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c_7vsj2ow3nwp6 | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Religious views | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Religious views | In our tour we have seen much of the mockery of religion... Not so is Christ. His doctrine is sure, simple, cordial, spiritual. I believe His words, I do His will, I wait for, look for His coming. This is the Alpha and the Omega of the truth of Christ In his treatise On the diseases and derangements of the nervous system (1841), he evoked the design argument, stating about the physiological activity of the body: In all this, I admire the hand of Him who fashioneth all things after His own will ; in all this I see design, power, creation! As one mighty principle pervades, and rules throughout the wide universe, so one principle (I dare not call it less than mighty) rules in the microcosm of each animated being ! |
c_4tgg60twmulv | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Abolitionism | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Abolitionism | Hall was also an abolitionist. When he travelled to the United States, in his later years, he was shocked by what he saw, and was shocked at how slavery was sanctioned in the States. An admirer of William Wilberforce, he wrote The two-fold slavery of the United States; with a project of self-emancipation (1854), where he denounced the slave system and spoke about "a second slavery" of racial prejudice. He set then his opinion on slavery, stating: I have ceased to regard the emancipation of the negro and the abolition of slavery as a choice. |
c_39s88de807lc | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Abolitionism | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Abolitionism | I am compelled to regard them as a necessity. It remains, therefore, to devise such a plan of emancipation and abolition as shall be wise, just, and practicable. |
c_gq1kx9qdm8ix | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Abolitionism | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Abolitionism | In his book, he proposed as project of emancipation that African-American people continue to produce cotton, sugar and rice, but to freely help and prosper themselves. On the same religious grounds, he questioned the permission of polygamy in the US and insisted that imposing the slavery system and denying marriage to black people was a sin which caused a "deprivation of education, of holy marriage, of parental rights". : Let education, discipline, a pure and holy religion, just rewards, and just punishments, do their work. |
c_elfymu5nfb2l | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Abolitionism | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Abolitionism | Let us free, and raise, and guide the poor negro, and God will bless us in our good work ; and let us remember that in emancipating him from his yoke, we really emancipate our country, and ourselves and our children from a yoke still more galling and fearful. As slavery is assuredly the dark spot on the United States, the absence of marriage – such marriage as is holy and indissoluble – is the dark spot on slavery. It is a national sin. |
c_nmsy6ko55oa9 | Marshall Hall (physiologist) | Abolitionism | Marshall_Hall_(physiologist) > Abolitionism | It is a sin in all that are in any wise partakers in it – in the master more even than in the slave. It is not possible during such a state of things to avoid the dreadful denunciations of Holy Scripture against it. He therefore who deliberately, from whatever motive, sanctions slavery in the United States as it is, as deliberately renounces the religion of Christ ! I cannot say less, and more fearful words cannot be written. He believed that every slaveholder had a "guilt of sin against God, and of sin against his fellow-man" and insisted that there was no credible hypothesis to rationally support white supremacy, stating: No hypothesis of difference of origin, race or species, or by whatever other name it may be named, can take from the African people that which they have nobly earned for themselves, a well-founded reputation – for gratitude, fidelity, loyalty, of all which truthful biography and history record innumerable instances ; – for ability in commerce, in the useful arts, in agriculture, of which living instances abound ; – for mathematics ; for music and eloquence ; and for military genius, and political ability and integrity. |
c_zx430wg8m0xn | OER Commons | Summary | OER_Commons | OER Commons (OER for open educational resources) is a freely accessible online library that allows teachers and others to search and discover open educational resources (OER) and other freely available instructional materials. |
c_7yxkoild2eim | OER Commons | History | OER_Commons > History | OER Commons, created by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education, was developed to serve curriculum experts and educators in discovering open educational resources (OER) and collaborating around the use, evaluation, and improvement of those materials. Resources on the site can be searched and filtered using an expanded set of descriptive data, including conditions of use. Teachers, students, and others enrich this "metadata" when they tag, rate, and review materials, and share what works for them. |
c_d19398o0wdrr | OER Commons | History | OER_Commons > History | In 2007, with a grant from the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, OER Commons opened as a digital library and intermediary for openly licensed and freely available content. By aggregating resources and standardizing metadata from OER content providers, the site supports knowledge sharing and access to teaching and learning materials, strategies, and curricula online. Individual educators submit their own contributions which are curated. Materials are reviewed for quality and alignment to standards and shared primarily using Creative Commons licenses.In a second phase, beginning in 2009, ISKME developed an initiative for teacher professional development program to support educators in finding and using OER supported by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and the Ford Foundation. As part of its teacher training program, ISKME trained educators from over 25 countries to use OER through workshops and summer academies, including ISKME's Teachers as Makers Academies. |
c_nhwur5qofbo8 | OER Commons | Research | OER_Commons > Research | ISKME's OER research revealed how teachers’ exposure to OER, tools and professional development cultivates collaboration among teachers, as well as new conversations and reflection about teaching practices and roles. Petrides et al., 2011Furthermore, research conducted on the impact of teachers’ participation in ISKME's own OER training network revealed that engagement with OER reduced teacher isolation (Petrides & Jimes, 2010), as well as expanded the role of teachers in becoming more active innovators as they shared, collaborated and learned from one another (Petrides et al., 2011). This work also revealed the role that OER teacher champions play in sharing the benefits of OER with colleagues and supporting the knowledge sharing, collaboration, and use of OER in online OER communities (ISKME, 2008; Petrides & Jimes, 2010; Petrides et al., 2011). ISKME's OER research also explored OER as a vehicle for disseminating adaptable curricula that support learner-centric approaches to pedagogy. |
c_ft0kd93mgiq0 | OER Commons | Research | OER_Commons > Research | ISKME's evaluation of the Community College Open Textbook Project revealed that study habits improved when learners were able to interact with open course material, and that students’ use of open textbooks cultivated new, self-directed learning behaviors (Petrides et al., 2011). Finally, ISKME's research revealed the role that collaboration plays in supporting the creation of open educational resources. Specifically, ISKME's study of authors who created content within the open repository Connexions revealed how as content creation group size increased beyond one author, the probability that users stayed with Connexions (and continued to create content) increased with it (Petrides et al., 2008). |
c_u3y53de3kyj3 | OER Commons | Technology and design | OER_Commons > Technology and design | ISKME's technology platform, tools, and metadata enhancement in its work with OER Commons are designed to support an open platform that serves as a knowledge base for content providers and platform developers, particularly related to accessibility and inclusive design. Metadata, data that describes a resource, and in the case of open educational resources, includes descriptors such as title, author, material type, and material license. Metadata standards provide a template for OER providers to share their resources with other providers. OER Commons receives feeds of OER in Dublin Core (DC), IEEE's Learning Object Metadata (LOM), and RSS. |
c_hubc7v2mxlai | OER Commons | Technology and design | OER_Commons > Technology and design | OER Commons provide targets to other providers to harvest content in these formats. Partnered with the Inclusive Design Research Centre since 2010 to incorporate FLOE components into the OER Commons platform, ISKME's efforts combine OER discovery and enhancement tools and processes with FLOE's personalized network-delivered accessibility standards and tools. In 2012, ISKME released Open Author, an authoring and remixing environment to support the creation and adaption of multi-media accessible OER and enable collaborative workflows of content reviewers and creators. |
c_2k7ixgbahq05 | OER Commons | Technology and design | OER_Commons > Technology and design | The authoring environment produces OER that is accessible using a broad range of assistive technology devices such as screen readers. To support user contributions, in 2010 ISKME released the OER-Connector browser plug-in on GitHub that enables users to add resources to OER Commons.To support interoperability, OER Commons is an experimental node in the Learning Registry, a joint US Department of Education and US Department of Defense initiative to support educational content and platform interoperability.The OER Commons contains custom curated resource collections, or microsites. Within a microsite, OER is presented in the context of customized taxonomies to categorize and describe relevant OER. |
c_qt9k0o4ekst4 | OER Commons | Technology and design | OER_Commons > Technology and design | In 2011, ISKME announced the Green Micro-site with Greek partner Agro-Know. It is an aggregation of sustainability-related learning resources and features interdisciplinary lesson plans such as STEAM (Science Technology Engineering Art and Math) resources. The OER Commons infrastructure facilitates evaluation of content and alignment to quality rubrics and standards. Starting in 2011, OER Commons provides an embedded Common Core State Standards alignment tool and Achieve OER Rubric to support state-level curriculum committees as well as individual instructors to review content for quality and alignment and to collaboratively address gaps in content collections. |
c_tyghyoai1rns | OER Commons | Awards | OER_Commons > Awards | ISKME was named an Education Laureate by the San Jose Tech Museum of Innovation in 2007 for OER Commons.In December 2010, ISKME was named a finalist in the Qatar Foundation World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE) Awards for its OER Commons teacher professional development programs.In 2011, ISKME won the Award for Bodies which Influence Policy from the Open Educational Quality Initiative (OPAL), a consortium that includes UNESCO, the International Council for Open and Distance Education, the European Foundation for Quality in e-Learning, and several European universities. |
c_3ljlv75fk1x4 | EF Education First | Summary | EF_Education_First | EF Education First (abbreviated as EF) is an international education company that specializes in language training, educational travel, academic degree programs, and cultural exchange. The company was founded in 1965 by Bertil Hult in the Swedish university town of Lund. The company is privately held by the Hult family. As of 2017, EF had approximately 52,000 employees in 116 countries. |
c_3xgjdvg29ox7 | EF Education First | History | EF_Education_First > History | Bertil Hult dropped out of college to launch EF in 1969. He had earlier dropped out of junior high and gone to work for a ship broker in London, where he learned English by immersion; he had been unable to learn it in school due to dyslexia. The company started selling a French language course to Swedish students seeking to study in France, but he thought English was a bigger market and started offering services throughout Europe. In 1972 a friend convinced him to open a school in Japan, just when English-language keyboards were introduced there, and the company experienced explosive growth. |
c_y0pnumem498g | EF Education First | History | EF_Education_First > History | The company expanded to the US in 1983, first establishing headquarters in California and then in Boston in 1988.Hult never took outside investment and instead grew the company through revenue. By 2014, EF had approximately 37,000 employees in 55 countries. By that time, Hult had stopped running the company and had passed leadership to his sons.EF Learning Labs publishes the annual EF English Proficiency Index, a ranking of English language skills by country.EF has developed a standardized English test called the EF Standard English Test. |
c_tvy8ckl065yq | EF Education First | History | EF_Education_First > History | The company also offers an e-learning program for adults called "EF English Live," which was formerly known as "EF Englishtown." EF English Live program has been certified for pedagogical quality by the Education Alliance Finland. Through a division called EF Tours, the company offers educational tours, service learning tours, and conferences. |
c_1pfg19avhc85 | EF Education First | Controversy | EF_Education_First > Controversy | In 2019, seven of its English teachers in Xuzhou allegedly tested positive for drugs. The case ignited discussions about EF's hiring practices, leading to its suspension from China Association for Non-Government Education.In 2020, a former teacher of EF was charged for exploiting a previous pupil in China. The defendant, an American national, threatened to post video footage of the student's sexually explicit conduct online unless she sends him more images and a video of herself engaged in similar acts. EF said that the alleged crime happened after the man returned to the US when his contract in China had already been terminated for violating the company's code of conduct. |
c_7vop0038sy6q | EF Education First | Controversy | EF_Education_First > Controversy | The company's spokesperson declined to explain the specifics of the violation. He has pled guilty in a Missouri court to sexual exploitation of a minor and to receiving and distributing child pornography.EF has been highly criticized for the maladministration of students taking its courses. On 17 February 2022 Claudio Mandia an Italian student participating in the program of the EF Academy in New York, took his own life after four days of punitive isolation in a White room, in which he had been placed waiting for his expulsion after being caught copying a math homework. |
c_lnadnyul3or3 | EF Education First | Controversy | EF_Education_First > Controversy | The school has always denied the circumstance that the young man was in a state of confinement, the room "was not locked" and "could have social interaction", was the reply of the Academy of Thornwood to the accusations of Claudio's family members. However, according to the family and friends Claudio was told by school staff that he "did not have permission to leave the room and that the corridor had CCTV". Following the story of Claudio Mandia, an Italian television show "Chi l'ha visto?" have bring to light other testimonies from students who participated in the study trips proposed by the EF Academy. Among the testimonies, there are cases as students being hosted by drunk parents, even one host parent that was shooting the neighbour due to its dog and the case of Thomas Boatright served as a coordinator for EF High School Exchange charged of sexual exploitation and possession of child porn. |
c_d96bta7uef40 | EF Education First | Sports | EF_Education_First > Sports | In 2018, they became the owner and title sponsor of the Slipstream Sports cycling team, which then became known as EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale. |
c_9r4ofj5isdt5 | Clarke's Gardens | Summary | Clarke's_Gardens | Clarke's Gardens is a public park in the Allerton district of south Liverpool, England. It is close to Springwood Cemetery and situated between Woolton Road and Springwood Avenue. The park is the site of Allerton Hall, a Grade II* listed building, which was donated by the Clarke family to Liverpool City Council in 1927.Liverpool City Council have in the past used it as a site for their free compost distribution. |
c_9e8ox9lwnszm | Musaeum Tradescantianum | Summary | Musaeum_Tradescantianum | The Musaeum Tradescantianum was the first museum open to the public to be established in England. Located in South Lambeth, London, it comprised a collection of curiosities assembled by John Tradescant the elder and his son in a building called The Ark, and a botanical collection in the grounds of the building. Turret House, the family home, was demolished in 1881 and the estate has been redeveloped; the house stood on the site of the present Tradescant Road and Walberswick Street, off South Lambeth Road. Tradescant divided the exhibits into natural objects (naturalia) and manmade objects (artificialia). |
c_357rfsz7gx2x | Musaeum Tradescantianum | Summary | Musaeum_Tradescantianum | The first account of the collection, by Peter Mundy, is from 1634. After the death of the younger Tradescant and his wife, the collection passed into the hands of the wealthy collector Elias Ashmole, who in 1691 gave it to Oxford University as the nucleus of the newly founded Ashmolean Museum.The Tradescant collection is the earliest major English cabinet of curiosities. Other famous collections in Europe preceded it, for example Emperor Rudolf II's Kunst- und Wunderkammer was well established at Prague by the end of the 16th century. In 2015 the Garden Museum received a £3.5 million Heritage Lottery grant to recreate a part of the original Ark with loans from the Ashmolean Museum |
c_u7zz9zt3pati | Market Gate of Miletus | Summary | Market_Gate_of_Miletus | The Market Gate of Miletus (German: das Markttor von Milet) is a large marble monument in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, Germany. It was built in Miletus in the 2nd century AD and destroyed in an earthquake in the 10th or 11th century. In the early 1900s, it was excavated by a German archeological team, rebuilt, and placed on display in the museum in Berlin. |
c_j57tmzxdwalx | Market Gate of Miletus | Summary | Market_Gate_of_Miletus | Only fragments had survived and reconstruction involved significant new material, a practice which generated criticism of the museum. The gate was damaged in World War II and underwent restoration in the 1950s. Further restoration work took place in the first decade of the 21st century. |
c_fu1uyjgyqvdx | Market Gate of Miletus | Description | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > Description | The gate is a large marble monument, about 30 meters wide, 16 meters tall, and 5 meters deep. The two-story structure has three doorways and a number of projections and niches. At roof level and in between the floors are ornate friezes with bull and flower reliefs. The structure's protruding pediments are supported by Corinthian and Composite columns. The gate is not entirely original, as little of the base and lower floor survived the centuries; additional material includes brick, cement, and steel. The gate is affixed by iron girders to the wall behind it.While in Miletus, niches on the second story featured statues of emperors, some fighting against barbarians. |
c_wdfdu9wigcb5 | Market Gate of Miletus | Miletus | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > Miletus | The gate was built in the 2nd century AD, most likely during the reign of Emperor Hadrian about 120 to 130 AD. It replaced an existing Doric propylon and served as the northern entrance to the southern market, or agora, in Miletus, an ancient Greek city in what is now Turkey. The gate underwent restoration in the 3rd century following damage from an earthquake. |
c_14asmvtcgxxx | Market Gate of Miletus | Miletus | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > Miletus | When Justinian strengthened the defenses of Miletus in 538, the gate was incorporated into the city walls. In the 10th or 11th century, an earthquake caused the gate to collapse. Fragments of the structure were scavenged and used in surrounding buildings, but the majority subsided into the ground. |
c_rpnpaluocmpx | Market Gate of Miletus | Excavation and reconstruction | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > Excavation and reconstruction | German archaeologist Theodor Wiegand conducted a series of excavations in Miletus from 1899 through 1911. In 1903, the Market Gate of Miletus was excavated and from 1907 to 1908, fragments of the gate were transported to Berlin. Wiegand wrote in his diaries that he gave a presentation using models to Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was so impressed that he ordered the gate's reconstruction at full scale "like a theater backdrop" in the Pergamon Museum.From 1925 to 1929, the gate was reassembled in the recently expanded museum from over 750 tons of fragments. However, the fragments did not constitute the entirety of the gate, and fill material had to be used in the reconstruction. |
c_d0f4sd694p3g | Market Gate of Miletus | Excavation and reconstruction | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > Excavation and reconstruction | Reconstruction began by assembling the middle-floor entablature and placing the second storey columns on top, followed by reconstructing the pediments. A base and ground floor were then inserted below. |
c_i53y8wk3wpgz | Market Gate of Miletus | Excavation and reconstruction | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > Excavation and reconstruction | Brick and cement reinforced with steel supplemented the few remains of the lower structure. Original column fragments were bored out, leaving a thickness of 3 to 4 centimetres (1.2 to 1.6 in), and filled with steel and mortar. In the 1920s and 1930s, the museum was criticized for portraying its monuments as originals when they consisted significantly of non-original material. |
c_lzjgl3357dn5 | Market Gate of Miletus | World War II to present | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > World War II to present | The gate suffered significant damage from aerial bombardment in World War II. The roof and skylight above the gate were destroyed along with a protective brick wall. The right wing collapsed and the structure was damaged by fire and shrapnel; the loss of the brick wall also exposed the gate to weathering for two years. After winter passed, a temporary roof was constructed to protect the gate from the elements. |
c_d09681rc135x | Market Gate of Miletus | World War II to present | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > World War II to present | From 1952 to 1954, the structure was extensively restored under the supervision of archaeologist H. H. Völker. However, little documentation exists detailing what specific work took place.The next major restoration work took place in the decade of the 2000s. The gate had deteriorated from a combination of indoor atmospheric effects and incompatible building materials. |
c_3kypdhh8d5of | Market Gate of Miletus | World War II to present | Market_Gate_of_Miletus > History > World War II to present | Fragments of the gate have spontaneously loosened and fallen, necessitating the addition of a fence in front of the structure to protect visitors. The state of the structure was documented prior to restoration, from about 2003 through 2004, including the production of three-dimensional photogrammetric models due to the gate's architectural complexity. In December 2005, scaffolding was erected around the structure with a transparent protective cover on the outside and within the entrance tunnel. The scaffolding and cover were removed in late 2008 following the initial restoration phase. |
c_jhelcp1hlrva | ArtAbilitation | Summary | ArtAbilitation | ArtAbilitation is an international conference platform for people with disabilities and a movement that started in 2006 as coined/originated by Anthony (aka Tony) Brooks. The concept was realized as an international conference, workshop series, and symposium, and was inaugurated in Esbjerg, Denmark, in September 2006 when supporting the ICDVRAT in celebrating its tenth anniversary. Selected authors from this inaugural event published their papers in the Routledge International Journal Digital Creativity. The events of ICDVRAT & ArtAbilitation 2006 were reported in the International Journal for Virtual Reality.In 2007, the second ArtAbilitation conference supported the 17th International Conference for Artificial Reality & Telexistence (ICAT). |
c_ri0zs5puhccg | ArtAbilitation | Summary | ArtAbilitation | ICAT is the oldest international conference on Virtual Reality and the hosting in Esbjerg, Denmark. This was the first time the event was held outside the Asia Pacific region. ICAT is organised by the Virtual Reality Society of Japan (VRSJ). |
c_b05cifbrjxse | ArtAbilitation | Summary | ArtAbilitation | ICAT 2006 was held at Zhejiang University of Technology in China. Archives of ICAT2007 are online at IEEE site. The first international symposium ‘Ludic Engagement Designs for All’ supported.The 3rd ArtAbilitation Conference was held alongside ICDVRAT 2008 in Maia, Portugal, on September 8 through 10th. |
c_v0p70nu2xrsn | ArtAbilitation | Summary | ArtAbilitation | A special session on music was hosted at Casa da Musica, Porto, Portugal, on 11 September. This was followed by the 2nd International Congress on Art, Brain and Languages, hosted in Casa da Musica in Porto on 11 and 12 September. The conference combines various areas of knowledge such as Neuropsychology, Musical Sciences, Theatrical Arts, Art Therapy, and Linguistics. |
c_aebmgrr0gee9 | ArtAbilitation | Summary | ArtAbilitation | It aims for a holistic, interdisciplinary approach to education, disability, and rehabilitation. It intends to question how the inter-related practice and processing of different types of language (musical, psychomotor, verbal, technological, and aesthetic) can intervene in education and disability (motor, verbal or mental).ArtAbilitation 2010 was held in Chile and focused on Human Performance via Digital Technologies.ArtAbilitation 2011 was held in Esbjerg, Denmark, alongside the inaugural GameAbilitation conference. This is the last ArtAbilitation conference mentioned on the official website. == References == |
c_vgbty2d8z4co | David Risling | Summary | David_Risling | David Risling Jr. (April 10, 1921 in Morek, Humboldt County, California – March 13, 2005 in Davis, California) was a Native American (Hoopa) educator and rights activist who was often referred to as "The Father of Indian Education". |
c_vzk41m16zw8v | David Risling | Life and achievements | David_Risling > Life and achievements | After serving in the Navy during World War II, he attended Cal Poly in San Luis Obispo where he earned a degree in vocational agriculture. From 1950 to 1970, he taught agriculture at Modesto Junior College. His increasing involvement in activist causes prompted him to move to UC Davis in 1970, where he helped to develop its Native American studies program. |
c_5zs9hojkak2q | David Risling | Life and achievements | David_Risling > Life and achievements | He remained there until his retirement in 1993, when the program became a full-fledged department and is currently one of only three such departments offering doctoral degrees. He was a co-founder of California Indian Legal Services and the Native American Rights Fund and was involved in securing passage of the federal Indian Education and Indian Tribal Community College acts. Thirty-one Indian community colleges and dozens of K-12 reservation school programs resulted from this legislation. He was also a major consultant in the creation of the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian and was a three-time appointee to the National Advisory Council on Indian Education |
c_3j7ihv427o7e | David Risling | D-Q University | David_Risling > D-Q University | The achievement he was reportedly most proud of was his role in creating D-Q University, one of the first six tribal colleges and the only one in California. Jack D. Forbes (a co-founder of the University) has said, "It was a dream that the late Carl Gorman and I had worked on from 1961-1962, but it was Dave's organizing skill and patience that came to the fore in 1971 when DQU finally acquired flesh and bones." For many years, Risling served as President of DQU's board of trustees. Only two months before his death, he participated in the decision to close the University, which had lost its accreditation.For about three years in the early 1990s, Risling, Jack D. Forbes, Morrison & Foerster and many others collaborated with filmmaker Jan Crull, Jr. |
c_9ghc9i54jdm6 | David Risling | D-Q University | David_Risling > D-Q University | to make a film about the controversy surrounding D-Q University and its turbulent relationship with the U.S. government. |
c_v3rfzwctaquv | David Risling | D-Q University | David_Risling > D-Q University | The media had labelled this school as being "controversial" for years and as one of the American Indian Movement's "centers". Crull had been drawn to the D-Q U story from the time that he was a professional Hill staffer responsible for the shaping of a U.S. House hearing on legislation that D-Q U was seeking in 1981. |
c_fd4hyn2qnbyt | David Risling | D-Q University | David_Risling > D-Q University | He and the Rislings had developed a rapport over the years since which ultimately led to the A Free People, Free To Choose film project. Well over a hundred hours of footage had been shot when a schism between some of the film's subjects erupted into becoming litigation. Morrison & Foerster was the first sponsor to withdraw from the project and eventually Crull had to scrap it even though distribution for a completed film was already in place. |
c_owtmv06ggyi5 | History of tuberculosis | Summary | History_of_tuberculosis | The history of tuberculosis encompasses the origins of the disease, tuberculosis (TB) through to the vaccines and treatments methods developed to contain and mitigate its impact. Throughout history, the disease tuberculosis has been variously known as consumption, phthisis, and the White Plague. It is generally accepted that the causative agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis originated from other, more primitive organisms of the same genus Mycobacterium. |
c_u8q576lco234 | History of tuberculosis | Summary | History_of_tuberculosis | In 2014, results of a new DNA study of a tuberculosis genome reconstructed from remains in southern Peru suggest that human tuberculosis is less than 6,000 years old. Even if researchers theorise that humans first acquired it in Africa about 5,000 years ago, there is evidence that the first tuberculosis infection happened about 9,000 years ago.Tuberculosis (TB) spread to other humans along trade routes. It also spread to domesticated animals in Africa, such as goats and cows. Seals and sea lions that bred on African beaches are believed to have acquired the disease and carried it across the Atlantic to South America. Hunters would have been the first humans to contract the disease there. |
c_phbg1s596eei | History of tuberculosis | Origins | History_of_tuberculosis > Origins | Scientific work investigating the evolutionary origins of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex has concluded that the most recent common ancestor of the complex was a human-specific pathogen, which underwent a population bottleneck. Analysis of mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units has allowed dating of the bottleneck to approximately 40,000 years ago, which corresponds to the period subsequent to the expansion of Homo sapiens out of Africa. This analysis of mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units also dated the Mycobacterium bovis lineage as dispersing approximately 6,000 years ago, which may be linked to animal domestication and early farming.Human bones from the Neolithic show presence of the bacteria. There has also been a claim of evidence of lesions characteristic of tuberculosis in a 500,000-year-old Homo erectus fossil, although this finding is controversial.Results of a genome study reported in 2014 suggest that tuberculosis is newer than previously thought. |
c_qez26rtv51ay | History of tuberculosis | Origins | History_of_tuberculosis > Origins | Scientists were able to recreate the genome of the bacteria from remains of 1,000-year-old skeletons in southern Peru. In dating the DNA, they found it was less than 6,000 years old. They also found it related most closely to a tuberculosis strain in seals, and have theorized that these animals were the mode of transmission from Africa to South America. |
c_os813jj6znk6 | History of tuberculosis | Origins | History_of_tuberculosis > Origins | The team from University of Tübingen believe that humans acquired the disease in Africa about 5,000 years ago. Their domesticated animals, such as goats and cows, contracted it from them. |
c_17c5azdb3yh4 | History of tuberculosis | Origins | History_of_tuberculosis > Origins | Seals acquired it when coming up on African beaches for breeding, and carried it across the Atlantic. In addition, TB spread via humans on the trade routes of the Old World. Other researchers have argued there is other evidence that suggests the tuberculosis bacteria is older than 6,000 years. |
c_1vr907by6vwg | History of tuberculosis | Origins | History_of_tuberculosis > Origins | This TB strain found in Peru is different from that prevalent today in the Americas, which is more closely related to a later Eurasian strain likely brought by European colonists. However, this result is criticised by other experts from the field, for instance because there is evidence of the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 9,000 year old skeletal remains.Although relatively little is known about its frequency before the 19th century, its incidence is thought to have peaked between the end of the 18th century and the end of the 19th century. Over time, the various cultures of the world gave the illness different names: phthisis (Greek), consumptio (Latin), yaksma (India), and chaky oncay (Incan), each of which make reference to the "drying" or "consuming" effect of the illness, cachexia. In the 19th century, TB's high mortality rate among young and middle-aged adults and the surge of Romanticism, which stressed feeling over reason, caused many to refer to the disease as the "romantic disease". |
c_x609c05nqxp6 | History of tuberculosis | Tuberculosis in early civilization | History_of_tuberculosis > Tuberculosis in early civilization | In 2008, evidence for tuberculosis infection was discovered in human remains from the Neolithic era dating from 9,000 years ago, in Atlit Yam, a settlement in the eastern Mediterranean. This finding was confirmed by morphological and molecular methods; to date it is the oldest evidence of tuberculosis infection in humans. Evidence of the infection in humans was also found in a cemetery near Heidelberg, in the Neolithic bone remains that show evidence of the type of angulation often seen with spinal tuberculosis. Some authors call tuberculosis the first disease known to mankind. |
c_0bss73wm6f3p | History of tuberculosis | Tuberculosis in early civilization | History_of_tuberculosis > Tuberculosis in early civilization | Signs of the disease have also been found in Egyptian mummies dated between 3000 and 2400 BC. The most convincing case was found in the mummy of priest Nesperehen, discovered by Grebart in 1881, which featured evidence of spinal tuberculosis with the characteristic psoas abscesses. Similar features were discovered on other mummies like that of the priest Philoc and throughout the cemeteries of Thebes. |
c_kffzr5wg5sdg | History of tuberculosis | Tuberculosis in early civilization | History_of_tuberculosis > Tuberculosis in early civilization | It appears likely that Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti both died from tuberculosis, and evidence indicates that hospitals for tuberculosis existed in Egypt as early as 1500 BC.The Ebers papyrus, an important Egyptian medical treatise from around 1550 BC, describes a pulmonary consumption associated with the cervical lymph nodes. It recommended that it be treated with the surgical lancing of the cyst and the application of a ground mixture of acacia seyal, peas, fruits, animal blood, insect blood, honey and salt. The Old Testament mentions a consumptive illness that would affect the Jewish people if they stray from God. It is listed in the section of curses given before they enter the land of Canaan. |
c_88in2k7xp8qo | History of tuberculosis | Ancient India | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient India | The first references to tuberculosis in non-European civilization is found in the Vedas. The oldest of them (Rigveda, 1500 BC) calls the disease yaksma. The Atharvaveda calls it balasa. |
c_brv7bd5eztg0 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient India | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient India | It is in the Atharvaveda that the first description of scrofula is given. The Sushruta Samhita, written around 600 BC, recommends that the disease be treated with breast milk, various meats, alcohol and rest. The Yajurveda advises affected individuals to move to higher altitudes. |
c_d1hdamfd4192 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | The Classical Chinese word lào 癆 "consumption; tuberculosis" was the common name in traditional Chinese medicine and fèijiéhé 肺結核 (lit. "lung knot kernel") "pulmonary tuberculosis" is the modern medical term. Lao is compounded in names like xulao 虛癆 with "empty; void", láobìng 癆病 with "sickness", láozhài 癆瘵 with " sickness", and feilao 肺癆 with "lungs". Zhang and Unschuld explain that the medical term xulao 虛癆 "depletion exhaustion" includes infectious and consumptive pathologies, such as laozhai 癆瘵 "exhaustion with consumption" or laozhaichong 癆瘵蟲 "exhaustion consumption bugs/worms". |
c_866ix240hod5 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | They retrospectively identify feilao 肺癆 "lung exhaustion" and infectious feilao chuanshi 肺癆傳尸 "lung exhaustion by corpse transmission as "consumption/tuberculosis". Describing foreign loanwords in early medical terminology, Zhang and Unschuld note the phonetic similarity between Chinese feixiao 肺消 (from Old Chinese **pʰot-ssew) "lung consumption" and ancient Greek phthisis "pulmonary tuberculosis".The Huangdi Neijing classic Chinese medical text (c. 400 BCE – 260 CE), traditionally attributed to the mythical Yellow Emperor, describes a disease believed to be tuberculosis, called xulao bing (虛癆病 "weak consumptive disease"), characterized by persistent cough, abnormal appearance, fever, a weak and fast pulse, chest obstructions, and shortness of breath.The Huangdi Neijing describes an incurable disease called huaifu 壞府 "bad palace", which commentators interpret as tuberculous. |
c_92chqc2r4foz | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | "As for a string which is cut, its sound is hoarse. As for wood which has become old, its leaves are shed. As for a disease which is in the depth , the sound it is hiccup. |
c_eh67l0pzj7ox | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | When a man has these three , this is called 'destroyed palace'. Toxic drugs do not bring a cure; short needles cannot seize . Wang Bing's commentary explains that fu 府 "palace" stands for xiong 胸 "chest", and huai "destroy" implies "injure the palace and seize the disease". |
c_he749pn7r11k | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | The Huangdi Neijing compiler Yang Shangshan notes, "The proposed here very much resembles tuberculosis ... Hence states: poisonous drugs bring no cure; it cannot be seized with short needles. "The Shennong Bencaojing pharmacopeia (c. |
c_57ro729yxoyu | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | 200–250 CE), attributed to the legendary inventor of agriculture Shennong "Divine Farmer", also refers to tuberculosis The Zhouhou beiji fang 肘后备急方 "Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies", attributed to the Daoist scholar Ge Hong (263–420), uses the name of shizhu 尸疰 "corpse disease; tuberculosis" and describes the symptoms and contagion: "This disease has many changing symptoms varying from thirty-six to ninety-nine different kinds. Generally it gives rise to a high fever, sweating, asthenia, unlocalised pains, making all positions difficult. |
c_2knjs6h86sjg | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | Gradually, after months and years of suffering, this lingering disease brings about death to the sufferer. Afterwards it is transferred to others until the whole family is wiped out." |
c_uap4g9ndlbkq | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | Song dynasty (920–1279) Daoist priest-doctors first recorded that tuberculosis, called shīzhài 尸瘵 (lit. "corpse disease") "disease which changes a living being into a corpse", was caused by a specific parasite or pathogen, centuries earlier than their contemporaries in other countries. The Duanchu shizhai pin 斷除尸瘵品 "On the Extermination of the Corpse Disease" is the 23rd chapter in Daoist collection Wushang xuanyuan santian Yutang dafa 無上玄元三天玉堂大法 "Great Rites of the Jade Hall of the Three Heavens of the Supreme Mysterious Origins" (Daozang number 103). |
c_w06ug8hf8f69 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | The text has a preface dated 1126, written by the Song dynasty Zhengyi Dao master Lu Shizhong 路時中, who founded the Yutang dafa 玉堂大法 tradition, but internal evidence reveals that the text could not have been written before 1158. The disaster of the contagious disease, which changes a living being into a corpse, is caused by the infectious of the nine parasites (ch'ung 蟲). It is also caused by overworking one's mind and exhausting one's energy, injuring one's ch'i and loosening one's sperm—all of which happen to common folk. |
c_9ygnbit7ezsr | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | When the original vitality is being exhausted, the evil aura begins to be transmitted through the affected vital ch'i . ... The aspects of the illness vary, and the causes of contamination are different. Rooms and food are capable of gradual contamination, and the clothes worn by the indisposed are twined easily with the infectious ch'i and these two become inseparable. |
c_xykwctnon1iu | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | ... The symptoms of the disease: When it begins, the sufferer coughs and pants; he spits blood ; he is emaciated and skinny; cold and fever affect him intermittently, and his dreams are morbid. This is the evidence that this person is suffering from the disease which is also known as wu-ch'uan 屋傳 . ... The disease may be contracted by a healthy person who happens to have slept in the same bed with the patient, or worn his clothes. |
c_uwkrb2bhppp6 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | After the death of the sufferer, the clothes, curtains, bed or couch, vessels and utensils used by him are known to have been contaminated by and saturated with the polluted ch'i in which the noxious ku 蠱 take their abode. Stingy people wish to keep them for further use, and the poorer families cannot afford to get rid of them and buy everything anew. Isn't this lamentable, since it creates the cause of the great misfortune yet to come! |
c_i8vz1y0gbhg4 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | This passage refers to the cause of TB in ancient medical terminology of jiuchong 九蟲 "Nine Worms" and gu 蠱 "supernatural agents causing disease", and qi. The Nine Worms generically meant "bodily parasites; intestinal worms" and were associated with the sanshi 三尸 "Three Corpses" or sanchong 三蟲 "Three Worms", which were believed to be biospiritual parasites that live in the human body and seek to hasten their host's death. Daoist medical texts give different lists and descriptions of the Nine Worms. |
c_wzhchudtd9n0 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | The Boji fang 博濟方 "Prescriptions for Universal Dispensation", collected by Wang Gun王袞 (fl. 1041), calls the supposed TB pathogen laochong 癆蟲 "tuberculosis worms".This Duanchu shizhai pin chapter (23/7b-8b) explains that the present Nine Worms does not refer to the intestinal weichong 胃蟲 "stomach worms", huichong 蛔蟲 "coiling worm; roundworm", or cun baichong 寸白蟲 "inch-long white worm; nematode", and says the supposed six TB worms are "six kinds" of parasites, but the next chapter (24/20a-21b) says they are "six stages/generations" of reproduction. Daoist priests allegedly cured tuberculosis through drugs, acupuncture, and burning fulu "supernatural talismans/charms". |
c_x8n5szz6paq1 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | Burning magic talismans would cause the TB patient to cough, which was considered an effective treatment. To cure the disease, it is necessary to produce a spout of smoke by burning off thirty-six charms, and instruct the patient to inhale and to swallow up its fumes, whether he likes it or not. By the time all charms are used up, the smoke should also be dispersed. |
c_u3eghaw0nwr6 | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | It may be difficult for the patient to bear the odour of the smoke at first, but once he gets used to such a smell, it does not really matter. Whenever the patient feels that there is phlegm in his throat, he is advised to cough and spit it out. If the patient is greatly affected by the symptoms, it will be good if his spittle is thick and if he can spit it out. |
c_qwn3nwxa870x | History of tuberculosis | Ancient China | History_of_tuberculosis > The East > Ancient China | When the patient is less affected by the wicked ch'i, he does not have much phlegm to eject, but if he is deeply affected, he tends to vomit and to expectorate heavily until everything is cleared up, and then his illness is cured. When the wicked element is rooted out, it does not need to be fumigated any more . In addition, Daoist healers would burn talismans in order to fumigate the clothes and belongings of the deceased, and would warn the tuberculosis patient's family to throw away everything into a changliu shui 長流水 "everflowing stream". According to Liu Ts'un-yan, "This proves that the priests of the time actually wanted to destroy all the belongings of the deceased, using charms as a camouflage." |
c_c28x9j4jf3r8 | History of tuberculosis | Classical antiquity | History_of_tuberculosis > Classical antiquity | Hippocrates, in Book 1 of his Of the Epidemics, describes the characteristics of the disease: fever, colourless urine, cough resulting in a thick sputa, and loss of thirst and appetite. He notes that most of those affected became delirious before they died from the disease. Hippocrates and many other at the time believed phthisis to be hereditary in nature. |
c_xd3f1j74nx6q | History of tuberculosis | Classical antiquity | History_of_tuberculosis > Classical antiquity | Aristotle disagreed, believing the disease was contagious. Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to Priscus in which he details the symptoms of phthisis as he saw them in Fannia: The attacks of fever stick to her, her cough grows upon her, she is in the highest degree emaciated and enfeebled. Galen proposed a series of therapeutic treatments for the disease, including: opium as a sleeping agent and painkiller; blood letting; a diet of barley water, fish, and fruit. He also described the phyma (tumor) of the lungs, which is thought to correspond to the tubercles that form on the lung as a result of the disease.Vitruvius noted that "cold in the windpipe, cough, plurisy, phthisis, spitting blood", were common diseases in regions where the wind blew from north to northwest, and advised that walls be so built as to shelter individuals from the winds.Aretaeus was the first person to rigorously describe the symptoms of the disease in his text De causis et signis diuturnorum morborum: Voice hoarse; neck slightly bent, tender, not flexible, somewhat extended; fingers slender, but joints thick; of the bones alone the figure remains, for the fleshy parts are wasted; the nails of the fingers crooked, their pulps are shrivelled and flat...Nose sharp, slender; cheeks prominent and red; eyes hollow, brilliant and glittering; swollen, pale or livid in countenance; the slender parts of the jaws rest on the teeth as, as if smiling; otherwise of cadaverous aspect... In his other book De curatione diuturnorum morborum, he recommends that affected individuals travel to high altitudes, travel by sea, eat a good diet and drink plenty of milk. |
c_fzn8yw8wtebm | History of tuberculosis | Pre-Columbian America | History_of_tuberculosis > Pre-Columbian America | In South America, reports of a study in August 2014 revealed that TB had likely been spread via seals that contracted it on beaches of Africa, from humans via domesticated animals, and carried it across the Atlantic. A team at the University of Tübingen analyzed tuberculosis DNA in 1,000-year-old skeletons of the Chiribaya culture in southern Peru; so much genetic material was recovered that they could reconstruct the genome. They learned that this TB strain was related most closely to a form found only in seals. In South America, it was likely contracted first by hunters who handled contaminated meat. |
c_hvodxqbqmtjj | History of tuberculosis | Pre-Columbian America | History_of_tuberculosis > Pre-Columbian America | This TB is a different strain from that prevalent today in the Americas, which is more closely related to a later Eurasian strain.Prior to this study, the first evidence of the disease in South America was found in remains of the Arawak culture around 1050 BC. The most significant finding belongs to the mummy of an 8 to 10-year-old Nascan child from Hacienda Agua Sala, dated to 700 AD. Scientists were able to isolate evidence of the bacillus. |
c_z49j2u71jn32 | History of tuberculosis | Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance | During the Middle Ages, no significant advances were made regarding tuberculosis. Avicenna and Rhazes continued to consider the disease both contagious and difficult to treat. Arnaldus de Villa Nova described etiopathogenic theory directly related to that of Hippocrates, in which a cold humor dripped from the head into the lungs. In Medieval Hungary, the Inquisition recorded the trials of pagans. |
c_iilgn4pv6kr2 | History of tuberculosis | Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance | A document from the 12th century recorded an explanation of the cause of illness. The pagans said that tuberculosis was produced when a dog-shaped demon occupied the person's body and started to eat his lungs. When the possessed person coughed, then the demon was barking, and getting close to his objective, which was to kill the victim. |
c_r1i4c6gaeoyj | History of tuberculosis | Royal touch | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance > Royal touch | Monarchs were seen as religious figures with magical or curative powers. It was believed that royal touch, the touch of the sovereign of England or France, could cure diseases due to the divine right of sovereigns. King Henry IV of France usually performed the rite once a week, after taking communion. So common was this practice of royal healing in France, that scrofula became known as the "mal du roi" or the "King's Evil". |
c_b1qk2utuq5z3 | History of tuberculosis | Royal touch | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance > Royal touch | Initially, the touching ceremony was an informal process. Sickly individuals could petition the court for a royal touch and the touch would be performed at the King's earliest convenience. At times, the King of France would touch affected subjects during his royal walkabout. |
c_0q0nw88hnuqb | History of tuberculosis | Royal touch | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance > Royal touch | The rapid spread of tuberculosis across France and England, however, necessitated a more formal and efficient touching process. By the time of Louis XIV of France, placards indicating the days and times the King would be available for royal touches were posted regularly; sums of money were doled out as charitable support. In England, the process was extremely formal and efficient. |
c_rtcdr5820hn0 | History of tuberculosis | Royal touch | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance > Royal touch | As late as 1633, the Book of Common Prayer of the Anglican Church contained a Royal Touch ceremony. The monarch (king or queen), sitting upon a canopied throne, touched the affected individual, and presented that individual with a coin – usually an Angel, a gold coin the value of which varied from about 6 shillings to about 10 shillings – by pressing it against the affected's neck.Although the ceremony was of no medical value, members of the royal courts often propagandized that those receiving the royal touch were miraculously healed. André du Laurens, the senior physician of Henry IV, publicized findings that at least half of those that received the royal touch were cured within a few days. The royal touch remained popular into the 18th century. Parish registers from Oxfordshire, England include not only records of baptisms, marriages, and deaths, but also records of those eligible for the royal touch. |
c_6s1le828ldfg | History of tuberculosis | Contagion | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance > Contagion | Girolamo Fracastoro became the first person to propose, in his work De contagione in 1546, that phthisis was transmitted by an invisible virus. Among his assertions were that the virus could survive between two or three years on the clothes of those with the disease and that it was usually transmitted through direct contact or the discharged fluids of the infected, what he called fomes. He noted that phthisis could be contracted without either direct contact or fomes, but was unsure of the process by which the disease propagated across distances. |
c_6o0p3j1uuhg8 | History of tuberculosis | Paracelsus's tartaric process | History_of_tuberculosis > Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance > Paracelsus's tartaric process | Paracelsus advanced the belief that tuberculosis was caused by a failure of an internal organ to accomplish its alchemical duties. When this occurred in the lungs, stony precipitates would develop causing tuberculosis in what he called the tartaric process. |
c_xdhn1nyp48lq | History of tuberculosis | Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | History_of_tuberculosis > Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | Franciscus Sylvius began differentiating between the various forms of tuberculosis (pulmonary, ganglion). He was the first person to recognize that the skin ulcers caused by scrofula resembled tubercles seen in phthisis, noting that "phthisis is the scrofula of the lung" in his book Opera Medica, published posthumously in 1679. Around the same time, Thomas Willis concluded that all diseases of the chest must ultimately lead to consumption. Willis did not know the exact cause of the disease but he blamed it on sugar or an acidity of the blood. |
c_tvk45ond0o11 | History of tuberculosis | Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | History_of_tuberculosis > Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | Richard Morton published Phthisiologia, seu exercitationes de Phthisi tribus libris comprehensae in 1689, in which he emphasized the tubercle as the true cause of the disease. So common was the disease at the time that Morton is quoted as saying "I cannot sufficiently admire that anyone, at least after he comes to the flower of his youth, can dye without a touch of consumption. "In 1720, Benjamin Marten proposed in A New Theory of Consumptions more Especially of Phthisis or Consumption of the Lungs that the cause of tuberculosis was some type of animalcula—microscopic living beings that are able to survive in a new body (similar to the ones described by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1695). |
c_ddcq56f8fa1w | History of tuberculosis | Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | History_of_tuberculosis > Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | The theory was roundly rejected and it took another 162 years before Robert Koch demonstrated it to be true. In 1768, Robert Whytt gave the first clinical description of tuberculosis meningitis and, in 1779, Percivall Pott, an English surgeon, described the vertebral lesions that carry his name. |
c_k76v7xz1ms7m | History of tuberculosis | Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | History_of_tuberculosis > Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | In 1761, Leopold Auenbrugger, an Austrian physician, developed the percussion method of diagnosing tuberculosis, a method rediscovered some years later in 1797 by Jean-Nicolas Corvisart of France. After finding it useful, Corvisart made it readily available to the academic community by translating it into French.William Stark proposed that ordinary lung tubercles could eventually evolve into ulcers and cavities, believing that the different forms of tuberculosis were simply different manifestations of the same disease. Unfortunately, Stark died at the age of 30 (while studying scurvy) and his observations were discounted. |
c_mfg6cp99byuj | History of tuberculosis | Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | History_of_tuberculosis > Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | In his Systematik de speziellen Pathologie und Therapie, J. L. Schönlein, Professor of Medicine in Zurich, proposed that the word "tuberculosis" be used to describe the condition of tubercles.The incidence of tuberculosis grew progressively during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, displacing leprosy, peaking between the 18th and 19th century as field workers moved to the cities looking for work. When he released his study in 1808, William Woolcombe was astonished at the prevalence of tuberculosis in 18th-century England. Of the 1,571 deaths in the English city of Bristol between 1790 and 1796, 683 were due to tuberculosis. |
c_1amdo7qxj4ca | History of tuberculosis | Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | History_of_tuberculosis > Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries | Remote towns, initially isolated from the disease, slowly succumbed. The consumption deaths in the village of Holycross in Shropshire between 1750 and 1759 were one in six (1:6); ten years later, 1:3. In the metropolis of London, 1:7 died from consumption at the dawn of the 18th century, by 1750 that proportion grew to 1:5.25 and surged to 1:4.2 by around the start of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution coupled with poverty and squalor created the optimal environment for the propagation of the disease. |
c_kep7bniofmzx | History of tuberculosis | Epidemic tuberculosis | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Epidemic tuberculosis | In the 18th and 19th century, tuberculosis (TB) had become epidemic in Europe, showing a seasonal pattern. In the 18th century, TB had a mortality rate as high as 900 deaths (800–1000) per 100,000 population per year in Western Europe, including in places like London, Stockholm and Hamburg. Similar death rate occurred in North America. |
c_zd5rb5sx9n0p | History of tuberculosis | Epidemic tuberculosis | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Epidemic tuberculosis | In the United Kingdom, epidemic TB may have peaked around 1750, as suggested by mortality data.In the 19th century, TB killed about a quarter of the adult population of Europe. In western continental Europe, epidemic TB may have peaked in the first half of the 19th century. In addition, between 1851 and 1910, around four million died from TB in England and Wales – more than one third of those aged 15 to 34 and half of those aged 20 to 24 died from TB. |
c_613yxte519cn | History of tuberculosis | Epidemic tuberculosis | History_of_tuberculosis > Nineteenth century > Epidemic tuberculosis | By the late 19th century, 70–90% of the urban populations of Europe and North America were infected with the Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and about 80% of those individuals who developed active TB died of it. However, mortality rates began declining in the late 19th century throughout Europe and the United States.At the time, tuberculosis was called the robber of youth, because the disease had higher death rate among young people. Other names included the Great White Plague and the White Death, where the "white" was due to the extreme anaemic pallor of those infected. In addition, TB has been called by many as the "Captain of All These Men of Death". |
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