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Excoecaria aporusifolia Excoecaria aporusifolia is a species of flowering plant in the family Euphorbiaceae. It was described in 1984. It is native to Vietnam. References aporusifolia Category:Plants described in 1984 Category:Flora of Vietnam	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Cerebus the Aardvark Cerebus (; also Cerebus the Aardvark) is a comic book series created by Canadian cartoonist Dave Sim, which ran from December 1977 until March 2004. The title character of the 300-issue series is an anthropomorphic aardvark who takes on a number of roles throughout the series—barbarian, prime minister and Pope among them. The series stands out for its experimentation in form and content, and for the dexterity of its artwork, especially after background artist Gerhard joined with the 65th issue. As the series progressed, it increasingly became a platform for Sim's controversial beliefs. The comic began as a parody of sword and sorcery comics, but explored a variety of other topics, including politics, religion, and gender issues. At a total of 6,000 pages, it progressively became more serious and ambitious than its parodic roots—what has come to be dubbed "Cerebus Syndrome". Sim announced early on that the series would end with the death of the title character. The story has a large cast of characters, many of which began as parodies of characters from comic books and popular culture. Starting with the "High Society" storyline, the series became divided into self-contained "novels", which form parts of the overall story. The ten "novels" of the series have been collected in 16 books, known as "Cerebus phonebooks" for their resemblance, by way of their thickness, to telephone directories. At a time when the series was about 70% completed, celebrated comic book writer Alan Moore wrote, "Cerebus, as if I need to say so, is still to comic books what Hydrogen is to the Periodic Table." Cerebus has been rated to be one of the greatest characters in comics history. Wizard rated him as the 63rd greatest comic book character, while Empire rated him as the 38th greatest comic book character, describing him as a character born of bizarre brilliance. IGN placed Cerebus as the 91st greatest comic book hero of all time, stating that "Few names hold as much sway in the independent comics scene as Cerebus" and "Cerebus' mark on the industry will be everlasting." Publication history Cerebus was self-published by Dave Sim under his Aardvark-Vanaheim, Inc. publishing banner. For the first few years the company's publisher was Deni Loubert, Sim's girlfriend (the two married and divorced during the comic's run). Sim's position as a pioneering self-publisher in comics inspired numerous writer/artists after him, most notably Jeff Smith (Bone), Terry Moore (Strangers in Paradise), and Martin Wagner (Hepcats). In 1979, Sim, who was at the time a frequent marijuana user, began using LSD, taking the drug with such frequency that he was eventually hospitalized. It was this incident that Sim claims led to the inspiration to produce Cerebus for 300 monthly issues. When Sim published the first Cerebus "phone book", a paperback collection of the High Society graphic novel (issues #26–50), he angered distributors—who felt that their support had been instrumental in his series' success in an industry generally indifferent to small publishers—by offering the first printing via mail order only. The decision was a financial windfall for Sim, however, grossing over $150,000 in sales (). Sim became known for picking up hotel tabs for self-publishers and helping other self-publishers by paying for meals and limo service between stops. Negotiations regarding DC buying Cerebus took place over the course of 1985 to 1988, offering $100,000 ($ today) and 10% of all licensing and merchandising, which Sim rejected. The series hit a personal sales record with issue #100 which, despite being a normal issue in the middle of a story arc, had a print run of 36,000 copies. Sales took a substantial drop over the next 50 issues, however, and Sim commented that the fact that readers could not simply "jump in" to Cerebus, and had to read the entire series in order to be able to understand the current issue, was a major reason for the sales drop. In July 1984, Cerebus publisher Aardvark-Vanaheim was threatened with possible legal action by Marvel Comics over a parody of Wolverine in Cerebus. When Sim guest-wrote the 10th issue of Todd McFarlane's comics series Spawn, he donated his entire fee—over $100,000—to the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund. "Jaka's Story", a tragic character study dealing with gender roles and the political suppression of art, is generally cited as the series' pinnacle of narrative achievement. Later issues of the series became highly personal and began to alienate many long-time fans, his female readers especially. Issue #186 (collected in Reads) contained a lengthy prose section that was attacked by some readers and critics for what they perceived as overt misogyny, but which Sim describes as "anti-feminism". During this part of the story, the storyline consisted of a textual treatise written by Viktor Davis, a fictional "reads" author, interspersed with the main Cerebus storyline. In Davis' material, he refers to the "creative male light" and the "emotional female void", a reversal of the gender-based view of creation espoused by the Judge at the end of Church and State (namely, the "female light" being raped by the "male void" and shattering into the physical universe). As Sim himself says in an interview with The Comics Journal, "Cerebus #1–200 [is] the completion of the story. The yin and yang. The ultra-female reading. The ultra-male reading. I'm attaching an allegory to the Big Bang. You make up your mind which one's the pit and which one's the top of the mountain." By the end of the series, the Void is again male and identified as God, and the Light is female, now identified with YHWH. Issue #186 was followed by another essay in the back of issue #265 called "Tangent", in which Sim identified a "feminist/homosexualist axis" that opposed traditional and rational societal values. This material appeared as Sim was retreating from public life and becoming more marginalized by his peers in the industry. Sim himself appeared as a character in Cerebus, as when he berated the title character in the "Minds" story arc. Sim's religious beliefs heavily influenced the last third of Cerebus'''s storyline. Once an atheist, Sim became a believer in God while gathering research material for "Rick's Story". However, rather than following an established religion, Sim follows his own personal belief system cobbled together from elements of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, although he described himself in issue #8 of Following Cerebus as "mostly Muslim". A 2003 magazine interview describes Sim as reciting a prayer of his own devising five times a day (which was published in the back of issue #300), and as having sold much of his furniture to donate the money to charity as an act of religious asceticism. In an editorial contained in issue #297, Sim stated that he regards the production of Cerebus as of secondary importance to his religious practice. Sim's religious beliefs tie into his views on gender, and the bulk of the Cerebus storyline after "Guys" deals with this, especially "Rick's Story", "Latter Days", and "The Last Day". A quarterly publication, Following Cerebus, followed in August 2004, featuring correspondence, essays, and previously unpublished artwork from Sim, as well as interviews with other comic writers and artists. Sim was rumored to have said that had he died or otherwise chosen not to complete Cerebus prior to issue 300, the remaining issues were to either consist of blank pages or Gerhard was to have drawn his backgrounds only, leaving Sim's contribution blank. It is not known if this plan was ever serious, since it was never put into effect. At the completion of the series, Sim directed that upon his and Gerhard's death, Cerebus would enter into the public domain. Effective 31 December 2006, Sim purchased Gerhard's share of the company. Sim has already granted a general license for other creators to use his characters in their own works, stating that he is trying to be consistent with his own appropriation of others' works.CFG Archive of Newsarama discussion, Feb 6, 2008 In early 2009, Sim launched the bimonthly series Cerebus Archive. It was translated into Italian; and in 2011, Church & State Vol. I was published in Spanish. Storylines "Cerebus" This first story arc, uniquely in this series, consists of one to three-issue storylines with only occasional back-references. Cerebus is introduced as an amoral barbarian mercenary, fighting (and betraying) for money and drinking it away. During his adventures, he encounters the warrior Pigts (whose religion reveres aardvarks) and the insane wizard Necross, who turns himself into a giant stone Thrunk (visually similar to Marvel Comics' The Thing). Most of the series' prominent characters are introduced (or at least mentioned) in these issues, including Elrod of Melvinbone (a parodic representation of Michael Moorcock's Elric of Melnibone), Lord Julius, a character based upon Groucho Marx, Artemis Roach (a.k.a. The Roach) and Jaka. The series takes a sharp change in direction with issue #20 which is the first of the "Mind Games" issues that are a feature of the comic and introduces the philosophical Suenteus Po and the ultra-matriarchial Cirinists. "High Society" Cerebus comes to the wealthy city-state of Iest as the representative of Lord Julius's city-state of Palnu. He quickly finds himself enmeshed in the fast-paced world of high finance and politics, and comic tension is built through his ignorance of the "high society" machinations going on around him. Cerebus is befriended by the legendary Regency Elf as he adjusts to his new circumstances. He meets and soon finds himself maneuvered into a political campaign by the mysterious Astoria, who is also manipulating Artemis into pseudo-super hero identities that are parodies of Moon Knight and later Sergeant Preston of the Mounties. Cerebus recognizes that he is a pawn in a political game between Lord Julius and Astoria, but he struggles to assert himself and ultimately confounds the expectations of everyone attempting to use him. Cerebus is eventually elected Prime Minister of Iest, but launches an unnecessary war of conquest that causes him to lose everything. "Church & State I" After some travels, Cerebus returns to Iest and is manipulated by Weisshaupt, who wants to use Cerebus's popularity with the masses, into again becoming Prime Minister of Iest. Weisshaupt has maneuvered himself into the tenuous presidency of a federation of states (including Iest, Palnu and New Sepra) as a bulwark against the Cirinists. Weisshaupt lures Cerebus into a drunken marriage to Red Sophia, but ultimately loses his influence over Cerebus when Weisshaupt's rival, Bishop Powers, appoints Cerebus Pope of the Eastern Church of Tarim. Finally out from under anyone else's control, Cerebus lets absolute power go to his head and demands that all the citizens must give him all their gold or face the end of the world. Sophia walks out on Cerebus, and then he discovers that Jaka is married and pregnant. Cerebus is threatened by Weisshaupt's secret invention of cannons, but Weisshaupt suffers a heart attack and Cerebus continues his papal reign of terror. He is finally ejected from the Upper City by the sudden invasion of the giant stone Thrunk, who claims to be the God Tarim. "Church & State II" Cerebus returns to Iest's Upper City and uses Weisshaupt's cannons to destroy Thrunk and reclaim the papacy. Astoria has mysteriously killed the Western pope ("the Lion of Serrea"), and Cerebus must execute her for the crime in order to retain his papacy. Cerebus confronts her in a dungeon, and after being taunted by Astoria, he grants himself a divorce from Red Sophia, marries himself to Astoria, rapes her, and then divorces himself from her. Astoria's trial, which echoes with similarities to a repeating pattern of historical executions of reformers, is interrupted when Cerebus makes the predicted Ascension to the Moon that is the culmination of the land's religious prophecy. There, Cerebus meets the Judge, a timeless, godlike being who has watched over history from the very beginning. (Sim had based the personality of this character on cartoonist and playwright Jules Feiffer.) The Judge explains his version of the creation myth of Cerebus's universe, before warning Cerebus that he will live only a few more years before dying "alone, unmourned and unloved." The Judge tells Cerebus that if the Aardvark ever questions his suffering, he should remember his "second marriage" to Astoria. Cerebus then falls back to earth, where he discovers that the Cirinists have invaded, and his empire has collapsed. "Jaka's Story" Cerebus returns to Iest, now under a brutal Cirinist dictatorship, and runs into Jaka again. She is illegally working as a dancer in her landlord's tavern. The landlord/barman, Pud, treats Jaka kindly but secretly spends his days lusting after her. Cerebus agrees to live with Jaka and her husband Rick as their houseguest. That story is interwoven with unreliable tales of Jaka's childhood told by a writer, representing Oscar Wilde, using notes and stories provided by Rick. In the end Cerebus disguises himself and travels to the Lower City to buy a jar of paint. While he is gone, the Cirinists find the tavern, kill Pud and arrest Jaka, Rick, and Oscar. Jaka is made to sign a confession of immoral behavior, and is reunited with Rick; however, the Cirinists reveal to Rick that Jaka aborted the son that Rick always wanted. He lashes out at Jaka and is allowed to divorce her (although he is maimed for striking her). Jaka returns to Palnu, and Cerebus returns to the inn to find it in ruins. "Melmoth" This story arc concentrates on the last days and death of Oscar Wilde (who is attended to by his trusted companion Robbie Ross) rather than on Cerebus himself, who appears in only a few pages. (The title refers to the gothic novel Melmoth the Wanderer by Charles Robert Maturin, a relative of Wilde's. Wilde adopted this alias during this period of his life.) Meanwhile, a catatonic Cerebus, believing Jaka to be dead, spends his days mourning on the patio of a café. In the last few pages of the story, after the main action had concluded, Cerebus overhears a conversation by two Cirinist jailers insulting Jaka. Enraged, Cerebus murders one of the guards and then springs into action. "Flight" First part of the "Mothers and Daughters" story arc. Cerebus's return to Iest and slaughter of Cirinsts leads to a very brief failed revolution. Cerebus descends into darkness and speaks with Suenteus Po. Meanwhile, Cirin works to manage her sect and arrange her own Ascension. Artemis, with Elrod as his sidekick, also stages his own impromptu revolution under his new persona "PunisherRoach", a parody of the Marvel comics character The Punisher. "Women" Second part of the story-arc "Mothers and Daughters". Cerebus crashes back to earth. He is assisted by a mysterious old woman who is being openly spied upon by the Cirinists; she sends him to a bar to hide. This story arc includes a parody of Neil Gaiman's Sandman in which the Roach plays "Swoon" (a parody of Dream) and Elrod plays "Snuff" (a transvestite parody of Death). Astoria and Cirin symbolically duel in a dream realm. The book includes excerpts from books written by Astoria and Cirin that describe their differing beliefs. Cerebus flies across the city to slay Astoria, but is interrupted by the arrival of Suenteus Po. "Reads" Third part of the "Mothers and Daughters" story arc. This book primarily consists of two long text pieces. The first revolves around an author of Reads, heavily illustrated books in Cerebus's world. In this story, there is a strong thread about the dangers of commercial success and "selling out". The series moves from this storyline to a long essay attributed to Viktor Davis, a fictional Reads author. This essay puts forth a theory on the nature of the sexes, describing the "Female Void" focused on feeling, and the "Male Light" focused on reason. These two stories are accompanied by a long discussion between Cirin, Astoria, Cerebus, and Suenteus Po. Po gives information about aardvarks, including that all aardvarks have Cerebus' "magnifier" quality, and attempts to convince each of the others to abandon their pursuits of power and return to what they enjoy doing most, then leaves them to their fates. Astoria is convinced and also leaves, but not before giving Cerebus information about her history with Cirin and also informing him of his hermaphrodite nature. Cerebus and Cirin then engage in a long and brutal fight, which leads to the beginning of another ascension. "Minds" Fourth and concluding part of the "Mothers and Daughters" story arc. Cerebus and Cirin ascend, then are separated by a mysterious force. As Cerebus flies through the solar system, he is shown images from his past and is forced to reconsider his actions and his faith. He then encounters a disembodied voice calling itself "Dave" that acknowledges itself as Cerebus's creator. "Dave" shows Cerebus the history of the Cirinist movement, revealing that Cirin is actually named Serna and was the best friend of the real Cirin (the old woman Cerebus encountered in Women), but usurped Cirin's leadership and effectively exchanged identities with her. "Dave" then gives Cerebus information about his past, showing that Cerebus unwittingly ruined his original destiny, causing chaotic repercussions which have influenced most of his adventures. Cerebus demands that "Dave" make Jaka love him; in response, "Dave" shows Cerebus visions of possible futures between himself and Jaka, all of which are disastrously flawed for both of them due to Cerebus' nature. After a period of penance and self-reflection on Pluto, Cerebus asks "Dave" to place him in a bar he remembers from his mercenary days. "Guys" Cerebus spends time, and eventually becomes bartender, in one of the Cirinists' bars where "degenerate" men are essentially quarantined from the female citizens. Described in the trade paperback's introduction as based on a bar that Sim frequented during a near-alcoholic stint between relationships, the series features various parodic characters who come and go while Cerebus remains stationary. Cerebus begins a somewhat reluctant relationship with a woman named Joanne, who was first introduced in one of the possible futures with Jaka that "Dave" showed Cerebus in Minds. "Rick's Story" Eventually Jaka's ex-husband Rick arrives at the bar. He has significantly aged, become a heavy drinker (having barely been able to tolerate alcohol in "Jaka's Story"), and it is gradually revealed that the mental and emotional scars from the events at the end of "Jaka's Story" have left him mildly insane. Rick is working on a book about his life, which gradually becomes a religious work in which Cerebus is a holy figure and Rick his follower. Joanne returns and taunts Cerebus by courting Rick. At the end of the book, Rick departs, for reasons not entirely clear, and tells Cerebus that he will see Rick only once more in his life. After Rick has left, Jaka shows up at the bar, and she and Cerebus depart together, heading for Cerebus' childhood home of Sand Hills Creek. "Going Home" First part of the "Going Home" story arc. Cerebus and Jaka travel across land, then on a river boat. Cerebus is eager to make as much time as possible, as he fears being trapped in the mountains near Sand Hills Creek by winter, but instead he indulges Jaka's desire for shopping and public appearances. Along the way, they encounter veiled hostility from the Cirinists. Cerebus and Jaka's relationship begins to show signs of deterioration, and Jaka is almost tempted away by F. Stop Kennedy (a fictional version of F. Scott Fitzgerald), a writer who has accompanied them on their river boat. "Form and Void" Second and concluding part of the story arc "Going Home". Cerebus and Jaka continue their journey towards Sand Hills Creek, in the company of Ham and Mary Ernestway, analogues to Ernest Hemingway and his fourth wife, Mary. On the trip, Mary tells them about some of her and Ham's journeys. This material is based on Mary Hemingway's journals about Ernest's last African safaris prior to his death. Ham dies in what appears to be suicide, but Cerebus becomes convinced Mary murdered him and flees in panic, taking Jaka with him. They discover that they have been traveling in circles without making any significant progress toward Sand Hills Creek, and nearly die in a blizzard. They finally arrive in Sand Hills Creek only to find that Cerebus' parents are dead and the rest of the community has shunned Cerebus for his perceived abandonment of his family. Cerebus drives Jaka away, blaming her for keeping him away too long. "Latter Days" First part of the story arc "Latter Days". After a prodigious leap in time over two issues, Cerebus returns from the north intent on provoking the Cirinists into killing him. Instead, he is captured by a trio of characters based on the Three Stooges, who await a religious revelation from him. While Cerebus was in the north, a religious movement developed out of the teachings of Rick and his writings about Cerebus. Once Cerebus supplies the required revelation, he inspires a successful anti-Cirinist rebellion and a subsequent reordering of society. Much of the second half of this chapter consists of Cerebus giving a highly idiosyncratic analysis of the Torah. Published over the course of nearly a year, this section, called "Chasing YHWH", was presented almost entirely in text format, with minimal art. This story arc is unusual in that disembodied thought balloons give the impression that Cerebus is speaking directly to the reader at times. It is revealed in the last issue of the arc that Cerebus has been talking to a woman reporter who bears a striking resemblance to Jaka. He eventually falls in love with the woman and marries her. "The Last Day" The second and concluding part of "Latter Days", and the conclusion of the series as a whole. In the first 40 pages Cerebus has a dream or vision in which cosmology is seen as a reflection of theology, complete with explanatory footnotes by Sim. Upon waking Cerebus—now incredibly aged, decrepit, pain-wracked, and mildly senile—makes the laborious trek to his writing desk to write down his new revelation. He then hides the manuscript, and it is implied that nobody will find it for two thousand years. Cerebus spends most of the rest of the book trying to persuade his chief of security, Walter O'Reilly (named after Corporal Walter (Radar) O'Reilly from M A S H), to admit his son, Shep-Shep, with whom he remembers sharing an idyllic father–son relationship. However, the Sanctuary is under lockdown due to opposition from a new and even more rabidly "feminist-homosexualist" group led by Shep-Shep's mother, whom Cerebus refers to as "New Joanne", which favors such "rights" as pedophilia, zoophilia, juvenile recreational drug use and lesbian motherhood. As a result, social values have undergone a complete breakdown. Cerebus finally goes to bed despairing of seeing his son again, but Shep-Shep manages to sneak into Cerebus' room late that night. Their subsequent conversation shatters Cerebus' last illusions about his son. Shep-Shep has aligned himself with his mother, who has been conducting genetic engineering experiments, partly with knowledge gained from Cirin's earlier experimentation. Cerebus is disgusted and horrified when Shep-Shep shows him the results of one of the experiments, a lion cub with a human baby's head, and explains his mother's plans. As Shep-Shep leaves, Cerebus grabs a knife, intending to kill him, but falls out of bed and breaks his neck, alone, unmourned, and unloved, just as the Judge had predicted. His life flashes before his eyes in a series of flashback panels and his ghost sees many of his old friends and enemies waiting for him in "the Light." Jaka, Bear, and Ham beckon to him, and he eagerly rushes to join them, thinking they are in Heaven, but then he notices the absence of Rick and realizes that the Light may in fact be Hell. He calls out to God for help, but is dragged into the Light nonetheless. Other appearances Comics Buyer's Guide "Silverspoon", Prince Valiant comic strip parody, 11 pages published weekly in Comics Buyer's Guide, reprinted in Swords of Cerebus Vol 4 and in the Cerebus "phone book" from 11th printing on Swords of Cerebus Each of the six issues includes one or two Cerebus stories not all of which are included in the "phone books".Swords of Cerebus Vol. 1, January 1981 "The Name of the Game is Diamondback", 7 pages, layouts by Marshall Rogers, story and art by Sim, January 1981Swords of Cerebus Vol. 2, June 1981 "Demonhorn" (first appeared in Nucleus #1), 5 pages, story and art by Sim "The Morning After", 6 pages, inks by Joe RubensteinSwords of Cerebus Vol. 3, Fall 1981 "What Happened Between Issues 20 and 21", 8 pagesSwords of Cerebus Vol. 4, Fall 1982 "Magiking", 10 pages "Silverspoon", (first appeared in Comics Buyer's Guide), 11 pages,Swords of Cerebus Vol 5, Summer 1983 "Cerebus Dreams", written and drawn by Barry Windsor SmithSwords of Cerebus Vol 6, Fall 1984 "A Night on the Town" All of the stories above except "Demonhorn" were reprinted in "Cerebus World Tour Book 1995" Epic Illustrated "His First Fifth", 9 color pages, October 1984 "A Friendly Reminder", 3 color pages, February 1985 "Selling Insurance", 2 color pages, June 1985 "The Girl Next Door", 3 color pages, June 1985 AV in 3D "Cerebus Dreams II", 4 3D pages, December 1984 Cerebus Jam #1, April 1986 "The Defense of Fort Columbia", by Sim, Gerhard, Scott and Bo Hampton, 6 pages "The First Invention of Armour, 1404" by Sim, Gerhard, and Murphy Anderson, 6 pages "Squinteye the Sailor" by Sim, Gerhard, and Terry Austin, 5 pages "Cerebus versus the Spirit", Sim, Gerhard, and Will Eisner, 4 pages Anything Goes! "Breaking Up is Hard to Do", 3 color pages plus cover, March 1986 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles #8 "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Cerebus the Aardvark", by Eastman, Laird, Sim and Gerhard, 43 pages plus cover, 1986 Spawn Spawn #10, May 1993 "Crossing Over", 22 color pages plus cover, story by Sim, art by Todd McFarlane Glamourpuss The March 2011 (incorrectly dated March 2010 on the reverse cover) issue of Glamourpuss #18, written and drawn by Sim "What if Cerebus had lived in the age of Madmen", 10 pages. Cerebus in Hell In 2017, Sim started publishing a new series, Cerebus in Hell, with issues #0 and #1 through #4. Cerebus, having died in Cerebus #300, is now in Hell, wandering - and, as usual, badmouthing - his way, with art by Gustave Doré swiped from that artist's famous illustrations for Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. Small pictures of Cerebus, copied from the Cerebus comic book, with only a few poses repeated throughout, are added to the art. Cerebus #1s Starting August 2017, Dave Sim began to write and publish a series of monthly comic books, all numbered "#1", and all satires of various classic comic books. The first, Batvark #1, is a satire of Batman #1, the second, Aardvark Comics #1, a satire of Action Comics #1. As with Cerebus in Hell, the artwork is by Gustave Doré with small pictures of Cerebus added. Characters Cerebus Cerebus is a misanthropic anthropomorphic bipedal gray aardvark. He refers to himself by name, in the third person, with occasional exceptions in the early issues. Sim has described Cerebus's voice as sounding like George C. Scott's. Cerebus identifies as male, and is treated as such and is hermaphroditic, possessing both sexes' genitalia and reproductive systems. Theoretically he is capable of impregnating himself; however, a childhood injury to his uterus makes this impossible. Cerebus is an amoral character. He is often foul-mouthed and uncouth, has a vicious temper, and loves getting drunk. In the "Guys" story arc, Cerebus is described as having "a self-absorption that borders on the pathological." In "Church and State", Cerebus, after becoming Pope, uses brutal methods to teach morality lessons. However, he is brave, crafty, and can show genuine affection to those he considers equals or those he has feelings for. He is a skilled tactician and strategist, is very proficient at hand to hand combat, and has a knack for improvisation and manipulation. He received training in magic as a child, but is depicted as being able to recognize magic and deal with it rather than use it. For most of the series' run, Cerebus possesses an innate "magnifier" ability. This ability, which he shows little (if any) conscious awareness of, is a tendency for events occurring around him to become unusually focused and ordered, with intensified actions and consequences and sometimes with paranormal effects, then fall out of place in his absence. This ability also affects the people around him to varying degrees, amplifying their personality traits and abilities, and also amplifies any magic that is present. Supporting characters Jaka Tavers The love of Cerebus' life. A dancer by profession, she is the niece of Lord Julius and (ex-)wife of Rick Nash. Lord Julius Grandlord of the city-state of Palnu, who exercises control by making the bureaucracy incredibly dense and incomprehensible. Julius is crafty and intelligent, but often plays the fool to confuse and baffle opponents. His character design and behavior is based on Groucho Marx, including snappy insults, a constant cigar, the chicken walk, and a painted-on mustache. Astoria A beautiful political manipulator, Lord Julius' ex-wife, and the main driving force behind Cerebus' campaign to become Prime Minister in High Society. She is the leader of the Kevillists, a feminist sect which opposes Cirin. The Kevillists mirror the Cirinists' philosophy, but would prefer power in the hands of daughters instead of mothers. She is named for actress Mary Astor, and may be inspired in some ways by Sim's ex-wife Deni Loubert, though Sim himself denies this in issue 298. Cirin Leader of the Cirinists, a matriarchal fascist sect which conquers Estarcion at the conclusion of the Church and State storyline. Originally named Serna, she took the name and effectively exchanged identities with the real Cirin, whose views were much less militaristic. The sect honors mothers primarily, also giving high honors to daughters (potential mothers) and children. Men are tolerated. Like Cerebus, she is an aardvark. Elrod the Albino (Elrod of Melvinbone) Essentially Michael Moorcock's Elric of Melnibone with the voice and personality of Senator Claghorn (or Foghorn Leghorn), Elrod is an almost purely comic character whose main purpose is to frustrate and enrage Cerebus. In Reads it is revealed that he was created by Cerebus' proximity to a magic gem, and after learning this he vanishes from existence. However, Joanne tells Cerebus she and her husband used to live next door to Elrod, who was married at the time to Red Sophia. Roach (Artemis) An incompetent superhero character. Sim used the Roach to satirize popular mainstream comic characters or industry publishing trends, beginning with Batman. His other guises have included Captain Cockroach (Captain America), Moonroach (Moon Knight), Wolveroach (Wolverine), the Secret Sacred Wars Roach (Marvel Super Heroes Secret Wars series and Frank Miller's Batman from The Dark Knight Returns), normalroach (Valentino's normalman), Punisherroach (The Punisher), Swoon (Sandman), and Sergeant Preston of the Royal Mounted Iestan police (the main character of the radio series Challenge of the Yukon). Adam Weisshaupt Introduced in Cerebus, he is a ruthless political opponent of Cerebus throughout the Church & State storyline. His manipulations of both Cerebus and the Roach lead to his pawns eventually growing more powerful than he ever hoped to be. Weisshaupt is named after the historical Adam Weishaupt but drawn to look like George Washington (a connection well known to Illuminati conspiracy theorists). Bear Cerebus' best friend from his mercenary days and main drinking buddy. In "Guys" there are hints Cerebus is suppressing an attraction to him. Joanne Introduced in a possible future for Cerebus and Jaka by "Dave" in "Minds", Joanne is a bored housewife who has an affair with Cerebus, prompting Jaka's suicide. After Cerebus returns to Estarcion, Joanne reappears and becomes Cerebus's lover, only to be spurned by Cerebus. She later seduces Rick as a way to taunt Cerebus. Joanne is in many ways an opposite of Jaka, and Cerebus bases much of his post-Guys views on how to deal with women on his experience with her. After Shep-shep's mother leaves Cerebus, he labels her "New Joanne." Bran Mac Mufin Originally a barbarian warlord whose people worshiped an idol who looked remarkably like Cerebus (and which the aardvark destroyed). He later turns up quite unexpectedly, in civilized clothing, to act as an adviser to Cerebus in two separate occasions, first in Cerebus' campaign and first reign as Prime Minister of Iest and then arriving after Cerebus is Pope to observe the miracles and give Cerebus advice, though he seems to have a hidden agenda. During the Iest campaign Cerebus states that he trusts Mac Mufin's military advice more than anyone else's. When Thrunk deposes Cerebus, Mac Mufin commits suicide by stabbing himself in the chest with a sword. Mac Mufin is a parody of Robert E. Howard's Celtic barbarian Bran Mak Morn. In his first appearance in issue 5 his name was spelled Bran Mak Mufin, but in subsequent appearances he goes by Bran Mac Mufin. Rick Nash First introduced as Jaka's husband in Jaka's Story, Rick is a friendly, gentle ne'er-do-well, whom Sim described in the introduction to the "phonebook" of Jaka's Story as "the nearest I will ever come to the portrayal of a good and thoroughly decent human being; completely without guile or malice". After his marriage to Jaka is dissolved, he becomes mildly insane. He eventually goes on to become the prophet of a religion centered on Cerebus. Suenteus Po Estarcion's third aardvark, who has lived several lifetimes and has shaped the history of Estarcion. It is also a very common name and several people named "Suenteus Po" appear in the story in various roles—one as an enigmatic illusionist and another as a historian who narrates a sizable portion of Cerebus' first reign as Prime Minister of Iest (though it is very strongly implied that both these Pos are the aardvark). It is mentioned in High Society that some of the followers of the original Suenteus Po named their children after him. The name may be a playful misspelling of the name of Roman historian Suetonius. There was a rock band on San Francisco label Solana Records named Suenteus Po that released an album in 2000. The Regency Elf A childlike, playful spirit who inhabits Cerebus' rooms at the Regency Hotel in High Society; at first, only Cerebus can see her. She helps Cerebus with some of his political scheming, though, as innocent as she seems, it's all just a game to her. It is discovered later that the Regency Elf who appears to Cerebus is a fake created by Cerebus' subconscious. The Regency Elf is inspired in part by Elfquest and its creator Wendy Pini. Visually, the Regency Elf is inspired by Debby Harry. Various other characters in the series were designed to resemble famous actors, politicians, and other personalities and comic in-jokes, including British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Professor X (with a bit of Chris Claremont thrown in), Canadian Member of Parliament Sheila Copps, director Woody Allen, Alan Moore, Rick Veitch, Oscar Wilde, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Norman Mailer, Rodney Dangerfield, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, and Chico Marx. Collections The first 22 Cerebus stories were collected in six issues of Swords of Cerebus, plus one supplement to volume six, and these stories were then collected in "Cerebus" #1. Swords of Cerebus also published several new short Cerebus stories, listed under "Other appearances" above, which were not reprinted in the "phone books" All of the story arcs from the Cerebus comic book have been reprinted in collected omnibus editions of 240–630 pages each, all of which are presently still in print. They are generally referred to by fans and retailers as Cerebus "phone books" due to their size; also, they use the same newsprint paper as the original comics. Sim has released two collections of his responses to readers' letters (the original letters are not included) after the publication of Cerebus #300. Collected Letters 2004 () was released in 2005, and Collected Letters vol. 2 was released in 2007. Miscellaneous stories not appearing in the above collections have been reprinted in the short collections Cerebus World Tour Book and in Cerebus Number Zero, which reprints issues #51, 112/113 and parts of issues #137 & 138. A few standalone, uncollected stories have appeared in various collections and magazines over the years, and Cerebus has made cameo appearances on the covers of magazines such as Comics Revue. Sim also marketed a set of "Diamondback" cards (based upon a game seen in early issues) in the 1980s. All of the material in the Cerebus arc was reprinted in smaller collections called Swords of Cerebus before Sim decided on the "phonebook" format. The phonebooks themselves tie into ideas presented in the series. Although grammatically incorrect, the titles of books 8 through 11 could be read as a sentence ("women read minds, guys" – the concept of women reading minds is a key plot point). Also, beginning with Going Home (the first storyline begun after Sim's religious conversion), the covers of each "phone book" are printed in full color, with Going Home and Form and Void using Gerhard's scenic nature photography as covers, rather than the drawings used on past books. Cerebus Syndrome When a series in any medium, initially comedic or superficial, gradually becomes more serious, complex and dramatic, it may be described as affected by "Cerebus Syndrome". See also Aardvark Graphic novel References External links A Moment of Cerebus Cerebus TV "The Aardvark Hero: Dave Sim's Cerebus" from Emma Tinker's thesis, Identity and Form in Alternative Comics, 1967–2007'', University College London, 2008, Free Cerebus Category:1977 comics debuts Category:2004 comics endings Category:Aardvark-Vanaheim titles Category:Canadian comics characters Category:Canadian comics Category:Canadian graphic novels Category:Comics by Dave Sim Category:Comics characters introduced in 1977 Category:Comics critical of religion Category:Comics featuring anthropomorphic characters Category:Eisner Award winners Category:Fantasy comics Category:Fictional aardvarks Category:Fictional bartenders Category:Fictional popes Category:Fictional prime ministers Category:Fictional swordsmen Category:LGBT characters in comics Category:Media franchises Category:Religious comics Category:Satirical comics Category:Self-reflexive comics Category:Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles guest characters	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Simpson Glacier Tongue Simpson Glacier Tongue () is a small floating glacier tongue nourished by Simpson Glacier and Fendley Glacier as it extends into the sea between Nelson Cliff and Atkinson Cliffs, along the north coast of Victoria Land. Charted by the Northern Party, led by Campbell, of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13. Named for Dr. (later Sir) George Clarke Simpson, meteorologist of the expedition. Category:Glaciers of Pennell Coast	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Stephen Battersby Stephen Battersby is a British practitioner of environmental health and an advocate for housing standards. He is also known for his leadership as chief author of Clay's Handbook of Environmental Health. Battersby is a Chartered Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health (CIEH), and has held a number of leadership positions within the organisation, including president from 2008 through 2011. As of 2019, he served as one of CIEH's vice presidents. Battersby received his PhD from the University of Surrey, where his dissertation explored the public health implications of urban rat infestation. He is a Visiting Senior Research Fellow at the Robens Centre for Public and Environmental Health at the University of Surrey, and an associate of the Safe and Healthy Housing Unit at the University of Warwick. From 2013 to 2015, he was chair of the board of Generation Rent (formerly known as the National Private Tenants Organisation). In 2014, he was invested as a Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. References External links Personal homepage Category:Living people Category:Environmental health practitioners Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:Fellows of the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health Category:Alumni of the University of Surrey Category:Year of birth missing (living people)	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Alfonso de Salas Alfonso de Salas (September 3, 1943 – September 24, 2019) was a Spanish editor, founder of Cambio 16, and co-founder of the newspapers El Mundo and El Economista. Biography After graduating in law and completing a master's degree in economics at the University of Paris, he began his professional activity in 1975, in the field of electric companies. Specifically as financial director of the Standard Electric company and four years later, as director of planning and organization of Endesa. In 1982, his became a publisher. First from the publishing company of the magazine Cambio 16, from where he participated in the founding of Group 16. Under his presidency, the group He consolidated as a benchmark in the world of Spanish journalism, with more than fifteen headers and eight radio stations. In addition to refloating Diario 16, making it one of the most read newspapers in Spain. In 1989, together with Pedro J. Ramírez, Balbino Fraga and Juan González, he founded the newspaper El Mundo del Siglo XXI, and chaired the Unidad Editorial, the publishing company of this newspaper. Director of the newspaper El Mundo (1989–2005), in a few years he placed him as the second most read dairio in Spain. In 2005 he was relieved by Jorge de Esteban. On February 28, 2006, he launched the economic newspaper El Economista. He died on 24 September 2019, aged 76. References Category:1943 births Category:2019 deaths Category:Spanish journalists Category:University of Paris alumni Category:20th-century newspaper founders Category:21st-century newspaper founders Category:20th-century Spanish male writers Category:21st-century Spanish male writers Category:Writers from Madrid Category:Spanish expatriates in France Category:Spanish newspaper founders Category:Magazine founders Category:20th-century Spanish businesspeople Category:21st-century Spanish businesspeople	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Jacob Gibble Meyer Jacob Gibble Meyer is a former President of Elizabethtown College. Meyer served as president from 1921 until 1924. Meyer residence hall is named after him. References Category:Presidents of Elizabethtown College	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Alison Xamon Alison Marie Xamon (born 8 June 1969) is a Western Australian Greens politician serving in the Western Australian Legislative Council. Early life Xamon was born in Mundaring, Western Australia Xamon studied law and arts at Murdoch University, where she served as Education Vice President and then Guild President for the Murdoch University Student Guild. After university, Xamon worked in the union movement for various white- and blue-collar unions, including the Australian Nurses Federation, the State School Teachers’ Union of Western Australia, and the Communications, Electricians and Plumbers Union. In her time in the union movement, Alison worked as an Organizer, Industrial Officer, Women’s Officer, and Equal Opportunity specialist. She then went on to work as a lawyer, with an interest in both public interest law and the right for people to access justice. She also sat on numerous boards within the community law and social justice sectors. From 2007 to 2008 Xamon, was the National Convenor of the Australian Greens. Political career She was elected to parliament at the 2008 state election as a Greens member of the Western Australian Legislative Council representing East Metropolitan Region. Xamon introduced six private members bills during her term in parliament. At the March 2013 Western Australian election, she was not re-elected. Post-parliament, Xamon worked as an advocate for mental health and suicide prevention. She was elected as the President of the WA Association for Mental Health, the Vice-Chair of Community Mental Health Australia, and the Board of Mental Health Australia. Xamon was also appointed to the WA Ministerial Council for Suicide Prevention, and as the inaugural Co-Lead of the Department of Health Statewide Mental Health Network. Xamon was re-elected to the Legislative Council representing the North Metropolitan Region at the 2017 election. Her term began on 22 May 2017. References Category:1969 births Category:Living people Category:Australian Greens members of the Parliament of Western Australia Category:Members of the Western Australian Legislative Council Category:Murdoch University alumni Category:People from Perth, Western Australia Category:21st-century Australian politicians Category:21st-century Australian women politicians Category:Women members of the Western Australian Legislative Council	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Rábatamási Rábatamási is a village in Győr-Moson-Sopron County, Hungary. References Category:Populated places in Győr-Moson-Sopron County	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Ethical banking An ethical bank, also known as a social, alternative, civic, or sustainable bank, is a bank concerned with the social and environmental impacts of its investments and loans. The ethical banking movement includes: ethical investment, impact investment, socially responsible investment, corporate social responsibility, and is also related to such movements as the fair trade movement, ethical consumerism, and social enterprise. Other areas of ethical consumerism, such as fair trade labelling, have comprehensive codes and regulations which must be adhered to in order to be certified. Ethical banking has not developed to this point; because of this it is difficult to create a concrete definition that distinguishes ethical banks from conventional banks. Ethical banks are regulated by the same authorities as traditional banks and have to abide by the same rules. While there are differences between ethical banks, they do share a desire to uphold principles in the projects they finance, the most frequent including: transparency and social and/or environmental values. Ethical banks sometimes work with narrower profit margins than traditional ones, and therefore they may have few offices and operate mostly by phone, Internet, or mail. Ethical banking is considered one of several forms of alternative banking. History Since old time Christian communities were based on the anti-materialism of Jesus, banking was ethical and any form of "Usura" (interest lending), was considered as immoral. In England, King Offa of Mercia in 791, then King Alfred the great (849-899), as well as King Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), outlawed usurers. Mainstream financial banks have had varying relationships with corporate social responsibility and ethical investment. However, a clearer movement has emerged since the 1990s. With changing social demands, and as more is known about the effects that banks can have through their lending policies, banks have begun to feel pressure from the general public, NGOs, governments, regulatory bodies and others to consider their social and environmental impact. Environmentally and socially conscious business practices In general banks play an intermediary role in the economy; because of this the possibility for banks to contribute to sustainable development is extensive. Banks have efficient and tested credit approval systems, which gives them a comparative advantage in knowledge (regarding sector-specific information, legislation and market developments). Banks are experienced and capable of weighing risks and attaching a price to these risks; because of this banks can fulfill an important role in reducing the information asymmetry between market parties and allow them to make better decisions. When depositors allow a bank to invest for them they may assume that the bank will attempt to select investments to maximize their returns. However, if clients are concerned with more than the simple monetary return and they, for instance, are interested in the costs to society and to the environment, then they may need to turn to an ethical bank which takes their ethics and morality into account when investing. Some businesses externalize costs onto the environment and society. Aiming to create a more equitable distribution of costs in society, banks can raise interest rates or apply tariffs on loans given to clients and projects with high external costs. This would mean that companies would pay more if their business caused extensive environmental damage; taking some of the cost off of society as a whole and putting it on the company. This sort of tariff differentiation could stimulate the internalization of environmental costs in market prices. Through such price differentiation, banks have the potential to foster sustainability.. Banks may be able to support progress toward sustainability by society as a whole—for example, by adopting a ‘carrot-and-stick’ approach, where environmental and social front-runners would pay less interest than the market price for borrowing capital, while environmental laggards would pay a much higher interest rate. Banks can also develop more sustainable products, such as environmental, social, or ethical investment funds. By investing selectively based on values, ethical banks can promote socially/environmentally responsible companies and penalize those who do not conform to these standards. But there is a risk that banks could simply adopt certain practices that make them appear ethical (see greenwashing) while not adopting other practices that would have a greater impact. Ethical initiatives Numerous ethical banks (as well as some conventional banks) allow customers to contribute to organizations that have positive societal/environmental impacts either in the local community or in developing countries. Examples include an evaluation of the energy efficiency of a home and potential improvements in this; carbon-offsets; credit cards that benefit charities or lower interest rate loans for low emission cars. Community involvement Ethical banks excel in community involvement, as do other financial institutions such as credit unions. Community involvement is not limited to ethical banks as conventional banks also partake in such actions. The following are a few examples of community involvement done by ethical banks, credit unions, and conventional banks: Affordable housing projects (ex. Vancity & Citizens bank) Projects to improve financial literacy in the community Give local scholarships & sponsorships. Financially support community events (for ex. each year TD Canada trust donates to a local cause). Environmental standards for lending The environment is a key focus for ethical banks as well as for some conventional banks that believe adopting more environmentally ethical practices to be to their advantage. Banks operating in this field are often referred to as sustainable or green banks. In general bankers "consider themselves to be in a relatively environmentally friendly industry (in terms of emissions and pollution). However, given their potential exposure to risk, they have been surprisingly slow to examine the environmental performance of their clients. A stated reason for this is that such an examination would ‘require interference’ with a client's activities." While the desire not to interfere with the business of the client is valid, it could also be noted that banks are required to interfere in the business of their clients regularly to ensure that the clients’ business plan is viable before issuing them a loan. The kind of analysis that all banks partake in is termed a single bottom line analysis (this analysis only considers financial performance). It is arguable whether or not performing a triple bottom line analysis (an analysis that takes into account environmental, social, and financial performance) would be any more intrusive. Internal vs. external banking ethics Conventional banks deal with mostly internal ethics, ethical banks add to internal concerns by applying external ethics. Internal ethics: processes in banks Internal ethics are concerned with the well being of employees, employee and customer satisfaction, benefits, wages, unionization, fair sex and race representation, and the banks environmental standing. Environmentally the potential combined effect of banks switching to more environmentally friendly practices (i.e. less paper use, less electrical use, solar power, energy efficient light bulbs, more conscientious employee travel policies with concern to commuting and air travel) is huge. However, when compared with many other sectors of the economy banks do not incur the same burden of energy, water and paper use. Many times such energy efficient changes are not based on moral concern but on cost efficiency. External ethics: products of the banks’ relationships/products External ethics are concerned with the wider ramifications of banks actions. External ethics looks at the impacts that their business practices, such as who they loan to or invest in, will have on society and the environment. In applying external ethics, one looks at how the products of banks can be used unethically, for example how borrowers use the money that is lent out by the bank. Discussion Banks are often reluctant to broaden the scope of their external ethical policies because of the significant nature of the changes. However, by incorporating ethics that account for societal costs in their practices, banks may improve their reputation. Ethical banking is a relatively new sector and this relatively undeveloped nature causes some problems. These problems can be divided into two categories: the first concerns depositors, and the second concerns ethical banks. In the first category lies the issue of understanding how ethical banks measure or qualify their ethical policies. For example, when Vancity/Citizen Bank states ‘we seek to work with organizations that demonstrate a commitment to ethical business practices,’ the depositor is unable to understand what ‘seek’ means. These claims do not reveal to potential depositors how the bank evaluates or uses these statements. Even when given the opportunity to view an accountability report it is difficult to truly understand what their screening processes are. For example, the Van City Accountability Report for 2006/07 (for Van City credit union and Citizens Bank in Canada) states: "the Ethical Policy requires that all business accounts are screened at the time of account opening by the staff person dealing with the member. Social and environmental risks of larger business banking loans (non-credit-scored loans) are assessed at the time of the loan application, guided by the Ethical Policy and Lending Policies." This statement does not give the reader the information they needs to understand the criteria used in assessing clients. However statistics such as that given by the Cooperative Bank (UK), stating that in 2003 they reviewed 225 potentially problematic financial opportunities and of these 20% were found to be in conflict with their ethical statements and were subsequently denied further business, costing the bank 6,887,000 pounds, give the consumer the impression that the banks’ proposed ethics, however ambiguous, are being taken seriously. Another issue in this category is that of codes of conduct. Many ethical banks as well as conventional banks voluntarily join larger bodies that put forth certain regulations that, according to the rules set by the body, should be followed by members. Such outside bodies could act as overarching institutions that could guarantee a certain level of conformance with certain regulations. An example of this in the United States is the Food and Drug Administration. Depositors who use ethical banks do not have this assurance because there is no external regulatory body that sets minimum acceptable legal standards. In the second category ethical banks face obstacles such as losing business and consumer support to conventional banks, and having to regulate above and beyond the present international legal systems. According to Cowton, C. J., and P. Thompson, "banks that had signed the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Statement, a voluntary industry code that promulgated environmental stewardship, transparency, and sustainable development, did not act significantly different than the non-signatories." They concluded that, for codes to be more effective; regulators, monitors, and methods of enforcement need to be in place. This problem is similar to the problems faced by the fair trade movement. Both the fair trade movement and ethical banks rely on people to pay extra for known ethical goods. There is a limit to how much more people will pay for that guarantee, after that point further initiatives will undercut the banks income and therefore are likely to not be followed. Losing business to banks that do not screen so strictly is a problem for ethical banks. Many times ethical banks must work with much lower budgets because of this. Ethical banks exclusion of unethical borrowers often results in the borrowers going to other banks, this brings up the importance of industry wide regulations. One way of raising the industry wide regulations would be for citizens to apply pressure on banks. Without this rise it is difficult to impede unethical businesses from finding a bank to finance their projects. A rise in regulations that deal with moral topics is not out of the question. The current industry wide codes, for example, prohibit the financing of illegal drug production. This reflects the prominent societal morals against such drugs. Ethical banks cannot solely rely upon the legal system to determine whether or not a potential client has acted unethically or whether or not their future plans are unethical. This is because of the wide range of laws throughout the world. While a business may be lawful in the international setting, this does not mean that the laws were up to the moral standards in which the bank originates. For example, extensive pollution and labor laws that would not be considered lawful in many developed countries are allowed in many lesser-developed countries. Judging what is ethical Claiming to be an "ethical" bank requires an objective way to determine what is ethical. Popular ethical theories that could be used include those of Mill, Kant and Aristotle. John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill expanded on Jeremy Bentham's utilitarian theory. Bentham's fundamental axiom holds "it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong". Mill observed that this axiom alone would allow for actions that lacked morality, in the ethical and even legal sense. For example, under Bentham's unqualified fundamental axiom, it would not only be admissible, but "right" to live in a Robin Hood society, where one person's happiness (the robbed rich man's) is sacrificed in favor for the substantially improved happiness of the greatest number. On this account Mill elaborated on the ethical dimension of Utilitarianism, measuring the right- and wrongness of an action both in terms of aggregate happiness, or "utility", following Bentham's fundamental axiom, but not without disregard of moral or ethical quality of the action itself. Therefore, in Mill's perspective a bank would be moral if it tended "to promote happiness".(p. 10) If the bank in question acts in way that produces the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people then it will be acting morally according to Mill. Because the banking sector is so large, complex and far-reaching in its effects it is difficult to accurately judge the happiness of everyone affected by the conduct of banks in general or by certain banks in particular. However, it is sometimes possible to discern which of different possible courses of action would produce the most happiness. For example, the act of generous philanthropy in forms such as giving back to communities, employees, members, environmental/development groups, etc. will on the whole increase happiness. Similarly lending to businesses that do not "produce the reverse of happiness"(p. 10) by, for example, giving to businesses that treat employees fairly and are concerned with such public goods as the environment would also be considered ethical according to Mill. Given that things such as global warming, air pollution, water contamination, and soil pollution negatively affect large groups of the population, if not all of the population (in the case of global warming), banks that chose to partake in the above examples could be viewed as contributing to the overall happiness of all people and would hence have moral value. Immanuel Kant According to Immanuel Kant's Categorical Imperative, morality concerns intentions, and not outcomes. A person is moral insofar as they act with a good will, regardless of the consequences. With this knowledge one could propose that the act of lending money is not in and of itself immoral and according to Kant's perspective banks should not be judged as moral or immoral based on the outcomes of their lending. However the second formulation of Kant's categorical imperative states: "act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end" (pg. 66–67). Based on this formula, one could argue that the whole practice of lending is not ethical, since it treats human persons merely as means to gaining money, ('mere means') rather than as ends in themselves. Aristotle For Aristotle, lawfulness is important in the measurement of morality, as is equality and justice. Whether an action is or is not in accordance with the law is an important measurement of morality for Aristotle. Many banks do business in accordance with the law in all practices. They may also specifically seek to do business with law-abiding clients. Nevertheless, this can be problematic, as laws vary internationally. This means that a bank could be viewed as ethical even while funding clients who lawfully conduct business in harmful manners. However this measurement is challenged by Aristotle's statement: "what is just in transactions is something equitable, and what is unjust is something inequitable." This means that a bank needs to take into account the unjust/inequitable behavior of its borrowers to qualify as an ethical bank. For example, lending to a law-abiding corporation that does not pay its employees a sufficient living wage would be immoral. Thoughts from Indian scriptures 1. The Puruṣārtha (Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha) Concept: This ethical guideline speaks about the necessity to keep Dharma (Righteousness) as the foundation for every choice that is made. Artha stands for generation and sustenance of wealth, including monetary wealth. Kama is related to choices made regarding fulfillment of desires, and Moksha is about spiritual fulfillment. Exploration related to Artha and Kama has to be done within the contexts of Dharma and Moksha. Moksha is considered the supreme goal. These four are considered to be Purushaartha. 2. Paropakaaraartham Idam Shareeram: The body is meant for the service of the noblest ideas and to contribute to the well-being of all. 3. Atmano Mokshartham Jagat Hitayacha: The actions one perform in achieving one's liberation/ fulfillment has to be done in the context of the well-being of the world. Bank regulations and the free market One argument against regulating banks is that the regulations would violate the proper functioning of the free market economy. Severyn T. Bruyn suggested that the extreme disconnection between market actions and morals was never the intent of the market economy's founding thinkers, specifically Adam Smith and that putting standards and regulations in place that rest on the basic morals of society should not conflict with the free market, but are actually an important part of the proper functioning of the free market. Rudolf Steiner suggested that capitalism has the task of funding economic initiatives; capital should be directed into directions productive for society. He proposed that rather than prices being set through either the total control of government regulation, or the total lack of control of a free market, each industry could have self-regulating associations of producers, wholesale and retail businesses, and consumers. These associations would determine prices fair to all three groups. The state would not interfere with purely economic decisions but would be responsible for protecting human rights (this could include a minimum wage and safety in the workplace) and equality of its citizens' rights. (See Steiner's Threefold Social Order.) Differences from credit unions Credit unions are not banks but they offer many of the same services as banks (e.g. investment opportunities, commercial and business loans, checking & savings accounts, etc.). Credit unions are member-owned rather than shareholder-owned. This gives each member more influence in the decision-making process. When a credit union has surplus, the profits made will either be invested into the community or will go back to the members in the form of "patronage rebates" (i.e. cheques). Credit unions focus on the members because they are also the owners, and on the communities in which they are situated. Credit unions put a higher focus on local community development than banks do. Most credit unions lend strictly to people and businesses in the community where the union is located. This fact leads credit unions to affect communities more positively than regular banks. However, credit unions do not necessarily have the same potential to cause widespread change in business practices as ethical banks do. This is because credit unions largely avoid the problem of funding unethical corporate/business activities by focusing on funding local businesses, which are easier to monitor and arguably less capable of generating wide-reaching social and environmental benefit. Alliances and networks Global Alliance for Banking on Values The Global Alliance for Banking on Values (GABV) is a membership organization founded in March 2009 by BRAC Bank in Bangladesh, GLS Bank in Germany, ShoreBank in the US, and Triodos Bank in the Netherlands. It is currently made up of 27 of the world’s leading sustainable banks, from Asia, Africa, Latin America to North America and Europe. See also Carbon Disclosure Project Climate ethics Corporate social responsibility Equator Principles Socially responsible investing References Further reading Ben Cohen and Mal Warwick, Values-Driven Business, Christopher J. Cowton & Paul Thompson, "Do Codes Make a Difference? The Case of Bank Lending and the Environment", Journal of Business Ethics, v.24, n.2 (March 2000) Clark Schultz, "What is the Meaning of Green Banking", Green Bank Report Paul Thompson & Christopher J. Cowton, "Bringing the Environment into Bank Lending: Implications for Environmental Reporting", British Accounting Review, v.36, n.2, pp. 197–218 (June 2004). San-José, L. de al. (2011). Are ethical banks different? A comparative analysis using the radical affinity, Journal of Business Ethics External links FEBEA, European Federation of Ethical and Alternative Banks INAISE, International Association of Investors in the Social Economy GABV, Global Alliance for Banking on Values "At Estonia's Bank Of Happiness, Kindness Is The Currency," National Public Radio, July 18, 2013.	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Tegmen A tegmen (plural: tegmina) designates the modified leathery front wing on an insect particularly in the orders Dermaptera (earwigs), Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets and similar families), Mantodea (praying mantis), Phasmatodea (stick and leaf insects) and Blattodea (cockroaches). It is also a term used in botany to describe the delicate inner protective layer of a seed, and in zoology to describe a stiff membrane on the upper surface of the crown of a crinoid. In vertebrate anatomy it denotes a plate of thin bone forming the roof of the middle ear. The nature of tegmina The term tegmen refers to a miscellaneous and arbitrary group of organs in various orders of insects; they certainly are homologous in the sense that they all are derived from insect forewings, but in other senses they are analogous; for example, the evolutionary development of the short elytra of the Dermaptera shared none of the history of the development of tegmina in the Orthoptera, say. Also, in some other insects fore- and hindwings differ both in texture and their role in flight, but are not universally regarded as tegmina. For example, the hemelytra of some Hemiptera have been called tegmina by some authorities, but not by most modern authors. Entomologists do not customarily refer to the forewing of a beetle as a tegmen; the term for beetles' forewings is elytra. The function of tegmina Probably the major role of tegmina in general is that of protecting the hindwings when folded. In many insects they also are important in camouflage and in displays, especially defensive display, where the tegmina are drab, but cover aposematic displays that are startling when suddenly uncovered. Sometimes, as in some mantids, the tegmina crossed over the back are not striking, but when suddenly raised, act as a threatening display resembling a pair of eyes. Tegmina do not play a major active, flapping role in flying, though they are aerodynamically significant in insects such as migratory locusts that fly vigorously for long distances. This is probably the main justification for distinguishing between say, the forewings of cockroaches, which are called tegmina, and the forewings of some Neuroptera, which though stiffer than the rear wings, are flapped in flight. Tegmina and sound Tegmina, generally being stiffer than the rear wings, are used as sound boards by many species of insects, especially Orthoptera; in many locusts they make a crackling noise in flight, and in many crickets, tree crickets, and even mole crickets, the tegmina have undergone marked anatomical adaptations, often asymmetric, for sound production. References Category:Insect anatomy he:כנפי חפיה	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Rustam Sosranov Rustam Ruslanovich Sosranov (; born 23 July 1994) is a Russian football player. He plays for FC Olimp Khimki. Club career He made his debut in the Russian Second Division for FC Gubkin on 29 April 2012 in a game against FC Podolye Podolsky district. He made his Russian Football National League debut for FC Baltika Kaliningrad on 12 March 2016 in a game against PFC Sokol Saratov. References External links Profile on sportbox.ru Category:1994 births Category:Sportspeople from Vladikavkaz Category:Living people Category:Russian footballers Category:Association football midfielders Category:Russian expatriate footballers Category:Expatriate footballers in Belarus Category:Expatriate footballers in Latvia Category:FC Minsk players Category:FK Jelgava players Category:FC Baltika Kaliningrad players Category:FC Spartak Vladikavkaz players Category:FC SKA Rostov-on-Don players	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Barzillai Lew Barzillai Lew (November 5, 1743 January 18, 1822) was an African-American soldier who served with distinction during the American Revolutionary War. Family history Barzillai Lew's story began with Primus Lew of Groton, Massachusetts (a former servant of Captain Matthew Bonner), and Margret Lew (a former servant of Samuel Scripture). As free blacks, Primus and Margret Lew married in 1742 and they had two sons and two daughters. Primus served as a musician in the French and Indian War in 1747. In 1752, Primus married again to Rose Canterbury and bought a farm on the west side of the Nashua River in the Pepperell section of Groton, Massachusetts and they had two children. Primus and Margret Lew's oldest son Barzillai (pronounced BAR-zeal-ya) often called "Zeal" or "Zelah," was born a free black in Groton, Massachusetts November 5, 1743. Following in his father’s footsteps, Barzillai Lew was a fifer in Captain Thomas Farrington’s Company from Groton, which marched northward for “the total reduction of Canada." From March 10, 1760 to December 1, 1760, he served with the English forces against the French and Indians and was probably present in the capture of Montreal by the British. Lew was known as "big and strong with an extraordinary talent as a musician." In the mid-1760s, Lew sold his family farm in the Pepperell section of Groton and moved to Chelmsford, Massachusetts where he worked as a cooper making barrels. About 1766, he bought the freedom of Dinah Bowman (1744–1837) from Major Abraham Blood for 400 pounds (today's value about $28,000) and married her. She was fair skinned and described as "bleached by the sun." American Revolutionary War Bunker Hill At the opening of the American Revolution, Lew's skills and talents were called upon again, and on May 6, 1775, he enlisted in Captain John Ford's Company, 27th Regiment, Chelmsford, Massachusetts. As soldier, fifer and drummer, Lew fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775. In the military records, Lew is described as "cooper by trade, and quite dark-colored, a large man, six feet tall." Bunker Hill was one of the most important battles in the American Revolution; inexperienced colonial forces fought a highly trained army of British soldiers. Less well-known were the approximately three dozen African-American soldiers including Lew, Phillip Abbot, Alexander Ames, Isaiah Bayoman, Cuff Blanchard, Titus Coburn, Grant Cooper, Caesar Dickenson, Charlestown Eaads, Alexander Eames, Asaba Grosvenor, Blaney Grusha, Jude Hall, Cuff Haynes, Cato Howe, Caesar Jahar, Pompy of Braintree, Salem Poor, Caesar Post, Job Potama, Robin of Sandowne, New Hampshire, Peter Salem, Seasor of York County, Sampson Talbot, Cato Tufts, and Cuff Whitemore, who also took part in the battle. During the bloodiest battle of the war, the British lost 226 troops, with another 828 wounded. The Colonists/Americans counted 140 dead, 301 wounded, and 30 captured. It was said that during the battle, Lew kept American morale high with his fife version of "There's Nothing Makes the British Run like 'Yankee Doodle Dandy.'" The powder horn used by Barzillai Lew in the Revolutionary War is now in collections of the DuSable Museum of African American History in Chicago, Illinois; it was donated by Gerard Lew, the great-great-grandson of Barzillai Lew and a co-founder of the DuSable Museum. Fort Ticonderoga and Burgoyne's surrender In 1777, on his return home to Chelmsford, Lew joined Captain Joseph Bradley Varnum's company of volunteers, Dracut, Massachusetts. In September 1777, Varnum's militia was ordered to Fort Ticonderoga and the company marched to reinforce the Northern army. Joseph Bradley Varnum’s son John wrote in his Journal on November 1, 1777. "Jona Parkhurst came home from ye Army, brings word that all is well. Zeal is selected for a fifer and fiddler for the grand appearance the day that Burgoyne's Famous Army is to be brought in. A Wonderful Show, a day that our hearts should be employed to speak & live to the praise of God." This 'wonderful show' was the surrender of British General John Burgoyne to American General Horatio Gates at Saratoga, after the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777). During the American Revolution, African Americans from Massachusetts served as freemen or as slaves with their masters in many local militias. African Americans in the Continental Army General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief, excluded African Americans from serving in the Continental Army, until finally on January 2, 1778, Washington responded to a letter from General James Mitchell Varnum (born in Dracut, Massachusetts and brother of Joseph Bradley Varnum) recommending that Rhode Island's troop quota should be completed with blacks. Washington urged Rhode Island Governor Nicholas Cooke to give the recruiting officers every assistance. In February, the Rhode Island legislature approved the action — giving slaves their freedom in return for military service. The resulting black regiment, commanded by white Quaker Christopher Greene was the 1st Rhode Island Regiment also known as the Varnum Continentals. After the American Revolutionary War During the war, with wages earned from his years of service, the Lew family purchased a large tract of farmland on the far side of the Merrimack River in Dracut (now Lowell, Massachusetts.) They built a house near Varnum Avenue on Zeal Road named for Barzillai (now called Totman Road.) After the war, Lew returned to his farm in the Pawtucketville section of Dracut. In addition to farming, Lew continued to work as a cooper, making barrels for the Middlesex Canal Company. The Lews were both active members of their community and the Pawtucket Society Church (Congregational) on Mammoth Road. They raised 13 children, Zadock (1768) Amy (1771), Serviah (1773), Eucebea (1775), Barzillai II (1777), Peter (1779), Rufus (1780) – impressed at sea by the British in 1808, Eri (1782), Dinah II (1784), Zimri (1785), Phebe (1788), Lucy (1790) married Thomas Dalton, and Adrastus (1793). Barzillai, Dinah, and several of their sons and daughters sang and played wind and stringed instruments all over New England. They were noted throughout the 19th and 20th centuries as well-educated, skilled, and talented musicians. It was said "no family in Middlesex County from Lowell to Cambridge could produce so much good music." They formed a complete band in their family and were employed to play at assemblies in Portland, Maine, Boston, Massachusetts, other large cities and towns, as well as commencement exercises at several New England colleges. They kept an elegant coach and fine span of horses and came on the Sabbath to the Pawtucket Society Church in as much style as any family in the town of Dracut. Dinah Bowman Lew may have been the first African-American woman pianist in American history. Barzillai Lew died in Dracut on January 18, 1822, and was buried in Clay Pit Cemetery. Years later, Dinah Bowman Lew petitioned and received from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts a pension for her husband's military service in the American Revolution. Legacy After his death in 1822, Barzillai Lew's Pawtucketville farm went to his sons, Zadock and Zimri. Zadock, a well-known musician, died in 1826 without a will and his property was sold at auction. Zimri died in 1847 in a tragic train accident in Lowell on Fast Day. A few years earlier in 1844, Zimri's son, Adrastus, married Elizabeth Freeman of Derry, New Hampshire. They purchased and cleared a piece of woodland off Riverside Street and built a house which still stands on Mount Hope Street. In 1912, at the age of 91, Elizabeth Freeman Lew recounted in an interview with the Lowell Sun: "The house where I live was, one of the houses which in slavery times, formed one of the underground railroad where runaway slaves would come for shelter and protection on their way to Canada. Those were terrible times." Adrastus and Elizabeth Lew had five sons and one daughter. James, moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, formed a popular dance band, and served as the music advisor to the Cambridge School Committee. William and Fred opened a successful dry-cleaning and dyeing business in Lowell. In 1874, William married Isabell Delaney of Virginia and had four children: Harry, Theresa, Marion, and Gerard. After graduating from Pawtucketville Junior High School, Harry Lew entered the family's dry-cleaning and dyeing business. He was recruited to join Lowell’s Pawtucketville Athletic Club "P.A.C." of the New England Professional Basketball League and was the first to integrate professional basketball in 1902. Theresa Lew, graduated from Lowell High School as Class Salutatorian in 1912. After finishing Lowell Normal School, she taught at the Bartlett School for 25 years. Marion Lew, also graduated from Lowell High School and the Lowell Normal School music program, she taught piano to generations of Lowell children. Gerard Lew, also an outstanding athlete, graduated from Lowell High School and the University of Massachusetts Amherst, was interviewed by the Lowell Sunday-Telegram in June 1913, about his experiences teaching in a poor, rural, segregated school in Gloucester County, Virginia. In 1943, musician Duke Ellington wrote a piano piece in honor of Barzillai Lew. It is believed that Ellington learned about Barzillai Lew from his high school teacher, African-American historian Carter G. Woodson at the Armstrong Manual Training School, Washington, D.C.. See also Thomas Dalton, husband of Lucy Lew (Lew family member) Harry Lew (Lew family member) References External links Adams, Gretchen. "Deeds of Desperate Valor: The First Rhode Island Regiment." African American Registry Peter Salem Biography. Dracut's Oldest Burying Ground: A Forgotten History. Mayo, Martha. Profiles in Courage: African Americans in Lowell. Neil, William Cooper. The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution: With Sketches of Several Distinguished Colored Persons. Woodson, Carter Godwin. Find a grave memorial Category:African-American musicians Category:African Americans in the American Revolution Category:African-American military personnel Category:Massachusetts militiamen in the American Revolution Category:People from Dracut, Massachusetts Category:1743 births Category:1822 deaths Category:People from Groton, Massachusetts Category:African-American history of Massachusetts Category:People of colonial Massachusetts	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Emily Roebling Cadwalader This article is about the socialite and philanthropist Emily Roebling Cadwalader; for the engineer, see Emily Warren Roebling. Emily Margaretta Roebling Cadwalader (September 9, 1879 – May 15, 1941) was an American socialite and philanthropist, based in Philadelphia. She is best known as the owner of two historic yachts, the USS Sequoia and the MV Savarona. Early life Emily Roebling was born in 1879, the daughter of Charles Gustavus Roebling and Sarah (or Sallie) Ormsby Mahon Roebling. Her father was an engineer, president of John A. Roebling's Sons, a steel wire and cable company. Her Prussian-born grandfather, John Augustus Roebling, was best known as the civil engineer behind the Brooklyn Bridge. Roebling was raised in Trenton, New Jersey. In 1905 she rescued her father's stable of horses during a fire, and assisted firefighters in their work. In 1908 she unveiled the bronze statue of her grandfather in Trenton. She was an avid tennis player and horsewoman, and was considered one of the first women in Trenton to drive her own automobile. Wealth and philanthropy Blind education Roebling took an interest in blind education in New Jersey, and was appointed to a commission to study the needs of blind residents of the state before she married and moved to Philadelphia. As part of that work, she organized an exhibit of work by blind crafters of New Jersey, including handmade lace, crochet, and knit items, at Atlantic City in 1909. She was also editor-in-chief of the newspaper for the 1908 Charity Fair in Trenton. Fairwold After marriage, Cadwalader lived part-time in Fort Washington, Pennsylvania, in a house known as Fairwold. They expanded the house significantly, adding a ballroom, a pipe organ, and a solarium among other features. Fairwold was used as a convalescent hospital during World War I, while the Cadwaladers lived in their Philadelphia townhouse. Since 1995, Fairwold has been a synagogue of the congregation Or Hadash. Yachts Cadwalader had a longtime interest in yachts. Her first yacht, purchased in 1924, was the 85-foot Sequoia. The following year she acquired the Sequoia II. The USS Sequoia became property of the United States government in 1931, and was used by presidents from Herbert Hoover to Gerald Ford. President Jimmy Carter ordered the Sequoia to be sold in 1977. As of autumn 2019, it was being restored in Belfast. Cadwalader was the original owner of three German-made yachts named Savarona, purchased in 1926, 1928, and 1930. The last Savarona, at the time, was the "largest, most luxurious, most expensive private yacht ever created". In 1937 the yacht was a factor in charges of tax fraud against the Cadwaladers. The Cadwaladers sold the 440-foot yacht to Turkish president Kemal Atatürk in 1938. The yacht remains in Istanbul and was restored in the 1990s; it is still considered "one of the world's largest yachts". After a scandal in 2010, the Turkish Cultural Ministry purchased the Savarona, and it is now used by the Turkish president for hosting state events. Personal life Emily Roebling married banker Richard M. Cadwalader Jr., the grandson of Thomas McCall Cadwalader, in 1909. She died at her home in Fort Washington in 1941, aged 59 years. References External links Category:1879 births Category:1941 deaths Category:People from Trenton, New Jersey Category:Socialites	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Music (Carole King album) Music is the third album by American singer-songwriter Carole King. It is a continuation of the style laid down in Tapestry. The album was released in December 1971 and quickly rose to the top of the charts. It features songs such as "It's Going to Take Some Time" (US No. 12 by The Carpenters), "Sweet Seasons," a No. 9 hit for Carole King, and "Brother, Brother". While not as groundbreaking or as successful as King's Tapestry album, Carole King: Music experienced immediate success and was certified gold on December 9, 1971, days after release. It was certified platinum on July 17, 1995. The album reportedly sold 1,300,000 copies in the United States on the day of its release. However, platinum status for albums (one million units sold), wasn't created by the RIAA until 1976. Music entered the top ten at No. 8, becoming the first of many weeks both Tapestry and Carole King: Music would occupy the top ten simultaneously. The album hit No. 1 on New Year's Day 1972 and stayed there for three consecutive weeks. King plays the piano and celeste on many tracks. Track listing All songs written by Carole King, except where noted. Side one "Brother, Brother" – 3:00 "It's Going to Take Some Time" (King, Toni Stern) – 3:35 "Sweet Seasons" (King, Stern) – 3:15 "Some Kind of Wonderful" (King, Gerry Goffin) – 3:07 "Surely" – 4:58 "Carry Your Load" – 2:52 Side two "Music" – 3:50 "Song of Long Ago" – 2:44 "Brighter" – 2:46 "Growing Away from Me" – 3:03 "Too Much Rain" (King, Stern) – 3:35 "Back to California" – 3:23 Personnel Carole King – Vocals, piano, electric piano, electric celeste, backing vocals Ralph Schuckett – organ, electric piano, electric celeste Danny Kortchmar – acoustic and electric guitars, backing vocals James Taylor – acoustic guitar, backing vocals Charles Larkey – electric and acoustic bass guitar Joel O'Brien, Russ Kunkel – drums Ms. Bobbye Hall – congas, bongos, tambourine Teresa Calderon – congas Curtis Amy – tenor saxophone, flute Oscar Brashear – flugelhorn William Green – woodwind, flute, saxophone William Collette – woodwind, flute, saxophone Ernest Watts – woodwind, flute, saxophone Plas Johnson – woodwind, flute, saxophone Mike Altschul – woodwind, flute, saxophone Abigale Haness – backing vocals Merry Clayton – backing vocals Production Lou Adler – producer Hank Cicalo – engineer Norm Kinney – assistant engineer Roland Young – art direction Chuck Beeson – design Jim McCrary – photography Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References Category:1971 albums Category:Carole King albums Category:Epic Records albums Category:Albums produced by Lou Adler Category:Ode Records albums	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
1956 Anjar earthquake The 1956 Anjar earthquake occurred at 15:32 UTC on 21 July, causing maximum damage in town of Anjar in Kutch, Gujarat, India. It had an estimated magnitude of 6.1 on the surface wave magnitude scale and a maximum perceived intensity of IX on the Mercalli intensity scale. Earthquake The epicenter of earthquake of 21 July 1956 was at somewhere between Anjar and Bhadresar, very close to that of 1819 Kutch earthquake, between 50 and 120 km away depending on the epicentral location chosen for the earlier event. It caused considerable damage and casualties, especially in and around town of Anjar, India. The area of maximum damage was of 2000 km2 and radius of perceptibility was 300 km. The cause of earthquake was reverse faulting, similar to that which caused the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake. Damage The town of Anjar and the Taluka of Anjar were the most affected region with 2000 houses damaged, of which half of them were in Anjar town alone. The other towns affected were Bhuj, Kera, Bhachau, Gandhidham and port town of Kandla. At least 115 people were reported to have died and casualties numbered to 254 as per government records. It was estimated that more than 3,000 houses in 25 villages developed huge cracks, losses ran up to 10 million. Such devastation wreaked by the quake made it one of the worst calamity to hit Kutch in the past 100 years. More than 8,000 people migrated from the district a few days after the quake. The earthquake was followed by heavy rains, which added to the misery of thousands living in temporary camps. Anjar, which is a historic town and very congested in the old parts was largely destroyed in this earthquake of 1956. Later, new houses were raised on old foundations, and in due course of time also the new township of Naya Anjar or New Anjar township was founded after this earthquake for rehabilitation purpose. The railway track near Anjar was damaged as the earth gave way over a length of nearly 50 feet, however, other major railway lines, roads, bridges, culverts, were not affected by this earthquake. Other events The next major earthquake in the region was of 26 January 2001, which again was due to a similar style of faulting as the 1819 earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 1956 List of earthquakes in India References External links 1956 Category:1956 earthquakes Category:July 1956 events Category:Kutch district Category:History of Gujarat (1947–present) Category:Disasters in Gujarat Category:1956 in India Category:History of Kutch 1956	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
St Ann's, London St Ann's is a neighbourhood in Tottenham, north London, England, in the London Borough of Haringey. It is located to the east of Harringay and West Green and is within, but distinct from, St Ann's ward. Location St Ann's extends from Chestnuts Park in the west to Seven Sisters Road in the east. To the south, its boundary is defined by the London Overground railway line. History St. Ann's Church was built in a rural setting in the middle of the nineteenth century and consecrated in 1861. A hamlet soon began to grow up around the church. However, it was quickly swallowed up by the northward march of London. By the mid-1890s, it could no longer be distinguished as a separate hamlet. Education For details of education in St Ann's, see the London Borough of Haringey article. Nearest places South Tottenham West Green Seven Sisters Stamford Hill Harringay Transport Nearest tube and rail stations Seven Sisters tube and railway station South Tottenham railway station Stamford Hill railway station Harringay Green Lanes railway station References Category:Districts of the London Borough of Haringey Category:Areas of London	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Burjanadze-Democrats The Burjanadze-Democrats was an election bloc in the republic of Georgia in 2003. They were led by and named after Nino Burjanadze. Other famous members of this bloc included the late Zurab Zhvania, Gigi Tsereteli, and Eldar Shengelaia. Burjanadze now leads the Democratic Movement–United Georgia. Category:Politics of Georgia (country) Category:2003 establishments in Georgia (country)	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Bassarona durga Bassarona durga, the blue duke, is a species of nymphalid butterfly found in the Himalayas. Range It is found in Sikkim, Abor Hills and Nagaland. References Durga Category:Butterflies of Asia Category:Fauna of the Himalayas Category:Butterflies of India Category:Insects of Bhutan Category:Insects of Nepal Category:Fauna of Tibet Category:Butterflies described in 1857	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Danna Paola Danna Paola Rivera Munguía (born 23 June 1995), better known as Danna Paola, is a Mexican actress, singer and model. She gained popularity as a child actress and singer, starring in dozens of television projects throughout her early childhood and adolescence. Early life Danna Paola was born and raised in Mexico City, Mexico. She is the daughter of Patricia Munguía and Juan José Rivera Arellano, the former singer of Grupo Ciclón and Los Caminantes. Her parents divorced during her childhood. She has an older sister, Vania. Acting career 1999–2003: Early career Danna Paola's acting career began in 1999 when at age 4 she and her sister attended Televisa's casting call in Mexico City for Plaza Sésamo, the Mexican version of Sesame Street. Both were later cast on the show and appeared in several episodes. One year later at age 5, she was cast in the telenovela, Rayito de Luz, in 2000. In 2001, she received her first lead role in the children's telenovela, María Belén. The same year, she released her debut album, titled Mi Globo Azul. 2004–2012: Breakout success In 2004, she was chosen as the lead in the successful children's series, Amy, la niña de la mochila azul. Her second studio album, Océano, soon followed. A year later, she was the female lead of Pablo y Andrea, the television adaptation of the classic novel, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. Over the next several years, she earned parts in multiple television series produced by Televisa. In 2009, she was cast as "Patito" in Atrévete a Soñar, the Mexican remake of the popular Argentine children's telenovela, Patito Feo. Danna Paola filmed two seasons of the show and production was concluded in late 2009. Atrévete a Soñar marked Paola's transition from children's to tween telenovelas. Paola and the cast of the telenovela recorded two soundtracks and toured across Mexico, in order to promote the show. The telenovela and its soundtrack were commercially successful throughout Mexico and Latin America. The soundtrack was certified double platinum in Mexico. In late 2010, she voiced "Rapunzel" for the Latin American Spanish-language dubbing of the Disney film"Tangled" and participated in the film's Spanish-language soundtrack. 2013–2015: Wicked and other projects In May 2013, Danna Paola auditioned for the first Spanish-language production of the successful Broadway musical, Wicked, in Mexico City. She auditioned for both Glinda and Elphaba, performing Popular and Defying Gravity. Later that same month, the final cast for the Mexican production was announced, with Paola cast as "Elphaba". The production opened in Mexico City at Teatro Telcel on 17 October 2013. Critics in Mexico, as well as the play's original composer, Stephen Schwartz, praised her performance. In addition to being well received by critics, the play was also a commercial success in Mexico City. During its first 10 weeks, "Wicked" sold over 100,000 tickets and had more than 100 performances; it broke a box office record making it one of the most successful theatre productions in Mexico's history. At the age of 18, Danna Paola was the youngest person to play the role of "Elphaba" in a professional theatre production. In January 2014, Danna Paola was cast in the movie, Saving Sara Cruz, a modern-day remake of the 1992 film, The Bodyguard. Production on the film never commenced and the project was later shelved. The film was to be Danna Paola's English-language debut. In March 2014, Danna, debuted as fashion designer collaborating with the popular Mexican clothing brand, "Sexy Jeans". Her line, "Danna Paola, by SexyJns", was commercially successful with products selling out across Mexico. In August 2014, Danna participated in the ABBA tribute album, "Dancing Queens", recording a cover of "Take A Chance On Me". "Take A Chance On Me" was released as single on 2 September 2014 and debuted at number 1 on iTunes México. On 29 October 2014, she performed "No hay bien", the Spanish-language version of "No Good Deed", to a sold-out crowd at the Auditorio Nacional for the Lunas del Auditorio award show. That night, Wicked received an award in the "Broadway Show" category. Danna Paola appeared in over 300 performances of Wicked from 2013 to early 2015. Following the conclusion of "Wicked", she was invited by producer Alex Gou, to join the cast of the musical, Hoy No Me Puedo Levantar, where she played the lead role of "Maria" and went on tour throughout Mexico. In July 2015, she signed a contract with the U.S. based Spanish-language network, Telemundo, marking her return to telenovelas after a nearly five-year absence. In August 2015, she recorded the duet, "Mientras Me Enamoras" with Mexican singer, Lalo Brito. A music video was also filmed, and it premiered on Brito's YouTube channel in September 2015. During the summer of 2015, Paola moved to Miami to film the telenovela drama, ¿Quién es quién?. The project is her first telenovela role outside of Televisa. Filming for the program concluded in September 2015. ¿Quién es quién? began airing weeknights in the U.S. on Telemundo on 9 February 2016. 2016 to present In early 2016, Paola filmed in the Mexican movie, ¡Como va! Lo más sencillo es complicarlo todo (later renamed Lo Más Sencillo Es Complicarlo Todo), on location in Mexico City, Puerto Vallarta, and Querétaro. The movie was released in Mexican cinemas on 26 January 2018. In mid-April 2016, she was confirmed as a cast member in the telenovela drama, La Doña, produced by Telemundo. The telenovela filmed in Mexico with Aracely Arámbula and David Chocarro and premiered in November 2016. The finale aired on Telemundo in the U.S. on 1 May 2017. In 2017, Paola was cast in the Telemundo bio-series, José José: El príncipe de la canción, based on the life of Mexican singer José José. Paola played famed Mexican singer-songwriter, Lucero and appears in 4 episodes of the show. The miniseries premiered on Telemundo on 15 January 2018. In late January 2018, Paola was scheduled to begin filming a role in the bio series based on the life of Mexican actress, Silva Pinal. She later dropped out before filming began and instead revealed that she was cast in the Netflix original Spanish teen thriller television series, Élite. Production for the television show forced Paola to move to Madrid for six months starting in January 2018. She was cast in the program following a long audition process in 2017. The show has 8 episodes shot in 4K and it premiered globally on Netflix in October 2018. In 2019, Paola was cast as a judge on the singing-competition series La Academia for TV Azteca. Endorsements In mid-January 2016, Paola was revealed as the new face of L'Oreal Paris's "Casting Crème Gloss" hair color line for the Latinamerican market. The line is a collaboration between L'Oreal's Excellence and Preference lines. As part of the promotion, Paola dyed her hair and appeared in print and television ads for the brand. Music career Debut studio album as solo singer (2011 to 2013) In 2011, she began the production for her fourth solo studio album which also served as her debut album as a "grown-up" solo recording artist. Her previous discography included songs for telenovelas, children's music, and film soundtracks. She revealed that she wanted her new album to reflect her growth as an artist and shed her image as a child actress. "Ruleta", written by Mexican pop singer, Paty Cantú, was announced as the album's lead single. The official music video premiered on Paola's official VEVO channel on 14 March 2012. The single rose to number 32 on the Top Mexican Airplay charts in July 2012. Upcoming second studio album (2016 to present) In-mid February 2016, she announced that her upcoming single, "Baila hasta caer", would be released in March for radio and digital download. The song was recorded in Miami sometime during the filming of her telenovela, ¿Quién es quién?. As part of the 2018 film release for "Lo Más Sencillo Es Complicarlo Todo", she released the single, "¿Dónde estabas tú?" in November 2017. Her latest single, "Oye Pablo" was released on 29 August 2019. Filmography Theatre Discography Studio albums 2001: Mi globo azul 2004: Océano 2005: Chiquita pero picosa 2012: Danna Paola 2020: SIE7E + EPs 2007: Danna Paola 2019: SIE7E Compilations 2004: Lo mejor de Amy, la niña de la mochila azul 2009: Atrévete a soñar 1.5 Live albums 2010: Atrévete a soñar: El concierto Soundtracks 2003: Regina: Un Musical Para Una Nación Que Despierta (musical) 2004: Amy, la niña de la mochila azul – Vol. 1 and 2 (telenovela soundtrack) 2004: Anita la Huerfanita – El Musical (musical) 2005: Mensajero de Paz 2006: Pablo y Andrea (telenovela soundtrack) 2009: Atrévete a soñar / Atrévete a soñar 2 (telenovela soundtrack) 2010: Tangled (film soundtrack) Guest performances 2014: Take A Chance On Me (from Dancing Queens: Un Tributo A Abba) 2015: "Mientras Me Enamoras" (Lalo Brito featuring Danna Paola) References External links Official website Talent Agency Profile Category:1995 births Category:Living people Category:Mexican child actresses Category:Mexican film actresses Category:Mexican stage actresses Category:Mexican television actresses Category:Mexican telenovela actresses Category:Mexican voice actresses Category:Mexican child singers Category:Mexican female child singers Category:Latin pop singers Category:Child pop musicians Category:Actresses from Mexico City Category:Singers from Mexico City Category:Universal Music Latin Entertainment artists Category:Mexican female pop singers Category:21st-century Mexican singers Category:21st-century women singers	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Trinidad Tarrosa-Subido Trinidad Tarrosa-Subido (1912, Shanghai, China – 1994) was a Filipino linguist and poet. Biography Trinidad Tarrosa-Subido was born in Socorro oriental mindoro, where her father worked as a star . After her father's death, she and her mother returned to Manila in 1917. She graduated from Manila East High School, and in 1929, she took the civil service examination in order to work in the Bureau of Education, and passed it with a grade of 97 percent, the highest then on record. She enrolled as a working student at the University of the Philippines Manila in 1932 and met her husband Abelardo Subido. She became a member of the UP Writers Club and contributed her sonnets. She got married in 1936 and graduated magna cum laude the following year. She then began to work at the Institute of National Language. In 1940, she published Tagalog Phonetics and Orthography, which she co-authored with Virginia Gamboa-Mendoza. In 1945, she and her husband published poems titled Three Voices, with an introduction by Salvador P. Lopez. After the war, the Subidos put up a daily newspaper, The Manila Post, which closed in 1947 and made her a freelance writer. She then became editor of Kislap-Graphic and Philippine Home Economics Journal. She retired in 1971, and in 1984, she was invited by the Women in Media Now to write the introduction to Filipina I, the first anthology consisting of works made exclusively by Filipino women. She was honored in 1991 by the Unyon ng Mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas (UMPIL). She died in 1994. In 2002, her family published a manuscript Tarrosa-Subido had been working on at the time of her death. Titled Private Edition: Sonnets and Other Poems (Milestone Publication), the retrospective volume contains 89 poems, a few of them revised and retitled versions of the originals. One of them is "To My Native Land". Category:Linguists from the Philippines Category:People from Oriental Mindoro Category:Filipino journalists Category:20th-century Filipino poets Category:Tagalog-language writers Category:1912 births Category:1994 deaths Category:Filipino women poets Category:20th-century Filipino women writers Category:20th-century journalists Category:Filipino translators Category:1936 births Category:Filipino historians Category:20th-century historians Category:University of the Philippines Manila alumni Category:20th-century translators Category:Women historians	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Dundrennan Range Dundrennan Range is a weapons testing range on the Solway Firth, near Kirkcudbright in Dumfries and Galloway, in south west Scotland. It is part of the Kirkcudbright Training Area, of farming land acquired by the British Army in 1942 to train forces for the invasion of mainland Europe. The area includes a sea danger area. The range takes its name from the nearby village of Dundrennan. The range is the site of the Electro-Magnetic Launch Facility where, since 1993, the Ministry of Defence and the United States Army have been collaborating on a research project aimed at developing an electro-magnetic launcher, or railgun. The project was expected to continue until at least 2009. In March 2018, the Ministry of Defence indicated that it was at the very early stages of plans to develop and enhance the training facilities at Dundrennan. References External links Public Information Leaflet from the Army Training Estate MOD lied over Depleted Uranium from the Sunday Herald, 29 February 2004 Concern over 'supergun' tests at bbc.co.uk Dundrennan Range from www.secretscotland.org.uk Category:Buildings and structures in Dumfries and Galloway Category:Military of Scotland Category:Weapons test sites Category:Solway Firth	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Wayne Rhoden Wayne Rhoden is a music producer, singer and songwriter who is professionally known as the artist Father Goose Music, and is a Grammy-winner with “Dan Zanes and Friends” and is also known as Rankin Don and Don Chibaka. Biography Wayne Rhoden (Music), known professionally as Father Goose, is a Jamaican-born producer, singer, songwriter. He made a name for himself in the underground circuit in Jamaica and on the streets of Brooklyn, New York under the personas of Rankin Don and Don Chibaka. As Father Goose he performs children's music, Kindie rock, and reggae-fied nursery rhymes, often in the “Dan Zanes and Friends” ensemble, including in a series of Disney videos entitled “House Party Time.” Early life Wayne Rhoden was born in Jamaica to Joyce and James Rhoden and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. Like many musical artists, his debut performance occurred at a young age. He recalls that his first singing performance happened at the age of five, using his family and friends as his audience. On subsequent occasions he would serve as DJ for parties thrown by his parents. Later he performed in a PTA-hosted Ash Wednesday fundraising fair at his Ewarton grade school. He attended Erasmus High School in Brooklyn, New York, then went on to pursue a career in electrical engineering. But as fate would have it, he was drawn to his first love, music. Musical career In the 1980s as Rankin Don he recorded the hits Can’t Find Me Love and Baddest DJ and in the 90s the Real McCoy, Black Queen, and Green Card. He was later introduced to producers who urged him to record for the mainstream labels. He has performed at concerts with some of reggae's well-known artists including, Gregory Isaacs, Andre, Sleepy Worder, Lloyd D Stiff, and Blacka Ranks; Grammy nominees Beres Hammond and Freddie McGregor; and past Grammy winners Shabba Ranks, Shaggy, and Beenie Man. His relationship with musician Dan Zanes was initiated by his mother, who while working for Zanes, suggested that he should meet her son and check out his talent. In the 2000s as Father Goose he was featured on several Dan Zanes albums such as Rocket Ship Beach and Catch That Train! and also released three of his own albums: Color with Father Goose, It’s a Bam Bam Diddly, and Bashment Time. In 2008 as Don Chibaka he gave his performance on the Etcetera single Dance Like That (Remix) featuring Richie Stephens and Kevin Lyttle. Personal life Rhoden is the father of two. He lives in Brooklyn with his wife and his son (Little Goose) who also sings and performs in his father's band. In 2007, Rhoden discovered he had kidney failure. He received a kidney in December 2015 after eight years on dialysis, twice on life support and other complications. The kidney transplant was successful: he has made a full recovery and is currently still performing and hosting music workshops for children. Discography Rankin Don 1989 One In A Million feat: Jerry Chapter 1990 Can't Find Mi Love feat: King Ledgi 1990 Whip Appeal feat: King Ledgi 1992 Baddest DJ 1994 Black Queen feat: Singing Singing 1996 Real McCoy 1996 The Big Race feat: Shelene Thomas, Round Head, Screechy Dan, General B, Baja Jedd 1997 Green Card feat: Mad Tempa 2004 More To Me feat: 'Coolie Ranx' 2004 You Are My Girl 2004 Big O feat: King Ledgi 2004 She She Remix feat: Little Lenny, Ricky 10 2004 Push Up On Me feat: Snypah 2004 Chance Remix feat: Fyona Sanderson 2004 It ain't over feat: Mad Lion 2004 Give me one more chance feat: Wayne Smith, King Ledgi 2013 You're My Girl 2013 You Mate 2013 Marlena 2013 Praise to Jah 2014 God & Me Don Chibaka 2008 Dance Like That (Remix) feat: Etcetera, Richie Stephens, Kevin Lyttle Father Goose Music 2000 Rocket Ship Beach 2001 Family Dance 2002 Night Time! 2003 House Party (Grammy nominated, for Best Children's Album) 2003 Color with Father Goose 2005 All Around the Kitchen! 2006 Catch That Train! (Grammy Award Winning Album) 2007 It's a Bam Bam Diddly (Parents' Choice Award Winning Album and also nominated for The 8th Independent Music Award for Best Children's Album & also on the Grammy Ballot, for Best Children's Album) 2008 The Welcome Table 2009 76 Trombones 2011 Little Nut Tree 2013 Swing Low "Bear Hunt!" 2013 I love U "Bear Hunt!" 2014 Get Loose and Get Together!: The Best of Dan Zanes 2014 Bashment Time 2015 I Love u (JZ Remix) "Rocksteady" 2016 Dance to the Reggae Rhythm, Aaron Nigel Smith album "One" 2016 Father Goose 7 2016 Irie Christmas feat. Dan Zanes, Sonia De Los Santos, Kate Ferber & Danger D. 2017 Father Goose Music "Friday" feat. Little Goose, Elena Moon Park, Yami Bolo, Itimo 2017 Father Goose Music "Friday Da Remix" 2017 Father Goose Music "In The Mirror" 2017 Father Goose Music "I Wanna Love U" Featuring Josh and the Jamtones, Aaron Nigel Smith, Little Goose, Itimo 2017 Dan Zanes Lead Belly Baby "Polly Wee" also feat. Little Goose (Independent Music Award winner for Best Children's Album) 2018 Father Goose Music "I Have A Dream" feat. Itimo 2018 Free Bubbles by Mista Cookie Jar 2018 King Of The Dance Party (61st Annual GRAMMY® Awards Ballot also nominated for The 17th Independent Music Award) 2018 Rising Star (feat. Mikayla & Itimo) 2019 La Bamba 2019 I Can Make it (EP) 2019 Rise Up Now (62st Annual GRAMMY® Awards Ballot) 2019 I'm A Gamer by Irie Goose Awards and nominations 2004 Parents' Choice Award Audio: Music What Is It? Musical Math & Science 2006 49th Annual Grammy Awards (with Dan Zanes and Friends), Best Musical Album for Children, Catch That Train! 2008 Parents' Choice Award Audio: Music It’s A Bam Bam Diddly 2008 Independent Music Awards Nominee for Best Children's Album, It’s A Bam Bam Diddly 2019 Independent Music Awards Nominee for Best Children's Song, Nice To Meet U from the album King Of The Dance Party References External links Category:Living people Category:1966 births Category:American children's musicians Category:Private Music artists Category:Musicians from Brooklyn Category:Singers from New York City Category:Jamaican singer-songwriters Category:American male singers Category:Independent Music Awards winners Category:Jamaican reggae musicians Category:Jamaican ska musicians Category:American folk musicians Category:Jamaican male singers Category:Grammy Award winners	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Drest VI Drest (Drest mac Domnal or Drest mac Dúngail; died 677) was king of the Picts from 663 until 672. He succeeded his brother Gartnait IV on the latter's death in 662. The Pictish Chronicle king lists give him a reign of six or seven years. He is presumed to have been the leader of the failed Pictish Revolt against Ecgfrith of Northumbria in 671. The Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Tigernach for 671 record that he was deposed as king, presumably by Bridei. He died in 677. Notes References Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History A.D 500–1286, volume 1. Reprinted with corrections. Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990. External links CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork includes the Annals of Ulster, Tigernach, the Four Masters and Innisfallen, the Chronicon Scotorum, the Lebor Bretnach (which includes the Duan Albanach), Genealogies, and various Saints' Lives. Most are translated into English, or translations are in progress. Pictish Chronicle Category:7th-century births Category:677 deaths Category:Pictish monarchs Category:7th-century Scottish monarchs	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Shepard Siegel Shepard Siegel is a Canadian psychologist, having been a Distinguished University Professor at McMaster University. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and Society of Experimental Psychologists. References Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:Living people Category:McMaster University faculty Category:Canadian psychologists	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Miniature neutron source reactor The Chinese built Miniature Neutron Source reactor (MNSR) is a small and compact research reactor modeled on the Canadian HEU SLOWPOKE-2 design. The MNSR is tank-in-pool type, with highly enriched fuel (~ 90% U235 ). The tank is immersed in a large pool, and the core is, in turn, immersed in the tank. The maximum nominal power is ~ 30 kW, the power being removed by natural convection. The central core is formed of about 347 fuel rods, with 4 tie rods and 3 dummy elements distributed on a total of ten circles, each consisting of a number of fuel rods ranging between 6 and 62. A thick beryllium reflector (~ 10 cm) surrounds the core radially. China operates two MNSRs and has supplied Ghana, Iran, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria with reactors of this type as well as the highly enriched uranium (HEU) to fuel them. Since 1978, various national and international activities have been underway to convert research and test reactors from the use of HEU to LEU fuel. References See also Pool-type reactor Nuclear reactor Nuclear power Nuclear fission Nuclear power plant Research reactor Nuclear proliferation Category:Nuclear reactors Category:Neutron sources Category:Nuclear technology in Pakistan	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Briones Formation The Briones Formation is a Late/Upper Miocene epoch geologic formation of the East Bay region in the San Francisco Bay Area, California. It is found in western Contra Costa County. It preserves fossils dating back to the Late/Upper Miocene epoch of the Neogene period. See also List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in California Paleontology in California References Category:Miocene California Category:Geology of Contra Costa County, California Category:Geologic formations of California Category:Messinian Category:Tortonian Category:Miocene Series of North America	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
List of places in Highland (council area) See the list of places in Scotland for places in other counties. This article is a list of any town, village, hamlet or settlement, in the Highland council area of Scotland. The area encompassed by the Highland council is smaller than that encompassed by the Scottish Highlands. For the Scottish Gaelic equivalents of the place names in this list, see the appropriate section at List of Scottish Gaelic place names. A Aberarder, Aberchalder, Abriachan, Achachork, Achanalt Achandunie, Acharacle, Achany, Achaphubuil, Acharn, Achateny, Ach' An Todhair, Achentoul Achgarve, Achiemore (near Durness), Achiemore (Strath Halladale), A'Chill, Achiltibuie Achina, Achinahuagh, Achintee, Achintee, Achintraid, Achininver, Achinduich, Achingills, Achmore Achnabat, Achnacarnin, Achnacarry, Achnaconeran, Achnacloich, Achnagarron, Achnaha, Achnahanat, Achnahannet Achnasaul, Achnasheen, Achnashellach, Achriesgill, Ackergill Achosnich, Achuvoldrach, Achvarasdal, Achylyness, Achvaich Aigas, Aird of Sleat, Alcaig, Aldourie, An Ard, Ankerville Allanfearn, Allangrange Mains, Alligin, Alligin Shuas, Allt-na-h-Airbhe, Allt-nan-Sugh, Alness Altandhu, Altass, Altnaharra, Altrua, Alvie, Anaheilt, Anancaun, Annat Annishader, Applecross, Arabella, Ard-dhubh, Ardachu, Ardaneaskan, Ardarroch, Ardcharnich, Ardchronie, Ardclach Ardechive, Ardelve, Ardendrain, Ardersier, Ardery Ardessie, Ardgay, Ardindrean, Ardmair, Ardmolich, Ardmore Ardnagrask, Ardnastang, Ardross, Ardshealach, Ardtoe, Ardtornish Ardullie, Ardvannie, Ardvasar, Arisaig, Arivegaig Armadale (Skye), Armadale (Sutherland), Arnisdale, Arnish, Arnisort, Arpafeelie, Ashaig Attadale, Auchentoul, Auchindrean, Auchtertyre, Auckengill Aultbea, Aultgrishan, Aultiphurst, Aundorach Avielochan, Aviemore, Avoch __NOTOC__ B Back of Keppoch, Backies, Badachro, Badcall Badcaul, Badnaban, Badninish, Badluarach, Badrallach Badicaul, Balachuim, Balbeg, Balblair Balchladich, Balchraggan, Balchrick, Balgown Balintore, Balintraid, Ballachulish, Balleigh, Balloch Balmacara, Balmacara Square, Balmeanach (Raasay), Balmeanach (Skye) Balnabruich, Balnafoich, Balnain, Balnapaling, Balnacoil Balnacra, Balnakeil, Balvraid, Baramore Barbaraville, Barnyards, Bualintur, Beauly Beoraidbeg, Benavie, Berriedale, Bernisdale Bettyhill, Big Sand, Bishop Kinkell Blaich, Blairmore, Blarnalearoch, Boat of Garten Bogallan, Bogroy, Bohuntine Bonar Bridge, Borgue, Bornesketaig, Borreraig, Bottacks, Borve, Bower Bracadale, Branault, Brawl, Brae Brea of Achnahaird, Breckrey, Broadford, Brochel Brogaig, Brora, Broubster, Brough Bruan, Buldoo, Bunacaimb, Bunarkaig, Bunloit, Bunchrew __NOTOC__ C Camas Luinie, Camastianavaig, Camault Muir, Camore, Camuscross Camusnagaul, Camusteel, Camusterrach, Canisbay, Canna Cannich, Carbost (Loch Harport), Carbost (Portree) Carnach, Carrbridge, Castletown, Catlodge, Cawdor, Charlestown (Black Isle), Charlestown (Wester Ross) Clachtoll, Claigan Clashnessie, Cleadale, Clephanton, Clovullin, Clyth, Clunes Coille Mhorgil, Coillore, Colbost, Coldbackie, Conon Bridge Conordan, Contin, Corntown, Corpach, Corran (Lochaber), Corran (Skye and Lochalsh), Corriechatachan Corrimony, Corry, Coulags, Coylumbridge, Cove Craigton, Crask, Crask of Aigas Croftnacreich, Croick, Cromarty, Crosskirk, Croy Culbokie, Culburnie, Culcairn, Culcharry, Culduie Cullicudden, Culloden, Culkein, Culrain __NOTOC__ D Dalchalm, Dalchreichart, Dalelia Dalhalvaig, Dalnabreck, Dalnavert, Dalreavoch Dalwhinnie, Daviot, Delny, Digg, Dingwall Dochgarroch, Doll, Dornie, Dornoch, Dores Dorrery, Doune, Dounie, Dounreay, Drimnin, Droman, Druimarben, Druimindarroch Drumbeg, Drumbuie, Drumfearn Drumnadrochit, Drumuie, Drumuillie, Drynoch Duirinish (Lochalsh), Duirinish (Skye), Duisdalebeg, Duisdalemore, Duisky, Dulnain Bridge, Dunan Dunbeath, Duncanston, Dundonnell Dunnet, Dunnet Forest, Dunnet Head, Duntulm, Dunvegan, Durness, Duthil __NOTOC__ E Earlish, East Croachy, East Mey Easter Kinkell, Edderton, Edinbane Eilean Donan, Eilean Shona East Langwell, Elgol, Elishader Elphin, Embo, Erbusaig, Eriboll, Errogie, Essich, Etteridge, Evanton Evelix, Eynort, Eyre (Raasay), Eyre (Skye) __NOTOC__ F Fanagmore, Farr (Strathnairn), Farr (Sutherland), Fasach, Fassfern Feorlig, Fearn, Fearns, Ferindonald, Feriniquarrie, Ferness, Fersit Ferrindonald, Fisherton, Fiskavaig Fiunary, Flashader, Flodigarry, Fodderty, Foindle, Forse, Forss Fort Augustus, Fort George, Fort William Forsinard, Fortrose, Foyers, Fresgoe, Freswick __NOTOC__ G Galltair, Galtrigill, Garafad, Garros Gartymore, Garve, Gairloch, Gairlochy, Galmisdale Geary, Gedintailor, Gillen, Gills Glaichbea, Glame, Glasphein, Glen Affric Glenancross, Glenborrodale, Glencoe, Glendale Glenfinnan, Glenelg, Glengrasco, Glenmore, Glenuig Golspie, Gorstan, Gorthleck, Grudie, Gruids __NOTOC__ H Halcro, Halistra, Halkirk, Hallin, Ham, Harlosh, Harrapool, Haster Heaste, Helmsdale, Heights of Kinlochewe, Highbridge, Hill of Fearn Hilton, Hilton of Cadboll, Houstry, Huna, Hungladder __NOTOC__ I Idrigill, Incheril, Inchmore (Kirkhill), Inchmore (Strathfarrar), Inchnadamph, Inchree, Insh, Inshegra, Inver Inverailort, Inveralligin, Inveran, Inverdruie, Inverarish, Inverchoran Invergordon, Inverfarigaig, Invergarry, Inverinate, Inverkirkaig, Inverlochy Invermoidart, Invermoriston, Invernaver, Inverness, Inverroy, Invershin, Isle of Skye, Isleornsay __NOTOC__ J Jamestown, Jemimaville, John o' Groats __NOTOC__ K Keiss, Kensaleyre, Kentra, Kilchoan, Kildary, Kildonan Killen, Killilan, Killimster, Kilmaluag, Kilmarie, Kilmonivaig, Kilmorack, Kilmore, Kilmory Kilmuir (Black Isle), Kilmuir (Easter Ross), Kilmuir (Skye), Kilphedir, Kiltarlity, Kilvaxter Kinbrace, Kincardine, Kincraig, Kingsburgh, Kingussie Kinloch Laggan, Kinlochbervie, Kinlochchiel, Kinlochewe, Kinlochleven Kinlochmoidart, Kirkhill, Kirkibost Knockan, Knockfarrel, Kyle of Lochalsh, Kyleakin, Kylerhea, Kylesku, Kylestrome __NOTOC__ L Laga, Laggan (Badenoch), Laggan (Great Glen), Laide (Sutherland), Laide (Ross-shire), Lairg, Lamington, Landhallow Latheron, Latheronwheel, Leachkin, Lealt Leckfurin, Leckmelm, Ledgowan, Lednagullin Leirinmore, Lenie, Lentran, Lephin, Letterewe, Letterfearn Letters (Ross and Cromerty), Lewiston, Liddesdale Linsidemore, Linicro, Littleferry, Littlemill Lochailort, Loch Alsh, Lochaline Lochbay, Lochcarron, Lochinver Lochslin, Logie Hill Londubh, Lonemore (Ross and Cromerty), Lonemore (Sutherland) Lothbeg, Lower Badcall, Lower Breakish, Lower Diabaig Lower Milovaig, Luib, Lubcroy, Lubinvullin, Lusta, Lybster, Lynchat, Lynne of Gorthleck __NOTOC__ M Maligar, Mallaig, Marishader, Marybank, Maryburgh Mellon Charles, Mellon Udrigle, Melness, Melvaig, Melvich, Merkadale, Mey Milovaig, Midtown, Milton (Easter Ross), Milton (Glenurquhart), Morar, Morefield, Morvich Mountgerald, Moy, Muie Muir of Allangrange, Muir of Ord, Muir of Tarradale, Muirshearlich Murlaggan, Munlochy, Murkle, Mybster __NOTOC__ N Naast, Nairn, Nedd, Nethy Bridge Newlands of Geise, Newfield, Newport Newton of Ardtoe Newton of Ferintosh, Newton of Kinkell Newtonmore, Nigg North Ballachulish, North Erradale, North Kessock Nostie, Nybster __NOTOC__ O Ockle, Oldshore Beg, Oldshoremore, Ollach, Onich Ormiscaig, Ormsaigmore, Opinan (Gairloch), Opinan (Laide), Ose __NOTOC__ P Papigoe, Peinachorran, Peinchorran, Peiness, Penifiler Piperhill, Pitcalnie, Pittentrail, Plockton, Polbain Polglass, Polloch, Poles, Poolewe Portgower, Portnancon, Portnalong, Portnaluchaig, Portmahomack Port Henderson, Port Mòr, Portree, Portskerra, Portuairk Proncycroy, Pulrossie __NOTOC__ R Raasay, Raddery, Ramasaig, Ramscraig, Ranochan, Ratagan Rearquhar, Reay, Reaster Redpoint, Regoul, Reiff, Reiss, Resaurie, Resipole, Rhelonie Rhiconich, Rhiroy, Rhue Roadside, Roag, Rockfield, Rogart Rosehall, Rosemarkie, Roshven Roster, Roybridge, Ruilick, Rùm, Ruthven (Badenoch) __NOTOC__ S Saasaig, Salen (Ardnamurchan), Sallachy, Saltburn, Sand, Sangobeg, Sanna Sarclet, Saval, Satran, Scalpay (Inner Hebrides) Scarfskerry, Sconser, Scourie Scrabster, Sculamus, Shandwick, Shebster Shiel Bridge, Shieldaig, Shieldaig, Shielfoot, Shona Beag Skeabost, Skelpick Skerray, Skinnet, Skinidin, Skirza, Skulamus Skullomie, Skye of Curr, Sligachan, Sluggans, Smerral, Smithton, Sordale South Ballachulish, South Duntulm, South Erradale, South Garvan South Laggan, South Oscaig, Spean Bridge Spinningdale, Spittal, Staffin, Staxigoe, Stein, Stenscholl Strath, Strathan (Melness), Strathan (Sutherland), Strathaird, Strathcanaird, Strathcarron Strathpeffer, Strathrusdale, Stromeferry, Stronchreggan, Stronenaba, Strontian Stoer, Struan, Struy, Suladale, Swiney, Swordale, Swordly, Syre __NOTOC__ T Taagan, Tain, Talisker, Talladale, Talmine, Tarbet, Tarskavaig, Teangue Thrumster, Thurso Tokavaig, Tomatin, Tomchrasky, Tomnacross, Tongue, Tore Torgormack, Tornagrain, Torridon, Torrin, Torrisdale Torvaig, Toscaig, Totaig, Tote, Toulvaddie Tournaig, Trantlebeg, Trantlemore, Treaslane, Trislaig, Trotternish, Trumpan __NOTOC__ U Uig, Uigshader, Ulbster, Ullapool, Ullinish Upper Ardchronie, Upper Badcall, Upper Bighouse, Upper Breakish Upper Camster, Upper Lybster, Upper Milovaig, Urray __NOTOC__ V Valtos, Vatten __NOTOC__ W Waternish, Watten, Westhill, West Clyne West Helmsdale, West Langwell, Wester Aberchalder, Westerdale Westfield, Weydale, Whitebridge, Whiterow, Wick, Windhill __NOTOC__ See also Caithness, Sutherland, Ross-shire Cromartyshire, Inverness-shire Morayshire, Nairnshire, Argyll Scottish Highlands List of towns and villages in the Scottish Highlands Category:Geography of Highland (council area) Category:Lists of places in Scotland Category:Populated places in Scotland * *	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
City Botanic Gardens The City Botanic Gardens (formerly the Brisbane Botanic Gardens) is a heritage-listed botanic garden on Alice Street, Brisbane City, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was also known as Queen's Park. It is located on Gardens Point in the Brisbane CBD and is bordered by the Brisbane River, Alice Street, George Street, Parliament House and Queensland University of Technology's Gardens Point campus. The Gardens include Brisbane's most mature gardens, with many rare and unusual botanic species. In particular the Gardens feature a special collection of cycads, palms, figs and bamboo. The City Botanic Gardens was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 3 February 1997. The Queensland Heritage Register describes the Gardens as "the most significant, non-Aboriginal cultural landscape in Queensland, having a continuous horticultural history since 1828, without any significant loss of land area or change in use over that time. It remains the premier public park and recreational facility for the capital of Queensland, which role it has performed since the early 1840s." History Much of the present-day Botanic Gardens was surveyed and selected as the site for a public garden in 1828 by the NSW Colonial Botanist Charles Fraser, three years after the establishment of the Moreton Bay penal settlement at nearby North Quay, Brisbane. Originally the gardens were planted by convicts in 1825 with food crops to feed the prison colony. In 1855 a portion of several acres was declared a Botanic Reserve. In the same year Walter Hill was appointed as curator of the Botanic Reserve, a position he held until 1881. He began an active planting and experimental program. Some of the older trees planted in the Gardens were the first of their species to be planted in Australia, due to Hill's experiments to acclimatise plants. The experiments served practical outcomes. Plants with potential commercial value were tested in the gardens, first to see if they were viable, to determine what they needed for growth and if a profit could be made. Hill introduced mango, pawpaw, ginger, tamarind, mahogany, poinciana and jacaranda trees as well as tobacco, sugar, grape vines, wheat, tropical fruits, tea, coffee, spices and textile plants. He encouraged the work of the sugar pioneer John Buhot which culminated in the first production of granulated sugar in Queensland in April 1862. A cairn was erected at the site where the sugar cane was grown. Hill also supported the work of the Queensland Acclimatisation Society which was formed in 1862, and the Botanic Gardens was the propagation and distribution point for the Society's imports.By 1866 Hill had succeeded in having the extent of the Botanic Gardens enlarged to approximately . A strip along Alice Street was not part of the Gardens but served as a park and sporting field known as Queen's Park. Early building work in the area included a Superintendent's cottage in the late 1850s, a platform for a battery of cannon in the early 1860s, a stone and iron fence around Queen's Park in 1865–66 [utilising stone from the old gaol on Petrie Terrace], and a drinking fountain in 1867. The fountain, designed by Colonial Architect Charles Tiffin, was erected only a year after reticulated water from the Enoggera reservoir was introduced to Brisbane. It later became known as the Walter Hill fountain. A row of figs were planted in the 1870s. Hill also planted avenues of Bunya pines and Cook pines.Scientific activity was complemented by public recreational use of the Gardens, along with the Domain (on the southern boundary of the Gardens) and Queen's Park. By the 1880s, some of the scientific work previously performed by the Botanic Gardens was being carried out by the Queensland Acclimatisation Society at Bowen Park. The Herbarium and Botanic Library were moved from the Gardens for a period but were returned in 1905 when John Frederick Bailey was appointed Curator of the Botanic Gardens. Underground electricity supply was installed in 1907. Extensive dredging of Gardens Point in 1915 removed about from the Domain (the southern side of Gardens Point) and Botanic Gardens but in the following year the amalgamation of the Gardens, Queens Park and part of the Domain resulted in a new Botanic Gardens of about . The extant City Botanic Gardens was formed by the amalgamation of the original Botanic Gardens with the Domain (the southern side of Gardens Point) and Queen's Park in 1916, bringing its total area to around ; Queen's Park comprised a strip along Alice Street, which originally served as a park and a sporting field, where regular cricket and football matches were held. The former curator's cottage built for John Frederick Bailey, curator from 1905–1917, is now a cafe. The City of Brisbane Act of 1924 transferred responsibility for the Botanic Gardens to the Brisbane City Council, but the Herbarium remained as part of the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock. Due to the proximity to the river, the Botanic Gardens have been flooded nine times between 1870–2011. With many plants being washed away, the Brisbane City Council established a new botanic gardens at Mount Coot-tha. Since the opening of the Mount Coot-tha Botanic Gardens in the mid 1970s, the Brisbane Botanic Gardens has become principally a recreational venue. Re-development of the Gardens in the late 1980s saw the introduction of new recreational structures and restoration work on the former Queen's Park fence. The Gardens were also the home for over 100 years for Harriet, a tortoise reportedly collected by Charles Darwin during his visit to the Galápagos Islands in 1835 and donated to the Gardens in 1860 by John Clements Wickham, former commander of and later Government Resident for Moreton Bay. Harriet was named in honour of Harry Oakman, curator of the Gardens from 1945 to 1962 and the creator of the (now disbanded) zoo at the Gardens. The zoo closed in 1952. Harriet lived out her final years at Australia Zoo until dying in June 2006. Description The Brisbane Botanic Gardens, occupying , is bounded by George and Alice Streets and the Brisbane river. They comprise three major sections: the former Queen's Park along Alice Street, the Botanic Gardens proper (adjacent to the river), and the former Government Domain at the rear of the Queensland University of Technology (formerly part of the grounds to Old Government House). Set in undulating grounds, the gardens are bordered by mature shade trees which also create avenues and groves. A lake and formal lawns, gardens and structures provide a diversity of passive recreational activities. A series of interconnecting paths link a riverside concourse with other perimeter paths. The gardens contain an avenue of Bunya Pines (Araucaria bidwilli) planted in the 1850s and an avenue of Weeping Figs (Ficus benjamina) planted in the 1870s. It also contains a number of other rare plants, particularly palms and figs – some in formal planting arrangements within the lawns, others within mass planted gardens – and an avenue of Cook Pines (Araucaria columnaris formerly A. cookii). A low stone wall (1860s) surmounted by an iron railing fence runs the length of Alice Street and extends into George Street. Large iron gates provide entry at George, Albert and Edward Streets. A cottage s, with Arts and Crafts decorative elements, is located at the southern end of the gardens on a hill known as Residence Hill. This building is surrounded by trees and shrubs, some of which are survivors of late 1850s and early 1860s plantings. The City Gardens Cafe operated from the house for many years; in 2016 it is operated as The Garden Club. In a hollow to the north of Residence Hill, is the Walter Hill fountain. It stands on a stepped octagonal base of three tiers. The body of the fountain continues this shape but tapers towards its top. The lion shaped drinking fountains, presently not functioning, and basins are of white marble in contrast with the freestone of the rest of the structure. To the south of Residence Hill is a 1980s grassed amphitheatre known as Riverstage facing a stage beside the river. Other structures for public convenience and recreational use are dispersed throughout the gardens. Access and facilities The Gardens are accessible by Alice Street, the Goodwill Bridge and Brisbane City Council's ferries and CityCats at the Gardens Point and Eagle St wharves. The gardens are open 24 hours, with pathways lit at night. Features of the Gardens include: Gardens Cycle Hire station at Albert Street entrance Morning Star II by Jon Barlow Hudson (from World Expo 88) Plant form by Robert Juniper Heritage listing Brisbane Botanic Gardens was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 3 February 1997 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history. The Brisbane Botanic Gardens are historically important as the most significant, non-Aboriginal cultural landscape in Queensland, having a continuous horticultural history since 1828, without any significant loss of land area or change in use over that time. It remains the premier public park and recreational facility for the capital of Queensland, which role it has performed since the early 1840s. The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage. Plant collections date to the 1850s, many having been planted by Walter Hill, the first Director of the Botanic Gardens. Many of the specimens are either rare in cultivation or of great maturity or both. Many important plant introductions to Queensland, of both an agricultural and ornamental nature, can be traced directly to the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and the work of its early curators. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places. These gardens are important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of an evolving public and botanical garden dating from the mid-19th century, containing the most extensive mature gardens in Queensland. There are a number of historic structures in the gardens, including the Walter Hill Drinking Fountain (1867), the former band pavilion (1878), the boundary stone walls, gates and cast iron railings (1865–85), the former bear pit shelter (1905), the former curator's residence (1909) [now the kiosk], the riverwall from Edward Street to the Domain (1918), the southern stone staircase on the riverbank (1918–19) and the middle and northern stone staircases (both 1923–24). The place also contains a number of historically significant early engineering projects, including the stormwater drainage system (1865 onwards), reticulated water supply from Enoggera Dam (1867) and underground electricity supply for lighting purposes (1907). The place is important because of its aesthetic significance. The Brisbane Botanic Gardens are significant as a Brisbane landmark and for their visual amenity and natural wildlife values as the major verdant landscaped area in the city's central business district. The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. Many important social events have taken place within the gardens, and the place is generally held in high regard by the local community and is a popular destination for visitors to Brisbane. The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history. The place has a special association with the pioneering work of curators Walter Hill (1855–81), Philip John MacMahon (1889–1905), John Frederick Bailey (1905–1917) and Ernest Walter Bick (1917–1939). See also List of parks in Brisbane References Citations Sources Attribution External links City Botanic Gardens Category:Queensland Heritage Register Category:Botanical gardens in Queensland Category:Parks in Brisbane Category:History of Brisbane Category:Tourist attractions in Brisbane Category:1855 establishments in Australia Category:Gardens in Queensland Category:Alice Street, Brisbane Category:George Street, Brisbane Category:Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register Category:Pre-Separation Queensland	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Agate Publishing Agate Publishing is an independent small press book publisher based in Evanston, Illinois. The company, incorporated in 2002 with its first book published in 2003, was founded by current president Doug Seibold. At its inception, Agate was synonymous with its Bolden imprint, which published exclusively African-American literature, an interest of Seibold's and a product of his time working as executive editor for the defunct African-American publisher Noble Press. Agate has since expanded to include five additional imprints alongside Bolden and its memoir subsidiary Bolden Lives: B2, for business books; Surrey, for cookbooks; Midway, for books with a Midwest/Chicago theme or focus; and Agate Digital, for e-books. Agate additionally publishes customized educational texts by contract under the name Agate Development, formerly known as ProBooks. Accolades Agate Publishing, and its founder Doug Seibold, have been singled out among various Chicago publications as emblematic of the city's burgeoning independent publishing scene. Seibold regularly appears on NewCity Lit's "Lit 50: Who Really Books in Chicago," a list of the fifty most influential people in Chicago's literary scene. Starting in 2009, he represented Agate at #24; in 2011, #16; in 2013, #7; and in 2015, his rank improved again to #6. Agate's rising prominence was recognized by the Chicago Reader in its Best of 2014 issue, where it was awarded the superlative "Best Use of Start-Up Mode by a Press No Longer in Start-Up Mode." Critical reception Agate typically releases about twenty books a year, with several achieving national recognition, acclaim, or awards. Freshwater Road, by Denise Nicholas, won the Hurston-Wright Legacy Award for Debut Fiction in 2006. In 2013, Leonard Pitts's Freeman won the Black Caucus of the American Library Association award for best fiction. Agate titles have also been nominated for multiple NAACP Image Awards, the Believer Book Award, and the International Association of Culinary Professionals Food Writing Award, among others. Jesmyn Ward, who published her debut novel Where the Line Bleeds with Agate, went on to win the National Book Award in 2012. Hot Doug's: The Book, a Midway nonfiction title by Doug Sohn, the owner and proprietor of the eponymous Chicago "encased meat emporium," was named one of the "Best books of 2013 (so far)" by The A.V. Club. In his writeup, Eric Thurm calls it "the rare successful book that makes you want to put it down: In this case, to catch a plane/train/walk to Hot Doug's." In particular, Long Division, a Bolden novel by Kiese Laymon, has received substantial attention from the critical and literary communities. It garnered generally positive reviews from all of the "big four" advance review outlets—Kirkus, Publishers Weekly, Library Journal, and Booklist. Additionally, literary journals such as the Los Angeles Review of Books, The Paris Review, and the Boston Review praised the novel. Alyssa Rosenberg of ThinkProgress and The Washington Post wrote that "If Laymon's novel runs into some plotting problems over the course of its run, it succeeds in doing something more emotionally moving, producing a series of crystalline moments when City comes to a clearer understanding of the world he lives in–and the kind of man he wants to be in it." Novelist, professor, and social commentator Roxane Gay, in a piece for The Nation, called Long Division "[an] ambitious novel, and though it is raw and flawed, it is the most exciting book I've read all year. There's nothing like it, both in terms of the scope of what the book tackles and the writing's Afro Surrealist energy." In 2014, the novel was chosen for The Morning News Tournament of Books, but was eliminated in the first round by The Goldfinch, by Donna Tartt in a verdict rendered by Hector Tobar. Notable Agate Authors Jabari Asim Fred Cook, CEO of Golin Amy Dickinson Barbara Grunes Charlayne Hunter-Gault Alaya Dawn Johnson Kiese Laymon Regina Louise Deborah Mathis Steve McDonagh and Dan Smith Jill Nelson Denise Nicholas Monica Pedersen Leonard Pitts Gil Robertson IV Mary Schmich Freda Love Smith, of the Blake Babies Doug Sohn, of Hot Doug's Anthony Terlato Lynn Toler Johan Van Overtveldt Jesmyn Ward References External links Agate Publishing website, for trade book publishing. Agate Development website, for educational and contract publishing. Category:Book publishing companies based in Illinois Category:Companies based in Evanston, Illinois Category:Publishing companies established in 2002 Category:Educational publishing companies of the United States Category:Small press publishing companies Category:Culture of the Midwestern United States Category:2002 establishments in Illinois	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Orellana Orellana may refer to Places Orellana de la Sierra Orellana Province Orellana la Vieja Orellana, Peru People Fabián Orellana (born 1986), Chilean footballer Francisco de Orellana (1511–1546), Spanish explorer Ignatius de Orellana (1860–1931), British violinist and conductor Nicolás Orellana (born 1995), Chilean footballer Rosa Orellana, American mathematician Other Orellana (genus), a genus of cicadas	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
USS Wampanoag Two ships in the United States Navy have borne the name USS Wampanoag, for the Wampanoag tribe: The first was the lead ship of her class of screw frigate, in commission from 1867 to 1868, and was later renamed USS Florida. The second was the auxiliary ocean tugboat USS ATA-202, in commission from 1944 to 1947, and placed in reserve and renamed USS Wampanoag in 1948. In 1959, while still in reserve, she was loaned to the United States Coast Guard as USCGC Comanche (WATA-202), later redesignated as the medium endurance cutter WMEC-202. Category:United States Navy ship names	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Vigilance Vigilance may refer to: Alertness Vigilance (psychology), the ability to maintain attention and alertness over prolonged periods of time Vigilance (behavioural ecology), the watchfulness of prey for nearby predators Vigilance (album), by Threat Signal Vigilance, a creature ability in the Magic: The Gathering collectible card game Vigilance control, on railways Vigilance (video game), a 1998 PC game by SegaSoft Airship ZPG-3W Vigilance, largest US Navy non-rigid airship ever built Ship BNS Vigilance, a Biafran vessel See also Hypervigilance Vigilant (disambiguation)	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Natalya Misyulya Natalya Misyulya (, maiden name Dmitrachenka; born April 16, 1966) is a retired female race walker from Belarus. She competed in two consecutive Summer Olympics for her native country: 1996 and 2000. She is married with race walker Yevgeniy Misyulya. International competitions References sports-reference Category:1966 births Category:Living people Category:Belarusian female racewalkers Category:Olympic athletes of Belarus Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1996 Summer Olympics Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:World Athletics Championships athletes for Belarus	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Giardino Botanico Montano di Pratorondanino The Giardino Botanico Montano di Pratorondanino is a nature preserve and botanical garden located at 750 meters altitude in Pratorondanino, Campo Ligure, Province of Genoa, Liguria, Italy. It is open during the warmer months. History The garden was established in 1979 by GLAO (Group Ligure Amatori Orchids), and since 1983 has expanded to encompass additional species, primarily from the Alps and Apennine mountain. Species Today its collections include 14 species of rhododendrons; 2 specimens commonly called sequoia: Sequoiadendron giganteum and Sequoia sempervirens; Ginkgo biloba; a rare Wollemia nobilis; many orchids especially Cypripedium; Ligurian mountain flora including Viola bertolonii and Cerastium utriense; a collection of 50 Sempervivum and numerous Sedum; and endangered species including Eryngium alpinum, Lilium pomponium and Wulfenia carinthiaca. It also contains numerous trees common to the region, including Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, Larix decidua, Castanea sativa, Picea abies, Pinus mugo, Prunus avium, Quercus petraea, Robinia pseudoacacia, Sorbus aucuparia, and Taxus baccata. See also List of botanical gardens in Italy Image gallery Bibliography References BGCI entry Newsletter (Italian) Photographs Category:Botanical gardens in Italy Category:Gardens in Liguria Category:Buildings and structures in the Province of Genoa Category:Metropolitan City of Genoa	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Lajos Terjék Lajos Terjék (born 29 October 1980) is a former Hungarian football player. References EUFO UEFA HLSZ Category:1980 births Category:Living people Category:Hungarian footballers Category:Hungary under-21 international footballers Category:Hungarian expatriate footballers Category:Cypriot First Division players Category:Cypriot Second Division players Category:Újpest FC players Category:Fehérvár FC players Category:Nyíregyháza Spartacus FC players Category:Enosis Neon Paralimni FC players Category:Anagennisi Deryneia FC players Category:Ayia Napa FC players Category:Ermis Aradippou FC players Category:Othellos Athienou F.C. players Category:Expatriate footballers in Israel Category:Hungarian expatriate sportspeople in Israel Category:Expatriate footballers in Cyprus Category:Hungarian expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus Category:Association football forwards	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
1986 Davis Cup Europe Zone The Europe Zone was one of the three regional zones of the 1986 Davis Cup. A new Africa Zone was contested for the first time, which served as a qualifying round for the Europe Zone. Teams from 9 African nations competed for 2 places in the Europe Zone main draws, joining an additional 24 teams. The winner of each sub-zone was then promoted to the following year's World Group. France defeated Austria in the Zone A final, and Israel defeated Switzerland in the Zone B final, resulting in both France and Israel being promoted to the 1987 World Group. Participating nations Africa Zone: Europe Zones: Africa Zone Draw and qualified to the Europe Zone main draws. Europe Zone A Draw First round Turkey vs. Luxembourg Egypt vs. Malta Bulgaria vs. Cyprus Portugal vs. Zimbabwe Poland vs. Finland Quarterfinals Turkey vs. France Bulgaria vs. Egypt Austria vs. Portugal Poland vs. Romania Semifinals France vs. Bulgaria Austria vs. Romania Final France vs. Austria Europe Zone B Draw First round Greece vs. Syria Nigeria vs. Norway Ireland vs. Belgium Quarterfinals Monaco vs. Hungary Switzerland vs. Greece Nigeria vs. Netherlands Israel vs. Belgium Semifinals Hungary vs. Switzerland Netherlands vs. Israel Final Switzerland vs. Israel References External links Davis Cup official website Category:Davis Cup Europe/Africa Zone Europe Zone	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Florian Jungwirth Florian Jungwirth (born 27 January 1989) is a German footballer who plays for the MLS side San Jose Earthquakes. Club career TSV 1860 Munich Jungwirth began his career as a defender with his hometown club TSV Eintracht Karlsfeld when he was ten years old, before moving to TSV 1860 Munich, and progressing through the reserve team from age groups U-11 to U-19. He won the Deutsche Fußballmeisterschaft der B-Junioren (German B-Juniors Championship) with the U-17 team in 2006 and again in 2007 with the U-19s. Jungwirth became a member of the U-23 squad during the 2007-08 season, making his senior debut with a start on 15 September 2007 in a 3-0 victory at home against VfR Aalen. At the end of the 2009 season, he had made 48 appearances for the reserve side. He was named to the first team in the summer of 2008, but appeared only as an unused substitute eleven times during the 2008-09 season and was entirely unused for the first half of the 2009-10 season, before moving to Dynamo Dresden in January 2010. Dynamo Dresden Jungwirth made his debut in a 3. Fußball-Liga match during a 2-0 home win against Bayern Munich II. However, after making only eleven appearances for Dresden, he tore his cruciate ligament on 10 April 2010 during a match against FC Ingolstadt 04 and thus was sidelined until October. He helped Dresden win promotion to the 2. Bundesliga and stayed with the club, making 53 appearances over the next seasons, until his contract was up in 2013. Despite a desire to stay in Dresden, the club did not renew his contract. VfL Bochum Jungwirth signed with VfL Bochum in June 2013. However, due to the club's financial struggles, he moved to Darmstadt 98 in the summer of 2014. SV Darmstadt 98 Jungwirth joined SV Darmstadt 98, newly promoted from the third division, in time for the 2014-15 season. He helped the club get promoted yet again, this time to the Bundesliga, and made his Bundesliga debut on opening day of the 2015-16 season against Hannover 96. He was released in January 2017 after requesting a transfer to MLS several months in advance. However, Darmstadt coach and former MLS player Torsten Frings tried to block his move and criticized him heavily in the media after leaving him out of the squad in what ended up being a 6-1 defeat at home to 1. FC Köln. Jungwirth responded, "Sure, the coach can criticise my training performances in public. But whether that belongs on a news conference following a 6-1 defeat where I wasn't even in the squad is anyone's guess." His signing by the San Jose Earthquakes was announced several days later. San Jose Earthquakes Jungwirth moved to MLS by signing a contract with the San Jose Earthquakes in February 2017. His first start for the club came on 4 March 2017 in the season-opening 1-0 home victory over the Montreal Impact. His first MLS goal was scored in stoppage time in a 2-1 road loss to Sporting Kansas City on 18 March 2017. On 14 October 2017, Jungwirth was announced as a nominee for three different league awards: the Landon Donovan MVP Award alongside teammate Chris Wondolowski, the MLS Defender of the Year Award along with teammate Nick Lima, and the MLS Newcomer of the Year Award. International career He has represented Germany at various youth levels, and was the captain of the team that won the 2008 UEFA Under-19 Championship, despite being ejected from the championship game prior to half-time on a second yellow card. Personal life Jungwirth is known for his animal welfare work and specifically his efforts aiding the rescue of dogs from Spanish kill shelters. He has also stated that he would never play in China, because of his opposition to the annual Yulin Dog Meat Festival and general treatment of dogs in the country. He married his wife Kathleen on 4 June 2016. As of February 27, 2018, Jungwirth holds a U.S. green card, qualifying him as a domestic player for MLS roster purposes. Statistics 1.Includes German Cup 2.Includes Promotion/Relegation playoff and MLS Cup playoffs Honors Fritz Walter Medal (2008) San Jose Earthquakes Defensive Player of the Year (2017) References External links Category:1989 births Category:Living people Category:German footballers Category:Germany youth international footballers Category:Association football defenders Category:TSV 1860 Munich players Category:TSV 1860 Munich II players Category:Dynamo Dresden players Category:VfL Bochum players Category:VfL Bochum II players Category:SV Darmstadt 98 players Category:San Jose Earthquakes players Category:Bundesliga players Category:2. Bundesliga players Category:3. Liga players Category:Major League Soccer players	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Dashkhartan Dashkhartan is a village in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan. It is suspected that this village has undergone a name change or no longer exists, as no Azerbaijani website mentions it under this name. References Category:Populated places in Azerbaijan Category:Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Palace of Charles of Lorraine The Palace of Charles of Lorraine (, ) is a neoclassical palace in Brussels, Belgium. It served as the residence of Charles Alexander of Lorraine, Governor-General of the Austrian Netherlands from 1744 to 1780, and currently houses a museum. Located on Museum Square, near the Place Royale/Koningsplein, this site is served by Brussels Central Station, as well as by the metro stations Parc/Park and Trône/Troon. History The construction was started in 1757 on the place where the palace of Nassau had stood, and of which only the Nassau Chapel was preserved. The palace counts five halls of which the interior is reminiscent of the Austrian Netherlands and the Bishopric of Liège in the 18th century. Since 2001, the palace has been listed as a protected monument. See also List of Baroque residences References External links Website of the museum Category:Palaces in Brussels Category:City of Brussels Category:Protected heritage sites in Brussels Category:18th century in Brussels Category:Houses completed in 1757	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Khalaj, Khorramdarreh Khalaj (, also known as Khalach) is a village in Khorramdarreh Rural District, in the Central District of Khorramdarreh County, Zanjan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 30, in 11 families. References Category:Populated places in Khorramdarreh County	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Conogryllus Conogryllus is a genus of crickets in family Gryllidae. Taxonomy The genus contains the following species: Conogryllus testaceus (Chopard, 1934) References Category:Gryllinae Category:Orthoptera genera	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Jenny Owen Youngs Jenny Owen Youngs (born November 22, 1981) is an American singer-songwriter. She has released three albums and a handful of EPs both independently and via Nettwerk Records, and has toured worldwide. Youngs is also a songwriting collaborator whose cuts include the 2018 Panic! at the Disco single "High Hopes," as well as songs with Brett Dennen, Ingrid Michaelson, Shungudzo, Pitbull, and others. Youngs' songs have been used in TV shows such as Weeds, Grey's Anatomy, Nurse Jackie, Suburgatory, and Switched at Birth. In 2017, her 2012 song "Wake Up" was featured over the end credits of Bojack Horseman'''s season 4 finale. On March 28, 2018, it was announced that Youngs would work as the composer for Muscle Memory, a short film directed by Carly Usdin being made as a part of the American Film Institute's Directing Workshop for Women. Early life and education Raised in Newton, New Jersey, Youngs grew up playing the flute in elementary school and the tuba in junior high school. At age 14, her older step-brother told her that if she wanted to be in a band she needed to learn how to play the guitar. She graduated from State University of New York at Purchase with a degree in studio composition."The Sound of Youngs' America: One singer-songwriter you have to hear". Fairfield County Weekly (Bridgeport, Connecticut). November 10, 2005. Music career As a solo artist Batten the Hatches Youngs' first album Batten the Hatches was recorded with borrowed equipment at SUNY-Purchase and self-released in 2005. While at Austin's South by Southwest, Youngs met Gary Calamar, the music supervisor of Showtime's Weeds, which led to her song "Fuck Was I" appearing in Weeds second-season premiere. The notoriety resulted in a contract with Canadian indie label Nettwerk Records. Nettwerk Records re-released her album Batten the Hatches on April 10, 2007, with new artwork and an additional song ("Drinking Song").Shuster, Fred (April 10, 2007). "Hear Today: Stax in Spotlight for 50th Anniversary". Daily News of Los Angeles. p. U5. Newsweek called the album a top pick, complimenting Youngs' "simple, stripped-down guitar" and her "edgy lyrics and sweetly sung melodies".<ref>"The Checklist". Newsweek. April 16, 2007. p. 103.</ref> The Sydney Morning Herald described the album as an "accomplished debut". "Fuck Was I" was also released on Weeds: Music from the Original Series, Vol. 2. Transmitter Failure Youngs released her second album, Transmitter Failure, on May 26, 2009. She supported Regina Spektor in her 2009 tour promoting the album Far. Youngs collaborated with Xian Hawkins under the moniker Bell Horses, which resulted in the album This Loves Last Time (2009). In the fall of 2009, Youngs performed alongside Chuck Ragan, Jim Ward, Tim Barry, Joey Cape, Dave Hause, Frank Turner, and others as part of the 2009 Revival Tour. An Unwavering Band Of Light On July 1, 2010, Youngs launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund her third album and reached her goal of $20,000 in 28 hours. Her drummer, Elliot Jacobson, had his chest waxed as an incentive to reach the goal. The campaign ended on August 13, 2010 with a total of $38,543 and 646 backers. On February 7, 2012 the Kickstarter-backed third studio album, titled An Unwavering Band of Light was released. In 2017, a song from that album, "Wake Up", appeared over the end titles of the season Four finale of Netflix's Bojack Horseman. Side Projects, touring, and other releases On April 5, 2018, Youngs released the song "Won't Let Go of Me" which was featured in the Grey's Anatomy episode "Hold Back The River" (Season 14, Episode 18). The song was written with Aaron Espe and Kyle Neal. Neal produced the song while Espe was credited as a co-producer. On March 28, 2018, it was announced that Youngs would work as the composer for Muscle Memory, a short film directed by Carly Usdin being made as a part of the American Film Institute's Directing Workshop for Women. Youngs has toured worldwide headlining and also supporting artists such as Regina Spektor, Against Me!, Frank Turner, and Streetlight Manifesto. In January, 2013, she was announced to rejoin The Revival Tour, where she performed alongside Chuck Ragan, Rocky Votolato, Dave Hause, Jenny O., and Tim McIlrath of Rise Against. In December 2012, Youngs began her Exhibit project in which she visited a New York City museum one a week, recording a song inspired by her visit within the same week. The album was released on Bandcamp and consists of 8 tracks. Youngs covered "Have You Forgotten" by Red House Painters for American Laundromat Records's charity CD "Sing Me To Sleep - Indie Lullabies" released in Spring 2010. In March 2010, Youngs toured with Bess Rogers and A.W. on their 'Spring Break Forever Tour', after which she flew out to the United Kingdom to support Motion City Soundtrack on their London, Manchester, Birmingham and Glasgow tour. She headlined a show at "Monto Water Rats" in London in April 2010. In addition to her solo career, Youngs was a member of the band The Robot Explosion, a side project with fellow musicians and friends Bess Rogers, Andrew Futral, and Saul Simon-MacWilliams. Youngs has toured with Vienna Teng, opening for the singer on the Green Caravan Tour, and opened for Aimee Mann at London's indigO2 on 27 July 2007. Youngs toured with Glen Phillips of Toad the Wet Sprocket in August 2007, and with Sean Hayes, with whom she co-headlined. She played in Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden in November and December 2007. Co-writing and recent years In 2015, Youngs moved to Los Angeles where she is working on her next album and co-writing with and for other artists. Youngs' notable cuts include Panic! at the Disco's 2018 single "High Hopes", the 2018 song from the Fifty Shades Freed soundtrack, "Come On Back", which she co-wrote with Shungudzo and producer Jordan Palmer and appeared in both the film and on the soundtrack, "Miss America", which she co-wrote with Ingrid Michaelson and others for Michaelson's 2016 album It Doesn't Have to Make Sense, and Pitbull's 2016 single "Bad Man", which was debuted at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards. She also worked closely with Brett Dennen and Dan Wilson to write three of the five songs on Dennen's 2018 EP, Let's... including the title track. Youngs often collaborates with her friends Chris Farren and A.W. Buffering the Vampire Slayer In September 2016, Youngs launched the podcast Buffering The Vampire Slayer with Kristin Russo. The podcast discusses the popular television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer one episode at a time, and each episode ends with an original recap song about the episode, penned by Youngs and Russo. The podcast is part of the Stitcher Premium network and has been featured in A.V. Club, Entertainment Weekly, Autostraddle, and Buzzfeed. Veronica Mars Investigations In August 2019, Youngs launched the podcast Veronica Mars Investigations with Helen Zaltzman. The podcast discusses the popular television series Veronica Mars one episode at a time. Personal life On June 12, 2013, Youngs came out, announcing "I am super gay", and that she was engaged to marry her girlfriend Kristin Russo, whom she married on August 25, 2013. On May 25, 2018, the couple announced they are no longer together but remain friends and will keep working in their mutual projects. Both of them said, "We've come to realize that we will be better—both to ourselves and to each other—within the context of a friendship, rather than a marriage." Youngs is now in a relationship with musician Jess Abbott of Tancred. Discography Albums Singles "Split" with Dave House - UK vinyl 12" single released April 2007 Gravity DIP Records "Fuck Was I" UK single released May 2007 Nettwerk Music Group "Things We Don't Need Anymore" digital single released by Nettwerk Music Group "Great Big Plans" digital single released June 2011 "Jenny Owen Youngs and A.W. Sing The Magnetic Fields" vinyl 7" single released September 2013 by Asbestos Records EPs The Take Off All Your Clothes EP March 12, 2007 Led to the Sea EP April 7, 2009 Last Person EP March 23, 2010 Jukebox the Ghost + Jenny Owen Youngs split EP July 30, 2013 Slack Tide February 17, 2015 Night Shift November 15, 2019 Compilations Co-writing credits References Further reading 2006 interview with City Belt External links Category:1981 births Category:Living people Category:State University of New York at Purchase alumni Category:American female singer-songwriters Category:American singer-songwriters Category:Songwriters from New Jersey Category:Singers from New Jersey Category:LGBT musicians from the United States Category:Lesbian musicians Category:LGBT singers Category:LGBT songwriters Category:LGBT people from New Jersey Category:People from Montclair, New Jersey Category:Guitarists from New Jersey Category:21st-century American women singers Category:People from Newton, New Jersey Category:21st-century American women guitarists Category:21st-century American guitarists	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Kopivnik Kopivnik () is a settlement in the Municipality of Rače–Fram in northeastern Slovenia. It lies on the eastern edge of the Pohorje Hills, above Fram. The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. The municipality is now included in the Drava Statistical Region. References External links Kopivnik at Geopedia Category:Populated places in the Municipality of Rače-Fram	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Marek Sawicki Marek Wacław Sawicki (; born 8 April 1958) is a Polish politician. He was elected to the Sejm on 25 September 2005, receiving 6527 votes in 18 Siedlce district as a candidate on the Polish People's Party list and served as Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development on two separate occasions. He was first appointed to the post on 16 November 2007 and left on 26 July 2012. On 17 March 2014 he then took over from Stanisław Kalemba and served until the Cabinet of Beata Szydło was sworn in on 16 November 2015. He was also a member of Sejm 1993-1997, Sejm 1997-2001, and Sejm 2001-2005. On 15–16 December 2011 the European Council of Agriculture and Fisheries under the presidency of Marek Sawicki adopted a decision authorizing the signing of an anti-counterfeiting trade agreement (ACTA). See also Members of Polish Sejm 2005-2007 References External links Marek Sawicki in Polish Wikipedia Marek Sawicki - parliamentary page - includes declarations of interest, voting record, and transcripts of speeches Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 1993–1997 Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 1997–2001 Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 2001–2005 Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 2005–2007 Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 2007–2011 Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 2011–2015 Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 2015–2019 Category:Members of the Polish Sejm 2019–2023 Category:Agriculture ministers of Poland Category:Polish People's Party politicians Category:1958 births Category:Living people	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
London League (football) The London League was a football competition that was held in the London and surrounding areas of south-east England from 1896 until 1964. In 1896 the president of the London League was Arnold Hills founder of Thames Ironworks F.C. (which later reformed as West Ham United). One of the men who helped draft the rules of the competition was Francis Payne, club secretary of Thames Ironworks F.C. in 1897. The league started with three divisions, the 3rd Grenadier Guards winning the inaugural championship. The league fluctuated between having a single division and reaching four divisions. Before World War I, most of the senior London Football League clubs fielded a reserve side in the London League. In 1964, the London League ceased to exist, merging with the Aetolian League to form the Greater London League, which then further merged in 1971 with the Metropolitan League to form the Metropolitan–London League. This later merged into the Spartan League, which in turn merged into the modern Spartan South Midlands League. Champions London League Division One 1896–1897 – 3rd Grenadier Guards 1897–1898 – Thames Ironworks 1898–1899 – Tottenham Hotspur Reserves 1899–1900 – Millwall Athletic Reserves 1900–1901 – Millwall Athletic Reserves 1901–1902 – West Ham United 1902–1903 – Tottenham Hotspur 1903–1904 – Woolwich Arsenal Reserves 1904–1905 – Southall 1908–1909 – Brentford Reserves London League Division Two 1896–1897 – Bromley 1897–1898 – Barnet 1898–1899 – Monsteds Athletic 1899–1900 – Fulham 1900–1901 – Airdrieonians 1901–1902 – East Greenwich Gas Work 1902–1903 – Brentford Reserves 1903–1904 – Catford Southend 1904–1905 – Clapton Orient Reserves London League Premier Division 1901–1902 – West Ham United 1902–1903 – Tottenham Hotspur 1903–1904 – Millwall 1908–1909 – West Ham United London League Division One A 1909–1910 – Barking In 1920, a third division, known as Division Two was added In 1924, Division Two was disbanded In 1939, the league was suspended due to the outbreak of World War II. On the resumption of football after the War, nineteen clubs played in the London League, split into Western and Eastern Divisions. Eastern Division champions Woolwich Polytechnic beat Eastern Champions Edgware Town 2–1 in a play-off In 1946, the divisions were re-organised, and a new structure of a Premier Division and a Division One was formed Within 12 months, enough clubs had joined to form a new Division Two In 1953, Division Two was disbanded In 1956, Division One was disbanded, leaving only a single Senior section In 1963, an increase in the number of clubs led to a reversion to two divisions. Member clubs 1st Grenadier Guards (1903–04) 21st Lancers (1905–06) 2nd Grenadier Guards (1897–98, 1913–14 2nd Life Guards (1897–98) 3rd Grenadier Guards (1896–1898) Acton Reserves (1933–1935) Acton United and Aldine (1907–08) Algernon Athletic (1921–1924) Amersham Town (1961–62) Arlesey Town (1958–1960) Arsenal (1901–1904) Arsenal Reserves (1900–1915) Artillery College (1921–22) Aveley (1949–1957) Aveley Reserves (1951–52) Aylesford Paper Mills (1951–1954) Aylesford Paper Mills Reserves (1951–1953) Baldock Town (1959–1963) Barking (1909–1923) Barking Reserves (1913–1926) Barking Woodville (1896–1898) Barking Woodville Reserves (1896–97) Barkingside (1950–1964) Barkingside Reserves (1963–64) Barnet (1897–1900) Barnet Avenue (1905–1907) Barnet Alston (1904–1912) Barnet Reserves (1923–1926) Basildon Town (1955–1959) Bata Sports (1949–1956) Bata Sports Reserves (1950–1953) Beckenham Town (1923–1935, 1951–1961) Beckenham Town Reserves (1923–24, 1929–30, 1951–1953) Bedford Town Reserves (1946–1951) Belvedere (1920–1922) Bexleyheath Labour (1920–21) Bexleyheath Town (1924–1926) Blackwall and Thames Ironworks (1920–1922) Bletchley United (1959–1961) Boleyn Castle (1903–04) Bostall Athletic (1925–1927) Bostall Heath (1921–1939) Branbys Ironworks (1911–1913) Brentford (1896–1904) Brentford Reserves (1900–1913) Brentwood & Warley Reserves (1947–1951) Brentwood Mental Hospital (1926–1931) Briggs Sports Reserves (1935–1951) Brimsdown (1907–1910) British Legion (1923–24) Brittania (1946–47) Bromley (1896–1901) Bromley Old Boys (1921–22) Bromley Reserves (1924–1926) Bronze Athletic (1909–1914) Brymay Athletic (1920–1923) Burberry (1922–23) Bush Hill Park (1922–1924) Callender Athletic Canvey Island Carshalton Athletic Catford Southend Catford Southend Reserves CAV Athletic Chadwell Heath Chalfont National Chalfont St Peter Charlton Albion Charlton Athletic Charlton Athletic Reserves Chelmsford Chelmsford City Reserves Chelsea Reserves Cheshunt Cheshunt Reserves Childs Hill Imperial Chingford Chingford Reserves Chingford Town Reserves Chingford United Chiswick Town Chiswick Town Reserves City of Westminster Clapham Reserves Clapton Orient Clapton Orient Reserves Commercial Athletic Commercial Gas Covent Garden Cray Wanderers Crittall Athletic Crittall Athletic Reserves Crouch End Crouch End Reserves Croydon Common Reserves Crystal Palace Reserves Custom House Custom House Reserves CWS Silvertown Dagenham British Legion Dagenham British Legion Reserves Dagenham Cables Dagenham Park Dagenham Town Dagenham Town Reserves Dartford Reserves De Havilland De Havilland Vampires Depot RHA Deptford Invicta Deptford Town Derrick Wanderers Downshall Earlsfield Town East Greenwich Gas East Ham United Edgware Town Edmonton Edmonton Borough Edmonton Borough Reserves Ekco Ekco Reserves Eltham Enfield Enfield Cables Enfield Reserves Epping Town Epping Town Reserves Epsom Epsom Reserves Epsom Town Epsom Town Reserves Erith & Belvedere Erith & Belvedere Reserves Eton Manor Eton Manor 'A' Eton Manor Reserves Eton Mission Excelsior Felstead Finchley Finchley Reserves Ford Sports Ford Sports Reserves Forest Swifts Fulham Fulham 'A' Fulham Reserves Fulham St Andrew's Gnome Athletic Gravesend & Northfleet Reserves Grays Athletic Grays Athletic Reserves Grays Town Great Northern Railway Great Western Railway Guildford City Reserves Guildhall Gwynnes Athletic Hammersmith Athletic Hampstead Town Hampstead Town Reserves Hanwell Hanwell Town Harlesden Town Harlow Town Harold Hill Harris Lebus Harris Lebus Reserves Harrow Athletic Harrow United Harrow Weald Harrow Weald Reserves Hastings United Reserves Hatfield Town Hatfield Town Reserves Hayesco Sports Hays Wharf Hendon Hendon Reserves Hendon Town Hermes Hermes Reserves Highfield HMSO Press Holland Athletic Hotel Cecil Hounslow Ideal Wanderers Ilford Ilford Electrical Ilford Reserves Imperial Islington Town Jurgens(Purfleet) Jurgens(Purfleet) Reserves Kilburn Kingston Lathol Athletic Lea Bridge Gas Leavesden Leavesden Mental Hospital Leyton Leyton Reserves Livesey United London Generals London Labour London Telecoms London Transport London Transport Buses London Transport Reserves London Welsh Lower Clapton Lower Clapton Imperial Merton Town Metrogas Metrogas Reserves Metropolitan Police Reserves Metropolitan Railway Millwall Millwall Reserves Millwall United Mitcham Wanderers Mitcham Wanderers Reserves Monsteads Athletic Neasden New Barnet New Malden North Woolwich North Woolwich Invicta Northern Polytechnic Northern Polytechnic Reserves Northmet Norwood Association Novocastrians Nunhead Reserves Old Aloysians Old Charlton Old Ignatians Old Tottonians Orient (old) Orpington Page Green Old Boys Park Royal Park Royal Reserves Parkhill (Chingford) Pearl Assurance Peel Institute Perrycobow Perrycobow Reserves Pinner Pitsea United PO Telecoms Ponders End United Port of London Authority Port of London Authority Police Post Office Engineers Post Office Engineers Reserves Queens Park Rangers Queens Park Rangers Reserves RAF Kidbrooke Rainham Town Rainham Town Reserves Ravenscourt Amateurs Redhill RFA Record Office RNVR Roehampton ROF Sports Rolenmill Romford Romford Reserves Romford Town Royal Naval Depot (Chatham) Royal Ordnance Factories Ruislip Manor Ruislip Manor Reserves Savoy Hotel Seven Kings Shepherd's Bush Shepherd's Bush Reserves Siemens Sports Slade Green Athletic Slade Green Athletic Reserves Snaresbrook United South West Ham Southall Southall Reserves Southern United Standard Telephones Stanley Stanmore Stansted STD Athletic Sterling Athletic Stonebridge Park Stones Athletic Storey Athletic Storey Athletic Reserves Streatham Town Streatham Town Reserves Summerstown Summerstown Reserves Tate Institute Telcon Athletic Temple Mills Tilbury Tilbury Reserves Tillings Athletic Tonbridge Reserves Tooting and Mitcham United Tooting and Mitcham United Reserves Tooting Town Tottenham Hotspur Tottenham Hotspur Reserves Transport Workers Tufnell Park (1907–1914) Tunbridge Wells Rangers (1963–64) UGBM Sports (1929–1952) Ulysses Ulysses Reserves University Uxbridge Uxbridge Reserves Vampires Van Den Bergh Venner Sports Vickers Armstrong Vickers Armstrong Reserves Wall End United (1920–1923) Waltham (1906–1910) Walthamstow Avenue (1901–02) Walthamstow Borough (1926–27) Walthamstow Grange (1906–1930) Walthamstow Holborn (1898–1900) Walthamstow Town Reserves (1923–24) Walton & Hersham Reserves (1945–46) Walton-on-Thames (1937–1939) Walton-on-Thames Reserves (1938–1939) Wandgas Athletic (1936–1939) Wandsworth (1900–1903) Wandsworth United (1937–1939) Wapping Sports (1950–56) Waterlows (1920–21) Watney Sports (1929–30) Wealdstone (1911–1922) Welwyn Garden City (1951–1955) Welwyn Garden City Reserves (1951–52) West Croydon (1896–98) West Ham United (1896–1898, 1899–1900, 1901–1904) West Ham United Reserves (1900–1915) West Hampstead (1897–1899, 1904–05, 1907–1910) West London Old Boys (1910–1914) West Norwood (1900–01, 1910–1913, 1923–24, 1936–37) West Thurrock Athletic (1947–1964) West Thurrock Athletic Reserves (1952–53) Whyteleafe Albion (1929–1931) Willesden (1957–1959) Willesden Green (1899–1900) Willesden Town (1898–99) Willesden Town Reserves (1904–05) Wingate (1952–1962) Wingate Reserves (1952–53) Wood Green Town (1909–1913) Woodford (1909–10) Woodford Town (1945–1951) Woodford Town Reserves (1946–1951) Woolwich (1913–14, 1927–28) Woolwich Ordnance (1919–1921) Woolwich Polytechnic (1901–1905, 1924–1964) Wren Athletic (1922–1924) References Category:Football competitions in London Category:Defunct football leagues in England	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
William Mitchell (physicist) Sir Edgar William John Mitchell, (September 25, 1925 – October 30, 2002) was a British physicist, professor of physics at Reading and Oxford, and he helped pioneer the field of neutron scattering. Born in Kingsbridge, Devon, England, he studied physics at Sheffield University, which had become an important centre for research in radar and defence communications. In 1946 he took up a research position with Metropolitan-Vickers, leading to a secondment to Bristol University, where Nobel laureate Nevill Mott was head of the department. After gaining his PhD, he took a position at Reading University in 1951, becoming professor of physics in 1961, and later dean of science and deputy vice chancellor. In 1978 he became Dr Lees professor of experimental philosophy at Oxford University and head of the Clarendon laboratory. He was also a skilled administrator who served in many public capacities. He became chairman of SERC in 1985, at a time of conflict between the British government and higher education over funding and independence. He was vice-president of the European Science Foundation from 1989 to 1992 and president of CERN in 1991. Mitchell was also a member of the SEPP Board of Science Advisors. He won the Richard Glazebrook Medal and Prize in 1996. References Category:1925 births Category:2002 deaths Category:English physicists Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Category:Knights Bachelor Category:People from Kingsbridge Category:Academics of the University of Oxford Category:People associated with CERN Category:Dr Lee's Professors of Experimental Philosophy	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Barbana, Italy Barbana is a small island located at the northern end of the Grado Lagoon, near Trieste in north-east Italy. It is the site of the Santuario di Barbana, an ancient Marian shrine, whose origins date back to 582 when Elia, the Patriarch of Aquileia, built a church near the hut of a hermit from Treviso named Barbanus. The island, which can be easily reached by ferry from nearby Grado, is populated by a small community of Franciscan friars. History of the shrine The foundation of the shrine originates from an image of the Virgin Mary carried in by the sea and found at the foot of an elm after a fierce storm. At that time the site was part of the mainland; the Grado Lagoon was formed between the 5th and 7th centuries. From the foundation to around 1000, Barbana became an island and the shrine was served by a community of monks unique to the island, called the Barbitani. The original church was destroyed by floods and rebuilt. The image of Mary, too, was lost and in the 11th century was replaced by a wooden statue known as the Madonna mora. This Black Madonna is now housed in the Domus Mariae (House of Mary), a chapel near the main church. In the 11th century, the care of the shrine was entrusted to Benedectine monks, who served there until the 15th century. They were succeeded by a Franciscan community who built a new church in the 18th century. Art and architecture The modern church was built in the Romanesque style at the beginning of the 20th century. Ancient remains include two Roman columns from the first church, and a 10th-century relief portraying Jesus. The crowned statue of Mary dates from the 15th century, while the 17th century is represented by several altars and paintings, including one from the school of Tintoretto. In the wood near the church a small chapel (the Cappella dell'apparizione) was built in 1854 in the place where the original image of Mary was found. The baptismal font of the church is supported by a figure of the Devil, sculpted in red marble. It is the work of Claudio Granzotto, a Franciscan friar and noted religious artist of the mid-20th century. He has been beatified by the Catholic Church and is being considered for canonization. Pilgrimages Barbana is the destination of many pilgrimages, the most famous being the Perdon de Barbana which is held each July to celebrate the end of a visitation of the plague in Grado in 1237. See also List of islands of Italy Grado Shrines to the Virgin Mary References ‘Barbana’, Frati Minori del Veneto e Friuli. Category:Islands of the Adriatic Sea Category:Catholic pilgrimage sites Category:Marian shrines Category:Churches in the province of Gorizia Category:Islands of Friuli-Venezia Giulia	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Lippinghauser Bach Lippinghauser Bach is a small river of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It flows into the Düsedieksbach near Herford. See also List of rivers of North Rhine-Westphalia Category:Rivers of North Rhine-Westphalia Category:Rivers of Germany	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Sone Yay Sone Yay (; Downstream) is a 1990 Burmese drama film directed by Kyi Soe Tun. Plot Aung Win is working in the Construction Department in Yangon. His wife dies and Aung Win is left with their son and daughter. Aung Win wife's sister takes care of the children. When the children are old to attend the school, he is moved to Pyay. Cast Kyaw Hein as Aung Win Khin Than Nu Win Swe Hnin Si Aung Pyaih Zeyar Zin Mar Oo Min Oo Thu Zar Nwe Kyaw Min Htun Ei Thiri Lwin References Category:1990 films Category:Burmese films Category:1990s drama films	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Chorusgirl Chorusgirl is the musical project of Silvi Wersing formed in 2014. She spent her formative years as a musician playing bass and guitar in a string of bands, first in Germany, then in England. Wersing began recording demos on her own, and then with producer Jan-Niklas Jansen, at Bear Cave Studio in Cologne. When enough songs were ready to be aired live, she formed a group. History Silvi Wersing spent her formative years as a musician playing bass and guitar in a string of bands, first in Germany, then in England, before striking out on her own under the name Chorusgirl in 2014. The songs mixed influences from the 80's and 90's (the Cure, Lush) with more recent bands of a similar vein (Vivian Girls, Dum Dum Girls). Wersing began recording demos on her own, and later with producer Jan-Niklas Jansen, at Bear Cave Studio in Cologne. When enough songs were ready to be aired live, she formed a group. Bassist Udo Westhoff, drummer Michael Boyle, and guitarist Caroline Arvensis joined in 2014. Though Arvensis was soon replaced by Diogo Oliveira, and he was later still replaced by Faith Taylor. The group released a single "No Moon"/"Dream on, Baby Blue" for the Odd Box Records' 100 Club series in early 2015, then later that year released their self-titled debut album on Fortuna Pop!. The band played Indietracks festival in both 2015 and 2017. On 11 September 2018 the band announced their second album with lead single "No Goodbyes". The album, entitled Shimmer And Spin, will be released by Reckless Yes on 16 November. Discography Album Chorusgirl - Fortuna Pop!, 12" LP, CD, MP3 (2015) Shimmer And Spin - Reckless Yes, 12" LP, CD, MP3 (2018) Singles "No Moon"/"Dream on, Baby Blue" - Odd Box Records, 7" LP, CD, MP3 (2015) References Category:British indie pop groups Category:Musical groups established in 2012	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Trolleybuses in George Town, Penang The George Town trolleybus system was part of the public transport network in George Town, on the island of Penang (part of Malaysia since 1963), for more than 35 years in the mid-20th century. Opened in 1924, the system gradually replaced the George Town tramway network. It lasted until mid-1961, when it was closed and replaced by a network of motor bus routes. At its peak, the system had four routes. History In 1923 a 24-seat Brush bodied Clough, Smith trolleybus was ordered as an experiment, entering service in 1925 on the Magazine Road to Jetty via Chulia Street service. It was followed by a 22-seat Strachans & Brown bodied Thornycroft. In 1926 three trolleybuses were purchased from Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies, who supplied another five in March 1929. Two existing Thornycroft motor buses were converted to trolleybuses in 1929 and 1931, respectively. In 1934, two nine-seater trolleybuses were purchased specifically for the one mile Penang Hill Railway service from Lower station to the Air Itam main road. A further 18 Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies trolleybuses were delivered in 1935/36. Six more followed in 1938-1940. By the end of the Japanese occupation of Malaya, the entire fleet was out of service. All were gradually returned to service between 1946 and 1950 except two that were too badly damaged. In the 1950s the original fleet was replaced by 26 Sunbeams and five 1935 built AEC 664T double-deckers purchased second-hand from London. The network closed on 31 July 1961. Fleet See also History of Malaysia List of trolleybus systems Transport in Penang References External links David Bradley Online – Georgetown Trolleybus Fleet George Town Category:History of George Town, Penang Category:Transport in Penang Category:Trolleybus transport in Malaysia Category:1924 establishments in British Malaya Category:1961 disestablishments in Malaya	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Oyster cracker Oyster crackers are small, salted crackers, typically rounds about 0.6 in (15 mm) in diameter, although a slightly smaller hexagonal variety is also prevalent. They are often served with oyster stew. They have similar ingredients to saltine crackers. In cuisine Oyster cracker are popular in the northeastern United States, where they are served as an accompaniment to soup, and in the Cincinnati area, where they are frequently served with the city's distinctive chili. In New England, oyster crackers are served in oyster stew and chowders. Additionally, plain oyster crackers are sometimes seasoned with spices. They usually have a taste similar to saltine crackers, but far less salty. In other areas of the United States, they are among the choices for crackers with soup. They are often available in single serving packages for restaurant use. Many different companies produce oyster crackers with different combinations of shortenings and other ingredients, but retaining the same general shape and size. Etymology The origin of the term "oyster cracker" is unclear, but it may be that they were originally served with oyster stew or clam chowder or merely that they look like an oyster in its shell. Other names include "water cracker," "Philadelphia cracker," and "Trenton cracker". Origins The Westminster Cracker Company, currently of Rutland, Vermont, has been making oyster crackers since 1828. However, a counterclaim is that Adam Exton is credited with inventing the oyster cracker. Adam Exton, a baker in Trenton, New Jersey, emigrated to America from Lancashire, England, in 1842. In Trenton, Exton opened a cake and cracker bakery with his brother-in-law, Richard Aspden, in 1846. Although Aspden died the following year, Exton continued with the bakery (the "Exton Cracker Bakery" or "Adam Exton & Co."). He invented a machine that rolled and docked pastry and solved the sanitary problems of hand-rolling crackers. The history of the oyster cracker was related by Exton's nephew, also named Adam Exton, in the Trenton Evening Times newspaper on May 31, 1917: See also List of crackers Saltine cracker Cuisine of Philadelphia References Category:Crackers (food) Category:Vermont cuisine Category:1828 introductions	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Australian Club The Australian Club is a private club founded in 1838 and located in Sydney at 165 Macquarie Street. Its membership is men-only and it is the oldest gentlemen's club in the southern hemisphere. It enjoys reciprocal arrangements with other clubs of its type including; the Melbourne Club, Boodle's and Brooks's in London, the Pacific-Union Club in San Francisco, California Club in Los Angeles, Union Club and Knickerbocker Club of New York City, the Metropolitan Club in Washington D.C., and the Somerset Club in Boston. "The Club provides excellent dining facilities, en-suite bedrooms and apartments, a fully equipped gym, and on Level 7 of the building in which the Clubhouse is located, are first rate business facilities which Members and resident guests may access." Presidents Hon Alexander Macleay MLC FLS FRS 1838 - 1848 Hon Campbell Drummond Riddell 1848 - 1856 Hon Sir Edward Deas-Thomson KCMG CB MLC 1857 - 1879 Hon Sir William Macarthur MLC 1879 - 1882 Christopher Rolleston CMG 1882 -1888 Edward Merewether FRGS 1888 - 1893 Hon Philip Gidley King MLC 1894 - 1900 Hon Sir Francis Bathurst Suttor MLC 1900 - 1908 Hon Henry Edward Kater MLC 1909 - 1924 John Archibald Anderson 1924 - 1933 Major-General Hon James William Macarthur-Onslow VD MLC 1933 - 1936 William Deuchar Gordon 1936 - 1939 Pat Hamilton Osborne 1939 - 1942 Hon Sir Colin Sinclair KBE MLC 1942 - 1945 Hon Sir Norman William Kater MLC 1945 - 1948 Edmund Irving Body 1948 - 1951 Hon Sir Colin Sinclair KBE MLC 1951 - 1954 John Gordon Crowther 1954 - 1957 Edmund Irving Body CBE 1957 - 1959 John Gordon Crowther 1959 - 1960 Rt Hon Sir Victor Windeyer KBE, CB, DSO, ED, QC 1960 - 1963 Donald Brian Hardy Arnott 1963 - 1966 Major-General Sir Denzil Macarthur-Onslow CBE DSO ED 1966 - 1969 Sir Norman Lethbridge Cowper CBE 1969 - 1972 Sir William Morrow DSO ED 1972 - 1975 Members To view a list of current and past members see, List of Australian Club Members Website The club website is titled 165 Macquarie Street but is only accessible to members. See also Australian Club (Melbourne) White's List of India's gentlemen's clubs List of London's Gentleman's clubs External links The Australian Club Photograph Powerhouse Museum References Category:1838 establishments in Australia Category:Organizations established in 1838 Category:Organisations based in Sydney Category:Gentlemen's clubs in Australia Category:Buildings and structures in Sydney	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Turning radius The turning radius or turning circle of a vehicle is the radius (or, depending on usage, diameter) of the smallest circular turn (i.e. U-turn) that the vehicle is capable of making. Usage The term turning radius is a technical term that has become popular automotive jargon. In the jargon sense, it is commonly used to mean the full diameter of the smallest circle, but in technical usage the turning radius is still used to denote the radius. The less ambiguous term turning circle avoids the mistaken jargon use of the word radius. As an example, Motor Trend refers to a curb-to-curb turning circle of a 2008 Cadillac CTS as , but the terminology is not yet settled. AutoChannel.com refers to the turning radius of the same car as . It is often used as a generalized term rather than a numerical figure. For example, a vehicle with a very small turning circle may be described as having a "tight turning radius". Curb to curb Two different measurements can be quoted for a vehicle. A curb or curb-to-curb turning circle will show the straight-line distance from one side of the circle to the other, through the center. The name "curb-to-curb" indicates that a street would have to be this wide before this car can make a U-turn and not hit a street curb with a wheel. If you took the street curb and built it higher, as high as the car, and tried to make a U-turn in the street, parts of the car (bumper) would hit the wall. The name wall or wall-to-wall turning circle denotes how far apart the two walls would have to be to allow a U-turn without scraping the walls. One can find these two ways of measuring the turning circle used in auto specifications, for example, a van might be listed as having a turning circle (in meters) of 12.1(C)/12.4(W). A notable exception in this description is of vehicles that are capable of spinning around their central axis, such as certain lawnmowers and wheelchairs as they do not follow a circular path as they turn. In this case the vehicle is referred to as a "zero turning radius" vehicle. Some camera dollies used in the film industry have a "round" mode which allows them to spin around their z axis by allowing synchronized inverse rotation of their front and rear wheel sets, effectively giving them "zero" turning radius. Common uses Aeroplanes Watercraft Wheeled vehicles See also Breakover angle Minimum railway curve radius Overhang (automotive) U-turn (maneuver) External links Vehicle Turning Radius explanation + visuals Grounds Maintenance Magazine Article about Zero Radius Lawn Mowers Category:Vehicle technology Category:Engineering concepts	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Family income Family income is generally considered a primary measure of a nation's financial prosperity. In the United States, political parties perennially disagree over which economic policies are more likely to increase family income. The party in power often takes the credit (or blame) for any significant changes in family income. See also Median household income Personal income Category:Household income	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Hugh Brogan Denis Hugh Vercingetorix Brogan (20 March 1936 – 26 July 2019) known as Hugh Brogan, was a British historian and biographer. Early life The son of Sir Denis Brogan and Olwen Phillis Francis (Lady Brogan), OBE, archaeologist and authority on Roman Libya, he was educated at St Faith's School, Cambridge, Repton School, and St John's College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1959 and MA in 1964. From the time when he was a schoolboy, he was a frequent correspondent of J.R.R. Tolkien regarding the latter's works. Tolkien's published Letters include five addressed to Brogan; these are dated 7 April 1948, Christmas 1948, 18 September 1954, 11 September 1955, and 14 December 1955. A draft of a letter addressed to Brogan but not sent is also included. Career Brogan was on the staff of The Economist from 1960 to 1963, and was elected a Harkness Fellow in 1962, then was a fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, from 1963 to 1974. He was then part of the department of history at the University of Essex from 1974 to 1998, first as a lecturer, then a reader, and finally as Professor of History from 1992 to 1998. Major publications Tocqueville (1973) The Times Reports The American Civil War (1975) The Life of Arthur Ransome (1984) The Longman History of the United States of America (1985, reprinted as The Penguin History of the United States of America, 1990) Mowgli's Sons: Kipling and Baden-Powell's Scouts (1987) , (1991, with Anne P. Kerr) American Presidential Families [with Charles Mosley] (1993) Kennedy (1996) Signalling from Mars: the letters of Arthur Ransome (1997, ed.) Alexis de Tocqueville: a biography (2006) References External links Brogan's staff page at the University of Essex Category:1936 births Category:2019 deaths Category:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Category:English historians Category:Harkness Fellows Category:People educated at St Faith's School Category:People educated at Repton School Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Category:Academics of the University of Essex	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Clackamas people The Clackamas Indians are a tribe of Native Americans of the U.S. state of Oregon who traditionally lived along the Clackamas River in the Willamette Valley. Lewis and Clark estimated their population at 1800 in 1806. At the time the tribe lived in 11 villages and subsisted on fish and roots. Like others of the Chinookan peoples, they practiced head flattening. From infancy the head was compressed between boards, thus sloping the forehead backward. The Willamette Meteorite is revered by the Clackamas Indians. Descendants By 1855, the 88 surviving members of the tribe were relocated to Grand Ronde, Oregon, first to the Grand Ronde Indian Reservation; later they blended in the general population. Descendants of the Clackamas belong to the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon. See also Other Chinookans of the lower Columbia River: Cathlamet Multnomah References External links On the Clackamas people more on the Clackamas people National Geographic on the Clackamas Indians On the Willamette Meteorite Category:Chinookan tribes Category:Native American tribes in Oregon Category:Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau Category:Clackamas County, Oregon Category:Willamette Valley	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Frank Fisher (rugby league) Frank Fisher (1905–1980) was an Aboriginal Australian professional rugby league footballer. Nicknamed "Big Shot" and "King" Fisher, he has been described as the Wally Lewis of Aboriginal Rugby league players. He was named as a member of the Indigenous Australian Rugby League Team of the Century. Family life He was born 1905 in Townsville, Queensland the son of Frank Fisher Sr and his wife Rosie Shilling. His father had served with the 11th Light Horse Regiment but Fisher's attempt to follow in his father's footsteps in 1940 was blocked on racial grounds. He is the paternal grandfather of Australian track athlete and Olympic gold medalist Cathy Freeman. Rugby league In the 1930s Fisher was captain of the Barambah rugby league team. In 1932 and again in 1936 he played at half-back for the Wide Bay representative side against the Great Britain touring teams. The English captain, Jim Brough, was reported as saying that "Fisher was the best country player the Englishmen had encountered." On Brough's recommendation, Fisher was offered a contract to play club rugby league in Salford, England but the Queensland Government refused his application to travel under the Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of Sale of Opium Act 1897 (Qld). He has been described as "fast, with a distinctive side-step, playing either at fly-half or centre three-quarter." In 1946 he was still leading the Cherbourg team as captain to victory. Cricket Fisher further displayed his athletic ability in cricket. On one occasion, playing for the Cherbourg A Grade side against Goomeri, he struck 105 (retired) in 32 minutes including 11 sixes and 5 fours. His side won by 294 on the first innings on a day when the Cherbourg side was without the usual services of fast bowler Eddie Gilbert. Fisher's feat was reported nationally. Honours and awards On 8 June 1996 a bridge over Barambah Creek, Cherbourg and named in his honour was opened. In 2010 Fisher was named as a member of Australian rugby league's Indigenous Team of the Century. References Category:Sportspeople from Townsville Category:Australian rugby league players Category:Indigenous Australian rugby league players Category:1905 births Category:Rugby league five-eighths Category:Rugby league halfbacks Category:1980 deaths	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
German submarine U-2367 German submarine U-2367 was a Type XXIII U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. She was ordered on 20 September 1944, and was laid down on 11 December 1944 at Deutsche Werft AG, Hamburg, as yard number 521. She was launched on 23 February 1945 and commissioned under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Heinrich Schröder on 17 March 1945. Design Like all Type XXIII U-boats, U-2367 had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of (o/a), a beam width of (o/a), and a draught depth of. The submarine was powered by one MWM six-cylinder RS134S diesel engine providing , one AEG GU4463-8 double-acting electric motor electric motor providing , and one BBC silent running CCR188 electric motor providing . The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate at for ; when surfaced, she could travel at . U-2367 was fitted with two torpedo tubes in the bow. She could carry two preloaded torpedoes. The complement was 14 – 18 men. This class of U-boat did not carry a deck gun. Service history On 5 May 1945, U-2367 sank near Schleimünde after a collision with another unidentified German U-boat. The wreck was originally located at . Post war service In August of 1956, U-2367 was raised by the German Federal Navy and commissioned U-Hecht on 1 October 1957. On 30 September 1968, she was struck from the navy list and then broken up in Kiel in 1969. See also Battle of the Atlantic References Bibliography External links Category:U-boats commissioned in 1945 Category:World War II submarines of Germany Category:1945 ships Category:Type XXIII submarines Category:Ships built in Hamburg Category:Maritime incidents in May 1945	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Arbeidets Ridder Arbeidets Ridder was a Norwegian/Danish language weekly labor newspaper published from Minneapolis during the 1880s. Arbeidets Ridder (which means Knight of Labour) was started on the initiative of the Scandinavian Labor and Sick Benefit Society. Politically, the paper was close to the Knights of Labor. The paper carried the subtitle Organ for the Scandinavian workers in the North-West. Johannes B. Wist was the founding editor of the Arbeidets Ridder. He served as editor of the newspaper from 1886 until 1887. Johannes Wist later became editor of the newspaper Decorah-Posten from 1901-1923. References Category:Danish-American culture in Minnesota Category:Danish-language newspapers published in the United States Category:Defunct newspapers of Minnesota Category:Norwegian-language newspapers published in the United States Category:Norwegian-American culture in Minneapolis–Saint Paul Category:Non-English-language newspapers published in Minnesota	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Aimlessness (Buddhism) Aimlessness or uncommittedness or wishlessness (Sanskrit apraṇihita अप्रणिहित) is a form of "concentration" in some schools of Buddhist meditation. The concept is particularly associated with the teachings of Thích Nhất Hạnh, who counts aimlessness as the third form of "concentration" or "Third Door of Liberation". The term apraṇihita literally means 'to place nothing in front' and is used to designate someone who has no aims for the future and no desire for the objects of perception. Aimless wandering Aimless wandering refers to both "samsara" (the cycle of birth, death and rebirth) and a mindfulness practice of exploration without destination that often takes the form of a walking meditation (though it does not require movement). In this practice, attention is paid to one's sensory perception of the experience rather than one's thoughts about the experience. References Further reading Buddharakkhita, T. (1996). The Dhammapada: The Buddha's Path of Wisdom. Buddhist Publication Society. Fowler, M. (2005). Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. Clement, S. (2002). Meditation for Beginners: Techniques for Awareness, Mindfulness & Relaxation. Llewellyn Publications. Midal, F. (2005). Recalling Chögyam Trungpa. Shambhala Publications. Category:Buddhist meditation Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Shoppers World Shoppers World or Shopper's World may refer to: in Canada Shoppers World Brampton, in Brampton, Ontario, Canada Shoppers World Terminal , a Brampton Transit bus station Shoppers World Danforth and Shoppers World Albion (now the Albion Centre), in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in the United States Shopper's World, a strip mall on the site of Shoppers' World, one of the first suburban malls in the U.S. Shoppers World (retail chain), a chain of discount department stores.	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Football Hall of Fame Western Australia Football Hall of Fame Western Australia was formed in 1996 to honour service to soccer in Western Australia. Hall of Legends Hall of Champions Hall of Merit for Players Hall of Recognition References Category:Soccer in Western Australia Category:Australian soccer trophies and awards Category:Halls of fame in Australia	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Horst Hoeck Horst Hoeck (19 May 1904 – 12 April 1969) was a German rower who competed in the 1928 Summer Olympics and in the 1932 Summer Olympics. In 1928 he and his partner Gerhard Voigt placed fourth after being eliminated in the quarter-finals of the double sculls event. Four years later he won the gold medal as member of the German boat in the coxed fours competition. External links profile Category:1904 births Category:1969 deaths Category:Olympic rowers of Germany Category:Rowers at the 1928 Summer Olympics Category:Rowers at the 1932 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic gold medalists for Germany Category:Olympic medalists in rowing Category:German male rowers Category:Medalists at the 1932 Summer Olympics	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Sudirman railway station Sudirman Station (SUD) (formerly known as Dukuh Atas Station/DKH) is a train station of Commuterline, which is located in Menteng, Central Jakarta. The station is named from Jalan Jenderal Sudirman, one of the main avenue in Jakarta, which crosses above the station. This station is located on the north bank of West Flood Canal. Though this station serves only Commuterline trains, but it is a transit point for other types of public transportation as part of Dukuh Atas TOD. Distance between this station and Karet railway station is one of the shortest in the network, measuring only 0.8 km between each stations. Moreover, BNI City railway station, a station that only serves train bound for Soekarno Hatta International Airport, is wedged between Karet and Sudirman station. There is a passageway connecting Sudirman station with BNI City station and Dukuh Atas station of Jakarta MRT. As the station is located in Jakarta's CBD and is surrounded by some of the most prominent buildings and places in Jakarta, therefore the station is always crowded, especially in rush hour. Public transport Transjakarta Corridor 1, 4, 6 Transjakarta Express Pulo Gadung-Bundaran Senayan (Mon-Fri) Transjakarta Express Kalideres-Bundaran Senayan (Mon-Fri) Transjakarta Express National Monument-Ragunan (Mon-Fri) APTB Transjakarta APTB 04 patas to Ciputat (via Hayam Wuruk - Thamrin - Sudirman - Blok M - Radio Dalam - Pondok Indah - Lebak Bulus) APTB Transjakarta APTB 07A patas to Bekasi (via Thamrin - Sudirman - Komdak - Bekasi Barat) APTB Transjakarta APTB 07B patas to Bekasi (via Thamrin - Sudirman - Komdak - Bekasi Timur) APTB Transjakarta APTB 08A patas to Bekasi (via Thamrin - Sudirman - Komdak - Bekasi Timur) APTB Transjakarta APTB 08B patas to Mega Bekasi Hypermall (via Thamrin - Sudirman - Komdak - Bekasi Barat) Jakarta MRT Dukuh Atas Station Places of Interest Selamat Datang Monument Hotel Indonesia Grand Indonesia Shopping Town Plaza Indonesia Taman Suropati Menteng Park BCA Tower Mandarin Hotel Jakarta Embassy of Germany in Jakarta Embassy of Japan in Jakarta Sarinah (can also be accessed from Gondangdia railway station) References category:central Jakarta Category:Railway stations in Jakarta	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Cooper Street Historic District Cooper Street Historic District is a historic district located in Camden, Camden County, New Jersey, United States. The district goes from 2nd Street to 7th Street along Cooper Street and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 7, 1989. See also National Register of Historic Places listings in Camden County, New Jersey References External links Living Places Cooper Street Historic District Category:Historic districts in Camden County, New Jersey Category:Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey Category:Federal architecture in New Jersey Category:Camden, New Jersey Category:National Register of Historic Places in Camden County, New Jersey Category:Houses in Camden County, New Jersey Category:Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey Category:New Jersey Register of Historic Places	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Ligovsky Prospekt (Saint Petersburg Metro) Ligovsky Prospekt () is a station on the Pravoberezhnaya Line of Saint Petersburg Metro, opened on December 30, 1991. Category:Saint Petersburg Metro stations Category:Railway stations opened in 1991 Category:1991 establishments in Russia Category:Railway stations located underground in Russia	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Sweetest Thing "Sweetest Thing" is a song by Irish rock band U2. It was originally released as a B-side on the "Where the Streets Have No Name" single in 1987. The song was later re-recorded and re-released as a single in October 1998 for the band's compilation album The Best of 1980–1990. "Sweetest Thing" became a number-one hit in Ireland, Canada, and Iceland, and reached the top 10 in several countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the song peaked at number 63 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number nine on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. Inspiration The song was reportedly written by Bono as an apology to his wife Ali Hewson for having to work in the studio on her birthday during The Joshua Tree sessions. At Alison's request, profits from the single went to her favoured charity, Chernobyl Children International. Release A version by New York gospel choir, The New Voices of Freedom, appears on the soundtrack to the 1988 Bill Murray film Scrooged. It was recorded following U2's performance of "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" with the choir at Madison Square Garden, which appears on the band's 1988 album Rattle and Hum. To promote the release of the single in 1998, Island Records distributed "Sweetest Thing" chocolate bars, wrapped to look like the single, throughout Europe. They have become a very valuable collectors item among U2 fans during the 2000s. The song reached number one in both Canada and Ireland, number three in the UK, number six in Australia, number 63 on the Billboard Hot 100, number nine on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart and number 31 on the US Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. Live performances The song made its live debut on the opening night of the Elevation Tour, and was played occasionally over the first and second legs. It was then not played again until the Innocence + Experience Tour, where once again it only made occasional appearances over the course of the tour. Performances on the Elevation Tour featured Bono playing the piano parts while the Edge played electric guitar. On the Innocence + Experience Tour, it was played on the e-stage in a stripped-down version, with the Edge playing acoustic guitar and Bono joining in on the piano about halfway through the song. Music video The video, directed by Kevin Godley, features Bono taking his wife Ali Hewson on a carriage ride along Fitzwilliam Place, and on to Upper Fitzwilliam Street in Dublin, enlisting various performers along the way in an effort to apologise to her. The performers featured include Riverdance, Boyzone, Steve Collins, the Artane Boys Band, and the Celtic Knights. The Edge, Adam Clayton, Larry Mullen Jr., Norman Hewson (Bono's brother), Dik Evans (The Edge's brother), and Ali herself appear in the video as well. Track listings The back cover listed the third track simply as a live version of "An Cat Dubh". Personnel Bono – lead vocals The Edge – piano, guitar, backing vocals Adam Clayton – bass guitar Larry Mullen Jr. – drums Charts and certifications Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References External links Category:1987 songs Category:1998 singles Category:Irish Singles Chart number-one singles Category:RPM Top Singles number-one singles Category:Canadian Singles Chart number-one singles Category:Number-one singles in Iceland Category:Island Records singles Category:Rock ballads Category:Song recordings produced by Brian Eno Category:Song recordings produced by Daniel Lanois Category:Song recordings produced by Steve Lillywhite Category:Songs written by Adam Clayton Category:Songs written by Bono Category:Songs written by the Edge Category:Songs written by Larry Mullen Jr. Category:U2 songs	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Mike Maksudian Michael Bryant Maksudian (born May 28, 1966) is an American former professional baseball catcher. He spent 1992 with the Toronto Blue Jays, 1993 with the Minnesota Twins, and 1994 with the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball (MLB). In 41 career at-bats, he collected 9 hits and 6 RBIs. He was famous for consuming insects in the Jays' bullpen during his time as a backup catcher. Maksudian attended Parsippany High School and University of South Alabama. In 1987, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Falmouth Commodores of the Cape Cod Baseball League. References External links , or Retrosheet, or Pelota Binaria (Venezuelan Winter League) Category:1966 births Category:Living people Category:American expatriate baseball players in Canada Category:American people of Armenian descent Category:Baseball players from Illinois Category:Cardenales de Lara players Category:Chicago Cubs players Category:Edmonton Trappers players Category:Falmouth Commodores players Category:Iowa Cubs players Category:Knoxville Blue Jays players Category:Major League Baseball catchers Category:Major League Baseball first basemen Category:Miami Miracle players Category:Minnesota Twins players Category:Morris Titans baseball players Category:Portland Beavers players Category:South Alabama Jaguars baseball players Category:South Bend White Sox players Category:Sportspeople from Belleville, Illinois Category:St. Lucie Mets players Category:Syracuse Chiefs players Category:Tampa White Sox players Category:Toronto Blue Jays players	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
List of Microids games This is a list of video games developed or published by Microids under its current and former labels. Microids Grand Prix 500 cc (1986) Rodeo (1986) Demonia (1986) Superbike Challenge (1987) Downhill Challenge / Super Ski (1987) Highway Patrol (1989) Chicago 90 (1989) Highway Patrol 2 (1990) Super Ski 2 (1990) Eagle's Rider (1990) Sliders (1991) Killerball (1991) Grand Prix 500 2 (1991) Nicky Boom (1992) Action Sport (1993) Super Sport Challenge (1993) Genesia/Ultimate Domain (1993) Nicky 2 (1993) Super Ski 3 (1994) Ultimate Domain (1994) Carlos (1994) Fort Boyard - The Challenge (1995) Evidence: The Last Report (1996) Secret Mission (1996) Saban's Iznogoud (1997) Des chiffres et des lettres (1997) Rising Lands (1997) Shogo: Mobile Armor Division (1998) Amerzone: The Explorer's Legacy (1999) Corsairs: Conquest at Sea (1999) Dracula: Resurrection (1999) Speed Demons (1999) Empire of the Ants (2000) Far Gate (2000) Warm Up! (2000) Fort Boyard (2001) Monster Racer (2001) Road to India: Between Hell and Nirvana (2001) Open Kart (2001) Tennis Masters Series (2001) Times of Conflict (2001) Druuna: Morbus Gravis (2001) Snow cross, developed by Vicarious Visions (2001) X'treme Roller (2001) Kohan: Battles of Ahriman, developed by Timegate (2002) Syberia (2002) Post Mortem (2002) War and Peace: 1796–1815 (2002) Warrior Kings (2002) Casper Game Boy Advance game (2002) Jack The Ripper, developed by Galilea Games (2003) Syberia II (2004) Still Life (2005) Jules Verne's Journey to the Center of the Moon (2005) Sinking Island (October 2007) Nostradamus: The Last Prophecy (2007) Dracula 3 - The Path of the Dragon (2008) Still Life 2 (2009) Return to Mysterious Island II (2009) Red Johnson's Chronicles (2011) Red Johnson's Chronicles - One Against All (2012) Crazy Cars: Hit the Road (2012) Louisiana Adventure (2013) Nicolas Eymerich, The Inquisitor: Book 1 - The Plague (2013) Dracula 4: The Shadow of the Dragon (2013) Dream Chamber (2013) Dracula 5: The Blood Legacy (2013) 9 Elefants (2014) Nicolas Eymerich, The Inquisitor: Book 2 - The Village (2015) Subject 13 (2015) Agatha Christie: The ABC Murders (2016) The Descendant (2016) Moto Racer 4 (2016) Yesterday Origins (2016) Syberia III (2017) Gear.Club Unlimited (2017) Asterix & Obelix XXL 2 (2018) Asterix & Obelix XXL 3 (2019) Blacksad: Under the Skin (2019) Wanadoo Edition Dracula 2 - The Last Sanctuary (2000) The Messenger (2000) Fort Boyard (2001) Monster Racer (2001) Tennis Masters Series (2001) Times of Conflict (2001) New York Race, developed by Kalisto (2001) Snow cross, developed by Vicarious Visions (2001) Kirikou, developed by Étranges Libellules (2001) Hitchcock: The Final Cut, developed by Arxel Tribe (2001) The Cameron Files: Secret at Loch Ness, developed by Galilea (2001) Necronomicon: The Dawning of Darkness (2001) The Pink Panther: Pinkadelic Pursuit, developed by Étranges Libellules (2002) Roland Garros 2002, developed by Carapace, (2002) Project Zero, developed by Tecmo (2002) Robin Hood: The Legend of Sherwood, developed by Spellbound (2002) Kohan: Battles of Ahriman, developed by Timegate (2002) Iron Storm, developed by 4X (2002) (PS2 version by Rebellion Developments as World War Zero: Iron Storm) Gremlins: Stripe vs Gizmo, developed by Magic Pockets (2002) Sherlock Holmes: Mystery of the Mummy, developed by Frogwares (2002) Haegemonia: Legions of Iron, developed by Digital Reality (2002) Celtic Kings: Rage of War, developed by Haemimont (2002) Speedball 2 (GBA), developed by Crawfish (2002) Castleween (2002) Inquisition (2002) Warrior Kings (2002) Roland Garros 2003 French Open, developed by Carapace (2003) Pro Beach Soccer, developed by PAM, (2003) Curse: The Eye of Isis, developed by Asylum (2003) Rygar: The Legendary Adventure, developed by Tecmo (2003) Raging Blades, developed by PCCWJ (2003) Haegemonia: the SOLON Heritage, developed by Digital Reality (2003) References Microids	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Neverworld's End Neverworld's End is the fifth studio album by German symphonic metal band Xandria. The record was released by Napalm Records on February 24, 2012. It is the only album to feature Manuela Kraller on vocals, and the last album to feature Nils Middelhauve on bass. The album produced one single, "Valentine". Track listing Charts Personnel Xandria Manuela Kraller – vocals Marco Heubaum – guitar, keyboard, producer Philip Restemeier – guitar Nils Middelhauve – bass Gerit Lamm – drums Additional musicians Joost van den Broek – keyboards, programming, orchestral arrangements, sound design Ben Mathot – violin McAlbi – tin whistle and low whistle Johannes Schiefner – uillean pipes Fredrik Forsblad, Norbert Swoboda, Anselm Soos, Mani Müller, Klaus Ackermann, Mani Gruber, Marc Zillmann – choir Production Corni Bartels – co-producer, engineer Jörg Umbreit – engineer References External links Album reviews on metal-archives.com Official discography on xandria.de Category:2012 albums Category:Xandria albums Category:Napalm Records albums	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Battey–Barden House The Battey–Barden House is an historic house at 710 Plainfield Pike in Scituate, Rhode Island, US. It is a -story wood-frame structure with a large central chimney. A -story kitchen ell extends from the rear of the main block. The main block's construction date is uncertain, with architectural evidence suggesting it was built between about 1816 and 1831. It was probably built around 1824 for Horace Battey, a farmer and shopkeeper. The house is particularly notable for the stencilwork on its interior walls. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 29, 1980. See also National Register of Historic Places listings in Providence County, Rhode Island References Category:Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Rhode Island Category:Federal architecture in Rhode Island Category:Houses in Providence County, Rhode Island Category:Buildings and structures in Scituate, Rhode Island Category:National Register of Historic Places in Providence County, Rhode Island	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Thomas Seebohm Thomas Seebohm (born William Thomas Mulvany Seebohm, July 7, 1934, Gleiwitz, Upper Silesia – August 25, 2014, Bonn, Germany) was a phenomenological philosopher whose wide-ranging interests included, among others, Immanuel Kant, Edmund Husserl, hermeneutics, and logic. Other areas of Professor Seebohm's interests included the history of philosophy, philosophy of history, philosophy of the formal sciences, methodology and philosophy of the human sciences, the history of 19th century British Empiricism, American pragmatism, analytic philosophy, philosophy of law and practical philosophy, and the development of the history of philosophy in Eastern Europe. Despite this diverse span of interests, Seebohm was chiefly known as a phenomenologist, who "above all...considered himself a creative phenomenologist, who as a critically reflecting philosopher would look at all major issues with which he became confronted, from a transcendental phenomenological point of view." Biography Seebohm was born in Gleiwitz, Upper-Silesia as son of the German minister of transport Hans-Christoph Seebohm and graduated high school in 1952 from the division of languages (later passing an additional exam in Classical Greek in 1956). He learned cabinetmaking after high school from 1952–1954, passing his journeyman's examination in March 1954 and began his academic career thereafter. His university studies were conducted at the universities of Hamburg, Bonn, Saarbrücken, and Mainz with focuses in philosophy, Slavic languages, Slavonic literature, and sociology. He earned his PhD summa cum laude in philosophy, Slavonic literature, and sociology from the University of Mainz in 1960 with the completion of his dissertation, Die Bedingungen der Möglichkeit der Transzendentalphilosophie: Edmund Husserls transcendental-phänomenologischer Ansatz, dargestellt im Anschluss an seine Kant-Kritik (The conditions of the possibility of transcendental philosophy: Edmund Husserl's transcendental-phenomenological assessment, presented in connection with his criticism of Kant), which was published later in 1962. From 1960 to 1965 Seebohm was without a permanent teaching position, but survived on a fellowship and conducted research on "the history of medieval Russian philosophy and culture," the results of which would eventually be published in book form more than a decade later in 1977 as Ratio and Charisma. Starting points for the development of a philosophic and scientific understanding of the Russian cultural world of Moscow. In 1965, Seebohm secured his first position as a teacher of philosophy as an "assistant" at the University of Mainz, with his second appointment as a visiting professor at the Pennsylvania State University coming soon after in 1970. After a brief, year-long stint as a professor at the University of Trier in 1973, Seebohm became a full professor of philosophy at the Pennsylvania State University, a position he would retain from 1973 to 1984. In those years he served as a visiting professor at both The New School for Social Research in 1980 and the University of Heidelberg in 1981 before returning to his patria at the University of Mainz as Professor of Philosophy, succeeding a fellow phenomenologist, Gerhard Funke. Throughout his tenures as professor of philosophy, Seebohm had offered courses in German idealism, phenomenology, formal and formalized logic, and in hermeneutics. In addition to this, Seebohm served as the chairman of the Philosophische Seminar, member of the board of directions for the Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology, secretary of the Inner Circle of the Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Philosophie in Germany, an honorary member of the North American Kant Society, and a winner of the Ballard Prize from the Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology for his book Hermeneutics, Method and Methodology. He also served terms as president of the Kant Gesellschaft and as editor of Kant Studien. Chronological Bibliography "Lebenswelt", "Intersubjektivität", "Protention", "Quintilian", in: Philosophisches Wörterbuch, 16. Edition, Stuttgart: Kröner, 1961, pp. 279–80, 345-6, 479, 487. Die Bedingungen der Möglichkeit der Transzendentalphilosophie, Bonn: Bouvier, 1961, 200 p. "Beiträge zu Philosophie und Wissenschaft, ed. E Höfling", in: Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie 48 (1962), pp. 265–9. (Review) "Wer ist ein Sohn des Vaterlandes?", A.N. Radiscev, In: Aufklärung, ed. G. Funke, Stuttgart: Koehler, 1963, pp. 363 – 9. (Translation). "Erkenntnis aus dem Buch der Natur und aus der Heiligen Schrift", M.W. Lomonossow, In: Aufklärung, ed. G. Funke, Stuttgart: Koehler, 1963, pp. 316 – 22. (Translation). "H. Drüe, Edmund Husserls System der phänomenologischen Psychologie", in: Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung 18 (1963), pp. 523 – 31. (Review) "K. Löwith, Die Hegelsche Linke", in: 49 (1963), pp. 119–25. (Review) "St. Buczkowski, "Prawo a problemy ekonomiczne", W. Wolter, "Zroswazannad wina nie umyslna", A. Podgorecki. "Sociologia a nauki prawne", in: Panstwo i Prawo 17 (1962)", in: 49 (1963), pp. 360-5. (Review) "Zur Krise der Tradition unter Ivan III", in: Zeitschrift für slavische Philologie 32 (1965), pp. 108 – 123. "Hegel bei den Sklaven, ed. D. Tschyzevskij", in: Zeitschrift für Ostforschung 17 (1968), pp. 127 – 32. (Review) “Reflexion, Interpretation und Dialektik", in: Entwicklung und Fortschritt, Festschrift für W.E. Mühlmann, ed. H. Reimann and E.W. Müller, Tübingen: J.B.C. Mohr, 1969, pp. 63 – 74. "Bemerkngen zur Klosterreform Josef Sanins", in: Welt der Slaven 14 (1969), pp. 430 – 450. "Logik", in: Lexikon der Pädagogik, Vol. III, Freiburg: Herder, 1971, pp. 121 – 2. "Zwei neuere Explikate der Begriffe 'analytisch' und 'synthetisch'", in: Kantstudien 62 (1971), 202 - 217. "Der systematische Ort von Herders 'Metakritik'", in: Kantstudien 63 (1972), pp. 59 – 73. "Über die Möglichkeit konsequenzlogischer Kontrolle phenomenologischer Analysen", in: Kantstudien 63 (1972), pp. 237 – 246. Zur Kritik der hermeneutischen Vernunft, Bonn: Bouvier, 1972, 163 p. "Reflexion and Totality in the Phenomenology of Edmund Husserl", in: Journal of the British Society of Phenomenology 4 (1973), pp. 20 – 30. "Bemerkungen zu Pazanin und Strasser", in: Vérité et Vérification, Actes du Quatrieme Colloque International de Phénoménologie, Schwäbisch Hall, 8 - 11 septembre 1969, ed. H.L. Van Breda, Den Haag: Nijhoff, 1974, pp. 183 – 4. "Das Widerspruchsprinzip in der Kantischen Logik und der Hegelschen Dialektik", in: Akten des 4. Internationalen Kant-Kongresses Mainz, April 1974, Ed. G. Funke, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974, pp. 862 – 74. "Zur Genese des Historismus", in: bewußt sein, Gerhard Funke zu eigen, ed. A Bucher, H. Drüe, Th.M. Seebohm, Bonn: Bouvier, 1975, pp. 111 – 24. bewußt sein, Gerhard Funke zu eigen, ed. A Bucher, H. Drüe, Th.M. Seebohm, Bonn: Bouvier, 1975, (co-editor). "The Grammar of Hegel's Dialectic", in: Hegel Studien 11 (1976), pp. 149 – 80. "Die Phänomenologie kognitiver Leistungen im Umgang mit formalen Sprachen", in: Phänomenologische Forschungen 2 (1976), pp. 49 – 75. "R. Sokolowski, Husserlian Meditations", in: Philosophische Rundschau 23 (1976), pp. 60 – 5. (Review) "G. Planty-Bonjour, Hegel et la pensée philosophique en Russie 1830 - 1917", in: Hegel Studien 11 (1976), pp. 313 – 6. (Review) Ratio und Charisma. Ansätze zur Ausbildung eines philosophischen und wissenschaftlichen Weltverständnisses im Moskauer Rußland, Bonn: Bouvier, 1977, 766 p. "Bemerkungen zum Problem der Interpretation irrealer Konditionalsätze als verkürzter Schlüsse", in: Kantstudien 68 (1977), pp. 1 – 17. "The Problem of Hermeneutics in Recent Anglo-American Literature, Part I", in: Philosophy and Rhethoric 10 (1977), pp. 180 – 98. "The Problem of Hermeneutics in Recent Anglo-American Literature, Part II", in: Philosophy and Rhethoric 10 (1977), pp. 263 – 75. "Wertfreies Urteilen über fremde Kulturen im Rahmen einer transzendental-phänomenologischen Axiologie", in: Phänomenologische Forschungen 4 (1977), pp. 52 – 85. "Reflection, Interpretation, and Dialectic", in: Graduate Faculty Journal 7 (1977), pp. 15 – 33. "A. Walicki, The Slavophile Controversy", in: Hegel Studien 12 (1977), pp. 258 – 61. (Review) "On the Doctrine of Categories", in: Categories: A Colloquium, ed. H.W. Johnstone, University Park, PA: Dept. of Philosophy, Penn State University Press, 1978, pp. 21 – 40. "H.G. Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics", in: Philosophy and Rhethoric 11 (1978), pp. 191 – 5. (Review) "P. Ricoeur, Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning", in: Graduate Faculty Philosophy Journal 7 (1978), pp. 257 – 69. (Review) "Schelling's Kantian Critique of Hegel's Deduction of Categories", in: Clio 8 (1979), pp. 239 – 55. "Sowjetrussische Veröffentlichungen zum Kant-Jahr 1974", in: Kantstudien 70 (1979), pp. 491 – 507. "A. Gulyga, Kant", in:Kantstudien 70 (1979), pp. 234 – 6. (Review) "Historische Kausalerklärung", in: Kausalität: Neue Texte, ed. G. Posch, Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam, 1981, pp. 260 – 88. "Kant's Theory of Revolution", in: Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences 48 (1981), pp. 557 – 587. "Hegel, Gesammelte Werke, Vol. 11, ed. F. Hogemann and W. Jaeschke", in: Clio 11 (1981), pp. 440 –4. (Review) "The Significance of the Phenomenology of Written Discourse for Hermeneutics", in: Interpersonal Communication: Essays in Phenomenology and Hermeneutics, ed. J.J. Pilotta, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1982, 141 - 59. "Die Kantische Beweistheorie und die Beweise der Kritik der reinen Vernunft", in: Akten des 5. internationalen Kant-Kongresses, Vol. II, ed. G. Funke, Bonn: Bouvier, 1982, pp. - 127 - 48. "The New Hermeneutics, other Trends, and the Human Sciences from the Standpoint of Transcendental Phenomenology", in: Continental Philosophy in America, ed. H.J. Silverman, J. Sallis, and Th.M. Seebohm, Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1983, pp. 64 – 89. Continental Philosophy in America, ed. H.J. Silverman, J. Sallis, Th.M. Seebohm, Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1983, (co-editor). "The Other in the Field of Consciousness", in: Aron Gurwitsch in Memoriam, ed. L.E. Embree, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1984, pp. 283 – 304. "Preface, Bibliography, Index", in: Kant and Phenomenology, ed. Th.M. Seebohm and J.J. Kockelmans, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1984, pp. V - XII, 203 - 229. Philosophie der Logik. Handbuch Philosophie, Freiburg: Alber, 1984, 364 p. Kant and Phenomenology, Washington: Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1984. (Together with J.J. Kockelmans). "Boeckh and Dilthey: The Development of Methodical Hermeneutics", in: Man and World 17 (1984), pp. 325 – 46. "Die Begründung der Hermeneutik Diltheys in Husserls transzendentaler Phänomenologie", in: Dilthey und die Philosophie der Gegenwart, ed. E.W. Orth, Freiburg, München: Alber, 1985, pp. 97 – 1024. "The End of Philosophy: Three Historical Aphorisms", in: Hermeneutics and Deconstruction, ed. H.J. Silverman and D. Ihde, New York: New York University Press, 1985, pp. 10 – 23. "Die Stellung der phänomenologischen Idee der Letzbegründung zur Seinsfrage", in: Einheit als Grundlage der Philosophie, ed. K. Gloy and E. Rudolph, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1985, pp. 303 – 21. "Fichte's and Husserl's Critique of Kant's Transcendental Deduction", in: Husserl Studies 2 (1985), 53 - 74. "Facts, Words, and what Jurisprudence Can Teach Hermeneutics", in: Research in Phenomenology 16 (1986), pp. 24 – 40. "Isiodor of Seville versus Aristotle in the Questions on Human Law and Right in the Summa Theologiae of Thomas of Aquinas", in: Graduate Faculty Journal 11 (1986), pp. 83 – 106. "Deconstruction in the Framework of Methodical Hermeneutics", in: Journal of the British Society of Phenomenology 17 (1986), pp. 275 – 88. "Phänomenologischen Betrachtungen zur Semantik möglicher Welten", in: Johannes Gutenberg Universität, Antrittsvorlesungen, Vol. 2, Mainz: Universitätspressestelle, 1987, pp. 67 – 102. "Wissenschaftsbegründung und Letztbegründung im Denkweg Martin Heideggers", in: Zur Selbstbegründung der Philosophie seit Kant, ed. W. Marx, Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1987, pp. 157 – 75. "Dilthey, Husserl, and Prima Philosophia", in: Dilthey and Phenomenology, ed. R.A. Makkreel and J. Scanlon, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1987, pp. 23 – 29. "Considerations of a Husserlian"; In: Pragmatism Considers Phenomenology, ed. R.S. Corrington, C. Hausman, and Th.M. Seebohm, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1987, pp. 217 – 229. "Foreword", in: G. Funke, Phenomenology, Metaphysics, or Method, Athens, Ohio, London: Ohio University Press, 1987, pp. VII - XV. Pragmatism Considers Phenomenology, ed. R.S. Corrington, C. Hausman, and Th.M. Seebohm, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1987, (co-editor). "Über die unmögliche Möglichkeit andere Kategorien zu denken als die unseren", in: Kants transzendentale Deduktion und die Möglichkeit von Transzendentalphilosophie, ed. Forum für Philosophie, Bad Homburg, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1988, pp. 11 – 31. Perspektiven Transzendentaler Reflektion, Festschrift für Gerhard Funke zum 75. Geburtstag, Bonn: Bouvier, 1988. (Together with Gisela Müller). "Phenomenology of Logic and the Problem of Modalizing", in: Journal of the British Society of Phenomenology 19 (1988), pp. 235 – 251. "Über das Problem der Beschreibung einander bedingender Ereignisse", in: Philosophie und Psychologie, Leib und Seele - Determination und Vorhersage, ed. W. Marx, Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1989, 133- 163. "Bemerkungen zu einem Schriftenverzeichnis", in: Perspektiven transzendentaler Reflexion, Festschrift für Gerhard Funke zum 75. Geburtstag, ed. G. Müller and Th.M. Seebohm, Bonn: Bouvier, 1989, pp. 205 – 219. "Kant's Theory of Revolution", in: The Public Realm, ed. R. Schürmann, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989, 60 - 81. "Apodiktizität, Recht und Grenze", in: Husserl Symposion Mainz, ed. G. Funke, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz, Stuttgart: Steiner, 1989, pp. 65 – 99. "Transzendental Phenomenology", in: Husserl's Phenomenology: A Textbook, ed. J.N. Mohanty and W.R. McKenna, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology, Inc. and co-published by arrangement with the University Press of America, Inc., 1989, 345 - 385. "The More Dangerous Disease: Transzendental Psychologism, Anthropologism and Historism", in: Perspectives on Psychologism, ed. M.A. Notturno, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989, pp. 11 – 31. Proceedings of the 6. International Kant Congress, Vol. I, II/1, II/2, ed. G. Funke and Th.M. Seebohm, Washington D.C.: Center of Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1989, (co-editor). "Perspektiven des Lingualismus, Heidegger und Quine", in: Martin Heidegger weiterdenken, ed. A. Raffelt, Schriftenreihe der katholischen Akademie der Erzdiözese Freiburg, München, Zürich: Schell & Steiner, 1990, pp. 9 – 35. "Vorwort des Herausgebers", in: Aron Gurwitsch, Kants Theorie des Verstandes, ed. Th.M. Seebohm, Contributions to Phenomenology 5, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990, V - XX. Aron Gurwitsch, Kants Theorie des Verstandes, Contributions to Phenomenology Vol. 5, Dordrecht, Boston, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990. "Kategoriale Anschauung", in: Phänomenologische Forschungen 23 (1990), pp. 9 – 43. "Psychologism Revisited", in: Phenomenology and the Formal Sciences, ed. Th.M. Seebohm, D. Føllesdal and J.N. Mohanty Contributions to Phenomenology Vol. 8, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991, pp. 149 – 182. Elementare formalisierte Logik, Freiburg: Alber, 1991, 263 p. Phenomenology and the Formal Sciences, Contributions to Phenomenology Vol. 8, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991. (Together with Dagfinn Føllesdal and J.N. Mohanty). Prinzip und Applikation in der praktischen Philosophie, AdWL Mainz, Stuttgart: Steiner, 1991. "The Paradox of Subjectivity and the Idea of Ultimate Grounding in Husserl and Heidegger", in: Phenomenology and Indian Philosophy, ed. D.P. Chattopadhyaya, L. Embree and J.N. Mohanty, New Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass Publishers, 1992, pp. 153 – 168. "Falsehood as the Prime Mover of Hermeneutics", in: The Journal of Speculative Philosophy NS 6 (1992), pp. 1 – 24. "Variable, Objekte, Mengen von Universen und maximale Konsistenz in formalisierten Sprachen" (Metakritik zur Diskussion von L.B. Puntel), in: Ethik und Sozialwissenschaften, Streitforum für Erwägungskultur 3 (1992), pp. 186 – 195. "The Pre-conscious, the Unconscious, and the Subconscious: A Phenomenological Explication", in: Man and World 25 (1992), pp. 505 – 520. "The Pre-conscious, the Unconscious, and the Subconscious: A Phenomenological Critique of the Hermeneutics of the Latent", in: Aquinas. Rivista Internazionale di Filosofia 35 (1992), pp. 47 – 271. (Extended version of 26) "Possible Worlds", in: Phenomenology - East and West (Festschrift Mohanty), ed. F.M. Kirkland and D.P. Chattopadhyaya, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993. "Über die vierfache Abwesenheit im Jetzt. Warum ist Husserl da, wo ihn Derrida nicht vermutet?", in: Das Rätsel der Zeit, Philosophische Analysen, ed. H.M. Baumgartner, Freiburg: Alber, 1993. "L'Individuo. Considerazioni fenomenologiche su una categoria logica", in: Discipline Filosofiche (1993.1), pp. 21 – 71. "Logika ponjatii kak predosylka kantovsoj formal'noj i transcedental'noj logiki" (translated by V. Brijuschinkin), in: Kantovskij Sbornik 17 (1993). "Intentionalität und passive Synthesis", in: Husserl in Halle, ed. H.M. Gerlach and H.M. Sepp, Daedalus V, Frankfurt, Berlin et al.: Peter Lang, 1994. "Considerations on Der Satz vom Grund", in: The Question of Hermeneutics, ed. T.J. Stapleton, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994. "Fichte's Discovery of the Dialectical Method", in: Fichte, Historical Contexts/Contemporary Controversies, ed. D. Breazeale and T. Rockmore, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1994. "Kant und die Revolution", in: Jahrbuch der Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg, XXVIII, 1993, pp. 141 – 148. "The Apodicticity of Absence", in: Derrida and Phenomenology, ed. W.R. McKenna and J.C. Evans, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995. "Some Difficulties in Kant's Conception of Formal Logic", in: Proceedings of the 8. International Kant Congress, Memphis 1995, Vol. I, Part 1, Section 1-2, ed. H. Robinson, Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1995. "Literary Tradition, Intercultural Transfer and Cross-Cultural Conversations", in: Cross-Culturall Conversations (Initiation), ed. A.N. Balslev, American Academy of Religion, Cultural Criticism Series Nr. 5, Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1996, pp. 145 – 172. "Kant und Mill über den Ursprung des obersten Prinzipes der Moral", in: Inmitten der Zeit. Beiträge zur Europäische Gegenwartsphilosophie (Festschrift für Mafred Riedel), ed. Th. Grethlein and H. Leitner, Königshausen und Neumann, 1996, pp. 179 – 217. „Elfriede Conrad, Kants Logikvorlesungen als neuer Schlüssel zur Architektonik der Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Forschungen und Materialien zur Deutschen Aufklärung. Stuttgart/Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1994“ in Journal of the History of Philosophy 1996, pp. 620 – 21. (Review) "Individuals, Identity, and Names: Phenomenological Considerations", in: Husserl in Contemporary Context, ed. B.C. Hopkins, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 115 – 150. "Johann Gottlieb Fichte", in: Encyclopedia of Phenomenology, ed. L. Embree et al., Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 223 – 226. "Germany" (together with E.W. Orth), in: Encyclopedia of Phenomenology, ed. L. Embree et al., Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 270 – 276. "Hermeneutics", in: Encyclopedia of Phenomenology, ed. L. Embree et al., Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 308 – 312. "Logic", in: Encyclopedia of Phenomenology, ed. L. Embree et al., Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 421 – 425. “Vorwort” in: Gisela Müller, Wahrnehmung, Urteil und Erkenntniswille. Untersuchungen zu Husserls Phänomenologie der vorprädikativen Erfahrung, Bouvier, Bonn, 1999, pp. 5 – 19 “Die reine Logik, die systematische Konstruktion des Prinzips der Vernunft und das System der Ideen” in: Architektonik und System in der Philosophie Kants, ed. H.F. Fulda / J. Stolzenberg, Meiner, Hamburg 2001, pp. 204 – 231. “The Methodology of Hermeneutics as a Challenge for Phenomenological Research” in: The Reach of Reflection” in: Issues for Phenomenology´s Second Century, ed. S. Crowell, L. Embree, and S.J. Julian, www.electronpress.com, 2001, pp. 200 – 226. (T.M. Zeboms), “Parvertejot psihologimu” transl. from the English (Bibl. Nr.) by E. Picukane, in: Kentaurs XXI, Riga, 2001, pp. 23 – 50. “The Phenomenological Movement: A Tradition without Method? Merleau-Ponty and Husserl” in: Merleau-Ponty´s Reading of Husserl, Ed. T. Toadvine and L. Embree, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht / Boston / London 2002, pp. 51 – 68. “The Hermeneutics of Texts. The Second Canon” in: Hermeneutic Philosophy of Science, Van Gogh´s Eyes, and God, ed. B. E. Babich, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 225, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht / Boston / London 2002, pp. 137 – 152. “Zum Problem des Verstehens” in: Die Stellung des Menschen in der Kultur, ed. C. Bermes, J. Jonas, K.-H Lembeck, Königshausen und Neumann, Würzburg 2002, pp. 123 – 143. Hermeneutics, Method and Methodology, Contributions to Phenomenology Vol. 50; Dordrecht / Boston / London, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004. “Three Responses” in: International Journal of Philosophical Studies vol.15, #5, 2008. pp 755–767 “Naturalism, Historism, and Phenomenology“ in: Advancing Phenomenology; Essays in Honour of Lester Embree ed. Th. Nenon, P. Blosser, Springer, Dordrecht 2010, pp 7 – 34 “ “Husserl on the Human Sciences in Ideen II” in: Husserl’ s Ideen, ed. L. Embree and T. Nednon, Springer, Dordrecht 2013, pp. 125–140. “Kants Theorie einer eigentlich rationalen Naturwissenschaft und die „Revolotionen“ der Mathematik und der Physik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert“ in: Das Leben der Vernunft. Beiträge zur Philosophie Kants, ed. D. Hüning, S. Klingner, C. Olk, De Gruyter, Berlin 2013, pp. 189–207. References Category:1934 births Category:2014 deaths Category:German philosophers Category:Pennsylvania State University faculty Category:People from Gliwice Category:Heidelberg University faculty Category:Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz faculty	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Kateryna Makova Kateryna D. Makova is an American biologist, currently the Francis R. and Helen M. Pentz Professor of Biology in the Eberly College of Science at Pennsylvania State University. She is also a published author, being widely cited by her peers and widely held in libraries. References Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:Living people Category:21st-century American biologists Category:Pennsylvania State University faculty	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Smart sensor Smart sensor may refer to Smart transducer, an analog or digital transducer or actuator combined with a processing unit and a communication interface Less powerful versions of smart cameras	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Vaglen Point Vaglen Point (, ‘Nos Vaglen’ \'nos 'v&-glen\) is the rock-tipped point on the southwest side of the entrance to Chinstrap Cove on the northwest coast of Clarence Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. The point is named after the settlements of Vaglen in Northeastern and Southeastern Bulgaria. Location Vaglen Point is located at , which is 5.75 km north-northeast of Craggy Point and 7.45 km southwest of Humble Point. British mapping in 1972 and 2009. Maps British Antarctic Territory. Scale 1:200000 topographic map. DOS 610 Series, Sheet W 61 54. Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, UK, 1972. South Shetland Islands: Elephant, Clarence and Gibbs Islands. Scale 1:220000 topographic map. UK Antarctic Place-names Committee, 2009. Antarctic Digital Database (ADD). Scale 1:250000 topographic map of Antarctica. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). Since 1993, regularly upgraded and updated. References Bulgarian Antarctic Gazetteer. Antarctic Place-names Commission. (details in Bulgarian, basic data in English) Vaglen Point. SCAR Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica. External links Vaglen Point. Copernix satellite image Category:Headlands of the South Shetland Islands Category:Bulgaria and the Antarctic	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
World on the Move World on the Move is a nature radio series broadcast weekly on BBC Radio 4. It is presented by Philippa Forrester and Brett Westwood. It is about migration in the natural world, and includes features on birds, mammals fish, frogs, toads, and insects. The programs include many reports from scientists in-the-field in various places worldwide. Observations from viewers are incorporated in some of the reports and statistics. References BBC World on the Move website page Category:BBC Radio 4 programmes	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Sechura–Catacao languages Sechura–Catacao is a proposed connection between the small Catacaoan language family of Peru and the language isolate Sechura (Sek). The languages are extremely poorly known, but Kaufman (1990) finds the connection convincing, Campbell (2012) persuasive. Kaufman (1994: 64) groups Leco and Sechura–Catacao together as part of a proposed Macro-Lecoan family. Vocabulary Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items. {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Sechura !! Catacao !! Colan \|- ! man \| rekla \|\| aszat \|\| yatadlam \|- ! water \| xoto \|\| yup \|\| yúp \|- ! fire \| morot \|\| guanararak \|\| hayur \|- ! sun \| yóro \|\| nap \|\| turi nap \|- ! moon \| ñangru \|\| nam \|\| nag \|- ! bird \| yaibab \|\| yeya \|\| yaiau \|- ! fish \| xuma \|\| l'as \|\| l'as \|- ! head \| te-uma \|\| \|\| \|- ! foot \| lava \|\| \|\| \|} References Category:Proposed language families Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Krzemieniewo, Pomeranian Voivodeship Krzemieniewo () is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Czarne, within Człuchów County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately south-east of Czarne, west of Człuchów, and south-west of the regional capital Gdańsk. The village has a population of 589. It has a church dating from 1629. Krzemieniewo was the site of subcamp Krummensee of the Nazi Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig during the Third Reich. References Krzemieniewo Category:Holocaust locations in Poland de:Krummensee	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Loren Driscoll Loren Driscoll (April 14, 1928 – April 8, 2008) was an American tenor who had an active international career from the 1950s through the mid-1980s. Driscoll was particularly noted for his performances in contemporary operas and sang in many world premieres. Biography Driscoll was born in Midwest, Wyoming and after studies at Syracuse University and Boston University made his professional operatic debut in 1954 as Dr. Cajus in Verdi's Falstaff with Opera of Boston. During the late 1950s and early 1960s Driscoll sang several roles with Santa Fé Opera. He made his company debut there in 1957 as Tom Rakewell in Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress and went on to sing Edgar Linton in the world premiere of Carlisle Floyd's Wuthering Heights (1958) and Hermann in the United States premiere of Paul Hindemith's Neues vom Tage (1961). In 1962 Driscoll became a principal singer with the Deutsche Oper Berlin and remained based with company for the next 25 years, while also singing at the Salzburg Festival, Glyndebourne, and several other European and North American opera houses. His great performance at the Deutsche Oper Berlin as Lord Barrat in the opera Der junge Lord by Hans Werner Henze (1965) awarded him the honorary title of "Kammersänger". He made his Metropolitan Opera debut in 1966 as David in Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, a role he sang 23 times with the company between 1966 and 1972. He also appeared at the Met as Alfred in their 1967 production of Die Fledermaus. In the 1950s Driscoll also sang in several Broadway musicals: as the Imam of the Mosque/The Bangle Man in Kismet, Freddy Eynsford-Hill in My Fair Lady, and Jerry Devine in the premiere of Marc Blitzstein's Juno (1959). Also for Blitzstein, Driscoll performed the role of Leo Hubbard in the composer's Regina with the New York City Opera in 1958, and appears on the recording of that production. Also on record, he can be heard singing in English language performances of Stravinsky's Renard the Fox and The Wedding (the recording of which features Samuel Barber, Aaron Copland, Lukas Foss, and Roger Sessions playing the four pianos). Both recordings were conducted by Stravinsky himself. Driscoll died in Berlin, on April 8, 2008. Opera roles created Roles created by Loren Driscoll include: Shridaman in Peggy Glanville-Hicks' Transposed Heads (Phoenix Theatre, New York City, 1958) Edgar Linton in Carlisle Floyd's Wuthering Heights (Santa Fe Opera, 1958) Pedro de Alvarado in Roger Sessions' Montezuma (Deutsche Oper Berlin, 1964) Lord Barrett in Hans Werner Henze's Der junge Lord (Deutsche Oper Berlin, 1965) Dionysos in Henze's The Bassarids (Salzburg Festival, 1966). Eumaeus in Luigi Dallapiccola's Ulisse (Deutsche Oper Berlin, 1968) The Architect in Aribert Reimann's Melusine (Schwetzingen Festival, 1971) First Officer in Wilhelm Dieter Siebert's Der Untergang der Titanic (The Sinking of the Titantic) (Deutsche Oper Berlin 1979). References Sources Boosey & Hawkes, Siebert, Wilhelm Dieter: Untergang der Titanic (1979) Cummings, David (ED.), "Driscoll, Loren", International Who's Who in Classical Music, Routledge, 2003, p. 206. Metropolitan Opera, Performance record: Driscoll, Loren (Tenor), MetOpera Database Time Magazine, "The Theater: New Musical on Broadway", 23 March 1959 Category:1928 births Category:2008 deaths Category:People from Midwest, Wyoming Category:American male musical theatre actors Category:American operatic tenors Category:Singers from Wyoming Category:Syracuse University alumni Category:Boston University alumni Category:Male actors from Wyoming Category:20th-century American opera singers Category:20th-century male singers	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
William Liddiard William Liddiard is a transport truck driver based out of London. He is also at the forefront of Liddiard Wheels, an omnidirectional wheel. He invented an omni-directional tyre, which can move a vehicle sideways. References Category:Inventors Category:Living people Category:Year of birth missing (living people)	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Livingstonia, Malawi Livingstonia or Kondowe is a town located in the Northern Region district of Rumphi in Malawi. It is north of the capital, Lilongwe, and connected by tarred road to Chitimba on the shore Lake Malawi. History Livingstonia was founded in 1894 by missionaries from the Free Church of Scotland. The missionaries had first established a mission in 1875 at Cape Maclear, which they named Livingstonia after David Livingstone, whose death in 1873 had rekindled British support for missions in Eastern Africa. The mission was linked with the Livingstonia Central Africa Company, set up as a commercial business in 1877. By 1881 Cape Maclear had proved extremely malarial and the mission moved north to Bandawe. This site also proved unhealthy and the Livingstonia Mission moved once again to the higher grounds between Lake Malawi and Nyika Plateau. This new site proved highly successful because Livingstonia is located in the mountains and therefore not prone to mosquitoes carrying malaria. The mission station gradually developed into a small town. The leading missionary for 52 years was Robert Laws. He established the best school in the region at the time in Livingstonia, and its graduates became influential in several neighbouring countries, including South Africa. Among the alumni of the school was writer Legson Kayira, who graduated in 1958. The title of his autobiographical work I Will Try was taken from the school motto. Laws wanted Livingstonia to develop into a University, but his successors did not pursue the dream. In 2003 the Livingstonia Synod of the Church of Central Africa, Presbyterian (CCAP) renewed the vision and started Livingstonia University. Facilities The houses in Livingstonia are mostly constructed with red bricks. The Stone House, the original house of Robert Laws, is now a hotel. It also has a small museum about the history of Livingstonia. Demographics In 2008, the population of Livingstonia was 6,690. Transportation The roads to Livingstonia do not have any tarmac. The town is connected to Chitimba on Lake Malawi by the S103 (T305), a steep hillside road with multiple hairpin bends, while the T306 and T305 run to the south. Both roads are in poor condition. Hospital David Gordon Memorial Hospital had its foundation stone laid in 1910 and was opened in 1911. David Gondwe was Livingstonia's first formally trained hospital assistant. He was sacked as the mission administration thought that his polygamous marriage rendered him "unstable". However, he was soon employed by the governmental Colonial Medical Services. The hospital currently serves a catchment area with a population of approximately 60,000. Further reading Lonely Planet, Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia (1st Ed.). 1997. Lonely Planet Publications, Hawthorne, Australia. For the history of Livingstonia Mission and Synod see: John McCracken, Politics and Christianity in Malawi 1975-1940. The Impact of the Livingstonia Mission in the Northern Province, 2nd ed., Blantyre: CLAIM, 2000, 376 pp. References External links Category:Populated places in Malawi Category:Populated places in Northern Region, Malawi Category:Populated places established in 1894	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
American Graduation Initiative The American Graduation Initiative was President Obama's initiative for Community Colleges. Obama announced the initiative at Macomb Community College in suburban Detroit in the summer of 2009. He proposed investing roughly $12 billion in community colleges over 10 years, with the goal of greatly improving their performance in getting students through to earn degrees and credentials, and increasing the number of community college graduates by 5 million over that time. In an effort to help ensure passage of the controversial Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010, Obama reduced funding for the college initiative to $2 billion, for career training, through a program administered by the U.S. Department of Labor. Ten years after the initiative was announced, the United States was far from reaching the graduation goals announced by Obama. Background An article in the Washington Post published on July 15, 2009 disclosed that President Obama will allocate $12 billion for community colleges in the USA that would lead to five million new graduates by the year 2020. The American Graduation Initiative will provide training for millions of American students who do not have the financial means to study in universities as well as the opportunity for older workers who require additional skills. The program helped elevate the prominence and status of community colleges and raised public awareness throughout the country. Through the economic stimulus bill of 2011, President Obama allotted $5 billion for the improvement of these institutions. The former President also obtained $2 billion for the approval and funding of the Trade Adjustment Assistance Community College and Career Training Grant Program. In January 8, 2015, Obama made the proposal for two years of free tuition for community colleges. President Barack Obama’s American Graduation Initiative may be considered one of the foundations of the Obama administration in terms of higher education. Time magazine describes community colleges as “the unique contribution of the United States to higher education globally.” From the late 19th century until the early part of the 20th century, these two-year learning institutions addressed concerns in post-secondary education. This model based on Germany’s educational system wherein the first two years of college is segregated from the final years which are full of research work. It was a sort of preparation of junior students for heavier load and responsibilities in higher institutions of learning References External links Excerpts of the President's remarks in Warren, Michigan, and fact sheet on the American Graduation Initiative. Category:Education reform	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Sebastián Firpo Sebastian Firpo (born ) is a former Argentine male volleyball player. He was part of the Argentina men's national volleyball team. He competed with the national team at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, finishing 4th. See also Argentina at the 2000 Summer Olympics References External links profile at sports-reference.com Category:1976 births Category:Living people Category:Argentine men's volleyball players Category:Place of birth missing (living people) Category:Volleyball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics Category:Volleyball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic volleyball players of Argentina	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Demographics of Hungary This article is about the demographic features of the population of Hungary, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Hungary's population has been declining since 1980. Population The population composition at the foundation of Hungary (895) depends on the size of the arriving Hungarian population and the size of the Slavic (and remains of Avar-Slavic) population at the time. One source mentions 200 000 Slavs and 400 000 Hungarians, while other sources often don't give estimates for both, making comparison more difficult. The size of the Hungarian population around 895 is often estimated between 120 000 and 600 000, with a number of estimates in the 400-600 000 range. Other sources only mention a fighting force of 25 000 Magyar warriors used in the attack, while declining to estimate the total population including women and children and warriors not participating in the invasion. In the historical demographics the largest earlier shock was the Mongol Invasion of Hungary, several plagues also took a toll on the country's population. According to the demographers, about 80 percent of the population was made up of Hungarians before the Battle of Mohács, however the Hungarian ethnic group became a minority in its own country in the 18th century due to the resettlement policies and continuous immigration from neighboring countries. Major territorial changes made Hungary ethnically homogeneous after World War I. Nowadays, more than nine-tenths of the population is ethnically Hungarian and speaks Hungarian as the mother tongue. 900–1910 Note: The data refer to the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, and not that of the present-day republic. Total Fertility Rate from 1850 to 1899 The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman. It is based on fairly good data for the entire period in the present-day Hungary. Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation. Vital statistics from 1900 Unless otherwise indicated, vital statistics are from the Hungarian Statistical Office. Births and deaths Current population natural growth Number of births from January–November 2018 = 82,580 Number of births from January–November 2019 = 81,341 Number of deaths from January–November 2018 = 118,693 Number of deaths from January–November 2019 = 117,964 Natural growth from January–November 2018 = –36,113 Natural growth from January–November 2019 = –36,623 Infant mortality rate The infant mortality rate (IMR) decreased considerably after WW II. In 1949, the IMR was 91.0. The rate decreased to 47.6 in 1960, 35.9 in 1970, 23.2 in 1980, 14.8 in 1990, 9.2 in 2000 and reached an all-time low in 2009: 5.1 per 1000 live born children. Total fertility rates Historical TFR by county Vital statistics by county There are large variations in the birth rates as of 2016: Zala County has the lowest birth rate with 7.5 births per thousand inhabitants, while Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County has the highest birth rate with 11.2 births per thousand inhabitants. The death rates also differ greatly from as low as 11.3 deaths per thousand inhabitants in Pest County to as high as 15.7 deaths per thousand inhabitants in Békés County. Demographics statistics Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review. One birth every 6 minutes One death every 4 minutes Net loss of one person every 16 minutes One net migrant every 90 minutes Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 9,825,704 (July 2018 est.) 9,850,845 (July 2017 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 14.66% (male 741,624 /female 698,905) 15-24 years: 10.76% (male 546,437 /female 511,214) 25-54 years: 42.01% (male 2,077,449 /female 2,050,330) 55-64 years: 13.07% (male 593,250 /female 690,784) 65 years and over: 19.5% (male 725,728 /female 1,189,983) (2018 est.) 0-14 years: 14.71% (male 746,043/female 702,792) (2017 est.) 15-24 years: 10.96% (male 557,655/female 522,324) (2017 est.) 25-54 years: 41.88% (male 2,075,101/female 2,050,478) (2017 est.) 55-64 years: 13.4% (male 608,734/female 711,602) (2017 est.) 65 years and over: 19.05% (male 708,214/female 1,167,902) (2017 est.) 0–14 years: 15% (male 763,553/female 720,112) (2009 est.) 15–64 years: 69.3% (male 3,384,961/female 3,475,135) (2009 est.) 65 years and over: 15.8% (male 566,067/female 995,768) (2009 est.) Median age total: 42.7 years. Country comparison to the world: 25th male: 40.8 years female: 44.7 years (2018 est.) total: 42.3 years male: 40.4 years female: 44.3 years (2017 est.) Birth rate 8.9 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 206th 9 births/1,000 population (2017 est.) Death rate 12.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 12th Total fertility rate 1.45 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 205th Net migration rate 1.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 58th Mother's mean age at first birth 28.3 years (2014 est.) Population growth rate -0.26% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 214th -0.25% (2017 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 76.3 years (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 88th male: 72.6 years (2018 est.) female: 80.2 years (2018 est.) Religions Roman Catholic 37.2%, Calvinist 11.6%, Lutheran 2.2%, Greek Catholic 1.8%, other 1.9%, none 18.2%, unspecified 27.2% (2011 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 4.9 deaths/1,000 live births Country comparison to the world: 177th male: 5.2 deaths/1,000 live births female: 4.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.) Languages Hungarian (official) 99.6%, English 16%, German 11.2%, Russian 1.6%, Romanian 1.3%, French 1.2%, other 4.2% note: shares sum to more than 100% because some respondents gave more than one answer on the census; Hungarian is the mother tongue of 98.9% of Hungarian speakers (2011 est.) Dependency ratios total dependency ratio: 46.9 (2015 est.) youth dependency ratio: 21.2 (2015 est.) elderly dependency ratio: 25.7 (2015 est.) potential support ratio: 3.9 (2015 est.) Urbanization urban population: 71.4% of total population (2018) rate of urbanization: 0.07% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.) Unemployment, youth ages 15–24 total: 17.3% Country comparison to the world: 76th male: 18.3% female: 16% (2015 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15–64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.57 male(s)/female total population: 0.91 male(s)/female (2009 est.) Life expectancy at birth Ethnic groups and language {\| class="sortable wikitable" ! style="width:5%;"\| County ! style="width:5%;"\| Hungarian ! style="width:5%;"\| Bulgarian ! style="width:5%;"\| Roma ! style="width:5%;"\| Greek ! style="width:5%;"\| Croat ! style="width:5%;"\| Polish ! style="width:5%;"\| German ! style="width:5%;"\| Armenian ! style="width:5%;"\| Romanian ! style="width:5%;"\| Rusyn ! style="width:5%;"\| Serbian ! style="width:5%;"\| Slovak ! style="width:5%;"\| Slovenian ! style="width:5%;"\| Ukrainian \|- \| All \|\| 93.5% \|\| 0.1% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 3.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.3% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 1.9% \|\| 0.0 \|\| 0.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Budapest \|\| 95.5% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 1.2% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.2% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 1.7% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Bács-Kiskun \|\| 93.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 2.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 2.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.3% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Baranya \|\| 86.3% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 4.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.9% \|\| 0.1% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 6.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Békés County \|\| 91.9% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 2.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.9% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 2.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén \|\| 90.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 8.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\|0.3% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Csongrád \|\| 96.8% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 1.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Fejér \|\| 96.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 1.5% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 1.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Győr-Moson-Sopron \|\| 95.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.8% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 2.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Hajdú-Bihar \|\| 95.4% \|\| 0.1% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 3.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Heves \|\| 92.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 6.3% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok \|\| 94.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 4.9% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Komárom-Esztergom \|\| 93.2% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 1.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 3.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.3% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Nógrád \|\| 90.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 7.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.4% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Pest \|\| 94.2% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 1.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.1% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 2.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Somogy \|\| 92.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 5.3% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.7% \|\| 0.0% \|\|0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg \|\| 90.8% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 8.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.3% \|- \| Tolna \|\| 90.3% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 3.9% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 5.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Vas \|\| 94.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 2.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.7% \|\| 0.0% \|- \| Veszprém \|\| 94.8% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.5% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 3.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.2% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|- \| Zala \|\| 94.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| style="background:#FFEBAD" \| 2.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.3% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 1.6% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.1% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|\| 0.0% \|} History Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920) Hungary lost 64% of its total population in consequence of the Treaty of Trianon, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnic Hungarians, Hungary lost five of its ten most populous cities. According to the census of 1910, the largest ethnic group in the Kingdom of Hungary were Hungarians, who were 54.5% of the population of Kingdom of Hungary, excluding Croatia-Slavonia. Although the territories of the former Kingdom of Hungary that were assigned by the treaty to neighbouring states in total had a majority of non-Hungarian population, they also included areas of Hungarian majority and significant Hungarian minorities, numbering 3,318,000 in total. The number of Hungarians in the different areas based on census data of 1910 (This census was recorded by language, thus amongst Hungarians also others - mainly Jews - were included who declared their primary language as Hungarian). The present day location of each area is given in parenthesis. In Upper Hungary (mostly Slovakia): 885,000 - 30% In Transylvania (Romania): 1,658,045 - 31.6% In Vojvodina (Serbia): 425,672 - 28.1% In Transcarpathia (Ukraine): 183,000 - 30% In Croatia: 121,000 - 3.5% In Prekmurje (Slovenia): 14,065 - 15% In Burgenland (Austria): 26,200 - 9% Non-Hungarian population in the Kingdom of Hungary, based on 1910 census data Slovaks, Romanians, Ruthenians, Serbs, Croats and Germans, who represented the majority of the populations of the above-mentioned territories: In Upper Hungary (mostly Slovakia): 1,687,977 Slovaks and 1,233,454 others (mostly Hungarians - 886,044, Germans, Ruthenians and Roma). However, according to the Czechoslovak census in 1921, there were 2,025,003 (67,5%) Slovaks, 650,597 (21,7%) Hungarians, 145,844 (4,9%) Germans, 88,970 (3,0%) Ruthenians and 90,456 (3,0%) others including Jews. In Carpathian Ruthenia (Ukraine): 330,010 Ruthenians and 275,932 others (mostly Hungarians, Germans, Romanians, and Slovaks) In Transylvania (Romania): 2,831,222 Romanians (53.8%) and 2,431,273 others (mostly Hungarians - 1,662,948 (31.6%) and Germans - 563,087 (10.7%). The 1919 and 1920 Transylvanian censuses indicate a greater percentage of Romanians (57.1%/57.3%) and a smaller Hungarian minority (26.5%/25.5%) In Vojvodina and Croatia-Slavonia (Serbia, Croatia): 2,756,000 Croats and Serbs and 1,366,000 others (mostly Hungarians and Germans) In Prekmurje (Slovenia): 74,199 Slovenes (80%), 14,065 Hungarians (15,2%), 2,540 Germans (2,7%) In Burgenland (Austria): 217,072 Germans and 69,858 others (mainly Croatian and Hungarian) Post-Trianon Hungary According to the 1920 census 10.4% of the population spoke one of the minority languages as mother language: 551,212 German (6.9%) 141,882 Slovak (1.8%) 23,760 Romanian (0.3%) 36,858 Croatian (0.5%) 23,228 Bunjevac and Šokci (0.3%) 17,131 Serb (0.2%) 7,000 Slovenes (0,08%) The number of bilingual people was much higher, for example 1,398,729 people spoke German (17%), 399,176 people spoke Slovak (5%), 179,928 people spoke Croatian (2.2%) and 88,828 people spoke Romanian (1.1%). Hungarian was spoken by 96% of the total population and was the mother language of 89%. The percentage and the absolute number of all non-Hungarian nationalities decreased in the next decades, although the total population of the country increased. Note: 300.000 Hungarian refugees fled to Hungary from the territory of successor states (Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia) after the WW I. From 1938 to 1945 Hungary expanded its borders and regained territories from Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia at the outset of the war. These annexations were affirmed under the Munich Agreement (1938), two Vienna Awards (1938 and 1940), Carpathian Ruthenia and parts of Yugoslavia were occupied and annexed in 1939 and 1941, respectively. The population of Northern Transylvania, according to the Hungarian census from 1941 counted 53.5% Hungarians and 39.1% Romanians. The territory of Bácska had 789,705 inhabitants, and 45,4% or 47,2% declared themselves to be Hungarian native speakers or ethnic Hungarians. The percentage of Hungarian speakers was 84% in southern Czechoslovakia and 25% in the Sub-Carpathian Rus. After WW II: 1949–1990 After World War II, about 200,000 Germans were deported to Germany according to the decree of the Potsdam Conference. Under the forced exchange of population between Czechoslovakia and Hungary, approximately 73,000 Slovaks left Hungary. After these population movements Hungary became an ethnically almost homogeneous country except the rapidly growing number of Romani people in the second half of the 20th century. For historical reasons, significant Hungarian minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, notably in Ukraine (in Transcarpathia), Slovakia, Romania (in Transylvania), and Serbia (in Vojvodina). Austria (in Burgenland), Croatia, and Slovenia (Prekmurje) are also host to a number of ethnic Hungarians. 2001–2011 Note: In 2001 570,537, in 2011 1,398,731 people did not give answer for ethnicity. Moreover, people were able to give more than one answer on the question asking for the minorities (for example, people were allowed to write Hungarian as their first ethnic identity and German as an ethnic identity being influenced by), hence the sum of the above exceeds the number of population. Methodology had changed in 2001 and 2011 also. Roma people is estimated to be around 8.8% Roma 2016 Note: In Hungary people are able to give more than one answer on the question asking for the minorities (for example, people were allowed to write Hungarian as their first ethnic identity and German as an ethnic identity being influenced by), hence the sum of the above exceeds the number of population. In 2016 102,000 people (1% of the total population) did not give answer for ethnicity. Historical ethnic groups of Hungary When the Hungarians invaded the Carpathian Basin, it was inhabited by West Slavic and Avar peoples. Written sources from the 9th century also suggest that some groups of Onogurs and Bulgars occupied the valley of the river Mureş at the time of the Magyars’ invasion. There is a dispute as to whether Romanian population existed in Transylvania during that time. The Roma minority The first Romani groups arrived in Hungary in the fifteenth century from Turkey. Nowadays, the real number of Roma in Hungary is a disputed question. In the 2001 census only 190 046 (2%) called themselves Roma, but experts and Roma organisations estimate that there are between 450,000 and 1,000,000 Roma living in Hungary. Since then, the size of the Roma population has increased rapidly. Today every fifth or sixth newborn child belongs to the Roma minority. Based on current demographic trends, a 2006 estimate by Central European Management Intelligence claims that the proportion of the Roma population will double by 2050, putting the percentage of its Roma community at around 14-15% of the country's population. There are problems related to the Roma minority in Hungary, and the very subject is a heated and disputed topic. Objective problems: Slightly more than 80% of Roma children complete primary education, but only one third continue studies into the intermediate (secondary) level. This is far lower than the more than 90% proportion of children of non-Roma families who continue studies at an intermediate level. Less than 1% of Roma hold higher educational certificates. Poverty: most of the Roma people live in significantly worse conditions than others. Bad health conditions: life expectancy is about 10 years less compared to non-Romas Lack of debate regarding the subject: academic researchers and members of the mainstream press disregard any critics and study the subject in the canonical viewpoint. Critics don't have the funds necessary to perform alternative studies. Kabars Three Kabar tribes joined to the Hungarians and participated in the Hungarian conquest of Hungary. They settled mostly in Bihar county. Böszörménys The Muslim Böszörménys migrated to the Carpathian Basin in the course of the 10th-12th centuries and they were composed of various ethnic groups. Most of them must have arrived from Volga Bulgaria and Khwarezm. Pechenegs Communities of Pechenegs (Besenyő in Hungarian) lived in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11-12th centuries. They were most numerous in the county of Tolna. Oghuz Turks (Ouzes) Smaller groups of Oghuz Turk settlers ('Úzok' or 'Fekete Kunok/Black Cumans' in Hungarian) came to the Carphatian Basin from the middle of the 11th century. They were settled mostly in Barcaság. The city of Ózd got its name after them. Jassics The Jassic (Jász in Hungarian) people were a nomadic tribe which settled -with the Cumans- in the Kingdom of Hungary during the 13th century. Their name is almost certainly related to that of the Iazyges. Béla IV, king of Hungary granted them asylum and they became a privileged community with the right of self-government. During the centuries they were fully assimilated to the Hungarian population, their language disappeared, but they preserved their Jassic identity and their regional autonomy until 1876. Over a dozen settlements in Central Hungary (e.g. Jászberény, Jászárokszállás, Jászfényszaru) still bear their name. Cumans During the Russian campaign, the Mongols drove some 200,000 Cumans, a nomadic tribe who had opposed them, west of the Carpathian Mountains. There, the Cumans appealed to King Béla IV of Hungary for protection. In the Kingdom of Hungary, Cumans created two regions named Cumania (Kunság in Hungarian): Greater Cumania (Nagykunság) and Little Cumania (Kiskunság), both located the Great Hungarian Plain. Here, the Cumans maintained their autonomy, language and some ethnic customs well into the modern era. According to Pálóczi's estimation originally 70-80,000 Cumans settled in Hungary. Romanians The oldest extant documents from Transylvania make reference to Vlachs too. Regardless of the subject of Romanian presence/non-presence in Transylvania prior to the Hungarian conquest, the first written sources about Romanian settlements derive from the 13th century, record was written about Olahteluk village in Bihar County from 1283. The 'land of Romanians', Terram Blacorum (1222,1280) showed up in Fogaras and this area was mentioned under different name (Olachi) in 1285. The first appearance of a supposed Romanian name 'Ola' in Hungary derives from a charter (1258). They were significant population in Transylvania, Banat, Maramureș and Partium. There are different estimations in connection with number of Romanians in Kingdom of Hungary. According to researches based on place-names, 511 villages of Transylvania and Banat appear in documents at the end of the 13th century, however only 3 of them bore Romanian names. Around 1400 AD, Transylvania and Banat consisted of 1757 villages, though only 76 (4.3%) of them were Romanian. The number of Romanians started to increase significantly from the Early modern period. By 1700, the Romanian ethnic group consisted of 40 percent of the Transylvanian population and their number raised even more in the 18th century. Although, according to other estimates, the Romanian inhabitants who were primarily peasants, consisted of more than 60 percent of the population in 1600. Jean W.Sedlar estimates that Vlachs (Romanians) constituted about two-thirds of Transylvania's population in 1241 on the eve of the Mongol invasion, however according to other researches Hungarian ethnic group was in decent majority in Transylvania before Battle of Mohács and only lost its relative majority by the 17th century. Slovaks The Slovak people lived mainly in Upper Hungary, northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary. Due to post-Ottoman resettlements, the regions of Vojvodina, Banat and Békés county received bigger Slovak communities in the 18th century. After WWII a major population exchange with Czechoslovakia was carried out: about 73,000 Slovaks were transferred to Slovakia, replaced by an incomparable number of Hungarians. Serbs From the 14th century, escaping from the Ottoman threat, a large number of Serbs migrated to the Hungarian Kingdom. After the Battle of Mohács, most of the territory of Hungary got into Ottoman rule. In that time, especially in the 17th century, many Serb, and other Southern Slavic immigrants settled in Hungary. Most of the Ottoman soldiers in the territory of present-day Hungary were South Slavs (the Janissary). After the Turkish withdrawal, Kingdom of Hungary came under Habsburg rule, a new wave of Serb refugees migrated to the area around 1690, as a consequence of the Habsburg-Ottoman war. In the first half of the 18th century, Serbs and South Slavs were ethnic majority in several cities in Hungary. Germans Three waves of German migration can be distinguished in Hungary before the 20th century. The first two waves of settlers arrived to the Hungarian Kingdom in the Middle Ages (11th and 13th centuries) in Upper Hungary and in Southern Transylvania (Transylvanian Saxons). The third, largest wave of German-speaking immigrants into Hungary occurred after the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from Hungarian territory, after the Treaty of Karlowitz. Between 1711 and 1780, German-speaking settlers immigrated to the regions of Southern Hungary, mostly region of Bánát, Bács-Bodrog, Baranya and Tolna counties (as well as into present-day Romania and Yugoslavia), which had been depopulated by the Ottoman wars. At the end of the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary contained over one million German-speaking residents (collectively known as Danube Swabians). In 2011, 131,951 people declared to be German in Hungary (1,6%). Rusyns Rusyns had lived mostly in Carpathian Ruthenia, Northeast Hungary, however significant Rusyn population appeared in Vojvodina from the 18th century. Croats Croatia was in personal union with Hungary from 1102. Croat communities were spread mostly in the western and southern part of the country and along the Danube, including Budapest. Poles The Poles lived at the northern borders of Kingdom of Hungary from the arrival of the Hungarians. Slovenes The Slovenes (Vendek in Hungarian) lived in the western part of the Carpathian basin before the Hungarian conquest. In the 11th and 12th century, the current linguistic and ethnic border between the Hungarian and Slovene people was established. Nowadays, they live in Vendvidék (Slovenska krajina in Slovenians) between the Mura and the Rába rivers. In 2001, there were around 5,000 Slovenes in Hungary. Jews The first historical document about Jews of Hungary is the letter written about 960 to King Joseph of the Khazars by Hasdai ibn Shaprut, the Jewish statesman of Córdoba, in which he says Jews living in "the country of Hungarin". There are Jewish inscriptions on tombs and monuments in Pannonia (Roman Hungary) dated to the second or third century CE. Armenians The first Armenians came to Hungary from the Balkans in the 10 - 11th century. Greeks Greeks migrated to Kingdom of Hungary from the 15th and 16th centuries. Mass migrations did not occur until the 17th century, the largest waves being in 1718 and 1760–1770; they were primarily connected to the economic conditions of the period. It is estimated that 10,000 Greeks emigrated to Hungary in the second half of the 18th century. A number of Greeks Communists escaped to Hungary after the Greek Civil War, notably in the 'Greek' village of Beloiannisz. Bulgarians The town of Szentendre and the surrounding villages were inhabited by Bulgarians since the Middle Ages. However, present day Bulgarians are largely descended from gardeners who migrated to Hungary from the 18th century. Religion The majority of Hungarians became Christian in the 11th century. Hungary remained predominantly Catholic until the 16th century, when the Reformation took place and, as a result, first Lutheranism, then soon afterwards Calvinism, became the religion of almost the entire population. In the second half of the 16th century, however, Jesuits led a successful campaign of counterreformation among the Hungarians, although Protestantism survived as the faith of a significant minority, especially in the far east and northeast of the country. Orthodox Christianity in Hungary has been the religion mainly of some national minorities in the country, notably Romanians, Rusyns, Ukrainians, and Serbs. Faith Church, one of Europe's largest Pentecostal churches, is also located in Hungary. Hungary has historically been home to a significant Jewish community. According to 2011 census data, Christianity is the largest religion in Hungary, with around 5.2 million adherents (52.9%), while the largest denomination in Hungary is Catholicism (38.9% — Roman Catholicism 37.1%; Greek Catholicism 1.8%). There is a significant Calvinist minority (11.6% of the population) and smaller Lutheran (2.2%), Orthodox (0.1%) and Jewish (0.1%) minorities. However, these census figures are representative of religious affiliation rather than attendance; around 12% of Hungarians attend religious services more than least once a week and around 50% more than once a year, while 30% of Hungarians do not believe in God at all. The census showed a large drop of religious adherents who wish to answer, from 74.6% to 54.7% in ten years' time, replacing them by people either who do not wish answer or people who are not following a religion. Largest cities See also Hungarian diaspora Demographics of the Kingdom of Hungary by county History of Hungary Demographic history of Syrmia Magyarization Notes References External links KSH, vital statistics, 1960-2012 Hungarian Central Statistical Office (in English) Category:Hungarian society	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Residential gateway A residential gateway is a small consumer-grade router which provides network access between local area network (LAN) hosts to a wide area network (WAN) via a modem. The modem may or may not be integrated into the hardware of the residential gateway. The WAN is a larger computer network, generally operated by an Internet service provider. Devices Multiple devices have been described as "residential gateways": Cable modem DSL modem Wireless router Network switch Voice over internet protocol (VoIP) analog telephone adapter Wireless access point Wired router IP-DECT telephone (base station) or certain combinations of the above. A modem (e.g. DSL modem, Cable modem) by itself provides none of the functions of a router. It merely allows ATM or Ethernet or PPP traffic to be transmitted across telephone lines, cable wires, optical fibers, or wireless radio frequencies. On the receiving end is another modem that re-converts the transmission format back into digital data packets. This allows network bridging using telephone, cable, optical, and radio connection methods. The modem also provides handshake protocols, so that the devices on each end of the connection are able to recognize each other. However, a modem generally provides few other network functions. A USB modem plugs into a single PC and allows a connection of that single PC to a WAN. If properly configured, the PC can also function as the router for a home LAN. An internal modem can be installed on a single PC (e.g. on a PCI card), also allowing that single PC to connect to a WAN. Again, the PC can be configured to function as a router for a home LAN. A wireless access point can function in a similar fashion to a modem. It can allow a direct connection from a home LAN to a WAN, if a wireless router or access point is present on the WAN as well. However, many modems now incorporate the features mentioned below and thus are appropriately described as residential gateways. Features A residential gateway usually provides configuration via a web interface, routing between the home network and the Internet, connectivity within the home network like a network switch, network address translation (NAT) for IPv4, DHCP for IPv4 and increasingly router advertisements for IPv6, firewall functions, and wired or wireless telephony. It may also provide other functions such as Dynamic DNS. Most routers are self-contained components, using internally stored firmware. They are generally OS-independent, i.e., they can be accessed with any operating system. Wireless routers perform the same functions as a router, but also allow connectivity for wireless devices with the LAN, or between the wireless router and another wireless router. (The wireless router-wireless router connection can be within the LAN or can be between the LAN and a WAN.) Security Low-cost production and requirement for user friendliness makes the home routers vulnerable to network attacks, which in the past resulted in large clusters of such devices being taken over and used to launch DDoS attacks. A majority of the vulnerabilities were present in the web administration consoles of the routers, allowing unauthorised control either via default passwords, vendor backdoors, or web vulnerabilities. See also Customer-premises equipment Home network Home server Multimedia over Coax Alliance LAN switching Technological convergence List of wireless router firmware projects References External links The Residential Gateway (a vision paper published in International Engineering Consortium’s 1996 Annual Review of Communications, p.457) Home Gateway Initiative, a group of broadband providers proposing specifications for residential gateways The Residential Home Gateway on About.com Category:Networking hardware Category:Telecommunications equipment Category:Broadband Category:Server appliance Router la:Gateway	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Moonville Rail-Trail The Moonville Rail-Trail is a sixteen-mile (25 kilometer) rail-trail in southeast Ohio, located in Vinton and Athens Counties. It is largely embedded in the Zaleski State Forest and passes close to Lake Hope State Park. The trail is named after the Moonville tunnel through which it passes. The trail is built on the grade of a railroad originally built as part of the part of the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad, which ran between its namesake cities. The M&C was acquired by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad becoming its Southwestern Division. The B&O was merged into the Chessie System Railroads, which was then merged into CSX Transportation. CSX abandoned parts and sold parts the old M&C line in stages in the late 1980s. Track was removed from the abandoned sections. The section of the railroad grade (with track removed) from the Red Diamond Powder Plant on the west end (between McArthur and Zaleski) to Mineral on the east end was acquired by the respective county governments through Clean Ohio Conservation Fund grants. The underlying property is owned by the Athens County Commissioners in Athens County, and by the Vinton County Commissioners in Vinton County. The rail trail runs from Zaleski to Mineral. The rail remains intact from the Diamond Powder Plant westward nearly to Chillicothe. The track from Mineral eastward is abandoned through Athens and to Belpre. This rail-trail is open to hikers, horse riders, and bicyclists. It has a gravel/dirt surface and has many stream crossings where the railroad bridges were removed during the dismantling of the track. Work to restore the many bridges in order to make the entire stretch passable is underway. The trail features two tunnels: the Moonville Tunnel, a masonry tunnel in Vinton County that is reputed to be haunted, and the King Switch Tunnel, a timber tunnel in Athens County. The governing organization of the trail, Moonville Rail-Trail, Inc., hopes to eventually extend the trail eastward to New Marshfield then to Athens to join with the Hockhocking Adena Bikeway. Location West terminus at Zaleski: East terminus at Mineral: External links Moonville Rail-Trail, Inc. Category:Transportation in Athens County, Ohio Category:Bike paths in Ohio Category:Rail trails in Ohio Category:Transportation in Vinton County, Ohio Category:Protected areas of Athens County, Ohio Category:Protected areas of Vinton County, Ohio	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Festus Mogae Festus Gontebanye Mogae (born 21 August 1939) is a Motswana politician who served as the third President of Botswana from 1998 to 2008. He succeeded Quett Masire as President in 1998 and was re-elected in October 2004; after ten years in office, he stepped down in 2008 and was succeeded by Lieutenant General Ian Khama. Biography Early life Mogae studied economics in the United Kingdom, first at University College, Oxford, and then at the University of Sussex. He returned to Botswana to work as a civil servant before taking up posts with the International Monetary Fund and the Bank of Botswana. He was Vice-President of Botswana from 1992 to 1998. Presidency Mogae's party, the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), retained power in the October 1999 general election, and Mogae was sworn in for a five-year term on 20 October 1999 by Chief Justice Julian Nganunu at the National Stadium in Gaborone. On this occasion, he vowed to focus on the fight against poverty and unemployment. Following the BDP's victory in the October 2004 general election, Mogae was sworn in for another term on 2 November 2004. Mogae promised to tackle poverty and unemployment, as well as the spread of HIV-AIDS, which he pledged to stop in Botswana by 2016. On 14 July 2007, Mogae affirmed his intention to resign nine months later. He stepped down as President on 1 April 2008 and was succeeded by Vice-President Ian Khama. Post-presidency Mogae currently serves as Special Envoy of the United Nations Secretary-General on Climate Change. In 2010, he joined the advisory board of US nonprofit TeachAIDS. He also currently serves as chairman of the Choppies supermarket group where he earned Pula 529,000 in 2011. In 2013, along with former President Benjamin Mkapa of Tanzania, Mogae co-chaired a sustainable development symposium, hosted by the UONGOZI Institute in collaboration with Club de Madrid. organisation of which Mkapa is also a member. Personal life Festus Mogae married Barbara Mogae in 1967. They have three daughters, born between 1970 and 1987: Nametso, Chedza and Boikaego. Honours Mogae was awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur by French President Nicolas Sarkozy on 20 March 2008 for his "exemplary leadership" in making Botswana a "model" of democracy and good governance. Mogae won the 2008 Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership, and will receive US$5 million over 10 years and US$200,000 annually for life thereafter. At London's City Hall on 20 October 2008, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated: "President Mogae's outstanding leadership has ensured Botswana's continued stability and prosperity in the face of an HIV/AIDS pandemic which threatened the future of his country and people." He has received a number of honours such as Naledi Ya Botswana – Gaborone (2003); Grand Croix. A Trustee of the Rhodes Trust since 2010, in 2016 Festus Mogae was appointed a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. References External links Category:1939 births Category:Living people Category:People from Serowe Category:Presidents of Botswana Category:Vice-Presidents of Botswana Category:Alumni of University College, Oxford Category:Alumni of the University of Sussex Category:Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Category:Botswana Democratic Party politicians Category:Recipients of the National Order of the Ivory Coast Category:Botswana expatriates in the United Kingdom	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Tom Schnell Tom Schnell (born 8 October 1985) is a Luxembourgish international footballer who plays club football for F91 Dudelange, as a defender. He is a former Luxembourg national football team player. External links Category:1985 births Category:Living people Category:Luxembourgian footballers Category:Luxembourg international footballers Category:Association football defenders	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Michigan City East Light {{Infobox lighthouse \| image_name = Michigan City Lighthouse.jpg \| caption = Michigan City Lighthouse \| location = Washington Park, Michigan City, Indiana \| coordinates = \| pushpin_map = Indiana \| pushpin = lighthouse \| coordinates_footnotes = \| yearbuilt = 1904 \| yearlit = \| automated = 1960 \| yeardeactivated = \| foundation = concrete pier \| construction = steel brick \| marking = white, lantern black; fog signal building roof red \| shape = octagonal on fog signal building \| height = \| focalheight = \| lens = Fifth Order Fresnel lens<ref>But see, which indicates a Fourth Order Fresnel lens was original.</ref> \| currentlens = rotating 2130C \| range = \| characteristic = Fog horn (2 blasts every 30 s). \| ARLHS = USA-493 \| USCG = 7-19545 \| module = }} The Michigan City Breakwater lighthouse is located in the harbor of Michigan City, Indiana. This is the successor to the Old Michigan City Light, when the lantern, lens and light was moved to the new light at the end of the newly extended pier. This is one of very few lights on the Great Lakes which still has the iron walkway atop the pier (see Manistee Pierhead lights and Grand Haven South Pierhead Inner Light). There has been a lighthouse in Michigan City for 170 years. However, "most people in Indiana don’t realize there is a lighthouse in the state." Mayor Oberlie passes out lapel pins to illustrate its importance and scope. He calls Lake Michigan "the city’s crown jewel," which became prominent when he was city planner in the 1970s. In May 2007, this aid to navigation was deemed excess by the Coast Guard. It was offered at no cost to eligible entities, including federal, state and local agencies, non-profit corporations, educational agencies, or community development organizations under the terms of the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act. "According to Mayor Chuck Oberlie, Michigan City filed a letter of interest for the lighthouse and will seek ownership." It is one of a dozen past or present lighthouses in Indiana. The old 1858 lighthouse, near the entrance to the park, is open as a museum every day except Mondays from 1 to 4 p.m. See also Lighthouses in the United States National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act References Further reading Andreas, A.T. (1884) History of Chicago from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, Chicago's Front Door, Chicago Public Library Digital Collection, website. Chicago, Scribner's Monthly (September 1875) Vol. X, No. 5. Graham, Charlote, Another Step into History at Old Michigan City Light (August, 2003) Lighthouse Digest. Harris, Patricia. Michigan City: Indiana's Only Lighthouse. The Keeper's Log (Spring, 1987), pp. 22–25. Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. (1995) The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. . Havighurst, Walter (1943) The Long Ships Passing: The Story of the Great Lakes, Macmillan Publishers. Karamanski, T. Ed., Historic Lighthouses and Navigational Aids of the Illinois Shore of Lake Michigan Loyola University & Illinois Historic Preservation Agency, (1989). Longstreet, Stephen (1973) Chicago 1860-1919 (New York: McKay). Lopez, Victor. "This Old Lighthouse: Chicago Harbor Beacon Gets a Facelift." Coast Guard (September, 1997), pp. 24–25. Mayer, Harold M. (1957) The Port of Chicago University of Chicago Press. Rice, Mary J., Chicago: Port to the World (Follet Publishers, 1969). Richards, Rick A. Michigan City's Love Affair With It's (sic) Lighthouse July, 2009, Lighthouse Digest. Sapulski, Wayne S., (2001) Lighthouses of Lake Michigan: Past and Present'' (Paperback) (Fowlerville: Wilderness Adventure Books) ; . External links National Park Service, Maritime History Project, Inventory of Historic Lights, Michigan City Lights. Satellite view at Google maps. Category:Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana Category:Lighthouses completed in 1904 Category:National Register of Historic Places in LaPorte County, Indiana Category:Transportation buildings and structures in LaPorte County, Indiana Category:Tourist attractions in LaPorte County, Indiana Category:1904 establishments in Indiana	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Octanol dehydrogenase In enzymology, an octanol dehydrogenase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction 1-octanol + NAD+ 1-octanal + NADH + H+ Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are 1-octanol and NAD+, whereas its 3 products are 1-octanal, NADH, and H+. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the CH-OH group of donor with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is octanol:NAD+ oxidoreductase. This enzyme is also called 1-octanol dehydrogenase. References Category:EC 1.1.1 Category:NADH-dependent enzymes Category:Enzymes of unknown structure	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Matošević Matošević () is a gender-neutral Croatian surname. Notable people with the surname include: Ivan Matošević (born 1989), Croatian football player Marinko Matosevic (born 1985), Australian tennis player Matea Matošević (born 1989), Croatian long-distance runner Valter Matošević (born 1970), Croatian handball player Vedran Matošević (born 1990), Croatian futsal player Category:Croatian-language surnames Category:Patronymic surnames	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Yousef Beidas Yousef Beidas (, also transliterated Yusif Bedas, Yusef Baydas, Yousif Beydas) (December 1912 - 28 November 1968) was a banker born to a Palestinian father and a Lebanese Beirut-born mother. Known as "The Genius from Jerusalem" and the founder and Chairman of Intra Bank headquartered in Lebanon he was one of the central figures in one of the Middle East's financial success stories and later one of its most disastrous financial collapses. To his dying day, Beidas claimed he was victim of 'a well-planned conspiracy'. Life Born in Jerusalem, Palestine under Ottoman rule, Beidas was the son of Palestinian author and scholar Khalil Beidas and a Lebanese mother. In Mandatory Palestine he enjoyed a brilliant and precocious career. He was appointed the director of the exchange section of the Palestinian branch of Barclay's Bank at 21 years of age, and rose to be manager of the Arab Bank by the end of World War 2. Having fled Palestine in 1948 with his pregnant wife, the Lebanese Wedad (Salameh) Abou Fadel, whom he married in 1946, was granted the Lebanese passport on account of his Lebanese Beirut-born mother. One of the outcomes of the Israeli-Arab war in Palestine in 1948, and the concomitant flight of huge numbers of Palestinians, was that Haifa lost its status as the commercial centre of the Mashriq or Arab countries east of Egypt, and the role was picked up by Beirut. Lebanese traders were happy to lay out the red carpet for people they otherwise regarded as "two -bit Palestinians" for the capital and talent that could bring to the local economy. Beidas set himself up as a money-changer in Beirut with a personal capital of $4,000. On one occasion he even rented all of his office furniture, leaving only a sitting area on the floor for himself to conduct his business, and eventually managed to put 100 competitors out of business. Beidas established his Intra (International traders) Bank in 1951, together with three partners, Mounir Abou Fadel, Emile Mousallam and Mounir Haddad, with a capital of 12,000.LL Lebanese pounds, according to one source, or £100,000 sterling based on borrowings from his old clients at the Arab Bank. At the time, Beirut's financial importance was enhanced in the wake of the Tripartite Aggression against Egypt in 1956, which weakened Cairo's function as a beachhead for European investment in the Arab world, the tight bank secrecy rules and absence of exchange controls in the Lebanese banking system made the country a refuge for capital flight, petrodollars and hot money from Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Intra was soon to become the dominant player in the Lebanese economy, and by 1966 it had between 13 and 17 percent of the country's bank deposits and assets which included the Casino du Liban, the largest casino in the world, through which drug money was reportedly recycled, Middle East Airlines and the Port Authority of Beirut. He turned Middle east Airlines, floundering at the time, into one of the most profitable airlines in the world. he owned a steel mill and a mutual fund society. His group also had anextensive repository of real estate holdings in major cities, 40 branches across the globe, prime property investments in a 27-story skyscraper on Fifth Avenue in New York near the Rockefeller Center, Beidas's bank also controlled a shipyard in Marseille, the Londonderry Hotel in Park Lane and a section of the Champs-Élysées. He also opened up a cinema production company "Studio Baalbek" in 1956, hoping to make Lebanon the "Hollywood of the Middle East". Beidas' rise to a key player in Lebanon's economy aroused business enmities among the country's elites, for whom banking was a traditional and closed family-based monopoly. They resented the fact that a Palestinian interloper had assumed control over central parts of the national infrastructure. Beidas used part of his capital, furthermore, to finance the PLO's Fatah, which was becoming the political and military arm of the Palestinian diaspora. As early as 1962 (16 April) the then President of Lebanon, the Maronite Fuad Chehab, concerned about what he perceived to be the 'obscure powers' of international finance extending, though Beidas's companies, their tentacles into the Lebanese economy, sounded out General Pierre Rondot about the possibility of fighting against Beidas's interests in order to weaken his influence. Saudi Arabia's Faisal of Saudi Arabia in particular was discontented by the radicalism of the cause Beidas supported. Lebanese rumours claimed he was a British agent promoting British over French interests. In the jargon of the streets the Bank's name was spelt backwards to yield artni, a slang expression for "He cheated me". In the early 60s, the Emir of Kuwait, Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, who was holidaying at the time in the mountain resort of Aley demanded to see the 5 million dollars he had deposited with Intra. Beidas managed to put together the sum, and drove out to the Emir's villa, where he proceeded to slowly count the money out. Before he had finished, the Emir expressed his satisfaction that all was right, but Beidas, outraged by the lack of trust, told him to keep his cash. The collapse of his empire occurred when Intra Bank, short of liquidity but rich in assets, was denied a bridging loan by the Lebanese government, in what some claim as a refusal motivated by jealousy than by economic fundamentals. The Lebanese government contacted Interpol to have him arrested and extradited. Beidas, who had been active in Europe trying to raise loans to refloat Intra, fled to Brazil with his wife and three children to avoid legal charges, given the precarious legal situation for Palestinians in Lebanon. The following year he was indicted in absentia for fraudulent bankruptcy and the prosecutor asked for a sentence of 7 years hard labour. Though Brazil had no extradition agreements with Lebanon, Lebanese authorities requested a courtesy deportment to make him stand trial. He was placed under house arrest when Lebanese authorities circulated stories that he had financed Brazil's enemies. Beidas faked a heart attack and was recovered in a clinic to sidestep any extradition moves. When Beidas died two years later, at the age of 56 of pancreatic cancer in Lucerne, destitute and nursed by Nabiha, Edward Said's aunt on his father's side, rumours nonetheless circulated that his decease was 'mysterious'. Robert Vesco tried, but failed to take over what was left of his bank. Collapse of Intra Bank At the time Intra bank faced the crisis that led to its bankruptcy, it and the empire Beidas formed around it has a value estimated at between $350 to $500 million. Beidas told George de Carvalho that on the eve of the crisis, Intra was 60% of all domestically controlled banking. The collapse of Intra Bank in October 1966 brought the Lebanese economy to a halt and sent shockwaves throughout the Middle East. The circumstances which surrounded Intra's fall remain to this day controversial issues. The surprisingly weak support from the Lebanese government and the very public allegations over Charles Helou's role in the affair have been attributed to such issues as Beidas' Palestinian origin and envy over Beidas' almost complete control of the Lebanese economy. The bank had incurred losses in gold, copper and American equities. Much of Beidas' Intra Bank money was tied up in non-liquid real estate properties, and, with a sudden jump in Eurobank interest rates on dollar deposits when the US government took measures to curb domestic inflation, a crisis ensued. Furthermore, Beidas had, reportedly, bet all of his available liquid capital against the American dollar. A rush began, on Thursday 13, and Intra paid out $70 million, which by nightfall left only $330,000 in the Bank's coffers. The acting head of the bank, worth personally some $50 million, informed the Lebanese cabinet that he would personally guarantee his bank's balance sheet, but they refused to budge from their position. Irregularities were later discovered, -none of them abnormal within Lebanon's banking system -such as loans to directors exceeding what was legally permissible, and dividend payments to Intra companies that were losing money. Beidas had also used funds held in trust to secure personal loans from Chase Manhattan and the Banco di Roma. Checks on Intra documents indicated false account statements, and an understating of liabilities to the tune of $40 million. In addition, Beidas has undercut the local norm advising that 25% of deposits be retained in liquid cash. Intra reduced this margin to 5% in its business practice. One observer in his recollections states that, nonetheless, the value of Intra's fixed assets, with extensive foreign property abroad, exceeded its financial liabilities. At this critical juncture, Saudi Arabia decided to withdraw its deposits from Beirut, causing a panic and a run on Intra's capital, beginning on 9 October. The Lebanese élites, perhaps sensing a unique opportunity to cut Beidas down and strip him off his key infrastructural investments in Lebanon, refused to budge, or consider Beidas request for a $30 million bridging loan to tide Intra over the crisis. aside from a minor loan mortgaged on the casino, the Port Authority and the Airline. Joseph Oghourlian, deputy governor of Lebanon's central bank, asked him: "Why did you invest in Lebanon? You are not Lebanese, and Lebanon does not want you to control its economy". before turning his plea for a bridging loan down. In Beidas's recollection, Raymond Eddé, president of the Lebanese Bankers Association, had a personal hatred for him, shared by the Lebanese Prime Minister, Abdallah El-Yafi, who was annoyed that Beidas had denied him a personal loan, also pressured the Central Bank to turn down his loan request. Chase Manhattan also stepped in by freezing Intra's New York deposits until its own loans to the company were repaid. Though ranked 425th among the world's banks, the subsequent collapse of Intra became, 'the world's greatest bank catastrophe since World War 2.' Lebanese bankers stated at the time that the crack was simply due to the fact that Beidas was overextended. Many European bankers and the International Monetary Fund were to disagree, saying that a small loan from Lebanon’s Central Bank would have enabled Intra to ride out the crisis without strain. The decision not to intervene was to have drastically averse collateral impact on Lebanon's other banks, as local depositors withdrew their money to open up accounts in US banks. In addition, El-Yafi was forced to resign. Arab trust in the Lebanese banking system vanished, and investors thereafter preferred to place their funds in Zürich, London and New York. The ownership was turned over to the bank's largest depositors and it was to remain the largest financial institution in Lebanon for the following two and a half decades. According to Anthony Sampson many of Beidas' business investments turned out in the long term to be very shrewd. Theories about the collapse It was widely believed at the time of the crash that the fall of Beidas and his banking empire was politically inspired. Many conspiracy theories circulate about the basic reasons for the bank's collapse and the destruction of Baydas's empire. Some pinpoint its cause on a coalition of Western powers, oil-rich Arab countries, the Israeli Defense establishment, and Lebanese oligarchs. Others cite the Corsican connection, noting that the FBI believed that Marcel Francisci used the gaming tables at the casino to launder profits from drug-running, and attributing a significant role in the unplugging of the Bank to Paul-Louis Weiller, claiming that the financier had connections with the heroin smugglers. Palestinian reporter and author Said Aburish claims that jealous Lebanese business people, bankers and reporters were behind the demise of the bank. He writes that the rumors that doomed the bank started in the St. George hotel by, among others, a Lebanese whom Beidas refused to appoint to the bank's board and another Lebanese man who owed the bank a big loan. Aburish claims that, when the news of the failure of the bank became known, Lebanese reporters and business people celebrated its failure by drinking champagne in the St. George Hotel. As to the role of the Kuwaitis in the failure of the bank, Aburish claims that Beidas treated the Emir of Kuwait disrespectfully which made Kuwaitis and other Arab countries in the Persian Gulf area remove their money from the bank. Wilbur Crane Eveland in his book Ropes of Sand claimed that Kuwait caused the failure of the bank in an effort to induce Lebanon to accept more Palestinian refugees: "When Kuwait made huge withdrawals from Lebanon's Intra bank (to induce the country to accept more Palestinian refugees) the bank failed, and the collapse of the Lebanese economy was barely forestalled." Aftermath Najib Alamuddin wrote in his autobiography The Flying Sheikh: "I am convinced the affair was the beginning of the disintegration of Lebanon and its old type of Lebanese government - a system corrupt in style and morals that had plagued Lebanon since independence and finally plunged the nation into a civil war that threatened its very survival as an independent state." Edward Said had a slightly different take on the events in his autobiography Out of Place: "Beidas' astounding rise and fall was considered by some to presage the terrible Lebanese-Palestinian disputes of the seventies, but it seemed to me to symbolize the broken trajectory imposed on so many of [the Palestinians] by the events of 1948" See also Palestinian Christians Notes Citations External links 'The New MidEast Money Man', TIME Magazine, 27 April 1962 "The Flying Sheikh" "Short biography (Arabic)" References Category:1912 births Category:1968 deaths Category:Eastern Orthodox Christians from Lebanon Category:Palestinian businesspeople Category:Palestinian emigrants to Lebanon Category:Palestinian Christians	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Vinni Lettieri Vinni Lettieri (born February 6, 1995) is an American professional ice hockey center for the Hartford Wolf Pack of the American Hockey League (AHL) as a prospect to the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League (NHL). Playing career After playing two seasons with the Lincoln Stars in the USHL, Lettieri committed to the University of Minnesota. He played for the Minnesota Golden Gophers for four seasons and helped them win the Big Ten regular season title in four straight seasons. On March 27, 2017, Lettieri signed a two-year entry-level contract as a free agent with the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was invited to the Rangers training camp before the 2017–18 season but was cut and sent to the Hartford Wolf Pack before the final roster was made. On December 29, 2017, Lettieri made his NHL debut in a 3–2 loss to the Detroit Red Wings, in which he scored his first NHL goal. He was recalled multiple times in January and February before finally being assigned back to the AHL on February 26 after playing in a total of 19 NHL games that season. Lettieri spent the 2018–19 season rotating between the NHL and AHL getting called up for longer stints in the second half of the season. He finished the season with one goal and two assists. His lone goal came on a one-timer shot on March 25, 2019, against the Pittsburgh Penguins for his first career goal at Madison Square Garden. Personal life Lettieri's grandfather, Lou Nanne, played, coached and was the general manager of the Minnesota North Stars. His father, Tino, played professional soccer, while his uncle Marty Nanne was drafted 161th overall by the Chicago Blackhawks in the 1986 NHL Entry Draft and played in the International Hockey League (IHL) for three seasons. His cousins are also ice hockey players – Tyler Nanne was drafted 142nd overall by the New York Rangers in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft, while Louis Nanne was drafted 188th overall by the Minnesota Wild in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft. Career statistics Regular season and playoffs International Awards and honors References External links Category:1995 births Category:Living people Category:American men's ice hockey centers Category:American people of Italian descent Category:Hartford Wolf Pack players Category:Ice hockey people from Minnesota Category:Lincoln Stars players Category:Minnesota Golden Gophers men's ice hockey players Category:New York Rangers players Category:People from Excelsior, Minnesota Category:Undrafted National Hockey League players Category:USA Hockey National Team Development Program players	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Winter's law Winter's law, named after Werner Winter, who postulated it in 1978, is a proposed sound law operating on Balto-Slavic short vowels /e/, /o/, /a/ (< PIE h₂e), /i/ and /u/ according to which they lengthen before unaspirated voiced stops, and that syllable gains rising, acute accent. Compare; PIE sed- "to sit" (which also gave Latin sedeō, Sanskrit sīdati, Ancient Greek hézomai and English sit) > Proto-Balto-Slavic sēstej (sēd-tej) > Lithuanian sė́sti, OCS sěsti (with regular dt > st dissimilation; OCS and Common Slavic yat /ě/ is a regular reflex of PIE/PBSl. /ē/). PIE h₂ebl- "apple" (that also gave English apple) > Proto-Balto-Slavic ābl- > standard Lithuanian obuolỹs (accusative óbuolį) and also dialectal forms of óbuolas and Samogitian óbulas, OCS ablъko, modern Serbo-Croatian jȁbuka, Slovene jábolko etc. Winter's law is supposed to show the difference between the reflexes of PIE /b/, /d/, /g/, /gʷ/ in Balto-Slavic (in front of which Winter's law operates in closed syllable) and PIE /bʰ/, /dʰ/, /gʰ/, /gʷʰ/ (before which there is no effect of Winter's law). That shows that in relative chronology, Winter's law operated before PIE aspirated stops /bʰ/, /dʰ/, /gʰ/ merged with PIE plain voiced stops /b/, /d/, /g/ in Balto-Slavic. Secondarily, Winter's law is also supposed to show the difference between the reflexes of PIE h₂e > /a/ and PIE /o/ which otherwise merged to /a/ in Balto-Slavic. When those vowels lengthen in accordance with Winter's law, old /a/ (< PIE h₂e) has lengthened into Balto-Slavic /ā/ (which later gave Lithuanian /o/, Latvian /ā/, OCS /a/), and old /o/ has lengthened into Balto-Slavic /ō/ (which later gave Lithuanian and Latvian uo, but OCS /a/). In later development, which represented Common Slavic innovation, the reflexes of Balto-Slavic /ā/ and /ō/ were merged, and they both result in OCS /a/. This also shows that Winter's law operated prior to the common Balto-Slavic change /o/ > /a/. The original formulation of Winter's law stated that the vowels regularly lengthened in front of PIE voiced stops in all environments. As much as there were numerous examples that supported this formulation, there were also many counterexamples, such as OCS stogъ "stack" < PIE stógos, OCS voda "water" < PIE * (collective noun formed from PIE *). An adjustment of Winter's law, with the conclusion that it operates only on closed syllables, was proposed by Matasović in 1994. Matasović's revision of Winter's law has been used in the Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben. Other variations of the blocking mechanism for Winter's law have been proposed by Kortlandt, Shintani, Rasmussen, Dybo and Holst. Criticism Not all specialists in Balto-Slavic historical linguistics accept Winter's law. A study of counterexamples led Patri (2006) to conclude that there is no law at all. According to him, exceptions to the law create a too heterogeneous and voluminous set of data to allow any phonological generalization. See also Lachmann's law, a similar law occurring in Latin References Category:Balto-Slavic languages Category:Sound laws Category:1978 introductions	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Clathrina philippina Clathrina philippina is a species of calcareous sponges from the Philippines. References Category:Sponges described in 1872 Category:Fauna of the Philippines	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
1958–59 American Soccer League Statistics of American Soccer League II in season 1958–59. League standings References American Soccer League II (RSSSF) Category:American Soccer League (1933–1983) seasons American Soccer League, 1958-59	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Norfolk Horn The Norfolk Horn (also known as Blackface Norfolk Horned, Norfolk Horned, Old Norfolk or Old Norfolk Horned) is one of the British black-faced sheep breeds. It differs from other black-faced breeds, which are mainly found in high-rainfall, upland areas, and from most other modern, lowland British sheep breeds in being lightly built and very hardy. This breed is raised primarily for meat. The Norfolk Horn developed on the sandy heathlands of the Breckland area of Norfolk, England, and is adapted to surviving on poor forage in cool but dry environments. Similar black-faced sheep were formerly more widespread in lowland Britain. The breed is long-legged with black faces and legs. Both sexes have horns, although these are larger in the males. At maturity, a ewe weighs about . The breed is described as "flighty" and is likened to goats in their ability to jump over obstacles such as fencing. It was a popular breed in Norfolk until the middle 19th century, when "improved" breeds such as the Leicester and Southdown were developed. After Norfolk Horn ewes were mated to Southdown rams to produce high quality, meat-producing lambs, this cross became established as a separate breed, the Suffolk. The number of the Norfolk Horn breed fell to one flock in 1919, but it was built up and survived due to the efforts of one man, J. D. Sayer. After building up the flock, Sayer divided it and gave half to the Cambridge animal research university. There were only 10 registered ewes and two rams. By 1950, though, there were also unregistered stock. The breed was revived also through the efforts of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) at the National Agricultural Centre, Stoneleigh and at Aldenham Country Park, Hertfordshire. Given the shortage of pure-bred fertile rams (the last pure-bred ram died in 1973), a related breed, the Suffolk, as well as unrelated breeds such as the Wiltshire Horn and Swaledale, were used to breed animals that were more than 90% (15/16ths) Norfolk Horn. In 1986, the breed was recognised by the RBST, appearing on their Priority List at that time as "Category 1, Critical". The breed has since increased in numbers, and was rated in the 2007 RBST watchlist as "Category 4, At Risk". References Category:Sheep breeds Category:Sheep breeds originating in England Category:Norfolk Category:Animal breeds on the RBST Watchlist	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Houston Stewart Chamberlain Houston Stewart Chamberlain (; 9 September 1855 – 9 January 1927) was a British-born German philosopher who wrote works about political philosophy and natural science; he is described by Michael D. Biddiss, a contributor to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, as a "racialist writer". Chamberlain married Eva von Bülow, the daughter of composer Richard Wagner, in December 1908, twenty-five years after Wagner's death. Chamberlain's best known book is the two-volume Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century), published in 1899, which became highly influential in the pan-Germanic völkisch movements of the early 20th century and later influenced the antisemitism of Nazi racial policy. Indeed, Chamberlain has been referred to as "Hitler's John the Baptist". Early life and education Houston Stewart Chamberlain was born in Southsea, Hampshire, England, the son of Rear Admiral William Charles Chamberlain, RN. His mother, Eliza Jane, daughter of Captain Basil Hall, RN, died before he was a year old; his grandmother brought him up in France. Chamberlain's poor health frequently led him to being sent to the warmer climates of Spain and Italy for the winter. This constant moving about made it hard for Chamberlain to form lasting friendships. Chamberlain's education, begun in a lycée at Versailles, took place mostly on the Continent, but his father had planned a military career for his son. At the age of eleven he was sent to Cheltenham College, an English boarding school which produced many army and navy officers. Chamberlain grew up in a self-confident, optimistic Victorian atmosphere that celebrated the 19th century as the "Age of Progress"; a time of growing wealth, scientific discoveries, technological advances and democratic political reforms, a world that many Victorians only expected to get progressively better and better with Britain of course leading the way for the rest of the world. Chamberlain grew up as a Liberal, and shared the general values of 19th-century British liberalism such as a faith in progress, of a world that could only get better, of the greatness of Britain as a liberal democratic and capitalist society. Chamberlain deeply disliked Cheltenham, and felt lonely and out of place there. The young Chamberlain was "a compulsive dreamer", more interested in the arts than in the military, and he developed a fondness for nature and a near-mystical sense of self. Chamberlain's major interests in his studies at Cheltenham were the natural sciences, especially astronomy. Chamberlain later recalled: "The starlight exerted an indescribable influence on me. The stars seemed closer to me, more gentle, more worthy of trust, and more sympathetic – for that is the only word which describes my feelings – than any of the people around me in school. For the stars, I experienced true friendship". During his youth, Chamberlain – while not entirely rejecting at this point his liberalism – became influenced by the romantic conservative critique of the Industrial Revolution. Bemoaning the loss of "Merry Old England", this view argued for a return to a highly romanticized view of a mythic, bucolic period of English history that had never existed, with the people living happily in harmony with nature on the land overseen by a benevolent, cultured elite. In this critique, the Industrial Revolution was seen as a disaster which forced people to live in dirty, overcrowded cities, doing dehumanizing work in factories while society was dominated by a philistine, greedy middle class. The prospect of serving as an officer in India or elsewhere in the British Empire held no attraction for him. In addition, he was a delicate child with poor health. At the age of fourteen he had to be withdrawn from school. After Cheltenham, Chamberlain always felt out of place in Britain, a society whose values Chamberlain felt were not his values, writing in 1876: "The fact may be regrettable but it remains a fact; I have become so completely un-English that the mere thought of England and the English makes me unhappy". Chamberlain then travelled to various spas around Europe, accompanied by a Prussian tutor, Herr Otto Kuntze, who taught him German and interested him in German culture and history. Fascinated by Renaissance art and architecture, Chamberlain learned Italian and planned to settle in Florence for a time. Chamberlain then went to Geneva, where he studied under Carl Vogt (a supporter of racial typology at the University of Geneva), Graebe, Müller Argoviensis, Thury, Plantamour, and other professors. He studied systematic botany, geology, astronomy, and later the anatomy and physiology of the human body. Under the tutelage of Professor Julius von Wiesner of the University of Vienna, Chamberlain studied botany in Geneva, earning a Bacheliers en sciences (BSc) physiques et naturelles in 1881. His thesis, Recherches sur la sève ascendante (Studies on rising sap), was not finished until 1897 and did not culminate in a further qualification. The main thrust of Chamberlain's dissertation is that the vertical transport of fluids in vascular plants via xylem cannot be explained by the fluid mechanical theories of the time, but only by the existence of a "vital force" (force vitale) that is beyond the pale of physical measurement. He summarises his thesis in the Introduction: Physical arguments, in particular transpirational pull and root pressure, have since been shown to be adequate for explaining the ascent of sap. During his time in Geneva, Chamberlain, who always despised Benjamin Disraeli, came to hate his country more and more, accusing Disraeli of taking British life down to what Chamberlain considered to be his extremely low level. During the early 1880s, Chamberlain was still a Liberal, "a man who approached issues from a firmly Gladstonian perspective and showed a marked antipathy to the philosophy and policies of British Conservatism". Chamberlain often expressed his disgust with Disraeli, "the man whom he blamed in large measure for the injection of selfish class interest and jingoism into British public life in the next decades". In 1881, he wrote to his family in Britain, praising William Ewart Gladstone for introducing the Land Bill to bring in "fair rents" in Ireland and withdrawing from the Transvaal. An early sign of his anti-Semitism came in 1881 when he described the landlords in Ireland affected by the Land Bill as "blood-sucking Jews (sic)". The main landowning classes in Ireland then were Anglo-Irish gentiles, though at this stage of his life his anti-Semitic remarks were few and far between. Chamberlain was an early supporter of Hanns Hörbiger's Welteislehre, the theory that most bodies in our solar system are covered with ice. Due in part to Chamberlain's advocacy, this became official cosmological dogma during the Third Reich. Chamberlain's attitude towards the natural sciences was somewhat ambivalent and contradictory – he later wrote: "one of the most fatal errors of our time is that which impels us to give too great weight to the so-called 'results' of science." Still, his scientific credentials were often cited by admirers to give weight to his political philosophy. Chamberlain rejected Darwinism, evolution and social Darwinism and instead emphasized "Gestalt" which he said derived from Goethe. Wagnerite An ardent Francophile in his youth, Chamberlain had a marked preference for speaking French over English. It was only at the age of twenty three in November 1878, when he first heard the music of Richard Wagner—which struck him with all the force of a religious revelation—that Chamberlain became not only a Wagnerite, but an ardent Germanophile and Francophobe. As he put later, it was then he realized the full "degeneracy" of the French culture that he had so admired compared to the greatness of the German culture that had produced Wagner, who Chamberlain viewed as one of the great geniuses of all time. In the music of Wagner, Chamberlain finally found the mystical, life-affirming spiritual force that he had been unsuccessfully seeking to find in British and French cultures. Further increasing his love of Germany was that he had fallen in love with a German woman named Anna Horst, and she with him. As Chamberlain's wealthy, elitist family back in Britain objected to him marrying the lower middle-class Horst on the grounds that she was socially unsuitable for him, this further estranged him from Britain, a place whose people Chamberlain regarded as cold, unfeeling, callous and concerned only with money. By contrast, Chamberlain regarded Germany as the romantic "land of love", a place whose people had human feelings like love, and whose culture was infused with a special spirituality that brought out the best in humanity. In 1883–1884, Chamberlain lived in Paris and worked as a stockbroker. Chamberlain's attempts to play the Paris bourse ended in failure as he proved to be inept at business, and much of his hatred of capitalism stemmed from his time in Paris. More happily for him, Chamberlain founded the first Wagner society in Paris and often contributed articles to the Revue wagnérienne, the first journal in France devoted to Wagner studies. Together with his friend, the French writer Édouard Dujardin, Chamberlain did much to introduce Wagner to the French, who until then had largely ignored Wagner's music. Thereafter he settled in Dresden, where "he plunged heart and soul into the mysterious depths of Wagnerian music and philosophy, the metaphysical works of the Master probably exercising as strong an influence upon him as the musical dramas". Chamberlain immersed himself in philosophical writings, and became a Völkisch author, one of those concerned more with a highly racist understanding of art, culture, civilisation and spirit than with quantitative physical distinctions between groups. This is evidenced by his huge treatise on Immanuel Kant with its comparisons. His knowledge of Friedrich Nietzsche is demonstrated in that work (p. 183) and in Foundations (p. 153n). It was during his time in Dresden that Chamberlain came to embrace völkisch thought through his study of Wagner, and from 1884 onwards, anti-Semitic and racist statements became the norm in his letters to his family in Britain. In 1888, Chamberlain wrote to his family proclaiming his joy at the death of the Emperor Friedrich III, a strong opponent of anti-Semitism whom Chamberlain called a "Jewish liberal", and rejoicing that his anti-Semitic son Wilhelm II was now on the throne. June 1888 was an auspicious month for Chamberlain. Besides the death of the "Jew-lover" Friedrich III, June 1888 also saw Chamberlain's first visit to the Wahnfried to meet Cosima Wagner, the reclusive leader of the Wagner cult. Chamberlain later recalled that Cosima Wagner had "electrified" him as he felt the "deepest love" for Wagner's widow while Wagner wrote to a friend that she felt a "great friendship" with Chamberlain "because of his outstanding learning and dignified character". Wagner came to regard Chamberlain as her surrogate son. Under her influence, Chamberlain abandoned his previous belief that art was a separate entity from other fields and came to embrace the völkisch belief of the unity of race, art, nation and politics. Saxony was a center of völkisch activity in the late 19th century, and in the elections to the Saxon Landtag in 1893, völkisch candidates won 6 out of the 16 seats. Chamberlain's status as an immigrant to Germany always meant he was to a certain extent an outsider in his adopted country – a man who spoke fluent German, but always with an English accent. In a classic case of being plus royaliste que le roi (more royalist than the kings), Chamberlain tried very hard to be more German than the Germans, and it was his efforts to fit in that led him to völkisch politics. Likewise, his anti-Semitism allowed him to define himself as a German in opposition to a group that allegedly threatened all Germans, thereby allowing him to integrate better into the Wagnerian circles with whom he socialized most of the time. Chamberlain's friend Hermann Keyserling later recalled that Chamberlain was an eccentric English "individualist" who "never saw Germany as it really is", instead having an idealized, almost mythic view of Germany and the Germans. This was especially the case as initially the German Wagnerites had rejected Chamberlain, telling him that only Germans could really understand Wagner, statements that very much hurt Chamberlain. To compensate, Chamberlain became "überdeutsch", the man who wanted to be more German than the Germans. By this time Chamberlain had met his first wife, the Prussian Anna Horst, whom he would divorce in 1905 after 28 years of marriage. Chamberlain was an admirer of Richard Wagner, and wrote several commentaries on his works including Notes sur Lohengrin ("Notes on Lohengrin") (1892), an analysis of Wagner's drama (1892), and a biography (1895), emphasising in particular the heroic Teutonic aspects in the composer's works. Stewart Spencer, writing in Wagner Remembered, described Chamberlain's edition of Wagner letters as "one of the most egregious attempts in the history of musicology to misrepresent an artist by systematically censoring his correspondence". In particular, Wagner's lively sex life presented a problem for Chamberlain. Wagner had abandoned his first wife Minna, had an open affair with the married woman Mathilde Wesendonck and had started sleeping with his second wife Cosima while she was still married to her first husband. Chamberlain in his Wagner biography went to considerable lengths to distort the Master's love-life such as implying that Wagner's relationship with Cosima von Bülow only started after the death of her first husband. During his time in Dresden, Chamberlain like many other völkisch activists became fascinated with Hindu mythology and legend, and learned Sanskrit in order to read the ancient Indian epics like the Vedas and the Upanishads in their original form. In these stories about ancient Aryan heroes conquering the Indian subcontinent, Chamberlain found a very appealing world governed by a rigid caste system with social inferiors firmly locked into their place; full of larger-than-life Aryan gods and aristocratic heroes and a world that focused on the spiritual at the expense of the material. Since by this time, historians, archaeologists and linguists had all accepted that the Aryans ("light ones") of Hindu legend were an Indo-European people, Chamberlain had little trouble arguing that these Aryans were in fact Germanic peoples, and modern Germans had much to learn from Hinduism, stating "in the night of the inner life ... the Indian ... finds his way in the dark more surely than anyone". For Chamberlain the Hindu texts offered a body of pure Aryan thought that made it possible to find the harmony of humanity and nature, which provided the unity of thought, purpose and action that provided the necessary spirituality for Aryan peoples to find true happiness in a world being destroyed by a soulless materialism. The popularity of the Hindu texts with the völkisch movement explains why the swastika, an ancient Indian symbol, was adopted by the völkisch activists as one of their symbols. Champion of Wagnerism In 1889, he moved to Austria. During this time it is said his ideas on race began taking shape, influenced by the concept of Teutonic supremacy he believed embodied in the works of Richard Wagner and the French racist writer Arthur de Gobineau. In his book Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, the aristocratic Gobineau, who had an obsessive hatred of commoners, had developed the theory of an Aryan master race as a way of bolstering his social standing as he believed that French aristocrats like himself were the descendants of the Germanic Franks who had conquered the Roman province of Gaul while ordinary French people were the descendants of racially inferior Latin and Celtic peoples. Wagner had met Gobineau while on vacation in Rome in 1876, and the two had become friends. Wagner was greatly influenced by Gobineau's theories, but could not accept Gobineau's theory of inevitable racial decay amongst what was left of the "Aryan race", instead preferring the idea of racial regeneration of the Aryans. The Franco-Israeli historian Saul Friedländer opined that Wagner was the inventor of a new type of anti-Semitism, namely "redemptive anti-semitism", a type of völkisch anti-semitism that could explain all in the world in regards to Jew-hatred and offer a form of "redemption" for the anti-Semitic. Chamberlain had attended Wagner's Bayreuth Festival in 1882 and struck up a close correspondence with his widow Cosima. In 1908, twenty-five years after Wagner's death, he married Eva von Bülow-Wagner, Franz Liszt's granddaughter and Richard Wagner's daughter (Wagner had started fathering children by Cosima while she was still married to Hans von Bülow – despite her surname, Eva was actually Wagner's daughter). The next year he moved to Germany and became an important member of the "Bayreuth Circle" of German nationalist intellectuals. As an ardent Wagnerite, Chamberlain saw it as his life's mission to spread the message of racial hatred which he believed Wagner had advocated. Chamberlain explained his work in promoting the Wagner cult as an effort to cure modern society of its spiritual ills that he claimed were caused by capitalism, industrialisation, materialism, and urbanisation. Chamberlain wrote about modern society in the 1890s: Like a wheel that spins faster and faster, the increasing rush of life drives us continually further apart from each other, continually further from the 'firm ground of nature'; soon it must fling us out into empty nothingness. In another letter, Chamberlain stated: If we do not soon pay attention to Schiller's thought regarding the transformation from the state of Need into the Aesthetic State, then our condition will degenerate into a boundless chaos of empty talk and arms foundries. If we do not soon heed Wagner's warning—that mankind must awaken to a consciousness of its "pristine holy worth"—then the Babylonian tower of senseless doctrines will collapse on us and suffocate the moral core of our being forever. In Chamberlain's view, the purpose of the Wagner cult was nothing less than the salvation of humanity. As such, Chamberlain became engulfed in the "redemptive anti-semitism" that was at the core of both Wagner's worldview and of the Wagner cult. Vienna years In September 1891, Chamberlain visited Bosnia and Herzegovina as a journalist. In 1878, the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina had been occupied by Austria-Hungary; though the two provinces remained nominally Ottoman until 1908, in practice they were part of the Austrian empire from 1878 onwards. Because Bosnia-Herzegovina was still officially part of the Ottoman Empire, neither province was represented in the Austrian Reichsrat or the Hungarian Diet, and instead the two provinces were in practice a colony of Austria-Hungary. Chamberlain had been commissioned by the Austrian government to write propaganda glorying its colonial rule of Bosnia-Herzegovina for a Geneva newspaper. Chamberlain's articles about Bosnia reveal his increasing preference for dictatorship over democracy with Chamberlain praising the Austrians for having utterly no democratic aspects to their rule of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Chamberlain wrote that what he had seen in Bosnia-Herzegovina was the perfect example of Wagner's dictum: "Absolute monarch – free people!" Chamberlain declared that the Bosnians were extremely lucky not to have the shambles and chaos of a democratic "parliamentary regime", instead being ruled by an idealist, enlightened dictatorship that did what was best for them. Equally important in Chamberlain's Bosnian articles was his celebration of "natural man" who lived on the land as a small farmer as opposed to what Chamberlain saw as the corrupt men who lived in modern industrial, urban society. At the time Chamberlain visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, the provinces had been barely touched by modernization, and for the most part, Bosnians continued to live much as their ancestors had done in the Middle Ages. Chamberlain was enchanted with what he saw, and forgetting for the moment that the purpose of his visit was to glorify Austrian rule, expressed much sadness in his articles that the "westernization" being fostered by the Austrians would destroy the traditional way of life in Bosnia. Chamberlain wrote about the average Bosnian: [The Bosnian peasant] builds his house, he makes his shoes, and plough, etc; the woman weaves and dyes the stuffs and cooks the food. When we have civilized these good people, when we have taken from them their beautiful costumes to be preserved in museums as objects of curiosity, when we have ruined their national industries that are so perfect and so primitive, when contact with us has destroyed the simplicity of their manner—then Bosnia will no longer be interesting to us. Chamberlain's awe and pride in the tremendous scientific and technological advances of the 19th century were always tempered with an extremely strong nostalgia for what he saw as the simpler, better and more innocent time when people lived on the land in harmony with nature. In his heart, Chamberlain was always a romantic conservative who idealised the Middle Ages and was never quite comfortable with the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution. In Bosnia, Chamberlain saw an essentially medieval society that still moved to the ancient rhythm of life that epitomized his pastoral ideal. Remembering Bosnia several years later, Chamberlain wrote: The spirit of a natural man, who does everything and must create everything for himself in life, is decidedly more universal and more harmoniously developed than the spirit of an industrial worker whose whole life is occupied with the manufacturing of a single object … and that only with the aid of a complicated machine, whose functioning is quite foreign to him. A similar degeneration is taking place amongst peasants: an American farmer in the Far West is today only a kind of subordinate engine driver. Also among us in Europe it becomes every day more impossible for a peasant to exist, for agriculture must be carried out in "large units"—the peasant consequently becomes increasingly like an industrial worker. His understanding dries up; there is no longer an interaction between his spirit and surrounding Nature. Chamberlain's nostalgia for a pre-industrial way of life that he expressed so strongly in his Bosnia articles earned him ridicule, as many believed that he had an absurdly idealized and romanticized view of the rural life that he never experienced first-hand. In 1893, after receiving a letter from Cosima Wagner telling him that he had to read Gobineau's Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, Chamberlain, who was fluent in French, duly complied with her request. Chamberlain accepted Gobineau's belief in an Aryan master-race, but rejected his pessimism, writing that Gobineau's philosophy was "the grave of every attempt to deal practically with the race question and left only one honorable solution, that we at once put a bullet through our heads". Chamberlain's time in Vienna shaped his anti-Semitism and Pan-Germanism. Despite living in Vienna from 1889 to 1909, when he moved to Bayreuth, Chamberlain had nothing but contempt for the multi-ethnic, multi-religious Habsburg empire, taking the viewpoint that the best thing that could happen to the Austrian empire would be for it to be annexed by Germany to end the Völkerchaos (chaos of the peoples). Vienna had a large Jewish population (until 1938, Vienna was about 10% Jewish), and Chamberlain's time in Vienna may have been the first time in his life when he actually encountered Jews. Chamberlain's letters from Vienna constantly complain about how he was having to meet and deal with Jews, every one of whom he detested. In 1894 after visiting a spa, Chamberlain wrote: "Unfortunately like everything else ... it has fallen into the hands of the Jews, which includes two consequences: every individual is bled to the utmost and systematically, and there is neither order nor cleanliness." In 1895, he wrote: However, we shall have to move soon anyway, for our house having been sold to a Jew ... it will soon be impossible for decent people to live in it ... Already the house being almost quite full of Jews, we have to live in a state of continual warfare with the vermin which is a constant and invariable follower of this chosen people even in the most well-to-do classes. In another letter of 1895, Chamberlain wrote he was still influenced by French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's critique of the Jews as mindlessly materialistic, writing that Proudhon was "one of the most acute minds of the century" and "I find many points of contact between the Wagner-Schiller mode of thought and the anarchism of Proudhon." At the same time, Chamberlain's marriage to Anna began to fall apart, as his wife was frequently sick and though she assisted her husband with his writings, he did not find her very intellectually stimulating. Chamberlain started to complain more and more that his wife's frequent illnesses forced him to tend to her and were holding back his career. Though Chamberlain was always very supportive of German imperialism, he had nothing but scorn for British imperialism, viewing Britain as the world's biggest bully, a view that he expressed more and more vehemently as the 1890s went on. In 1895, Chamberlain wrote to his aunt about the Hamidian massacres in the Ottoman Empire during 1894–96: The Armenian insurrection [of 1894] with the inevitable retaliation of massacres and persecution (of course enormously exaggerated by those greatest liars in creation, backed by their worthy friends the English journalists) was all got up at the precise moment when English politics required a "diversion". In 1896, Chamberlain wrote to his aunt: The English press is the most insufferably arrogant, generally ignorant, the most passionately one-sided and narrow-minded in its judgments that I know; it is the universal bully, always laying down the law for everybody, always speaking as if it were umpire of the universe, always abusing everybody all round and putting party spirit in all its judgments, envenoming thus the most peaceful discussions. It is this and this only which has made England hated all the world over. During the whole year 1895, I never opened an English newspaper without finding War predicated or threatened—No other nation in the world has wanted war or done anything but pray for peace—England alone, the world's bully, has been stirring it up on all sides. During the 1890s, Chamberlain was an outspoken critic of British policy in South Africa, writing to his uncle in 1898: We are the heathen nation and race par excellence. War, conquest, commerce, money and above all an eternal readiness to knock every man down who stands in our way. And the only thing thoroughly distasteful to me in England and Englishmen generally, and English politics in particular, is this eternal coquetting with a religion to which every one of their feelings and opinions and acts is in direct contradiction. At the time of the Boer War, Chamberlain supported the Boers against the British, though not publicly, and he expressed much regret that two white peoples should be killing each other at a time when he believed that white supremacy around the world was being threatened by the alleged "Yellow Peril". In July 1900, Chamberlain wrote to his aunt: One thing I can clearly see, that is, that it is criminal for Englishmen and Dutchmen to go on murdering each other for all sorts of sophisticated reasons, while the Great Yellow Danger overshadows us white men and threatens destruction ... The fact that a tiny nation of peasants absolutely untrained in the conduct of war, has been able to keep the whole united empire at bay for months, and has only been overcome—and has it been overcome?—by sending out an army superior in number to the whole population including women and children, has lowered respect for England beyond anything you can imagine on your side of the water, and will certainly not remain lost on the minds of those countless millions who have hitherto been subdued by our prestige only. Chamberlain seized upon the fact that some of the Randlords were Jewish to argue in his letters to Cosima Wagner that the war was a case of Anglo-Jewish aggression against the Germanic Afrikaners. Wagner wrote back to Chamberlain: "This extermination of one of the most excellent Germanic races is so horrible that I know of nothing I have experienced which is comparable to it." As a leading Wagnerite in Vienna, Chamberlain befriended a number of other prominent Wagnerites, such as Prince Hohenhohe-Langenburg, Ludwig Schemann, Georg Meurer, and Baron Christian von Ehrenfels. The most important friendship that Chamberlain made during his time in Vienna was with German Ambassador to Austria-Hungary, Prince Philip von Eulenburg, who shared Chamberlain's love of Wagnerian music. Besides being a passionate Wagnerite, Eulenburg was also an anti-Semite, an Anglophobe and a convinced enemy of democracy who found much to admire in Chamberlain's anti-Semitic, anti-British and anti-democratic writings. Die Grundlagen (The Foundations) In February 1896, the Munich publisher Hugo Bruckmann, a leading völkisch activist who was later to publish Mein Kampf commissioned Chamberlain to write a book that was intended to summarize all of the achievements of the 19th century. In October 1899 Chamberlain published his most famous work, Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, in German. The Foundations are a pseudo-scientific "racial history" of humanity from the emergence of the first civilizations in the ancient Near East to the year 1800, and argued that all of the "foundations" of the great 19th century which saw huge economic, scientific and technological advances in the West were the work of the "Aryan race". Die Grundlagen was only the first volume of an intended three-volume history of the West with the second and third volumes taking up the story of the West in the 19th century and the looming war for world domination in the coming 20th century between the Aryans on one side vs. the Jews, blacks and Asians on the other side. Chamberlain never wrote the second or third volumes, much to the intense annoyance of Cosima Wagner who was upset that Die Grundlagen stopped in 1800 before Wagner was born, and thus gave her late husband short shrift. The book argued that Western civilisation is deeply marked by the influence of Teutonic peoples. Chamberlain grouped all European peoples – not just Germans, but Celts, Slavs, Greeks, and Latins – into the "Aryan race", a race built on the ancient Proto-Indo-European culture. In fact he even included the Berber people of North Africa in the Aryan race: "The noble Moor of Spain is anything but a pure Arab of the desert, he is half a Berber (from the Aryan family) and his veins are so full of Gothic blood that even at the present day noble inhabitants of Morocco can trace their descent back to Teutonic ancestors." At the helm of the Aryan race, and, indeed, all races, according to Chamberlain, were the Germanic or Teutonic peoples, who had best preserved the Aryan blood. Chamberlain used the terms Aryan, Indo-European and Indo-Germanic interchangeably, but he went out of his way to emphasise that purest Aryans were to be found in Central Europe and that in both France and Russia miscegenation had diluted the Aryan blood. The Russians in particular had become a semi-Asian people on the account of the rule of the Golden Horde. Much of Chamberlain's theory about the superiority of the Aryan race was taken from the writings of the French aristocrat Arthur de Gobineau, but there was a crucial difference in that Gobineau had used the Aryan race theory as a way of dividing society between an Aryan nobility vs. racially inferior commoners whereas Chamberlain used the Aryan racial theory as a way of uniting society around its supposed common racial origins. Everything that Chamberlain viewed as good in the world was ascribed to the Aryans. For an example, in The Foundations Chamberlain explained at considerable length that Jesus Christ could not possibly be a Jew, and very strongly implied that Christ was an Aryan. Chamberlain's tendency to see everything good as the work of the Aryans allowed him to claim whoever he approved of for the Aryan race, which at least was part of the appeal of the book in Germany when it was published in 1899. Chamberlain claimed all of the glories and achievements of ancient Greece and Rome as due entirely to Aryan blood which supposedly flowed in the veins of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Chamberlain wrote that ancient Greece was a "lost ideal" of beautiful thought and art that the modern Germans were best placed to recover if only the German people could embrace Wagner. Chamberlain praised Rome for its militarism, civic values, patriotism, respect for the law and reverence for the family as offering the best sort of Aryan government. Reflecting his opposition to feminism, Chamberlain lamented how modern women were not like the submissive women of ancient Rome whom he claimed were most happy in obeying the wills of their husbands. Chamberlain asserted that Aryans and Aryans alone are the only people in the entire world capable of creating beautiful art and thinking great thoughts, so he claimed all of the great artists, writers and thinkers of the West such as Homer, Dante, Giotto, Donatello, Albrecht Dürer, Leonardo da Vinci, Martin Luther, William Shakespeare, Rembrandt, Ludwig van Beethoven, Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe as part of one long glorious tradition of beautiful Aryan art and thought, which Chamberlain planned to have culminate with the life-changing, racially regenerating music of Richard Wagner in the 19th century. As the British historian George Peabody Gooch wrote, here was "a glittering vision of mind and muscle, of large scale organization, of intoxicating self-confidence, of metallic brilliancy, such as Europe has never seen". The antithesis of the heroic Aryan race with its vital, creative life-improving qualities was the "Jewish race", whom Chamberlain presented as the inverse of the Aryan. Every positive quality the Aryans had, the Jews had the exact opposing negative quality. The American historian Geoffrey Field wrote: To each negative "Semitic" trait Chamberlain counter-posed a Teutonic virtue. Kantian moral freedom took the place of political liberty and egalitarianism. Irresponsible Jewish capitalism was sharply distinguished from the vague ideal of Teutonic industrialism, a romantic vision of an advanced technological society which had somehow managed to retain the Volksgemeinschaft, cooperation and hierarchy of the medieval guilds. The alternative to Marxism was "ethical socialism", such as that described by Thomas More, "one of the most exquisite scholars ever produced by a Teutonic people, of an absolutely aristocratic, refined nature". In the rigidly elitist, disciplined society of Utopia with its strong aura of Christian humanism, Chamberlain found an approximation of his own nostalgic, communal ideal. "The gulf separating More from Marx," he wrote, "is not the progress of time, but the contrast between Teuton and Jew." Chamberlain announced in The Foundations that "all the wars" in history were "so peculiarly connected with Jewish financial operations". Chamberlain warned that the aim of the Jew was "to put his foot upon the neck of all nations of the world and be Lord and possessor of the whole earth". As part of their plans to destroy Aryan civilization, Chamberlain wrote: "Consider, with what mastery they use the law of blood to extend their power." Chamberlain wrote that Jewish women were encouraged to marry Gentiles while Jewish men were not, so the male line "remained spotless ... thousands of side-branches are cut off and employed to infect Indo-Europeans with Jewish blood." In his account of the Punic wars between "Aryan Rome" and "Semitic Carthage", Chamberlain praised the Romans for their total destruction of Carthage in 146 BC at the end of the Third Punic War as an example of how Aryans should deal with Semites. Later, Chamberlain argued that the Romans had become too tolerant of Semites like the Jews, and this was the cause of the downfall of the Roman empire. Chamberlain argued that it was due to miscegenation that the Jews had caused the Aryan Roman Empire to go into decline and collapse. Chamberlain wrote that the "African half breed soldier emperor" Caracalla had granted Roman citizenship to all the subjects in the Empire regardless of race or religion in 212 AD, and as result of this, the Romans had freely mixed with Semitic and African peoples, leading Chamberlain to conclude: "Like a cataract the alien blood poured down into the depopulated city of Rome and soon the Romans ceased to exist." As such, the destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the Germanic peoples was merely an act of liberation from the Völkerchaos ("Chaos of the Peoples") that the Roman empire had become. The ultimate aim of the Jew, according to Chamberlain, was to create a situation were "there would be in Europe only a single people of pure race, the Jews, all the rest would be a herd of pseudo-Hebraic mestizos, a people beyond all doubt degenerate physically, mentally and morally." As part of their plans to destroy the Aryans, Chamberlain claimed that the Jews had founded the Roman Catholic Church, which only preached a "Judaized" Christianity that had nothing to do with the Christianity created by the Aryan Christ. At least some historians have argued that The Foundations are actually more anti-Catholic than anti-Semitic, but this misses the point that the reason why Chamberlain attacked the Catholic Church so fiercely was because he believed the Papacy was controlled by the Jews. In the 16th century, Chamberlain claimed that the Aryan Germans under the leadership of Martin Luther had broken away from the corrupt influence of Rome, and so laid the foundations of a "Germanic Christianity". Chamberlain claimed that the natural and best form of government for Aryans was a dictatorship, and so he blamed the Jews for inventing democracy as part of their plans for destroying the Aryans. In the same way, Chamberlain blamed capitalism – which he saw as a very destructive economic system – as something invented by the Jews to enrich themselves at the expense of the Aryans while at the same time crediting the Jews with inventing socialism with its message of universal human equality as a cunning Jewish stratagem to divert attention away from all the economic devastation wrought by Jewish financiers. Chamberlain's relentless determination to prove that everything he viewed as evil in the world as the work of the Jews led him to some odd conclusions. Chamberlain had a deep dislike of the Chinese, and so in The Foundations he announced that Chinese civilization had been founded by the Jews because just like the Jews the Chinese had "...the total absence of all culture and the one-sided emphasizing of civilization". For Chamberlain, this was more than sufficient proof that the Jews had created Chinese civilization. The Franco-Israeli historian Saul Friedländer described The Foundations – with its theory of two "pure" races left in the world, namely the German and Jewish locked into a war for world domination which could only end with the complete victory of one over the other – as one of the key texts of "redemptive anti-semitism". Because Chamberlain viewed Jews as a race, not a religion, Chamberlain argued the conversion of Jews was not a "solution" to the "Jewish Question", stating Jewish converts to Christianity were still Jews. In taking this stance, Chamberlain was going beyond his hero Wagner. The Dutch journalist Ian Buruma wrote: Wagner himself, like Luther, still believed that a Jew could, as he put it with his customary charm, "annihilate" his Jewishness by repudiating his ancestry, converting and worshiping at the shrine of Bayreuth. So in theory a Jew could be a German…But to the mystical chauvinists, like Chamberlain, who took a tribal view of Germanness, even radical, Wagnerian assimilation could never be enough: the Jew was an alien virus to be purged from the national bloodstream. The more a Jew took on the habits and thoughts of his gentile compatriots, the more he was to be feared. Chamberlain did not advocate the extermination of Jews in The Foundations, indeed despite his determination to blame all of the world's problems on the Jews, Chamberlain never proposed a solution to this perceived problem. Instead Chamberlain made the cryptic statement that after reading his book, his readers would know best about how to devise a "solution" to the "Jewish Question". Friedländer has argued that if one were to seriously take up the theories of "redemptive anti-semitism" proposed in The Foundations, and push them to their logical conclusion, then inevitably one would reach the conclusion that genocide might be a perfectly acceptable "solution" to the "Jewish Question". Friedländer argued that there is an implied genocidal logic to The Foundations as Chamberlain argued that Jews were a race apart from the rest of humanity; that evil was embedded within the genes of the Jews, and so the Jews were born evil and remained evil until they died, indeed a Jew could never stop being evil even if he or she wanted to; and that for these biological reasons alone, the Jews would never cease their endless attempts to destroy all that was good within the world. Inspired by The Foundations, one völkisch writer, Josef Remier, published Ein Pangermanisches Deutschland ("A Pan-Germanic Germany") in 1905, which used The Foundations to advocate that Germany conquer the Russian Empire, after which special commissions of doctors, anthropologists and "breeding experts" were to divide the population into three categories; ethnic Germans, those capable of being "Germanized" and those incapable of "improvement" with all Slavs and Jews being included in the last category. Field wrote that Remier's vision anticipated the "war of extermination" that was Operation Barbarossa in 1941 in "many horrifying aspects". The Foundations sold well: eight editions and 60,000 copies within 10 years, 100,000 copies by the outbreak of World War I and 24 editions and more than a quarter of a million copies by 1938. The success of The Foundations after it was published in October 1899 made Chamberlain into a celebrity intellectual. The popularity of The Foundations was such that many Gymnasium (high school) teachers in the Protestant parts of Germany made Die Grundlagen required reading for their students. One teacher remembered: "I myself read the whole book in one go when as a young Gymnasium teacher in Nürnberg it fell into my hands. And with a flushed face I put it aside full of excitement. I can picture the scene today [1927] and can reawaken the old feeling." The book sold very well, but reviews in Germany were very mixed. Conservative and National Liberal newspapers gave generally friendly reviews to The Foundations. Völkisch newspapers gave overwhelming positive reviews to The Foundations with many völkisch reviewers calling Die Grundlagen one of the greatest books ever written. German universities were hotbeds of völkisch activity in the early 20th century, and The Foundations was extremely popular on university campuses with many university clubs using The Foundations as a reason to exclude Jewish students from joining. Likewise, military schools were centers of völkisch thought in the early 20th century, and so The Foundations was very popular with officer cadets; though since neither the Navy nor the Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg armies accepted Jewish officer candidates, Die Grundlagen did not lead to Jews being excluded. The only exceptions to the otherwise total exclusion of German Jews from the officer corps were the Bavarian and Saxon armies, which were prepared to accept Jews as reserve officers. Liberal and Social Democratic newspapers gave the book extremely poor reviews with reviewers complaining of an irrational way of reasoning in The Foundations, noted that Chamberlain quoted out of context the writings of Goethe to give him views that he had not held in The Foundations and that the entire book was full of an obsessive anti-Semitism that they found extremely off-putting. Because of Chamberlain's anti-Catholicism, Catholic newspapers all published very hostile reviews of The Foundations, though Catholic reviewers rarely faulted Die Grundlagen for its anti-Semitism. Protestant völkisch newspapers gave The Foundations very good reviews, while more orthodox Protestant newspapers were disturbed by Chamberlain's call for a racialized Christianity. One Protestant reviewer, Professor Baentsch of Jena wrote that Chamberlain had systematically distorted the Book of Job, the Psalms, the Prophets, and other books of the Old Testament, leading him to conclude that it was no surprise that Chamberlain found so little common ground between Christianity and Judaism given the way he had misrepresented the entire Old Testament. One German Jewish reviewer, the Berlin banker Heinrich Meyer-Cohn wrote that The Foundations was "bad, unclear, and illogical in its train of thought and unpleasing in style, full of false modesty and genuine superciliousness, full of real ignorance and false affectation of learning". German Jewish groups like the Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens and the Verein zur Abwehr des Antisemitismus repeatedly issued statements in the early 20th century that the popularity of The Foundations was a major source of concern for them, noting that Die Grundlagen had caused a major increase in anti-Semitism with many German Jews now finding themselves the objects of harassment and sometimes violence. The German Jewish journalist Moritz Goldstein wrote in 1912 that he had become a Zionist because he believed there was no future for Jews in Germany, and one of the reasons for that belief was: "Chamberlain believes what he says and for that very reason his distortions shock me. And thousands more believe as he does for the book goes one edition after another and I would still like to know if many Germanic types, whose self-image is pleasantly indulged by this theory, are able to remain critical enough to question its countless injustices and errors?" Goldstein added that the case of Chamberlain showed his views as typical of those of "the best spirits, clever, truth-loving men who, however, as soon they speak of Jews, fall into a blind, almost rabid hatred". Evangelist of Race In 1900, Chamberlain visited Britain for the first time in decades, a place he disparagingly called "the land of the Boer-eaters". Writing to Cosima Wagner from London, Chamberlain stated sadly that his Britain, the Britain of aristocratic rule, hard work and manly courage, the romanticized "Merry Old England" of his imagination was no more; replaced by what Chamberlain saw as a materialist, soulless society dominated entirely by greed, atomized into individuals with no sense of the collective purpose. Chamberlain wrote that Britain since the 1880s had "chosen the service of Mammon", for which he blamed the Jews, writing to Wagner: "This is the result, when one has studied politics with a Jew for a quarter century." The "Jew" Chamberlain was referring to was Disraeli, whom Chamberlain had always hated with a passion. Chamberlain concluded: "My old England was nowhere recognizable." Chamberlain declared in his letter that all British businessmen were now dishonest; the middle class smug and stupid; small farmers and shops no longer able to compete with Jewish-owned big business; and the monarchy was "irretrievably weakened" by social change. In short, for Chamberlain Britain was no longer his country. In the summer of 1900, Chamberlain wrote an essay in the magazine Jugend, where he declared that: "The reign of Wilhelm II has the character of the dawning of a new day." Chamberlain went on to write that Wilhelm was "in fact the first German Kaiser" who knew his mission was "ennoble" the world by spreading "German knowledge, German philosophy, German art and—if God wills—German religion. Only a Kaiser who undertakes this task is a true Kaiser of the German people." To allow Germany to become a world power, Chamberlain called for the Reich to become the world's greatest sea power as Chamberlain asserted that whatever power rules the seas also rules the world. Chamberlain wrote that "without a fleet nothing can be done. But equipped with a great fleet, Germany is embarking on the course to which Cromwell showed England the way, and she can and must steer resolutely towards the goal of becoming the first power in the world. She has the moral justification for it and therefore also the duty." In early 1901, the German Emperor Wilhelm II read The Foundations and was immensely impressed with the book. The Imperial Grand Chamberlain at the court, Ulrich von Bülow, the brother of the Chancellor Prince Bernhard von Bülow wrote in a letter to a friend in January 1901 that Kaiser was "studying the book a second time page by page". In November 1901, Chamberlain's friend, the German diplomat and courtier Prince Philip von Eulenburg, who happened to be the best friend of Wilhelm II, introduced Chamberlain to the Kaiser. Chamberlain and Wilhelm first met at Eulenburg's estate at Liebenberg and soon became very good friends, maintaining a regular correspondence which continued until Chamberlain's death in 1927. To reach Liebenberg from Vienna, Chamberlain had to first take the train to Berlin, and then board another train to Liebenberg. Chamberlain's meeting with the Kaiser was considered so important that when Chamberlain reached Berlin, he was met by the Chancellor Prince Bernhard von Bülow, who joined him on the trip to Liebenberg. During the train ride, Bülow and Chamberlain had a long discussion about The Foundations and then French literature. Upon reaching the gates of Liebenberg in the evening, Chamberlain and Bülow were met by Wilhelm and Eulenburg who were surrounded by servants carrying torches. When he met Chamberlain for the first time, Wilhelm told him: "I thank you for what you have done for Germany!" The next day, Eulenburg wrote to a friend that the Emperor "stood completely under the spell of this man [Chamberlain], whom he understood better than any of the other guests because of his thorough study of The Foundations". Until Chamberlain's death, he and Wilhelm had what the American historian Geoffrey Field called "a warm, personal bond", which was expressed in a series of "...elaborate, wordy letters, full of mutual admiration and half-baked ideas". The Wilhelm–Chamberlain letters were full of "the perplexing thought world of mystical and racist conservatism. They ranged far and wide in subject matter: the ennobling mission of the Germanic race, the corroding forces of Ultramontanism, materialism and the "destructive poison" of Judentum were favorite themes. Other subjects often discussed in the Wilhelm-Chamberlain letters were the dangers posed to the Reich by the "Yellow Peril", "Tartarized Slavdom", and by the "black hordes". In 1901, Wilhelm informed Chamberlain in a letter that: "God sent your book to the German people, just as he sent you personally to me, that is my unshakably firm conviction." Wilhelm went on to praise Chamberlain as his "comrade-in-arms and ally in the struggle for Teutons against Rome, Jerusalem, etc." In 1902, Wilhelm wrote another letter in which he told Chamberlain: "May you save our German Volk, our Germanentum, for God has sent you as our helper!" Chamberlain in his turn advised Wilhelm to create "a racially aware ... centrally organised Germany with a clear sense of purpose, a Germany which would 'rule the world'". In 1903, Chamberlain wrote to Wilhelm to claim that as in the last decadent days of Rome, "the civis britannicus is now become a purely political concept" with no racial content being involved. Chamberlain wrote with disgust how for two shillings and a sixpence, "every Basuto nigger" could now carry a British passport. Chamberlain went on to predict within the next fifty years "the English aristocracy will be nothing but a money oligarchy, without a shred of racial solidarity or relation to the throne." Chamberlain went on to deplore the practice of raising businessmen to the peerage in Britain, contemptuously declaring that in Britain mere "brewers, ink manufacturers and ship-owners" now sat in the House of Lords. Chamberlain ended his letter to the Kaiser by calling the general British public "a herd which has no will and which a few newspapers and handful of politicians manipulate as they wish". Wilhelm's later concept of "Juda-England", of a decaying Britain sucked dried by Jewish capitalists owed much to Chamberlain. The Dutch journalist Ian Buruma described Chamberlain's letters to the Kaiser as pushing his "…Anglophobic, anti-Semitic, Germanophile ideas to the point of murderous lunacy". The liberal Berliner Zeitung newspaper complained in an editorial of the close friendship between Wilhelm II and such an outspoken racist and anti-Semite like Chamberlain, stating this was a real cause for concern for decent, caring people both inside and outside Germany. For Wilhelm, all pride about being German had a certain ambivalence about his identity as he was in fact half-British. In an age of ultra-nationalism with identities being increasingly defined in racial terms, his mixed heritage imposed considerable psychological strain on Wilhelm who managed at one and the same time to be both an Anglophile and Anglophobe; a man who both loved and hated the British, and whose writings about the land of his mother displayed both extreme admiration and loathing. Buruma observed that for all his much vaulted beliefs in public about the superiority of everything German, Wilhelm often displayed signs of an inferiority complex to the British in private, as if he really felt deep down that it was Britain that was the world's greatest country, not Germany. For Wilhelm, someone like Chamberlain, the Englishman who came to Germany to praise the Fatherland as the world's greatest nation, and who had "scientifically" proven that "fact" in The Foundations was a "dream come true" for him. Writing about the Chamberlain-Wilhelm relationship, Field stated: Chamberlain helped place Wilhelm's tangled and vaguely formulated fears of Pan Slavism, the black and yellow "hordes", Jews, Ultramontanes, Social Democrats, and free-thinkers to a global and historical framework copiously footnoted and sustained by a vast array of erudite information. He elevated the Emperor's dream of a German mission into an elaborate vision of divinely ordained, racial destiny. The lack of precision, the muddle, and logical flaws that are so apparent to modern readers of The Foundations did not bother Wilhelm: he eagerly submitted to its subjective, irrational style of reasoning. ... And if the Kaiser was a Prussian with an ingrained respect for English values and habits, Chamberlain was just as much an Englishman who was deeply ambivalent about his own birthplace and who revered German qualities and Prussian society. Almost unconsciously, as his vast correspondence shows, he adopted an obsequious, scraping tone when addressing the lowliest of Prussian army officers. If Wilhelm was drawn to the very Englishness of Chamberlain, the author of The Foundations saw in the Hohenzollern prince—at least until the World War—the very symbol of his idealized Deutschtum. Chamberlain, who in the words of Buruma was "an English fetishist of German blood", who wrote long pseudo-scientific articles about how "Germanic racial genius" manifested itself in the cultural works of Richard Wagner, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ludwig van Beethoven, and William Shakespeare (Chamberlain considered Shakespeare to be a "Germanic playwright" who properly belonged to Germany), was the "perfect match" for Wilhelm. Chamberlain frequently wrote to an appreciative and admiring Wilhelm telling him that it was only the noble "German spirit" which was saving the world from being destroyed by a "deracinated Yankee-Anglo-Jewish materialism". Finally, Wilhelm was also a Wagnerite and found much to admire in Chamberlain's writings praising Wagner's music as a mystical, spiritual life-force that embodied all that was great about the "German spirit". The success of The Foundations made Chamberlain famous all over the world. In 1906, the Brazilian intellectual Sílvio Romero cited Chamberlain together with Otto Ammon, Georges Vacher de Lapouge and Arthur de Gobineau as having proved that the blond "dolichocephalic" people of northern Europe were the best and greatest race in the entire world, and urged that Brazil could become a great nation by a huge influx of German immigrants who would achieve the embranquecimento (whitening) of Brazil. Chamberlain received invitations to lecture on his racial theories at Yale and Johns Hopkins universities, but turned them down on the grounds that he had no wish to visit what he viewed as a culturally and spiritually debased nation like the United States. When the book was first published, reviewers often asked who this Chamberlain was, and there was much fevered speculation in the German press if Chamberlain was related to Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary and as the principal author of the British forward policy in South Africa one of the most detested men in the Reich. Several German magazines printed pictures of Joseph Chamberlain's sons Austen Chamberlain or Neville Chamberlain as the author of The Foundations by mistake. As such, many Germans breathed a collective sigh of relief when it was established that Houston Stewart Chamberlain was not related to the famous Chamberlain family of Birmingham. After the success of The Foundations, a Chamberlain Kreis (circle) appeared in Vienna that comprised the Indologist Leopold von Schroeder, Count Ulrich von Bülow; Countess Melanie Metternich-Zichy, Countess Marietta von Coundenhove, Baroness Emma von Ehrenfels, the music critic and Wagnerite Gustav Schonaich, Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count Hermann Keyserling and Rudolf Kassner who met weekly at Chamberlain's home to discuss his racial theories. It was during this period that Chamberlain had an affair with Baroness von Ehrenfels, the wife of his friend Baron Christian von Ehrenfels and another affair with a Viennese showgirl, Lili Petri. In 1906, his marriage to Anna ended in divorce. Besides the income from sales of The Foundations and the essays he was constantly writing for newspapers and journals, Chamberlain was supported financially by a wealthy German piano-manufacturer August Ludowici (who liked Chamberlain so much that he purchased a house for him) and by the Swiss industrialist Agénor Boissier, giving an annual income of about 30,000–40,000 marks (by contrast a German school-teacher had an annual income of 1,000 marks while a professor made about 12,000 marks per year). In 1908, Chamberlain married Wagner's daughter Eva von Bülow after Cosima Wagner suggested the match, making him extremely happy to be married to the daughter of his hero Wagner. Chamberlain, the self-proclaimed "Evangelist of Race" saw himself as a prophet, writing to the Kaiser: "Today, God relies only on the Germans. That is the knowledge, the sure truth, which has filled my soul for years; I have sacrificed my peace in serving it; for it I shall live and die." Eulenburg recalled that under his quiet demeanor that Chamberlain had a "fiery spirit with those eyes and looks which speak volumes". The few who knew Chamberlain well described him as a quiet, reserved man full of urbane erudition and charm; a modest, genial character with elegant manners dressed in expensive suits who could talk brilliantly and with much wit about a great number of subjects for hours. Under his polished surface, Chamberlain had a "fanatical and obsessive" side, whose copious notebooks and letters show a man with "a profoundly irrational mind", a markedly sadistic and deeply paranoid individual whom believed himself to be the victim of a monstrous worldwide Jewish conspiracy to destroy him. Chamberlain's status as a semi-recluse was because of his fear that the Jews were plotting his murder. A strong imperialist, Chamberlain was naturally a fervent supporter of Weltpolitik, under which Germany sought to become the world's dominant power, which he justified on racist grounds. In 1904, when the German government committed the Herero and Namaqua Genocide against the Herero and Namaqua peoples in German South-West Africa (modern Namibia), Chamberlain congratulated Wilhelm in a letter for his genocidal policies, praising the Kaiser for his "war of extermination", which was "a fine example" of how Aryans should deal with "niggers". In a 1906 letter to Wilhelm, Chamberlain announced that due to miscegenation caused by the Jews, Britain, France, Austria and Russia were all declining powers, and only the "pure" German Reich was capable of protecting the "life-giving center of Western Europe" from the "Tartarized Russians, the dreaming weakly mongrels of Oceania and South America, and the millions of blacks, impoverished in intellect and bestially inclined, who even now are arming for the war of the races in which there will be no quarter given". Thus, Chamberlain wrote to Wilhelm, German Weltpolitik was a "sacred mission" to protect the superior races and cultures from the inferior. Chamberlain concluded his letter that the ideas of white supremacy had "not only justified the vast aggressions of Russia and England in the nineteenth century, but it also sanctions beforehand all that Germany may choose to appropriate in the twentieth". In 1908, the Harden–Eulenburg affair badly damaged Wilhelm's reputation when Wilhelm's and Chamberlain's mutual friend Eulenburg was exposed in the press as a homosexual. Since Eulenburg had been the Emperor's best friend since 1886, the scandal led to much gossip all over the Reich about whether Wilhelm and Eulenburg had been more than just best friends. Eulenburg was quite open about being gay when he was in the company of his closest friends, and he and Wilhelm had been the very best of friends for 22 years, leading the British historian John C. G. Röhl to conclude it was very unlikely that Wilhelm was ignorant of Eulenburg's sexual orientation as he claimed after Eulenburg was outed. After Eulenburg was exposed, the Kaiser wrote him a very cold letter saying that he could not stand the company of homosexuals, as such their friendship was now over and he never wanted to see or hear from Eulenburg again. Chamberlain was never as close to Eulenburg as Wilhelm was, and seemed genuinely shocked to learn of the allegations that Eulenburg was gay. The Eulenburg affair played a role in Germany very similar to the Dreyfus affair in France except the victim in this case was the prominent anti-Semite Eulenburg. During the scandal, practically the entire völkisch movement came out in support of Eulenburg whom they portrayed as an Aryan heterosexual framed by false allegations of homosexuality by the Jews Max Bernstein and Magnus Hirschfeld. The German journalist Theodor Wolff wrote in 1906 about Eulenburg's role as one of Germany's chief anti-Semites: I bet you ten to one that it was that skald [Eulenburg], the friend and admirer of Gobineau, who first pointed his other friend, the Kaiser towards the racial prophet's most eager disciple, Houston Stewart Chamberlain. The mystical notion of the "race that will bring order to the world" found its way from Gobineau via Eulenburg and Chamberlain to the Kaiser, and this notion in turn gave rise to the thought that "the world should be healed by the German spirit." In a letter to Chamberlain, Wilhelm wrote that entire scandal had emerged because of "Jewish cheek, slander and lies". In the same letter, an enraged Wilhelm told Chamberlain that Maximilian Harden, the German Jewish convert to Lutheranism and the journalist who had outed Eulenburg was a "loathsome, dirty Jewish fiend" and a "poisonous toad out of the slime of hell, a disgraceful stain on our Volk". However, despite his strongly held anti-Semitism and his frequently expressed wish to expel the entire German Jewish community, the Kaiser held back under the grounds that if he expelled all of the Jews from Germany, it would set the German economy back by a century, and as such, he had to grudgingly tolerate his Jewish subjects. As a part of his role as the "Evangelist of Race", Chamberlain toned his anti-Catholicism in the first decade of the 20th century, realizing belatedly that his attacks on the Catholic Church in The Foundations had alienated the German Catholic community from his message. As a well-known public intellectual, Chamberlain wrote on numerous subjects in a vast array of newspapers and magazines. Besides attacking the Jews, one of the chief themes of Chamberlain's essays was the unity of German culture, language, race and art and the need for the unity of German art with a racialized "Germanic Christianity". The other major theme of Chamberlain's work was science and philosophy. Chamberlain was always keenly interested in modern science and saw himself as a scientist, but he was deeply critical of the claim that modern science could explain everything, believing there was a spiritual side to humanity that science could not explain. As such, Chamberlain believed that modern Germany was being destroyed by people losing their spiritual aspects owing to the materialist belief that science could explain all. In his 1905 biography of one of his heroes, the philosopher Immanuel Kant, Chamberlain argued that Kant had shown the limits of rationalism and reason for understanding the world. Instead, Chamberlain argued that Kant had shown that the instinctive approach based on intuition was a far more valid way of understanding the world. Inevitably, Chamberlain's "Kantian" way of understanding science was used to attack the Jews, with Chamberlain writing: "In order to understand Kant we must ... begin by once and for all getting rid of the heavy burden of inherited and indoctrinated Jewish conceptions." In the same way, Chamberlain's 1912 biography of another of his heroes, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, was used to pass on the same message. Chamberlain depicted Goethe as a "Kantian" man who had correctly embraced both the rational, scientific and instinctive, mystical approaches to life to achieve a synthesis that embraced the best of both worlds. Again, Chamberlain used Goethe as a way of bashing the Jews, with Chamberlain claiming Goethe was for banning Aryan-Jewish sex and was a man who would not "suffered among us" Jewish artists, journalists, and professors in modern Germany. The German Jewish journal Im deutschen Reich wrote in a review of Goethe that Chamberlain had appropriated Goethe in "a polemic about race politics, racial hygiene and racial worth from the standpoint of a monomaniacal Judeophobia". The policies of Weltpolitik, especially the Tirpitz Plan brought about a period of Anglo-German tension in the first years of the 20th century. Chamberlain who detested the land of his birth had no trouble taking sides in the emerging Anglo-German antagonism. Chamberlain, who came to hate Britain, expressed his approval of the writings of the Anglophobic and anti-Semitic German historian Heinrich von Treitschke, whose view of Britain as a grasping, greedy nation of cheap traders dishonestly vacuuming up the world's wealth was the same as his own. In another letter to Wilhelm, Chamberlain wrote: "There are periods, when history is, as it were, woven on a loom ... in such a way that the warp and woof are established and are essentially unalterable; but then come times when the threads are introduced for a new fabric, when the time of material and the design must first be determined. ... We find ourselves in such a time today." Chamberlain declared to Wilhelm that Germany now had to become the world's greatest power, both for its own good and the good of the rest of the world. In his letter, Chamberlain dismissed France as a second-rate nation that could only fall further; Russia was a nation of "stupid" Slavs which was only just being held together because Nicholas II had German blood; without the German blood in the House of Romanov "nothing would remain but a decaying matière brute" in Russia; and Britain was clearly declining into a bottomless pit of greed, ineffective democratic politics and unrestrained individualism. Chamberlain was very anti-American and called the United States a "Dollar dynasty", writing: From dollars only dollars can come, nothing else; spiritually America will live only so long as the stream of European spiritual power flows there, not a moment longer. That part of the world, it may be proven, creates sterility, it has as little of a future as it has a past. Chamberlain concluded his letter to Wilhelm that: "The future progress of mankind depends on a powerful Germany extending far across the earth." To this end, Chamberlain advocated German expansionism both in Europe and all over the world; building the High Seas Fleet which would break the British mastery of the seas; and restructuring German society along the lines advocated by the extreme right-wing, völkisch Pan-German League. Propagandist of the World War In August 1914, he started suffering from a progressive paralysis of the limbs. At the end of the war, Chamberlain's paralysis had already befallen much of his body; his chronically bad health had reached its final stage. By the time World War I started in 1914, Chamberlain remained British only by virtue of his name and nationality. When the war started, Chamberlain tried to enlist in the German Army, but was turned down on the account of his age (then 58) and bad health. In August 1914, Chamberlain wrote a letter to his brother, the Japanologist Basil Hall Chamberlain, explaining why he had sided with his adopted country that read: "No war has ever been simpler than this; England has not for a moment reduced her efforts to do everything humanly possible to bring it about and to destroy every peaceful impulse. ... Germany's victory will not be England's ruin; quite the contrary, it is the only hope for England's rescue from the total ruin in which she now stands. England's victory will be terrible for the whole world, a catastrophe." The same month, Chamberlain published an essay celebrating Wilhelm II as an "Aryan soldier-king" and as a "Siegfried" who had embraced the "struggle against the corroding poison of Jewry". Chamberlain went on to call the war "a life-or-death struggle ... between two human ideals: the German and the un-German". Accordingly, the Reich must "for the next hundred years or more" strengthen all things German and carry out "the determined extermination of the un-German". Chamberlain happily welcomed the war, writing in September 1914 to his friend Prince Max of Baden: "I thank God that I have been allowed to experience these two exaltations—1870 and 1914—and that I was both times in Germany and saw the truth with my own eyes." In his 1914 essay, "Whose Fault Is the War?", Chamberlain blamed the war on France, Russia and especially Britain. Chamberlain argued though St. Petersburg and Paris were both seeking war, it was London who had masterminded the war, and the French and Russians were just British puppets. Initially Chamberlain expected the war to be over by the end of 1914, and was very disappointed when that did not occur. In 1916 he also acquired German citizenship. He had already begun propagandising on behalf of the German government and continued to do so throughout the war. His vociferous denunciations of his land of birth, it has been posited, were the culmination of his rejection of his native England's capitalism, in favour of a form of German Romanticism akin to that which he had cultivated in himself during his years at Cheltenham. The British historian John C. G. Röhl wrote the war made the "brutality in general and anti-Semitism in particular" of people like the Kaiser and Chamberlain "more intense". During World War I, Chamberlain published several propaganda texts against his country of birth—Kriegsaufsätze (Wartime Essays). In the first four tracts, he maintained that Germany is a nation of peace; England's political system is a sham, while Germany exhibits true freedom; German is the greatest and only remaining "living" language; and the world would be better off doing away with English and French-styled parliamentary governments in favour of German rule "thought out by a few and carried out with iron consequence". The final two discuss England and Germany at length. Chamberlain's basic argument was that democracy was an idiotic system as equality was a myth—humans were very different with different abilities and talents, so democratic equality where the opinions of one voter mattered much as the opinions of the next was a completely flawed idea. Quoting the French scientist Gustave Le Bon, Chamberlain wrote the vast majority of people were simply too stupid to properly understand the issues, and as such Germany with its rule by elites was a much better governed nation than France. In Germany, Chamberlain asserted, true freedom existed, as freedom came from the state alone which made it possible for society to function, not the individual as was the case in Britain and France, which Chamberlain claimed was a recipe for chaos. Field summarized Chamberlain's thesis "...the essence of German freedom was the willing submission as a matter of conscience to legitimately constituted authorities; it implied duty more than rights and was something spiritual and internal for which each moral being had to strive. Consigning 'liberty' to an inner, 'nonpolitical' moral realm, Chamberlain closed off any discussion of the specific conditions for a free society and simply asserted that freedom was perfectly compatible with an authoritarian system of government." Quoting—sometimes wildly out of context—various British, French and American authors, such as John Richard Green, William Edward Hartpole Lecky, John Robert Seeley, John Ruskin, Thomas Carlyle, Paul Bourget, Francis Delaisi, James Bryce, John Burgess, Woodrow Wilson, and H. G. Wells, Chamberlain argued that in democratic states, it was always big business that was really in charge; as such democracy was a fraud and democratic governments only served the rich; and democratic states only existed "to further the interests of money making all over the globe". Chamberlain's attacks on democracy as a sham designed to allow "Jewish plutocrats" to rule the world were not only very anti-British and anti-French, but also anti-American. Right from the start of the war, Chamberlain attacked all democratic governments in the world including the neutral United States as a fraud perpetrated by the Jews. Chamberlain wrote that America "is a hellish whirlpool, in which all the contradictions of the world, all the greed, envy and lust brew and simmer; a wild struggle of millions of ignorant egotists, men without ideas, ideals, or traditions, without shared values, without any capacity for sacrifice, an atomic chaos endowed with no true power of nature". Until the United States entered the war in 1917, the Auswärtiges Amt worked hard to prevent Chamberlain's essays with their strong anti-American content from appearing abroad out of the fear that they would offend opinion in America. Chamberlain's wartime writings also gained much attention – albeit of a highly negative sort – in his native Britain, with The Times Literary Supplement declaring: "The most ignorant of the Germans has not written greater nonsense." In 1915, an unauthorised translation of Chamberlain's wartime essays was published in London under the unflattering title of The Ravings of a Renegade. In his 1915 pamphlet Deutschland und England (Germany and England), Chamberlain vigorously took the side of his adopted land against the land of his birth. Chamberlain explained in Germany and England how the British were once noble Aryans like the Germans who lived in a perfect rigidly hierarchical, romantically rural "unmixed" society, but then starting in the 16th century capitalism had corrupted the English. Capitalism had turned the English into an urban nation dominated by a vulgar money-grubbing, philistine middle class incapable of any sort of culture. The beautiful English countryside, which Chamberlain claimed was once the home of an idyllic agrarian society, had become an ugly urban landscape full of polluting factories owned by greedy Jewish capitalists. Even worse in Chamberlain's opinion, capitalism had led the English into a process of racial degeneration, democracy and rule by the Jews. Chamberlain wrote with disgust how the sons of the English aristocracy "disappear from society to make money", leading to a warped "moral compass" on their part in contrast to Germany where the Junkers either tended to their estates or had careers in the Army. Chamberlain's discussion of Britain ended with the lament that his idealised "Merry Old England" no longer existed, with Chamberlain writing: We were merry, we are merry no longer. The complete decline of country life and the equally complete victory of God Mammon, the deity of Industry and Trade, have caused the true, harmless, refreshing merriness to betake itself out of England. Germany by contrast in Chamberlain's view, had preserved its racial purity and by having an authoritarian government and a welfare state, had avoided both laissez-faire capitalism and Jewish rule. It was for this reason that Chamberlain alleged that Britain had started World War I in 1914 to destroy Germany. For all these reasons Chamberlain stated he had come to hate Britain and love Germany, as Germany had preserved everything that Chamberlain considered to be noble in humanity while Britain had long since lost its nobility of spirit. Chamberlain received the Iron Cross from the Kaiser, with whom he was in regular correspondence, in 1916. By this time, Chamberlain's obsessive anti-Semitism had reached the point that Chamberlain was suffering from nightmares in which he was kidnapped and sentenced to death by the Jews. In 1915, Chamberlain wrote proudly in a letter to a friend that: "My lawyer friend in Munich tells me there is no living being whom the Jews hate more than I." In another essay, Chamberlain wrote the "pure Germanic force" had to be saved from the "disgusting worm" (the phrase "disgusting worm" was often used by Wagner to describe the Jews). Chamberlain wrote the purpose of this "struggle" was "salvation from the claws of the un-German and anti-German", going on to quote from Wagner's 1850 anti-Semitic essay Das Judenthum in der Musik that "Against this devil's brood stands Germany as God's champion: Siegfried against the worm!" During the war years, Chamberlain was one of the "annexationists" who wanted the war to end with Germany annexing most of Europe, Africa and Asia to give the Reich the "world power status" he believed it deserved. As such, Chamberlain worked closely with the Pan-German League, the Conservatives and the völkische groups to mobilise public support for the maximum war aims he sought. Chamberlain was a founding member of the Independent Commission for a German Peace, and in July 1915 he signed the Address of the Intellectuals, a petition signed by 1,347 teachers, writers, professors, and theologians asking the government to win the war in order to annex as much territory as possible. Much of this propaganda including Chamberlain's essays in support of the maximum war aims had a very strong anti-Semitic character, as Chamberlain claimed that it was the entire German Jewish community who were supposedly seeking a compromise peace to end the war, and were preventing the full mobilization of Germany's power that would allow the Reich to win the war. In a letter to his friend Prince Maximilian of Baden, Chamberlain wrote: I learned today from a man who is especially well-placed to observe these things—even when they go on secretly—that the Jews are completely intoxicated by their success in Germany—first from the millions they have gained through the war, then because of the praise showered on them in all official quarters, and thirdly from the protection they and their machinations enjoy from the censor. Thus, already they are beginning to lose their heads and reach a degree of insolence which may allow us to hope for a flood-tide of reaction. May God grant it!. In October–November 1916, the so-called Judenzählung ("Jew count") was held by the German Army to examine the popular anti-Semitic claim that German Jews were "shirking" their duty to the Fatherland by avoiding war service. The "Jew count" revealed that in fact German Jews were disproportionately over-represented in the front-line units, as most German Jews were anxious to prove their German patriotism and love of the Fatherland by volunteering for front-line duty. Many young German Jewish men wished to rebut the anti-Semitic canard that they were not real Germans by fighting for the Fatherland, and thus showing that they loved Germany as much as their Gentile neighbors, hence the disproportionate number of German Jews on the front-line compared to their share of the German population. As the results of the "Jew count" did not please the two men in charge of High Command, namely Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff, the latter a "fanatical anti-Semite" who had been expecting the "Jew Count" to reveal that German Jews were disproportionally underrepresented on the front-line, the High Command issued a facetious statement saying that for the safety of the German Jewish community the "Jew count" could not be made public, as it would endanger the lives of German Jews. The implication that if people could see just how far German Jews were allegedly "shirking" their duty to the Fatherland, then pogroms would break out in Germany led to a major upsurge in anti-Semitism, which Chamberlain was quick to exploit. In support of a harder line both in the war and on the home front, Chamberlain involved himself in the intrigues to oust Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg as Chancellor and replace him with the "hard man", Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz. In Chamberlain's opinion, if only Germany were to wage the war more ruthlessly and brutally, then the war would be won. Chamberlain loathed Bethmann-Hollweg whom he saw as an inept leader who simply did not have the will to win. Chamberlain had an unbounded confidence in the ability of the Army and Navy to win the war, but on the home front, Chamberlain believed the Reich was "leaderless" as he viewed Bethmann-Hollweg as a Jewish "puppet" unwilling and unable to stop defeatism, corruption or the demand for more democracy. Besides supporting Tirpitz as Chancellor, Chamberlain was all for adopting unrestricted submarine warfare—even at the risk of provoking the United States into the war—as the best way of starving Britain into surrender. Chamberlain was also a very public supporter of Zeppelin raids to destroy British cities. After a discussion with his friend and admirer, Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Chamberlain published a newspaper essay in July 1915 complaining that the government had imposed far too many restrictions on Zeppelin raids in order to save innocent British lives, and he argued that his country should bomb British cities with no concern for lives of civilians as ordinary British people deserved to die. The campaign by the annexationists against Bethmann-Hollweg was in large part motivated by the fact that the annexationists believed that Bethmann-Hollweg was not one of them. Had Chamberlain or any of the other annexationists been aware of the secret September Programme of 1914, where Bethmann-Hollweg planned to announce his intentions for annexing much of Europe and Africa after the soon to be expected fall of Paris, they would have had a different opinion of Bethmann-Hollweg. Under the constitution of 1871, the Reichstag had limited powers, but one of those was the right to vote on the budget. In the 1912 Reichstag elections, the anti-militarist Social Democrats had won the largest number of seats in the Reichstag. Thus Bethmann-Hollweg had to work with the SPD to get the budgets passed to finance the war. In August 1914, the government had been able to persuade the majority of the SPD to support the war on the grounds that Russia was supposedly about to attack Germany. The SPD broke into two; the Majority Social Democrats supported the war while the minority Independent Social Democrats stayed true to their pacifist beliefs and opposed the war. The Majority Social Democrats agreed to support the war to the extent it was portrayed as a defensive struggle against Russia, but the Majority SPD wanted nothing to do with the annexationists. Hence, Bethmann-Hollweg's refusal to support the annexationists in public was due to pragmatic political considerations, namely, his need for majority Social Democratic co-operation in the Reichstag as opposed to being against the annexationists as Chamberlain mistakenly believed. If the parties supporting annexationists, such as the Conservatives, National Liberals and Free Conservatives, had done better in the 1912 elections, Bethmann-Hollweg would almost certainly have taken a different line in public regarding the demands of the annexationists. Much of Chamberlain's strident, aggressive and embittered rhetoric reflected the fact that the annexationists were a minority in Germany, albeit a significant, vocal, well organised minority with many influential members inside and outside the government, but a minority nonetheless. The majority of the German people did not support the annexationists. Chamberlain regarded the refusal of the democratic parties like the left-wing SPD, the right-of-the-centre Zentrum and the liberal Progressives to join the annexationist movement as essentially high treason. In August 1916, there occurred what amounted to a military coup d'état when Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff informed Wilhelm and Bethmann-Hollweg that henceforward the Army would no longer obey either the Kaiser or the government, and that from now the Emperor and the Chancellor would now obey the Army. In July 1917 Hindenburg and Ludendorff had Bethmann-Hollweg dismissed and replaced with Georg Michaelis as Chancellor. Chamberlain's preferred candidate as Chancellor, Admiral Tirpitz, was passed over. Tirpitz was an intelligent, media-savvy, charismatic political intriguer with a desperate hunger for political power, but the duumvirate of Hindenburg and Ludendorff regarded Tirpitz as Chancellor as too much of a threat to their own power. In response to the firing of Bethmann-Hollweg, the democratic parties decided to protest by passing a peace resolution. The Reichstag Peace Resolution of July 1917—in which the SPD, Zentrum and the Progressives all joined forces to vote for a resolution asking the government to start peace talks at once on the basis of a return to the status quo of 1914—"inflamed the paranoia and desperation of the right. The annexationists prepared for a war to the knife against the Chancellor and domestic "traitors"." Chamberlain was disappointed that Tirpitz had not been appointed Chancellor; however, he was overjoyed with Bethmann-Hollweg's sacking and welcomed the military dictatorship of Hindenburg and Ludendorff as giving Germany the sort of government it needed. Chamberlain was always inclined to hero worship, and for him, Hindenburg and Ludendorff were the greatest of a long line of German heroes. Chamberlain wrote in 1917 that: "Had Hindenburg and Ludendorff stood on the first day in their rightful place, the peace would in all probability have been dictated in Paris before the end of 1914." Besides being an annexationist who wanted to see the war end with Germany as the world's greatest power, Chamberlain also advocated a set of wide-ranging changes to German society intended to achieve a "rebirth" of Germany. Chamberlain wanted to see the Spirit of 1914 made permanent, to convert the wartime Burgfrieden ("peace within a castle under siege") into a peacetime Volksgemeinschaft (people's community). He also wanted a new economic and social system that would be a "third way" between capitalism and socialism to bring about the Volksgemeinschaft organized along corporatist lines. To achieve this, Chamberlain called for the end to any remaining democratic features the constitution of 1871 still possessed and the creation of a pure dictatorship; for the end of the capitalist system with the state to nationalize huge sections of the economy while at the same time respecting the right to private property; and for the militarization of society on a new scale. Chamberlain was somewhat vague about how this corporatist society would work in practice, but what he wanted was rule by an oligarchy of aristocrats, intellectuals, bureaucrats and military officers who would run a "planned economy" via "scientific management". The entire German people (except for the Jews, whom Chamberlain believed did not belong in Germany) were to be united by a common loyalty to the Emperor. A fanatical monarchist, Chamberlain saw the monarchy as the bedrock of German life, writing in his 1915 book Politische Ideale: "Whoever speaks of a republic in Germany belongs on the gallows; the monarchical idea is here a holy law of life." At the same time, Chamberlain envisioned a Germany that would somehow remain the leading industrial power at the forefront of modern technology while at the same time become a romantic, agrarian society where ordinary people would work the land and retain their traditional deference to the aristocracy. Chamberlain was also vague about how this could be achieved, writing only that a "planned economy", "scientific management" and an economically interventionist state committed to social reforms would make it all possible. After Germany's diplomatic defeat in the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911, Wilhelm II became the Schattenkaiser (the "Shadow Emperor"), an increasingly reclusive figure who was seen less and less in public. The war further reinforced Wilhelm's tendency to avoid the public spotlight as much as possible. In private, Chamberlain grew disillusioned with his friend, complaining that instead of being the "Aryan soldier king" leading the Reich to victory as he wanted and expected him to be, the Kaiser was a weak leader as the "Shadow Emperor" was hiding himself away in deep seclusion from the rest of Germany at his hunting lodges. Wilhelm's hiding himself away from his own people during the war did immense damage to the prestige of the monarchy, and if the Kaiser's seclusion did not make the November Revolution of 1918 inevitable, it at least made it possible. As a monarchist, Chamberlain was worried about how Wilhelm was hurting his own reputation, and often vainly urged the Kaiser to appear in public more often. Chamberlain wrote in 1916 that Wilhelm had an "absolute incapability for judging character" and was now being "forced to obey a Frankfurt pimp", the last being a disparaging reference to Bethmann-Hollweg. Chamberlain was always very careful to avoid attacking Wilhelm in public, but his violent press attacks against Bethmann-Hollweg caused something of a rift with the Kaiser who felt Chamberlain's very public criticism of the Chancellor was also an indirect attack on him. Nonetheless, despite the strains the war imposed on their friendship, Chamberlain and Wilhelm continued to write throughout the war, but pointedly did not meet in person anymore, though Chamberlain's increasing paralysis also played a part. Wilhelm wrote to Chamberlain on 15 January 1917, stating: The war is a struggle between two Weltanschauungen, the Teutonic-German for morality, right, loyalty and faith, genuine humanity, truth and real freedom, against ... the worship of Mammon, the power of money, pleasure, land-hunger, lies, betrayal, deceit and—last but not least—treacherous assassination! These two Weltanschauungen cannot be reconciled or tolerate one another, one must be victorious, the other must go under! In response, Chamberlain wrote back to Wilhelm on 20 January 1917, declaring: England has fallen totally into the hands of the Jews and the Americans. A person does not understand this war unless he realizes that it is in the deepest sense the war of Judentum and its near relative Americanism for the control of the world—a war against Christianity, against Bildung, moral strength, uncommercial art, against every idealist perspective on life, and for the benefit of a world that would include only industry, finance, and trade—in short, unrestricted plutocracy. All the other additional factors—Russian greed, French vanity, Italian bombast, the envious and cowardly spirit of the neutrals—are whipped up, made crazy; the Jew and the Yankee are the driving forces that operate consciously and in a certain sense have hitherto been victorious or at all events successful.... It is the war of modern mechanized "civilization" against the ancient, holy and continually reborn culture of chosen races. Machines will crush both spirit and soul in their clutches. Chamberlain continued to believe right up until the end of the war that Germany would win only if the people willed victory enough, and this sort of ideological war between "German idealism" vs. "Jewish materialism" could only end with one side utterly crushing the other. In the last two years of the war, Chamberlain became obsessed with defeating the "inner enemy" that he believed was holding Germany back. In this regard, Chamberlain frequently asserted that Germany was not one nation, but two; on one side, the "patriots" like Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, General Erich Ludendorff, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, Wolfgang Kapp, J. F. Lehmann and Count von Reventlow; and on the other, the "traitors" which included people like Philipp Scheidemann, Eduard David and Matthias Erzberger. No compromise between these two Germanies was possible or desirable Chamberlain argued, and one would have to be destroyed. Chamberlain's wartime writings against the "inner enemy" anticipated the "stab-in-the-back legend" which emerged after 1918. Chamberlain was a founding member of both the extreme-right, anti-Semitic Deutschlands Erneuerung newspaper, and of the Fatherland Party in 1917. The character of the Fatherland Party was well illustrated by an infamous incident in January 1918 when at a Fatherland Party rally in Berlin, a group of disabled war veterans were invited to debate the Fatherland Party's speakers. The wounded veterans, including men who were paralyzed, blinded, missing limbs, etc. all declared that they were now against the war and had become pacifists. The crippled veterans deplored the Fatherland Party's militarism and demand for war to go until victory, regardless of how many more would have to die or end up living with destroyed bodies. The ultra-nationalists of the Fatherland Party were so enraged by what the crippled veterans had to say that the audience stormed the stage, and savagely beat the disabled veterans senseless. Chamberlain, who lived in Bayreuth. was not present during the Berlin rally, but expressed his approval of what had happened when he heard of it. During the war, most Germans saw Britain as the main enemy, and so Chamberlain's status as the Englishman who supported the Reich made him an even more famous celebrity in Germany than he had been before 1914. Chamberlain's wartime essays were widely read. The first set of essays sold 160,000 copies within six months of publication while the second set sold 75,000 copies within six weeks of publication. Between 1914 and 1918 about 1 million copies of Chamberlain's essays were sold, making Chamberlain one of Germany's best read writers during the war. In December 1915, it was estimated that between the direct sales of Chamberlain's essays and reprints in newspapers, at least 3 million people had read Chamberlain's war-time writings. Such was the power of Chamberlain as a public figure that in August 1916 the German Jewish industrialist Walther Rathenau—whom Chamberlain had often accused of profiteering—mailed Chamberlain a copy of his bank balance sheets, which showed that Rathenau was in fact getting poorer as a result of the war, and politely asked Chamberlain to stop accusing him of war profiteering. Rathenau's appeal made no impression, and Chamberlain continued to accuse Rathenau of war profiteering right until he was assassinated in 1922. In 1917 Chamberlain wrote about the liberal Frankfurter Zeitung newspaper: "No knowledgeable person, can doubt that the enemy is at work among us ... whenever England has something up her sleeve against the interests of Germany, she uses the Frankfurter Zeitung." Bernhard Guttmann, the editor of the Frankfurter Zeitung sued Chamberlain for libel about that article. In August 1918, the sensational libel trial which attracted much media attention opened. The Frankfurter Zeitungs lawyers were Conrad Haussmann and Hertz while Chamberlain was defended by Heinrich Class and Adolf Jacobsen. On 16 August 1918, the trial ended with the judge ruling that Chamberlain was indeed guilty of libel and fined him 1,500 marks. The guilty verdict set off a storm in right-wing circles, who quickly held several successful fund-raisers that raised the necessary 1,500 marks to pay Chamberlain's fine. Hitler's mentor In November 1918, Chamberlain was completely shattered and horrified by Germany's defeat in the war, a defeat he believed to be impossible, as well as by the November Revolution, which had toppled his beloved monarchy. Adding to his bitterness, Chamberlain was now so paralyzed that he could no longer leave his bed, something that he believed to be the result of poisoning by the British secret service. Chamberlain saw both the defeat and the revolution of 1918 as the work of the Jews, writing in 1919 that Germany was now under the "supremacy of the Jews". In his last years, Chamberlain's anti-Semitic writings grew ever more violent and bloodthirsty as Chamberlain became even more intensely anti-Semitic than he had been before 1918. In March 1920, Chamberlain supported the Kapp Putsch against the Weimar Republic, which he called the Judenrepublik ("Jewish Republic"), and was even more embittered by its failure. The Kapp putsch was defeated by a general strike called by the Social Democrats which shut down the entire German economy. A young völkisch activist Josef Stolzing-Cerny and a Chamberlain protégé who had participated in the Kapp putsch wrote to Chamberlain after its failure: "Unfortunately Kapp was not all 'the man with the lion heart', much rather the man with the beer heart, for he continually used all his energies befuddling his brain with alcohol. ... In the same situation a Bismarck or a Napoleon would have hunted the whole Jewish-socialist republic to the devil." Stolzing-Cerny went on to criticize Kapp for not unleashing the Freikorps Marinebrigade Ehrhardt which had taken Berlin against the Jews of Berlin, instead ordering the Freikorps to keep order. After the failure of the putsch, Chamberlain no longer considered Wolfgang Kapp to be one of his heroes, and instead damned him as a weak-willed coward all too typical of German conservatives who talked tough, but never followed up their words with action. More importantly, the failure of the Kapp putsch to a certain extent discredited traditional German conservatism in Chamberlain's eyes, and led him on the search for a more radical alternative, a type of "German socialism" that would offer a "third way" between capitalism and socialism. In January 1921, Stolzing-Cerny, who joined the NSDAP in December 1920, wrote to Chamberlain about the new man on the political scene, "one Adolf Hitler, an Austrian worker, a man of extraordinary oratorical talents and an astonishingly rich political knowledge who knows marvelously how to thrill the masses". Initially, Chamberlain was hesitant about Hitler, believing that he might be another Kapp, but after the "battle of Coburg", in which Hitler had personally fought with his followers in a street battle against the Communists, Chamberlain started to see Hitler as someone who practiced what he preached. From that time onwards, Chamberlain started to closely follow and admire Hitler, whom he saw as "Germany's savior". Hitler in his turn had read The Foundations, Chamberlain's biography of Wagner, and many of his wartime essays, and was much influenced by all that Chamberlain had written. British historian Sir Ian Kershaw, a biographer of Hitler, writes that ... Hitler drew heavily for his ideas from well known anti-Semitic tracts such as those by Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Adolf Wahrmund and especially, the arch-popularizer Theodor Fritsch (one of whose emphasis was the alleged sexual abuse of women by the Jews)... The fact that Hitler was an ardent Wagnerite who adored Wagner's music gave Chamberlain and Hitler a mutual ground for friendship beyond their shared hatred of the Jews. Likewise, Joseph Goebbels had been converted to the völkisch ideology after reading Chamberlain's books and essays, and came to the conclusion on the basis of Chamberlain's writings that the West could only be saved by removing the Jews from German society. During this period, Chamberlain, who was practically a member of the Wagner family, started to push for the Bayreuth Festival to become openly identified with völkisch politics, and to turn the previously apolitical festival into a völkisch rally. Despite his paralysis, Chamberlain whose mind was still sharp, remained active as a writer, maintaining a correspondence with a whole gamut of figures from Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz to the radical anti-Semitic journalist Theodor Fritsch, the leader of the völkisch Hammerbund ("Hammer League"). From his exile in the Netherlands, the former Kaiser wrote to Chamberlain in 1922 to tell him that thanks to his essays, he had become a Marcionist and now rejected the Old Testament. Wilhelm claimed that on the basis of Chamberlain's work, he now knew that what had become the Old Testament was in fact a Zoroastrian text from ancient Persia (modern Iran) and was therefore "Aryan". The former Kaiser claimed that the Jews had stolen and rewritten this sacred text from the Aryan Persians, ending his letter: "Let us free ourselves from the Judentum with its Jawe!" In 1923, Wilhelm wrote to tell Chamberlain of his belief that not only were the Jews "not our religious forebears", but that Jesus was "not a Jew", was instead an Aryan "of exceptional beauty, tall and slim with a noble face inspiring respect and love; his hair blond shading into chestnut brown, his arms and hands noble and exquisitely formed". In 1923 Chamberlain met with Adolf Hitler in Bayreuth, and in September he sat in his wheelchair next to Hitler during the völkisch "German Day" paramilitary parade. In September 1923 he wrote a grateful and highly admiring open letter to the NSDAP leader. Chamberlain, paralysed and despondent after Germany's losses in World War I, wrote to Hitler after his first visit in September 1923: Chamberlain's letter—which made him into the first celebrity to endorse the NSDAP—caused a media sensation in Germany and led Hitler to rejoice "like a child" at the news. When Hitler staged the Munich Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923, Chamberlain wrote an essay for the Völkischer Beobachter entitled "God Wills It!" calling on all Germans who love Germany to join the putsch. After the failure of the Munich Putsch, Chamberlain wrote: "We are deeply affected by this tragic fate, Jew and Jesuit can now triumph again!". Chamberlain joined the Nazi Party and contributed to its publications. Its primary journal, the Völkischer Beobachter, dedicated five columns to praising him on his 70th birthday, describing The Foundations as the "gospel of the National Socialist movement". In January 1924, Chamberlain published an essay praising Hitler as one of the "rare beautiful beings... a man of genuine simplicity with a fascinating gaze" whose words "always come directly from the heart". Chamberlain praised Hitler for embarking upon a "Vernichtungskrieg" ("war of destruction") against all of Germany's enemies. Chamberlain further wrote about Hitler—whom he viewed as the greatest of all his heroes—that: Because he [Hitler] is no mere phrasemonger, but consistently pursues his thought to an end and draws his conclusions from it, he recognizes and proclaims that one cannot simultaneously embrace Jesus and those that crucified him. That is the splendid thing about Hitler—his courage! ... In this respect he reminds one of Luther. And whence come the courage of these two men? It derives from the holy seriousness each has for the cause! Hitler utters no word he does not mean in earnest; his speeches contain no padding or vague, provisional statements ... but the result of this is that he is decried as a visionary dreamer. People consider Hitler a dreamer whose head is full of impossible schemes and yet a renowned and original historian called him "the most creative mind since Bismarck in the area of statecraft." I believe ... we are all inclined to view those things as impractical that we do not already see accomplished before us. He, for example, finds it impossible to share our conviction about the pernicious, even murderous influence of Jewry on the German Volk and not to take action; if one sees the danger, then steps must be taken against it with utter dispatch. I daresay everyone recognizes this, but nobody risks speaking out; nobody ventures to extract the consequences of his thoughts for his actions; nobody except Hitler. ... This man has worked like a divine blessing, cheering hearts, opening men's eyes to clearly seen goals, enlivening their spirits, kindling their capacity for love and for indignation, hardening their courage and resoluteness. Yet we still need him badly: May God who sent him to us preserve him for many years as a "blessing for the German Fatherland!" After the failure of the Munich Putsch, Hitler was convicted of high treason and imprisoned. When the 1924 Bayreuth Festival opened, Chamberlain's efforts to identify the festival with völkisch politics finally bore fruit. The Festspielhügel and the way leading up to it was decorated with völkisch symbols like the swastika, parades by the nationalist Verbände were held outside the Festspielhügel, prominent völkisch leaders like General Erich Ludendorff appeared on the stage to give a speech attacking the Weimar Republic before one of the operas was performed, and a petition was offered to the audiences demanding that Hitler be pardoned. The 1924 festival led to 10,000 people in one night signing the petition asking for Hitler's release. From his prison cell at Landsberg prison, Hitler wrote to Siegfried Wagner expressing his sorrow about being unable to attend his beloved Bayreuth Festival and to express his thanks to the entire Wagner family and Chamberlain for turning the Bayreuth festival into a völkisch rally, adding that when he got out of prison, he would come to Bayreuth as "the first witness and herald" of Germany's rebirth. Hitler stated this would be the best medicine for Chamberlain's health as "the road to Berlin" started in Bayreuth. In May 1926, one year before Chamberlain's death, Hitler and Goebbels visited him in Bayreuth. Chamberlain assured Hitler of his belief that he was the "chosen one" destined to lead Germany back to greatness after the defeat of 1918, to make the Reich a world power, and finally smash the Jews. Much of Hitler's genuine affection for Chamberlain was due to the fact that Chamberlain never lost his faith in Hitler's potential, even at time in the mid-1920s when the NSDAP was faring very poorly. Chamberlain continued living in Bayreuth until his death in 1927.Degener, Herrmann A. L. (ed.) (1928) Wer Ist's? (the German Who's Who), Berlin. vol. 9, p. 1773 records the death on 9 January 1927, of "Houston Stewart Chamberlain, writer, Bayreuth". Chamberlain died on 9 January 1927 and was buried at the Bayreuth cemetery in the presence of Adolf Hitler. His gravestone bears a verse from the Gospel of Luke, which he considered to spell out the essential difference between his ideal type of Christianity, and Judaism and Catholicism as he saw them: "The Kingdom of God is within you." () Impact of The Foundations During his lifetime Chamberlain's works were read widely throughout Europe, and especially in Germany. His reception was particularly favourable among Germany's conservative elite. Kaiser Wilhelm II patronised Chamberlain, maintaining a correspondence, inviting him to stay at his court, distributing copies of The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century among the German Army, and seeing that The Foundations was carried in German libraries and included in the school curricula. In 1932 in an essay entitled "Anti-Semitics" denouncing antisemitism, the "homeless left" German journalist Carl von Ossietzky wrote: "Intellectual anti-Semitism was the special prerogative of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who, in The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, concretized the fantasies of Count Arthur de Gobineau, which had penetrated to Bayreuth. He translated them from the language of harmless snobberty into [the language] of a modernized, seductive mysticism." Ossietzky ended his essay with the warning: "Today there is a strong smell of blood in the air. Literary anti-Semitism forges the moral weapon for murder. Sturdy and honest lads will take care of the rest." The Foundations would prove to be a seminal work in German nationalism. Due to its success, aided by Chamberlain's association with the Wagner circle, its ideas of Aryan supremacy and a struggle against Jewish influence spread widely across the German state at the beginning of the century. If it did not form the framework of later National Socialist ideology, at the very least it provided its adherents with a seeming intellectual justification. Many of Chamberlain's ideas such as his emphasis on a racial struggle between Aryans vs. Jews for world domination; his championing of "world power status" for Germany; his call for a "planned economy" (something realized in 1936 when Hitler brought in the First Four Year Plan which saw the German state take over the economy); his vision of Germany becoming the Volksgemeinschaft (people's community"); his demand for a "third way" between capitalism and socialism; his total opposition to democracy; and his nostalgia for an agrarian lifestyle were central to National Socialism. The only National Socialist idea that Chamberlain missed was lebensraum (living space), the perceived need for Germany to colonize Eastern Europe while displacing the existing population to make room for Aryan colonists. However, there were differences in that Chamberlain was always a monarchist and believed that when his friend Hitler came to power, he would restore the monarchy and put his other friend Wilhelm II back on the throne. Had Chamberlain lived to see the Third Reich, he likely would have been disappointed that Hitler did not carry out the restoration of the monarchy that he so desired. Moreover, Chamberlain was just one of the many völkische thinkers who influenced Hitler. Chamberlain himself lived to see his ideas begin to bear fruit. Adolf Hitler, while still growing as a political figure in Germany, visited him several times (in 1923 and in 1926, together with Joseph Goebbels) at the Wagner family's property in Bayreuth. Later, in January 1927, Hitler, along with several highly ranked members of the Nazi Party, attended Chamberlain's funeral. Chamberlain's ideas particularly influenced Alfred Rosenberg, who became the Nazi Party's in-house philosopher. In 1909, some months before his 17th birthday, he went with an aunt to visit his guardian where several other relatives were gathered. Bored, he went to a book shelf, picked up a copy of Chamberlain's The Foundations and wrote of the moment: "I felt electrified; I wrote down the title and went straight to the bookshop." In 1930 Rosenberg published The Myth of the Twentieth Century, a homage to and continuation of Chamberlain's work. Rosenberg had accompanied Hitler when he called upon Wagner's widow, Cosima, in October 1923 when he met her son-in-law. Hitler told the ailing Chamberlain he was working on his own book which, he intended should do for the Third Reich what Chamberlain's book had done for the Second. Beyond the Kaiser and the NSDAP, assessments were mixed. The French Germanic scholar Edmond Vermeil considered Chamberlain's ideas "essentially shoddy," but the anti-Nazi German author Konrad Heiden, despite objections to Chamberlain's racial ideas, described him as "one of the most astonishing talents in the history of the German mind, a mine of knowledge and profound ideas". In a 1939 work Martin Heidegger (himself a former Nazi) dismissed Chamberlain's work as presenting a subjective, individualistic "Weltanschauung" (fabricated worldview). Works (1892). Das Drama Richard Wagners. Eine Anregung, Breitkopf & Härtel. (1895). Richard Wagner, F. Bruckmann. (1899). Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, Bruckmann. (1905). Arische Weltanschauung, Bruckmann. (1903). Heinrich von Stein und seine Weltanschauung, Georg Heinrich Meyer. (1905). Immanuel Kant. Die Persönlichkeit als Einführung in das Werk, Bruckmann. (1912). Goethe. Bruckmann. (1915). Kriegsaufsätze, Bruckmann. (1919). Lebenswege meines Denkens, Bruckmann. Works in English translation (1897). Richard Wagner, J. M. Dent & Co. (translated by G. Ainslie Hight) (1911). The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 2 Vol., John Lane, The Bodley Head (translated by John Lees) "Foundations of the Nineteenth Century." In Modern Political Ideologies, Oxford University Press, 1959. (1914). Immanuel Kant, 2 Vol., John Lane, The Bodley Head (translated by Lord Redesdale). (1915). The Wagnerian Drama, John Lane, the Bodley Head. (1915). The Ravings of a Renegade, Jarrold & Sons (translated by Charles H. Clarke) (2005). Political Ideals, University Press of America (translated by Alexander Jacob) (2012) Aryan World View, Aristeus books. (2012). The Ravings of a Renegade, Aristeus Books (translated by Charles H. Clarke) (2014). Richard Wagner, Aristeus Books. (translated by G. Ainslie High) See also Oswald Mosley Wagner family tree William Patrick Stuart-Houston ReferencesInformational notesCitationsBibliography Biddiss, Michael (1998), "History as Destiny: Gobineau, H. S. Chamberlain and Spengler," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. VII, Sixth Series, Cambridge University Press. Buruma, Ian (2000) Anglomania: A European Love Affair New York: Vintage Books. Domeier, Norman (2015) The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer. Evans, Richard J. (2005) The Coming of the Third Reich, London: Penguin Books. Fraser, David (January 1990) "Houston Stewart Chamberlain Revolutionary or Reactionary?" in Journal of 20th Century History, Volume 20, #1, pp. 410–24 Friedländer, Saul (1998) Nazi Germany and the Jews: Volume 1: The Years of Persecution 1933–1939, New York: Harper Perennial. Mosse, George L. (1968) "Introduction to the 1968 Edition" to Chamberlain, Houston Stewart The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century Vol. I. Lees, John (trans.) New York: Howard Fertig Inc. Ossietzky, Carl von (1984) "Anti-Semites" in Kaes, Anton; Jay, Martin; and Dimendberg, Edward (eds.) The Weimar Republic Sourcebook. Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 276–80 Praeger, Ferdinand (1892) Wagner as I Knew Him London: Longman, Green & Co. Redesdale, Lord (1913) "Introduction" to Chamberlain, Houston Stewart The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (4th English language impression). London. Röhl, John (2004) Wilhelm II: The Kaiser's Personal Monarchy, 1888–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shirer, William L. (1985) [1959] The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. Book Club Associates. Wette, Wolfram (2006) The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 33 Further reading''' Barzun, Jacques (1937), Race: A Study in Modern Superstition, Taylor & Francis. Kelly, Alfred (1981), The Descent of Darwin: The Popularization of Darwinism in Germany, 1860–1914, University of North Carolina Press. Mather Jr., F. J. (1915), "Ethnic Darwinism: A New-Old Fallacy," The Unpopular Review, Vol. III, No. 5. Newman, Ernest (1931), "The Case of Ferdinand Praeger." In Fact and Fiction about Wagner, Alfred A. Knopf. Parkinson, C. Northcote (1958), "The Theory of Dictatorship." In Evolution of Political Thought, Part IV, Chap. 22, Houghton Mifflin Company. Redesdale, Lord (1914), "Houston Stewart Chamberlain," The Edinburgh Review, Vol. CCXIX, No. 447. Snyder, Louis L. (1939), "Houston Stewart Chamberlain and Teutonic Nordicism." In Race, A History of Modern Ethnic Theories, Chap. VIII, Longmans, Green and Co. Stein, Ludwig (1918), "The Neo-Romantic Movement." In Philosophical Currents of the Present Day, Chap. V. The University of Calcutta. Williamson, Roger Andrew (1973), Houston Stewart Chamberlain: A Study of the Man and His Ideas, 1855–1927, University of California, Santa Barbara. Voegelin, Eric (1940), "The Growth of the Race Idea," The Review of Politics, Vol. 2, No. 3. Voegelin, Eric (1997), Race and State, University of Missouri Press. External links Works by Houston Stewart Chamberlain, at Unz.org Works by Houston Stewart Chamberlain, at Hathi Trust Theodore Roosevelt's review of The Foundation of the 19th Century Houston Stewart Chamberlain biography and transcriptions – online compendium arranged by an admirer Kolnai, Aurel, The War Against the West'', Chapter V – Faith And Thought 5. The Call for Mythology: Confrontation of Creed and Mythology Jewish Encyclopedia: Chamberlain, Houston Stewart Category:1855 births Category:1927 deaths Category:19th-century English writers Category:19th-century German writers Category:19th-century philosophers Category:20th-century English writers Category:20th-century German writers Category:British expatriates in France Category:British expatriates in Germany Category:British expatriates in Switzerland Category:British fascists Category:Critics of the Catholic Church Category:English people of Scottish descent Category:English political philosophers Category:German Fatherland Party politicians Category:German fascists Category:German male writers Category:German monarchists Category:German nationalists Category:German Nazi politicians Category:German people of British descent Category:German-language writers Category:Naturalized citizens of Germany Category:Nazis from outside Germany Category:People educated at Cheltenham College Category:People educated at Stubbington House School Category:People from Southsea Category:Scientific racism Category:University of Geneva alumni Category:Victorian writers Category:Wagner family	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }
Leopold Kronecker Leopold Kronecker (7 December 1823 – 29 December 1891) was a German mathematician who worked on number theory, algebra and logic. He criticized Georg Cantor's work on set theory, and was quoted by as having said, "" ("God made the integers, all else is the work of man"). Kronecker was a student and lifelong friend of Ernst Kummer. Biography Leopold Kronecker was born on 7 December 1823 in Liegnitz, Prussia (now Legnica, Poland) in a wealthy Jewish family. His parents, Isidor and Johanna (née Prausnitzep), took care of their children's education and provided them with private tutoring at home—Leopold's younger brother Hugo Kronecker would also follow a scientific path, later becoming a notable physiologist. Kronecker then went to the Liegnitz Gymnasium where he was interested in a wide range of topics including science, history and philosophy, while also practicing gymnastics and swimming. At the gymnasium he was taught by Ernst Kummer, who noticed and encouraged the boy's interest in mathematics. In 1841 Kronecker became a student at the University of Berlin where his interest did not immediately focus on mathematics, but rather spread over several subjects including astronomy and philosophy. He spent the summer of 1843 at the University of Bonn studying astronomy and 1843–44 at the University of Breslau following his former teacher Kummer. Back in Berlin, Kronecker studied mathematics with Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and in 1845 defended his dissertation in algebraic number theory written under Dirichlet's supervision. After obtaining his degree, Kronecker did not follow his interest in research on an academic career path. He went back to his hometown to manage a large farming estate built up by his mother's uncle, a former banker. In 1848 he married his cousin Fanny Prausnitzer, and the couple had six children. For several years Kronecker focused on business, and although he continued to study mathematics as a hobby and corresponded with Kummer, he published no mathematical results. In 1853 he wrote a memoir on the algebraic solvability of equations extending the work of Évariste Galois on the theory of equations. Due to his business activity, Kronecker was financially comfortable, and thus he could return to Berlin in 1855 to pursue mathematics as a private scholar. Dirichlet, whose wife Rebecka came from the wealthy Mendelssohn family, had introduced Kronecker to the Berlin elite. He became a close friend of Karl Weierstrass, who had recently joined the university, and his former teacher Kummer who had just taken over Dirichlet's mathematics chair. Over the following years Kronecker published numerous papers resulting from his previous years' independent research. As a result of this published research, he was elected a member of the Berlin Academy in 1861. Although he held no official university position, Kronecker had the right as a member of the Academy to hold classes at the University of Berlin and he decided to do so, starting in 1862. In 1866, when Riemann died, Kronecker was offered the mathematics chair at the University of Göttingen (previously held by Carl Friedrich Gauss and Dirichlet), but he refused, preferring to keep his position at the Academy. Only in 1883, when Kummer retired from the University, was Kronecker invited to succeed him and became an ordinary professor. Kronecker was the supervisor of Kurt Hensel, Adolf Kneser, Mathias Lerch, and Franz Mertens, amongst others. His philosophical view of mathematics put him in conflict with several mathematicians over the years, notably straining his relationship with Weierstrass, who almost decided to leave the University in 1888. Kronecker died on 29 December 1891 in Berlin, several months after the death of his wife. In the last year of his life, he converted to Christianity. He is buried in the Alter St Matthäus Kirchhof cemetery in Berlin-Schöneberg, close to Gustav Kirchhoff. Scientific activity Mathematics research An important part of Kronecker's research focused on number theory and algebra. In an 1853 paper on the theory of equations and Galois theory he formulated the Kronecker–Weber theorem, without however offering a definitive proof (the theorem was proved completely much later by David Hilbert). He also introduced the structure theorem for finitely-generated abelian groups. Kronecker studied elliptic functions and conjectured his "liebster Jugendtraum" ("dearest dream of youth"), a generalization that was later put forward by Hilbert in a modified form as his twelfth problem. In an 1850 paper, On the Solution of the General Equation of the Fifth Degree, Kronecker solved the quintic equation by applying group theory (though his solution was not in terms of radicals: that was already proven impossible by the Abel–Ruffini theorem). In algebraic number theory Kronecker introduced the theory of divisors as an alternative to Dedekind's theory of ideals, which he did not find acceptable for philosophical reasons. Although the general adoption of Dedekind's approach led Kronecker's theory to be ignored for a long time, his divisors were found useful and were revived by several mathematicians in the 20th century. Kronecker also contributed to the concept of continuity, reconstructing the form of irrational numbers in real numbers. In analysis, Kronecker rejected the formulation of a continuous, nowhere differentiable function by his colleague, Karl Weierstrass. Also named for Kronecker are the Kronecker limit formula, Kronecker's congruence, Kronecker delta, Kronecker comb, Kronecker symbol, Kronecker product, Kronecker's method for factorizing polynomials, Kronecker substitution, Kronecker's theorem in number theory, Kronecker's lemma, and Eisenstein–Kronecker numbers. Philosophy of mathematics Kronecker's finitism made him a forerunner of intuitionism in foundations of mathematics. Honours Kronecker was elected as a member of several academies: Prussian Academy of Sciences (1861) French Academy of Sciences (1868) Royal Society (1884). The 25624 Kronecker asteroid is named after him. Publications References Further reading External links Category:1823 births Category:1891 deaths Category:19th-century German mathematicians Category:Converts to Christianity Category:Corresponding Members of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society Category:German Jews Category:Humboldt University of Berlin alumni Category:Humboldt University of Berlin faculty Category:Independent scientists Category:Number theorists Category:People from Legnica Category:People from the Province of Silesia	{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }

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