium movement | The advancement of scientific understanding of tuberculosis, and its contagious nature created the need for institutions to house affected individuals. The first proposal for a tuberculosis facility was made in paper by George Bodington entitled An essay on the treatment and cure of pulmonary consumption, on principles natural, rational and successful in 1840. In this paper, he proposed a dietary, rest, and medical care program for a hospital he planned to found in Maney. Attacks from numerous medical experts, especially articles in The Lancet, disheartened Bodington and he turned to plans for housing the insane.Around the same time in the United States, in late October and early November 1842, Dr. John Croghan, the owner of Mammoth Cave, brought 15 tuberculosis patients into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air. |
c_mog0gxt62iyw | History of tuberculosis | Sanatorium movement | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Sanatorium movement | Patients were lodged in stone huts, and each was supplied with a slave to bring meals. One patient, A. H. P. Anderson, wrote glowing reviews of the cave experience: ome of the invalids eat at their pavillions while others in better health attend regularly the table d'hote which is very good indeed, having a considerable variety and being almost daily (I've noted but 2–3 omissions) graced with a saddle of venison or other game. |
c_dibiqk16bg5m | History of tuberculosis | Sanatorium movement | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Sanatorium movement | By late January, early February 1843, two patients were dead and the rest had left. Departing patients died anywhere from three days to three weeks after resurfacing; John Croghan died of tuberculosis at his Louisville residence in 1849.Hermann Brehmer, a German physician, was convinced that tuberculosis arose from the difficulty of the heart to correctly irrigate the lungs. He therefore proposed that regions well above sea level, where the atmospheric pressure was less, would help the heart function more effectively. |
c_koi8j1b7kfg5 | History of tuberculosis | Sanatorium movement | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Sanatorium movement | With the encouragement of explorer Alexander von Humboldt and his teacher J. L. Schönlein, the first anti-tuberculosis sanatorium was established in 1854, 650 meters above sea level, at Görbersdorf. Three years later he published his findings in a paper Die chronische Lungenschwindsucht und Tuberkulose der Lunge: Ihre Ursache und ihre Heilung. Brehmer and one of his patients, Peter Dettweiler, became proponents for the sanatorium movement, and by 1877, sanatoriums began to spread beyond Germany and throughout Europe. |
c_ixid647d25on | History of tuberculosis | Sanatorium movement | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Sanatorium movement | Dr. Edward Livingston Trudeau subsequently founded the Adirondack Cottage Sanitorium in Saranac Lake, New York in 1884. One of Trudeau's early patients was author Robert Louis Stevenson; his fame helped establish Saranac Lake as a center for the treatment of tuberculosis. In 1894, after a fire destroyed Trudeau's small home laboratory, he organized the Saranac Laboratory for the Study of Tuberculosis; renamed the Trudeau Institute, the laboratory continues to study infectious diseases.Peter Dettweiler went on to found his own sanatorium at Falkenstein in 1877 and in 1886 published findings claiming that 132 of his 1022 patients had been completely cured after staying at his institution. |
c_vjnesakqhwju | History of tuberculosis | Sanatorium movement | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Sanatorium movement | Eventually, sanatoriums began to appear near large cities and at low altitudes, like the Sharon Sanatorium in 1890 near Boston.Sanatoriums were not the only treatment facilities. Specialized tuberculosis clinics began to develop in major metropolitan areas. Sir Robert Philip established the Royal Victoria Dispensary for Consumption in Edinburgh in 1887. Dispensaries acted as special sanatoriums for early tuberculosis cases and were opened to lower income individuals. The use of dispensaries to treat middle and lower-class individuals in major metropolitan areas and the coordination between various levels of health services programs like hospitals, sanatoriums, and tuberculosis colonies became known as the "Edinburgh Anti-tuberculosis Scheme". |
c_1ycqjh91w5ul | History of tuberculosis | Containment | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Containment | At the beginning of the 20th century, tuberculosis was one of the UK's most urgent health problems. A royal commission was set up in 1901, The Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Relations of Human and Animal Tuberculosis. Its remit was to find out whether tuberculosis in animals and humans was the same disease, and whether animals and humans could infect each other. By 1919, the Commission had evolved into the UK's Medical Research Council. |
c_taz4wb6qd0qe | History of tuberculosis | Containment | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Containment | In 1902, the International Conference on Tuberculosis convened in Berlin. Among various other acts, the conference proposed the Cross of Lorraine be the international symbol of the fight against tuberculosis. National campaigns spread across Europe and the United States to tamp down on the continued prevalence of tuberculosis. |
c_kud9uenxx7wv | History of tuberculosis | Containment | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Containment | After the establishment in the 1880s that the disease was contagious, TB was made a notifiable disease in Britain; there were campaigns to stop spitting in public places, and the infected poor were pressured to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons; the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention. Whatever the purported benefits of the fresh air and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered were dead within five years (1916).The promotion of Christmas Seals began in Denmark during 1904 as a way to raise money for tuberculosis programs. It expanded to the United States and Canada in 1907–1908 to help the National Tuberculosis Association (later called the American Lung Association). In the United States, concern about the spread of tuberculosis played a role in the movement to prohibit public spitting except into spittoons. Public health measures were inaugurated to track and control the prevalence of tuberculosis in livestock that could be transmitted to humans. |
c_ppts5plcpqu2 | History of tuberculosis | Vaccines | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Vaccines | The first genuine success in immunizing against tuberculosis was developed from attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin in 1906. It was called "BCG" (Bacille Calmette-Guérin). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France, but it was not until after World War II that BCG received widespread acceptance in Great Britain, and Germany. |
c_wrpmztb06su2 | History of tuberculosis | Vaccines | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Vaccines | In the early days of the British National Health Service X-ray examination for TB increased dramatically but rates of vaccination were initially very low. In 1953 it was agreed that secondary school pupils should be vaccinated, but by the end of 1954 only 250,000 people had been vaccinated. By 1956 this had risen to 600,000, about half being school children.In Italy, Salvioli's diffusing vaccine (Vaccino Diffondente Salvioli; VDS) was used from 1948 until 1976. It was developed by Professor Gaetano Salvioli (1894–1982) of the University of Bologna. |
c_1cy3gtatjh11 | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | As the century progressed, some surgical interventions, including the pneumothorax or plombage technique—collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and allow the lesions to heal—were used to treat tuberculosis. Pneumothorax was not a new technique by any means. In 1696, Giorgio Baglivi reported a general improvement in tuberculosis patients after they received sword wounds to the chest. |
c_mkzlsxmvxkup | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | F.H. Ramadge induced the first successful therapeutic pneumothorax in 1834, and reported subsequently the patient was cured. |
c_4oeisihbeveh | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | It was in the 20th century, however, that scientists sought to rigorously investigate the effectiveness of such procedures. Carlo Forlanini experimented with his artificial pneumothorax technique from 1882 to 1888 and this started to be followed only years later. In 1939, the British Journal of Tuberculosis published a study by Oli Hjaltested and Kjeld Törning on 191 patients undergoing the procedure between 1925 and 1931; in 1951, Roger Mitchell published several articles on the therapeutic outcomes of 557 patients treated between 1930 and 1939 at Trudeau Sanatorium in Saranac Lake. |
c_jyff5pr7d6xg | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | The search for a medicinal cure, however, continued in earnest. During the Nazi occupation of Poland, SS-Obergruppenführer Wilhelm Koppe organized the execution of more than 30,000 Polish patients with tuberculosis – little knowing or caring that a cure was nearly at hand. In Canada, doctors continued to surgically remove TB in the indigenous patients during the 1950s and 60s, even though the procedure was no longer performed on non-Indigenous patients.In 1944 Albert Schatz, Elizabeth Bugie, and Selman Waksman isolated streptomycin produced by a bacterial strain Streptomyces griseus. |
c_o9x0k6yzwdi9 | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | Streptomycin was the first effective antibiotic against M. tuberculosis. This discovery is generally considered the beginning of the modern era of tuberculosis. Para-aminosalicylic acid, discovered in 1946, was used in combination with Streptomycin to reduce the emergence of drug resistant variants, which greatly improved patient outcomes. |
c_jn5i9d1bghs3 | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | The true revolution began some years later, in 1952, with the development of isoniazid, the first oral mycobactericidal drug. The advent of rifampin in the 1970s hastened recovery times, and significantly reduced the number of tuberculosis cases until the 1980s. The British epidemiologist Thomas McKeown had shown that "treatment by streptomycin reduced the number of deaths since it was introduced (1948–71) by 51 per cent...". |
c_pnyxz1f0ng8w | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | However, he also showed that the mortality from TB in England and Wales had already declined by 90 to 95% before streptomycin and BCG-vaccination were widely available, and that the contribution of antibiotics to the decline of mortality from TB was actually very small: '...for the total period since cause of death was first recorded (1848–71) the reduction was 3.2 per cent'. : 82 These figures have since been confirmed for all western countries (see for example the decline in TB mortality in the USA) and for all then known infectious diseases. McKeown explained the decline in mortality from infectious diseases by an improved standard of living, particularly by better nutrition, and by better hygiene, and less by medical intervention. |
c_vlqslhtv8yir | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | McKeown, who is considered as the father of social medicine, has advocated for many years, that with drugs and vaccines we may win the battle but will lose the war against Diseases of Poverty. Thereto, efforts and resources should be primarily directed toward improving the standard of living of people in low resource countries, and toward improving their environment by providing clean water, sanitation, better housing, education, safety and justice, and access to medical care. Particularly the work of Nobel laureates Robert W. Fogel (1993) and Angus Deaton (2015) have greatly contributed to the recent reappreciation of the McKeown thesis. |
c_nspivrs6seyx | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | A negative confirmation of the McKeown thesis was that increased pressure on wages by IMF loans to post-communist Eastern Europe were strongly associated with a rise in TB incidence, prevalence and mortality.In the United States there was dramatic reduction in tuberculosis cases by the 1970s. As early as the 1900s, public health campaigns were launched to educate people about the contagion. In later decades, posters, pamphlets and newspapers continued to inform people about the risk of contagion and methods to avoid it, including increasing public awareness about the importance of good hygiene. |
c_6lham8oz3vck | History of tuberculosis | Treatments | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Treatments | Though improved awareness of good hygiene practices reduced the number of cases, the situation was worse in the poor neighborhoods. Public clinics were set up to improve awareness and provide screenings. In Scotland, Dr Nora Wattie led the public health innovations both at local and national level. This resulted in sharp declines through the 1920s and 1930s. |
c_o6yzv9tf5u04 | History of tuberculosis | Tuberculosis resurgence | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Tuberculosis resurgence | Hopes that the disease could be completely eliminated were dashed in the 1980s with the rise of drug-resistant strains. Tuberculosis cases in Britain, numbering around 117,000 in 1913, had fallen to around 5,000 in 1987, but cases rose again, reaching 6,300 in 2000 and 7,600 cases in 2005. Due to the elimination of public health facilities in New York and the emergence of HIV, there was a resurgence of TB in the late 1980s. The number of patients failing to complete their course of drugs was high. |
c_90fexg91djcf | History of tuberculosis | Tuberculosis resurgence | History_of_tuberculosis > Twentieth century > Tuberculosis resurgence | New York had to cope with more than 20,000 TB patients with multidrug-resistant strains (resistant to, at least, both rifampin and isoniazid). In response to the resurgence of tuberculosis, the World Health Organization issued a declaration of a global health emergency in 1993. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. |
c_qwtzne7yhp78 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Ackerknecht, Erwin Heinz (1982). A Short History of Medicine. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0471067627. |
c_sd35avl4kd6g | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Armus, Diego. The Ailing City: Health, Tuberculosis, and Culture in Buenos Aires, 1870–1950 (2011) Aufderheide, Arthur C.; Conrado Rodriguez-Martin; Odin Langsjoen (1998). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. |
c_gjbqctruuh8c | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521552035. Barnes, David S. |
c_q0gq0c4iox6b | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | (1995). The Making of a Social Disease: Tuberculosis in Nineteenth-century France. University of California Press. |
c_myowfepd1ued | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | ISBN 978-0520087729. Bourdelais, Patrice; Bart K. Holland (2006). Epidemics Laid Low: A History of what Happened in Rich Countries. |
c_h1is3lkug7cm | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | JHU Press. ISBN 978-0801882944. Brock, Thomas D. |
c_gluz4edzzvqi | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | (1999). Milestones in Microbiology 1546 to 1940. ASM Press. |
c_j1kvfmubxm6k | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Brock, Thomas d. (1999). Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology. |
c_p3iln5yp6out | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | ASM Press. ISBN 978-0910239196. Bryder, Linda. |
c_3pegge6v4gpp | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Below the Magic Mountain: A Social History of Tuberculosis in Twentieth-Century Britain (1988), 298p. Daniel, Thomas M. (2000). |
c_0rcdjk86i4yy | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Pioneers of Medicine and Their Impact on Tuberculosis. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1580460675. |
c_n66gyief9q91 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Dubos, Rene Jules; Jean Dubos (1987). The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society. Rutgers University Press. |
c_g0t124wijm7r | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Debus, Allen G. (2001). Chemistry and Medical Debate: Van Helmont to Boerhaave. |
c_jinvf3n26isa | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Science History Publications. ISBN 978-0881352924. Elvin, Mark; Cuirong Liu; Tsʻui-jung Liu (1998). |
c_uc9dprn2kqyf | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History. Cambridge University Press. Ghose, Tarun K.; P. Ghosh; S K Basu (2003). |
c_gdtfqho4zbt2 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Biotechnology in India. Springer. ISBN 9783540364887. |
c_jmcn8eusjkow | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Gosman, Martin; Alasdair A. MacDonald; Arie Johan Vanderjagt (2003). Princes and Princely Culture, 1450–1650: 1450 – 1650. BRILL. |
c_idn5y57ixj4l | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | ISBN 978-9004135727. Macinnis, Peter (2002). Bittersweet: The Story of Sugar. |
c_t2up010p0i4o | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1865086576. McMillen, Christian W. Discovering Tuberculosis: A Global History, 1900 to the Present (2014) Madkour, M. Monir; D. A. Warrell (2004). |
c_refayzkmjgne | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Tuberculosis. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3540014416. |
c_um0sgj5zhpve | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Magner, Lois N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences. |
c_a12zlxeazlar | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | CRC Press. ISBN 978-0824789428. |
c_1e8uymj25sow | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Otis, Edward Osgood (1920). Pulmonary tuberculosis. |
c_c6muyuzuunl5 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Porter, Roy (2006). The Cambridge History of Medicine. Cambridge University Press. |
c_6qu9ggf2i85h | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | ISBN 978-0521557917. Reber, Vera Blinn. Tuberculosis in the Americas, 1870-1945: Beneath the Anguish in Philadelphia and Buenos Aires (Routledge, 2018) online review Ryan, Frank (1992). |
c_xhxewnevwus4 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Tuberculosis: The Greatest Story Never Told. Swift Publishers, England. ISBN 1-874082-00-6. |
c_whan9z4u6rr7 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | 446 + xxiii pages. Shorter, Edward (1991). Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History. |
c_9s1ke62n8d70 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0887388712. Shryock, Richard Harrison (1988). |
c_msi0qgd5ztgz | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | National Tuberculosis Association, 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 978-0405098314. |
c_ig7x0dar99mh | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Smith, F. B. Retreat of Tuberculosis, 1850-1950 (1988) 271p Waksman, Selman A. (1964). The Conquest of Tuberculosis. |
c_j4iee7dflmkk | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. Yancey, Diane (2007). Tuberculosis. |
c_1un1xkpz04r6 | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0761316244. Zysk, Kenneth G. |
c_1dpfd0bpvwzz | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | (1998). Medicine in the Veda: Religious Healing in the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |
c_anilyfuymchl | History of tuberculosis | Books | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Books | ISBN 978-8120814004. Kolchinsky, Anna (2013). Tuberculosis as Disease and Politics in Germany, 1871-1961 (PhD thesis). Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. |
c_06gfi17dt648 | History of tuberculosis | Older studies | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Older studies | Ancell, Henry (1852). A Treatise on Tuberculosis: The Constitutional Origin of Consumption and Scrofula. Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans. Bodington, George (1840). |
c_7vk0dvtkl3vx | History of tuberculosis | Older studies | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Older studies | An Essay on the Treatment and Cure of Pulmonary Consumption: On Principles Natural, Rational, and Successful; with Suggestions for an Improved Plan of Treatment of the Disease Amongst the Lower Classes of Society. Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans. Unschuld, Paul U. and Hermann Tessenow (2011), Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: An Annotated Translation of Huang Di's Inner Classic – Basic Questions, University of California Press. |
c_ccvd80kae6je | History of tuberculosis | Older studies | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Older studies | Whytt, R (1768). Observations on the Dropsy in the Brain. Edinburgh: Balfour, Auld & Smellie. |
c_uw2611bg1rb7 | History of tuberculosis | Older studies | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Older studies | Yang, Shou-zhong; Bob Flaws (1998). The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica: A Translation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing. Blue Poppy Enterprises, Inc. Zhang Zhibin and Paul U. Unschuld (2014), Dictionary of the Ben cao gang mu, Volume 1: Chinese Historical Illness Terminology, University of California Press. |
c_a5bttw1pv3wb | History of tuberculosis | Journals | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Journals | Billings FT, Hillman JW, Regen EM (1957). "Spleleologic Management of Consumption in Mammoth Cave. An Early Effort in Climatologic Therapy". Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. |
c_lu1ztxqopmit | History of tuberculosis | Journals | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Journals | 68: 10–15. PMC 2248950. PMID 13486602. |
c_fnmvrfbns479 | History of tuberculosis | Journals | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Journals | Bonah C (2005). "The 'experimental stable' of the BCG vaccine: safety, efficacy, proof, and standards, 1921–1933". Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci. |
c_3s6sjl6ewym5 | History of tuberculosis | Journals | History_of_tuberculosis > References > Journals | 36 (4): 696–721. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.09.003. PMID 16337557. |
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