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120pm1
|
human wave attacks
|
[
{
"answer": "If a 5 year old asked this question, I'd be slightly disturbed.\n\nThe basic answer is that war is often about who runs out of resources first. If you can throw waves of soldiers at an enemy, and kill 1 of them for every 3 of your own troops that die, but your total army is 5 times as big as theirs, then they'll run out of troops before you do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > trained, fed and transported to the battlefield, that's a huge investment going to waste.\n\nIn ye olden times the troops in those waves you're talking about often had no training beyond \"take this pitchfork, stick 'em with the pointy end\" and were likely fed the cheapest rations that would keep someone moderately alive. Lords and kings weren't throwing their elite knights in expensive armor at the enemy, they were wearing them down with commoners before the elites went in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even in the 1980s Iran used human wave attacks against Iraq. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The first waves weren't well trained or well fed. They were meant to rush the enemy and force them into using up their resources before the real skilled attacks came.\n\nThis mentality is the origin for the phrase [cannon fodder](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147018",
"title": "Human wave attack",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The human wave attack, also known as the human sea attack, is an offensive infantry tactic in which an attacker conducts an unprotected frontal assault with densely concentrated infantry formations against the enemy line, intended to overrun and overwhelm the defenders by engaging in melee combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147018",
"title": "Human wave attack",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Human wave attacks have been used by several armed forces around the world, including European and American armies during the American Civil War and World War I, the Chinese People's Liberation Army during the Korean War, Vietnamese insurgents during the Indochina Wars, and the Iranian Basij during the Iran–Iraq War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147018",
"title": "Human wave attack",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "According to U.S. Army analyst Edward C. O'Dowd, the technical definition of a human wave attack tactic is a frontal assault by densely concentrated infantry formations against an enemy line, without any attempts to shield or to mask the attacker's movement. The goal of a human wave attack is to manoeuvre as many men as possible into close range, hoping that the shock from a large mass of attackers engaged in melee combat would force the enemy to disintegrate or fall back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147018",
"title": "Human wave attack",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "The human wave attack's reliance on melee combat usually makes the organization and the training of the attacking force irrelevant, but it requires either great physical courage, coercion, or morale for the attackers to advance into enemy fire. However, when matched against modern weaponry such as automatic firearms, artillery and aircraft, a human wave attack is an extremely dangerous and costly tactic in the face of devastating firepower. Thus, for a human wave attack to succeed on the modern battlefield, it is imperative for the attackers to charge into the enemy line in the shortest time and in the greatest numbers possible, so that a sufficient mass can be preserved when the attackers reach melee range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "676502",
"title": "Rogue wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Rogue waves (also known as freak waves, monster waves, episodic waves, killer waves, extreme waves, and abnormal waves) are unusually large, unexpected and suddenly appearing surface waves that can be extremely dangerous, even to large ships such as ocean liners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24206177",
"title": "List of rogue waves",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "This list of rogue waves compiles incidents of known and likely rogue waves – also known as \"freak waves\", \"monster waves\", \"killer waves\", and \"extreme waves\". These are dangerous and rare ocean surface waves that unexpectedly reach at least twice the height of the tallest waves around them, and are often described by witnesses as \"walls of water\". They occur in deep water, usually far out at sea, and are a threat even to capital ships and ocean liners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427288",
"title": "Shark attack",
"section": "Section::::Types of attacks.:Provoked attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Provoked attacks occur when a human touches a shark, pokes it, teases it, spears, hooks or nets it, or otherwise aggravates/provokes the animal in a certain manner. Incidents that occur outside of a shark's natural habitat, e.g., aquariums and research holding-pens, are considered provoked, as are all incidents involving captured sharks. Sometimes humans inadvertently \"provoke\" an attack, such as when a surfer accidentally hits a shark with a surf board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7thhnw
|
why notebook paper has blue text lines and red margin lines
|
[
{
"answer": "Blue lines are not reproducible. You can not copy them on a xerox machine.\n\nTwo reasons for this.\n\nThe first reason is that the sellers do not want you to make lots of copies of lined paper, they want to sell you more paper, but consider the other thing of having your well done handwriting reproduced without the lines showing how much you relied on them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my experience, the text lines are blue so that they aren't as obvious but still provide guidance, and if you write over them your text will still be legible.\nFrom my understanding, the margin line is red because you're supposed to notice it and not go beyond it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When printing machines make copies, they use filters of different colors to reproduce different colors. In a black and white photocopy, you can tweak the settings to filter out specific colors. \n\nThe blue is called \"non-photo blue\". It is removed by copiers to allow you to appear as though you have great straight line handwriting. The red line is a separate \"channel\" that can be removed as well independent of the blue lines. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The lines are for guidance when writing. Why are they different colors? That seems to largely be tradition, from longstanding practice for account books. [Old descriptions of ruling machinery](_URL_0_) suggest that using different colors for vertical and horizontal pens aids in make-ready, but don't really tell why.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32921",
"title": "Watermark",
"section": "Section::::Processes.:Dandy roll process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "This embossing is transferred to the pulp fibres, compressing and reducing their thickness in that area. Because the patterned portion of the page is thinner, it transmits more light through and therefore has a lighter appearance than the surrounding paper. If these lines are distinct and parallel, and/or there is a watermark, then the paper is termed \"laid paper\". If the lines appear as a mesh or are indiscernible, and/or there is no watermark, then it is called \"wove paper\". This method is called \"line drawing watermarks.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170508",
"title": "Notebook",
"section": "Section::::Preprinting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Notebooks used for drawing and scrapbooking are usually blank. Notebooks for writing usually have some kind of printing on the writing material, if only lines to align writing or facilitate certain kinds of drawing. Inventor's notebooks have page numbers preprinted to support priority claims. They may be considered as grey literature. Many notebooks have graphic decorations. Personal organizers can have various kinds of preprinted pages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "439697",
"title": "Optical mark recognition",
"section": "Section::::OMR background.:Reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The first optical answer sheets were read by shining a light through the sheet and measuring how much of the light was blocked using phototubes on the opposite side. As some phototubes are mostly sensitive to the blue end of the visible spectrum, blue pens could not be used, as blue inks reflect and transmit blue light. Because of this, number two pencils had to be used to fill in the bubbles—graphite is a very opaque substance which absorbs or reflects most of the light which hits it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3180643",
"title": "Jikji",
"section": "Section::::Printing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The lines are not straight, but askew. The difference of the thickness of ink color shown on drawn letter paper is large, and spots often occur. Even some characters, such as 'day' (日) or 'one' (一), are written reversely, while other letters are not printed out completely. The same typed letters are not shown on the same paper, but the same typed letters appear on other leaves. There are also blurs and spots around the characters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11633687",
"title": "Continuous stationery",
"section": "Section::::Common types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The cheapest grade of continuous form paper is often preprinted with bars of light green lines across its width, to facilitate following a line of information across the page, a type commonly referred to as \"green bar\", \"music \" or \"music-ruled\" paper. It is a very lightweight bond, usually without slit perforations to remove the engagement hole strips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "882527",
"title": "Ruled paper",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Ruled paper (or lined paper) is writing paper printed with lines as a guide for handwriting. The lines often are printed with fine width and in light colour and such paper is sometimes called \"feint-ruled paper\". Additional vertical lines may provide margins or act as tab stops or create a grid for plotting data; for example, graph paper (\"squared paper\" or \"grid paper\") is divided into squares by horizontal and vertical lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "882527",
"title": "Ruled paper",
"section": "Section::::Regional standards.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Formats for exercise notebooks are standardised.. School exercise books must use 8 mm spacing between the lines, other ruled paper may use 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm and 9 mm spacing. The paper for cursive writing uses pairs of lines 4 mm apart, with 8 mm between the pairs. They may also have angled lines at 65 degrees to vertical to provide additional guidance. The lines can have gray, blue, green or purple color. The vertical margin line must have red or orange color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dqqkuw
|
Why were the buildings of a Roman castrum spread out?
|
[
{
"answer": "First: *castrum* is not typically used in Latin, except in very rare cases, and those probably confusion with the similar *castellum,* which does appear in the singular. The Latin noun is always plural, *castra*, though it refers to a single camp. \n\nFor the average run-of-the mill *castra,* there were no \"buildings.\" The structures inside were tents, and the whole thing was put up and taken down in a single night on the march. The more permanent forts, like those along the *limes* in Imperial times, were constructed on analogy with the marching forts, and more or less took the same shape.\n\nThere are practical considerations for both the temporary and the more permanent forts. The spaces between the tents/buildings afforded rapid internal movement from any one side to any other side. Men could move quickly down the \"lanes\" (the Romans called them [*viae*](_URL_0_), 'roads'). Internal mobility was an important feature of successful repulsion of attack, since reinforcements could be moved rapidly from point to point. The lanes also afforded quick mustering and departure from any of the four gates.\n\nYou find it hard to believe that the *castra* could be built within a day, but I think you have the wrong idea about what it looked like. See [here](_URL_1_), though this pic probably gives TOO much space inside the walls. It was not only built in a day, but often within a couple of hours, or even less. Every soldier knew his job, where to dig, where to pile up dirt, and much like ants, and well-trained legion could erect a structure like a *castra* with terrifying speed. And contrary to what you are suggesting, the space between the rows of tents makes construction and organization go faster, because all the tents can be erected at roughly the same time, instead of each row in succession in the case of them \"touching\" one another. I also don't understand why a Roman army would need to \"conserve space\" on the march. Space from what? When the Romans are building a *castra*, they typically own the countryside far and wide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13634516",
"title": "Hachelbich",
"section": "Section::::Castrum History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The castrum was discovered in 2009. Excavations have taken place in the years 2010 and 2014-2015, demonstrating that it was built by the Romans. The wood discovered in the walls showed a construction period ranging from 50 BC to 125 AD: it was the time when Augustus wanted to annex to his Roman empire the short-lived province of Germania. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5348809",
"title": "Cividade de Terroso",
"section": "Section::::Urban structure.:Stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "In the last stage, the Roman one (starting in 138 – 136 B.C.), following the destruction by Decimus Junius Brutus, there is an urban reorganization with use of the new building techniques and change in shapes and sizes. Quadrangular structures started appearing, replacing the typical Castro culture circular architecture. The roof started being made out of \"tegula\" instead of vegetable material with adobe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583394",
"title": "Sezze",
"section": "Section::::Main sights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Many of the original city walls still exist, built of large blocks of limestone in the polygonal style. This style is also seen in several terrace walls belonging to a later date, indicated by the careful jointing and bossing of the blocks of which they are composed. Such intentional archaism is by no means uncommon in the neighborhood of Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2411252",
"title": "Castor, Cambridgeshire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "In the Roman period, there was a huge palatial structure at Castor. This was extensively excavated in the 1820s by Edmund Artis, the agent for the Fitzwilliam estate, who published a volume of illustrations about his work, which he suggested was a \"Praetorium\". Recent small-scale work has confirmed that it extended over a considerable area: Roman buildings covered an area of 290 by 130 m (3.77 ha) and had at least 11 rooms with tessellated floors and mosaics, at least two bathhouses and several hypocausts. The masonry which survives points to a monumental architecture indicating two major phases of building. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "638393",
"title": "Norcia",
"section": "Section::::Main sights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Roman vestiges are observable throughout the city, especially in the walls of San Lorenzo, its oldest extant church. On via Umberto is a small aedicule or corner chapel, sometimes called a tempietto, with faded frescoes, painted by Vanni della Tuccia in 1354. Of greater interest are the two Romanesque arches, densely sculpted with zoomorphic, human, and geometric forms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1204088",
"title": "Volubilis",
"section": "Section::::City layout and infrastructure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Most of the original pre-Roman city wall was built over or destroyed, but a stretch of the original wall, which was made of mud bricks on a stone foundation, can still be seen near the tumulus. The Roman city walls stretch for and average thick. Built of rubble masonry and ashlar, they are mostly still extant. The full circuit of walls had 34 towers, spaced at intervals of about one every , and six main gates that were flanked by towers. A part of the eastern wall has been reconstructed to a height of . The Tingis Gate, also reconstructed, marks the northern-eastern entrance to Volubilis. It was constructed in 168/169 AD – the date is known due to the discovery of a coin of that year that was deliberately embedded in the gate's stonework by its builders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41951",
"title": "Post and lintel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "The biggest disadvantage to a post and lintel construction is the limited weight that can be held up, and the small distances required between the posts. Ancient Roman architecture's development of the arch allowed for much larger structures to be constructed. The arcuated system spreads larger loads more effectively, and replaced the post and lintel trabeated system in most larger buildings and structures, until the introduction of steel girder beams in the industrial era. As with the Roman temple portico front and its descendants in later classical architecture, trabeated features were often retained in parts of buildings as an aesthetic choice. The classical orders of Greek origin were in particular retained in buildings designed to impress, even though they usually had little or no structural role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ijnlv
|
Would a white population eventually turn black if they lived many generations in Africa?
|
[
{
"answer": "Given enough time, and assuming the climate remained as it is (ie hot and dry) it is conceivable that the average skin color of the population would get darker, yes.\n\nDarker skin is a result of higher levels of the pigment melanin in the skin, which protects it against harmful radiation from the sun. Paler skin is more susceptible to skin cancer, so over time those with darker skin (more melanin) would tend to survive longer than those with lighter skin, and so the genes for darker skin would become more prevalent. This also assumes that there are no artificial steps taken to mitigate the effects of the sun, ie sun cream etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's not true at all. They might turn a bit darker on an individual basis due to getting a bit of a tan, but that would be no different 500 generations down the line than it is now, there'd be no genetic change.\n\nModern society gives us a lot of protection from a lot of what used to be selection pressures. We have sunblock, houses, cars, clothes, etc. Nobody is going to be more or less likely to reproduce based on skin pigment mutations or other adaptations.\n\nYour premise is also somewhat misleading. Evolutionary change has nothing to do with \"skin's ability to adapt to it's environment\" - that covers things like getting a tan, toughening up where it sees rough use, etc. and none of that affects your genes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17809904",
"title": "White Africans of European ancestry",
"section": "Section::::British diaspora in Africa.:South Africa and the Cape Colony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "The result was a series of conflicts which eventually led to a reduced presence of White Africans due to emigration and natural death. Many were murdered, tens of thousands driven off their lands and property, with many of those remaining being intimidated and threatened by the government and political and paramilitary organizations. However, what soon followed was a mass immigration to the safety and white rule of South Africa, which is the African country known to have the largest white population, currently with 1,755,100 British-South Africans. When apartheid first started most British-South Africans were mostly keen on keeping and even strengthening its ties with the United Kingdom. However, they were largely outnumbered by the Afrikaners, who preferred a republic, and in a referendum voted to abolish the monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4734206",
"title": "White South Africans",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Today, white South Africans are also considered to be the last major white population group of European ancestry on the African continent, due in part to the mass exodus of colonialists from most other African states during regional decolonisation. Whites continue to play a role in the South African economy and across the political spectrum. The current number of white South Africans is not exactly known, as no recent census has been measured, although the overall percentage of up to 9% of the population represents a decline, both numerically and proportionately, since the country's first non-racial elections in 1994. Just under a million white South Africans are also living as expatriate workers abroad, which forms the majority of South Africa's brain drain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2027786",
"title": "White people in Zimbabwe",
"section": "Section::::Recent developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "White communities in African countries suffered a variety of fates in the post-colonial period. In some countries (e.g. Kenya, Namibia, and Botswana) the White communities survived and actually increased in number. In two particular cases, Algeria and Zimbabwe, the previously large European communities have shrunk. In both these last cases, the White communities had put up a fight against decolonisation and many White people found it difficult to adjust to the realities of the world they found themselves in after independence. Many neutral observers feel that the failure of some newly independent African countries and their White minorities to come to terms with one another was to the mutual disadvantage of both parties. For example, expatriate White farmers and hoteliers from Zimbabwe have done much to revive agriculture and develop tourism in neighbouring Zambia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4734206",
"title": "White South Africans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Current trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In recent decades, there has been a steady proportional decline in South Africa's white community, due to higher birthrates among other South African ethnic groups, as well as a high rate of emigration. In 1977, there were 4.3 million whites, constituting 16.4% of the population at the time. As of 2016, it is estimated that at least 800,000 white South Africans have emigrated since 1995.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4745",
"title": "Black people",
"section": "Section::::South America.:Brazil.:Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing. A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4734206",
"title": "White South Africans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Current trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Like many other communities strongly affiliated with the West and Europe's colonial legacy in Africa, white South Africans were in the past often economically better off than their black African neighbors and have surrendered political dominance to majority rule. There were also some white Africans in South Africa who lived in poverty—especially during the 1930s and increasingly since the end of minority rule. Current estimates of white poverty in South Africa run as high as 12%, though fact-checking website Africa Check described these figures as \"grossly inflated\", and suggested that a more accurate estimate was that \"only a tiny fraction of the white population – as little as 7,754 households – are affected\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "399908",
"title": "White flight",
"section": "Section::::Africa.:South Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1282,
"text": "About 800,000 out of an earlier total population of 5.2 million whites have left South Africa since 1995, according to a report from 2009. (Apartheid, a system of segregation of whites, blacks, and people of other races, had ended in 1994.) The country has suffered a high rate of violent crime, a primary stated reason for emigration. Other causes include attacks against white farmers, concern about being excluded by affirmative action programs, rolling blackouts in electrical supplies, and worries about corruption and autocratic political tendencies among new leaders. Since many of those who leave are highly educated, there are shortages of skilled personnel in the government, teaching, and other professional areas. Some observers fear the long-term consequences, as South Africa's labor policies make it difficult to attract skilled immigrants. The migration of whites in South Africa was facilitated by the creation of immigration routes into European countries for people with European ancestry. For instance, the British government introduced the notion of patriality to ensure white people of British ancestry from Africa could settle in the UK. In the global economy, some professionals and skilled people have been attracted to work in the US and European nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bj0y4z
|
what is api, rest, soap, json and xml
|
[
{
"answer": "API: Application programming interface - definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software, mostly built by companies to allow 3rd party access\n\nREST: REpresentational State Transfer - standardised communication style\n\nSOAP: Simple Object Access Protocol - platform independent format for sending and receiving messages\n\nJSON: JavaScript Object Notation - human readable way of transmitting certain data\n\nXML: Extensible Markup Language - set of rules to encode information that is both machine readable and human readable\n\nI guess the best really depends on what you want to make. Certain things (like Javascript or 3rd party access to someone else's code-base means you are limited to certain types.\n\nDisclaimer: I am not a professional computer engineer. I code for fun.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Okay. These are in separate categories from each other, so I'll break them down into those categories and address them separately.\n\nFirst, let's consider an API. API stands for **A**pplication **P**rogramming **I**nterface, and as the name implies, it's comprised of the interface that a programmer might use to interact with an application -- the functions that you can call, what data you'll get back, how it's formatted, et cetera: everything a programmer needs to talk to a server.\n\nSOAP (**S**imple **O**bject **A**ccess **P**rotocol) and REST (**RE**presentational **S**tate **T**ransfer) are two different sets of rules for how communication with applications and servers should be done.\n\nIf you're thinking \"Gosh, that kind of sounds like an API,\" you're on the right track. SOAP-based web services and RESTful web services will each use APIs to let the programmer on the other end know what kind of data is coming back.\n\nGenerally speaking, if your connection type needs to maintain memory (if the client-server interaction needs to remember what's gone on before), or is relatively complex, you should use SOAP. If not, REST. It's really difficult to say one is objectively better than another, because they're both useful in different contexts.\n\nFinally, JSON (**J**ava**S**cript **O**bject **N**otation) and XML (E**x**tensible **M**arkup **L**anguage) are two different file formats that structure data differently. SOAP communicates in XML, while REST can use multiple formats. Again, it's hard to say one's better than another.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2915176",
"title": "Web API",
"section": "Section::::Server side.:Resources versus services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Web 2.0 Web APIs often use machine-based interactions such as REST and SOAP. RESTful web APIs are typically loosely based on HTTP methods to access resources via URL-encoded parameters and the use of JSON or XML to transmit data. By contrast, SOAP protocols are standardized by the W3C and mandate the use of XML as the payload format, typically over HTTP. Furthermore, SOAP-based Web APIs use XML validation to ensure structural message integrity, by leveraging the XML schemas provisioned with WSDL documents. A WSDL document accurately defines the XML messages and transport bindings of a Web service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3636547",
"title": "XML appliance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "An XML appliance is a special-purpose network device used to secure, manage and mediate XML traffic. They are most popularly implemented in service-oriented architectures (SOA) to control XML-based web services traffic, and increasingly in cloud-oriented computing to help enterprises integrate on premises applications with off-premises cloud-hosted applications. XML appliances are also commonly referred to as SOA appliances, SOA gateways, XML gateways, and cloud brokers. Some have also been deployed for more specific applications like Message-oriented middleware. While the originators of the product category deployed exclusively as hardware, today most XML appliances are also available as software gateways and virtual appliances for environments like VMWare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12665947",
"title": "XML framework",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "An XML framework is a Software framework that implements features to aid the programmer in creating applications with all data produced in XML. The programmer defines and produces pure data in XML format and the framework transforms the document to any format desired. One code, one XML and several transformations like XHTML, SVG, WML, Excel or Word format, or other document type may result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42475308",
"title": "XML external entity attack",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "The XML 1.0 standard defines the structure of an XML document. The standard defines a concept called an entity, which is a storage unit of some type. There are a few different types of entities, external general/parameter parsed entity often shortened to external entity, that can access local or remote content via a declared system identifier. The system identifier is assumed to be a URI that can be dereferenced (accessed) by the XML processor when processing the entity. The XML processor then replaces occurrences of the named external entity with the contents dereferenced by the system identifier. If the system identifier contains tainted data and the XML processor dereferences this tainted data, the XML processor may disclose confidential information normally not accessible by the application. Similar attack vectors apply the usage of external DTDs, external style sheets, external schemas, etc. which, when included, allow similar external resource inclusion style attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15013410",
"title": "Content delivery platform",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "A content delivery platform (CDP) is a software as a service (SaaS) content service, similar to a content management system (CMS), that utilizes embedded software code to deliver web content. Instead of the installation of software on client servers, a CDP feeds content through embedded code snippets, typically via JavaScript widget, Flash widget or server-side Ajax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93483",
"title": "Web service",
"section": "Section::::W3C Web Services (specific).:Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The term \"Web service\" describes a standardized way of integrating Web-based applications using the XML, SOAP, WSDL and UDDI open standards over an Internet Protocol backbone. XML is the data format used to contain the data and provide metadata around it, SOAP is used to transfer the data, WSDL is used for describing the services available and UDDI lists what services are available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2176354",
"title": "List of XML and HTML character entity references",
"section": "Section::::Predefined entities in XML.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The XML specification does not use the term \"character entity\" or \"character entity reference\". The XML specification defines five \"predefined entities\" representing special characters, and requires that all XML processors honor them. The entities can be explicitly declared in a DTD, as well, but if this is done, the replacement text must be the same as the built-in definitions. XML also allows other named entities of any size to be defined on a per-document basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21bdt0
|
Can anyone describe the use of and attitude towards marijuana in the German Democratic Republic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Since this is such an absurdly specific question I tried to do a little bit of reading to see what I could come up with. \n \n\nIn *German Democracy : From Post-World War II to the Present Day* Gert-Joachim Glaessner writes that the idea of drugs, as an example of a decaying or corrupted society, were often used as a tool by the GDR in opposition to the FRG. He says that \n \n > The leadership never tired of stressing the social security in which GDR citizens could live, in contrast to the unemployment, material want, and other problems of capitalist society, such as crime and drugs. \n \nHe doesn't go into detail on that claim, but I think we can surmise that if the GDR state didn't like it, it was unlikely you were going to be doing it unless you really wanted to stick it to the authorities or were in a *very* priveleged position. The Stasi were not known for their relaxed attitudes toward law-breaking, especially if it makes the GDR look bad, in their eyes, compared to the FRG. \n \nIn \"Youth Justice in Germany\" Hans-Jörg Albrecht claims that there were distinct jumps in crime in East Germany - including cannabis offences - following reunification, to a far greater extent than in the west. He gives a number of theories for this; \n \n > Some argue that young people in the east are \nfar more exposed to risks thought to contribute to crime and therefore \nare far more involved in crime-particularly street crime and car theft \n(Frehsee 1995; Kerner and Sonnen 1997, p. 342). \nPolice and the public \nin the east may also still differ from the west in control styles and crime \nreporting patterns. \nAnother hypothesis is that children and juveniles in the east are far more visible than in the west because the infrastructure of specially designated places for juveniles is only slowly catching up with the west. \nAnother hypothesis, not yet examined closely, is that extended group activities (which produce more suspects for a single criminal offense) are more common. \n \nHe's more of a sociologist or criminologist than a historian, but it doesn't mean his views aren't valuable. Note that he is talking about both pre and post unification here though, so it's not all that valuable when you're talking specifically about the GDR. It just provides a bit of insight. \n \nFrom these limited sources I'm going to go out on a limb and say marijuana didn't really figure in the minds or needs of the people of the German Democratic Republic. Certainly not enough for there to be a distinct cannabis culture or \"problem\" if you want to frame it that way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "708545",
"title": "Maurice Thorez",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 and the subsequent Soviet participation in the invasion of Poland, the Communist Party was against the French war effort and so was outlawed: the Communist Party did not support what the Nazis stood for, but did support the Soviet Union's tactical treaty with Germany in order to direct German aggression away from the U.S.S.R. and toward Britain. Its publications were banned and many Party members were interned. Thorez himself had his nationality revoked. Shortly thereafter, Thorez was drafted, but rather than fight the Germans, he deserted from the army to flee to the Soviet Union. Thorez was tried \"in absentia\" for desertion and sentenced to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38776816",
"title": "Paul Lafargue",
"section": "Section::::Last years and suicide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Adolf Abramovich Joffe who later himself committed suicide to protest the expulsion of Leon Trotsky from the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party, noted in his final letter to Trotsky on the verge of committing suicide that he approved of the suicide pact of Lafargue and Marx in his youth:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20690688",
"title": "Hamburg Uprising",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Within the international Communist movement, there was discussion of an attempted armed rebellion in Germany. Leon Trotsky and other influential members of the Soviet Politburo and the Comintern advanced the idea, but Heinrich Brandler, head of the KPD, felt it was premature. The exact motives of the small Hamburg group led by Hugo Urbahns and Hans Kippenberger, who planned the uprising, remain unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53067623",
"title": "Käthe Dahlem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Käthe Dahlem (born Käthe Weber: 20 March 1899 - 25 December 1974) was a German political activist (USPD, KPD) who, after being forced into exile, became an anti-fascist Resistance activist, participating in the Spanish Civil War and, subsequently, again based in France. After 1945 she became a public official in the Soviet occupation zone (relaunched in October 1949 as the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)). She was retired on health grounds in July 1949 and was subsequently caught up in her husband's difficulties with the ruling party, the party first secretary, Walter Ulbricht and other leading party comrades who had spent the war years in Moscow. By the 1960s, however, the authorities were happy to honour her pre-war and wartime contribution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46239905",
"title": "Vinzent Porombka",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Vinzent Porombka (2 January 1910 – 28 November 1975) was a German Communist political activist who became a party official, a member of the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War, and an active participant in resistance to Naziism. In his later years he became a party functionary in the German Democratic Republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42034705",
"title": "Left Party (Sweden)",
"section": "Section::::History.:1940s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Following orders by the German legation in Stockholm, several repressive measures were taken by the Swedish government against the party. The main publications were effectively banned (they were banned from transportation, meaning it was illegal to carry the SKP newspapers by any form of vehicle). Key cadres of the party and youth league were detained in camps, officially as a part of their military service. In total, 3500 persons were interned at ten different camps, the great majority of them were communists. Many party activists went underground, including the party chairman. A complete ban on the party was discussed in government circles, but never became effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40556075",
"title": "Kronstadt rebellion",
"section": "Section::::Charges of international and counter-revolutionary involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "Those debates started at the time of the rebellion. Because Leon Trotsky was in charge of the Red Army forces that suppressed the uprising, with the backing of Lenin, the question of whether the suppression was justified became a point of contention on the revolutionary left, in debates between anarchists and Leninist Marxists about the character of the Soviet state and Leninist politics, and more particularly in debates between anarchists and Trotsky and his followers. It remains so to this day. On the pro-Leninist side of those debates, the memorandum published by Avrich is treated as a \"smoking gun\" showing foreign and counter-revolutionary conspiracy behind the rebellion, for example in an article from 1990 by a Trotskyist writer, Abbie Bakan. Bakan says \"[t]he document includes remarkably detailed information about the resources, personnel, arms and plans of the Kronstadt rebellion. It also details plans regarding White army and French government support for the Kronstadt sailors' March rebellion.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8i5582
|
Is there a quantitative way of measuring tiredness?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unfortunately you wouldn’t feel better rested by putting your alarm back a bit. The circadian rhythm is very important which means it’s best to get up and go to bed at roughly the same time every day. It’s the reason why sleeping later on weekends is a bad idea, weekends aren’t a natural thing and so this leads to “social jet lag” where you feel more groggy than usual.\n\nAs for the measuring of tiredness; I’m certainly no expert, but I’d imagine you might be able to measure adenosine concentrations in the brain. However if you were able to do this it would probably only be relevant in a personal context since everyone has different numbers of adenosine receptors in the brain, as well as differing dopamine levels etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many different objective clinical scales that can be used to measure sleepiness, fatigue, tiredness, and drowsiness (based on many possible definitions of these words), but most are very specific tests that are only useful for very specific conditions. \n\nWith that said, there are a few general objective scales that can be used for a wide range of conditions as well as normal subjects. The most common are the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) and the maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT). Another popular one is the Oxford Sleep Resistance Test. All of these measure tiredness quantitatively by combining subjective questionnaires with objective physical measurements of things like brain waves and heart rate. Some examples: \n\n**EEG waves.** You're entirely correct about neuroscientists using \"some brainwave thing\" to measure daytime drowsiness. We can tell when a person is very alert, mildly alert, drowsy, very drowsy, and so forth all the way through the various stages of sleep by looking at their brain waves. The first thing we notice when a person starts feeling drowsy is that some of these waves begin to slow down (we see more theta waves and delta waves beginning to appear). In general, the more tired a person feels during the day, the sooner we see these changes when they're allowed to fall asleep in a lab. So objective tests for daytime tiredness are often based on how long it takes for these waves to show up when a person tries to fall asleep during the day. \n\n**Eye measurements.** Our eye movements change depending on how alert we are (just like brain waves), and some devices can quantitatively measure these movements. For example, the more tired we feel, the less frequent our blinks become (in general), and we can measure this quantitatively with an EOG (spontaneous blink rate). There are some other subtle eye movement parameters that are correlated with our levels of tiredness, but the point is that most of these movements can be measured quantitatively. There are actually some drowsiness detection glasses currently in development that people can wear so that they don't fall asleep while doing something important. \n\n**TLDR:** We can quantitatively measure tiredness by looking at brain waves and tracking people's eye movements. Another method is to time how long it takes for someone to fall asleep in a lab during the day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49327485",
"title": "Low-cycle fatigue",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Study in fatigue has been focusing on mainly two fields: application in designing regarding size in aeronautics and energy production using advanced calculation methods. The LCF result allows us to study the behavior of the material in greater depth to better understand the complex mechanical and metallurgical phenomena (crack propagation, work softening, strain concentration, work hardening, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41257059",
"title": "Unidimensional Fatigue Impact Scale",
"section": "Section::::International Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "It has been recommended for use in determining fatigue impact by an independent meta analysis and has also been utilized in a study investigating the role of neuroticism, perfectionism and depression in chronic fatigue syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235562",
"title": "Fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Fatigue can be quantitatively measured. Devices to measure medical fatigue have been developed by Japanese companies, among them Nintendo. Nevertheless such devices are not in common use outside Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31839460",
"title": "Fatigue detection software",
"section": "Section::::Fatigue detection and monitoring technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Software developers, engineers and scientists develop fatigue detection software using various physiological cues to determine the state of fatigue or drowsiness. The measurement of brain activity (electroencephalogram) is widely accepted as \"the\" standard in fatigue monitoring. Other technology used to determine fatigue related impairment include behavioural symptom measurements such as; eye behaviour, gaze direction, micro-corrections in steering and throttle use as well as heart rate variability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41617402",
"title": "Trudie Chalder",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.:Selected articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "BULLET::::- Chalder, Trudie, G. Berelowitz, Teresa Pawlikowska, Louise Watts, S. Wessely, D. Wright, and E. P. Wallace. \"Development of a fatigue scale.\" Journal of Psychosomatic Research 37, no. 2 (1993): 147-153.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48445539",
"title": "Pilot fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Countermeasures.:Alternative strategies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "BULLET::::- Implementation of fatigue prediction models, such as the Sleep, Activity, Fatigue, and Task Effectiveness model, optimize scheduling by being able to predict pilot fatigue at any point in time. Although the mathematical model is limited by individual pilot differences it is the most accurate existing prediction because it takes into account time-zone changes, time awake, and length of previous rest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47623807",
"title": "Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index",
"section": "Section::::Scoring and interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Traditionally, the items from the PSQI have been summed to create a total score to measure overall sleep quality. Statistical analyses also support looking at three factors, which include sleep efficiency (using sleep duration and sleep efficiency variables), perceived sleep quality (using subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, and sleep medication variables), and daily disturbances (using sleep disturbances and daytime dysfunctions variables).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49l48x
|
why do anti-virus and malware programs move the virus and malware files to quarantine instead of deleting them?
|
[
{
"answer": "For a few reasons:\n\n1. false positives. \n2. recoverable data - if a little bad shit has come into my phD thesis I may want to try to recover the good from the good + bad.\n3. Evidence. It's a great pile of validation of the worth of the product you bought.\n4. In some systems, and some configurations, permissions. Depending on the account the virus software is running as it may not be _able_ to delete reliably.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gives you the chance to keep the file or not. I had panda installed and every time I tried to download forge for minecraft it would quarantine it",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21116845",
"title": "Conficker",
"section": "Section::::Removal and detection.:Third-party software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Many third-party anti-virus software vendors have released detection updates to their products and claim to be able to remove the worm. The evolving process of the malware shows some adoption to the common removal software, so it is likely that some of them might remove or at least disable some variants, while others remain active or, even worse, deliver a false positive to the removal software and become active with the next reboot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20901",
"title": "Malware",
"section": "Section::::Anti-malware strategies.:Anti-virus and anti-malware software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Real-time protection from malware works identically to real-time antivirus protection: the software scans disk files at download time, and blocks the activity of components known to represent malware. In some cases, it may also intercept attempts to install start-up items or to modify browser settings. Because many malware components are installed as a result of browser exploits or user error, using security software (some of which are anti-malware, though many are not) to \"sandbox\" browsers (essentially isolate the browser from the computer and hence any malware induced change) can also be effective in helping to restrict any damage done.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268622",
"title": "Antivirus software",
"section": "Section::::Issues of concern.:Damaged files.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "If a file has been infected by a computer virus, anti-virus software will attempt to remove the virus code from the file during disinfection, but it is not always able to restore the file to its undamaged state. In such circumstances, damaged files can only be restored from existing backups or shadow copies (this is also true for ransomware); installed software that is damaged requires re-installation (however, see System File Checker).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218447",
"title": "Polymorphic code",
"section": "Section::::Malicious code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Malicious programmers have sought to protect their encrypted code from this virus-scanning strategy by rewriting the unencrypted decryption engine (and the resulting encrypted payload) each time the virus or worm is propagated. Anti-virus software uses sophisticated pattern analysis to find underlying patterns within the different mutations of the decryption engine, in hopes of reliably detecting such malware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4869460",
"title": "Vundo",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "BULLET::::- Popular anti-malware programs such as Spybot – Search & Destroy or Malwarebytes may be deleted or immediately closed upon loading. Renaming the program executable can work around this. Malwarebytes's executable may be deleted as soon as it is installed (depending on the system's infection). Installing the program on another computer and copying the executable into the infected computer's Malwarebytes directory usually works too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26027549",
"title": "MS Antivirus (malware)",
"section": "Section::::Malicious actions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The malware can also block access to known spyware removal sites and in some instances, searching for \"antivirus 2009\" (or similar search terms) on a search engine will result in a blank page or an error page. Some variants will also redirect the user from the actual Google search page to a false Google search page with a link to the virus' page that states that the user has a virus and should get Antivirus 2009. In some rare cases, with the newest version of the malware, it can prevent the user from performing a system restore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994196",
"title": "Computer virus",
"section": "Section::::Stealth techniques.:Read request intercepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "While some kinds of antivirus software employ various techniques to counter stealth mechanisms, once the infection occurs any recourse to \"clean\" the system is unreliable. In Microsoft Windows operating systems, the NTFS file system is proprietary. This leaves antivirus software little alternative but to send a \"read\" request to Windows OS files that handle such requests. Some viruses trick antivirus software by intercepting its requests to the Operating system (OS). A virus can hide by intercepting the request to read the infected file, handling the request itself, and returning an uninfected version of the file to the antivirus software. The interception can occur by code injection of the actual operating system files that would handle the read request. Thus, an antivirus software attempting to detect the virus will either not be given permission to read the infected file, or, the \"read\" request will be served with the uninfected version of the same file.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d7pma
|
Are there games similar to Foldit designed to aid other fields of science?
|
[
{
"answer": "[EteRNA](_URL_0_)- Researching RNA design to make things more predictable/improve computer models \n\n\nThere is also [BOINC](_URL_1_), a collection of projects that run as a sort of screensaver. Uses up your \"unused\" processor cycles to do crowdsourced resources for different projects you can choose from, like ATLAS@home, Einstein@home, and SETI@home. Not really a game but something you can passively be involved in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. It's called \"Games with a purpose\" or GWAP. Here are some other examples:\n\n[ESP Game]\n(_URL_0_) - With the purpose of labeling images and other media with metadata\n\n[LabelMe](_URL_1_) Image labeling and segmentation.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18689983",
"title": "Human-based computation game",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Foldit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "\"Foldit\", while also a GWAP, has a different type of method for tapping the collective human brain. This game challenges players to use their human intuition of 3-dimensional space to help with protein folding algorithms. Unlike the ESP game, which focuses on the results that humans are able to provide, Foldit is trying to understand how humans approach complicated 3 dimensional objects. By 'watching' how humans play the game, researchers hope to be able to improve their own computer programs. Instead of simply performing tasks that computers cannot do, this GWAP is asking humans to help make current machine algorithms better.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25864167",
"title": "List of crowdsourcing projects",
"section": "Section::::F.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "BULLET::::- Foldit invites the general public to play protein folding games to discover folding strategies. Citing Foldit, MSNBC's Alan Boyle reported that \"video-game players have solved a molecular puzzle that stumped scientists for years,\" indicating that they \"figure(d) out the detailed molecular structure of a protein-cutting enzyme from an AIDS-like virus found in rhesus monkeys.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17385860",
"title": "Foldit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Foldit is an online puzzle video game about protein folding. It is part of an experimental research project developed by the University of Washington, Center for Game Science, in collaboration with the UW Department of Biochemistry. The objective of Foldit is to fold the structures of selected proteins as perfectly as possible, using tools provided in the game. The highest scoring solutions are analyzed by researchers, who determine whether or not there is a native structural configuration (native state) that can be applied to relevant proteins in the real world. Scientists can then use these solutions to target and eradicate diseases and create biological innovations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8786020",
"title": "Digital sculpting",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "It can create the source meshes for low poly game models used in video games. In conjunction with other 3D modeling and texturing techniques and Displacement and Normal mapping, it can greatly enhance the appearance of game meshes often to the point of photorealism. Some sculpting programs like 3D-Coat, Zbrush, and Mudbox offer ways to integrate their workflows with traditional 3D modeling and rendering programs. Conversely, 3D modeling applications like 3ds Max, Maya and MODO are now incorporating sculpting capability as well, though these are usually less advanced than tools found in sculpting-specific applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17385860",
"title": "Foldit",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Gamification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Foldit's developers wanted to attract as many people as possible to the cause of protein folding. So, rather than only building a useful science tool, they used gamification (the inclusion of gaming elements) to make Foldit appealing and engaging to the general public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2538794",
"title": "List of video game genres",
"section": "Section::::Other notable genres.:Board game or card game.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Many popular board games and card games have computer versions. AI opponents can help improve one's skill at traditional games. Chess, Checkers, Othello (also known as Reversi), and Backgammon have world class computer programs. Mahjong and related games are immensely popular in China and Japan. Go is popular in East Asia, though it is notoriously difficult to program a computer to play Go well. \"\" has had computer versions for some time, most notably \"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2465537",
"title": "Junichi Masuda",
"section": "Section::::Influences and style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Masuda approaches each of his games with the mindset that a beginner should be able to easily play it. To this end, he layers more complicated concepts, introducing them to the player in a simple manner, and building from there. He believes that handheld systems provide an opportunity for social interaction that cannot be found on non-handheld console systems. He has stated that continuing use of 2D computer graphics has been integral to Pokémon's success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ngg9x
|
Light Thrust?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer to your question on the distance light travels (optical path length) is a bit too hefty for me to get into at the moment, but I can answer your question about force.\n\nOur most intuitive understanding of momentum comes from objects with mass - a truck is heavier than a car, so it has more momentum at the same speed (so don't cut off trucks). Collisions involve a transfer of momentum, which we easily and intuitively observe when the objects have mass. In the case of light, it clearly has energy - since it provides heat, for example - but where does its momentum come from?\n\nThe answer to that is its frequency. Where massive particles carry momentum respective to their mass and speed, light carries momentum related to the frequency of its oscillating electromagnetic field. When light is absorbed, it transfers that momentum. Incidentally, this frequency dependence is why visible light is nowhere near as harmful as ultraviolet light or X-rays. It doesn't have as high a frequency, so it carries less energy.\n\nHope that helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fermat's principle isn't that light rays **finds** the quickest path. It's not like light ray knows it will leave A end up to B and then optimizes to take the quickest path there. It's that the path that light rays that do reach B happen to **take** is the quickest. \"Find\" and \"take\" are very different words. \n\n\nConsider sunlight. Light rays leave the sun and travel in a straight line to earth. That's Fermat's principle. They didn't take a zig-zag path, they didn't go past earth and then decide to turn around. They went straight. The quickest path. This doesn't mean all sunlight does this, after all some bounces off the moon and comes to earth, taking a longer path. It's that the light rays that do come directly to earth go straight. \n\n\nNow, in cases where it's not a vacuum, or any other constant media, it's a little different. But the same idea, it's not that light knows to go to B by the shortest path, it's that the light that does reach B has taken it. You can derive laws like the law of reflection or Snell's law from Maxwell's equation, and if you look at them you can see they follow Fermat's principle. \n\n\nIf you need to go from point A to point B and have the requirement that you touch a mirror at one point, the shortest path happens to reflecting at the same angle as incident. If a light ray was to say go straight to the mirror hitting it at 0 degrees, and then bounce at off a new angle to go to B, this would be a longer path. Now of course this does not happen. It's not that a light ray that hits the mirror at another angle that is not the shortest path to B will take a longer path, it simply will not go to B at all. The light isn't finding the shortest path, the path that the behaviours of electromagnetic fields follow in hindsight will have been the shortest path. \n\n\nSame with Snell's law, to go from A to B through a medium interface, the light will have bent by a certain angle following Snell's law, which is ultimately following the boundary conditions that Maxwell's equations have at the interface. Now if you drew any other path with the two different velocities on each medium, like straight between with the shortest distance them for example, it would have taken more time. That's not that these light rays found the shortest path, lot's of other light rays left A at different angles, except they didn't take a longer path to B but instead didn't go to B. No optimal path was \"found\". \n\n\nAs for thrust from light, you do not need mass, you need momentum. Introductory physics tells you momentum ins mass*velocity, but this is only right for large massive non-quantum objects at non-relativistic speeds. Light has momentum, even without mass. Whether you use the classical electromagnetic view or photon view, light leaving something is momentum leaving something. Due to conservation of momentum, this means the objects the light is leaving is gaining the opposite momentum, it has thrust. \n\n\nE^2 = (pc)^2 + (mc^2 )^2 is the full versions of E = mc^2 . A photon has energy (E) but no mass (m), so what it has is momentum (p). The momentum is p = h/λ, where h is Planck's constant and λ is the wavelength. The energy is E = pc or E = hf (f = frequency). Now, loosely speaking (technically should take the derivative), if we divide each side of E = pc by time we get E/t = cp/t. Now energy per time is power, and momentum per time is force. So we get P = Fc or F = P/c. You get a thrust force depending on the power of the light you put out (wavelength or frequency doesn't really matter), and it is scaled by the speed of light. Now c is a big number, so for even a megawatt of power (a fairly large generator) put out as radiowaves, light, x-rays, etc. directed in one direction you get 3 mN (0.0007 pounds) of thrust in the other direction. Not exactly a lot of force, but a force none the less. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not qualified to answer your question on Fermat's principle, but can offer some insights on using light for thrust. Let's look at two case: ejecting photons out the back of a spacecraft, and reflecting photons with a solar sail.\n\n----\n**Photon Emitter**\n\nAssume a 100kW (135 hp) photon emitter (magnetron, laser, etc) on a 1000kg (2200 lbs) spacecraft (these numbers are chosen to approximate a modern small car for comparison). The energy (E) and momentum (p) of a photon are related by the speed of light (c):\n\n E = pc = > p = E/c\n\nNotice that the momentum isn't dependent on wavelength, only energy: lower frequency photons may have less momentum, but you are also producing more of them for a given energy. So the thruster performance is theoretically independent of the frequency of the photons.\n\nThe momentum gain of the spacecraft is equal to the momentum of our produced photons if they are all exiting in the same direction. Our theoretical 100% efficient 100kW photon emitter is ejecting 100kJ of photons each second (a watt is equivalent to a joule per second). So the momentum change (impulse) each second is:\n\ndp (delta p) = 100000 / 3x10^8 = 3.3 x 10^(-4) N.s\n\nGiven our 1000kg spacecraft this is a change in velocity (acceleration) each second of:\n\ndp = m.dv = > dv = a = dp/m = 3.3x10^(-4) / 1000 = 3.3x10^-7 m/s^2\n\nTo accelerate to 28m/s (100kph or 63mph) would take around 2 years 8 months - far slower than an equivalent car. To accelerate to 10km/s (36,000kph or 22,000mph) would take about 1000 years.\n\nThis is a very inefficient use of the electrical power, since the vast majority of the energy is in the stream of photons being ejected out the back rather than being transferred to the spacecraft.\n\n----\n**Solar Sail**\n\nSolar sails work by reversing the direction of photons using a large mirror. Reversing the direction of the photons means the change in momentum of the spacecraft is double the momentum contained in the photons.\n\nAt the distance of earth's orbit, solar radiation provides about [1360 W/m^2](_URL_2_). This equates to a change in momentum per square metre of:\n\ndp = 2 x 1360 / 3x10^8 = 9 x 10^(-6) N.s\n\nThe first hit with accurate figures I got googling \"NASA solar sail size and weight\" is [this](_URL_1_). Given the 1200 m^2 area and 31 kg mass, the acceleration of the sail itself (without spacecraft attached) at earth orbit would be:\n\na = dp / m = 1200 x 9x10^(-6) / 31 = 3.5x10^-4 m/s^2\n\nThis would accelerate the sail to 28m/s (100kph or 63mph) in just under a day. To accelerate to 10km/s (36,000kph or 22,000mph) would take about 11 months (realistically it would take longer as the sail is moving further from the sun and receiving less photons as it accelerates).\n\n----\n\nInterestingly, the momentum imparted to the spacecraft in both cases results in the photons being [redshifted](_URL_0_) and losing energy. So the spacecraft's additional kinetic energy is sourced from a slight decrease in the energy of the photons. In both cases this redshift is miniscule meaning that very little of the photons' energy is being converted. At least in the case of the solar sail the energy is free!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25654089",
"title": "Optical force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The optical force is a phenomenon whereby beams of light can attract and repel each other. The force acts along an axis which is perpendicular to the light beams. Because of this, parallel beams can be induced to converge or diverge. The optical force works on a microscopic scale, and cannot currently be detected at larger scales. It was discovered by a team of Yale researchers led by electrical engineer Hong Tang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24184105",
"title": "Light Force (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Light Force is a vertically scrolling shooter released by Faster Than Light in 1986 for the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, and Amstrad CPC. The player controls a spaceship which must defeat waves of attacking enemies over five different levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504833",
"title": "Laser propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Laser-pushed lightsail.:Laser-pushed lightsail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "A laser-pushed lightsail is a thin reflective sail similar to a solar sail, in which the sail is being pushed by a laser, rather than the sun. The advantage of lightsail propulsion is that the vehicle does not carry either the energy source or the reaction mass for propulsion, and hence the limitations of the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation to achieving high velocities are avoided. Use of a laser-pushed lightsail was proposed initially by Marx in 1966, as a method of Interstellar travel that would avoid extremely high mass ratios by not carrying fuel, and analyzed in detail by physicist Robert L. Forward in 1989. Further analysis of the concept was done by Landis, Mallove and Matloff, Andrews and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48824",
"title": "Gravitational lens",
"section": "Section::::Explanation in terms of space–time curvature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "In general relativity, light follows the curvature of spacetime, hence when light passes around a massive object, it is bent. This means that the light from an object on the other side will be bent towards an observer's eye, just like an ordinary lens. In General Relativity the speed of light depends on the gravitational potential (aka the metric) and this bending can be viewed as a consequence of the light traveling along a gradient in light speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150291",
"title": "Los Angeles Fire Department",
"section": "Section::::Types of apparatus.:Light Forces and Task Forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "A Light Force is composed of a Pump Engine (200 Series, for example Engine 201 or Engine 301 for 100 stations)and a Ladder Truck. Light forces will almost always respond together as one unit or resource.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1198,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to general relativity, light does not travel along straight lines when it propagates in a gravitational field. Instead, it is deflected in the presence of massive bodies. In particular, starlight is deflected as it passes near the Sun, leading to apparent shifts of up 1.75 arc seconds in the stars' positions in the sky (an arc second is equal to 1/3600 of a degree). In the framework of Newtonian gravity, a heuristic argument can be made that leads to light deflection by half that amount. The different predictions can be tested by observing stars that are close to the Sun during a solar eclipse. In this way, a British expedition to West Africa in 1919, directed by Arthur Eddington, confirmed that Einstein's prediction was correct, and the Newtonian predictions wrong, via observation of the May 1919 eclipse. Eddington's results were not very accurate; subsequent observations of the deflection of the light of distant quasars by the Sun, which utilize highly accurate techniques of radio astronomy, have confirmed Eddington's results with significantly better precision (the first such measurements date from 1967, the most recent comprehensive analysis from 2004).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33149847",
"title": "Angular momentum of light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The angular momentum of light is a vector quantity that expresses the amount of dynamical rotation present in the electromagnetic field of the light. While traveling approximately in a straight line, a beam of light can also be rotating (or “\"spinning\"”, or “\"twisting\"”) around its own axis. This rotation, while not visible to the naked eye, can be revealed by the interaction of the light beam with matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c6nu1r
|
does body adapt to different climates? if yes, how does it adapt?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. When army people are dropped off at a new location, their bodies have to get used to, or acclimatize, to the new weather and temperatures, normally over 2-3 weeks. A returned soldier friend of mine said that when his squadron went home by plane, they hadn't received proper time to acclimate, so when they left the temperatures of Afghanistan at 115° F, they were going through an area of 60° weather (I think through Colorado) and some of them were experiencing hypothermia (body malfunctions due to sudden drop in temperature)\n\nSame thing also goes for different altitudes. If you go into the mountains, your body also needs to get used to not having as much oxygen in the air. As a result, your body stores a lot more oxygen in the blood. Some athletes train this way when prepping for a major event",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48798515",
"title": "Thermoregulation in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "As in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51796195",
"title": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of \"Homo sapiens\". Adaptations in humans can be physiological, genetic, or cultural, which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates. There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment, acclimatization, and cultural practices, but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Biological variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The human body's ability to adapt to different environmental stresses is remarkable, allowing humans to acclimatize to a wide variety of temperatures, humidity, and altitudes. As a result, humans are a cosmopolitan species found in almost all regions of the world, including tropical rainforests, arid desert, extremely cold arctic regions, and heavily polluted cities. Most other species are confined to a few geographical areas by their limited adaptability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51796195",
"title": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans",
"section": "Section::::Physiological adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Origins of heat and cold adaptations can be explained by climatic adaptation. This can be traced back to the body’s responses to differing environments immediately after leaving Africa, such as extreme cold, humid heat, desert conditions, and high altitudes. Ambient air temperature affects how much energy investment the human body must make. The temperature that requires the least amount of energy investment is 21 °C (69.8 °F). The body controls its temperature through the hypothalamus. Thermoreceptors in the skin send signals to the hypothalamus, which indicate when vasodilation and vasoconstriction should occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378661",
"title": "Thermoregulation",
"section": "Section::::Vertebrates.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1560,
"text": "As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body’s core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body’s “thermostat.” This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2119174",
"title": "Effects of global warming",
"section": "Section::::Social systems.:Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Human beings are exposed to climate change through changing weather patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air and food quality and changes in ecosystems, agriculture, industry and settlements and the economy (Confalonieri \"et al.\", 2007:393).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "852567",
"title": "Triarchic theory of intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Different components of information processing.:Practical – contextual subtheory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "\"Adaptation\" occurs when one makes a change within oneself in order to better adjust to one's surroundings. For example, when the weather changes and temperatures drop, people adapt by wearing extra layers of clothing to remain warm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ffr8zx
|
How/Why did Britain lose the Battle of Hong Kong against Japan in 1941?
|
[
{
"answer": "**How?**\n\nFor the how part, they were attacked by a much stronger force of far superior quality that enjoyed complete air superiority. To compound problems further the British gravely underestimated the fighting ability of the Japanese and left only three batalions on the Gin Drinkers line. There was just no way that a garrison of \\~14000 men consisting of mostly fresh colonial troops could possibly hold out for very long against a battle hardend Japanese army of 29000 combat troops. \n\n**Why?**\n\nThe why part is a little more complicated and takes us into geo-politics and specifically the balance of power in the Pacific region. So there are basically five major players around the table here we need to keep some kind of tabs on.\n\nGreat Britain - Until the signing of the Anglo-Japanese alliance Britain had largely pursued a foreign policy of non-intervention since the Concert of Europe often called Glorious Isolation. The idea was basically that Britain should avoid permanent alliances with other major powers that risked dragging Britain into continental wars. I won't get into the pros and cons of it but by the end of the 19th century it was becoming clear that while the Splendid Isolation left Britain free of obligations, it also left it without friends or allies in a world where grand alliances were once again forming. \n\nThe USA - For most of the 19th century the US had followed some form of non-interventionalist policy, perhaps most famously the Monroe Doctrine. However, with the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American War the USA too was abandoning its isolationist policies. \n\nRussia - Imperial Russia had pursued a policy of imperialist expansion in the east for centuries. Above all else it sought a warm water seaport in the East. The main eastern port of the Russian Empire was Vladivostok but it was not reliably open during the winter months. When Russia intervened in the Boxer Rebellion it effectively occupied Manchuria, after the war Russia held onto Manchuria in defiance of the Boxer Protocol. This was a cause of great concern for both Japan and Britain who had tradtionally been one of the counterweights to Russian expansion in Asia. \n\nJapan - The Empire of Japan had been on the rise as a major power in the Pacific since roughly the Meiji restoration. While it had centralized the government, adopted many western aspects within its military and industry it was not, nor did it attempt to be, a western nation. Imperial Japan was very much looking towards overseas expansion in the wake of the Meiji restoration and did not look kindly on the Russian occupation of Manchuria. This would eventually lead to the Russo-Japanese war. \n\nChina - While large and populous, China under the Qing dynasty was politically unstable and in many ways backwards, however, the sheer size of China always made it a force to be reconned with, at least regionally. \n\nSo, come the turn of the century a few key things have happened. Russia has remained in Manchuria after the Boxer rebellion, Japan has won the First Sino-Japanese war *convincingly*, proving to both itself and the other powers of the region that the Japanese army and navy are a competent force to rival any in the region. France, Russia and Germany have signed the Triple Intervention, forcing Japan to return the Liaodong peninsula but, Britain, while invited, did not sign it. \n\nWe now have a situation where Britain is abandoning the Spendid Isolation and looking for allies while it is fighting the Boer War, Russia is holding Manchuria in defiance of the Boxer protocol and Japan is looking to expand further in the wake of its success in the First Sino Japanese war. The Anglo-Japanese alliance is formed. To Japan, it is a guarantee against foreign intervention by France or Germany in anticipation of its coming war with Russia, to Britain it is a safeguard for its East Asian holdings since Britain is now allied to Japan with its strong Pacific Navy. \n\nThe Anglo-Japanese alliance would hold for 20 years which allowed Japan to kick Russia out of Manchuria and further strengthen its position in mainland Asia. This is relevant because in the years leading up to WW1 and over the course of the entire war, Japan was an ally to Britain. Despite Japanese victories against the Chinese and Russians, Britain still considered Japan something of a second rate army since they had, until this point, mostly fought the Chinese and Russians. \n\nSo, Britain did not really consider Japan a threat to its colonial possesions in Asia until well after ww1 and did not really start to consider the possibility of a Japanese invasion of Hong Kong until the Japanese conquest of Canton. Suddenly Hong Kong was surrounded by Japan. At this point, Britain did not consider Hong Kong defensible. It did not have the Naval power to contend with the Japanese and without that, Hong Kong was always doomed even with the Gin Drinkers Line reinforced the analysis was that Hong Kong could at best delay the Japanese to buy time for Britain elsewhere. Because of this view Hong Kong was relatively lightly defended until 1941. \n\nThe garrison of Hong Kong was strengthend in 1941, in part to act as a deterent to a Japanese invasion but also to show British commitment to its Asian holdings, particularly to the Chinese. However, the garrison was still mostly fresh troops from Canada and the British Raj, it was not nearly strong enough to withstand a full scale invasion and fell much quicker than the British (or the Japanese) had anticipated. You have to view this in light of the global situation in 1940/1941. It was not as if Britain had an abundance of troops available since the war in Europe and Africa was not going particularly well at this point. \n\nTL;DR - Britain never really heavily fortified Hong Kong because Japan was an ally of Britain until \\~ early 1930's and it was hard pressed for troops for other theaters of the war since Britain was effectively the only major power still standing against the Axis in 1940/1941 until the US and Soviet entries into the war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27413692",
"title": "British Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::History.:Japanese occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "In 1941, during the Second World War, the British reached an agreement with the Chinese government under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek that if Japan attacked Hong Kong, the Chinese National Army would attack the Japanese from the rear to relieve pressure on the British garrison. On 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong began when Japanese air bombers effectively destroyed British air power in one attack. Two days later, the Japanese breached the Gin Drinkers Line in the New Territories. The British commander, Major-General Christopher Maltby, concluded that the island could not be defended for long unless he withdrew his brigade from the mainland. On 18 December, the Japanese crossed Victoria Harbour. By 25 December, organised defence was reduced into pockets of resistance. Maltby recommended a surrender to Governor Sir Mark Young, who accepted his advice to reduce further losses. A day after the invasion, Chiang ordered three corps under General Yu Hanmou to march towards Hong Kong. The plan was to launch a New Year's Day attack on the Japanese in the Canton region, but before the Chinese infantry could attack, the Japanese had broken Hong Kong's defences. The British casualties were 2,232 killed or missing and 2,300 wounded. The Japanese reported 1,996 killed and 6,000 wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1160238",
"title": "Battle of Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "Britain first thought of Japan as a threat with the ending of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in the early 1920s, a threat that increased with the escalation of the Second Sino-Japanese War. On 21 October 1938 the Japanese occupied Canton (Guangzhou) and Hong Kong was surrounded. British defence studies concluded that Hong Kong would be extremely hard to defend in the event of a Japanese attack, but in the mid-1930s work began on improvements to defences including along the Gin Drinkers' Line. By 1940, the British determined to reduce the Hong Kong Garrison to only a symbolic size. Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke-Popham, the Commander-in-Chief of the British Far East Command argued that limited reinforcements could allow the garrison to delay a Japanese attack, gaining time elsewhere. Winston Churchill and the general staff named Hong Kong as an \"outpost\" and decided against sending more troops. In September 1941, they reversed their decision and argued that additional reinforcements would provide a military deterrent against the Japanese and reassure Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek that Britain was serious about defending the colony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4882237",
"title": "Sai Wan War Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "On 8 December 1941 – less than eight hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor – Japanese forces launched an invasion into Hong Kong, then a British Crown colony. The invasion started a lesser-known chapter of World War II when Allied forces – mainly British, Indian and Canadian – began the futile defence of British Hong Kong. Records now show that the territory had been deemed militarily undefendable by the War Office. Even so, the garrison was ordered to put up a robust resistance and six infantry battalions were tasked with the defence of Hong Kong. Several locations including Shing Mun Redoubt along the Gin Drinkers' Line, Wong Nai Chung Gap, Mount Butler, shores bordering Lye Moon Passage, Devil's Peak and Stanley Fort saw fierce combat which resulted in overwhelming casualties among Allied Troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180697",
"title": "Hong Kong Island",
"section": "Section::::History.:Japanese invasion and occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The Battle of Hong Kong began on 8 December 1941. British, Canadian, Indian armies and the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Forces resisted the Japanese invasion commanded by Sakai Takashi, which began eight hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, the Japanese were able to take control of the Hong Kong skies on the first day of attack, outnumbering the defenders. The defenders retreated from the Gin Drinker's Line and consequently from Kowloon under heavy aerial bombardment and artillery barrage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22402815",
"title": "British Army during the Second World War",
"section": "Section::::Campaigns.:1941.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "In the South-East Asian theatre, the Battle of Hong Kong began on 8 December 1941, a day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which brought the United States into the conflict. The British defenders were from the 2nd Battalion, Royal Scots and the 1st Battalion, Middlesex Regiment, with supporting artillery and engineer units. The garrison also included British Indian Army battalions, two Canadian Army battalions and the locally raised Hong Kong Chinese Regiment and the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps. By the afternoon of 25 December 1941, it was clear that further resistance would be futile and after holding out for 17 days Hong Kong surrendered to the Imperial Japanese Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1160238",
"title": "Battle of Hong Kong",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "The Battle of Hong Kong (8–25 December 1941), also known as the Defence of Hong Kong and the Fall of Hong Kong, was one of the first battles of the Pacific War in World War II. On the same morning as the attack on Pearl Harbor, forces of the Empire of Japan attacked the British Crown colony of Hong Kong. The attack was in violation of international law as Japan had not declared war against the British Empire. The Hong Kong garrison consisted of British, Indian and Canadian units besides Chinese soldiers and conscripts from both within and outside Hong Kong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2060858",
"title": "Japanese occupation of Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Imperial Japanese invasion of China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "During the Imperial Japanese military's full-scale invasion of China in 1937, Hong Kong as part of the British empire was not under attack. Nevertheless, its situation was influenced by the war in China due to proximity to the mainland China. In early March 1939, during an Imperial Japanese bombing raid on Shenzhen, a few bombs fell accidentally on Hong Kong territory, destroying a bridge and a train station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rjyio
|
how is a 12oz can of coca-cola and a 20oz bottle of coca-cola both one serving size of coke?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because most people will drink the entire can or bottle in a single sitting, and not save some of it for later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Serving sizes are set by the FDA, and were recently shifted to reflect what people actually eat (as opposed to what they're 'supposed' to eat). As part of this shifting the FDA changed the serving size of a soda from 8 to 12oz. In addition to that change the FDA realizes that when people buy a 20oz soda they're probably drinking the whole thing. So they made a 20oz bottle a serving. \n \nMore generally the FDA rules work like this: A package that contains between one and two servings are generally supposed to be labeled as if the whole package is one serving, to reflect the fact that people will generally eat the whole package. \n \nIf your package contains 2 or more servings but might be consumed in a single serving (e.g. a 24oz soda) then there should be a 'dual column' label that contains information for both a serving and for the whole package. \n \nTechnically the new rules don't come into place for another 2 years, but a lot of manufacturers are already switching over. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1024776",
"title": "Double Cola",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "In summer of 1960, Double Cola used a Chinese name as \"(得寶可樂)\", a locally made super king size with much more carbon dioxide for only 40 Hong Kong cents for a 16 fluid ounce (473 ml) bottle which could serve three then-typical beverage cups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574477",
"title": "In rem jurisdiction",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"United States v. Forty Barrels & Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola\" (1916), brought under the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) against, not The Coca-Cola Company itself, but rather \"Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1443189",
"title": "Facelift (product)",
"section": "Section::::Sugar Water Gets a Facelift.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "In 2008, Coke, Pepsi Bottles try new sizes to pump up sales. While U.S. soda sales in major retail channels overall declined 3.5% in the first quarter, convenience-store sales dropped 4.2%, according to Beverage Digest, an industry publication. The 20-ounce bottle accounts for most convenience-store soda sales. To win back sales, several Coca-Cola and Pepsi bottlers are conducting pilot tests on a variety of bottle sizes they hope will appeal to consumers put off by the 20-ounce bottle or looking for a cheaper option to cushion the blow of high food and energy prices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636702",
"title": "Metrication in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current use.:Consumer and retail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The half-liter water bottle (16.9 fl oz) has nearly replaced the 16 ounce size. 700 mL (23.6 fl oz) and one-liter sizes are also common, though 20 fl oz, and 24 fl oz sizes remain popular, particularly in vending machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "908990",
"title": "Raymond Loewy",
"section": "Section::::Loewy designs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "BULLET::::- Coca-Cola Redesign of the original contour bottle, eliminating Coca-Cola embossing and adding vivid white Coke/Coca-Cola lettering, designed and introduced first king-size or slenderized bottles, that is, 10, 12, 16 and 26 oz. (1955) Later, in 1960, he designed the first Coke steel can with diamond design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5673925",
"title": "Kitty Kola",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "This popular cola comes in a 12-ounce bottle as well as larger, 20 ounce bottles and aluminum cans. It is a common drink with older adults, but is more heavily marketed to teens and young adults. One can contains as much caffeine as one cup of coffee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "914869",
"title": "The Coca-Cola Company",
"section": "Section::::Products and brands.:Brands.:Coke Mini can.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In October 2009, Coca-Cola revealed its new 90-calorie mini can that holds 7.5 fluid ounces. The mini can is often sold in 8 packs. Despite costing nearly 30 percent more per ounce, the mini cans have been met with positive sales figures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xs93v
|
when did the northern European monarchies become
powerless?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Revolutions of 1848 definitely killed the absolutism of the Danish Monarchy and killed off the French one as a whole. It also helped to change the Netherlands to a much more liberal nation under decree of William II (although William III unpopularily attempted to reverse everything). The Swedes went to constitutional monarchy in 1809 after they lost Finland and the nation demanded change. Belgium was never an absolute monarchy to begin with since they modeled their monarchy on the British, although it really took the Royal Question of 1950 to render it powerless. For most of these countries, a liberal revolution or at least a great liberalization happened between 1800 and 1890.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756685",
"title": "Monarchies in Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Since the end of World War I, however, most European monarchies have been abolished. There remain, as of 2016, twelve (12) sovereign monarchies in Europe. Of these, seven are kingdoms: Denmark, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom of Great Britain, and Northern Ireland are of pre-modern origin. The kingdoms of the Netherlands and of Belgium were established in 1815 and 1830, respectively. The Kingdom of Spain, was founded in 1479, it was abolished in 1931, and restored in 1947/69, before Spain transitioned to democracy in 1978 as a constitutional monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19012",
"title": "Monarch",
"section": "Section::::History.:Monarchs in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "During the nineteenth century many small monarchies in Europe merged with other territories to form larger entities, and following World War I and World War II, many monarchies were abolished, but of those remaining all except Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Andorra, Vatican City and Monaco were headed by a king or queen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36431",
"title": "1340s",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Political developments.:Northern Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "The Danish monarchy had disintegrated in the 1330s, but was restored in 1340 by Valdemar IV after a long interregnum. In the Danish crusader state of Estonia, some 80% of the indigenous population was subject to immigrant lords, to whom they owed tithe and military duty. When the lords reacted to falling grain-prices by increasing the level of tithe, which led to the St. George's Night Uprising in 1343. On 23 April, the Estonians rose up and killed their masters — German sources give a figure of 18,000 dead as a result of the uprising, although this total is unlikely. The Danish government in Estonia was overthrown when a major group of vassals in Tallinn handed over castles to the Teutonic Order in 1344–1345. Beset by pressing problems at home and unable to break the monopoly of the Hanseatic League at sea, Valdemar decided to sell the territory to the master of the Teutonic Order for 10,000 marks. The final sale was approved by the king's Danish counsellors, and the shift of sovereignty took place on 1 November 1346.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5253",
"title": "Constitution",
"section": "Section::::History and development.:Modern constitutions.:Democratic constitutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In Denmark, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the absolute monarchy lost its personal possession of Norway to another absolute monarchy, Sweden. However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal constitution in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones; but maintaining a hereditary monarch limited by the constitution, like the Spanish one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18524",
"title": "Latin America",
"section": "Section::::History.:Independence (1804–1825).:Independent Empire of Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, in attrition with the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "503345",
"title": "High Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Historical events and politics.:Scandinavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "From the mid-tenth to the mid-11th centuries, the Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end of Viking raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King Cnut of Denmark ruled over both England and Norway. After Cnut's death in 1035, England and Norway were lost, and with the defeat of Valdemar II in 1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging from Greenland to the Isle of Man, while Sweden, under Birger Jarl, built up a power-base in the Baltic Sea. However, the Norwegian influence started to decline already in the same period, marked by the Treaty of Perth of 1266. Also, civil wars raged in Norway between 1130 and 1240.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60402549",
"title": "Austria–Spain relations",
"section": "Section::::Historical relationships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The Hispanic Monarchy (also known as Catholic Monarchy) was throughout that era the greatest power of Europe. During the so-called \" 'Austrias mayores' \" (Carlos I and Felipe II, reached the apogee of his influence and power, especially with the incorporation of Portugal and his extensive empire, while the reigns of the so-called \" 'Lesser Austrias' \" (Philip III, Felipe IV and Carlos II), coinciding with the best of the Golden Age of arts and letters, meant what is known as \"Spanish decadence\" : the loss of European hegemony and a deep economic and social crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
244nl1
|
whats the difference between all of the different kinds of salts? what makes a 50$ pound bag of salt better than a 50 cent pound bag of salt?
|
[
{
"answer": "The cheap salt you get in the grocery store is *just* salt - sodium chloride. It tastes 'salty'.\n\nWHen you start looking at fancy salts, you end up with little bits of different minerals mixed in. Just like tap water in different cities tastes differently because of minor differences in mineral content, salt from different places will have different tastes.\n\nThe costs really just depend on how fancy or prestigious the salt is - it might come from a place with limited production capactiy or limited infrastructure for moving things out. All of the fancy salts have one thing in common - they're generally meant to be used as \"finishing salts\". You would use them when sprinkling a it of salt on the surface of a finished food product rather than tossing it in while you're cooking (which would 'lose' a bunch of the subtle flavors).\n\nIt can be a fun way to spend a few extra dollars if you like spending money on fancy foods (like olive oils & balsamic vinegars). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1723515",
"title": "Kosher salt",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:General cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Because the salt has a purer flavor due to the lack of metallic or bitter-tasting additives such as iodine, fluoride or dextrose, it is often used in the kitchen instead of additive-containing table salt, so such flavors are not introduced to prepared food. Estimating the amount of salt when salting by hand can also be easier due to the larger grain size. Some recipes specifically call for volume measurement of kosher/kitchen salt, which weighs less per measure due to its lower density and is therefore less salty than an equal volume measurement of table salt. Different brands of different salt vary dramatically; a measure of one brand may be twice as salty as a measure of another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282070",
"title": "Taste",
"section": "Section::::Basic tastes.:Saltiness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The size of lithium and potassium ions most closely resemble those of sodium, and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast, rubidium and caesium ions are far larger, so their salty taste differs accordingly. The saltiness of substances is rated relative to sodium chloride (NaCl), which has an index of 1. Potassium, as potassium chloride (KCl), is the principal ingredient in salt substitutes and has a saltiness index of 0.6.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605200",
"title": "Salt",
"section": "Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6g serving (1teaspoon) contains about 2,300mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs (fluid balance). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "824148",
"title": "Veggie burger",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients purpose.:Preservatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Salt is typically used for flavor, but may be used as a preservative in veggie burgers. With the use of salt, the water activity of the food is reduced. This helps prevent the growth of micro-organisms and prolongs the shelf life of the food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9414730",
"title": "Salt substitute",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Salt substitutes are low-sodium table salt alternatives marketed to circumvent the risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease associated with a high intake of sodium chloride while maintaining a similar taste. They usually contain mostly potassium chloride (also known as potassium salt), whose toxicity is approximately equal to that of table salt in a healthy person (the is about 2.5 g/kg, or approximately 190 g for a person weighing 75 kg). Potassium lactate may also be used to reduce sodium levels in food products. It is commonly used in meat and poultry products. The recommended daily allowance of potassium is higher than that for sodium, yet a typical person consumes less potassium than sodium in a given day. Seaweed granules are also marketed as alternatives to salt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382599",
"title": "Convenience food",
"section": "Section::::Environmental and health concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "In most developed countries, 80% of consumed salt comes from industry-prepared food (5% come from natural salt; 15% comes from salt added during cooking or eating). Health effects of salt concentrate on sodium and depend in part on how much is consumed. A single serving of many convenience foods contains a significant portion of the recommended daily allowance of sodium. Manufacturers are concerned that if the taste of their product is not optimized with salt, it will not sell as well as competing products. Tests have shown that some popular packaged foods depend on significant amounts of salt for their palatability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31677397",
"title": "Sel gris",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Because of its mineral complexity and coarse grain size, \"sel gris\" can be used both as a cooking salt and a finishing salt. Being much denser than table and kosher salt, there is a lot more salt in an equivalent volume of \"sel gris\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23tdem
|
Can an atom have significant mass from its electrons?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not really. An electron is about 1/2000 the mass of an atom. Even in the largest nuclei, all the electrons amount to a few percent of the mass of a proton.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can't have very many more electrons than protons. (typically 2-3 at most) Or they simply won't become bound to the nucleus. As pointed out, protons are 1800x heavier. \n\nEven if you somehow could, the effects would not be significant. The absolute mass of an electron is a significant thing, because it determines the size of atoms. The relative mass of an electron vs the nucleus is significant, because it determines the coupling between the motion of the atoms and that of the electrons. (Which for matter-as-we-know-it is largely decoupled because of the larger difference in mass) The ratio of the _total_ electron mass to that of the nucleus isn't something that enters into any equations I know of.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4651",
"title": "Beta decay",
"section": "Section::::Energy release.:β decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "That is, the total atomic mass is the mass of the nucleus, plus the mass of the electrons, minus the sum of all \"electron\" binding energies for the atom. This equation is rearranged to find formula_12, and formula_17 is found similarly. Substituting these nuclear masses into the Q-value equation, while neglecting the nearly-zero antineutrino mass and the difference in electron binding energies, which is very small for high- atoms, we have\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043836",
"title": "Nuclear binding energy",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear binding energy curve.:Binding energy and nuclide masses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "For example, the atomic mass unit (1 u) is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a C atom—but the atomic mass of a H atom (which is a proton plus electron) is 1.007825 \"u\", so each nucleon in C has lost, on average, about 0.8% of its mass in the form of binding energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "442505",
"title": "Particle in a spherically symmetric potential",
"section": "Section::::Solutions for potentials of interest.:Hydrogen-like atoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "The mass \"m\", introduced above, is the reduced mass of the system. Because the electron mass is about 1836 times smaller than the mass of the lightest nucleus (the proton), the value of \"m\" is very close to the mass of the electron \"m\" for all hydrogenic atoms. In the remaining of the article we make the approximation \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21144218",
"title": "Electron rest mass",
"section": "Section::::Determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Since the electron mass determines a number of observed effects in atomic physics, there are potentially many ways to determine its mass from an experiment, if the values of other physical constants are already considered known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "673",
"title": "Atomic number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The sum of the atomic number \"Z\" and the number of neutrons, \"N\", gives the mass number \"A\" of an atom. Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the mass defect of nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the atomic mass of any atom, when expressed in unified atomic mass units (making a quantity called the \"relative isotopic mass\"), is within 1% of the whole number \"A\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42445",
"title": "Atomic mass unit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "The mass in daltons of an atom is numerically close to the number of nucleons \"A\" in its nucleus. It follows that the molar mass of a compound (grams per mole) is also numerically close to the average number of nucleons per molecule. However, the mass of an atomic-scale object is affected by the binding energy of the nucleons in its atomic nuclei, as well as the mass and binding energy of the electrons. Therefore, this equality holds only for the carbon-12 atom in the stated conditions, and will vary for other substances. For example, the mass of one unbound atom of the common hydrogen isotope (hydrogen-1, protium) is , the mass of one free neutron is , and the mass of one hydrogen-2 (deuterium) atom is . In general, the difference (mass defect) is less than 0.1%; except for hydrogen (about 0.8%), helium-3 (0.5%), lithium (0.25%) and beryllium (0.15%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42445",
"title": "Atomic mass unit",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Electron mass measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "In practice, the atomic mass constant is determined from the electron rest mass \"m\" and the electron relative atomic mass \"A\"(e) (that is, the mass of electron in daltons or u). The relative atomic mass of the electron can be measured in cyclotron experiments, while the rest mass of the electron can be derived from other physical constants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35cxc0
|
I'm a poor farmer in France during the revolution. I live far away from any cities or near the frontier. How is my life affected?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you say the frontier, do you mean near the border to another country? If you're thinking something like the American frontier to the wilderness, that hasn't really existed in Europe for hundreds of years. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll copy a bit from an old post I made:\n\nWhere do you reside? Most specifically, are you from the North or the South? Another question I need to ask is how old are you? What gender are you? Those last two are the most important because, frankly, they determine how likely it is that you live or die. How rich are you, your family? Do you have any royal ties whatsoever? If the answer is yes to the last line this post ends here because you were near guaranteed to be dead flat out as long as you stayed in France.\n\nLet's say you were from the South. The South of France experienced a disproportionately large amount of anti-Revolutionary tendencies and would be considered in \"semi-revolt\" throughout the 1790's. Mayors were extra corrupt and outright ignored calls for conscription. If you were not old enough to be conscripted (unlikely, you'd have to be in your late 30's, 40's, or 50's by this point along with some kind of medical issue to really seal the deal) you would likely be victim at some point or another of a Revolutionary Army -- sans-culottes. This would be initially paraded by our friend Maximillien Robespierre -- the architect of what is called \"The Terror\" between '92 and '93. Almost 3/4th's of those killed in 'The Terror' would be people just like you -- regular working class peasants accused of hoarding grain or anti-revolutionary thought. Frankly, these bands were filled with people who felt it safer and more profitable to wage war on defenseless French civilians than to go out and defend the country. It was full of cowards and, I know this is loaded language, terrorists.\n\nYou would be visited by these sans-culottes regularly and would see either a family member or a friend in town sent to the guillotine most certainly. You may also have witnessed or fallen victim to noyades -- mass drownings -- or mass shootings if your town was deemed as harboring anti-Revolutionary sentiment. Thankfully though if you would survive this period through about 1794 the Terror would end with Robespierre's fall and the rise of the Directory which would dismantle these Revolutionary Armies and scatter them throughout the regular army. Let me reiterate this -- whether you are in the North or South, if you were not in the military, you were subject to seemingly random and completely unregulated murder by Revolutionary forces in the first few years of the revolution. Your chances of surviving this if you had any aristocratic heritage, any anti-revolutionary sentiment or hoarded any food whatsoever was not very high.\n\nIf you were in the North you would experience a life very similar to the South except with slightly less Revolutionary Terror and more death and destruction from war. The North would be subject to constant attacks by the British and Austrians in particular. Remember at this time the area of the Low Countries was held by Austrian nobility and would be a staging area for Austrian offensives into France. Whether it was a British, Austrian, or French army your farm would likely be destroyed entirely. Burned to the ground most likely and all your crops stolen by foraging parties and your soil destroyed by men constantly marching through and fires. I'd also wager it's likely if you have any daughters they would be raped if you were in an area of particular contention.\n\nBasically if you were not drafting into the military your likely options were death, destruction of everything you own, rape and murder of your family, and your town or province being irrevocably destroyed by war or paramilitary Revolutionary forces. It is highly unlikely you would escaped unscathed.\n\nWhat is far more likely (and far more interesting to talk about) however is that you were drafted into the military. All men between the ages of 18 and 25 were to be forcibly conscripted for military service -- all men. Men into their 30's would also regularly volunteer or be called upon as well though. If you were fighting your first few years in the military would be one of utter disorganization and panic. Revolutionary hype would be ripe and you and your comrades would feel it. Any officers living a little too luxuriously? Mob them and send them to the guillotine. Your NCO being a little too harsh on you and your mates? That doesn't sound like liberty or fraternity, I don't like being drilled! You'd probably be part of a mob that killed him or stripped him of his power. It is very likely you would be witness or a participant in the murder of an individual whose only crime was being a bit rich, an aristocratic heritage, or was being a bit too strict with you. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10156432",
"title": "Revolutions of 1848",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Urban workers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The population in French rural areas had risen rapidly, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in the bourgeoisie feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled labourers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, disease-ridden slums. Traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Karl Marx built up a following.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "220986",
"title": "Sans-culottes",
"section": "Section::::Montagnard influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The working class was especially hurt by a hail storm which damaged grain crops in 1788, which caused bread prices to skyrocket. While the peasants of rural France could sustain themselves with their farms, and the wealthy aristocracy could still afford bread, the urban workers of France, the group that comprised the \"sans-culottes\", suffered. In the city, division grew between the \"sans-culottes\" and these wealthy aristocrats; the former had a particular hostility “towards those with large private incomes.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3073664",
"title": "Alfred Cobban",
"section": "Section::::Classical liberal view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "BULLET::::1. France was still a rural society with small farms. \"Probably some 95 per cent of France's 26 millions lived in isolated farms, hamlets, villages, and small country towns. Mountain and forest still covered, as they do today, large tracts of country, though under pressure of rural over-population farming had pushed into marginal land on moor and hill-top that has since been abandoned. Agriculture, little influenced by the new methods developed in eighteenth-century England, followed its routine of the Middle Ages. Industry was still largely domestic. In all these fundamental respects it matters little whether we are writing of 1789 or 1799. The Revolution did not materially add to or subtract from the basic resources of France, though it altered the use that was, or could be, made of them.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49158869",
"title": "Spanish confiscation",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Social.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Another consequence was the privatization of communal properties that had belonged to the municipalities. Many farmers were deprived of resources on which they depended for survival (e.g., firewood and pastures), which fueled the emigration of the rural population to industrialized areas of the country or to the Americas. This migration reached its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37715692",
"title": "Nicholas Barré",
"section": "Section::::Ministry.:Work in Rouen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "France in the late 17th century was suffering from the effects of the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) and a terrible plague. In 1662, half the children in Rouen died of famine. Many were homeless and wandered the streets as beggars and, for some, prostitution became one of the few means of livelihood available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "376823",
"title": "Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie",
"section": "Section::::\"Les paysans de Languedoc\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"the low water mark\" in the 15th century when French society was still recovering from the massive death toll caused by the Black Death of the 14th century which had wiped out most of the population of France. As a consequence, there was social pressure on the survivors to have as many children as possible to repopulate France. With a growing population in the late 14th and 15th centuries, forests were cut down to make room for farms, while poorer land that had been neglected was reclaimed for the growing number of Languedoc peasants. The growing also meant that property was constantly being subdivided while wages declined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415418",
"title": "Causes of the French Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Social causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "The population of France in the 1780s was about 26 million, of whom 21 million workers in arable and pastoral agriculture. Few of these owned enough land to support a family and most were forced to take on extra work as they were poorly paid laborers on larger farms. There were regional differences but, by and large, French peasants were generally better off than those in countries like Russia or Poland. Even so, hunger was a daily problem which became critical in years of poor harvest and the condition of most French peasants was poor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5fzyru
|
In Battlefield 1 many American troops call German soldier "Hun" during World War One. Was that popular slang for German soldiers or is Battlefield taking liberties with history again?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes it comes from a speech made by the Kaiser. I can't get it right now but I'll send you a link in a few unless someone beats me to it.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow-up: the question about German soldiers being called \"Huns\" is frequently asked and the standard answer references a speech given by the Kaiser in 1900. But this doesn't really answer exactly how an expression from a speech given fourteen years earlier came to be a commonly-used epithet for Germans in 1914 (if that's when the practice started). Was the use of the expression popularized by a famous writer or something at the start of WWI?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "217940",
"title": "Kraut",
"section": "Section::::Slang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Although recorded as a colloquial term for Germans by the mid-nineteenth century, it was during World War I that \"Kraut\" came to be used in English as a derogatory term for a German. In World War II it was used mainly by American soldiers and less so by British soldiers, who preferred the terms Jerry or Fritz. It is considered offensive by Germans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11014515",
"title": "List of ethnic slurs",
"section": "Section::::H.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hun: a. (U.S. and UK) Germans, especially German soldiers; popular during World War I. Derived from a speech given by Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany to the German contingent sent to China during the Boxer Rebellion in which he exhorted them to \"be like Huns\" (i.e., savage and ruthless) to their Chinese enemy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "928988",
"title": "The Germans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "\"The Germans\" is the sixth episode of the BBC sitcom \"Fawlty Towers\". It is remembered for its line \"Don't mention the war\" and John Cleese's goose-stepping silly walk when he is impersonating Adolf Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6296064",
"title": "List of terms used for Germans",
"section": "Section::::English.:Fritz.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "British soldiers employed a variety of epithets for the Germans. \"Fritz\", a German pet form of Friedrich, was popular in both World War I and World War II, with \"Jerry\", short for \"German\", but also modeled on the English name, favoured in the latter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4010",
"title": "Bing Crosby",
"section": "Section::::Performance career.:Success as a solo singer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "During the Second World War, Crosby made live appearances before American troops who had been fighting in the European Theater. He learned how to pronounce German from written scripts and read propaganda broadcasts intended for German forces. The nickname \"Der Bingle\" was common among Crosby's German listeners and came to be used by his English-speaking fans. In a poll of U.S. troops at the close of World War II, Crosby topped the list as the person who had done the most for G.I. morale, ahead of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, General Dwight Eisenhower, and Bob Hope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242042",
"title": "Lili Marleen",
"section": "Section::::Exposure and reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Allied soldiers in Italy later adapted the tune to their own lyrics, creating the \"D-Day Dodgers\" song. A cartoon by Bill Mauldin in the American army newspaper \"Stars and Stripes\" shows two soldiers in a foxhole, one playing a harmonica, while the other comments, \"The krauts ain't following ya too good on 'Lili Marlene' tonight, Joe. Think somethin' happened to their tenor?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3645463",
"title": "Seoul City Sue",
"section": "Section::::Korean War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Her initial scripts suggested that American soldiers return to their corner ice cream stands, criticized the USAF bombing campaign, and reported names recovered from the dog tags of dead American soldiers to a background of soft music. The GIs gave her various nicknames, including \"Rice Ball-\" or \"Rice Bowl Maggie\", \"Rice Ball Kate\", and \"Seoul City Sue\". The latter name stuck, likely derived from \"Sioux City Sue\", the title of a song initially made popular by Zeke Manners from 1946. Through the rest of the summer of 1950, her reports would announce the names of recently captured US airmen, marines, and soldiers, threaten new units arriving in the country, welcome warships by name as they arrived on station, or taunt African-American soldiers regarding their limited civil rights at home. Her monotone on-air delivery and the lack of popular music programming evidently left Ann's broadcasts less enjoyable for her intended audience than German and Japanese English-language radio shows during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3lgkbb
|
how to songwriters ensure they aren't accidentally ripping off someone else's music?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, if you're a professional musician, that song will go through many people and iterations before it's released. If it's at all a popular song, someone will catch it. There's a story about Paul McCartney who woke up with the tune for \"Yesterday\" in his head walking around and asking other bands if they've heard it before. \n\nThat said, this is something that happens. Even to famous and extremely talented musicians. To continue with a Beatles theme, George Harrison was successfully sued for plagiarism for his song \"My Sweet Lord\". It indeed sounds very similar to the song \"He's So Fine\" as recorded by The Chiffons, and Harrison likely unintentionally copied it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They will use a Musicologist, which is a professional that runs the wavelengths, notes, lyrics, every aspect of the track through a bunch of expensive software that compares those details with a massive library of popular music. If you are composing music for a game, movie, tv show, advertisement, etc, most clients will require the track be cleared by a professional musicologist to limit the chance of litigation. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Didn't this recently happen with Sam Smith's \"Stay with Me?\"\nIt was determined it sounded too similar to Tom Petty's \"Won't back down\" and Petty got paid for it. Smith and his producer claim it was unintentional, and I think Smith said he'd never even heard the song before. So it still happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "94154",
"title": "Songwriter",
"section": "Section::::Top-liners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "There is a way to prevent such legal battles. A songwriter can commit their \"intent to make a song\", which prevents any of the parties ripping the song apart. Some artists send out a legal disclaimer making clear that if their melody isn't used after doing a topline, it reverts to them, and the track back to the track writer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7148132",
"title": "Related rights",
"section": "Section::::Performers.:Performers rights in India.:Judicial approach towards performer’s rights- Cinematograph and entertainment industry.:Super Cassettes Industries v Bathla Cassette Industries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "In this case the issue was whether by performing/singing a song which has already been written down and performed, gives the new singer any exclusive rights over the underlying song. It was held that in such a scenario, the performer himself does not have any rights over the underlying song and hence cannot restrain others from performing that song.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2605684",
"title": "Yahoo! Music Jukebox",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "One can rip songs in a variety of formats including .wav, .mp3, and .wmv. One cannot rip songs in the .wma format, despite the fact that songs purchased from Yahoo! are encoded using that format. Another strange format issue within the player, the CD burner; it can burn .mp3 CD's, however, the player itself is incapable of playing an .mp3 CD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3929577",
"title": "Mechanical license",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Musicians often use this license for self-promotion. For instance, a cellist who performed a musical work on a recording may obtain a mechanical license so he can distribute copies of the recording to others as an example of his cello playing. Recording artists also use this when they record cover versions of songs. This is common among artists who don't usually write their own songs. In the United States, this is required by copyright law regardless whether or not the copies are for commercial sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505367",
"title": "Brad Whitford",
"section": "Section::::Musical contributions and style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Concerning his lesser role in the band's songwriting process, Whitford has said, \"I don't consider myself a terribly prolific writer. I can write music with other people if they're better songwriters than I am. I really can't create a song. It's very difficult to do. That's why the people that can do it are very few and far between. I'm certainly not that type of a guy. More of a guitar player, more of the kind of [guy] who comes up with enough riffs and ideas to write a song. But to write lyrics and come up with a melody for it, it won't happen.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1707128",
"title": "Anne Preven",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "For songwriting, Preven keeps a notebook with her and \"always jots down poetry and prose entries.\" She then goes back through them in the studio to try and see if anything in the journal can be matched with a melody she is working on to become lyrics. She finds that hit songs are often those that sound similar to other songs, but she rejects trying to \"genetically engineer\" a song formally, holding that such songs \"end up sounding like a ransom note.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4861424",
"title": "Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap (song)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The song's narrator, a hitman, invites people experiencing problems to either call his phone number or visit him at his home, at which point he will perform assorted unsavoury acts to resolve said problems. Situations in which he offers assistance include those involving lewd high school headmasters and significant others who are either adulterous or who persistently find fault with their partners. As detailed by the song, the \"dirty deeds\" performed at low cost include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zelvk
|
why the fridge door sometimes sticks really hard
|
[
{
"answer": "If I had to guess: when enough warm air gets into the fridge and then the door is closed, the temperature then drops causing the air to contract and drop in pressure like a vacuum. Since fridges are fairly well sealed, that may be enough to cause some extra resistance when you try to open the door. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8637",
"title": "Door",
"section": "Section::::Construction and components.:Swing direction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The \"refrigerator rule\" applies, and a refrigerator door is not opened from the inside. If the hinges are on the right then it is a right hand (or right hung) door. (Australian Standards for Installation of Timber Doorsets, AS 1909–1984 pg 6.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13425816",
"title": "The Flintstone House",
"section": "Section::::History.:Disrepair, restoration and remodeling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "By the mid-1980s the house had fallen into disrepair, as water runoff from higher on the mountainside damaged the foundation, causing the walls to crack. After failed attempts at sealing the cracks, it was extensively restored in 1987.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14202412",
"title": "Locker",
"section": "Section::::General description and characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Locker doors usually have door stiffeners fixed vertically to the inside of the door, in the form of a metal plate welded to the inner surface, and protruding outward a fraction of an inch, thus adding to the robustness of the door and making it harder to force open.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7880443",
"title": "Jamb",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "A doorjamb, door jamb (also sometimes doorpost) is the vertical portion of the door frame onto which a door is secured. The jamb bears the weight of the door through its hinges, and most types of door latches and deadbolts extend into a recess in the doorjamb when engaged, making the accuracy of the plumb (i.e. true vertical) and strength of the doorjambs vitally important to the overall operational durability and security of the door.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49537281",
"title": "Tobacco Kiln, Oak Valley",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The door to the kiln on the western wall is missing. The left hand jamb of a timber door frame is still in place, from the northern wall. It is impossible to say exactly how big the door was because the rest of the frame and some bricks above and to the right of the door have become dislodged, thereby enlarging the opening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors; children playing hide-and-seek have been asphyxiated while hiding inside discarded refrigerators, particularly older models with latching doors. Since 2 August 1956, under U.S. federal law, refrigerator doors are no longer permitted to latch so they cannot be opened from the inside. Modern units use a magnetic door gasket that holds the door sealed but allows it to be pushed open from the inside. This gasket was invented, developed and manufactured by Max Baermann (1903-1984) of Bergisch Gladbach/Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6279174",
"title": "Locks on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal",
"section": "Section::::Lift locks.:Composite Locks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "By 1886-1888 the locks were in bad shape and in need of repair or rebuilding. Around 1910, because of problems, the wood was replaced with cement (which is often what is seen today). Some of that was because it was impractical to line the gate pockets with wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3taim1
|
Why was Andrew Jackson against the Bank of The United States?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hello everyone, \n\nIn this thread, there have been a large number of incorrect, speculative, or otherwise disallowed comments, and as such, they were removed by the mod-team. Please, before you attempt answer the question, keep in mind [our rules](_URL_0_) concerning in-depth and comprehensive responses. Answers that do not meet the standards we ask for will be removed. \n\nAdditionally, it is unfair to the OP to further derail this thread with off topic conversation, so if anyone has further questions or concerns, I would ask that they be directed to [modmail](_URL_1_), or a [META thread](_URL_2_[META]). Thank you!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Henry L. Watson, in his seminal work “Liberty and Power,” extensively describes the politics of the Jacksonian era. He explains how the early republic quickly found itself politically divided among many competing visions of the future. The United States has always been a diverse place with very diverse interests. From the beginning, the federal government acted through a series of rigorous compromises, including the several layered controversy that is the National Bank re-charter. Watson describes that, \"Jackson felt the advance of commerce, banking, and industry tended to undermine the independence, virtue, and equality that made the republic possible\" (Watson p.133). Since the National Bank was made up of many financiers out of London and New York, many Southerners held the same belief as Jackson that this foreign entity had too much influence on the American government. These entities took control over the currency that the Congress was allocated and gave it to a private bank. Not only did Jackson veto the bank's re-charter, he opposed anything that could not be justified unless the strictest reading of the Constitution was used. Jackson opposed popular internal improvements like the C & O canal because they unfairly allocated funds to states and companies. Jackson’s priority as president was to pay off the federal debt at any cost. He saw a dangerous, slippery slope in an open interpretation of the powers allocated to the government in the Constitution.\n\nIf you look, there are only two presidents from the North up to Andrew Jackson. Both have the last name Adams. Politically, the South had more power at the federal level in the early history of the republic. John Adams' late appointments of federalist judges ensured a legal structure that was opposed to the popular position of the Southern political majority. Deadlock ensued. Jackson's election as a member of a single issue political party marks the emergence of social mandates. For example, Jackson’s platform was, \"I oppose the National Bank's re-charter. If elected, I will veto it\". This was a milestone in America's political history. Polarizing issues would now attract people to parties. Well defined regional political identities would begin to be established. People who supported Jackson saw the National Bank as a threat to freedom and individual liberty. The greatest fear of a farmer was to lose his land to the bank. \n\nJackson thought concentrated power like the Bank of the United States was not only corrupt, but dangerous. It was deemed unconstitutional by strict interpreters of the Constitution who carefully read article one, section eight, specifically these lines concerning congressional power:\n\n\"Congress has the power... To borrow money on the credit of the United States;\" \n\n\"To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;\" \n\n\"To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;\"\n\nThe Constitution says that the Congress has the power to do these things, but it does not say how it should get them done. Hamilton, the architect of the National Bank, saw that the only way to effectively regulate the currency was under a British model, which included a national bank. A strict interpreter saw the existence of the bank as a way for a concentrated power, like this national bank, as an entity that takes the power to coin and regulate the value of currency. When the National Bank prints money, Congress and the elected officials acquiesce to the authority of the un-elected bank. \n\nThe other argument concerning federal authority and allocation of funds comes up when Henry Clay (a great rival of Jackson) introduced a bill to build the Mayesveille Road in Kentucky. Originally, Roads had been created and funded with federal monies to facilitate postal delivery between the states. This justification was later used in the construction of the massive C & O canal. The Mayesveille Road was argued as being unconstitutional because the Constitution states that, \"the Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States.\" The logic being that an internal improvement connecting states falls within this authority. However, one lying within the borders of a single state would not. Jackson saw that federal funding of individual state or local projects went around what he called, “the authority of the natural Aristocracy.” Jackson believed that if a state wanted an interior road that did not connect to another state, they had to find the funds through state taxes. \n\nWatson argues that Jackson's big victories over corruption, \"did little or nothing to slow the growth and proliferation... [of] trusts and monied corporations emerging in the nation” (Watson 171). So in a TLDR: Jackson was a strict interpreter of the construction who believed that only congress had the authority to print money. \n\nWorks Cited: \n\nWatson, Henry L. Liberty and Power. Hill and Wagg, New York, NY. (1990). \n\nThe Constitution of the United States of America. Applewood Books Ed, Bedford Ma. (1791).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to /u/RMFN's answer: \n\nIn the early days of the republic, many of the political clashes came down to the economic differences between the industrializing north, the plantation owners in the South, and the farmers in the West. \n\nOne of the biggest economic problems in the early US was that land speculation routinely boomed and busted, taking the economy with it. (The Trail of Tears was a result of finding gold in Georgia, for example). The Bank's duty of managing the economy and the money supply directly affected people's ability to get in on land speculation (if you read up on politicians of the time, many of them were involved in one way or another). Prior to Nicholas Biddle's term as president, the Second Bank essentially screwed up by fueling a bubble and then mishandling the bust, cratering the land speculation market. \n\nJackson was a land speculator from 1794, and was one of the investors behind Memphis, TN in 1819, which would have been when the Second Bank was being pilloried for mismanaging the Panic of 1819 and the subsequent recovery. So it may well have also been personal (either for him, or his associates).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4021104",
"title": "Bank War",
"section": "Section::::Prelude to War.:Initial attitudes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "When Jackson entered the White House in March 1829, dismantling the Bank was not part of his reform agenda. Although the President harbored an antipathy toward all banks, several members of the president's initial cabinet advised a cautious approach when it came to the B.U.S. Throughout 1829, Jackson and his close advisor, William Berkeley Lewis, maintained cordial relations with B.U.S. administrators, including Biddle, and Jackson continued to do business with the B.U.S. branch bank in Nashville. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372347",
"title": "Jacksonian democracy",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:General principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "BULLET::::- Opposition to banking – In particular, the Jacksonians opposed government-granted monopolies to banks, especially the national bank, a central bank known as the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson said: \"The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!\" and he did so. The Whigs, who strongly supported the Bank, were led by Henry Clay, Daniel Webster and Nicholas Biddle, the bank chairman. Jackson himself was opposed to all banks because he believed they were devices to cheat common people\"—\"he and many followers believed that only gold and silver should be used to back currency, rather than the integrity of a bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55568",
"title": "Second Bank of the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Jackson's Bank War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "By the time of Jackson's inauguration in 1829, the national bank appeared to be on solid footing. The U.S. Supreme Court had affirmed the constitutionality of the bank under \"McCulloch v. Maryland\", the 1819 case which Daniel Webster had argued successfully on its behalf a decade earlier, the U.S. Treasury recognized the useful services it provided, and the American currency was healthy and stable. Public perceptions of the central bank were generally positive. The bank first came under attack by the Jackson administration in December 1829, on the grounds that it had failed to produce a stable national currency, and that it lacked constitutional legitimacy. Both houses of Congress responded with committee investigations and reports affirming the historical precedents for the bank's constitutionality and its pivotal role in furnishing a uniform currency. Jackson rejected these findings, and privately characterized the bank as a corrupt institution, dangerous to American liberties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55568",
"title": "Second Bank of the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Jackson's Bank War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Jackson mobilized his political base by vetoing the recharter bill and, the veto sustained, easily won reelection on his anti-bank platform. Jackson proceeded to destroy the bank as a financial and political force by removing its federal deposits, and in 1833, federal revenue was diverted into selected private banks by executive order, ending the regulatory role of the Second Bank of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47620",
"title": "Henry Clay",
"section": "Section::::Later career.:Jackson administration, 1829–1837.:Formation of the Whig Party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "Following the end of the Nullification Crisis in March 1833, Jackson renewed his offensive against the national bank, despite some opposition from within his own Cabinet. Jackson and Secretary of the Treasury Roger Taney pursued a policy of removing all federal deposits from the national bank and placing them in state-chartered banks known as \"pet banks.\" Because federal law required the president to deposit federal revenue in the national bank so long as it was financially stable, many regarded Jackson's actions as illegal, and Clay led the passage of a Senate motion censuring Jackson. Nonetheless, the national bank's federal charter expired in 1836, and though the institution continued to function under a Pennsylvania charter, it never regained the influence it had had at the beginning of Jackson's administration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1623",
"title": "Andrew Jackson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1414,
"text": "Jackson ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. Jackson faced the threat of secession by South Carolina over what opponents called the \"Tariff of Abominations.\" The crisis was defused when the tariff was amended, and Jackson threatened the use of military force if South Carolina attempted to secede. In Congress, Henry Clay led the effort to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson, regarding the Bank as a corrupt institution, vetoed the renewal of its charter. After a lengthy struggle, Jackson and his allies thoroughly dismantled the Bank. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to completely pay off the national debt, fulfilling a longtime goal. His presidency marked the beginning of the ascendancy of the party \"spoils system\" in American politics. In 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which forcibly relocated most members of the Native American tribes in the South to Indian Territory. The relocation process dispossessed the Indians and resulted in widespread death and disease. Jackson opposed the abolitionist movement, which grew stronger in his second term. In foreign affairs, Jackson's administration concluded a \"most favored nation\" treaty with Great Britain, settled claims of damages against France from the Napoleonic Wars, and recognized the Republic of Texas. In January 1835, he survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13877375",
"title": "Presidency of Andrew Jackson",
"section": "Section::::Bank War and 1832 re-election.:First term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "The national bank had not been a major issue in the 1828 election, but some in the country, including Jackson, despised the institution, The national bank's stock was mostly held by foreigners, Jackson insisted, and it exerted an undue amount of control over the political system. Jackson had developed a life-long hatred for banks earlier in his career, and he wanted to remove all banknotes from circulation. In his address to Congress in 1830, Jackson called for the abolition of the national bank. Senator Thomas Hart Benton, a strong supporter of the president despite a brawl years earlier, gave a speech strongly denouncing the Bank and calling for open debate on its recharter, but Senator Daniel Webster led a motion that narrowly defeated the resolution. Seeking to reconcile with the Jackson administration, Biddle appointed Democrats to the boards of national bank branches and worked to speed up the retirement of the national debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6jobae
|
what are the long term effects of casual alcohol consumption (ex 3-5 drinks per week) and how do the effects differ from alcoholism/heavy drinking?
|
[
{
"answer": "Three to five drinks a week would likely do nothing unless you have a preexisting condition, or are predisposed to liver cancer or cirrhosis. Heavy drinking will damage the liver over time. The liver can regenerate, so it is a pretty slow process, but over time, more and more of the liver will basically die, until that persons liver fails completely, at which point they have to be hooked up to a machine until they can get a new one, or die.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It really, *really* depends on the individual. 3-5 drinks is within the recommended weekly allowance for alcohol consumption. For some people, they can go on to live happy and healthy lives, for others, they could become addicted to alcohol. Some people can die from the effects of alcohol withdrawal after just *one* night of binge-drinking, some people can suffer no ill-effect sobering up after years of alcohol abuse. Each person's body will handle alcohol differently.\n\nEdit: word.\n",
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"answer": "Recovering alcoholic here. Alcoholism is a disease so how much or how often you drink is certainly going to impact your health but not the entire story of whether you are an alcoholic. \nAlcohol is essentially a poison, albeit one that will only kill you with a pretty large dose. It is pretty darn difficult to drink enough to kill you without your body rejecting the booze in some way. The damage done though is pretty significant. Obesity, and the associated issues with that such as heart disease, and liver damage are probably the two most obvious. The mental heath ramifications will be all over the place. I self medicated to overcome social anxiety and it worked for a bit but because of my alcoholism eventually turned on me. Some people get aggressive, others lose inhibitions to the point of engaging in risky behavior, while others will never have any issue and might even a better life because of alcohol. It is a roll of the dice.\nI would say the real kicker is that an alcoholic really struggle to maintain as your proposed casual drinker. Hard to really say as many people stay casual for years until some event changes their usage pattern or triggers something. You would also want to look at family history since genetics appear to play a key role.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "First of all, there is a difference between alcoholism and heavy drinking. Alcoholism is a psychological dependency on alcohol, where the individual cannot or will not stop drinking despite whatever bad effects it is having on his life, health, job, and family. Alcoholism and heavy drinking typically go hand in hand, in that most alcoholics are heavy drinkers, but not all heavy drinkers are alcoholics. In my medical practice I have encountered plenty of people who drank a lot, but as soon as they were told that it was harming their health they just stopped. Many of us have known (or in some cases been) the heavy college partier who consumed completely unhealthy amounts while in school but gave it up as soon as they hit the \"real world\". There is at least some genetic component to becoming alcoholic.\n\nThe average adult can handle about two drinks per day/14 per week without any major long term problem. Any more than that, and there is increasing risk of liver damage. The liver is a remarkable organ with a high capacity to regenerate itself. Most people who shows sings of alcoholic liver damage are able to reverse it if they quit drinking.\n\nThe healing potential of the liver does have a breaking point however, and severe long term damage may be permanent, usually called cirrhosis of the liver. Enough liver damage can ultimately be fatal.\n\nNote that the above is for the average person. Some people can consume more without a problem. Some (including some particular ethnic groups) will do damage with less. A blood test can usually spot early signs of liver damage.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "thanks for the question! i've heard a doctor also say to try to keep it to 2 drinks/night. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What would about 40 beers a week sound? It doesn't get me drunk, but enough to fall asleep.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "If we're interested in the long-term effects on the brain, it entirely matters what the pattern of drinking is. 5 drinks in one night, by most criteria, would be classified as an extreme pattern of binge drinking. Binge drinking has been shown to be the most damaging pattern of drinking to the brain. Having one drink five days a week would be classifiable as moderate drinking, which has been shown by many studies to confer health benefits both to the brain and the cardiovascular system.\n\nIt's intuitive that overall volume and duration of drinking would correlate best with the extent of injury to the brain. However, this proposition was tested and it turned out that when alcoholics were studied, **how long** *they had been alcoholics correlated relatively poorly with the extent of alcohol-related brain injury*. *The factor that best correlated with alcohol-related brain injury was* **how many alcohol withdrawals were had**. \n\nThis is because alcohol withdrawal induces state of toxicity to which the brain is very sensitive. This toxic state is called [excitotoxicity](_URL_1_) and it's a result of how the brain compensates for the inhibitory effects of alcohol.\n\nAlcohol makes neurons less likely to fire an impulse to neighboring neurons. This is inhibition. The brain responds by modifying neurons so that they are more likely to fire. This is excitation. The brain also responds to the presence of alcohol by increasing the levels of the main brain chemical (neurotransmitter) which tells neurons to fire, glutamate (_URL_0_). \n\nWhen the alcohol-adapted brain becomes unexposed to alcohol, neurons become too excitable. Neurons are extremely sensitive to excitotoxicity caused by excessive glutamate and, interestingly, this is the underlying mechanisms behind most types of brain injury. This excitotoxicity is why alcohol withdrawal can be fatal.\n\nAlthough some recent evidence suggests otherwise, one theory behind the cognitive impairment associated with binge drinking is that it induces a state of acute alcohol tolerance.\n\nTLDR; It entirely depends what the pattern is. 5 drinks a week is probably bad for you brain, one drink five days a week might be good for you brain and cardiovascular system. Alcoholism injures the brain in great part be inducing a state of tolerance where the brain can no longer handle the absence of alcohol.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From a surgical perspective patients who are reliant on alcohol have trouble with anaesthesia and thus recovery post-operatively due to decreased cognitive function/memory issues (even excluding DTs). Before surgery but after anaesthesia is started it can be very apparent when someone is dependent on substances (etoh, narcotics, etc). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll explain this from a simple physiology perspective of the liver.\n\nWith a few drinks a week, your liver successfully detoxifies your body because it makes extra metabolizing (detoxifying) enzymes to compensate for the alcohol. Because you have additional enzymes, you actually have a higher metabolism than you otherwise would, benefiting your health. This is of course assuming that your liver AND body has everything under control and completely balanced. If you binge drink or consume too many calories from alcohol, your liver/body will not be able to keep up and you'll get things like beer bellies.\n\nAlso because your liver is technically in 'overdrive' as a casual drinker, you might gain weight if you stop drinking because those additional enzymes are no long produced. This is the same reason (one of the reasons) why people trying to quit smoking often gain weight (the other being food tastes better.)\n\nAs for heavy drinking, the liver's enzymes cannot keep up and will be damaged in the long run. The reason is that alcohol (ethanol) metabolizes into acetaldehyde, which is toxic is large quantities. The liver can recover for the most part however after if you give it rest.\n\nLike most have mentioned, alcoholism is a psychological issue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi \n\nAs an alcoholic who's recovering, if you feel you have a drinking problem, you most likely do.\n\nThese kinds of posts were my early realization that I had issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4482452",
"title": "Cognitive reserve",
"section": "Section::::Cognitive reserve.:Lifestyle.:Lifestyle factors.:Findings to Lifestyle factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Alcohol consumption: Studies suggest that light-to-moderate alcohol intake is associated with lower risk (once or twice a week or three or four times a week), as were frequent drinking in earlier life is identified as a risk factor for cognitive decline in later life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Cardiovascular system.:Intermittent claudication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "A study found that moderate consumption of alcohol had a protective effect against intermittent claudication. The lowest risk was seen in men who drank 1 to 2 drinks per day and in women who drank half to 1 drink per day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol-related death.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "A UK report came to the result that the effects of low-to-moderate alcohol consumption on mortality are age-dependent. Low-to-moderate alcohol use increases the risk of death for individuals aged 16–34 (due to increased risk of cancers, accidents, liver disease, and other factors), but decreases the risk of death for individuals ages 55+ (due to decreased risk of ischemic heart disease).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Other systems.:Rheumatoid arthritis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Regular consumption of alcohol is associated with an increased risk of gouty arthritis and a decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Two recent studies report that the more alcohol consumed, the lower the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Among those who drank regularly, the one-quarter who drank the most were up to 50% less likely to develop the disease compared to the half who drank the least.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2965",
"title": "Alcoholism",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1262,
"text": "The various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society, for example, money due to lost labor-hours, medical costs due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long-term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle accidents (due to drunk driving), domestic violence, and assaults. Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, an incurable and damaging condition. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol abuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from one to six percent of a country's GDP. One Australian estimate pegged alcohol's social costs at 24% of all drug abuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol's share was 41%. One study quantified the cost to the UK of \"all\" forms of alcohol misuse in 2001 as £18.5–20 billion. All economic costs in the United States in 2006 have been estimated at $223.5 billion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol-related death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "A 2010 study confirmed the beneficial effect of moderate alcohol consumption on mortality. Subjects were grouped into abstainers, light, moderate, and heavy drinkers. The order of mortality rates from lowest to highest were moderate, light, heavy, and abstainers. The increased risk for abstainers was twice the mortality rate as for moderate drinkers. This study specifically sought to control for confounding factors including the problem of ex-drinkers considered as non-drinkers. According to another study, drinkers with heavy drinking occasions (six or more drinks at a time) have a 57% higher all-cause mortality than drinkers without heavy drinking occasions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2797132",
"title": "Alcohol and cardiovascular disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Excessive alcohol intake is associated with an elevated risk of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), heart failure, some cancers, and accidental injury, and is a leading cause of preventable death in industrialized countries. However, extensive research has shown that moderate alcohol intake is associated with health benefits, including less cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and hypertension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10fyli
|
How different in duration was the lifespan of the earliest stars in the universe?
|
[
{
"answer": "The life span of stars is heavily dependent on their mass, very massive stars will go through their supply of Hydrogen a lot quicker even now. There are some very massive stars that live just a few hundred million years before violently dying, while small dwarf stars can simmer away for billions of years. Our sun is fairly tiny compared to a star like [VY Canis Majoris](_URL_0_) which has a radius over 1,400 as large as our Sun. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As 007T has said the lifetime of stars is related to their mass ( unintuatively because more massive stars burn hydrogen faster they actually burn out faster then a small star)\n\nIn the early universe there are a hypothetical class of stars which are known as Population III (these haven't been directly observed as to be seen we would have to see back much further than current telescopes can manage). These stars would be formed from the elements formed only in the Big Bang and so would be almost entirely Hydrogen and Helium with no higher elements (what astrophysicists confusingly call metals!) because of the lack of these the gas clouds which form stars are much hotter than the stars which form stars today as they cannot cool by mechanisms such as line cooling. This means that the [Jeans mass](_URL_2_) (the mass of an overdensity you need to form a star) of the clouds they are in is much greater so you end up forming much more massive stars.\n\nAs a caveat this is the conventional wisdom when it comes to Pop III stars, there has been some evidence from [SPH](_URL_1_) simulations recently which suggests you may form many more binaries earlier than would be expected where you make one large star which a much smaller companion. \nSee: _URL_0_\n\n**TL;DR** The First Stars were much shorter lived on average than the stars which exist today because they were much bigger.\n\nEDIT: Spelling + added a few links to wikipedia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18478320",
"title": "Future of an expanding universe",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Degenerate Era.:Star formation ceases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "By (100 trillion) years from now, star formation will end. This period, known as the Degenerate Era, will last until the degenerate remnants finally decay. The least massive stars take the longest to exhaust their hydrogen fuel (see stellar evolution). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are low-mass red dwarfs, with a mass of about 0.08 solar masses (), which have a lifetime of order (10 trillion) years. Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of time over which star formation takes place. Once star formation ends and the least massive red dwarfs exhaust their fuel, nuclear fusion will cease. The low-mass red dwarfs will cool and become black dwarfs. The only objects remaining with more than planetary mass will be brown dwarfs, with mass less than , and degenerate remnants; white dwarfs, produced by stars with initial masses between about 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and neutron stars and black holes, produced by stars with initial masses over . Most of the mass of this collection, approximately 90%, will be in the form of white dwarfs. In the absence of any energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies will cool and become faint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50431127",
"title": "TRAPPIST-1d",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Host star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Stars like TRAPPIST-1 have the ability to live up to 4–5 trillion years, 400–500 times longer than the Sun will live (which the Sun only has about 5.5 billion years of lifespan left (which is almost a halftime of life)). Because of this ability to live for long periods of time, it is likely TRAPPIST-1 will be one of the last remaining stars when the Universe is much older than it is now, when the gas needed to form new stars will be exhausted, and the remaining ones begin to die off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26808",
"title": "Star",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "with 100–150 times as much mass as the Sun, will have a lifespan of only several million years. Studies of the most massive open clusters suggests as an upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe. This\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2592906",
"title": "Planetary habitability",
"section": "Section::::Suitable star systems.:Spectral class.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- They live at least a few billion years, allowing life a chance to evolve. More luminous main-sequence stars of the \"O\", \"B\", and \"A\" classes usually live less than a billion years and in exceptional cases less than 10 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12558",
"title": "Galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Future trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the \"stellar age\" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (10–10 years), as the smallest, longest-lived stars in our universe, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of compact objects: brown dwarfs, white dwarfs that are cooling or cold (\"black dwarfs\"), neutron stars, and black holes. Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9009961",
"title": "IK Pegasi",
"section": "Section::::IK Pegasi A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Spectral class-A stars are hotter and more massive than the Sun. But, in consequence, their life span on the main sequence is correspondingly shorter. For a star with a mass similar to IK Pegasi A (1.65 ), the expected lifetime on the main sequence is 2–3, which is about half the current age of the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53275359",
"title": "TRAPPIST-1f",
"section": "Section::::Habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Its host star is a red ultracool dwarf, with only about 8% of the mass of the Sun (close to the boundary between brown dwarfs and hydrogen-fusing stars). As a result, stars like TRAPPIST-1 have the ability to live up to 4–5 trillion years, 400–500 times longer than the Sun will live. Because of this ability to live for long periods of time, it is likely TRAPPIST-1 will be one of the last remaining stars when the Universe is much older than it is now, when the gas needed to form new stars will be exhausted, and the remaining ones begin to die off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10ux61
|
How many more people have died than are alive?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the range of 108 billion.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33256286",
"title": "Demographics of the world",
"section": "Section::::Demographic statistics.:Death rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Of the roughly 150,000 people who died each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—died of age-related causes in 2001, according to an article which counts all deaths \"due to causes that kill hardly anyone under the age of 40\" as age-related. In industrialized nations, the proportion was even higher according to that article, reaching 90%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14688841",
"title": "Great Michigan Fire",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Also unknown is the total number of human deaths. Some estimates put the loss of life at fewer than 500, but they were largely based on families reporting their members missing. In 1871 in Michigan there were hundreds to thousands of lumberjacks and salesmen spread out across the state, along with settlers in remote areas, making it impossible to total the loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "929395",
"title": "Imperiex",
"section": "Section::::Fictional character biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "At least 8 million people on Earth die during the war. The total number dead in the DC Universe is stated to be countless. Several heroes also die, including Maxima, Aquaman, Guy Gardner, Queen Hippolyta, General Sam Lane (Lois Lane's father), and Steel are all presumed dead, but later return alive for different reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454915",
"title": "Johnstown Flood",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Immediately afterward.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "The total death toll was calculated originally as 2,209 people, making the disaster the largest loss of civilian life in the United States at the time. This number of deaths was later surpassed by fatalities in the 1900 Galveston hurricane and the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. However, as pointed out by David McCullough in 1968 (pages 266 and 278), a man reported as presumed dead (not known to have been found) had survived. In 1900, Leroy Temple showed up in Johnstown to reveal he had not died but had extricated himself from the flood debris at the stone bridge below Johnstown and walked out of the valley. Until 1900 Temple had been living in Beverly, Massachusetts. Therefore, the official death toll should be 2,208.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "731923",
"title": "Bombing of Guernica",
"section": "Section::::Casualties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The number of civilian fatalities is now set at between 170 and 300 people. Until the 1980s it had been generally accepted that the number of deaths had been over 1,700, but these numbers are now known to have been exaggerated. Historians now agree that the number of deaths was under 300.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5914684",
"title": "Denys–Drash syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "A 1994 review of 150 cases reported in the literature found that 38% had died with a mean age of death of 2 years. 32% were still alive at the time of the report with a mean age of 4.65. No data were available for the remainder. The author described living with DDS as \"walking a multidimensional tight rope\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222900",
"title": "Peoples Temple",
"section": "Section::::Mass murder/suicide at Jonestown agricultural commune.:Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "In all, 918 people died, including 276 children. It was the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a deliberate act until the events of September 11, 2001. This includes four that died at the Temple headquarters in Georgetown that night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lnlft
|
if we can create animals like "ligers" and "mules" why haven't we attempted to create a mix of humans and chimps?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Some have tried](_URL_0_). I think there would be some pretty big ethical problems if it succeeded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans and chimps don't have the right amount of chromosomes to create (infertile) offspring. Typically foreign sperm will be rejected, and even if it did make it to the egg there are cellular checkpoints that make sure things are on the up and up. When the egg cell starts dividing and the chromosomes don't match up properly, everything gets shut down",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ethical reasons. We still debate over stem cell research and GMOs. The backlash and outcry caused by such a stunt wouldn't be worth the risk to future funding or careers. It's theoretically possible, though, and might happen some day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56279481",
"title": "Cooperative pulling paradigm",
"section": "Section::::Findings.:Primates.:Chimpanzees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1248,
"text": "Chimpanzees (\"Pan troglodytes\") are smart, social animals. In the wild they cooperate to hunt, dominate rival groups, and defend their territory. They have participated in many cooperative pulling experiments. The first ever cooperative pulling experiment involved captive chimpanzees. In the 1930s Crawford was a student and researcher at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. In 1937 he published a study of two young chimpanzees named Bula and Bimba pulling ropes attached to a box. The box was too heavy to be pulled in by just one ape. On top of the box was food. The two participants synchronized their pulling and were able to get the food reward in four to five short pulls. In a second part of the study, Crawford fed Bula so much prior to the test that she was no longer interested in the food reward. By poking her and pushing her hand towards the rope, Bimba tried to enlist her help in the task, with success. In a follow-up experiment with seven pairs of chimpanzees Crawford found none of the apes spontaneously cooperated. Only after extensive training were they able to work together to obtain food. They also failed to transfer this new skill to a slightly different task, in which the ropes were hanging from the ceiling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56279481",
"title": "Cooperative pulling paradigm",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Subjects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "So far, fewer than twenty species have participated in cooperative pulling experiments: chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, capuchin monkeys, tamarins, macaques, humans, hyenas, wolves, dogs, elephants, otters, dolphins, rooks, ravens, parrots, and keas. Researchers have picked species that cooperate in the wild (e.g., capuchins), live in social structures (e.g., wolves), or have known cognitive abilities (e.g., orangutans). Most of the participating animals have been in human care at an animal research center; some lived semi-free at a sanctuary in their natural habitat. One study involved free animals (Barbary macaques) in the wild.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8010519",
"title": "Animal testing on non-human primates",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Chimpanzees in the U.S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "With the publication of the chimpanzee genome, there are reportedly plans to increase the use of chimps in labs, with scientists arguing that the federal moratorium on breeding chimps for research should be lifted. Other researchers argue that chimps are unique animals and should either not be used in research, or should be treated differently. Pascal Gagneux, an evolutionary biologist and primate expert at the University of California, San Diego, argues that, given chimpanzees' sense of self, tool use, and genetic similarity to human beings, studies using chimps should follow the ethical guidelines that are used for human subjects unable to give consent. Stuart Zola, director of the Yerkes National Primate Research Laboratory, disagrees. He told \"National Geographic\": \"I don't think we should make a distinction between our obligation to treat humanely any species, whether it's a rat or a monkey or a chimpanzee. No matter how much we may wish it, chimps are not human.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7844",
"title": "Chimpanzee",
"section": "Section::::Relations with humans.:As pets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Chimpanzees have traditionally been kept as pets in a few African villages, especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Virunga National Park in the east of the country, the park authorities regularly confiscate chimpanzees from people keeping them as pets. Outside their range, chimpanzees are popular as exotic pets despite their strength and aggression. Even where keeping non-human primates as pets is illegal, the exotic pet trade continues to prosper, leading to injuries from attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698019",
"title": "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles & Other Strangeness",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Turtles and rats were not the only option for mutated animals; a rather large list was made available of animals that could be mutated in a wide variety of ways (intelligence, human looks, functioning hands, bipedalism, etc.). Some animals allowed access to different varieties (most notably dog breeds), and rules allowed for the creation of new animals. Characters had access to psionic powers and could come from a wide variety of sources (e.g., natural mutation or man-made experiments), as well as a variety of educational backgrounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1078440",
"title": "Mulesing",
"section": "Section::::Opposition to mulesing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Some animal rights activists consider unanesthetised mulesing to be inhumane and unnecessary. They have also argued that mulesing may mask genetic susceptibility to flystrike allowing for genetic weaknesses to be continued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88737",
"title": "Herpetoculture",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Another controversial issue is unethical captive breeding, in which animals are kept in sub optimal conditions in order to create 'morphs', which are commonly created through intense inbreeding. A prime example is the ball python, or royal python, which are sold in vast quantities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1a3038
|
where do small animals go at night, and bugs go in the winter?
|
[
{
"answer": "Deer move as families and nest in the forest. They never stay at the same nest for more than a few days.\n\nTurtles bury themselves in mud at the bottom of the creek, breathing in the oxygen from the water. Some other freshwater turtles may dig themselves into a marshy area of grass or moss.\n\nSome bugs migrate in the winter. Some stay underground, living comfortably until spring off of stored food and the warmth of each other's body heat. Some cluster together in their nests or hives to stay warm. Some insects go into diapause, which is when their development is suspended during the predictable seasonal change of winter, but resumes again when spring arrives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560791",
"title": "Sagebrush vole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "They are active year-round, day and night, but are usually more active near sunrise and sunset. They make trails through the surface vegetation and also dig underground burrows with many entrances. They burrow under the snow in winter. These animals are often found in colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "872241",
"title": "Boxelder bug",
"section": "Section::::As pests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1541,
"text": "During certain times of the year boxelder bugs cluster together in large groups while sunning themselves on warm surfaces near their host tree (e.g. on rocks, shrubs, trees, and man-made structures). This is especially a problem in the fall when they are seeking a warm place to overwinter. Large numbers are often seen congregating on houses seeking an entry point. Once they have gained access, they remain inactive behind siding and inside of walls while the weather is cool. Once the home's heating system becomes active for the season, the insects may falsely perceive it to be springtime and enter inhabited parts of the home in search of food and water. Once inside inhabited areas of a home, their excreta may stain upholstery, carpets, drapes, and they may feed on certain types of house plants. In the spring, the bugs leave their winter hibernation locations to feed and lay eggs on maple or ash trees. Clustered masses of boxelder bugs may be seen again at this time, and depending on the temperature, throughout the summer. Their outdoor congregation habits and indoor excreta deposits are perceived as a nuisance by many people, therefore boxelder bugs are often considered pests. However, boxelder bugs are harmless to people and pets. The removal of boxelder trees and maple trees can help control boxelder bug populations. Spiders are minor predators, but because of the boxelder bug's chemical defenses few birds or other animals will eat them. Boxelder bug populations are not affected by any major diseases or parasites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5119419",
"title": "Earless water rat",
"section": "Section::::Distribution, habitat and behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "During the day it is actively hunting for tadpoles, worms, and river insects (mostly larvae), but at night it sleeps in holes along the river bank. The animal gets only one young at the same time. It is only captured by Telefol hunters when river levels are low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1571733",
"title": "Northern bog lemming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "They are active year-round, day and night. They make runways through the surface vegetation, and also dig underground burrows. They burrow under the snow in winter. These animals are often found in small colonies. Lemming populations go through a 3- or 4-year cycle of boom and bust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53907076",
"title": "Apion apricans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "Winter bugs on crops and in natural clover plants in the soil, at a depth of up to 5 cm, in forest belts, fringes, ravines, on the borders, roadsides - under fallen leaves and plant remains. Beetles from wintering places come out in 1-2 decades of April during the period of clover growth and feed on the parenchyma of young leaves during 15–21 days, gnawing out small holes. In the second half of May, during the budding phase of clover, females lay one egg each in lateral leaf and flower buds, embryonic heads, and as the latter develops to flowering. The average fecundity of the female is 35 eggs, with a fluctuation from 11 to 217. For laying eggs, the female gnaws a pit with a rostrum, pushing the egg into it with the ovipositor. Embryonic development of the egg lasts 5–8 days. Larvae appear in the head before the beginning of flowering (late May - early June), and in the second decade of June, during the mass flowering period, larvae of different ages and pupae can be found in the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2012864",
"title": "Stewart's wilt",
"section": "Section::::Environment and control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1567,
"text": "Flea beetles do not survive in the northern half of Illinois due to low winter temperatures. Those found in late spring or summer have migrated from the south. Snow or other winter cover apparently provides insufficient shelter to enhance survival of the overwintering flea beetles. Prolonged periods of wet summer weather are unfavorable for beetle multiplication and feeding, while dry weather is favorable. Consequently, although this disease has been found throughout the world, the bacterium has never survived and spread other than in North America, because the disease depends on where \"C. pulicaria\" occurs. In North America, Stewart’s wilt is found in the mid-Atlantic and the Ohio River Valley regions and in the southern portion of the Corn Belt. This region includes parts of Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, and West Virginia. Stewart’s wilt can also be found in eastern and midwestern states and portions of Canada, but this depends on whether or not the corn flea beetles survive the winters. Corn flea beetles can transmit the bacteria northward during the summer, but if the insect vectors cannot survive the harsh winter temperatures, then the bacteria cannot be spread. The toothed flea beetle, adult 12-spotted cucumber beetle, seed corn maggot, wheat wireworm, white grubs, and larvae of corn rootworms can also carry \"P. stewartii\" from one plant to another during the summer. These pests cannot overwinter and transmit this disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6584177",
"title": "Omus dejeani",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "It can be found quite commonly in suitable habitats in the spring. It is most often collected with pitfall traps, but can be found walking along trails at night and on cloudy days during the right time of year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pq3pd
|
Why can I "feel" the bass, but not the other parts of the song?
|
[
{
"answer": "Have you ever been in the Ocean and buffeted by a series of \"Thin\" by waves. You move a little, but definitely not as much as a \"Fat/Long\" waves. It's similar with sound. Low frequencies have large wavelengths and as a result you get to feel them more than the other frequencies.\n\nAdditionally, the song/music could have very high energy bass that is out of your hearing range, meaning you would not hear it at all, but would definitely feel it.\n\nNote: Bass is simply the name for the frequency range 60-250 Hz (Give or take a bit depending on your school of knowledge)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the somatosensory nerve receptor cells that detect frequency only go up to 250hz (pacinian corpuscle), also at the same intensity level, high frequencies attenuate much faster as they travel, so perceived intensity of the wavelength is greater for low frequencies ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Human ear is less sensitive to low frequencies, and as a result they need to contain more energy(loudness) to be perceived as equal in loudness. You are also \"feeling\" the higher pitch sounds, they are just not as strong of sensations as the bass. Additionally, the average human torso has a resonant frequency around 50-100hz so it effectively amplifies that range of the low end.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever seen someone run their finger around a wine glass and make a sound? They have to do it at a very specific speed which matches the 'resonance' of the glass. The idea behind resonance is that any particular type of material, when you push on it, will bend back to its normal shape at a certain speed. If you push on it repeatedly as it's returning to it's original position, you can make it move further each time - this is the same way that you increase your speed on a swing at recess. Sound waves are actually a result of the molecules that make up air (it seems like nothing, but it's not!) bouncing back and forth in much the same way. When you play music, the air vibrates and your ear detects those vibrations and interprets them as sound. It just happens that slower sound vibrations (what we call bass) are closer to the 'resonance' of the human body, so when you play music with lots of bass, the vibrations of the air are making your body vibrate, like a wine glass when you run your finger around it at the right speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what others have said, low frequency waves propagate through solid materials easier than high frequency waves. So you're probably also getting an effect from the vibrating floor. This is also why, if your annoying neighbor is having a party in a room near yours, you can mostly only hear the bass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The resonance frequency of your flabs is too low for a high hat to tickle your belly.\n\nOn a more serious note: The lower the frequency of a sound, the greater the amplitude must be if you want to hear it as loud as a higher sound. The reason for that is simply the sound energy. Just imagine the speaker membrane moving back and forth very quickly, imagine that it is your hand instead. Quite a lot of energy to put in to do that, no? Moving it slower is easier. But then there's plain simply less energy being applied on the air pressure system, and so the amplitude of your motion has to be higher to transfer an equal amount of energy.\n\nA low sound is like a blast of wind hitting your flabs, thus you can feel it. A high sound is too fast (and too little in amplitude) to make you feel the movement of the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has less to do with resonant frequencies and more to do with just plain energy. High frequency wavelengths are very short, (for example, the wavelength of a sound at 5000hz is only about 2.5 inches) and low frequency wavelengths are very long (50hz = 22.6 FEET). That's a LOT of air to move, and it requires a lot of energy to move it. That's why tiny speakers can't accurately reproduce low frequencies- their \"throw\" simply isn't long enough. Bottom line, you can \"feel\" those long wavelengths of air literally slapping against your body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "580209",
"title": "Jeff Ament",
"section": "Section::::Musical style and influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "I have to be able to feel the bass. I've worked hard with our producers to make sure that when you play our records on your stereo, you can feel the bass. You might not necessarily be able to hear it all the time, but if you turn it up you can feel the movement in the low end—that it's moving the song. And when it's not there, it should be creating a dynamic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11549603",
"title": "Secret Touch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "In an interview in the magazine \"Bass Player\" in July 2002, Geddy Lee talked about the song: \"This is a bit of an extravaganza. We built the song around these repeating bass chords that I thought sounded like French horns. The tune has a hypnotic feel, and because we weren't happy just enjoying that feel, we had to smack it up with some power. When we get to the middle section and all hell breaks loose, there are these stuttering bass punctuations. I double-tracked them, but on one of the tracks I went in and digitally truncated the notes to make them sound really abrupt and punchy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37153112",
"title": "Rodrigo Cuadra",
"section": "Section::::Musical career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "As musician he is known by not using the bass just as an anchor instrument and part of the rhythm section, but expands its range in such a way that it takes center stage in songs like \"Expelido del vientre\" and \"Alrededores del templo\" from Bajo una luna Cámbrica, \"Romance\" from the same-titled album, and \"Transformed in cocodrile\" from Big Monster Aventura.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1693004",
"title": "Give Up the Funk (Tear the Roof off the Sucker)",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Aside from the song's form, another jazz-like element is the degree of interactivity among the musicians. The bass frequently responds to vocal gestures, and the bass and synthesizer frequently interact. Likewise, the drums interact with the pitched lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16334793",
"title": "Feel the Pain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "\"Feel the Pain\" is a single by alternative rock band Dinosaur Jr. from their 1994 album \"Without a Sound\". When interviewed by Billboard magazine the producer and mixer for Dinosaur Jr., Agnello, explained that he was after a \"dry\" sound to the song, \"…so dry it jumps out at you.\" Despite bashing \"Without a Sound\" as a whole, \"Feel the Pain\" was one of the two songs (the other being \"I Don't Think So\") that music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine felt was a success. The music video was directed by Spike Jonze.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17831517",
"title": "Clint Houston",
"section": "Section::::Instruments and Playing Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Houston's bass solos are characterized by rapid, fluid playing. In an interview with \"Down Beat\" magazine, he stressed: \"What I'm really looking for in this instrument and through my kind of bass playing is texture. My notes are very definitely selected, because they have to go through the changes, but there's a texture I hear. It's like if you play fast enough, you can almost play single notes like a chord. If you play an arpeggio on the piano fast enough, it's like you just hit the chord, and sometimes you can just about get it on the bass - at the proper tempo.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31470593",
"title": "Night Air",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "[...] I put the bass on Night Air, off this Casio keyboard my mate found in a skip. It just had this real gnarly, smooth, glidy bass. It was really nice to find a way of injecting weight into the tune without it being aggressive, that was exciting. That locked that track together. It was the first track where the mood and the sentiment fitted with the sound of the song, it was working as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kkau2
|
Does ECT work?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is certainly a place for it in modern medicine, and it is still used quite frequently. The early days of ECT were certainly fraught with unethical practices and using a treatment without fully understanding it, however we've come a long way since then. It's important to keep in mind that it's by no means a perfect treatment, and it is NOT a first line treatment. However, in cases of severe intractable psychiatric symptoms that aren't responding to other treatments, ECT is often an effective tool. There is still a huge stigma around ECT, and while I don't necessarily advocate it's use in most cases, there are cases where I think it's an appropriate treatment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is certainly a place for it in modern medicine, and it is still used quite frequently. The early days of ECT were certainly fraught with unethical practices and using a treatment without fully understanding it, however we've come a long way since then. It's important to keep in mind that it's by no means a perfect treatment, and it is NOT a first line treatment. However, in cases of severe intractable psychiatric symptoms that aren't responding to other treatments, ECT is often an effective tool. There is still a huge stigma around ECT, and while I don't necessarily advocate it's use in most cases, there are cases where I think it's an appropriate treatment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11799614",
"title": "History of electroconvulsive therapy in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "In contemporary psychiatric practice, ECT is used mainly in the treatment of depression. It is occasionally used in the treatment of other disorders such as schizophrenia. When undergoing modern ECT, a patient is given an anaesthetic and a muscle relaxant. A brief-pulse electric current of about 800 milliamperes is passed between two electrodes on the head for several seconds, causing a seizure. The resulting convulsion is modified by the muscle relaxant. ECT is usually given on an inpatient basis; about one in five treatments are given on an outpatient basis. Treatment is usually given twice a week (occasionally three times a week) for a total of 6–12 treatments, although courses may be longer or shorter. About 70 per cent of ECT patients are women. About 1,500 ECT patients a year in the UK are treated without their consent under the Mental Health Acts or the provisions of common law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44093",
"title": "Electroconvulsive therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week until the patient is no longer suffering symptoms. ECT is administered under anesthesia with a muscle relaxant. ECT can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. Placement can be bilateral, in which the electric current is passed across the whole brain, or unilateral, in which the current is passed across one hemisphere of the brain. Bilateral placement seems to have greater efficacy than unilateral, but also carries greater risk of memory loss. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some patients receive maintenance ECT. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44093",
"title": "Electroconvulsive therapy",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Catatonia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "ECT is generally a second-line treatment for people with catatonia who do not respond to other treatments, but is a first-line treatment for severe or life-threatening catatonia. There is a plethora of evidence for its efficacy, notwithstanding a lack of randomised controlled trials, such that \"the excellent efficacy of ECT in catatonia is generally acknowledged\". For people with autism spectrum disorders who have catatonia, there is little published evidence about the efficacy of ECT; as of 2014 there were twelve case reports, and while ECT had \"life saving\" efficacy in some, results were mixed and temporary, and maintenance ECT was necessary to sustain benefit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8389",
"title": "Major depressive disorder",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Electroconvulsive therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week, until the patient is no longer suffering symptoms. ECT is administered under anesthesia with a muscle relaxant. Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some patients receive maintenance ECT.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2721889",
"title": "Psychotic depression",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "In modern practice of ECT a therapeutic clonic seizure is induced by electric current via electrodes placed on an anaesthetised, unconscious patient. Despite much research the exact mechanism of action of ECT is still not known. ECT carries the risk of temporary cognitive deficits (e.g., confusion, memory problems), in addition to the burden of repeated exposures to general anesthesia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44093",
"title": "Electroconvulsive therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), formerly known as electroshock therapy, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in patients to provide relief from mental disorders. The ECT procedure was first conducted in 1938 and rapidly replaced less safe and effective forms of biological treatments in use at the time. ECT is often used with informed consent as a safe and effective intervention for major depressive disorder, mania, and catatonia. ECT machines have been placed in the Class III category by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) since 1976.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44093",
"title": "Electroconvulsive therapy",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Mania.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "ECT is used to treat people who have severe or prolonged mania; NICE recommends it only in life-threatening situations or when other treatments have failed and as a second-line treatment for bipolar mania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28oog6
|
Why is it light cannot travel through an opaque object when members of the electromagnetic spectrum on either side of light can?
|
[
{
"answer": "Visible light interacts with matter through electronic transitions. What that means is that when a photon hits something coloured it is absorbed by an electron in an atom and gives that electron more energy.\n\nElectrons have certain energy levels they are \"allowed\" to have (you could say there are discrete quantities they can have, that their energy is quantised and that is where the quantum in quantum physics comes from) and only light of the same energy as the gap between these two allowed levels will be absorbed. \n\nIf the light is higher or lower in energy it wont interact with the material and pass straight through it (like your gamma and radio waves).\n\nThis is a bit of an oversimplification, but should hopefully answer your question. The physics and chemistry of light is a really interesting topic and I hope you pursue both these subjects in the future, they are really interesting :). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "351077",
"title": "Transparency and translucency",
"section": "Section::::Absorption of light in solids.:Infrared: Bond stretching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "If the object is transparent, then the light waves are passed on to neighboring atoms through the bulk of the material and re-emitted on the opposite side of the object. Such frequencies of light waves are said to be transmitted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4259939",
"title": "X-ray optics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Since X-rays and visible light are both electromagnetic waves they propagate in space in the same way, but because of the much higher frequency and photon energy of X-rays they interact with matter very differently. Visible light is easily redirected using lenses and mirrors, but because the real part of the complex refractive index of all materials is very close to 1 for X-rays, they instead tend to initially penetrate and eventually get absorbed in most materials without changing direction much.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1305761",
"title": "Afshar experiment",
"section": "Section::::Experimental setup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "When the light acts as a wave, because of quantum interference one can observe that there are regions that the photons avoid, called \"dark fringes\". A grid of thin wires is placed just before the lens (Fig. 2) so that the wires lie in the dark fringes of an interference pattern which is produced by the dual pinhole setup. If one of the pinholes is blocked, the interference pattern will no longer be formed, and some of the light will be blocked by the wires. Consequently, the image quality is reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4550348",
"title": "Nanophotonics",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Near-field optics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "When light is emitted by such an object, the light with very high spatial frequency forms an evanescent wave, which only exists in the near field (very close to the object, within a wavelength or two) and disappears in the far field. This is the origin of the diffraction limit, which says that when a lens images an object, the subwavelength information is blurred out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921",
"title": "Color",
"section": "Section::::Physics of color.:Color of objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "BULLET::::- Objects that [[Transparency and translucency|transmit light]] are either \"translucent\" (scattering the transmitted light) or \"transparent\" (not scattering the transmitted light). If they also absorb (or reflect) light of various wavelengths differentially, they appear tinted with a color determined by the nature of that absorption (or that reflectance).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36589370",
"title": "Dragonfish Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Due to its distance and location, it is totally invisible in visible light because the interstellar dust absorbs and reddens its light, hiding it. So in order to study it, wavelengths that are not affected, like infrared, are required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51408006",
"title": "Haze (optics)",
"section": "Section::::Transmission Haze.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "The light that passes through the transparent material can be affected by irregularities within it; these can include poorly dispersed particles, contaminants (i.e. dust particles) and/or air spaces. This causes the light to scatter in different directions from the normal the degree of which being related to the size and number of irregularities present. Small irregularities cause the light to scatter, or diffuse, in all directions whilst large ones cause the light to be scattered forward in a narrow cone shape. These two types of scattering behaviour are known as Wide Angle Scattering, which causes haze due to the loss of transmissive contrast, and Narrow Angle Scattering a measure of clarity or the “see through quality” of the material based on a reduction of sharpness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62u1yd
|
why are math, tech and science majors paid more than literature, art and social studies?
|
[
{
"answer": "They occupy jobs that are more in demand, because they build/design things that are important to the development of humans as a species.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, you should rarely think about pay as anything other than \"how much money can i likely make for my boss\" and secondly \"how hard would it be if i left.\" The idea of jobs being paid according to importance, or worthiness, or \"value to society\" is very rarely the case. It is \"how much is this work worth it to the bosses and customers who have the money to pay.\"\n\nThings like gatgets, computers, medicine, buildings, strategy power points on where to build your next store... these are things that right now a lot of people in society are willing to pay lots of money for, so there is money in the companies to pay people.\n\nMore people want new iphones every year than want hand made art or than want season passes to a theater.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because math, tech and science majors tend to apply towards the industries and businesses which generate profit in the modern age. Math is valuable in everything from the stock market to engineering, programming, and more. Science and tech are the same. They are all *critical* for the development of new products and procedures in thriving capitalist economies in a world of global trade. \n\nLiterature, art and social studies on the other hand, tend to be more about personal enrichment, learning for leisure or pleasure. Education, the betterment of society. All important things most would argue, but the cold hard fact is there is much less of a direct connection between those things and generating wealth. People like to hate wealth, but the fact is it's that wealth generation that makes it possible for a society to have the time and money to pursue the arts etc. Without those wealthy people and companies donating money and paying taxes, you have a lot fewer museums and art endowments and grants etc. You don't get big new libraries and gymnasiums at universities etc. \n\nThere's of course a small section of that group that do generate business/money of course. You have successful authors and screenplay writers, artists, designers etc. But the potential for the generation of money is far greater in STEM fields. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12769389",
"title": "Humanities in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Career prospects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Criticism of the traditional humanities/liberal arts degree program has been leveled by critics who see them as both expensive and relatively \"useless\" in the modern American job market, where several years of specialized study is required in most job fields. According to a 2018 report by the Humanities Indicators, unemployment rates for humanities majors were slightly higher and their earnings were slightly lower than the averages for college degree recipients with similar degree levels (though both were still substantially better than for those without a college degree). Their overall levels of satisfaction with their jobs and their lives, however, were essentially the same as graduates from other fields, with more than 85% of humanities graduates reporting they were satisfied with their jobs. As of 2015, approximately five million people employed in management and professional jobs had bachelor’s degrees in the humanities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4444054",
"title": "Essay mill",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Within the US, the amount that writers are paid varies by up to a factor of five . Some US writers earn around $1,000 per month in their highest paying months, which, , is a low wage. Some of the better writers are able to earn up to $5,000 per month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5539423",
"title": "Graduate unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Investment risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1311,
"text": "College and Universities cost thousands of dollars a semester, not including study materials, books, room, and board. Tuition has gone up 1,120 percent in the last thirty years. Students have been given the impression that employers are looking for people who, through tests and grades, have demonstrated that they are high achievers. In many recent surveys, that has been proved otherwise. Employers are looking for people who have learned how to work well with others, and have gained substantial communication skills as well as critical thinking abilities. Graduates are not meeting employers needs. Students are also struggling to pay off their student loans. Without the desired, and needed jobs, graduates are accumulating debt and struggling to pay back their loans. 15 percent of the student borrowers default within the first three years of repayment. Many resort to returning to live with their parents and having to work multiple part-time jobs. Loans average about twenty to thirty thousand dollars. Higher education becomes an investment in which students are expecting to find a job with enough income to pay off the loans in a timely manner. It is an investment that students need to discern whether it will be beneficial or not, and whether it will help to advance their career in the long run.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81513",
"title": "Universities in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Value of academic degrees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "The Institute for Fiscal Studies has agreed with other institutions which have found that graduates of professional programs such as medicine, law, maths, business and economics are likely to earn much higher lifetime earnings than graduates of a humanities program such as the creative arts. It also found that there is a wide variation in graduate earnings within subjects, even between graduates with the same degree from the same institution. One reason for this variation is the wealth of graduates' family backgrounds, but subject and institution choice as well as prior education attainment level can be a more significant determinant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28162006",
"title": "Content farm",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Pay scales for content are low compared to traditional salaries received by writers. One company compensated writers at a rate of $3.50 per article. Such rates are substantially lower than a typical writer might receive working for mainstream online publications; however, some content farm contributors produce many articles per day and may earn enough for a living income. It has been reported that content writers are often educated women with children seeking supplemental income while working at home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3437663",
"title": "Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Economics writer Ben Casselman, in a 2014 study of post-graduation earnings for \"FiveThirtyEight\", wrote that, based on the data, science should not be grouped with the other three STEM categories, because, while the other three generally result in high-paying jobs, \"many sciences, particularly the life sciences, pay below the overall median for recent college graduates.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57074156",
"title": "Passion pay",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Incorrect definition of cultural and artistic activity as labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The awareness that culture and arts jobs do not have to pay wages as much as working hours is widespread not only among employers but also among the general public. Perhaps this is because there is a kind of prejudice that culture and art are different from other common works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6qbyhs
|
why are so many animals intolerant to theobromine (an active ingredient in chocolate) but humans have no problem eating it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Humans do have a problem with theobromine, it's just that the fatal dose for a human is very high. Iirc, the fatal dose for humans would require eating 6kg of dark chocolate in one sitting (over 40kg if you prefer milk chocolate)\n\nA lot of cheap chocolate is so processed it contains hardly any theobromine at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27767967",
"title": "Health effects of chocolate",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as cats, dogs, horses, parrots, and small rodents because they are unable to metabolise the chemical effectively. If animals are fed chocolate, the theobromine may remain in the circulation for up to 20 hours, possibly causing epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment performed by a veterinarian involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion and administration of benzodiazepines or barbiturates for seizures, antiarrhythmics for heart arrhythmias, and fluid diuresis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31128",
"title": "Theobromine",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Animals that metabolize theobromine (found in chocolate) more slowly, such as dogs, can succumb to theobromine poisoning from as little as of milk chocolate for a smaller dog and , or around nine small milk chocolate bars, for an average-sized dog. The concentration of theobromine in dark chocolates (approximately ) is up to 10 times that of milk chocolate () – meaning dark chocolate is far more toxic to dogs per unit weight or volume than milk chocolate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3105691",
"title": "Theobromine poisoning",
"section": "Section::::Chocolate.:In other species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Serious poisoning happens more frequently in domestic animals, which metabolize theobromine much more slowly than humans, and can easily consume enough chocolate to cause poisoning. The most common victims of theobromine poisoning are dogs, for which it can be fatal. The toxic dose for cats is even lower than for dogs. However, cats are less prone to eating chocolate since they are unable to taste sweetness. Theobromine is less toxic to rats, mice, and humans, who all have an of about 1,000 mg/kg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214938",
"title": "Leptin",
"section": "Section::::Role in disease.:Obesity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "It has been suggested that the main role of leptin is to act as a starvation signal when levels are low, to help maintain fat stores for survival during times of starvation, rather than a satiety signal to prevent overeating. Leptin levels signal when an animal has enough stored energy to spend it in pursuits besides acquiring food. This would mean that leptin resistance in obese people is a normal part of mammalian physiology and possibly, could confer a survival advantage. Leptin resistance (in combination with insulin resistance and weight gain) is seen in rats after they are given unlimited access to palatable, energy-dense foods. This effect is reversed when the animals are put back on a low-energy diet. This also may have an evolutionary advantage: allowing energy to be stored efficiently when food is plentiful would be advantageous in populations where food frequently may be scarce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346939",
"title": "Carob",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Food.:Animal feed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "While chocolate contains the chemical compound theobromine in levels that are toxic to some mammals, carob contains none, and it also has no caffeine, so it is sometimes used to make chocolate-like treats for dogs. Carob pod meal is also used as an energy-rich feed for livestock, particularly for ruminants, though its high tannin content may limit this use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14083964",
"title": "Animal psychopathology",
"section": "Section::::Eating disorders.:Pica.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Pica also affects domesticated animals. While drugs like Prozac are often able to diminish troublesome behaviors in pet dogs, they don't seem to help with this eating disorder. The following story about Bumbley, a wire fox terrier who appeared on \"20/20\" as a result of his eating disorder, is taken from a book by Dr. Nicholas Dodman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2144540",
"title": "Toxaphene",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Testing performed on animals, mostly rats and mice, has demonstrated that toxaphene is harmful to animals. Exposure to toxaphene has proven to stimulate the central nervous system, as well as induce morphological changes in the thyroid, liver, and kidneys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cam36x
|
Why were opposite gender friendships less common in the past?
|
[
{
"answer": "So there are a couple of things going on here. One is that women not appearing in photos in bars/pubs/saloons doesn't indicate that women were never friends with men: drinking establishments were often officially or unofficially coded as masculine spaces, particularly if they served a middle-class clientele. (Working-class establishments might still segregate women into a specific area of the building, possibly a room closed off from the main action.) This is largely because it was seen as inappropriate for middle-class women to spend time in public places, drinking alcohol - it was unrefined and unrespectable. Women of this class were supposed to enjoy quieter pleasures in their homes or the homes of their friends, or perhaps in a salubrious location out-of-doors like the seashore or a tennis pitch. It was often assumed that women appearing in respectable eating/drinking places alone were prostitutes looking for customers, so it was in a restaurant or pub's best interest (from the proprietors' perspectives) to discourage them.\n\nBut beyond this, women and men, married and unmarried, certainly had friends of the opposite gender. [The 1858 diary of Stephen DeForest Hopkins](_URL_1_), for instance, describes young women paying calls on his family many times, noting that he knew and socialized with them. Belle Wright came with Bill Peat on August 31, and the two talked to him alone for some time as he rested his injured foot; in the evening, Dick Rice came and played backgammon with Stephen's sister, Mary. Gert Hawley and Minnie Cronkhite also paid a call on the house as a whole and conversed with him alone, a few days later. He regularly referred to young women in his generation by their first names, indicating a degree of familiarity and intimacy, and talks to them at his house, their houses, in public, and at parties. (Lest you think he was just being a player, Stephen was madly in love with his future wife, Lizzie, and regularly agonized over the fact that they couldn't yet marry.) He also corresponded with at least one female friend, a young woman named Fannie (possibly Burnham) who was studying to become a teacher.\n\nAs another example, there's [Florence Ranger's 1879 diary](_URL_0_), in which she discussed much the same sort of social interaction. On February 8th, she wrote:\n\n > After tea Will & Lodice came up played euchre all the evening Gertie up to Jennie Wait's Charley Dix came after her to take a ride, about 7.30, went up to Jennie's and took them both. \n\nOn the 14th,\n\n > At three o'clock Nell's father took, Nell, Lodice, Kate Thomas, Julia Parks Jennie Susie Gert & Carrie, up to Long Pond. for a short hour's skating, in his three-seated Rig. Charley Dix brought Paul Dakin up in his Cutter & the Underwoods came also. home about 5:45, Arthur brought Carrie home in the Cutter Herbert went in the [had?] also Dakin and Lodice rode home with Charley Dix. At seven they all went to their Club Meeting at Willis Haviland they went down in a farm rig, home at 11.15.\n\nDuring the summer, similar mixed-gender groups would attend balls and \"hops\", and go boating and picnicking. (Though I would note that Florence typically was only reporting on the social events her younger sisters, Gert and Carrie, attended – it's not really clear why she tended to stay home.) While these events offered opportunities for romance to blossom, they weren't inherently romantic. Boys and girls would attend as friends and simply have a good time together. In the case of dances, this was especially important – typically, a girl's escort was instrumental in making sure that she had many dance partners besides himself.\n\nBy the late nineteenth century, young people were expected to arrange their own marriages/engagements from within the social circle their parents had allowed them to construct. There was always the chance of a parental veto, but adults simply didn't barricade young women in the family home and then let them out once a suitable husband had been selected. Having friendships and connections of their own was an important aspect of creating the next generation of the social circle. (There is more to be said about married men and women, but I simply don't know as much about that as the unmarried/courtship stage.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25778869",
"title": "Douglas T. Kenrick",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "2. Research he conducted with Richard C. Keefe overturned a long-standing assumption that women are attracted to older men, and vice versa, because of the norms of American society. This research demonstrated that the pattern of sex differences found in the United States is found all around the world, and is in fact more pronounced in more traditional societies. Further, young men, who are typically highly committed to sex-role norms, are more attracted to women older than themselves. The findings were explained in terms of sex differences in life history – women peak in fertility in their late teens and early twenties, and go through menopause later, men are attracted to cues associated with fertility, not to youth, per se. Men contribute resources to their offspring and can father children well past the age of female menopause. Women do not seek age, per se, but seek men with status and resources, which is correlated with age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4977310",
"title": "Cross-sex friendship",
"section": "Section::::Major theories.:Social learning theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "Preference for same sex relationships is a societal norm that is taught to children from a young age. This homosocial norm encourages same sex friendships early on that shape how adolescents view and measure cross-sex friendships. Culturally supported rules about friendships and gender influence the formation of interpersonal relationships. For this reason, ideas of cross-sex friendship can vary from place to place. While diverse cultures view relationships across genders differently, studies have shown that similar ideals for friendship seem to exist around the world in areas such as the United States, Europe, and East Asia. Additionally, adolescent definitions of cross-sex friendships closely match definitions given by adults, suggesting that children develop perceptions on the matter by imitating the opinions of adults in their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41154248",
"title": "Gender roles in childhood",
"section": "Section::::Friendships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "A study looked at dyadic friendships, which is believed to be the preferred form of relationship for girls, and found that bonds between males are more durable than those between females. This study reports that beginning as early as 6 years old, external observers report fewer males' than females' same-sex friendships had ended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21378368",
"title": "Bisexuality",
"section": "Section::::Studies, theories and social responses.:Evolutionary theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Some evolutionary psychologists have argued that same-sex attraction does not have adaptive value because it has no association with potential reproductive success. Instead, bisexuality can be due to normal variation in brain plasticity. More recently, it has been suggested that same-sex alliances may have helped males climb the social hierarchy giving access to females and reproductive opportunities. Same-sex allies could have helped females to move to the safer and resource richer center of the group, which increased their chances of raising their offspring successfully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2539563",
"title": "Sociology of the family",
"section": "Section::::Sociology of interracial intimacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "The construction of race in Western society and, to a degree, globally, has led to a distinct view of interracial intimacy. Although interracial relationships and marriages have become far more popular and socially acceptable in the United States and Western Europe since the Civil Rights era, these unions continue to be viewed with less than total acceptance by significant portions of the population. More historically, \"American Families\" by Stephanie Coontz treats the difficulties these couples went through during the time before \"Loving v. Virginia\", when interracial marriage bans were declared unconstitutional. These bans functioned to enforce the one-drop rule and reenforce identity and privilege. Internationally, the far right continues to promote ideas of racial purity by working against the normalization of interracial couples and families.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566253",
"title": "Open relationship",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Some believe that open relationships occur more frequently in certain demographics, such as the young rather than the old in America, including, more specifically, the college-educated middle-class, rather than the uneducated working-class, or people of certain ethnic and/or other racial minorities. Open relationships may also be more common among females rather than males, especially those in the same categories, such as college-educated, middle-class, white, younger Americans. This may be because women have more to gain by stressing this idea of equal rights, and that the women's rights movement supports the idea of open relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17846",
"title": "Lesbian",
"section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Families and politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Although homosexuality among females has taken place in many cultures in history, a recent phenomenon is the development of family among same-sex partners. Before the 1970s, the idea that same-sex adults formed long-term committed relationships was unknown to many people. The majority of lesbians (between 60% and 80%) report being in a long-term relationship. Sociologists credit the high number of paired women to gender role socialization: the inclination for women to commit to relationships doubles in a lesbian union. Unlike heterosexual relationships that tend to divide work based on sex roles, lesbian relationships divide chores evenly between both members. Studies have also reported that emotional bonds are closer in lesbian and gay relationships than heterosexual ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uq25w
|
Who were the Philistines of the Bible, and where did they come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a rather large question mark in this area. Based on linguistic evidence (mostly place-names), they don't seem to have been a Semitic people, certainly not a Canaanite group. Because artifacts recovered from digs resemble those of Greek groups (but not Canaanites), they seem to have been at least from the Aegean, if not Greek themselves. See [here](_URL_0_).\n\nThe main issue with identifying them is that they integrated into Canaanite society over time, adopting the Canaanite pantheon and eventually a Canaanite language. The lack of much documentation of their language beyond a relatively small number of names is particularly troublesome--a solid relationship with other languages would aid in the determination of where they came from.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24204",
"title": "Philistines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The Philistines were an ancient people who lived on the south coast of Canaan between the 12th century BC and 604 BC when they were exiled to Mesopotamia by King Nebuchadnezzar II. They are known for their biblical conflict with the Israelites. The primary source of information about the Philistines is the Hebrew Bible, but they are first attested to in reliefs at the Temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu, where they are called , accepted as cognate with Hebrew ; the parallel Assyrian term is , , or .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24204",
"title": "Philistines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "The first reference to Philistines in the Hebrew Bible is in the Table of Nations, where they are said to descend from Casluhim, son of Mizraim (Egypt). However, the Philistines of Genesis who are friendly to Abraham are identified by rabbinic sources as distinct from the warlike people described in Deuteronomistic history. Deuteronomist sources describe the \"Five Lords of the Philistines\" as based in five city-states of the southwestern Levant: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath, from Wadi Gaza in the south to the Yarqon River in the north. This description portrays them at one period of time as among the Kingdom of Israel's most dangerous enemies. In contrast, the Septuagint uses the term () instead of \"Philistines\", which means simply \"other nations\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24204",
"title": "Philistines",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The Philistines are the subject of research and speculation in biblical archaeology. Since 1846, scholars have connected the biblical Philistines with the Egyptian \"\" inscriptions, all five of which appear from 1150 BCE to 900 BCE just as archaeological references to \"Kinaḫḫu\" or \"Ka-na-na\" (Canaan) come to an end, and since 1873 comparisons were drawn between them and to the Aegean \"Pelasgians\". Archaeological research to date has been unable to corroborate a mass settlement of Philistines during the Ramesses III era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60479664",
"title": "Tel Qiri",
"section": "Section::::Archaeology.:Iron Age period.:Philistine presence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The Philistines were an ancient nation mentioned numerous times in the Hebrew Bible for their wars and conflicts against the Israelites. Philistine-type pottery was found in almost every site in the Jezreel Valley dating from the early 12th century through the late 11th century, corresponding to the time of the Biblical judges who, according to the Bible, ruled over the Israelites during the time of their settlement in Canaan. Vessels with Philistine decorations and pottery with collared-rims were often found nearby, leading archeologists to relate them to the Philistines as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24204",
"title": "Philistines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Several theories are given about the origins of the Philistines. Some biblical passages connect the Philistines to other biblical groups such as Caphtorim and the Cherethites and Pelethites, which have both been identified with Crete which has led to the tradition of an Aegean origin. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46315570",
"title": "Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "It is the first connected body of text to be identified as \"Philistine\", on the basis of Ekron's identification as a Philistine city in the Bible (see and ). However, it is written in a Canaanite dialect similar to Phoenician and Old Byblian, such that its discoverers referred to it as \"something of an enigma\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24204",
"title": "Philistines",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Outside of pre-Maccabean Israelite religious literature, evidence for the name and the origins of the Philistines is less abundant and less consistent. In the remainder of the Hebrew Bible, is attested at Qumran for 2 Samuel 5:17. In the Septuagint however 269 references instead use the term (\"of another tribe\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mxgxx
|
how does one 'occupy' a territory?
|
[
{
"answer": "You spread your troops/police force/militia/bandidos throughout the area in which you wish to occupy. Define it as yours loudly and denounce/arrest/kill/oppress those who disagree with you. Wait 100 years for it to become your de jure land.\n\n- source CK2",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's very simple. Move in with men and guns. Kill those who challenge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Occupied just means it's under your military control - e.g. Nazi occupied France during WWII. You can also annex land (as the Germans did with part of the Czech Republic) and occupy it, but it becomes much the same thing.\n\nFor land it to become yours (in a war), it needs to be ceded to you through a treaty or instrument of surrender.\n\nIn rare examples, you may be able to lease some or part of it - this was the arrangement that the UK had with Hong Kong before having to cede it back to the PRC, and the arrangement that the US has with Cuba for Guantanamo Bay.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "816214",
"title": "Military occupation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Military or belligerent occupation (hereon after referred to as simply \"occupation\") is effective provisional control by a certain ruling power over a territory, which is not under the formal sovereignty of that entity, without the violation of the actual sovereign. The territory is then known as the \"occupied\" territory and the ruling power the \"occupant\". Occupation is distinguished from annexation by its intended temporary nature (i.e. no claim for permanent sovereignty), by its military nature, and by citizenship rights of the controlling power not being conferred upon the subjugated population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23498097",
"title": "Acquisition of sovereignty",
"section": "Section::::Effective occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Effective occupation is the control of free newly discovered territory exercised by a power with no sovereign title to the land, whether in defiance or absence of a proper sovereign. Several cases in international law have dealt with what \"effective occupation\" entails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37842745",
"title": "Territory",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "BULLET::::- Occupied territory, a region that is under the military control of an outside power that has not annexed the region. Current examples are Gaza, the West Bank and East Jerusalem, occupied by the State of Israel. Other examples of occupied territory include the country of Kuwait after it was briefly invaded by Iraq in 1990, Iraq after the American invasion of 2003, Germany after World War II and Kosovo after 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950961",
"title": "Annexation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Annexation (Latin \"ad\", to, and \"nexus\", joining) is the administrative action and concept in international law relating to the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state and is generally held to be an illegal act. It is distinct from conquest, which refers to the acquisition of control over a territory involving a change of sovereignty, and differs from cession, in which territory is given or sold through treaty, since annexation is a unilateral act where territory is seized and held by one state. It usually follows military occupation of a territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56086",
"title": "Territorial dispute",
"section": "Section::::Context and definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "BULLET::::- An occupied territory in general is a region distinct from the recognized territory of the sovereign states but which the occupying state controls, usually with military forces. Sometimes, a long-term occupation is generally maintained as a means to act upon a territorial claim, but this is not a prerequisite as occupation may also be strategic (such as creating a buffer zone or a preventive move to prevent a rival power obtaining control) or a means of coercion (such as a punishment, to impose some internal measures or for use as a bargaining chip).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2303659",
"title": "Cession",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The act of cession is the assignment of property to another entity. In international law it commonly refers to land transferred by treaty. Ballentine's Law Dictionary defines cession as \"a surrender; a giving up; a relinquishment of jurisdiction by a board in favor of another agency.\" In contrast with annexation, where property is forcibly seized, cession is voluntary or at least apparently so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2866845",
"title": "Status of territories occupied by Israel in 1967",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:\"Occupied territories\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "...under customary international law as reflected (...) in Article 42 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land annexed to the Fourth Hague Convention of 18 October 1907 (hereinafter “the Hague Regulations of 1907”), territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army, and the occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. The territories situated between the Green Line (see paragraph 72 above) and the former eastern boundary of Palestine under the Mandate were occupied by Israel in 1967 during the armed conflict between Israel and Jordan. Under customary international law, these were therefore occupied territories in which Israel had the status of occupying Power. Subsequent events in these territories, as described in paragraphs 75 to 77 above, have done nothing to alter this situation. All these territories (including East Jerusalem) remain occupied territories and Israel has continued to have the status of occupying Power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1286mi
|
american politics vs canadian politics
|
[
{
"answer": " The main difference between our two nations is how we deal with the different branches of power. The United States has a Senate, a President, and Congress, each of which has its own powers an responsibilities, and it is expected (and encouraged) that each of them will influence the course of government so that no one group has too much power. \n\nCanada also has 3 systems: the Parliament (congress), the governor general (president), and the senate (senate). HOWEVER, the thing with Canadian politics is that the Parliament is really the only group that has any real political power. For instance, while the Governor General (the Queen's representative in Government) does technically have the right to \"veto\" bills passed by parliament, if she did there would be a huge uproar as her power is more symbolic than practical. In addition, our senate is not elected, but rather appointed. They also TECHNICALLY have the power to veto bills, but once again there would be a huge uproar if they did (there are always arguments going around Canada about scrapping the senate, as it is seen as useless).\n\nCanadian parliament is everything then. They make and pass bills, and any \"political news\" revolves around them (you would almost never hear a news story about a decision in senate, for instance). \n\nAmerican government is based on one group never getting to much power. The Congress makes and passes bills, the senate approves these bills, and the president has the power to veto these bills if he sees them as a danger to the stability of the country. This is necessary because of the 2 party system that has developed in the USA. American politics is very much about direct opposition between Republicans and Democrats, and in doing this three house system, you usually have a balance between Rep and Dem voices.\n\nCanada gets away with a functionally 1 house system because we have multiple political parties. A typical government make up would be something along the lines of 40% Conservative (Your republican equivalents), 30% Liberal (Your democrats), 15% Bloc (A provincial party), and 15% NDP (Socialists, gasp!!!). In this situation, the Conservatives are technically \"the government\", however, they can not pass bills without the support of one of the other groups because they don't have majority control of the house. To pass a bill, they would have to amend it so that one of the other groups finds it favourable enough to agree to help it pass.\n\nNow, this all sounds very utopian, and I don't want you to go away thinking that the Canadian system doesn't have problems as well. If you look at the current Canadian government, it is actually more like 55% Conservative, 35% NDP, 10% Liberal. So, in this case the Conservative party has TOTAL control of Canadian government and can effectively pass whatever bills they want completely unopposed.\n\nBoth systems have their ups and downs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides the actual structure of the governments (senate/parliament/etc) there are lots of other things that make the overall politics different. For example:\n\n- elections are mostly publicly funded: the government gives each party a certain \"allowance\" for each election. The amount is determined by how many votes that party got in the last election. This decreases the importance of fundraising compared to the American system and also means that voting for a smaller party is less of a \"waste\" since at least it means they'll get more money for the next election. \n- The whole political spectrum is shifted left: you can almost say that the American democrats would actually fit in better with the Canadian conservative party. Canada doesn't have a party (at least nationally) that is as conservative as the Republic party. \n- Canadian campaign seasons are a lot shorter. Usually there's only a couple of months of campaigning before the election. This is partly because unlike in the US the government can call an election whenever it wants (giving 36 days notice at minimum), so you can't usually predict an election date four years in advance. It's also related to spending rules and to rules about how many days parliament has to sit for, but the point is no two year long campaigns. \n- Canadians don't vote directly for their Prime Minister. They vote for who will win their local parliament seat, and the party that wins the most votes in parliament gets to install the prime minister. This means sometimes a Canadian voter can be torn between for example between liking the local Liberal candidate but disliking the Liberal candidate for Prime Minister.\n- For whatever reason (national media/history/etc) the culture around politics is just different. It doesn't tend to incite the same kind of passion and drama (and polarization) as it does the US, and it's a lot less sort of pageanty. It's hard to really pin this down, but I would say Canadian politics is more \"reasonable\" but also dryer. I wouldn't say it's completely reasonable though, just more than in the US. \n- Lots of other differences: Canadian politicians will almost never mention God or discuss their religion (though they are mostly at least vaguely Christian). There's not really any Canadian equivalent to the First Lady... most Canadians couldn't tell you the name of the Prime Minister's wife. Etc... lots of small things but they add up to two pretty different political climates. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "594751",
"title": "Third party (politics)",
"section": "Section::::Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "In Canada politics are similar to United Kingdom politics but it does instead have either one or occasionally two and three national and provincial third parties since last few decades in Canadian politics like the national New Democratic Party and most its provincial chapters, the national Green Party of Canada and some its provincial chapters, Quebec's the Parti Québécois since 2018, New Brunswick's the People's Alliance of New Brunswick since 2018, Ontario's the Ontario Liberal Party since 2018, Alberta's the Alberta Party since 2015, Manitoba's the Manitoba Liberal Party since 2016, and the Prince Edward Island Liberal Party since 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999",
"title": "Culture of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Cultural components.:Political culture.:Contemporary politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Canada has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative customs derive from the unwritten conventions of and precedents set by the Westminster parliament of the United Kingdom. The country has been dominated by two parties, the centre-left Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right Conservative Party of Canada. The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale with the Conservatives sitting on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left. Smaller parties like the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois and the Green Party of Canada have also been able to exert their influence over the political process by representation at the federal level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16066160",
"title": "Left-wing nationalism",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:North America.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1948,
"text": "In English Canada, support for government intervention in the economy to defend the country from foreign (i.e. American) influences is one of Canada's oldest political traditions, going back at least to the National Policy (tariff protection) of Sir John A. Macdonald, historically be seen on both the left and the right. However, calls for more extreme forms of government involvement to forestall a putative American takeover have been a staple of the Canadian left since the 1920s and possibly earlier. Right-wing nationalism has never supported such measures, which is one of the major differences between the two. Leftist nationalism has also been more eager to dispense with historical Canadian symbols associated with Canada's British colonial heritage, such as the Canadian Red Ensign or even the monarchy (see republicanism in Canada). English Canadian leftist nationalism has historically been represented by most of , factions with the social-democratic New Democratic Party (such as the Movement for an Independent Socialist Canada in the 1960s and 1970s) and in a more diluted form in some elements of the Liberal Party of Canada (such as Trudeauism to a certain extent), manifesting itself in pressure groups such as the Council of Canadians. This type of nationalism is associated with the slogan \"It's either the state or the States\", coined by the Canadian Radio League in the 1930s during their campaign for a national public broadcaster to compete with the private American radio stations broadcasting into Canada, representing a fear of annexation by the United States. Right-wing nationalism continues to exist in Canada, but it tends to be much less concerned with integration into North America, especially since the Conservative Party embraced free trade after 1988. Many far-right movements in Canada are nationalist, but not Canadian nationalist, instead advocating for Western separation or union with the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2840300",
"title": "Conservatism in North America",
"section": "Section::::Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Far-right politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Canadian conservative ideology is rooted in British \"Tory-ism\", rather than American liberalism. Stemming from the resettlement of United Empire Loyalist after the American Revolutionary War with traditionalist conservatism views alongside pro-market liberalism ideals, is the reason that unlike the conservatives in the United States, Canadian conservatives generally prefer the Westminster system of government. The United States of America is a federal republic, while Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2557630",
"title": "Conservatism in Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Far-right politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Canadian conservative ideology is rooted in British \"Tory-ism\", rather than American liberalism. Stemming from the resettlement of United Empire Loyalists after the American Revolutionary War with traditionalist conservative views alongside pro-market liberalism ideals, is the reason that unlike the conservatives in the United States, Canadian conservatives generally prefer the Westminster system of government. The United States of America is a federal republic, while Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34556",
"title": "1990s",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:Prominent political events.:North America.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "BULLET::::- Canadian politics is radically altered in the 1993 federal election with the collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, (a major political party in Canada since 1867) from being in government to only 2 seats and the New Democratic Party collapsing from 44 seats to 9. The Liberal Party of Canada is the only genuine national political party that remains while the regionally based parties such as the Quebec-based Bloc Québécois and the almost entirely Western Canada-based Reform Party of Canada rise from political insignificance to being major political parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5194",
"title": "Politics of Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The country has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of and precedents set by the Westminster parliament of the United Kingdom. The two dominant political parties in Canada have historically been the Liberal Party of Canada and the Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors) however, the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP) has risen to prominence and even threatened to upset the two other established parties during the 2011 federal election. Smaller parties like the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois and the Green Party of Canada have also been able to exert their own influence over the political process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hhqpg
|
why is it that in the ocean so many different species can live in such close proximity to each other but on land it seems like they live separately.
|
[
{
"answer": "Volume of room. On land you have one flat plain while in the ocean layers. It boils down to volume vs. Surface area. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, the ocean has way more nutrients per volume than anywhere else on earth. Almost every river in the world dumps water full of dissolved minerals into the ocean. So there is a lot of algae, plankton, phytoplankton growing in the top 60 feet of the ocean. That feeds everything from microscopic organisms to krill. Those in turn feed fish, and many marine mammals. \n\nThe ocean is like an upside world. Food comes from the surface and comes down to the ocean floor (with some exceptions) each layer of the ocean feeds from what comes from the layer above it. Even that has exceptions. The oceans have the world's largest migrations, where creatures hide in the darkness and depths, come up to the surface to feed, and return back to the depths to hide.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1580005",
"title": "Fish stock",
"section": "Section::::The stock concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "All species have geographic limits to their distribution, which are determined by their tolerance to environmental conditions, and their ability to compete successfully with other species. In marine environments this may be less evident than on land because there are fewer topographical boundaries, however, discontinuities still exist, produced for example by mesoscale and sub-mesoscale circulations that minimize long-distance dispersal of fish larvae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2376755",
"title": "Species–area relationship",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Species–area relationships are often graphed for islands (or habitats that are otherwise isolated from one another, such as woodlots in an agricultural landscape) of different sizes. Although larger islands tend to have more species, it is possible that a smaller island will have more than a larger one. In contrast, species-area relationships for contiguous habitats will always rise as areas increases, provided that the sample plots are nested within one another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611428",
"title": "Southern Ocean",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "One reason for considering it as a separate ocean stems from the fact that much of the water of the Southern Ocean differs from the water in the other oceans. Water gets transported around the Southern Ocean fairly rapidly because of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current which circulates around Antarctica. Water in the Southern Ocean south of, for example, New Zealand, resembles the water in the Southern Ocean south of South America more closely than it resembles the water in the Pacific Ocean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "220267",
"title": "Wallace Line",
"section": "Section::::Biogeography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "It can reasonably be concluded it was an ocean barrier preventing species migration because the physical aspects of the separated islands are very similar. Species found only on the Asian side include tigers and rhinoceroses, while marsupials and monotremes are only found on the eastern side of the Line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1592088",
"title": "Low island",
"section": "Section::::Definition and location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The two types of islands are often found in proximity to each other. This is especially the case among the islands of the South Pacific Ocean, where low islands are found on the fringing reefs that surround most high islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26302177",
"title": "Plate reconstruction",
"section": "Section::::Other evidence for past plate configurations.:Faunal provinces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Oceans between continents provide barriers to plant and animal migration. Areas that have become separated tend to develop their own fauna and flora. This is particularly the case for plants and land animals but is also true for shallow water marine species, such as trilobites and brachiopods, although their planktonic larvae mean that they were able to migrate over smaller deep water areas. As oceans narrow before a collision occurs, the faunas start to become mixed again, providing supporting evidence for the closure and its timing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4502354",
"title": "Tz database",
"section": "Section::::Data structure.:Names of time zones.:Area.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The oceans are included since some islands are hard to connect to a certain continent. Some are geographically connected to one continent and politically to another. See also Boundaries between continents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5z8jq8
|
If I cut open a fruit (e.g a pomelo), does it continue to ripen?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are two basic types of fruits in regard to ripening: climacteric and non-climacteric. Climacteric fruits will continue to ripen after being picked, while non-climacteric fruits must be picked ripe because they don't ripen after being picked. Bananas are a great example of a climacteric fruit-if you buy green bananas at the store you can just let them sit on the counter for a couple of days until they're ripe enough to eat. Strawberries (technically an accessory fruit) and oranges and other citrus fruits (like pomelos) are a good example for non-climacteric fruits. They have to be picked ripe because once they are picked they won't ripen on their own.\n\nWhen you cut open a pomelo, it's not ripening, it's oxidizing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6255673",
"title": "Syzygium luehmannii",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Fruit and germination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The fruit matures from December to February, being a pear-shaped red berry, known as a riberry, growing to 13 mm long, covering a single seed, 4 mm in diameter. Seed germination is unreliable, complete after 25 days; however, cuttings strike readily. The fruit is eaten by the Australasian figbird, emu, and flying fox (pteropus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322105",
"title": "Mangosteen",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "Before ripening, the mangosteen shell is fibrous and firm, but becomes soft and easy to pry open when the fruit ripens. To open a mangosteen, the shell can be scored with a knife, pried gently along the score with the thumbs until it cracks, and then pulled apart to reveal the fruit. Alternatively, the mangosteen can be opened without a knife by squeezing the shell from the bottom until it breaks, allowing the shell to be removed and the fruit eaten while intact with the stem. Occasionally, during peeling of ripe fruits, the purple exocarp juice may stain skin or fabric. In Vietnam, the ripe fruit is also used as a salad ingredient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28216986",
"title": "Petalostigma triloculare",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Regeneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The fruits open explosively, throwing out parts of the fruit as far as four metres away, and scattering the seeds more than two metres away. Germination starts after around five weeks and is complete after seven weeks, with a success rate of about 23%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2344953",
"title": "Ilama (fruit)",
"section": "Section::::Tree.:Cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "According to tradition, the fruits are not to be picked until cracking occurs, but they can be picked a little earlier and held up to three days for softening to take place. If the ilama is picked too early, it will never ripen. The yield of the ilama is typically low. During the normal fruiting period, some trees will have no fruits; others only three to 10, while exceptional trees may bear as many as 85 to 100 fruits per season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26720883",
"title": "Post-harvest losses (vegetables)",
"section": "Section::::Causes of loss after harvest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "Ripening occurs when a fruit is mature. Ripeness is followed by senescence and breakdown of the fruit. The category “fruit” refers also to products such as aubergine, sweet pepper and tomato. Non-climacteric fruit only ripen while still attached to the parent plant. Their eating quality suffers if they are harvested before fully ripe as their sugar and acid content does not increase further. Examples are citrus, grapes and pineapple. Early harvesting is often carried out for export shipments to minimise loss during transport, but a consequence of this is that the flavour suffers. Climacteric fruit are those that can be harvested when mature but before ripening has begun. These include banana, melon, papaya, and tomato. In commercial fruit marketing the rate of ripening is controlled artificially, thus enabling transport and distribution to be carefully planned. Ethylene gas is produced in most plant tissues and is important in starting off the ripening process. It can be used commercially for the ripening of climacteric fruits. However, natural ethylene produced by fruits can lead to in- storage losses. For example, ethylene destroys the green colour of plants. Leafy vegetables will be damaged if stored with ripening fruit. Ethylene production is increased when fruits are injured or decaying and this can cause early ripening of climacteric fruit during transport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57515326",
"title": "Acacia carneorum",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The fruits are orange, woody arils and may remain on the parent for several years after splitting open. Fruit production is very rare. Studies from 2010-2012 show that most populations continue to produce no fruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5983558",
"title": "Sandoricum koetjape",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The ripe fruits are harvested by climbing the tree and plucking by hand, alternatively a long stick with a forked end may be used to twist the fruits off. The pulp is eaten raw and plain or with spices added. It is also cooked and candied or made into marmalade. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ujfnj
|
360° videos
|
[
{
"answer": "Those videos are created by using a specialized device that captures footage through numerous cameras simultaneously, and then are stitched together to create the illusion of a seamless recording. YouTube has had support for this kind of video, but as you can imagine, very few videos on the service utilize it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Several video streams carefully stitched together. If you look carefully you can see the seams.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9251623",
"title": "360-degree video",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "360-degree videos, also known as immersive videos or spherical videos, are video recordings where a view in every direction is recorded at the same time, shot using an omnidirectional camera or a collection of cameras. During playback on normal flat display the viewer has control of the viewing direction like a panorama. It can also be played on a displays or projectors arranged in a sphere or some part of a sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9251623",
"title": "360-degree video",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "360-degree video is typically formatted in an equirectangular projection and is either monoscopic, with one image directed to both eyes, or stereoscopic, viewed as two distinct images directed individually to each eye for a 3D effect. Due to this projection and stitching, equirectangular video exhibits a lower quality in the middle of the image than at the top and bottom. Spherical videos are frequently in curvilinear perspective with a fisheye effect. The heavy barrel distortion often requires rectilinear correction before applications in detection, tracking or navigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36608858",
"title": "Oculus Rift",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Non-gaming.:Media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Spherical videos (commonly called 360° videos) can be viewed simply by the user moving their head around, and the Rift opens up the possibility for stereoscopic spherical videos (commonly called 360° 3D videos). In September 2014, NextVR announced that they would be using a $200,000 camera rig to produce 360° 3D content for the Rift, including short films, as well as live streaming live events such as sports or concerts in 360° 3D. In July 2015, Oculus announced a deal with Canadian film company Felix & Paul Studios to produce 360° 3D videos for the Rift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9251623",
"title": "360-degree video",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "360-degree video is typically recorded using either a special rig of multiple cameras, or using a dedicated camera that contains multiple camera lenses embedded into the device, and filming overlapping angles simultaneously. Through a method known as video stitching, this separate footage is merged into one spherical video piece, and the color and contrast of each shot is calibrated to be consistent with the others. This process is done either by the camera itself, or using specialized software such as Mistika VR or Kolor AVP that can analyze common visuals and audio to synchronize and link the different camera feeds together. Generally, the only area that cannot be viewed is the view toward the camera support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9251623",
"title": "360-degree video",
"section": "Section::::Playback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "360-degree videos are typically viewed via personal computers, mobile devices such as smartphones, or dedicated head-mounted displays. Users can pan around the video by clicking and dragging. On smartphones, internal sensors such as the gyroscope can also be used to pan the video based on the orientation of the device. Taking advantage of this behavior, stereoscope-style enclosures for smartphones (such as Google Cardboard viewers and the Samsung Gear VR) can be used to view 360-degree videos in an immersive format similar to virtual reality. The phone display is viewed through lenses contained within the enclosure, as opposed to virtual reality headsets that contain their own dedicated displays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46765341",
"title": "Waiting for Love (Avicii song)",
"section": "Section::::Videos.:360° video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The 360° video featuring several dancers was published on May 28, 2015 and was directed by Kurt Hugo Schneider. The 360° function of this music video only works with the web browser Google Chrome (for desktop, Android and iOS).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57009093",
"title": "360 video projection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "A 360 video projection is any of many ways to map a spherical field of view to a flat image. It is used to encode and deliver the effect of a spherical, 360-degree image to viewers such as needed for 360-degree videos and for virtual reality. A 360 video projection is a specialized form of a map projection, with characteristics tuned for the efficient representation, transmission, and display of 360° fields of view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s3s0l
|
what is the point of buying an ultra hd (4k) tv when there are very few movies/tv channel in the world that have the 4k resolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "The right to brag to your friends that you've got a 4K television.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no point at all, might as well wait till more media is released and the price of the tv drops too",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is not reason. Turns out that when everyone owns a TV, there is very little reason to buy another TV. So manufactures make better tv's and then try to convince you to replace your current \"outdated\" tv with a new one. First we had HD tv's (720p), then flat screens, full HD, (1080p), then smart tv's, 3D tv's, 4 colour tv's (RGB + Yellow) curved tv's and now Ultra HD (marketed as 4K) \n\nThere is always something new or better just to get you to buy a new TV but most of it is just a gimmick. Some people may have a specific purpose for using 4K video but most consumers don't but needing to have the latest and greatest, will buy it anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44620850",
"title": "DirecTV-14",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "In March 2015, DirecTV became the first multi-channel video provider to offer 4K Ultra HD programming direct to customers, offering a variety of new releases, popular films and nature documentaries with nearly four times the resolution of HD. Customers who have DirecTV's Genie HD DVR are able to watch 4K programming on supporting 2014 Samsung UHD TVs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47262026",
"title": "Ultra-high-definition television",
"section": "Section::::History.:2013.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "On July 3, 2013, Sony announced the release of their 4K Ultra HD Media Player with a price of US$7.99 for rentals and US$29.99 for purchases. The 4K Ultra HD Media Player only works with Sony's 4K Ultra HD TVs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29831",
"title": "Television",
"section": "Section::::Sets.:Display resolution.:UHD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Ultra-high-definition television (also known as Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD, UHDTV, or UHD) includes 4K UHD (2160p) and 8K UHD (4320p), which are two digital video formats proposed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories and defined and approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Consumer Electronics Association announced on 17 October 2012, that \"Ultra High Definition\", or \"Ultra HD\", would be used for displays that have an aspect ratio of at least 16:9 and at least one digital input capable of carrying and presenting native video at a minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27168879",
"title": "4K resolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "4K resolution, also called 4K, refers to a horizontal display resolution of approximately 4,000 pixels. Digital television and digital cinematography commonly use several different 4K resolutions. In television and consumer media, 38402160 (4K UHD) is the dominant 4K standard, whereas the movie projection industry uses 40962160 (DCI 4K).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218232",
"title": "ITunes Store",
"section": "Section::::Features and restrictions.:Pricing model.:Current model.:Movies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "BULLET::::- Movies that are available in 4K and HDR (either HDR10 or Dolby Vision with an HDR10 profile) cost the same price as HD, and are automatically upgraded from HD to 4K and HDR at no additional cost. Movies can be played back in 4K and HDR on a Apple TV 4K or a Mac released in 2018 or later running macOS Catalina when hooked up to a compatible display, and can be played back in HDR on an iPhone 8/X or later, a 10.5\" or 11\" iPad Pro, and a 2nd gen or later 12.9\" iPad Pro running iOS 11 or later, or a MacBook released in 2018 or later running macOS Catalina or later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47262026",
"title": "Ultra-high-definition television",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Ultra-high-definition television (also known as Ultra HD television, Ultra HD, UHDTV, UHD and Super Hi-Vision) today includes 4K UHD and 8K UHD, which are two digital video formats with an aspect ratio of . These were first proposed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories and later defined and approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44146329",
"title": "Google Play Movies & TV",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Google Play Movies & TV offers movies and television shows for purchase or rental, depending on availability. Google states that \"Most movies and TV shows on Google Play are available in high definition\", with a resolution of 1,280×720 pixels (720p) or 1,920×1,080 pixels (1080p). Google added a 4K Ultra HD video option for select titles in December 2016, and began offering content in 4K HDR quality in the United States and Canada in July 2017. Users can pre-order select content to have it delivered automatically at the time of release. Rented content has an expiration time, listed on the content's detail page.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
at9mt3
|
why do airplane flight tracks always make big arcs, rather than a “straight line” directly to your destination?
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you talking about a flight tracker? Like a visual aid on an airline app?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you are taking the surface of a sphere and laying it flat so it appears as an arc. An azimuthal projection centered from the planes start point would have a straight line to the destination.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the earth is round and what you're seeing is a projection on a 2D map of the shortest path on a sphere (the Earth).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the plane is flying over a round object (the globe) and it's position is being represented on a flat map. If you did have a 3d round object as your map, the plane would be flying in a relatively straight line (accounting for the curvature of the earth)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Get some string and see which path is shorter. Direct vs. following the Earth’s curvature. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What you're thinking of is called a \"Great Circle Route\" and it's the shortest path between two points over the surface of a sphere. Some of the answers have touched on it but I don't think any of them have fully explained it. Let me give you two places:\n\n1. Anchorage, Alaska\n2. Helsinki, Finland\n\nIf you look at these on a rectangular map like a [Mercator projection](_URL_1_), it looks like these two places are roughly straight east-west from each other, and you can get from Anchorage to Helsinki by either flying west across the Pacific and Russia, or east across Canada and the Atlantic. It's not obvious which is farther from just a glance at the map, because these seem to be more-or-less \"on the opposite side of the world\" from one another.\n\nThe thing is that the world is round, not flat. So the closer you get to the poles, the faster it it is to go over the pole than it is to go around it. Look at this [screenshot from a 3D map](_URL_0_). You can see that the shortest distance between these two cities is more-or-less right over the pole.\n\nIf you're still having trouble visualizing it, look at an actual globe. Look straight down at the north pole and pick two spots on opposite sides of the pole. Do you see why it's faster to fly over the top of the pole than it is to go around it along an equal latitude line the whole way?\n\nThis is true for all paths along the globe. In the northern hemisphere, these paths look like the curve toward the north pole. In the southern hemisphere, they'll curve towards the south pole.\n\nThere are a couple interesting cases - if you fly straight along the equator, it looks like a straight line on a mercator map, too. Or, if you're flying from two points on *exactly opposite* sides of the world, it doesn't matter which direction you fly, all paths are equal-distant to the other side.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They appear curves as a projection on a 2D plane. In the real world, the flight path is an arc with the centroid at the center of the earth, meaning that the same direction of travel is maintained throughout the trip. (unless diverted to avoid storms, and excluding takeoff and landing)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cus the earth is a globe. So that curve is the fastest route to the destination. Checkmate flat earthers!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "- Find a globe and some string.\n- Plot the shortest course on the globe with the string from one point to another in the same hemisphere.\n- Note where the middle of the string is on the globe.\n- Look at a flat map and see where those 3 points are.\n\nYou'll see now on the flat map how the middle of the route is not directly in the middle of the two end points. The center point will either be above (northern hemisphere) or below (southern hemisphere). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10261692",
"title": "Ground track",
"section": "Section::::Aircraft ground tracks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "In air navigation, ground tracks typically approximate an arc of a great circle, this being the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface. In order to follow a specified ground track, a pilot must adjust their heading in order to compensate for the effect of wind. Aircraft routes are planned to avoid restricted airspace and dangerous areas, and to pass near navigation beacons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2294625",
"title": "Rarotonga International Airport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Because of the proximity of the runways to the nearby roads, it is possible to get very close to the aircraft while they are departing and landing. Runway 08, which is at the western end of the runway, in particular is often very popular when a large jet is landing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315930",
"title": "Airfield traffic pattern",
"section": "Section::::Contra-rotating circuit patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "In cases where two or more parallel runways are in operation concurrently, the aircraft operating on the outermost runways are required to perform their patterns in a direction which will not conflict with the other runways. Thus, one runway may be operating with a left-hand pattern direction and the other one will be operating with a right-hand pattern direction. This allows aircraft to maintain maximum separation during their patterns, however it is important that the aircraft do not stray past the centerline of the runway when joining the final leg, so as to avoid potential collisions. If three or more parallel runways exist, as is the case at Bankstown Airport in Australia, then the middle runway(s) can, for obvious reasons, only be used when either a straight in approach is used or when the aircraft joins the pattern from a very wide base leg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3297730",
"title": "Windmill (b-boy move)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Air Track.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The Air Track is more extreme still, and they are considered a separate move. An Air Track is basically a halo/headtrack in midair. You use only your hands and you hop from hand to hand in somewhat of a circular motion. There is dispute about whether this move is different from the Air Flare. Some say that Air Tracks have the body traveling only on the X axis, while with an Air Flare the body travels on both X and Y axes. Others contend that the moves are one and the same, and that the name difference is merely based on the evolutionary history of the moves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17564649",
"title": "Modern United States Navy carrier air operations",
"section": "Section::::Recovery operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Line up on landing area centerline is critical because it is only in width, and aircraft are often parked within a few feet of either side. This is accomplished visually during case I using the painted \"ladder lines\" on the sides of the landing area and the centerline/drop line (see graphic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38773637",
"title": "Vertical and horizontal",
"section": "Section::::Geophysical definition.:The spherical Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Also, horizontal planes can intersect when they are tangent planes to separated points on the surface of the earth. In particular, a plane tangent to a point on the equator intersects the plane tangent to the North Pole at a right angle. (See diagram).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315930",
"title": "Airfield traffic pattern",
"section": "Section::::Layout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Because the active runway is chosen to meet the wind at the nearest angle (with take-offs and landings upwind), the pattern orientation also depends on wind direction. Patterns are typically rectangular in basic shape, and include the runway along one long side of the rectangle. Each leg of the pattern has a particular name:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8qvysy
|
How did Washington and the colonial army pay for the costs of the American Revolution without the ability to levy taxes?
|
[
{
"answer": "They borrowed.\n\nFirst, the individual states and the Continental Congress printed paper money, and as expenses exceeded income, they printed more of it. As a result the paper money depreciated in value to little or nothing, which eventually led to the phrase \"not worth the Continental\". This essentially was a tax levied on, money borrowed from, all the people who took the currency in exchange for actual goods- food and firewood for the troops, cloth for uniforms, etc.\n\nSecond, there were wealthy patriots who loaned the government money, like Oliver Pollock and Robert Morris. They often loaned the government money to buy their own goods. This would later lead to claims that they were war profiteers, hoping to eventually make huge amounts from these sales when they were repaid. But for the most part they were motivated by devotion to the cause.\n\nThird, they borrowed from the French. That French navy outside Yorktown, blockading the British, was not free. and the French contributed both money and materiel to the colonists. When Morris started the First Bank of the United States, in order to begin to pay down the war debts, the French supplied the start cash.\n\nAt the end of the War the public debt was $42,000,375. $7,885,008 was foreign, $34,115,290 was domestic. Efforts were made to try to pay down the debt, but often at a discount. Continental currency was redeemed at 1/40th of the face value. Whether they thought they might profit from the Revolution, most all of the financiers in the end suffered for it. Pollock never recovered his business. Morris entangled his own finances with those of the Revolution to a dizzying extent, loaning the Army almost 14 million dollars, took a great losses. The repayment of the French with yearly tobacco shipments didn't last, and their unpaid loans to the Continental Congress and contributions to the American Revolution would be a significant part of the huge debt burden that finally collapsed their government and led to their own Revolution.\n\nIt should be noted, though, that part of Washington's success had to have been due to his ability to keep an army in the field despite lacking reliable funding. It was something he was forced to learn to do in the early part of the French and Indian War ( or Seven Years War) when the colonial governments were equally unwilling or unable to provide adequate financial support.\n\nAnderson: Crucible of War\n\nBolles: [Financial History of the United States](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "159114",
"title": "Stamp Act 1765",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The purpose of the tax was to pay for British military troops stationed in the American colonies after the French and Indian War, but the colonists had never feared a French invasion to begin with, and they contended that they had already paid their share of the war expenses. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers and career soldiers who should be paid by London.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1610496",
"title": "Economic history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Colonial economy to 1780s.:Political environment.:Taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "In the 1760s the London government raised small sums by new taxes on the colonies. This occasioned an enormous uproar, from which historians date the origins of the American Revolution. The issue was not the amount of the taxes—they were quite small—but rather the constitutional authority of Parliament versus the colonial assemblies to vote taxes. New taxes included the Sugar Act of 1764, the Stamp Act of 1765 and taxes on tea and other colonial imports. Historians have debated back and forth about the cost imposed by the Navigation Acts, which were less visible and rarely complained about. However, by 1795, the consensus view among economic historians and economists was that the \"costs imposed on [American] colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7639100",
"title": "Presidency of John Adams",
"section": "Section::::Domestic affairs.:Taxation and Fries's Rebellion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1393,
"text": "To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and his Federalist allies enacted the Direct Tax of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from excise taxes and tariffs. Though Washington had maintained a balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures threatened to cause major budget deficits, and Hamilton, Alcott, and Adams developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a progressive land value tax of up to 1% of the value of a property. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799 the bloodless Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran John Fries, rural German-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their republican liberties and to their churches. The tax revolt raised the specter of class warfare, and Hamilton led the army into the area to put down the revolt. The subsequent trial of Fries gained wide national attention, and Adams pardoned Fries and two others after they were sentenced to be executed for treason. The rebellion, the deployment of the army, and the results of the trials alienated many in Pennsylvania and other states from the Federalist Party, damaging Adams's re-election hopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16829738",
"title": "Federalist Era",
"section": "Section::::Economic policy.:Quasi-War taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1394,
"text": "To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and his Federalist allies enacted the Direct Tax of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from excise taxes and tariffs. Though Washington had maintained a balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures threatened to cause major budget deficits, and Hamilton, Wolcott, and Adams developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a progressive land value tax of up to 1% of the value of a property. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799 the bloodless Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran John Fries, rural German-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their republican liberties and to their churches. The tax revolt raised the specter of class warfare, and Hamilton led the army into the area to put down the revolt. The subsequent trial of Fries gained wide national attention, and Adams pardoned Fries and two others after they were sentenced to be executed for treason. The rebellion, the deployment of the army, and the results of the trials alienated many in Pennsylvania and other states from the Federalist Party, damaging Adams's re-election hopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10410626",
"title": "John Adams",
"section": "Section::::Presidency, 1797–1801.:Fries's Rebellion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and his Federalist allies enacted the Direct Tax of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from excise taxes and tariffs. Though Washington had maintained a balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures threatened to cause major budget deficits, and the Federalists developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a progressive land value tax of up to 1% of the value of a property. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799 the bloodless Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran John Fries, rural German-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their liberties. They intimidated tax collectors, who often found themselves unable to go about their business. The disturbance was quickly ended with Hamilton leading the army to restore peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "394714",
"title": "Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies",
"section": "Section::::The Assembly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Tax issues and budget decisions originated in the assembly. Part of the budget went toward the cost of raising and equipping the colonial militia. As the American Revolution drew near, this subject was a point of contention and conflict between the provincial assemblies and their respective governors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33543787",
"title": "Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The American Revolutionary War inflicted great financial costs on all of the combatants, including the United States of America, France, Spain and Great Britain. France and Great Britain spent 1.3 billion \"livres\" and 250 million pounds, respectively. The United States spent $400 million in wages for its troops. Spain increased its military spending from 454 million \"reales\" in 1778 to over 700 million \"reales\" in 1779.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11mlou
|
If you were on the Moon, and wanted to "throw" something at the Earth, what is the minimum speed it would need to be launched at in order to escape the Moon's gravity well, and reach Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Escape velocities:\n\nEarth: 11.2 km/s\nMoon: 2.4km/s\n\nWith gravity, two bodies will have a point in the distance between them where their gravitational attraction equalizes. If you sit in that spot, your ship would be equally attracted to the moon and the earth. Until you hit that distance, the earth's gravity will have a negligible effect on your calculations (provided you have no specific destination)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This xkcd](_URL_0_) sums it up well. Escaping the moon's gravity is the equivalent to reaching 288 km on the Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The easiest way to ask this question is the refer to the Earth-Moon system's L1 Lagrangian point.\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is not an easy question to answers. Rough estimates would be fairly easy to come by but the absolute minimum not so. Just considering the Earth and Moon makes it a [three-body problem](_URL_0_) and you already have to solve this numerically or make some simplifications. Furthermore, if you really want the absolute minimum, you'd have to consider the Sun and possibly Jupiter too.\n\nWhat I can however tell you is that the escape velocity from the lunar surface is not enough to do this, although you only need a little bit more. I'm sure many will find this counter intuitive.\n\nThe reason is that you don't only need to escape the Moon, you also need to change your orbit around Earth. Moon, and consequently you too at first, is orbiting Earth at about 1 km/s, most of which you need to cancel to eventually reach Earth. So that's about 1 km/s you need. In addition to this you need to escape the Moon, that's 2.4 km/s. But since you are doing both these at the same time and working in the same direction, the total is less than the sum of these. \n\nYou can estimate this for example by first only considering the gravity of Moon until you get to the point where Earth's gravity is more significant and then from there only consider that. Doing that I got about 2.5 km/s as the speed needed to leave Moon. Then you'll leave Moon's sphere of influence at about 970 m/s velocity relative to Moon, and remembering that Moon orbits Earth at about 1000 m/s, it gives an Earth relative velocity of about 30 m/s. Which is low enough so that you don't miss the Earth and just end up on a highly elliptic orbit around it.\n\nWith some googling I found out that Apollo missions leaving Moon did a trans Earth injection burn of 3000 feet/s, or about 900 m/s. They did this at a lunar orbit with an orbital velocity of about 1600 m/s. Which gives them a total Moon relative velocity of 2500 m/s which is around the same figures I got. \n\nAnd if you only consider simple single burn transfer orbits (and not some weird multi-body halo orbits) then there really isn't any options in the transfer you can do. There's no fast or slow or low energy or high energy transfers. So Apollo missions didn't take that orbit because it was fast or low energy, they took it because it was the only one. Similarly you shooting something from Moon, you only have one option. Well naturally there are tiny variations and you'll hit the surface of Earth at a different location or do a nice half orbit in the atmosphere and aerobrake but those don't really change the energy requirements much at all at the Moon end.\n\nEdit: I went a bit too far with the last paragraph. There are actually transfers that get you from Moon to Earth faster but using more energy, at least if you don't mind colliding with Earth instead of making a smooth landing. What Apollo missions did, and what I've calculated, is about the minimum however. Which will enter Earth at about 11 km/s. That's the slowest you can do without using your engines to brake before reaching Earth. You are essentially falling from the orbital altitude of Moon to Earth and picking up a lot of speed in the process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fact that the Moon orbits the Earth complicates things, so the analysis I'm about to do is only an approximation. For now, let's treat the Earth and Moon as stationary. In order to get our object to Earth, we really only need to worry about getting it to the point where the Earth and Moon exert equal gravitational force on the object. Once past that point, the Earth's gravitational force will pull the object in. We can calculate the gravitational potential energy of the object at this balance point, as well as at the surface of the Moon. In both cases, the total GPE is the sum of the GPE from the Earth and the GPE from the Moon, as determined by the distance from the centers of the Earth and Moon and the masses of the bodies involved. We find that the GPE is higher at the balance point; by conservation of energy, that added GPE has to be equal to the kinetic energy we launched our \"satellite\" with at the lunar surface. As the satellite climbs, it slows down, trading kinetic energy for potential energy.\n\nIf you plug in all the numbers, it works out that you'd need to launch your satellite at 1140 meters per second, or about 2550 miles per hour.\n\nIf someone else wants to take it from here and make the appropriate corrections for a rotating reference frame, be my guest, but I need to go get lunch...\n\nEdit: blah, I made an arithmetic error. Divided by 2 where I should have multiplied. It's actually 2270 meters per second, or about 5100 miles per hour.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4435025",
"title": "Free-return trajectory",
"section": "Section::::Earth–Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The speed at a perigee of 6555 km from the centre of the Earth for trajectories passing between 2000 and 20 000 km from the Moon is between 10.84 and 10.92 km/s regardless of whether the trajectory is cislunar or circumlunar or whether it is co-rotational or counter-rotational.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5646168",
"title": "Newton's cannonball",
"section": "Section::::Thought experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "If the speed is the orbital speed at that altitude, it will go on circling around the Earth along a fixed circular orbit, just like the Moon. (C) for example horizontal speed of at approximately 7,300 m/s for Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "663",
"title": "Apollo 8",
"section": "Section::::Mission.:Parameter summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "This was followed by a trans-lunar injection (TLI) burn of the S-IVB third stage for 318 seconds, accelerating the command and service module and LM test article from an orbital velocity of to the injection velocity of which set a record for the highest speed, relative to Earth, that humans had ever traveled. This speed was slightly less than the Earth's escape velocity of , but put Apollo 8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit, close enough to the Moon to be captured by the Moon's gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2378441",
"title": "Lunar lander",
"section": "Section::::Landing stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "All lunar landers require rocket engines for descent. Orbital speed around the Moon can, depending on altitude, exceed 1500 m/s. Spacecraft on impact trajectories can have speeds well in excess of that. In the vacuum the only way to slow down from that speed is to use a rocket engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42935108",
"title": "July 1966",
"section": "Section::::July 1, 1966 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "BULLET::::- The first American attempt to put a satellite into lunar orbit failed when Explorer 33's speed was calculated to be off by 17/10,000ths. The 208-pound probe needed a velocity of 21,135 miles per hour, and was 36 miles per hour too fast. In that an orbit around the moon could no longer be achieved, ground control fired braking rockets and set the Explorer 33 into a wide Earth orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "931880",
"title": "Delta-v budget",
"section": "Section::::Budget.:Interplanetary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "To get to the sun, it is actually not necessary to use a Δ\"v\" of 24 km/s. One can use 8.8 km/s to go very far away from the sun, then use a negligible Δ\"v\" to bring the angular momentum to zero, and then fall into the sun. This can be considered a sequence of two Hohmann transfers, one up and one down. Also, the table does not give the values that would apply when using the moon for a gravity assist. There are also possibilities of using one planet, like Venus which is the easiest to get to, to assist getting to other planets or the sun. The \"Galileo\" spacecraft used Venus once and Earth twice in order to reach Jupiter. The Ulysses solar probe used Jupiter to attain polar orbit around the sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155760",
"title": "Hohmann transfer orbit",
"section": "Section::::Application to interplanetary travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "To get to the Sun, it is actually not necessary to use a Δ\"v\" of 24 km/s. One can use 8.8 km/s to go very far away from the Sun, then use a negligible Δ\"v\" to bring the angular momentum to zero, and then fall into the Sun. This can be considered a sequence of two Hohmann transfers, one up and one down. Also, the table does not give the values that would apply when using the Moon for a gravity assist. There are also possibilities of using one planet, like Venus which is the easiest to get to, to assist getting to other planets or the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28n85o
|
Does dyslexia affect things like sheet music as well? Or is it strictly written language?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are different forms of dyslexia. One is audio. What obe hears is not what someone said. It makes it differcult to spell, underrstand lectures etc. I would imagine it may interfer with music.\n\nAnd BTW, who decidedc to name this aliment Dsylexia? Did they use that word so every dsylexic person would fail trying to remember how that word is spelled? It must be some kind of joke the normals share. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure of the neuroscience behind it, but I have dyscalculia (numbers) and it also affects my musical ability. I have serious difficulty with reading sheet music and my instructor identified it as a form of dyslexia. It also had something to do with the way I naturally try to strum a guitar going up first instead of down. He had a long explanation for it but unfortunately it was a few years ago and my memory isn't that good. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dyslexia is believed to be a spectral disorder, much like autism, so people who have it can display a range of difficulties and strengths and it isn't (as most believe) just about reading and writing. The majority of pupils that I see have weaknesses with their working or auditory memory which impedes recall ability and processing speed. Your student could also have scotopic sensitivity (visual stress) so it might be worth finding out if they have a certain colour that they prefer to read from? Black text on white background is, generally speaking, a total nightmare! You might want to look at some of work done by Gavin Reid. He's a bit of a hero of mine! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23033439",
"title": "Dyslexia research",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Phonological deficit theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The phonological deficit theory proposes that people with dyslexia have a specific sound manipulation impairment, which affects their auditory memory, word recall, and sound association skills when processing speech. The phonological theory explains a reading impairment when using an alphabetic writing system which requires learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence, the relationship between the graphic letter symbols and speech sounds which they represent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8305",
"title": "Dyslexia",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11748495",
"title": "Phonological deficit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The phonological deficit hypothesis is a prevalent cognitive-level explanation for the cause of reading difficulties and dyslexia. It stems from evidence that individuals with dyslexia tend to do poorly on tests which measure their ability to decode nonsense words using conventional phonetic rules, and that there is a high correlation between difficulties in connecting the sounds of language to letters and reading delays or failure in children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23085583",
"title": "Orthographies and dyslexia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Furthermore, recent evidence has found that there are certain genes responsible for causing dyslexia. Research also suggests a clear genetic basis for developmental dyslexia with abnormalities in certain language areas of the brain. However, there is also evidence that orthography, the correspondence between the language's phonemes (sound units) and its graphemes (characters, symbols, letters), plays a significant role in the type and frequency of dyslexia's manifestations. Some psycholinguists believe that the complexity of a language’s orthography (whether it has a high phoneme-grapheme correspondence or an irregular correspondence in which sounds don’t clearly map to symbols) affects the severity and occurrence of dyslexia, postulating that a more regular system would reduce the number of cases of dyslexia and/or the severity of symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23029636",
"title": "History of dyslexia research",
"section": "Section::::1950-2000.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "In the 1970s, a hypothesis emerged that dyslexia stems from a deficit in phonological processing, or difficulty in recognizing that spoken words are formed by discrete phonemes, for example, that the word CAT comes from the sounds [k], [æ], and [t]. As a result, affected individuals have difficulty associating these sounds with the visual letters that make up written words. Key studies of the phonological deficit hypothesis include the finding that the strongest predictor of reading success in school age children is phonological awareness, and that phonological awareness instruction can improve decoding skills for children with reading difficulties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23033439",
"title": "Dyslexia research",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "During the twentieth century, dyslexia was primarily seen as a phonological deficit (specifically phonological awareness) that resulted in a reading deficit. Dyslexia was seen as an issue with reading achievement specifically, caused by deficits in discrimination of written word sounds as opposed to a broader disorder of brain function. However, much research from the 1990s onward has focused on the potential biological bases of dyslexia and understanding dyslexia as a disorder of brain function. One of the first weaknesses of the strictly phonological deficit hypothesis for dyslexia was its inability to account for the genetic link of dyslexia. Specifically, it's been shown that \"Relatively high heritabilities were observed for both reading ability and dyslexia indicating substantial genetic influences.\" In a large twin study (sample 1031 twins), Gayan and Olson established that dyslexia was highly heritable, while a family study by Pennington (sample 1698 individuals) showed familial risk rates of 35-45%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35063433",
"title": "Phonological dyslexia",
"section": "Section::::Deep and phonological dyslexia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Initially it was believed that the factor causing phonological dyslexia was lexicality; however, other factors such as imageability and concreteness also play a critical role in reading. A study done by Crisp and Lambon Ralph concluded that imageability has a significant effect on phonological dyslexia. The study found that eleven out of the twelve patients had more accuracy when reading words with high imageability. In that study, the patient who was the exception was the least severely damaged, contributing to a view of phonological dyslexia and deep dyslexia as points on a continuum rather than discrete disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pbm76
|
Is it possible for a noise to be so loud it could be heard around the world? If so, how loud would it need to be?
|
[
{
"answer": "Large metorite strikes are presumably \"heard\" around the world. \n\n\\- _URL_1_ -\n\n(Depending on how we're defining \"heard\". The pressure waves from big strikes are strong enough to just blow away large objects in the vicinity - I don't know whether you're defining that as a \"sound\".)\n\n1883 eruptions of the volcano Krakatoa were heard thousands of kilometers away. \n\n > The explosions were so violent that they were heard 3,500 km (2,200 mi) away in Perth, Western Australia and the Indian Ocean island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,800 km (3,000 mi) away\n\n > The pressure wave radiated across the globe and was recorded on barographs all over the world, which continued to register it up to 5 days after the explosion. [A \"sound wave\", even if not audible to humans.] \n\n\\- _URL_0_ - \n\nLooking for comparison at the Chicxulub impact, which may have killed off the dinosaurs\n\n > The impactor had an estimated diameter of 10 km (6.2 mi) and delivered an estimated 96 teratons of TNT (4.0×1023 J).\n\n > By contrast, the most powerful man-made explosive device ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba, had a yield of only 50 megatons of TNT (2.1×1017 J), making the Chicxulub impact 2 million times more powerful. \n\n > Even the most energetic known volcanic eruption, which released approximately 240 gigatons of TNT (1.0×1021 J) and created the La Garita Caldera, was substantially less powerful than the Chicxulub impact.\n\n\\- _URL_2_ - \n\nSo, as compared with Krakatoa: \n\nBigger bang, bigger boom. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1434630",
"title": "Noise trader",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "In finance, noise obtained a formal definition in a 1986 paper by Fischer Black: \"Noise in the sense of a large number of small events is often a cause factor much more powerful than a small number of large events can be.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54784938",
"title": "Physics of whistles",
"section": "Section::::Dipole-like whistles.:Inaudible whistles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Most of the whistles described generate nearly pure tones that can be heard. The mountain tones discussed above are examples of tones that are inaudible because they are below the frequency range of humans. There are others whose sound levels are below the audible range of humans. For example, the vortex street behind a stick underwater might radiate at audible frequencies but not sufficiently to be heard by a Scuba diver. There are others that are both below audible frequencies and below audible levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87595",
"title": "Noise music",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "According to Danish noise and music theorist Torben Sangild, one single definition of noise in music is not possible. Sangild instead provides three basic definitions of noise: a musical acoustics definition, a second communicative definition based on distortion or disturbance of a communicative signal, and a third definition based in subjectivity (what is noise to one person can be meaningful to another; what was considered unpleasant sound yesterday is not today).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41415",
"title": "Noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. From a physics standpoint, noise is indistinguishable from sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the brain receives and perceives a sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2655280",
"title": "Image noise",
"section": "Section::::Image noise reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "In cases of extreme noise, such as astronomical images of very distant objects, it is not so much a matter of noise reduction as of extracting a little information buried in a lot of noise; techniques are different, seeking small regularities in massively random data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13543096",
"title": "The Art of Noises",
"section": "Section::::The evolution of sound.:\"Ancient life was all silence\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Russolo states that \"noise\" first came into existence as the result of 19th century machines. Before this time the world was a quiet, if not silent, place. With the exception of storms, waterfalls, and tectonic activity, the noise that did punctuate this silence were not loud, prolonged, or varied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34423259",
"title": "Liquid sound",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "For Liquid Sound, for instance, a special stereo set is necessary because one hears differently underwater than in the air: it is impossible to hear from where the tones are coming. The reason is that sound waves go through water about five times as fast as through the air. Due to its higher speed, the sound seems to be coming from everywhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2aprva
|
what language do people have thoughts in if they speak more than one language fluently?
|
[
{
"answer": "Whichever language is their main language. Or whichever they feel like. My grandfather used to think in German. I learned this in a conversation where he told my parents, \"I haven't thought in German in years.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on how I'm feeling, who I'm around etc. I am a native English speaker and I learned Spanish, but I sometimes find myself thinking in Spanish, or even dreaming in Spanish. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I find that having more than one language in my head allows for greater flexibility in expressing my inner-monologue. There are some words that better express what I mean to think.\nI feel like making the distinction of which language a word 'belongs to' is unnecessary if the expression can be made using any of them either interchangeably or more exactly. It's similar to using a sound or image or flavor within your imagination to express yourself.\nEnglish is a language of borrowing words from other languages and the distinction of an English word becomes context. Ergo, if you think in English, and prefer to relegate a word to the language it derives from, then you also think in German, Latin, Greek, French and many other languages from which English is stolen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I fluently speak Danish, English and French. It strongly depends on whom I'm with and what I'm doing. When I'm with my family I'll think in Danish, and with friends I'll think in either English or French depending on what we're speaking. But if I'm driving for example, I'll think in French since it's the language I learned the signs in but if I'm using my computer I'm thinking in English since my computer is in English. \n\nFor me it all comes down to the language I learned to do a certain action in or my surroundings. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I speak three languages daily. Turkish with my parents, German with friends and English in uni. However, since I speak the three languages very fluently and very well, I realized that it absolutely depends on the context. For example when I think about something I've read in English, then my thoughts will be in English as well. I never can remember my dreams actually. But I remember that I was once talking to my sister in my dream, and that was in Turkish. So again, it depends on the context I'd say. I'm not that bad in French, and sometimes I even think a lot in French, especially when I read in French to keep my level. I think that question would be very interesting to ask polyglots because they mostly are able to speak more than 5 or 6 languages at the level of their mother tongue. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can think in two languages, but always do arithmetic in my native language (English). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I speak Mandarin and English and I learned both at the same time so they're kind of both a first language (Family is from China, I was born in Canada). However, my grandparents taught me math at a young age and they only speak Mandarin, so if I do math in my head, I think in Mandarin. Other than that, I usually think in English.\n\nEDIT: I also speak French but I started learning much later, so I almost never think in French besides in class.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I speak Mandarin, Cantonese, and English fluently. My family speaks Mandarin, most of my friends speak Cantonese, and I live in an English-speaking country. I grew up in a Cantonese-speaking environment, so mostly I think in Cantonese, but if I hang out with English-speaking people for a prolonged period of time, my thoughts start to turn into English. I mostly curse in Cantonese and English, and I strictly count in Cantonese (or Mandarin in some instances), because pronunciation of numbers have way less syllables in Chinese than English. But like others have said, it really does depend on the environment you're in. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My wife is from Punjab, India, where she lived until completing college. She grew up in a house/town speaking Punjabi, spoke Hindi with family outside her home town and went to an English-medium school. She lived in Texas for almost twenty years before moving back to India, where we met five-ish years ago. It is funny. She says she still thinks and dreams in Hindi. Hindi movies or music in the background do not distract her, but English does (she guesses that she requires concentration when hearing English). Funny thing is, I asked her why she does not think/dream in Punjabi, since that is what her dad speaks 90% of the time and was the common language where she grew up. She says it is more difficult for her to think in Punjabi and that sentence construction for carrying a conversation in Punjabi tires her. I'll never understand, since I only speak English.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I fluently speak polish and English, when I'm in Australia it's English but when I head back to Poland after a few weeks it just randomly eventually switches over, very weird",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34776464",
"title": "Bilingual memory",
"section": "Section::::Bilingual working memory.:Inner speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Our thoughts often occur as the inner speech of our natural language. Inner speech is used for such things as rehearsing facts, having a mental conversation with oneself, and counting, among many others. Being fluent in more than one language can affect inner speech in multiple ways. Studies have revealed that fluent bilinguals use their natural language to mentally represent exact numbers, however, non-numerical facts are retrieved in either language with equal ease. Bilingual individuals report feeling and acting different when in different linguistic mindsets and are capable of switching between them for the strategic purpose of activating different (context/language-dependent) information. As perceived language proficiency in a second languages increases, the use of that second language for inner speech becomes more habitual. As well, it has been reported that bilinguals who suffer from psychosis experience hallucinations or reduced linguistic competence in only one language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43848293",
"title": "Jason Hadjioannou",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Hadjioannou credits inspiration for some of his concepts on conversational AI to the ideas and work of British-American philosopher and cognitive scientist, Dr Peter Carruthers and his theories on the role that natural language plays in human cognition - specifically quoting \"there is a type of inner, explicitly linguistic thinking that allows us to bring our own thoughts into conscious awareness. We may be able to think without language, but language lets us know that we are thinking.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "524233",
"title": "Brodmann area 45",
"section": "Section::::Research findings.:On Broca, brain, and binding: a new framework.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1190,
"text": "A person is highly interconnected with other regions of the brain, especially those in the left frontal language network. Though its function seems to be distinct from its neighbors, this high degree of connectivity supports the idea that language can be integrated into many of the seemingly unrelated thought processes we have. This is not a difficult idea to imagine. For instance, attempting to remember the name of a brand new acquaintance can be challenging, and it often demands the attention of the person doing the remembering. In this example, a person is trying to comprehend sound as a part of language, place the word they just heard in the category \"names\", while associating it also as a tag for the face they just saw, simultaneously committing all of these pieces of data to memory. In this view, it hardly seems far-fetched that the roles of pars triangularis in language processing, semantic comprehension, and conscious control of memory are unrelated. In fact, it would be unlikely for pars triangularis not to have multiple roles in the brain, especially considering its high degree of connectivity, both within the left frontal language center, and to other regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "652038",
"title": "Language of thought hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The language of thought hypothesis has been both controversial and groundbreaking. Some philosophers reject the LOTH, arguing that our public language \"is\" our mental language—a person who speaks English \"thinks\" in English. But others contend that complex thought is present even in those who do not possess a public language (e.g. babies, aphasics, and even higher-order primates), and therefore some form of mentalese must be innate. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3318239",
"title": "Glossary of psychiatry",
"section": "Section::::E.:Écho de la pensée.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "In \"écho de la pensée\", meaning \"thought echo\" in French, thoughts seem to be spoken aloud just after being produced. The individual hears the 'echo' of his thoughts in the form of a voice after he has made the thought. See also \"Gedankenlautwerden\" and \"Thought sonorization\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17572391",
"title": "William Crathorn",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "He also discussed the nature of mental language, namely whether it is conventional or natural. Crathorn's predecessors had argued that thinking occurs in a universal language of concepts acquired causally via experience, and that all conventional languages are subordinated to this mental language, which is shared by everyone in an a priori fashion. But Crathorn could not accept such a position because of his view that only qualities are natural signs of their extra-mental significates. Crathorn argued that except for natural signs of qualities, mental language is conventional because it is derived from conventional language. Hence, whatever language one speaks in his head is modeled on that language used for external communication. Crathorn was the revolutionary in his time to affirm that words are prior to ideas and that ideas are shaped by words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3318239",
"title": "Glossary of psychiatry",
"section": "Section::::G.:Gedankenlautwerden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "In Gedankenlautwerden, an individual hears thoughts spoken aloud. Thoughts are heard in the form of a voice at the same time as they are thought, not afterwards. See also \"Écho de la pensée\" and \"Thought sonorization\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47ifn1
|
what is so difficult about making wings for people?
|
[
{
"answer": "You'd need something like a 12 metre wingspan and muscles far stronger than those you possess to fly like a bird. Humans are not birds. Stick to jetpacks mate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3509988",
"title": "The House (The Keys to the Kingdom)",
"section": "Section::::Transportation and communication within the House.:Wings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "There are also different types of wings. Cheaper, paper-made wings are disposable, and are made for temporary use. They are unidirectional (up or down) and the user can only partially control them by leaning in the desired direction. Higher-quality wings can be taken on and off at will and are controlled by telepathy. Some of the higher-quality wings have special properties, such as the ability to shed light or generate invisibility in the Secondary Realms. Wings are banned in some areas of the House because of various air-borne hazards. In the Pit in the Far Reaches they attract Nothing from the clouds and this Nothing often forms flying Nithlings. Monday's Dayroom has a protective system against intrusion by fliers, in that superheated steam is shot at anyone who tries to fly over head. In the Upper House, Drasil branches invariably destroy any users of wings who fly above a certain height, however Saturday is able to circumvent this by using sorcery to repel the boughs. In the Great Maze, wings attract lightning (which is somehow related to the tile movements).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23444795",
"title": "Wingless insect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Some species lacking wings are members of insect orders that generally do have wings. Some do not grow wings at all, having \"lost\" the possibility in the remote past. Some have reduced wings that are not useful for flying. Some develop wings but shed them after they are no longer useful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8173934",
"title": "List of cheerleading stunts",
"section": "Section::::Athletes involved.:Flyer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "Flyers may be extremely flexible and have a good sense of balance. In order to do accomplish more advanced skills flyers need to be flexible so they can maintain their balance and position on one leg while pulling other tricks with the other leg. Therefore, the more flexibility a flyer has the more successful their stunts will be. Flyers are typically the shorter and leaner people on the team, but other members can act as a flyer depending on their exceptional abilities. The flyers must always look up and never down. Flyers tend to look out, whether it’s into the crowd, or staring at a point on the wall but looking straight ahead will help keep them balanced. If flyers feel like they are going to fall because they cannot hold their balance, be sure to stay tight by keeping legs and arms tight next to the body so they don’t hit or hurt the cheerleaders under the flyer holding them in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36756341",
"title": "Bird measurement",
"section": "Section::::Wingspan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Wingspan is the distance between wingtips when the wings are held outstretched. This is particularly prone to variation resulting from wing posture and is rarely used except as a rough indicator of size. Additionally, this cannot be easily and reliably measured in the field with living birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1837609",
"title": "Bird flight",
"section": "Section::::Wing shape.:Soaring wings with deep slots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "These wings are favored by larger species of inland birds, such as eagles, vultures, pelicans, and storks. The slots at the end of the wings, between the primaries, reduce the induced drag and wingtip vortices by \"capturing\" the energy in air flowing from the lower to upper wing surface at the tips, whilst the shorter size of the wings aids in takeoff (high aspect ratio wings require a long taxi to get airborne).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58620214",
"title": "Chuck Chicken",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "BULLET::::- Wing Span — Wing Span is an outgoing, friendly Hornbill, and the dreamer of the group. H’s also an enthusiastic, amateur inventor, who is forever building strange devices that never actually work in the way he originally intended. Although he’s a little scatty, it doesn’t stop this optimistic bird from creating even more hair-brained contraptions to aid him and his friends in their security work. Wings is the shortest, stockiest member of the team, and like his friends, he’s a Kung Fu expert. Wing uses his gadget-packed wooden staff to make up for his lack of height and maneuverability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "771803",
"title": "Rugby union positions",
"section": "Section::::Backs.:Three-quarters.:Wing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline with the number 11 on the left and the number 14 on the right. Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries. Wingers are usually the fastest players in the team and are either elusive runners or, more recently, big, strong and able to break tackles. The skills needed for the left wing and right wing are similar, although left-footed players are usually played on the left wing as they can step and kick better off their left foot. The winger on the blindside often \"comes off the wing\" to provide an extra man in the midfield, in the same vein as a full-back. One or both wingers will usually drop back on opposition kicks to give the full-back extra options for counter-attacking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ljzos
|
why can't we put probes or something similar in black holes to study them deeper?
|
[
{
"answer": "We would never hear back from them. Any signal they tried to send would never reach us due to the intense gravity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Information cannot escape a black hole, because its escape velocity exceeds the speed of light. There would be no way for our probes to transmit anything out. They'd be crushed anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For starters, the closest black hole to earth is around 7800 light years away from earth. The fastest man made object ever was a space probe traveling 25 miles per second. At that speed it would take **58 million years** to get there.\n\n58 million years ago, the first primates were just beginning to evolve. Humans have only been around for about 200 thousand years.\n\nEven if we could magically travel there at the speed of light, 7800 years is a long time. 7800 years ago, mankind hadn't discovered the wheel, how to work with metal or writing.\n\nSo, if we just ignore the travel thing, sending a probe into a black hole would be pointless. The gravity of a black hole is so intense that nothing, not even light can escape it. Radio waves are a form of light. This means we'd have no way of getting any information back from the probe.\n\n...and that doesn't even get into the issue of the gravity tearing the probe apart or problems with the accretion disk.\n\n**edit:** To make things even worse, any radio signals sent by the probe before it got sucked into the black hole would, themselves, take 7800 years to get back to us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, remember that black holes are conjecture and none has actually ever been witnessed/measured/studied.\nDespite some claims, no one technically even knows what a star looks like because even with the most powerful telescopes we have, it only looks like a pinpoint of light.\nAnyone telling you that, without a doubt, there is a black hole 300,000 lightyears away is engaging in speculation which he is pontificating as fact.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1690338",
"title": "Fluorescence in situ hybridization",
"section": "Section::::Variations on probes and analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Probe size is important because longer probes hybridize less specifically than shorter probes, so that short strands of DNA or RNA (often 10–25 nucleotides) which are complementary to a given target sequence are often used to locate a target. The overlap defines the resolution of detectable features. For example, if the goal of an experiment is to detect the breakpoint of a translocation, then the overlap of the probes — the degree to which one DNA sequence is contained in the adjacent probes — defines the minimum window in which the breakpoint may be detected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65910",
"title": "Printed circuit board",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.:Drilling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "When vias with a diameter smaller than 76.2 micrometers are required, drilling with mechanical bits is impossible because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be laser drilled—evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called \"micro vias\" and can have diameters as small as 10 micrometers. It is also possible with \"controlled-depth\" drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called \"blind vias\" when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or \"buried vias\" when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers. Laser drilling machines can drill thousands of holes per second and can use either UV or CO2 lasers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1935740",
"title": "Extremely Large Telescope",
"section": "Section::::Science goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "By probing the most distant objects the ELT will provide clues to understanding the formation of the first objects that formed: primordial stars, primordial galaxies and black holes and their relationships. Studies of extreme objects like black holes will benefit from the power of the ELT to gain more insight into time-dependent phenomena linked with the various processes at play around compact objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57418849",
"title": "Probe tip",
"section": "Section::::History and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The new horizon in the field of fabrication of probe tip was revealed to the experts when carbon nanotube which is basically about 1 nm cylindrical shells of graphene was introduced. The use of single wall Carbon nanotubes is less vulnerable to breaking or crushing during imaging due to their flexibility. Probe tip made up of Carbon nanotubes can be efficiently used to get high-resolution images of both soft and weakly absorbed Biomolecules like DNA on surface at molecular resolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 6: Black Holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26061258",
"title": "Molecular Inversion Probe",
"section": "Section::::Other Genomic Partitioning Techniques.:Performance Comparisons between Genomic Partitioning Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "BULLET::::- In contrast, Capture by Circularization methods demonstrate less uniformity compared to other methods. This is because the probe design for each distinct genomic target is unique and thus the performance between individual probes may vary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7507272",
"title": "Ion-beam sculpting",
"section": "Section::::FIB exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "This is the easiest of the techniques, but the least useful. After a hole is milled with an FIB, one can just image the hole (analogous to the TEM technique). The ions stimulate movement on the wafer, and also implant themselves to help close the hole. Unlike the other two methods, the holes closed in this technique are not very circular and smooth. The holes appear jagged under TEM photos. Also, it is much harder to control the size of the hole to the single nanometer regime. Another drawback to this technique is that while imaging the hole, the ion beam is continually sputtering membrane material away. If the beam scan area is large enough, the rate of atoms moving to close the hole will be greater than the rate of sputtering, so the hole will close. If the membrane is too thin or the scan area too small, then the rate of sputtering will win, and the hole will open up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2spcib
|
how did foods like onions and cranberries get to be considered food, when they must have been so difficult to eat when discovered?
|
[
{
"answer": "A food is pretty much is anything you can eat and it will not kill you (when ingested). I would be more interested in who decided to eat lobster first and how many people died before finding out what parts of a puffer fish were edible. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "how are onion hard to eat? ya just eat them",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're confusing your dislike for a food with a blanket dislike.\n\nI enjoy raw cranberries, as I'm sure do many others.\n\nAnd plenty of people enjoy raw onion.\n\nAnd since neither of those foods are toxic, people experimented with them and found new ways of using them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By difficult I assume you mean the bitter taste. Essentially this would have been a non issue because eating for pleasure is a much more recent development in human history than eating to conquer hunger. Any new, unknown foods would have been tried in extremely small quantities. When they caused no bad reaction like vomiting or diarrhoea they'd have been added to the group's collective knowledge of what's good to eat instead of what's bad to eat. The fact that something was edible and could provide energy and nutrients (humans didn't always understand what nutrients were but your body does, which is why it makes you crave very specific foods when it's lacking in something it needs) was much more important than taste. It's lucky they did this, because your now incredibly long list of foods that are good to eat has been built up over hundreds of thousands if not millions of years and is the result of a hell of a lot of pain and discomfort and deaths of people who tried bad and poisonous foods for the first time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "desperation, people starved would try to eat anything almost edible",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31167189",
"title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Foods.:Vegetables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself. Vegetables also are not mentioned often in the written record, and when the Bible does mention them, the attitude is mixed: sometimes they are regarded as a delicacy, but more often, they were held in low esteem (for example, (, ). Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3991810",
"title": "Berry (botany)",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Berries, defined loosely, have been valuable as a food source to humans since prior to the start of agriculture, and remain among the primary food sources of other primates. Botanically defined berries with culinary uses include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22807195",
"title": "Ornamental bulbous plant",
"section": "Section::::History of use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Plants with fleshy underground parts were probably first used as food. Onions (\"Allium cepa\") were cultivated in Ancient Egypt. In South America, the potato (\"Solanum tuberosum\"), oca (\"Oxalis tuberosa\") and the sweet potato (\"Ipomoea batatas\") were cultivated for thousands of years. Other parts of bulbous plants were also used in cooking. The Minoans of Crete grew and traded saffron (either the wild species \"Crocus cartwrightianus\" or the cultivated \"Crocus sativus\"). The plant is depicted in paintings from around 1550 BC. Saffron consists of the dried stigmas of the flowers, and is used as a spice and also as a dye. Some bulbous plants were used in medicine in classical times; one example is the sea squill (\"Drimia maritima\") which grows from a true bulb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52948",
"title": "Berry",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Berries have been valuable as a food source for humans since before the start of agriculture, and remain among the primary food sources of other primates. They were a seasonal staple for early hunter-gatherers for thousands of years, and wild berry gathering remains a popular activity in Europe and North America today. In time, humans learned to store berries so that they could be used in the winter. They may be made into fruit preserves, and among Native Americans, mixed with meat and fats as pemmican.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "955389",
"title": "Ertebølle culture",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:Plant use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The EBK gathered berries for consumption and also prepared a number of wild plants, judging from the seed remains of plants that could not be consumed without preparation. Of the berries that have been found are raspberry (\"Rubus idaeus\"), dewberry (\"Rubus caesius\"), wild strawberry, and the somewhat less palatable dogwood (\"Cornus sanguinea\"), hawthorn (\"Crataegus monogyna\" and \"C. oxyacantha\"), rowanberry (\"Sorbus aucuparia\"), crab apple and rose hips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "986695",
"title": "Qu'Appelle River",
"section": "Section::::Historical land uses.:Historical Indigenous use of natural resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "According to testimony from Elders of the Pasqua First Nation, berries are not as numerous as they once were. The berries that were picked in the Qu'Appelle Valley included chokecherries, saskatoon berries, cranberries, strawberries, raspberries, blueberries and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32405",
"title": "Vegetable farming",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6co3lg
|
why do we sleep better in clean sheets/clothes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could be mental, much in the same way getting dressed up makes you more productive throughout the day. Lounging around in pyjamas breeds laziness, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "239103",
"title": "Sleeping bag",
"section": "Section::::Fill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Other materials, notably cotton and wool, have also been used for sleeping bags. Wool repels water nicely and also resists compression, but it weighs much more than any alternative. Cotton suffers from high water retention and significant weight, but its low cost makes it an attractive option for uses like stationary camping or car camping where these drawbacks are of little consequence. Cotton insulation does not provide warmth if it becomes wet (due to the sleeping bag falling into water), so cotton-insulated sleeping bags are not used by professionals or serious hikers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1394815",
"title": "Blanket sleeper",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.:Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The fabrics used in most blanket sleepers have a strong tendency to pill. Although this does not adversely affect the garment's functional utility, it has the effect that a used garment can be clearly, visually distinguished from a new one after only a small number of wearings or washings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892720",
"title": "Bedding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Bedding, also known as bedclothes or bed linen, is the materials laid above the mattress of a bed for hygiene, warmth, protection of the mattress, and decorative effect. Bedding is the removable and washable portion of a human sleeping environment. Multiple sets of bedding for each bed will often be washed in rotation and/or changed seasonally to improve sleep comfort at varying room temperatures. In American English, the word \"bedding\" generally does not include the mattress, bed frame, or bed base (such as box-spring), while in British English it does. In Australian, South African and New Zealand English, bedding is often called manchester.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33847317",
"title": "The English House",
"section": "Section::::Part III: The Interior.:Bedroom and ancillary rooms.:Master bedroom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Increasing awareness of hygiene has had an influence on the design of the bedroom. Typically white paint or wood paneling is used on the walls, as it is the colour of immaculate cleanliness. Wooden boards or blocks, in combination with small rugs, are desirable flooring options as they are easily cleaned; Muthesius suggests that the only reason carpet remains the most common flooring option is because people are used to it. Built-in cupboards are common as a way of minimising the clutter and facilitating cleaning. A bed, washstand and dressing table are common pieces of furniture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47234586",
"title": "Performance bedding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Performance bedding is a bedding product not made from traditional material such as cotton. Performance bedding includes memory foam, gel, polyester, or proprietary fabrics. Bedding products include sheets, pillows, and mattress protectors. Because of the different properties of polyester compared to cotton, moisture may be wicked away from the body during sleep. The low absorbency qualities of polyester means it is more resistant to stains than cotton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239103",
"title": "Sleeping bag",
"section": "Section::::Indoor sleeping bags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Indoor sleeping bags, sometimes called slumber bags, are widely available, often for use particularly by children. These are usually not designed to be weatherproof and are often made of natural fabrics instead of the synthetic fabrics commonly used for outdoor sleeping bags. Children's sleeping bags in particular often feature elaborate, brightly colored printed designs, such as images of popular media characters. Slumber bags make floor sleeping more comfortable, and are often used for sleepovers, family visits, and other situations where there are not enough beds for everyone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22776593",
"title": "Pediculosis corporis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Medication, insecticide or burning of clothing and bedding is usually not necessary, as the problem normally goes away with daily bathing, weekly (or more frequent) laundering and drying of clothing, bedding, towels, etc. in a hot clothes drier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jtvzl
|
How fast would the earth have to rotate in order to fling us (or other stuff) off of its surface?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll work from the assumption that we're on the equator, where rotational speed is greatest.\n\nThe acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s^(2). Centripetal acceleration in a rotating system is calculated by a = v^(2)/r, where v is the circular velocity and r is the radius of the circular path. \n\nLet 9.8 m/s^(2) = v^(2)/(6378000 m)\n\nFrom this we get v^(2) = 6.25 X 10^7, and **v=7900 m/s**. The circumference of the Earth is only 40,000 km, so at that rate it would be completing a full rotation every ~~five~~ **five thousand** seconds. And in order to actually fling things off its surface, it would have to be going slightly faster.\n\nOf course, such a rapid rotation would lead to the Earth quickly distorting and becoming extremely oblate, which would make its equatorial radius even larger and therefore increase the rotational velocity at the equator. This would eventually lead to pieces of the crust flying off of the equator.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a similar discussion about neutron stars a week or two ago. Even with the fastest spinning one, which rotates over 700 times per second, the centrifugal force at the equator 'only' knocks off 30 giga-Gs from its surface gravity of 200 giga-Gs.\n\nAlso, this is one of the fringe benefits of a space elevator. Its center of mass is at geosynchronous orbit, so it must extend out a fair ways even beyond that point. In that scenario, the tail end is whipping around at incredible speed. In fact, with the simple case of a cable 89,000 km long, you could launch stuff away from Earth at 11 kps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12963",
"title": "Giordano Bruno",
"section": "Section::::Cosmology.:Bruno's cosmological claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "With the Earth move [...] all things that are on the Earth. If, therefore, from a point outside the Earth something were thrown upon the Earth, it would lose, because of the latter's motion, its straightness as would be seen on the ship [...] moving along a river, if someone on point C of the riverbank were to throw a stone along a straight line, and would see the stone miss its target by the amount of the velocity of the ship's motion. But if someone were placed high on the mast of that ship, move as it may however fast, he would not miss his target at all, so that the stone or some other heavy thing thrown downward would not come along a straight line from the point E which is at the top of the mast, or cage, to the point D which is at the bottom of the mast, or at some point in the bowels and body of the ship. Thus, if from the point D to the point E someone who is inside the ship would throw a stone straight up, it would return to the bottom along the same line however far the ship moved, provided it was not subject to any pitch and roll.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28634992",
"title": "Augustine's laws",
"section": "Section::::List.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Law Number XI: If the Earth could be made to rotate twice as fast, managers would get twice as much done. If the Earth could be made to rotate twenty times as fast, everyone else would get twice as much done since all the managers would fly off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32341639",
"title": "The HAB Theory",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Called \"capsizing\" in the novel the \"rollover\" takes place in a single day. Since the velocity of an object at the equator of the Earth is approximately 1,000 MPH (1,674 km/h), any such rapid change in rotational axis is a massive disturbance to everything from a grain of sand to a mountain or an ocean. Humans and their works in such an event would be as fallen leaves before a windstorm. The exception being two places on earth called \"pivot points\" which the book says can be calculated and further that prior civilizations had calculated them and placed long-term-surviving information at such points. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1035528",
"title": "Astrological age",
"section": "Section::::Calculation aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "In graphical terms, the Earth behaves like a spinning top, and tops tend to wobble as they spin. The spin of the Earth is its daily (diurnal) rotation. The spinning Earth slowly wobbles over a period slightly less than 26,000 years. From our perspective on Earth, the stars are ever so slightly 'moving' from west to east at the rate of one degree approximately every 72 years. One degree is about twice the diameter of the Sun or Moon as viewed from Earth. The easiest way to notice this slow movement of the stars is at any fixed time each year. The most common fixed time is at the vernal equinox around 21 March each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19331",
"title": "Moon",
"section": "Section::::Earth-Moon system.:Relative size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The Earth revolves around the Earth-Moon barycentre once a sidereal month, with 1/81 the speed of the Moon, or about per second. This motion is superimposed on the much larger revolution of the Earth around the Sun at a speed of about per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3652775",
"title": "Foucault pendulum vector diagrams",
"section": "Section::::Information and the pendulum sine law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The surface velocity due to the Earth's rotation is a maximum at the Equator and is equal to the circumference (pi × the diameter of the Earth) per 24 hours (or 3.14159 × 12,756 ÷ 24 = 1670 km/h = 1 equatorial velocity unit, EVU). The time of an Earth's rotation is inversely related to the angular velocity and the surface velocity (T = 1 day for 2 pi radians, or at the equator, 1 circumferential unit per 1 EVU = 40,075 km ÷ 1670 km/h ÷ 24 h/day = 1 day).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "845486",
"title": "Giovanni Battista Riccioli",
"section": "Section::::Scientific Work.:\"Almagestum Novum\".:Arguments Concerning the Motion of the Earth.:The \"Coriolis Effect\" Argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1709,
"text": "Riccioli also argued that the rotation of the Earth should reveal itself in the flight of artillery projectiles, because on a rotating Earth the ground moves at different speeds at different latitudes. He wrote that If a ball is fired along a Meridian toward the pole (rather than toward the East or West), diurnal motion will cause the ball to be carried off [that is, the trajectory of the ball will be deflected], all things being equal: for on parallels of latitude nearer the poles, the ground moves more slowly, whereas on parallels nearer the equator, the ground moves more rapidly. Therefore, were a cannon, aimed directly at a target to the north, to fire a ball, that ball would strike slightly to the east (right) of the target, thanks to the Earth's rotation. But, if the cannon were fired to the east there would be no deflection, as both cannon and target would move the same distance in the same direction. Riccioli said that the best of cannoneers could fire a ball right into the mouth of an enemy's cannon; if this deflection effect existed in northward shots they would have detected it. Riccioli argued that the absence of this effect indicated that the Earth does not rotate. He was correct in his reasoning in that the effect he describes actually does occur. It is known today as the Coriolis effect after the nineteenth-century physicist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis (1792–1843). However, the rightward deflection actually occurs regardless of the direction the cannon is pointed (a much more developed understanding of physics than what was available in Riccioli's time is required to explain this). At any rate, the effect would have been too small for cannoneers of the time to detect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7s1ykj
|
why hotdogs are not a normal item at fastfood places?
|
[
{
"answer": "In some places (Chicago, New York) they are. It's merely a cultural preference; there is no scientific reason for it. Why apple pie and not peach?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Burger King used to have a hot dog years ago but it probably wasn't popular enough so they got rid of it, tacos too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because people can make them at home by putting a raw hotdog in the microwave for 60 seconds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1410495",
"title": "Hot Dog on a Stick",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Hot Dog on a Stick, is a fast food company that was founded by Dave Barham in Santa Monica, California, in 1946, and later branched out into malls and shopping centers. In 2014, the company was purchased by Global Franchise Group (the strategic brand management company behind Great American Cookies, Marble Slab Creamery, and Pretzelmaker.) based in Atlanta, GA. Under GFG, the brand has opened new locations across the country and moved into the franchising space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14091757",
"title": "Hot dog cart",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "A hot dog cart is generally a compact cart, fully self-contained and designed to serve a limited menu. The hot dogs are often kept hot within a pan of hot water, and some refer to them as \"dirty water dogs\" per this method. An on-board cooler is used to keep the hot dogs safely chilled until ready for reheating. It also provides cold storage for beverages, such as sodas, and multiple sinks for washing and cleaning utensils. Most hot dog carts use propane to heat the foods, making them independent of electrical power. Some carts may also be fitted with a propane grill, griddle, deep fryer, or other such cooking appliance. A colorful umbrella is often installed to protect the food preparation area from contamination, provide some shade, and advertise the cart's location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10280388",
"title": "Animals in Islam",
"section": "Section::::Muslim cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "In Malaysia in 2016, the Malaysian Islamic Development Department, a religious governing body, prohibited the use of the term \"hot dog\" to refer to the food of that name. It asked food outlets selling them to rename their products or risk refusal of halal certification. Per local media, Malaysian halal food guidelines prohibit naming halal products after non-halal products. Islamist organization Hamas which controls the Gaza Strip, banned public dog walking in May 2017, stating it was to \"protect our women and children\". Hamas officials stated that the ban was in response to rise in dog walking on the streets which they stated was \"against culture and traditions in Gaza\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4154473",
"title": "Hot dog stand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Similar businesses include hot dog carts or wagons, which are portable hand carts with a grill or boiler for cooking the hot dogs and keeping them hot. In the United States, hot dog carts are also referred to as hot dog stands. However, a hot dog stand is typically a permanent or semi-permanent structure, whereas a hot dog cart is movable. Similarly, hot dog trucks are motor vehicles that are set up at a roadside location, and often include a complete kitchen for storage and preparation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4442867",
"title": "Hot dog variations",
"section": "Section::::United States.:California.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Other notable Los Angeles chains that specialize in hot dogs include Hot Dog On A Stick, which serves a preparation similar to a corn dog, and Wienerschnitzel, a chain that bills itself as \"The World's Largest Hot Dog Chain.\" The Farmer John Dodger Dog is sold at Dodger Stadium. Street vendors in Los Angeles also serve the \"Downtown Dog\" or \"Danger Dog\" a Mexican-style bacon-wrapped hot dog with grilled onions, jalapeños, bell peppers, mustard, ketchup and salsa as condiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4506363",
"title": "Dogpatch, San Francisco",
"section": "Section::::Attractions and characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Dogpatch is mostly flatland and has many docks (most of them built atop landfill). It is an industrialized area with pockets of residences. Many warehouses were converted to lofts and condos in recent years. Like its neighbor Potrero Hill, Dogpatch enjoys sunny weather in San Francisco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4442867",
"title": "Hot dog variations",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Washington.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "In Seattle, hot dogs are served with cream cheese and grilled onions on a toasted bun. The sausages are split in half and grilled before being put in the bun. Stands offer a variety of condiments, such as Sriracha sauce and jalapeños.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4l5sck
|
why does rock music and classical music fit together so well?
|
[
{
"answer": "All western music is based on the same music theory of melodies and harmonies created from the major and minor scales and the different modes of them. But rock, (especially metal) has closer ties with classical than, say, R & B because some of the more unusual modes and scales are shared by both. Rock guitarists learn a lot of classical scales in their early years and so they natural influence the songs they write later on. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25423",
"title": "Rock music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Rock music is a broad genre of popular music that originated as \"rock and roll\" in the United States in the early 1950s, and developed into a range of different styles in the 1960s and later, particularly in the United States and the United Kingdom. It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, a style which drew heavily on the genres of blues, rhythm and blues, and from country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of other genres such as electric blues and folk, and incorporated influences from jazz, classical and other musical styles. Musically, rock has centered on the electric guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass, drums, and one or more singers. Usually, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse–chorus form, but the genre has become extremely diverse. Like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3078466",
"title": "Celtic fusion",
"section": "Section::::Celtic rock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Since rock music is so diverse and is influenced by virtually every other genre, the sounds of these groups vary considerably; they include everything from straight-ahead classic rock with traditional instruments to traditional songs played with rock \"attitude\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20841",
"title": "Music radio",
"section": "Section::::Music formats.:Country.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Due to increasing similarities between country music and some variants of rock music (such as southern rock, country rock and heartland rock), there have been efforts at combining country and rock formats together, most of which have been unsuccessful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2585958",
"title": "American popular music",
"section": "Section::::International and social impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Rock has had a formative influence on popular music, which had the effect of transforming \"the very concept of what popular music\" is. while Charlie Gillett has argued that rock and roll \"was the first popular genre to incorporate the relentless pulse and sheer volume of urban life into the music itself\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "633172",
"title": "Neoclassical metal",
"section": "Section::::History of the genre and influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "A common practice in the genre is to transcribe classical pieces and play them in a rock/metal band format. The Baroque and Classical periods have been particularly influential to the genre because of their unique sound and techniques that blend into a rock setting effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221484",
"title": "Math rock",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The sound is usually dominated by guitars and drums as in traditional rock, and because of the complex rhythms, the drums section of math rock groups tend to be more salient than in other genres. It is commonplace to find guitarists in math rock groups using the tapping technique of guitar playing, and loop pedals are occasionally incorporated, as by the band Battles. Guitars are also often played in clean tones more than in other upbeat rock songs, but some groups also use distortion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171080",
"title": "Music of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Popular music.:Rock, metal, and punk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "Rock and roll developed out of country, blues, and R&B. Rock's exact origins and early influences have been hotly debated, and are the subjects of much scholarship. Though squarely in the blues tradition, rock took elements from Afro-Caribbean and Latin musical techniques. Rock was an urban style, formed in the areas where diverse populations resulted in the mixtures of African American, Latin and European genres ranging from the blues and country to polka and zydeco. Rock and roll first entered popular music through a style called \"rockabilly\", which fused the nascent sound with elements of country music. Black-performed rock and roll had previously had limited mainstream success, but it was the white performer Elvis Presley who first appealed to mainstream audiences with a black style of music, becoming one of the best-selling musicians in history, and brought rock and roll to audiences across the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fozw3b
|
from where was the logarithmic constant pulled from?
|
[
{
"answer": "The derivative of an exponential is an exponential as well, so there will also be an exponential whose derivative is itself, and that is e^x\n\nAnd it turns out because of that it also has lots of other mathematical proprieties and appears very often in maths",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I assume you mean \"e\" the exponential constant? It's not pulled from somewhere, it naturally arises from a lot of exponential or logarithmic relationships.\n\nEasy example is compound interest. If you invest $1 at a bank that pays 100% annual interest, how much you end up with depends on how frequently the bank pays out. The formula is \"Total money = (1 + 1/n) \\^ n\" where \"n\" is how frequently you are paid. The more frequently you're paid, the more money you end up with:\n\nannual = (1 + 1/1) \\^ 1 = $2\n\nbiannual = (1 + 1/2) \\^ 2 = $2.25\n\nquarterly = (1 + 1/4) \\^ 4 = $2.44\n\nmonthly = (1 + 1/12) \\^ 12 = $2.61\n\nweekly = (1 + 1/52) \\^ 52 = $2.69\n\ndaily = (1 + 1/365) \\^ 365 = $2.71\n\n...\n\nand so on. If you keep shrinking the time between payments until the gap is infinitesimally small (e.g. take the limit), you will get $2.71828.... which is \"e.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1139926",
"title": "Hyperbolic sector",
"section": "Section::::Hyperbolic logarithm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Before 1748 and the publication of Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite, the natural logarithm was known in terms of the area of a hyperbolic sector. Leonhard Euler changed that when he introduced transcendental functions such as 10. Euler identified e as the value of \"b\" producing a unit of area (under the hyperbola or in a hyperbolic sector in standard position). Then the natural logarithm could be recognized as the inverse function to the transcendental function e.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9633",
"title": "E (mathematical constant)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The first references to the constant were published in 1618 in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier. However, this did not contain the constant itself, but simply a list of logarithms calculated from the constant. It is assumed that the table was written by William Oughtred. The discovery of the constant itself is credited to Jacob Bernoulli in 1683, who attempted to find the value of the following expression (which is in fact ):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15993",
"title": "John Napier",
"section": "Section::::Advances in mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "His invention of logarithms was quickly taken up at Gresham College, and prominent English mathematician Henry Briggs visited Napier in 1615. Among the matters they discussed were a re-scaling of Napier's logarithms, in which the presence of the mathematical constant now known as \"e\" (more accurately, \"e\" times a large power of 10 rounded to an integer) was a practical difficulty. Neither Napier nor Briggs actually discovered the constant \"e\"; that discovery was made decades later by Jacob Bernoulli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17860",
"title": "Logarithm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th century, and who also introduced the letter as the base of natural logarithms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30325",
"title": "Transcendental number",
"section": "Section::::Sketch of a proof that \"e\" is transcendental.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The first proof that the base of the natural logarithms, \"e\", is transcendental dates from 1873. We will now follow the strategy of David Hilbert (1862–1943) who gave a simplification of the original proof of Charles Hermite. The idea is the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17860",
"title": "Logarithm",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Invention of the function now known as natural logarithm began as an attempt to perform a quadrature of a rectangular hyperbola by Grégoire de Saint-Vincent, a Belgian Jesuit residing in Prague. Archimedes had written \"The Quadrature of the Parabola\" in the third century BC, but a quadrature for the hyperbola eluded all efforts until Saint-Vincent published his results in 1647. The relation that the logarithm provides between a geometric progression in its argument and an arithmetic progression of values, prompted A. A. de Sarasa to make the connection of Saint-Vincent's quadrature and the tradition of logarithms in prosthaphaeresis, leading to the term \"hyperbolic logarithm\", a synonym for natural logarithm. Soon the new function was appreciated by Christiaan Huygens, Patavii, and James Gregory. The notation Log y was adopted by Leibniz in 1675, and the next year he connected it to the integral\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164055",
"title": "Logarithmic scale",
"section": "Section::::Logarithmic units.:Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Thus, we can interpret Boltzmann's constant as being simply the expression (in terms of more standard physical units) of the abstract logarithmic unit [log e] that is needed to convert the dimensionless pure-number quantity ln \"W\" (which uses an arbitrary choice of base, namely e) to the more fundamental pure logarithmic quantity Log(\"W\"), which implies no particular choice of base, and thus no particular choice of physical unit for measuring entropy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30s17f
|
why doesn't apple make iphones that can use only one kind of headphone, thereby essentially forcing everyone to buy headphones made by apple?
|
[
{
"answer": "Rumours after Apple bought Beats suggest that is likely to happen soon. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were [rumors](_URL_0_) before the iPhone 6 came out that they were getting rid of the headphone port to make the phone slimmer. That obviously didn't happen, but you weren't far off with your thought.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The backlash would cost them sales and bad PR. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::History and availability.:Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Prior to the iPhone, \"Handsets were viewed largely as cheap, disposable lures, massively subsidized to snare subscribers and lock them into using the carriers' proprietary services.\" However, according to \"Wired\", \"Apple retained complete control over the design, manufacturing, and marketing of the iPhone\", meaning that it and not the carrier would control the software updates, and by extension security patches. By contrast, Google has allowed carriers and OEMs to dictate the \"pace of upgrades and pre-load phones with their own software on top of Android\". As a result, many Android OEMs often lag months behind Google's release of the next iteration of Android; although Nexus and Pixel devices are guaranteed two years of operating system updates and a third addition year for security. However, Apple has supported older iterations of iPhones for over four years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Audio and output.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Apple's own headset has a multipurpose button near the microphone that can play or pause music, skip tracks, and answer or end phone calls without touching the iPhone. Some third-party headsets designed for the iPhone also include the microphone and control button. The current headsets also provide volume controls, which are only compatible with more recent models. A fourth ring in the audio jack carries this extra information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "856",
"title": "Apple Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Products.:iPhone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "In a March 2014 interview, Apple designer Jonathan Ive used the iPhone as an example of Apple's ethos of creating high-quality, life-changing products. He explained that the phones are comparatively expensive due to the intensive effort that is used to make them:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13678080",
"title": "History of iPhone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "According to \"The Wall Street Journal\", the iPhone is manufactured in the Shenzhen factory of the Taiwanese company Hon Hai (also known as Foxconn). Also, according to recent news, Apple will shortly begin outsourcing the manufacturing of iPhones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2564173",
"title": "Contract manufacturer",
"section": "Section::::Protectionism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The iPad and iPhone, which are products of Apple Inc., are manufactured in China by Foxconn. Hence, Foxconn is a contract manufacturer, and Apple benefits from a lower cost of manufacturing devices. Some devices may also be manufactured by Pegatron. Apple may move some fraction of iPhone assembly into the United States in the near future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8260899",
"title": "Apple Inc. advertising",
"section": "Section::::2001–present.:iPhone Ads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1251,
"text": "Apple has aired many advertisements promoting the different models of the iPhone since its initial release in 2007. This company is well known for their advertisements and marketing strategy. Apple segments its customer base by using behavioral, demographic, and psychographic factors. Within their iPhone advertising, Apple has made it a point to highlight the key features that their phone has to offer. Apple highlights superior performance, camera quality, privacy and many other factors that set their product apart. Apple aims to win over the majority of smartphone users by showing customers the great features the iPhone has to offer. One way apple does this is by sending ordinary users out into the world to capture pictures and videos of the nightlife in extraordinary places. The ads show how the camera feature works and how these pictures can be taken by anyone, as long as it is on a iPhone. A second strategy Apple has is comparing their product with rival products in their advertisements. Ads that show the relative advantage the iPhone has over competitor products. They focus on potential switchers who currently are using another smartphone brand. The iPhone advertising campaign took flight in 2007 and has continued into 2018. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1324446",
"title": "Virgin Mobile USA",
"section": "Section::::Network.:Phone support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Customers who already own an iPhone can bring it to Virgin Mobile USA if it is compatible. As of February 2018, grandfathered customers without the iPhone-only Inner Circle plan remain eligible to purchase Android devices, feature phones and mobile broadband modems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s1jc2
|
why is pi repeating and how or why does this happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "as far as we know pi doesn't repeat",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pi is the ratio a circle's circumference to its diameter. Think of it like this: A circle does not have any sides, so how do you find its area? You draw a square inside the circle. Now you can find the area of that square. But wait, then you have that extra crescent like shape between the circle and square that has not been defined yet, so how do you find that area? You add another rectangle inside that, and find the area of that. But with that, you have an even smaller crescent shape, so you put a rectangle in that undefined space and find the area of that. This can be done infinitely, making Pi have an infinite number of decimals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34945002",
"title": "Circular cumulative causation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Circular cumulative causation is a theory developed by Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal in the year 1956. It is a multi-causal approach where the core variables and their linkages are delineated. The idea behind it is that a change in one form of an institution will lead to successive changes in other institutions. These changes are circular in that they continue in a cycle, many times in a negative way, in which there is no end, and cumulative in that they persist in each round. The change does not occur all at once as that would lead to chaos, rather the changes occur gradually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "Section::::In science.:In mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Pi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times. Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10, much less normality in other number bases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "617167",
"title": "Piphilology",
"section": "Section::::Examples in English.:Poems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "There are minor variations on the above rhyme, which still allow pi to be worked out correctly. However, one variation replaces the word \"lexicon's\" with \"lesson's\" and in doing so, incorrectly indicates that the 18th digit is seven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25013",
"title": "Pi Day",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Pi Day is an annual celebration of the mathematical constant (pi). Pi Day is observed on March 14 (3/14 in the \"month/day\" format) since 3, 1, and 4 are the first three significant digits of . In 2009, the United States House of Representatives supported the designation of Pi Day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513248",
"title": "Lakota language",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.:Phonological processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The plural enclitic \"=pi\" is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics \"=kte\", \"=kiŋ\", \"=kštó\", or \"=na\". If the vowel preceding \"=pi\" is high/open, \"=pi\" becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), \"=pi\" becomes [o] (if the preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): \"hi=pi=kte\", \"they will arrive here\", [hiukte]; \"yatkáŋ=pi=na\", \"they drank it and...\", .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166728",
"title": "Pi (letter)",
"section": "Section::::Variant pi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Variant pi or \"pomega\" (formula_1 or ϖ) is a glyph variant of lower case pi sometimes used in technical contexts as though it were a lower-case omega with a macron, though historically it is simply a cursive form of pi, with its legs bent inward to meet. It is used as a symbol for:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196523",
"title": "Randomness",
"section": "Section::::In science.:In mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Randomness occurs in numbers such as log (2) and pi. The decimal digits of pi constitute an infinite sequence and \"never repeat in a cyclical fashion.\" Numbers like pi are also considered likely to be normal, which means their digits are random in a certain statistical sense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sm6hj
|
where did the song structure "verse chorus verse chorus bridge chorus" originate, and how did it gain such popularity?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to [Wikipedia](_URL_0_), it began in the early 20th century, when the chorus was just a way of changing things around a bit. By the 1960s it had become the norm, and the chorus wasn't just used to change things around but had become the main part of the song.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "317730",
"title": "Refrain",
"section": "Section::::In popular music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "There are two distinct uses of the word \"chorus.\" In the thirty-two bar song form that was most common in the earlier twentieth-century popular music (especially the Tin Pan Alley tradition), \"chorus\" referred to the entire main section of the song (which was in a thirty-two bar AABA form). Beginning in the rock music of the 1950s, another form became more common in commercial pop music, which was based in an open-ended cycle of verses instead of a fixed 32-bar form. In this form (which is more common than thirty-two bar form in later-twentieth century pop music), \"choruses\" with fixed lyrics are alternated with \"verses\" in which the lyrics are different with each repetition. In this use of the word, chorus contrasts with the verse, which usually has a sense of leading up to the chorus. \"Many popular songs, particularly from early in this century, are in a verse and a chorus (\"refrain\") form. Most popular songs from the middle of the century consist only of a chorus.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1649477",
"title": "Verse–chorus form",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Verse–chorus form is a musical form common in popular music, used in blues and rock and roll since the 1950s, and predominant in rock music since the 1960s. In contrast to thirty-two-bar form, which is focused on the verse (contrasted and prepared by the B section), in verse–chorus form the chorus is highlighted (prepared and contrasted with the verse). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26521547",
"title": "Winchester Cathedral Choir",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The exact year in which the chorus was founded is unknown, but it is likely that the choir was formed in the 14th century. The earliest historical document relating to the chorus dates from 1402 when a John Dyer was named as the cathedral's organist and chorus-master. A 1544 statute by Henry VIII of England decreed that the cathedral should have ten boys in the choir and a single organist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53625401",
"title": "Cotton Club Boys (chorus line)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "They debuted in the 24th edition of the \"Cotton Club Parade\" in spring 1934, a period at the beginning of the swing era, the post-Harlem Renaissance, a year after Prohibition, and the trough of the Great Depression. The chorus line's name often included a prefix reflecting the number of entertainers, such as \"The Six Cotton Club Boys\", \"The 12 Cotton Club Boys\", etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197034",
"title": "Greek chorus",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Historian H. D. F. Kitto argues that the word \"chorus\" gives us hints about its function in the plays of ancient Greece: \"The Greek verb \"choreuo\", 'I am a member of the chorus', has the sense 'I am dancing'. The word \"ode\" means not something recited or declaimed, but 'a song'. The 'orchestra', in which a chorus had its being, is literally a 'dancing floor'.\" From this, it can be inferred that the chorus danced and sang poetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1162573",
"title": "Thirty-two-bar form",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Terminological confusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In early 20th century terminology, the main 32-bar AABA section, in its entirety, was called the \"refrain\" or \"chorus\". This is in contrast to the modern usage of the term \"chorus\", which refers to a repeating musical and lyrical section in verse–chorus form. Additionally, \"verse,\" \"chorus\" and \"refrain\" all have different meanings in modern musical terminology. See the below chart for clarification:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1532393",
"title": "Parodos",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Parodos (also parode and parodus; , \"entrance,\" plural \"parodoi\"), in the theater of ancient Greece, is either a side-entrance, or the first song sung by the chorus after its entrance from the side wings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20xhej
|
why are aliens portrayed as stronger and superior?
|
[
{
"answer": "A weak and inferior alien doesn't make for a very exciting story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For fiction literature it's mostly due to simple story telling preference. That being said, most portrayals of aliens are about them arriving at earth, which pretty much guarantees they are technologically more advanced than we are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The general thought I see it as: If an alien race has the technology to come to our planet, they are technologically advanced/superior to our own.\n\nBut, this isn't always 100% accurate: See War of the Worlds, where they are stopped not by humans, but by disease that we are immune to (or well, resistant to the point of not dying from).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know about you, but I think I could take ET, that little waddling M & M eater, in a fight. Unless he pulled out a ray gun, or zapped me with his glowing finger. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't always the case. If you've ever read the later Ender's Game books like Speaker for the Dead and Xenocide, there are weaker and less technologically advanced aliens that humans study after having conquered some of the galaxy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aliens who are able to travel across the galaxy is so much more technology advanced that us that comparing us to them would be like comparing humans to ants.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1127017",
"title": "Aliens versus Predator (1999 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "\"Aliens versus Predator\" received \"favorable\" reviews on both platforms according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. IGN praised the game for allowing the player to play three different characters, each with a unique game-play element, and for being \"fun and terrifying at the same time\". \"GamePro\" cited the lack of a save feature as a major flaw, but praised the \"splendid graphics, perfect sound effects, multiple vision modes, and ambiance\" and citing it as \"the most frightening game since \"Half-Life\"\". The Adrenaline Vault cited the lack of depth in the story as a major flaw but praised the immersive atmosphere describing a moment of being attacked by a facehugger in the game as being \"in these moments...the greatest game I had ever played\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179757",
"title": "Science fiction film",
"section": "Section::::Themes, imagery, and visual elements.:Alien lifeforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1101,
"text": "In order to provide subject matter to which audiences can relate, the large majority of intelligent alien races presented in films have an anthropomorphic nature, possessing human emotions and motivations. In films like \"Cocoon\", \"My Stepmother Is an Alien\", \"Species\", \"Contact\", \"The Box\", \"Knowing\", \"The Day the Earth Stood Still\", and \"The Watch\", the aliens were nearly human in physical appearance, and communicated in a common earth language. However, the aliens in \"Stargate\" and \"Prometheus\" were human in physical appearance but communicated in an alien language. A few films have tried to represent intelligent aliens as something utterly different from the usual humanoid shape (e.g. An intelligent life form surrounding an entire planet in \"Solaris\", the ball shaped creature in \"Dark Star\", microbial-like creatures in \"The Invasion\", shape-shifting creatures in \"Evolution\"). Recent trends in films involve building-size alien creatures like in the movie \"Pacific Rim\" where the CGI has tremendously improved over the previous decades as compared in previous films such as \"Godzilla\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57142317",
"title": "Chance (1984 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Second youth gives new strength to life to some, while others get nothing but problems and troubles. In the finale, the alien leaves a second chance to live anew only for those who really want and deserve it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26252728",
"title": "Cowboys & Aliens",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1589,
"text": "Kirk Honeycutt of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" praised the film, saying, \"It sounds kooky on paper but on the screen cowboys and aliens make beautiful, fun music together.\" Honeycutt felt that the success of the film's blend of aliens and western themes was due to \"the determination by everyone involved to play the damn thing straight. Even the slightest goofiness, the tiniest touch of camp, and the whole thing would blow sky high. But it doesn't.\" He criticized the aliens, which he said \"don't rate as characters\", existing as \"moving blobs you shoot at in a video game.\" \"Variety\"s Peter Debruge echoed Honeycutt's sentiments that the \"potential hamminess\" of the premise is offset by the cast, particularly Craig through a \"mix of ruthlessness and sensitivity.\" He considered however, that Wilde had the opposite effect, stating she \"appears out of place among her grizzled co-stars\". Debruge appreciated the attention paid to the roots of the two genres, saying \"beneath all the state-of-the-art special effects beats an old-fashioned heart, one that prizes both of the genres in play\" and concluded that \"a canny blend of CG and practical effects serve the sci-fi elements well, while location shooting and Mary Zophres' form-fitting period duds make the West look its best.\" Nick Pinkerton of \"The Village Voice\" said the Western elements of the film were \"lovingly\" handled but felt the science aspects a \"gimmick\" and \"much more standard fare\" in comparison. He added that \"Ford, enlivened by dude garb, seems to enjoy himself in front of a camera for the first time in decades\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6218028",
"title": "Dark Colony",
"section": "Section::::Balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Both the human and alien armies have almost absolutely mirrored units that differ mostly in appearance. The few differences between races are that the range of the heavy assault units is bigger by 1 for humans in exchange for speed, the range of alien sniper units is bigger by 1, and alien defense turrets have less range and less damage. However, there are two aspects to the gameplay that can sway the tide of battle: effective use of artifacts and day/night cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42476853",
"title": "Civilization: Beyond Earth",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Changes from the traditional \"Civilization\" formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Aliens are more than just the \"barbarians\" of a traditional civilization game. They tend to be in much greater numbers and can put up a much bigger fight in the beginning of the game. Should the player choose to provoke them, aliens tend to be more aggressive, and may openly attack the player's lands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1349524",
"title": "Superiority complex",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations in modern psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "Other authors have argued that the superiority and inferiority complex cannot both be found in the same individual since an individual with a superiority complex truly believes that they are superior to others. An inferiority complex may manifest with the behaviors that are intended to show others that one is superior; such as expensive material possessions, or an obsession with vanity and appearances. They express themselves as superior because they lack feelings of adequacy. Superiority complex sufferers do not always care about image or vanity, since they have innate feelings of superiority and thus do not usually concern themselves with proving their superiority to others. The term \"superiority complex\", in everyday usage, refers to an overly high opinion of oneself. In psychology, it refers not to a belief, but a pattern of behaviors expressing the belief that one is superior. Similarly, one with an inferiority complex would act as if they were inferior, or not up to the task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6u2p6e
|
how do we know where a missile is headed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simiple trajectory of Newtonian physics (ballistic trajectory). Of course each course correction updates the trajectory so the missile needs to be constantly tracked for any trajectory changes. \n\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12164108",
"title": "AS 15 TT",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The guidance system of the missile is actually command guidance, as the missile doesn't have its own radar. It only follows orders provided by the onboard radar of the carrier/launcher helicopter, the Thomson-CSF I/J-band \"Agrion 15\". When this radar detects and identifies a suitable target, it switches to automatic tracking mode. Once the target is inside the missiles range it launches, the booster motors accelerate the missile to its cruise speed of 280 meters per second, after which the sustainer motor cuts in. The missile immediately begins descending to an altitude of around 3 to 5 meters. The rocket motors have a combined burn time of around 45 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4680283",
"title": "QW-1 Vanguard",
"section": "Section::::QW-1.:Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The missile is guided by proportional navigation to the approximate impact point, before switching to a terminal guidance mode that attempts to steer the missile to the most vulnerable point of the target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55652436",
"title": "Inverse monopulse seeker",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Conical scanning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The missile can guide itself by turning towards the stronger of the two signals, and when it is pointed directly at the target, the two signals will become equal. To guide in two dimensions, the antenna is spun. At any given instant, the two antennas might be horizontal and the seeker will command a left or right turn towards the target; an instant later they will be vertical and adjust the flight up and down. In this fashion, the missile seeks its target in a rapid circular motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1396036",
"title": "Command guidance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Typically, the system giving the guidance commands is tracking both the target and the missile or missiles via radar. It determines the position and velocity of the target and the position and velocity of the missile and calculates whether their paths will intersect. If not, the guidance system will relay commands to the missile(s), telling them to move their fins in such a way to steer themselves in the direction necessary for them to end up on an interception course with the target. If the target maneuvers, the guidance system can notice this and update the missiles' course continuously to counteract the maneuvering. If the missile passes close to the target, either its own proximity or contact fuze will detonate the warhead, or the guidance system can estimate when the missile will pass near the target and send a detonation signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19594",
"title": "Missile",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Targeting systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a guidance system such as INS, TERCOM or satellite guidance. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the missile's current position and the position of the target, and then calculating a course between them. This job can also be performed somewhat crudely by a human operator who can see the target and the missile and guide it using either cable- or radio-based remote control, or by an automatic system that can simultaneously track the target and the missile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52024",
"title": "MIM-104 Patriot",
"section": "Section::::The Patriot battalion.:Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "BULLET::::1. A missile is detected by the AN/MPQ-65 radar. The radar reviews the speed, altitude, behavior, and radar cross section of the target. If this data lines up with the discrimination parameters set into the system, the missile is presented on the screen of the operator as a ballistic missile target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "780295",
"title": "Brimstone (missile)",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Targeting and sensors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The missile's advanced sensor package includes its extremely high frequency millimetric wave radar, which allows the weapon to image the target and hence choose a target location. With as many as twenty-four missiles in the air, the missile's targeting system also required an algorithm to ensure that missiles hit their targets in a staggered order, rather than all simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
357y92
|
how are exit/opinion polls calculated during elections?
|
[
{
"answer": "They pollsters know the voting patterns of each constituency, based on decades of poll results. They can sample key locations, and use that as the basis for an analysis of how that area will vote.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "665947",
"title": "Exit poll",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "An election exit poll is a poll of voters taken immediately after they have exited the polling stations. Unlike an opinion poll, which asks for whom the voter plans to vote, or some similar formulation, an exit poll asks for whom the voter actually voted. A similar poll conducted before actual voters have voted is called an entrance poll. Pollsters – usually private companies working for newspapers or broadcasters – conduct exit polls to gain an early indication as to how an election has turned out, as in many elections the actual result may take hours or even days to count.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665947",
"title": "Exit poll",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Exit polls are also used to collect demographic data about voters and to find out why they voted as they did. Since actual votes are cast anonymously, polling is the only way of collecting this information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665947",
"title": "Exit poll",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The distribution of votes is not even across different polling stations, and also varies at different times of day. As a result, a single exit poll may give an imperfect picture of the national vote. Instead, the exit poll is primarily used to calculate swing and turnout. Pollsters return to the same polling stations at the same times at each election, and by comparing the results with previous exit polls they can calculate how the distribution of votes has changed in that constituency. This swing is then applied to other similar constituencies, allowing an estimate of how national voting patterns have changed. The polling locations are chosen to cover the entire gamut of society and where possible, to include especially critical marginal seats. Data is presented in one of three ways, either as a table, graph or written interpretation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19874367",
"title": "Election verification exit poll",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "An election verification exit poll (EVEP) is a relatively new concept in polling, intended to improve the accuracy of exit polls to such an extent that they can be used to verify election results. Traditional (media) exit polling relies on small samples, wheres EVEPs propose to use larger samples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "767541",
"title": "2004 Philippine presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Election results.:Exit polls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "During and immediately after the elections, exit polls were conducted by various organizations including the Social Weather Stations. According to \"The SWS 2004 Day of Election Survey: Final Exit Poll Scores Excluding Blank Answers\", released by the SWS on 19 May 2004, the national vote percentages are: GMA 45%, FPJ 34%, Lacson 10%, Roco 6%, Villanueva 5% (slightly different numbers from May 11; error margin 2%, n = 4,445).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29999867",
"title": "2004 Philippine general election",
"section": "Section::::Election results.:Exit polls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "During and immediately after the elections, exit polls were conducted by various organizations including the Social Weather Stations. According to \"The SWS 2004 Day of Election Survey: Final Exit Poll Scores Excluding Blank Answers\", released by the SWS on 19 May 2004, the national vote percentages are: GMA 45%, FPJ 34%, Lacson 10%, Roco 6%, Villanueva 5% (slightly different numbers from May 11; error margin 2%, n = 4,445).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28135372",
"title": "Opinion polling for the 2010 Philippine Senate election",
"section": "Section::::Graph.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The result of each candidate's opinion poll (survey) result is denoted by a plot point, or a \"period\" (per.). The lines denote moving averages (mov. avg.) of the last three polls (each poll given equal weight) for each candidate; as pollsters may use different methodologies, it is invalid to plot each period from all pollsters as if it is a single series. Hence, a moving average is used to link all polls from all pollsters into one series. Some candidates may not appear on some polls, and these do not include candidates who are not on the final list but were included in other polls. The twelfth ranking candidate in each poll is denoted by a line, for easy reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
56aupk
|
what is safer for the baby, a natural birth or c section and why?
|
[
{
"answer": "A C-section is medically indicated when there is a danger to the baby and/or mother. (As opposed to the elective C-Section by mothers \"too posh to push\", as they say in the UK.) A C-Section is *surgery*, with all the risks that come with that. But it's hard to generalise about which is safer because there are too many variables: the size of the baby vs. the size of the mother, the presentation, and so on. Some mothers can deliver a healthy baby naturally and go back to work the next day. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Natural birth. A the end of the day [more babies die](_URL_0_) during an elective Caesarean (1.77 per 1,000) than as with a natural birth (0.62 per 1,000) by almost a factor of 3.\n\nThe time when a Caesarean is \"safer\" is when it is not-elective. That is, when it is done because a natural birth would be too risky for the baby or the mother.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That depends on the circumstances.\n\nAssuming there is no medical need, a natural birth is safer for both mother and child. A c-section is abdominal surgery. And as any surgery, it has its risks. There is also research that indicates that there might be positive long-term effects to a natural birth in terms of bonding, development of the immune system and later risk of obesity.\n\nHowever, in the case of certain medical reasons, a natural birth is going to be impossible and a c-section is going to be safer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's evidence for the safety of both and the dangers of both. I trained to be a doula for a while, so this was all very important for my studies, and I'm basing my statement off of peer-reviewed evidence-based practice and theory.\n\nIn theory, natural childbirth is far safer and better for both the baby and mother. Natural childbirth, especially without pain medication, has been shown to increase mother-child bonding and up the baby's immune system. The introduction of pain medication doesn't dramatically lower outcomes, but it gives the baby what some people describe as jetlag--it makes them slower, because some of the medicine enters their bloodstream as well in some cases. This makes it harder for them to latch (and recent research has shown a lot of benefits for mother-baby bonding with breastfeeding, in addition to a higher immune system response to ear infections, which can be chronic in young children) and they don't bond as quickly. They also suffer from lower temperature and have trouble stabilizing.\n\nBut C-sections are also, in theory, very good for mother and baby. For one, C-sections avoid a lot of the pelvis issues that natural childbirth brings with it, like pelvic floor dysfunction after childbirth (this is why so many women who give vaginal birth have the \"sneeze wees\" or pee when they sneeze.) However, babies are far more likely to die in childbirth during a ceserean than they are to die during a natural birth AS LONG AS IT'S IN A HOSPITAL.\n\nNow, that's the key to this argument. Many naturalists argue that birth should take place outside of the hospital setting. See *The Business of Being Born* for a good example. Midwives can practice in a hospital, but only CNMs (certified nurse midwives; nurses who go on to midwifery school) are allowed in hospital settings and CPMs (certified professional midwives; people who take special training to become a midwife, but don't have a medical background) and CMs (another name for CPMs, or certified midwife; same as CPM or even no training in some states) only preside over births in birth centers (some of which are attached to hospitals, which is fantastic and has the same outcomes as a hospital birth as if something goes wrong they can just wheel them down the hall to an operating room) or home births.\n\nHome births are fucking dangerous. There's no way to provide immediate care if something goes wrong. While midwives carry many tools with them, they don't have bags of blood for transfusion (which can be necessary very often when hemorrhage happens) or surgical skills if the baby is dying in the uterus and needs to GTFO. They have to call an ambulance, and it's possible that it would take too long. Doctors don't preside over home births, ever, and that's a problem.\n\n**tl;dr** Unmedicated natural birth is safer and better for baby and mom, next best is medicated natural birth, next best is C-section. Never ever have a fucking home birth and for chrissakes DON'T HAVE AN UNASSISTED BIRTH.\n\nFurther reading:\n\n* _URL_0_\n\n* _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Med student here. It all depends on the health of the mother and baby. If there are no complications a natural birth is preferred if the mother's pelvis is large enough to accommodate. There are of course risks of tearing though.C-sections are risky because well surgery always carries it's complications (reactions to anesthetic) and also it will scar the womb of the mother and if there are subsequent pregnancies this can be an issue of the placenta attaching to this scar tissue and becoming fused. TLDR child birth is terrifying, everything is risky. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "not a doctor, doula, midwife or whatever, just someone who had three C-sections. All things being equal, a vaginal birth is preferable. But often, things aren't equal. If you're asking which is safer for the baby, that also depends. And one of the things that depends is whether it's preferable to raise a child without a mother, if the child is fine and the mother is in distress. When I was pregnant with my first, I went through the required baby training at the hospital where they talk about anesthesia and breast feeding and bonding and whatnot. They didn't say much about the downside because they didn't want to put ideas in people's heads or panic them over what might be nothing. We were told that the majority of childbirths were problem free.\n\nMine, of course, were not. My grandmother had died of what we now call pre-eclampsia; when I went into labor, my blood pressure shot up so high the doctor was afraid I'd have a stroke. emergency C-section. Baby was fine, I ended up in ICU for five days. My second pregnancy, the baby would have been too large for natural delivery (I'm a very small person); C-section and we were both fine. My third pregnancy, my blood pressure again became a thing and the baby was delivered by C-section at 38 weeks. The interesting thing about the incisions -- they were what were called 'bikini' cuts, little horizontal slices about four inches long at the bottom of the baby bulge. Certainly for the last one, for which I was awake, I heard the doctor say she was going to push the baby out through the small slit to mimic vaginal birth. I'd had epidurals so I wasn't feeling any pain.\n\nMy sister had a natural birth that took the better part of 14 hours and by the time the baby was out, he'd ripped her vagina pretty much to shreds and the sutures of her episiotomy were 360 degrees.\n\nso, yeah, sometimes you don't get what are textbook pregnancies or deliveries. so, which is better for baby? It depends.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My wife gave birth to our children naturally.\n\nHer lower parts got ripped apart and needed to be stitched together both times. \n\nYikes. I'd say there is no real safe way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47456362",
"title": "Midwife",
"section": "Section::::Education, training, regulation and practice.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "In December 2014 the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence updated its guidance regarding where women should give birth. The new guidance states that midwife-led units are safer than hospitals for women having straightforward (low risk) pregnancies. Its updated guidance also confirms that home birth is as safe as birth in a midwife-led unit or a traditional labour ward for the babies of low-risk pregnant women who have already had at least one child previously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297558",
"title": "Birthing center",
"section": "Section::::Birth centers in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "There has been much research in recent years to support out of hospital birth—especially birth center birth—as not just safe but at times safer than hospital birth because of its judicious use of technology, licensed professionals and connection to the health care system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60143453",
"title": "Maternal-fetal conflict",
"section": "Section::::Maternal-fetal relationship.:Protection of the fetus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "There are different perspectives that value the protection of the fetus, but opposing viewpoints ask \"what/whom is the fetus being protected from?\" Most things a mother does can harm her fetus, even things that may not seem harmful (e.g. eating feta cheese or owning a cat). It is difficult to prove causality as development is multi-factorial, making it difficult to define what or who the fetus needs to be protected from. Although some may view the mother and fetus as separate entities, they are a unified dyad where the baby needs the mother to survive and their physiology is shared. This mentality allows decision-makers to best understand both patients's perspectives, and acknowledge the best interests for both the mother and their fetus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30540048",
"title": "Cocooning (immunization)",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "A baby's immune system is not yet fully developed. Babies are more likely to have serious complications or die from diseases, even diseases that have milder effects in adults. A baby can use some antibodies from the mother, transmitted in the womb. For this reason, it is recommended that people who are expecting to become pregnant get some vaccines, and those who are pregnant get others. However, this maternal protection wears off after a few months. Breastfeeding also offers protection, but is not as effective as vaccination at preventing some diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54647419",
"title": "Newborn care and safety",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Newborn care and safety are the activities and precautions recommended for new parents or caregivers. It is also an educational goal of many hospital and birthing centers when it's time to bring their infant home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429542",
"title": "Preterm birth",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:During pregnancy.:Self-care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Self-care methods to reduce the risk of preterm birth include proper nutrition, avoiding stress, seeking appropriate medical care, avoiding infections, and the control of preterm birth risk factors (e.g. working long hours while standing on feet, carbon monoxide exposure, domestic abuse, and other factors). Self-monitoring vaginal pH followed by yogurt treatment or clindamycin treatment if the pH was too high all seem to be effective at reducing the risk of preterm birth. Additional support during pregnancy does not appear to prevent low birthweight or preterm birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435128",
"title": "Home birth",
"section": "Section::::Research on safety.:Study design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The data available on the safety of home birth in developed countries is often difficult to interpret due to issues such as differing home-birth standards between different countries, and difficult to compare with other studies because of varying definitions of perinatal mortality. Additionally, it is difficult to compare home and hospital births because only the risk profiles are different between the two groups, according to the CDC: people who choose to give birth at home are more likely to be healthy and at low risk for complications. There are also unquantifiable differences in home birth patients, such as maternal attitudes towards medical involvement in birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11mt4v
|
Do any animals other than humans like spicy food?
|
[
{
"answer": "Spiciness, caused by the chemical Capsaicin, appears to be an adaptation of plants to prevent mammals from eating their fruit/peppers. Birds, which are immune to Capsaicin, appear to be the intended consumer of these fruits, which is understandible considering they fly and can, thusly, disperse the seeds over a wider area.\n\nAs to why some humans have developed a fondness for Capsaicin, there's some evidence that Capsaicin inhibits bacterial growth and, in this way, helps preserve freshness in food. Spicy food is less likely to make you sick than non-spicy food due to this quality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45511",
"title": "Treeshrew",
"section": "Section::::Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Treeshrews have also been observed intentionally eating foods high in capsaicin, a behavior unique among mammals other than humans. A single TRPV1 mutation reduces their pain response to capsaicinoids, which scientists believe is an evolutionary adaptation to be able to consume spicy foods in their natural habitats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6855985",
"title": "Greater spear-nosed bat",
"section": "Section::::Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "\"P. hastatus\" sometimes eats vertebrates, but much less so than other phyllostomids. It is omnivorous, most commonly feeding on fruit, pollen and insects. Vertebrates comprise a minor part of its diet. Norberg and Fenton (1988) speculate that this is due to its \"higher aspect ratio and wing loading\". \"P. hastatus\" has an extremely sensitive sense of smell. When foraging for food, it can locate hidden pieces of banana amongst the leaf litter on the forest floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9751770",
"title": "List of Spirou et Fantasio characters",
"section": "Section::::Recurring characters.:Le Snouffelaire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "A strange animal from the future that has been suggested to look like the cross breed of a tapir and a vacuum cleaner. It has appetite to devour nearly anything, and by flatulent biology, is able to quickly pass out what it ate, encapsulated in bubbles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6405285",
"title": "Dietary indiscretion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Dietary indiscretion is the tendency of certain animal of eating unusual items. These are frequently relatively small items not encountered in a natural habitat and thus sampled because of mistaken identity, a familiar flavor, or simple curiosity. This includes modern manufactured items such as shiny metal foil or plastic objects, as well as foods harmful to health. Domesticated animals such as dogs and goats, and even circus animals like Ostriches are even more prone to the effect due to their contact with people. The dietary indiscretion of fish, especially Sharks, may occur when the mouth is the major organ of detection and processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1359660",
"title": "Giant pouched rat",
"section": "Section::::Natural history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The animals are nocturnal. They are omnivorous and feed on vegetation and small animals, especially insects. They have a particular taste for palm nuts. Like many related rodents that are hind gut fermenters, they are coprophagous, voiding soft fecal pellets of semidigested food that they eat directly from the anus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "685959",
"title": "Chambered nautilus",
"section": "Section::::Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "As a carnivore, it feeds on both underwater carrion and detritus, as well as living shellfish and crab. Mainly scavengers, chambered nautiluses have been described as eating \"anything that smells\". This food is stored in a stomach-like organ known as a crop, which can store food for a great deal of time without it denaturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Taste perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Animals, specifically humans, have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy (sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to eat while others, such as bitter, are not enjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no taste. Fats, on the other hand, especially saturated fats, are thicker and rich and are thus considered more enjoyable to eat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47s65h
|
how does france maintain more than two political parties despite a winner-take-all system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many countries with single-winner, district-based elections have multiple major parties. These systems discourage party fracturing, but do not prevent it--e.g., in the United Kingdom the Liberal Democrats are a respectable third party. The reason the United States has just two main parties has to do with political polarization in its early political history, first over federalism and later over slavery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "France has a fractured political system due to the many collapses of the democratic government since the revolution; the current constitution makes it the 5th Republic, and it is relatively recent - from the 1960s. This constant changing and tumult prevented the emergence of a very stable two party system. The first president of the 5th Republic - DeGaulle - was essentially outside of the party system entirely. \n\nHowever, the general right / left blocs do exist, and the smaller parties survive because the main parties form close alliances with them and agree to only run one candidate in certain districts. So instead of having a left-wing Democratic candidate, for example, it would be like the dems agreeing not to run a candidate for Senate in Vermont that would take votes away from Sanders, and in return, Sanders cooperates with the Democrats in the Senate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like the numerous other countries with multiparty systems, there's parliamentary seats. Six parties, and 8 independents currently hold seats in the National Assembly. All you need to get a seat is get the most votes in your local constituency, although in France it's a two- round system, where the two with the most votes in the first round go head to head in the second. \n\nAll you really need in order to have multiple parties is to have people form parties. This is true in any nation. The US (I assume you're in the US because it's somewhat anomalous in having just two political parties) has never had more than 3 parties, IIRC, and could well have had one (or could still) if the Tea Party wanted to branch off from the GOP. As it is, if you look at France, or Canada, or the UK or Australia or any of the other nations with numerous political parties, you'll notice they tend to have legislative houses where 90% of the seats are taken by just two of the parties, with the remaining 10% scattered among the rest. France for example has 491 of 577 seats going to the top two parties. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56988315",
"title": "List of political parties in France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "France has a multi-party political system: one in which the number of competing political parties is sufficiently large as to make it almost inevitable that in order to participate in the exercise of power any single party must be prepared to negotiate with one or more others with a view to forming electoral alliances and/or coalition agreements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "925538",
"title": "Elections in France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "France does not have a fully-fledged two-party system; that is, a system where, though many political parties may exist, only two parties are relevant to the dynamics of power. However French politics has ordinarily displayed some tendencies characterizing a two-party system in which power alternates between relatively stable coalitions, each being led by a major party: on the left, the Socialist Party, on the right, and its predecessors. This pattern was upset in 2017, when neither of those parties' candidates reached the second round of the presidential election and the newly-formed party gained both the presidency and a comfortable majority in the National Assembly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233475",
"title": "Multi-party system",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons with other party systems.:One-party system and two-party system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1684,
"text": "A system where only two parties have the possibility of winning an election is called two-party system. A system where only three parties have a \"realistic possibility\" of winning an election or forming a coalition is sometimes called a \"Third-party system\". But, in some cases the system is called a \"Stalled Third-Party System,\" when there are three parties and all three parties win a large number of votes, but only two have a chance of winning an election. Usually this is because the electoral system penalizes the third party, e.g. as in Canadian or UK politics. In the 2010 elections, the Liberal Democrats gained 23% of the total vote but won less than 10% of the seats due to the first-past-the-post electoral system. Despite this, they still had enough seats (and enough public support) to form coalitions with one of the two major parties, or to make deals in order to gain their support. An example is the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition formed after the 2010 general election. Another is the Lib-Lab pact during Prime Minister James Callaghan's Minority Labor Government; when Labor lost its three-seat majority in 1977, the pact fell short of a full coalition. In Canada, there are three major federal political parties; the Conservative Party of Canada, the Liberal Party of Canada, and the New Democratic Party of Canada (also known as the NDP). The NDP is currently in alliance with another party, the Green Party of Canada. However, the Liberals and Conservatives have been the only two parties to form government in Canada with the New Democrats as the third party, except in the 2011 Canadian election when the New Democrats were the Official Opposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23996",
"title": "Political party",
"section": "Section::::Partisan style.:Bi-party systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "The UK political system, while technically a multi-party system, has functioned generally as a two-party (sometimes called a \"two-and-a-half party\") system; since the 1920s the two largest political parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before the Labour Party rose in British politics the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament. (A plurality voting system usually leads to a two-party system, a relationship described by Maurice Duverger and known as Duverger's Law.) There are also numerous other parties that hold or have held a number of seats in Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31605",
"title": "Two-party system",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Commonwealth countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "In some governments, certain chambers may resemble a two-party system and others a multi-party system. For example, the politics of Australia are largely two-party (the Liberal/National Coalition is often considered a single party at a national level due to their long-standing alliance in forming government and additionally rarely compete for the same seat) for the Australian House of Representatives, which is elected by instant-runoff voting, known within Australia as preferential voting. However, third parties are more common in the Australian Senate, which uses a proportional voting system more amenable to minor parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12987",
"title": "Gerrymandering",
"section": "Section::::Changes to achieve competitive elections.:Changing the voting system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Electoral systems with election of just one winner in each district (i.e., \"winner-takes-all\" electoral systems) and no proportional distribution of extra mandates to smaller parties tend to create two-party systems (Duverger's law). In these, just two parties effectively compete in the national elections and thus the national political discussions are forced into a narrow two-party frame, where loyalty and forced statements inside the two parties distort the political debate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233475",
"title": "Multi-party system",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons with other party systems.:One-party system and two-party system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "A two-party system requires voters to align themselves in large blocs, sometimes so large that they cannot agree on any overarching principles. Some theories argue that this allows centrists to gain control. On the other hand, if there are multiple major parties, each with less than a majority of the vote, the parties are strongly motivated to work together to form working governments. This also promotes centrism, as well as promoting coalition-building skills while discouraging polarization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g8ejn
|
Do static electric shocks people get on a door knobs and metallic objects can hurt and/or kill them?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Do static electric shocks people get on a door knobs and metallic objects can hurt and/or kill them?\n\nSure, given a large enough door knob in an environment ideal enough to build up a substantial electric charge. Keep in mind that lightning is a form of electrostatic discharge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you shuffle your feet along the carpet, you're picking up electrons from the carpet. So now you've got all these extra electrons hanging around, meaning you're negatively charged. If everything you touched had the same high charge, it wouldn't matter - you wouldn't feel it. The only way you get current is if there's a difference in charge between you and the doorknob. So all those electrons jump from you to the knob, and voila. Spark!\n\nThe actual process by which you pick up charge has been investigated since the Greeks. It's called the triboelectric effect, and it describes charging of materials based on contact and separation. If you watched Bones last week, you saw them generate electricity from scotch tape to make X-rays - this is the same principle.\n\nThe actual shock on a doorknob won't kill you. But the triboelectic effect *can* kill you, given some truly unfortunate circumstances. There's anecdotal evidence of solvent ignition because of static sparks. I'm sure you've pulled two buckets apart at some point, and felt the resistance between them? That's due to the same effect, and if there were flammable liquids around, you could start a fire. It's not too likely, and you need just the right atmospheric conditions - but it can happen.\n\nThis is also why if you are going to fill a plastic gas can at the pump, you should *always* set it on the ground, rather than leave it in your truck bed. You don't want to risk a spark!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3581021",
"title": "Electrical bonding",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "A person touching the un-earthed metal casing of an electrical device, while also in contact with a metal object connected to remote earth, is exposed to an electric shock hazard if the device has a fault. If all metal objects are connected, all the metal objects in the building will be at the same potential. It then will not be possible to get a shock by touching two 'earthed' objects at once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "Section::::Deliberate uses.:Entertainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Mild electric shocks are also used for entertainment, especially as a practical joke for example in such devices as a shocking pen or a shocking gum. However devices such as a joy buzzer and most other machines in amusement parks today only use vibration that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "The injury related to electric shock depends on the magnitude of the current. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low current that would normally be harmless could startle an individual and cause injury due to suddenly jerking away from the source of electricity, resulting in one striking a stationary object, dropping an object being held or falling. Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the victim from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents usually result in tissue damage and may trigger fibrillation of the heart or cardiac arrest, any of which may ultimately be fatal. If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37243862",
"title": "Strength tester machine",
"section": "Section::::Special forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Electric shock strength testers evaluate how long someone can stand unperilous electric shocks. However, most machines in amusement parks today only utilize vibrations that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Electrical injury is a physiological reaction caused by electric current passing through the body. Electric shock occurs upon contact of a (human) body part with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient magnitude of current to pass through the victim's flesh, viscera or hair. Physical contact with energized wiring or devices is the most common cause of an electric shock. In cases of exposure to high voltages, such as on a power transmission tower, physical contact with energized wiring or objects may not be necessary to cause electric shock, as the voltage may be sufficient to \"jump\" the air gap between the electrical device and the victim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54427200",
"title": "Body contact (electricity)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "There is a risk of electric shock when touching the parts of the system under voltage by the body joint. As a countermeasure, so-called protective conductors and residual current circuit breakers are used in electrical engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11513302",
"title": "Stray voltage",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Capacitive leakage through insulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "In power transmission systems, one side of the circuit, known as the neutral, is grounded to dissipate static electricity and to reduce hazardous voltages caused by insulation failure and other electrical faults. It is possible to get a shock by only touching the \"hot\" wire, due to the person's body being capacitively coupled to the ground upon which the person stands, even if the person is standing on an insulated surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jvu8u
|
how is it possible rick astley's "never gonna give you up" has 140,000,000+ views and he's only made $12 from royalties?
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of it has to do with the way his song has been shared. It's been uploaded and re-uploaded by hundreds (probably) of people, none of which are officially tracked. Sure, Astley deserves to get paid, but by whom? YouTube isn't going to take responsibility for paying for illegally uploaded content. Neither is the record label that recorded the song in the first place. So *who* owes him royalties?\n\nSecond, I don't know how much he's entitled to. He may have sold the rights to his song, or just a bad deal for not a lot of royalties. It's not like he could have predicted what it would become! So he may have sold the song for a decent flat amount and low royalties, predicting (reasonably) that it would do well and then fade in popularity, like most songs do, so that higher flat amount would have been worth it. But I don't know, that's just a guess.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "144218",
"title": "Chris Farley",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In 2018, Adam Sandler wrote and performed an emotional tribute song dedicated to Farley in his 2018 Netflix stand-up special \"Adam Sandler: 100% Fresh\". Netflix published the song performance on YouTube later that year to commemorate the 21st anniversary of Farley's death. Sandler later played the song live on an episode of \"Saturday Night Live\" that he hosted on May 4, 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26552124",
"title": "Sammy Adams",
"section": "Section::::Musical career.:2010: \"Boston's Boy\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1385,
"text": "Over the course of the next two years, he recorded a large amount of material. In September 2009, he released \"I Hate College (Remix)\", a remix of rapper Asher Roth's song \"I Love College\", on YouTube. The video has over 10 million views as of September 2015. He also released \"Kimber\", \"Poker Face Remix\", \"Hard s***\", \"Opening Day\", and \"Rollin\", which have combined for over 2 million views as of September 2012. Opening day, plus his aboveground debut the Boston's Boy EP. The EP topped iTunes' hip-hop charts, driven by the success of \"Driving Me Crazy\" Adams first EP, \"Boston's Boy\" was released on March 4, 2010 by 1st Round Records and reached #73 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and reached #1 on iTunes. The album was received relatively well critically. The album was praised for its dance beats, catchy lyrics, and overall fun feel. Adams credited his loyal college fan base for the success of Boston's Boy. On July 13, 2010, four extra tracks were released by Adams to create a \"deluxe\" version of Boston's Boy. They were \"Still I Rise\", \"See Me Now\", \"Fly Jets Over Boston\", and \"Just Sayin'\". Two of the songs, \"Still I Rise\" and \"Fly Jets Over Boston\", featured special guests G. Curtis and Curren$y respectively. G. Curtis was a recent signing to the record label and Curren$y had been working with Adams for a while but had yet to officially collaborate with him on a track.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43108238",
"title": "Straight Outta Compton (film)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Box office.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "On August 27, 2015, \"Straight Outta Compton\" became the highest grossing musical biopic of all-time in the United States with $120.9 million, passing the 2005 Johnny Cash biopic \"Walk the Line\"s $119.5 million total (it was then passed itself on December 1, 2018 by \"Bohemian Rhapsody\"s $162 million). The film grossed $13.1 million in its third weekend and, once again, finished first at the box office ahead of the week's new releases \"War Room\", \"No Escape\" and \"We Are Your Friends\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14328",
"title": "Hunter S. Thompson",
"section": "Section::::Death.:Funeral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "According to his widow, Anita, the $3 million funeral was funded by actor Johnny Depp, who was a close friend of Thompson. Depp told the \"Associated Press\", \"All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out.\" An estimated 280 people attended, including U.S. Senators John Kerry and George McGovern; \"60 Minutes\" correspondents Ed Bradley and Charlie Rose; actors Jack Nicholson, John Cusack, Bill Murray, Benicio del Toro, Sean Penn, and Josh Hartnett; musicians Lyle Lovett, John Oates and David Amram, and artist and long-time friend Ralph Steadman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28391464",
"title": "Dan Brown (blogger)",
"section": "Section::::Other work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "On January 21, 2010, he appeared on US version of \"Who Wants To Be A Millionaire\" as a contestant and ended up winning $5,000 after incorrectly answering his $10,000 question. In 2013, Dan appeared in a documentary called \"Please Subscribe: A Documentary About YouTubers\", which featured Dan and many other YouTubers. The film was directed by Dan Dobi and the film premiered for one night only on February 5, 2013. The film is now available on iTunes and Netflix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24319994",
"title": "Kevin Chappell",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Chappell finished tied for tenth at his second consecutive U.S. Open in 2012; it was his only top-10 finish of 2012 and he finished the season 125th on the money list, earning the last available Tour card based on season earnings. Chappell had his best year on the PGA Tour to date in 2013, making 16 cuts, with three top 10s, which included a second runner-up finish of his career at the Memorial Tournament. He ended the year 45th on the FedEx Cup standings. During the 2014 and 2015, Chappell was consistent, making the majority of cuts he played in, but only recorded three top-10 finishes in this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4402073",
"title": "Will Hoge",
"section": "Section::::Solo artist.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "In 2013, he released \"Never Give In\". The album debuted at 129 on the Billboard 200, his highest debut on the chart, selling 3,000 copies in the US. The album's final track \"Strong\" was featured in a television commercial for Chevy trucks and contributed to the album's success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hbrex
|
What does a geological history map of the world tell you about the region (beyond the age of the uppermost rocks)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Title question:\n\nNot much, geologic maps of the world are very simplified and there is little use to look at the world as a whole. If you get a detailed smaller map, then you can get down to business. Maps in geology have near infinite applications, usually the more detailed maps have age, a rock description and various geologic features on them. A lot of field geology is just mapping your area to better understand it, mapping not just different kinds of rock, but folds, faults, dikes, shear zones, strikes and dips, and much much more!\n\nBody question:\n\nNo. What it means is that the rocks exposed at the surface date back to the precambrian. Disregarding the idea that they probably formed deep in the earth (because there's no way in hell you can build a house 10 Km underground), the precambrian rocks could have been deposited, buried, heated, squished, brought to the surface, buried again, and finally brought back to the surface for you building enjoyment. I should say that rocks spend most of their life(?) underground.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55222889",
"title": "Eoarchean geology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Eoarchean geology is the study of the oldest preserved crustal fragments of Earth during the Eoarchean era from 4 to 3.6 billion years ago. Major well-preserved rock units dated Eoarchean are known from three localities, the Isua Greenstone Belt in Southwest Greenland, the Acasta Gneiss in the Slave Craton in Canada, and the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt in the eastern coast of Hudson Bay in Quebec. From the dating of rocks in these three regions scientists suggest that plate tectonics could go back as early as Eoarchean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18521539",
"title": "Geology of Tasmania",
"section": "Section::::Geological history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "The earliest geological history is recorded in rocks from over . Older rocks from western Tasmania and King Island were strongly folded and metamorphosed into rocks such as quartzite. After this there are many signs of glaciation from the Cryogenian, as well as the global warming that occurred at the start of the Ediacaran period. An orogeny folded the older Precambrian rocks. In the Cambrian time the Tyennan block forming the south west and central Tasmania, was pushed up and slightly over the land of north west Tasmania, the Tyennan Orogeny. Then there were volcanic action and sediments from the Cambrian and Ordovician. The large ore deposits were formed on the West Coast. The north east of Tasmania began to form as part of the Lachlan Orogen with turbidity flows of mud and sand on to the ocean floor. In the Devonian the Tabberabberan Orogeny caused more folding, and intrusion of granite on the west and east coasts, and probably joined the east of Tasmania to the west.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15434009",
"title": "Caunes-Minervois",
"section": "Section::::Geography and geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The local geology is complex with evidence of very old rocks from the Precambrian period being distorted and overlain with ocean sediments, which in turn have been involved in massive tectonic events. The changes to sedimentary deposits due to intense pressure and temperature effects have given rise to metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss & the economically important marble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18092646",
"title": "Geologic record",
"section": "Section::::Correlating the rock record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "At a certain locality on the Earth's surface, the rock column provides a cross section of the natural history in the area during the time covered by the age of the rocks. This is sometimes called the \"rock history\" and gives a window into the natural history of the location that spans many geological time units such as ages, epochs, or in some cases even multiple major geologic periods—for the particular geographic region or regions. The geologic record is in no one place entirely complete for where geologic forces one age provide a low-lying region accumulating deposits much like a layer cake, in the next may have uplifted the region, and the same area is instead one that is weathering and being torn down by chemistry, wind, temperature, and water. This is to say that in a given location, the geologic record can be and is quite often interrupted as the ancient local environment was converted by geological forces into new landforms and features. Sediment core data at the mouths of large riverine drainage basins, some of which go deep thoroughly support the law of superposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1162848",
"title": "Wichita Mountains",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The geologic history of the region began with the deposition of late Precambrian to early Cambrian sandstones collectively known as the Tillman metasedimentary group. These sediments were intruded by a coarse mafic layered complex as the region began to rift apart during breakup of the Neoproterozoic continent, Pannotia. The exposed portion of this unit, named the Glen Mountains Layered Complex, consists of gabbro, anorthosite and troctolite. Recent high-precision dating yields an age of 532.49 ± 0.15 Ma. These are the dark gray rocks found throughout the Raggedy Mountains, the central lowlands region of the wildlife refuge, and to the immediate north of the refuge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25459",
"title": "Rocky Mountains",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "All of these geological processes exposed a complex set of rocks at the surface. For example, volcanic rock from the Paleogene and Neogene periods (66 million – 2.6 million years ago) occurs in the San Juan Mountains and in other areas. Millennia of severe erosion in the Wyoming Basin transformed intermountain basins into a relatively flat terrain. The Tetons and other north-central ranges contain folded and faulted rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age draped above cores of Proterozoic and Archean igneous and metamorphic rocks ranging in age from 1.2 billion (e.g., Tetons) to more than 3.3 billion years (Beartooth Mountains).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Hadean and Archean Eons.:First continents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "The oldest rocks on Earth are found in the North American craton of Canada. They are tonalites from about 4.0 Ga. They show traces of metamorphism by high temperature, but also sedimentary grains that have been rounded by erosion during transport by water, showing that rivers and seas existed then. Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of terranes. The first are so-called greenstone belts, consisting of low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. These \"greenstones\" are similar to the sediments today found in oceanic trenches, above subduction zones. For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean. The second type is a complex of felsic magmatic rocks. These rocks are mostly tonalite, trondhjemite or granodiorite, types of rock similar in composition to granite (hence such terranes are called TTG-terranes). TTG-complexes are seen as the relicts of the first continental crust, formed by partial melting in basalt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29ypkn
|
insect intelligence
|
[
{
"answer": "Decisions in general? Hive mind. Each ant or bee is a sensory instrument of the whole. With that shared experience, they can [weigh data](_URL_0_) and come up with a collective decision. \n\nAs for the smartest? The smartest we've tested is the [honeybee](_URL_1_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insects (and other invertebrates) still have brains made of nerve cells and can make their own decisions. Some research showed that [fruit files can make decisions on their own](_URL_1_) (i.e. they appear to have free will) and other research that [jumping spiders appear surprisingly intelligent](_URL_0_), tho they are quite slow to work out strategies (probably due to how small their brain is)\n\n > As a maze to be worked out from a single viewing – and with no previous experience of such mazes – this would be a tall order even for a rat or monkey. Yet more often than not, Portia (a type of jumping spider) could identify the right path. There was nothing quick about it. Portia would sit on top of the dowel for up to an hour, twisting to and fro as it appeared to track its eyes across the various possible routes.\n\nThere's probably a lot of instinct involved too, especially for finding a correct place to build a nest, but that's true of most animals. It's not like a mouse sits down and thinks \"If I dig a burrow in the ground I'll be safer\", it just knows what to do.\n\nAnts and bees have a collective intelligence too. For ants they react to certain chemicals, and also release chemicals. an ant can make a trail from their nest so they can work back to find it, if they find food they release a different chemical so ants know they can find food that way, more followed trails (eg. several ants came back with food from the same spot) have stronger scent so more ants head that way, they release chemicals when under attack that cause other ants to attack any non-ant thing nearby etc. This creates complex behaviours from simple rules.\n\nOf course the thing about intelligence is we don't really understand how anything more complex than a worm *really* thinks, so what really goes on in insects' heads is just as much a mystery as other animals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Thinking\" is a pretty abstract concept. Let me explain it by using robotics as an example.\n\nLet's say I take a microprocessor and add a battery. Now I got a little platform on which I can run code. The code is nothing more than a set of rules and responses. But since it only has a processor and a battery, it can't really do much.\n\nLet's add some wheels and motors. Now it can move. It can't really perceive the world so it can't respond to the world but I could write some code that let's the wheels spin until the battery runs out.\n\nLet's add a light sensor. Now it has some really primitive perception of the world. My little robot can determine if it's sitting in a light area or a dark area. Light is dangerous, predators might see me. Let's write some pseudo code.\n\n IF I'm in a bright area, start moving my wheels until I'm in a dark area\n\nI could even make it a little more complex.\n\n IF I'm in a bright area, start moving my wheels.\n IF I don't reach a dark area in 5 seconds stop both wheels. Spin one wheel for 1 second to turn a bit, start moving both wheels again.\n IF I'm in a dark area, stop moving my wheels.\n\nLet's add a solar panel. Now my little robot can both perceive the world and facilitate in it's own power needs.\n\n IF my battery is > 50% full AND I'm in the dark, stay in the dark.\n IF my battery is > 50% AND I'm in the light, start looking for darkness.\n IF my battery is < 50% full AND I'm in the dark, start driving around to try and find some light.\n IF my battery is < 50% full AND I'm in the light, sit tight and soak up that sunlight.\n\nIs my robot thinking for itself? Hardly, I just wrote some simple rules based on the capabilities of my robot. But it is capable of looking after itself in a way. It seeks the safety of darkness when it can but it feeds itself on sunlight when it has to.\n\nLower lifeforms are much like that. You can get a lot of complexity out of a small set of systems. Just look at what my little robot did with a processor, a battery, wheels, a light sensor and some wheels. Insects are absolutely jam packed with sensory organs, but they don't need thinking, feeling minds to display complex behavior with all that sensory data.\n\nFor example many insects simply count their steps to navigate. They can find their way back home by accurately retracing their steps while using their other senses to resolve any error margin. A fact clearly demonstrated in experiments with ants where foraging ants had their legs shortened (clipped shorter) or lengthened (had tiny stilts glued to them). The ants with shortened legs got lost because they started looking for their nest entrance far too early while the ants with lengthened legs got lost because they walked right past their nest and started looking too late.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "89008",
"title": "Theory of multiple intelligences",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.:Human adaptation to multiple environments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "The premise of the multiple intelligences hypothesis, that human intelligence is a collection of specialist abilities, have been criticized for not being able to explain human adaptation to most if not all environments in the world. In this context, humans are contrasted to social insects that indeed have a distributed \"intelligence\" of specialists, and such insects may spread to climates resembling that of their origin but the same species never adapt to a wide range of climates from tropical to temperate by building different types of nests and learning what is edible and what is poisonous. While some such as the leafcutter ant grow fungi on leaves, they do not cultivate different species in different environments with different farming techniques as human agriculture does. It is therefore argued that human adaptability stems from a general ability to falsify hypotheses and make more generally accurate predictions and adapt behavior thereafter, and not a set of specialized abilities which would only work under specific environmental conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27075922",
"title": "Natural computing",
"section": "Section::::Nature-inspired models of computation.:Swarm intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Swarm intelligence, sometimes referred to as collective intelligence, is defined as the problem solving behavior that emerges from the interaction of individual agents (e.g., bacteria, ants, termites, bees, spiders, fish, birds) which communicate with other agents by acting on their local environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207874",
"title": "Swarm behaviour",
"section": "Section::::People.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "An ant-based computer simulation using only six interaction rules has also been used to evaluate aircraft boarding behaviour. Airlines have also used ant-based routing in assigning aircraft arrivals to airport gates. An airline system developed by Douglas A. Lawson uses swarm theory, or swarm intelligence—the idea that a colony of ants works better than one alone. Each pilot acts like an ant searching for the best airport gate. \"The pilot learns from his experience what's the best for him, and it turns out that that's the best solution for the airline,\" Lawson explains. As a result, the \"colony\" of pilots always go to gates they can arrive and depart quickly. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. \"We can anticipate that it's going to happen, so we'll have a gate available,\" says Lawson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6779384",
"title": "Hexapod (robotics)",
"section": "Section::::Biologically inspired.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Insects are chosen as models because their nervous system are simpler than other animal species. Also, complex behaviours can be attributed to just a few neurons and the pathway between sensory input and motor output is relatively shorter. Insects' walking behaviour and neural architecture are used to improve robot locomotion. Conversely, biologists can use hexapod robots for testing different hypotheses. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12269001",
"title": "Insect physiology",
"section": "Section::::Nervous system.:Central nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "An insect's sensory, motor and physiological processes are controlled by the central nervous system along with the endocrine system. Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a brain, a ventral nerve cord and a subesophageal ganglion which is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the oesophagus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2783568",
"title": "Cephalopod intelligence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Intelligence is generally defined as the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills. Though these criteria are difficult to measure in nonhuman animals, cephalopods seem to be exceptionally intelligent invertebrates. The study of cephalopod intelligence also has an important comparative aspect in the broader understanding of animal cognition because it relies on a nervous system fundamentally different from that of vertebrates. In particular, the Coleoidea subclass (cuttlefish, squid, and octopuses) is thought to be the most intelligent invertebrates and an important example of advanced cognitive evolution in animals, though nautilus intelligence is also a subject of growing interest among zoologists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146764",
"title": "Punishment",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:In socio-biology.:Examples against sociobiological use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "There are also arguments against the notion of punishment requiring intelligence, based on studies of punishment in very small-brained animals such as insects. There is proof of honey bee workers with mutations that makes them fertile laying eggs only when other honey bees are not observing them, and that the few that are caught in the act are killed. This is corroborated by computer simulations proving that a few simple reactions well within mainstream views of the extremely limited intelligence of insects are sufficient to emulate the \"political\" behavior observed in great apes. The authors argue that this falsifies the claim that punishment evolved as a strategy to deal with individuals capable of knowing what they are doing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f1jejo
|
what do iss spacesuits do? i know they provide an at atmosphere but do they have insulation? i'd guess not because there's no atmosphere to cool you down, but what about depressurization?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, they provide pressure, and insulation. When you're in the sunshine, it can seriously overheat you in a small amount of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are insulated because space is a wild set of climates. Imagine standing inside a huge deep freeze with a million watt floodlight 10 feet from you pointed at your back.\n\nSo you wrap yourself up in crazy amounts of insulation to keep from freezing and boiling at the same time. But now all that body heat you generate is trapped in there with you. So you have to remove that and radiate it away. Spacesuits have chilled water lines running through then and that keeps you cool. \n\nSo the spacesuits provide full climate control along with the proper amount of atmosphere.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Space suits perform a whole lot of things. \nThe suit is heavily insulated. Because if it's in sunlight, the side exposed to the sun is going to get very hot, because there isn't an atmosphere to get in the way. \nIt also has a bunch of tubes with water running through it to cool down the astronaut and take away body heat. \n \n~~The suit is also pressurized to earth normal pressure. \nThey used to keep it lower, but that involved the astronaut needing to do time consuming things to keep the nitrogen in their blood from killing them. So they stopped doing it for the most part.~~ \nEdit: was mistaken about pre-breathing. \nSuits are kept at a pressure lower than earth normal pressure. \nThe astronauts need to do time consuming things to keep the nitrogen in their blood from killing them",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Turns out. Air is really hard to keep in. And space, you don't cool off, which is kinda good, until you are sweating balls from working. As it turn out, having sweat floating everywhere on your face where you CANT WIPE WHILE WORKING is really, really, not desired. so it have a cooling part.\n\nPressure comes from air mass both INSIDE AND OUTSIDE. If theres literally nothing outside, the only thing you need to watch out is the pressure of keeping the air in, which is alot easier than underwater, where you have the ocean crushing on you.\n\nSpace also have a SHIT TON OF RADIATION, so unless you plan on having all kinds of cancer, you need protection, which is why the helmet LITERALLY HAVE A SHEET OF GOLD.\n\nIt also provides exo movement, because in space where you can grab nothing, the only thing you can do is propell your self with air.\n\nIt also houses radio so you can talk, and water and urine collection, because small things like human right to a non hostile working condition (somewhat) and mission success.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A spacesuit is like a mini , personal space station. I'm not sure why you think a spacesuit doesn't need insulation. It absolutely *has* to have insulation. Otherwise, you'd bake to death when facing the sun and freeze when in the shadow of the Earth. We're talking about hundreds of degrees above and below zero. Heat is actually more of a concern than cold, so the astronauts wear a garment that has tubes sewn into it. Cold water flows through these tubes and keeps the astronauts from overheating. So in addition to the pressure bladder that contains the air, yes, there are many layers of insulation as well as layers of kevlar or similar material to protect against micrometeroids.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Their method of cooling is also interesting. It is cooled by sublimating ice. There is a container of water behind a porous metal barrier. If the water seeps through the barrier into the vacuum of space, where it evaporates. This draws heat through the barrier and cools the water. The cooling loops are passed through this water.\n\nIf the water is cold enough, the evaporating water cools the barrier and the water outside it freezes to a thin layer of ice. The ice continues to evaporate, (or, to give it the right name for solids evaporating straight to gas, \"sublimate\"), cooling the barrier and the water in its pores until it freezes too, completely blocking the barrier so no more water is released. The colder the ice gets, the less ice sublimates. If the water warms, it warms up the ice, more ice sublimates; and if it warms up further, it will melt the ice in the barrier, allowing the water to seep out to refresh the ice. The system allows more fresh water to enter the container as required.\n\nOther systems have simply passed the cooling loops through metal tubes outside the suit, and releases a little water onto the outside of the tubes. This water evaporates, freezes and sublimates, cooling the water inside the tubes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "897095",
"title": "Space and survival",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Spacesuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "Spacesuits are required for astronauts to survive in space; they are the most essential piece of equipment with many features to help protect them from the dangers of space. Due to space being a vacuum, the suits are required to have oxygen, which is stored in tanks allowing astronauts to work or remain outside for 6 to 8.5 hours before having to return to the spacecraft. Water is also required to survive in space and the space suits have water supply bags in two sizes, , so astronauts do not suffer dehydration when outside the spacecraft. The suits are made from several layers of material; within these layers there is tubing all around which is filled with chilled water to help cool the suit. The suit is also insulated so the astronaut does not become too cold; the astronaut's body heat is what is keeping them warm. The several layers protect the astronaut from space dust, which can travel faster than a bullet. The visors on the suit helmets are made with a special gold liner which protects the eyes of the astronaut from sunlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57169",
"title": "Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Air conditioning.:Packaged vs. split system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The benefits of ductless air conditioning systems include easy installation, no ductwork, greater zonal control, flexibility of control and quiet operation . In space conditioning, the duct losses can account for 30% of energy consumption . The use of minisplit can result in energy savings in space conditioning as there are no losses associated with ducting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "704596",
"title": "Mechanical counterpressure suit",
"section": "Section::::Cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Cooling of the astronaut with an SAS is generally achieved with evaporation from body perspiration which is emitted from the suit in all directions. Water, salts, and proteins can deposit on optics and other sensitive surfaces causing damage or degradation. This can limit the usefulness of an SAS. For the inflated spacesuits used on the space shuttle,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39375",
"title": "Space suit",
"section": "Section::::Requirements.:Operating pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "When space suits below a specific operating pressure are used from craft that are pressurized to normal atmospheric pressure (such as the Space Shuttle), this requires astronauts to \"pre-breathe\" (meaning pre-breathe pure oxygen for a period) before donning their suits and depressurizing in the air lock. This procedure purges the body of dissolved nitrogen, so as to avoid decompression sickness due to rapid depressurization from a nitrogen-containing atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "939475",
"title": "Tranquility (ISS module)",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The module's life support system recycles waste water for crew use and generates oxygen for the crew to breathe. In addition, \"Tranquility\" contains an atmosphere revitalization system to remove contaminants from the atmosphere and monitor/control the atmosphere constituents of the ISS. \"Tranquility\" also contains a Waste and Hygiene Compartment (toilet) for supporting the on-board crew.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39377992",
"title": "Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.:Ground-based analog studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 1211,
"text": "Alterations in thermoregulation in association with spaceflight could significantly affect a variety of spaceflight-associated activities including exercise as a countermeasure to muscle atrophy, cardiac deconditioning, and bone loss; extravehicular activity (EVA); and vehicle landing and egress. EVA suits and launch and entry or advanced crew escape suits (ACES) worn by ISS and Shuttle crewmembers are designed to provide an impermeable barrier between the wearer and the external environment. To compensate for lack of heat exchange through the fabrics of these suits, the EVA suit provides both liquid (conductive) and air (convective) cooling, while a liquid cooling garment is worn under the ACES in addition to a hose connection to forced orbiter cabin air. Thus, crewmembers with altered thermoregulatory capabilities are at even greater risk should failure of the cooling systems of these garments occur. Manifestations of altered thermoregulation include increased heart rate and body temperature during exercise, decreased work capacity and endurance, decreased postflight orthostatic tolerance, decreased cognitive ability, and a delay in recovery of exercise capacity and endurance after flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5607447",
"title": "Space medicine",
"section": "Section::::Effects of space-travel.:Decompression illness in spaceflight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "In space, astronauts use a space suit, essentially a self-contained individual spacecraft, to do spacewalks, or extra-vehicular activities (EVAs). Spacesuits are generally inflated with 100% oxygen at a total pressure that is less than a third of normal atmospheric pressure. Eliminating inert atmospheric components such as nitrogen allows the astronaut to breathe comfortably, but also have the mobility to use their hands, arms, and legs to complete required work, which would be more difficult in a higher pressure suit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ppalp
|
How did the Mongols view sex and virginity?
|
[
{
"answer": "First of all it would be false to claim that Jochi's paternity caused no issues. While he was afforded respect and authority as Genghis Khan's first born son it appears that the questionable parentage was raised as a point against him by Chagatai when Genghis Khan's was choosing his successor. \n\nThat said the Mongols attitudes towards sexuality and sexual purity were distinctly different from contemporary European ones. It was common for Mongol men who could afford it to have multiple wives. Of these one would be considered the chief wife who continued the bloodline, only Genghis Khan's sons from his first wife were considered as sucessors, although they all had separate accommodations; and visitors often commented on the surprising lack of disputes that this arrangement engendered. Furthermore Mongol women retained the right of divorce, and remarriage, something that was considerably more different for both sexes at the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "739857",
"title": "Ögedei Khan",
"section": "Section::::Character.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1069,
"text": "However, Mongol and Persian chroniclers criticize Ögedei for a crime he committed in 1237 which violated the laws of his father, Genghis Khan, which forbade seizure, rape, kidnapping, bartering, or selling young girls, who were allowed to be married at a young age but could not engage in sexual activity until the age of sixteen. Mongol chronicles were vague about the nature of the crime, but Persian chroniclers indicated that after the Oirat did not send girls for Ögedei's harem, Ögedei had four thousand Oirat girls above the age of seven stripped naked and raped by his soldiers repeatedly in full sight of the girls' relatives. Two of these girls died from the ordeal, and the remaining were divided up by soldiers, with some being sent to the royal harem, and others assigned to caravan hostels for sexual servitude, and others not deemed suitable for this were left present for anyone to carry them away or use them for any purposes deemed fit. Ögedei seems not to have done this out of sexual depravity as such, but more to consolidate power over the Oirat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7980471",
"title": "Rape",
"section": "Section::::History.:War rape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Rape, in the course of war, dates back to antiquity, ancient enough to have been mentioned in the Bible. The Israelite, Persian, Greek and Roman armies reportedly engaged in war rape. The Mongols, who established the Mongol Empire across much of Eurasia, caused much destruction during their invasions. Contemporary documents say that after a conquest, the Mongol soldiers looted, pillaged and raped. According to Rogerius of Apulia, a monk who survived the Mongol invasion of Hungary, the Mongol warriors \"found pleasure\" in humiliating local women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14264756",
"title": "Sexual minorities in Japan",
"section": "Section::::The clash between traditional and contemporary ideas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Homosexual practice is also found among the Samurai aristocracy in part because of the heavy influence that Buddhism had on their culture specifically during the early stages of the Edo period (1600–1868). Also during this period, “there was no necessary connection made between gender and sexual preference, because men, samurai in particular, were able to engage in both same and opposite sex affairs without being stigmatized.” Because same-sex relationships were governed by a code of ethics, “elite men were able to pursue boys and young men who had not yet undergone their coming-of-age ceremonies, as well as transgender females of all ages from the lower classes who worked as actors and prostitutes.” Although bisexuality in women was practiced, the notion of lesbianism was not documented and there is “no way of cognitively linking both male and female homosexuality. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7083842",
"title": "Society of the Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Women of the Mongol Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The Mongols considered marriage as the passage into adulthood. Before a marriage could proceed, the bride's family was required to offer \"a dowry of clothing or household ornaments\" to the groom's mother. To avoid paying the dowry, families could exchange daughters or the groom could work for his future father-in-law. Once the dowry was settled, the bride's family presented her with an inheritance of livestock or servants. Typically, married women of the Mongol Empire wore headdresses to distinguish themselves from the unmarried women. It is claimed that the Yassa/Zasag prohibited trade in women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39961356",
"title": "Muhammad Jalal Kishk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "While Kishk disapproved of sexual relations between same sex couples, he noted that there was no prescribed punishment for it in Islam. He also analyzed those parts of the Quran that described Jannah(heaven/paradise) and concluded that \"sex with youthful boys will be the reward for Muslim men who control their desires in this world by not practicing sodomy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15471",
"title": "LGBT in Islam",
"section": "Section::::Scripture and Islamic jurisprudence.:In hadith and \"athar\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The hadith (sayings and actions attributed to Muhammad) show that homosexual behaviour was not unknown in seventh-century Arabia. However, given that the Quran did not specify the punishment of homosexual sodomy, Islamic jurists increasingly turned to several \"more explicit\" hadiths in an attempt to find guidance on appropriate punishment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4180022",
"title": "Taoist sexual practices",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "After 1000 AD, Confucian restraining attitudes towards sexuality became stronger, so that by the beginning of the Qing dynasty in 1644, sex was a taboo topic in public life. These Confucians alleged that the separation of genders in most social activities existed 2,000 years ago and suppressed the sexual arts. Because of the taboo surrounding sex, there was much censoring done during the Qing in literature, and the sexual arts disappeared in public life. As a result, some of the texts survived only in Japan, and most scholars had no idea that such a different concept of sex existed in early China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
39obac
|
Can re-hydration occur through food only, without access to liquids?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are two levels to this. One is that if you eat a 'watery' food like watermelon, it'll help because there's literally water there.\n\nBut there is also the fact that the metabolism of some foods will actually generate water. This is called 'metabolic water' and while in some bacterial species it can be upwards of 60% of the cytosolic water composition, in humans it's closer to 10%.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53776689",
"title": "Bokashi (horticulture)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Emissions.:Runoff.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The liquid leaches out a valuable fraction of proteins, nutrients and lactic acid. To recover them, and to avoid drowning the fermentation, runoff is captured from the fermentation vessel, either through a tap, into a base of absorbent material such as biochar or waste cardboard, or into a lower chamber. The runoff is sometimes called “bokashi tea”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59456",
"title": "Hydrate",
"section": "Section::::Chemical nature.:Inorganic chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "A hydrate which has lost water is referred to as an anhydride; the remaining water, if any exists, can only be removed with very strong heating. A substance that does not contain any water is referred to as anhydrous. Some anhydrous compounds are hydrated so easily that they are said to be hygroscopic and are used as drying agents or desiccants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213682",
"title": "Thermal depolymerization",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Along with similar processes, it is a method of recycling the energy content of organic materials without first removing the water. It can produce liquid fuel, which separates from the water physically without need for drying. Other methods to recover energy often require pre-drying (e.g. burning, pyrolysis) or produce gaseous products (e.g. anaerobic digestion).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842323",
"title": "Sea",
"section": "Section::::Humans and the sea.:Extractive industries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Desalination is the technique of removing salts from seawater to leave fresh water suitable for drinking or irrigation. The two main processing methods, vacuum distillation and reverse osmosis, use large quantities of energy. Desalination is normally only undertaken where fresh water from other sources is in short supply or energy is plentiful, as in the excess heat generated by power stations. The brine produced as a by-product contains some toxic materials and is returned to the sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1558567",
"title": "Oral rehydration therapy",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The optimal fluid for preparing oral rehydration solution is clean water. However, if this is not available, the usually available water should be used. Oral rehydration solution should \"not\" be withheld simply because the available water is potentially unsafe; rehydration takes precedence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1178986",
"title": "Hypertufa",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "After water is added to the mixture, it is packed into a previously constructed mold, then sealed or covered in plastic and allowed to cure for up to two months. The object may be temporarily removed from its wrapping after 24 hours for trimming and/or distressing, after which it is re-wrapped. After the hypertufa object is completely cured, it is removed from the plastic, rinsed thoroughly, and allowed to sit exposed to the elements for several more weeks to reduce its otherwise-toxic surface alkalinity. It can then be used to hold plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258979",
"title": "Malnutrition",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Diarrhea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "To prevent dehydration readily available fluids, preferably with a modest amount of sugars and salt such as vegetable broth or salted rice water, may be used. The drinking of additional clean water is also recommended. Once dehydration develops oral rehydration solutions are preferred. As much of these drinks as the person wants can be given, unless there are signs of swelling. If vomiting occurs, fluids can be paused for 5–10 minutes and then restarting more slowly. Vomiting rarely prevents rehydration as fluid are still absorbed and the vomiting rarely last long. A severely malnourished child with what appears to be dehydration but who has not had diarrhea should be treated as if they have an infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
stdc4
|
Would someone be able to describe in lamens terms what Long-term potentiation is?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure how simple you want it, so I'm going to err on the side of \"really simple\" and lead off with a ridiculously simple analogy (if it's condescendingly simple, it's unintended and I apologize in advance). \n\nSay you really love cookies, and you're in the middle of a park with a lot of people around you. You have boxes that can carry cookies, but its tiring for you to bring too many boxes at once, so lets say on day 1 you just bring one box for each person in the park around you. I come along and I happen to have a lot of cookies to give you, and I completely fill up your box. You get excited that now there's a person around who will give you cookies, and you have learned, hey, alkahdia will give me cookies. But, your cookie box was saturated by my cookies. So wherever I happen to be near you, you start bringing more boxes so you can carry more cookies. Now we have a pretty good connection between us, me sending you lots of cookies and me bringing more cookies for you. Of course, the other people in the park aren't doing anything for you and your love of cookies, so you don't bring out more boxes for them (again, cause it's tiring for you), so around them, you still have the one cookie box. \n\nNow say that I'm a presynaptic neuron, you're a postsynaptic neuron, my cookies are neurotransmitters, and your boxes are neurotransmitter receptors. When I send you my neurotransmitters, you receive them on your receptors, and THEN (blah blah blah a bunch of cell biological steps that aren't important for understand the concept blah blah blah) and THEN you express more receptors, so you become more receptive to my neurotransmitters. It is now easier for me to stimulate you. \n\nThe reason I made a point that you're in the middle of a park with a bunch of people around you and only I'm giving you cookies is this: long-term potentiation happens between two neurons at a time. Just because me and you develop a stronger neurochemical bond doesn't mean that your bond with a third neuron is strengthened, too. \n\nThese strengthened connection is basically how learning happen. I may be able to answer some greater details, but I'm only a student so my knowledge may fall short of everything you want to know. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cells that fire together, wire together. When one presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter onto a post-synaptic neuron several times in succession, you get an increase in receptors expressed on the post-synaptic neuron, which causes it to respond faster and stronger to future stimuli from the pre-synaptic neuron.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "372266",
"title": "Long-term potentiation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In neuroscience, long-term potentiation (LTP) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity. These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons. The opposite of LTP is long-term depression, which produces a long-lasting decrease in synaptic strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27058650",
"title": "Plasticity product",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Rudy differentiates between two types of long term potentiation: S-LTP (short-lasting) and L-LTP (long-lasting). In S-LTP the stimulus is strong enough to induce long-term potentiation but too weak to trigger intracellular events necessary to sustain synaptic changes. L-LTP is much less transient than S-LTP and involves the generation of new proteins through translation and transcription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57426950",
"title": "Early long-term potentiation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Early long-term potentiation (E-LTP) is the first phase of long-term potentiation (LTP), a well-studied form of synaptic plasticity, and consists of an increase in synaptic strength. LTP could be produced by repetitive stimulation of the presynaptic terminals, and it is believed to play a role in memory function in the hippocampus, amygdala and other cortical brain structures in mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240097",
"title": "Retrograde signaling",
"section": "Section::::In neuroscience.:Retrograde signaling in long-term potentiation.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Long-term potentiation is the persistent increase in the strength of a chemical synapse that lasts from hours to days. It is thought to occur via two temporally separated events, with \"induction\" occurring first, followed by \"expression\". Most LTP investigators agree that induction is entirely postsynaptic, whereas there is disagreement as to whether expression is principally a presynaptic or postsynaptic event. Some researchers believe that both presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms play a role in LTP expression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57426950",
"title": "Early long-term potentiation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Long-term potentiation occurs when synaptic transmission becomes more effective as a result of recent activity. The neuronal changes can be temporary and wear off after some hours (early LTP) or much more stable and long-lasting (late LTP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423771",
"title": "Synaptic plasticity",
"section": "Section::::Long-term plasticity.:Long-term potentiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Long-term potentiation, commonly referred to as LTP, is an increase in synaptic response following potentiating pulses of electrical stimuli that sustains at a level above the baseline response for hours or longer. LTP involves interactions between postsynaptic neurons and the specific presynaptic inputs that form a synaptic association, and is specific to the stimulated pathway of synaptic transmission. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1399975",
"title": "Prolongation",
"section": "Section::::Prolongation in Heinrich Schenker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The broadening of the meaning of \"prolongation\" has been described by Antony Pople in seven steps: (1) Schenker proposes it as an operational concept in his teaching; (2) Salzer, Forte and others, disseminate and clarify it; (3) it is used within attempted formalisations of Schenkerian analysis; (4) new theories evoking Schenker make use of it; (5) it is used within theories amplifying Schenker's own; (6) definitions are proposed in theories beyond the Schenkerian canon; and (7) definitions of the term are proposed in relation to \"atonal\" music. The replacement of Schenker's own term \"Auskomponierung\" by \"prolongation\" appeared in step (2), as an English translation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6irblq
|
why were european and other folks in the medieval and early modern world religiously intolerant. why burn heretics? what is to be gained?
|
[
{
"answer": "Say you are the King of England. You support the Anglican church. In this system, the hierarchy goes God, you, then the average person. If a heretic came along and said people should be Catholic, it goes God, the Roman Pope, and then the average person. It cuts you out. If your goal is to control the population, then religion is one of the best ways to do it. And stopping other religions stops other powerful people from cutting into your territory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An important thing to remember is that a heretic is not someone who holds a different religion than you hold. It is someone who holds your same religion but interprets things in a different manner than the religious leadership does. This is potentially dangerous as it can undo your entire religion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7209498",
"title": "European witchcraft",
"section": "Section::::History.:Magic and Medicine in the Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "During the European Middle Ages, the centuries following Christianization of the continent, the Church focused on the persecution of heresy in order to maintain unity of doctrine. Practitioners of folk magic were left unmolested by the authorities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6505736",
"title": "Bloodstopping",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Throughout Europe Christianity was becoming the main religion. However those who lived in rural areas were not as quick to convert. They were more fond of polytheistic religions since they had been used to it for so many years. German settlers who ended up in the Appalachians had many folk beliefs about magic. At first they used stars to determine planting cycles and to predict weather. When medical treatment became scarce they turned to other forms of medicine. This is when bloodstopping became a practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2673103",
"title": "History of atheism",
"section": "Section::::The Middle Ages.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "In Christian Europe, people were persecuted for heresy, especially in countries where the Inquisition was active. Prominent examples of dissent included the Cathers and the Waldensians. These sects, however antagonistic to the Church, are not examples of atheism. While rebellions against the Church occurred, none could be considered exactly atheist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50023",
"title": "Apostasy",
"section": "Section::::Religious views.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Medieval Judaism was more lenient toward apostasy than the other monotheistic religions. According to Maimonides, converts to other faiths were to be regarded as sinners, but still Jewish. Forced converts were subject to special prayers and Rashi admonished those who rebuked or humiliated them. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15587087",
"title": "Role of Christianity in civilization",
"section": "Section::::Slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "During the early medieval period, Christians tolerated enslavement of non-Christians. By the end of the Medieval period, enslavement of Christians had been mitigated somewhat with the spread of serfdom within Europe, though outright slavery existed in European colonies in other parts of the world. Several popes issued papal bulls condemning mistreatment of enslaved Native Americans; these were largely ignored. In his 1839 bull \"In supremo apostolatus\", Pope Gregory XVI condemned all forms of slavery; nevertheless some American bishops continued to support slavery for several decades. In this historic Bull, Pope Gregory outlined his summation of the impact of the Church on the ancient institution of slavery, beginning by acknowledging that early Apostles had tolerated slavery but had called on masters to \"act well towards their slaves... knowing that the common Master both of themselves and of the slaves is in Heaven, and that with Him there is no distinction of persons\". Gregory continued to discuss the involvement of Christians for and against slavery through the ages:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24305980",
"title": "Catholic Church and slavery",
"section": "Section::::Medieval period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "The main thrust of the church's policy on Slavery in early medieval Europe was to end the enslavement of previously free Christians. Slaves who converted or were baptised as infants in slavery were not covered. It was common practice, both in the ancient world and the Migration period societies which were Christianized, for captives in war, often including the whole population of captured cities, to be enslaved as war booty. This remained acceptable to the Church in the case of non-Christian captives, but not for Christian ones. Getting this principle accepted in Christian societies could take a matter of centuries; there was a great loss of profit for the military elites. According to the \"Cambridge Economic History of Europe\" \"one of the finest achievements of Christian ethics was the enforcement of respect for this maxim [that free Christians could not be enslaved], slowly to be sure, for it is still being recalled in England early in the eleventh century, but in the long run most effectively.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1263391",
"title": "History of European Jews in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::From the fall of Rome to the Late Middle Ages (500-1500).:Church laws in the Early Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Conversions of Jews to Christianity, whether forced or voluntary, during the medieval period were an integral part of the life of Jewish communities in the medieval period. The pressures to convert, other than compulsory baptism to save one's life, could be theological, economic and intellectual. Voluntary conversion by such renegades (\"meshummadim\") was motivated by a number of facts: a change of belief could account for the conversion, as could the desire to marry a Christian or to escape from the restrictions on life as a Jew, or to resecure a livelihood or home. Such conversions proved particularly devastating for the English and Spanish Jewish communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2z3k1u
|
Slavery during Roman times is portrayed in media as being less of a race issue and more of a "we conquered you" issue. How accurate is this and did racism play any part into slavery during that time?
|
[
{
"answer": "While experts prepare more targeted answers, here are some threads with background information on the topic from the FAQ section on “[Racism and Slavery](_URL_8_)\":\n\n\n**Race and Slavery in Antiquity**\n\n\n* [\"I don't think that ancient slavery is really comparable to the chattel slavery that we saw in the Americas.\" How did ancient slavery differ from the atlantic slave trade?](_URL_0_) - 91 comments, over 6 months old.\n * This thread is mostly about Roman slavery including how slaves were acquired, what they were used for, and what ethnicity/race they were and thus allowing comparison with the situations presented in the threads above.\n\n* [\" it should be noted that slavery in the ancient Roman Empire was closer to the modern-day employer-employee relationship, not the slavery of other eras based on kidnapping and racism\" some biblical scholar](_URL_7_) - 47 comments, over 2 years old.\n * Specialists on both eras involved engage in comparisons and debate on ancient and early modern slavery.\n\n* [I've often heard it said that the ancient Romans were so culturally and ethnically non-homogenous that \"racism\" as we now understand it did not exist for them. Is this really true?](_URL_2_) - 137 comments, over 2 years old.\n * This thread dives headlong into the matter, inciting debates over whether the ethnic stereotypes common in the ancient world are of the same kind as modern racism or not while supplying plentiful evidence and analysis for both sides.\n\n* [Was there much racism in the Roman Empire directed at people from other regions?](_URL_5_) - 47 comments, over 1 year old.\n * The commenters in this thread differentiate between the xenophobia present the ancient world from the modern understanding of racism.\n\n* [I know the Romans had no conception of race, but did they view Black Africans any differently than they did the Persians, Libyans, or Celts?](_URL_6_) - 80 comments, over 11 months old.\n * This thread goes into the way Rome interacted with peoples that would be classified in the modern day as being of different races.\n\n\n**Related Threads**\n\n\n* [do historians mean something different then normal people when they use the word \"racism\"?](_URL_1_) - 11 comments, over 2 years old.\n * Commenters here talk about concepts of race as dealt with in Anthropology and other related fields.\n\n* [Racism in the ancient world?](_URL_4_) - 37 comments, over 1 year old.\n * This thread pulls examples from all across the world and its history along with copious amounts of sources for further reading.\n\n* [Did the Romans have stereotypes about the behavior of people from particular tribes or geographic areas?](_URL_3_) - 9 comments, over 11 months old.\n * Several commenters detail the most common stereotypes that Romans held of others at the borders of their empire and beyond.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2646111",
"title": "Criticism of Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of historical behavior.:Slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "According to Jennifer Glancy, sexual exploitation of slaves in Roman Empire, was helped by Christian morality. Jesus urged his followers to act like slaves, implementing a slave morality. The early Christian theologians were unconcerned about slave morals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Legal status.:Slaves and the law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "During the period of Republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves into Rome. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self-enslavement among the poor were other sources. \"Vernae\", by contrast, were \"homegrown\" slaves born to female slaves within the urban household or on a country estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his \"vernae\" faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of his \"familia\", the family household, and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5339004",
"title": "Slavery in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Demography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Roman slavery was not based on ideas of race. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, Greece, etc. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while the Jewish ones never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. The slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions. The averaged recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females). By comparison, life expectancy at birth for the population as a whole was in the mid-twenties (36% percent of men could expect to reach the age of 62 and 27% of women if they succeeded in reaching the age of 10).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3952114",
"title": "Sexuality in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Sex, marriage, and society.:Master-slave relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 1345,
"text": "Sexuality was a \"core feature\" of ancient Roman slavery. Because slaves were regarded as property under Roman law, an owner could use them for sex or hire them out to service other people. The letters of Cicero have suggested to some scholars that he had a long-term homosexual relationship with his slave Tiro. As Eva Cantarella stated bluntly, \"the Roman \"paterfamilias\" was an absolute master, ... he exercised a power outside any control of society and the state. In this situation why on earth should he refrain from sodomising his houseboys?\" But this form of sexual release thus held little erotic cachet: to use one's own slaves was \"one step up from masturbation\". In describing the ideal partner in pederasty, Martial prefers a slave boy who \"acts more like a free man than his master\", that is, one who can frame the affair as a stimulating game of courtship. When figures identifiable as slaves appear in erotic art, they are performing routine tasks in the background, not taking part in sex acts. In his work on the interpretation of dreams (\"c.\" 170 AD), Artemidorus takes a symbolic view of the sexual value of slaves: to dream of having sex with one's own female slave was a good thing, \"for slaves are the dreamer's possession; therefore taking pleasure in them signifies the dreamer's being pleased with his own possessions\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1978091",
"title": "Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies",
"section": "Section::::Iberian precedents to New World slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1864,
"text": "The Roman Empire extensively utilized chattel slavery for labor, private property that could be disposed at will, and slaves' status was specified in the Code of Justinian, but slaves' ethnicity or race was not specified. With the rise of Christianity, the status of slaves was not altered, but slaves were to be converted to Christianity. Christians were in theory banned from enslaving fellow Christians, but the practice persisted. With the rise of Islam, and the conquest of most of the Iberian peninsula in the eighth century, slavery declined in remaining Iberian Christian kingdoms. Muslims were resistant to conversion to Christianity, and they did not enslave fellow believers. Latin Christianity gradually diminished enslavement of fellow Christians. As Christian Spain sought to retake territory lost to Muslims, the reconquista had implications for their understanding of slavery. Conquered Muslims were enslaved with the justification conversion and acculturation, but Muslim captives were often offered back to their families and communities for cash payments (\"rescate\"). The thirteenth-century code of law, the \"Siete Partidas\" of Alfonso \"the learned\" (1252–1284) specified who could be enslaved: those who were captured in just war; offspring of an enslaved mother; those who voluntarily sold themselves into slavery, and specified slaves' good treatment by their masters. At the time it was generally domestic slavery and was a temporary condition of members of outgroups. As well as the formal parameters for slavery, the \"Siete Partidas\" also makes a value judgment, stating that it \"was the basest and most wretched condition into which anyone could fall because man, who is the most free noble of all God's creatures, becomes thereby in the power of another, who can do with him what he wishes as with any property, whether living or dead.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2567586",
"title": "Status in Roman legal system",
"section": "Section::::Status libertatis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The social and legal status of slaves in the Roman state was different in different epochs. In the time of old civil law (ius civile Quiritium) slavery had a patriarchal shape (a slave did the same job and lived under the same conditions as his master and family). After Rome's victorious wars, from the 3rd century BC, huge numbers of slaves came to Rome, and that resulted in slave trade and increased exploitation of slaves. From that time on, a slave became only a thing (res)- \"servi pro nullis habentur\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37576969",
"title": "Slavery in Spain",
"section": "Section::::Roman Laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The idea that slavery was based on race was and continues to be one of the biggest misconceptions about slavery in Spain. Phillips Jr. William D. in \"The History of Slavery in Iberia\", challenged the idea that race was not the key to determine who was enslaved, but instead religion. Roman laws existed, subjugating slavery which included the sources of slaves, their conditions, and possibility of liberation. In addition, the \"normal pattern\" was to prohibit people from enslaving someone within their same religion. Muslims could not enslave Muslims, Christians could not enslave Christians, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3v8n2y
|
how do aquariums get the large fish to the aquarium once construction is finished?
|
[
{
"answer": "I admit, I can't help but think of them being transported in huge plastic bags, like goldfish. In reality, they do it like [this](_URL_0_). Basically, big tanks that look like storage containers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We will construct a series of breathing apparatus with kelp. We will be able to trap certain amounts of oxygen, its not gonna be days at a time but hour, hour forty five? No problem. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They take the school bus.\n\nGeddit? _School_ bus? Anyone?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3806570",
"title": "Kelly Tarlton's Sea Life Aquarium",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The aquarium opened in 1985 after 10 months of construction. Tarlton developed a new method of building an acrylic tunnel by taking large sheets of clear acrylic, cutting them to size and heating them in an oven until they took the shape of the mould. Some of the sheets weighed over one tonne. Because of the refraction caused by light travelling through water, and the acrylic sheets used in the creation of the tunnel, the fish appear to be one third smaller than they are.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1562251",
"title": "Belle Isle Aquarium",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "When it was open, the aquarium had 60 exhibits with a total tank volume of , and was home to over 1,500 fish of 146 species. The aquarium largely featured freshwater species native to the Great Lakes region, but also had salt-water species from around the world. Currently the aquarium is operating with a limited collection of fish species, as volunteers are still working to restore the aquarium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25337925",
"title": "Bangalore Aquarium",
"section": "Section::::Species on display.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Fish that can be seen at the aquarium include eels, angelfish, glowlight tetra, hockey stick tetra, red-tail shark, catla, Indian tiger barb, mahseer, freshwater prawns, blue gourami, pearl gourami, gold fish, moon tail, and more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36484976",
"title": "Maria Mitchell Aquarium",
"section": "Section::::Exhibits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The aquarium contains 20 saltwater tanks and two \"touch tanks\" in three small buildings. The tanks house local species that are released back to the wild when the aquarium closes for the winter. The touch tanks let visitors get close to local species such as crabs, Horseshoe crabs, and clams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11329424",
"title": "Freshwater aquarium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Aquariums may be decorated with sand or gravel, live or plastic plants, driftwood, rocks, and a variety of commercially made plastic sculptures. The smallest aquariums are fish bowls, but these are not recommended for most fish as they are generally too small, tend to stunt fish growth, and may lead to eventual death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24047900",
"title": "Aquarium du Grand Lyon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The largest aquarium is called \"Fosse Aux Requins\" which houses sharks and rays. It contains a false shipwreck in polyurethane resin (the iron would have rusted and the rust is toxic to fishes). Its glass is 23 centimetres thick to resist the water pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11329424",
"title": "Freshwater aquarium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "A freshwater aquarium is a receptacle that holds one or more freshwater aquatic organisms for decorative, pet-keeping, or research purposes. Modern aquariums are most often made from transparent glass or acrylic glass. Typical inhabitants include fish, plants, amphibians, and invertebrates, such as snails and crustaceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mr064
|
When you dry heave why do you always feel better?
|
[
{
"answer": "Once you trip the gag reflex (or mental equivalent thereof) your body is going to keep trying to expel (what it thinks is) something dangerous until it succeeds or it was proven to be a false message.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Once you trip the gag reflex (or mental equivalent thereof) your body is going to keep trying to expel (what it thinks is) something dangerous until it succeeds or it was proven to be a false message.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4189181",
"title": "Dryness (taste)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Dryness is a property of beverages that describes the lack of a sweet taste. This may be due to a lack of sugars, the presence of some other taste that masks sweetness, or an underabundance of simple carbohydrates that can be converted to sugar by enzymes in the mouth (amylase in particular). The term \"dry\" may be applied to types of beer, wine, distilled spirits, or any other form of alcoholic beverage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068260",
"title": "Dry drunk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The dry drunk is portrayed with feelings of profound depression and frustration and with the indecisive feeling of wanting a drink that they have given up. Several alcoholics drink for about 10-20 years before maintaining sobriety and get used to their personality and character traits that are embodied by their drunkard selves. During this phase of dry drunk, the addicts face restlessness, frustration, anger, impatience and craving. The symptoms of dry drunkenness are irregular and become less intense as the period of sobriety increases. Most of the symptoms of dry drunkenness can be noticed in the initial phase of sobriety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42551122",
"title": "Savoring",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "As mentioned earlier, trait based savoring may be expressed negatively in the form of dampening. Dampening has been classified as a savoring response in opposition to amplifying, a process that increases positive emotions by focusing on how their experiences went right. In this way, savoring may be connected with rumination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3454486",
"title": "Primary polydipsia",
"section": "Section::::Diagnostic considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Dry mouth is often a side effect of medications used in the treatment of some mental disorders, rather than being caused by the underlying condition. Such medications include antipsychotics, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, alpha agonists and anticholinergics. It should also be ensured that the thirst isn't caused by diuretic use (particularly thiazide diuretics), MDMA use, excessive solute intake or chronic alcoholism. Alcoholism may cause physiological thirst since ethanol inhibits vasopressin, the hormone primarily responsible for water retention in osmoregulation. The following conditions should also be excluded: DI, cerebral salt wasting, pseudohyponatraemia caused by hyperlipidemia or hyperparaproteinemia, SIADH, mineralcorticoid deficiency, salt-wasting nephropathy, nephrotic syndrome, chronic heart failure and cirrhosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11576502",
"title": "Retching",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Retching (also known as dry heaving) is the reverse movement (retroperistalsis) of the stomach and esophagus without vomiting. It can be caused by bad smell or choking, or by withdrawal from some medications after vomiting stops. Retching can also occur as a result of an emotional response or from stress, which produces the same physical reaction. The function is thought to be mixing gastric contents with intestinal refluxate in order to buffer the former and give it momentum in preparation of vomiting. Treatments include medication and correction of the fluid and electrolyte balance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068260",
"title": "Dry drunk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "A dry drunk can be described as a person who refrains from alcohol or drugs, but still has all the unresolved emotional and psychological issues which might have fueled the addiction to begin with. These unresolved issues continue to have a hold on their psyche and hence, they act like \"dry drunks.\" In most cases, alcohol dependency is a substantial factor in the lives of the alcoholics and accepting sobriety comes with its own challenges and understanding of their personality. Despite leaving alcohol and de-addicting themselves, most of their personalities are an embodiment of their drunkard selves. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1231986",
"title": "Indigestion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Indigestion, also known as dyspepsia, is a condition of impaired digestion. Symptoms may include upper abdominal fullness, heartburn, nausea, belching, or upper abdominal pain. People may also experience feeling full earlier than expected when eating. Dyspepsia is a common problem and is frequently caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or gastritis. In a small minority of cases it may be the first symptom of peptic ulcer disease (an ulcer of the stomach or duodenum) and, occasionally, cancer. Hence, unexplained newly onset dyspepsia in people over 55 or the presence of other alarming symptoms may require further investigations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bix1bh
|
Did Pasteur's rabies cure involve injections to the stomach?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you don't get an answer here, you can try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofmedicine",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Biologist here:\n\nAwesome question!\n\nPasteur’s treatments were indeed shots in the abdomen, in a series.\n\nIts known as an attenuated vaccine, by starting with an incredibly weak version of the virus and slowly stepping up in strength and condition of the virus, the body is slowly able to build an immunity and stop the infection before it becomes uncontrollable.\n\n\nWe used to use abdominal shots because the fatty tissue slowed the virus down in getting into the bloodstream and into the brain, giving the immune system a chance to spot it and attack it before it settles into brain tissue and starts destroying the brain",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4373977",
"title": "Artificial induction of immunity",
"section": "Section::::Germ Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Pasteur also isolated a crude preparation of the infectious agent for rabies. In a brave piece of rapid medicine development, he probably saved the life of a person who had been bitten by a clearly rabid dog by performing the same inactivating process upon his rabies preparation and then inoculating the patient with it. The patient, who was expected to die, lived, and thus was the first person successfully vaccinated against rabies. René Dubos, Louis Pasteur: Freelance Of Science, Little, Brown and Company, 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46722965",
"title": "Pierre-Victor Galtier",
"section": "Section::::Work on rabies.:1880.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "In this book, he wrote this sentence summarizing his first observations on immunity to rabies: \"Rabies virus injected directly into the blood stream is ineffective, at least this is what I found in several experiences where I had injected into the jugular vein of the sheep a large amount of rabid drool\". His experiments were published in several articles the following year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29802394",
"title": "Social history of viruses",
"section": "Section::::Discovery of vaccination.:Louis Pasteur and rabies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In France during the time of Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) there were only a few hundred rabies infections in humans each year, but cures were desperately sought. Aware of the possible danger, Pasteur began to look for the \"microbe\" in mad dogs. Pasteur showed that when the dried spinal cords from dogs that had died from rabies were crushed and injected into healthy dogs they did not become infected. He repeated the experiment several times on the same dog with tissue that had been dried for fewer and fewer days, until the dog survived even after injections of fresh rabies-infected spinal tissue. Pasteur had immunised the dog against rabies, as he later did with 50 more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "883664",
"title": "Post-exposure prophylaxis",
"section": "Section::::Rabies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "PEP is commonly and very effectively used to prevent the onset of rabies after a bite by a suspected-rabid animal, since diagnostic tools are not available to detect rabies infection prior to the onset of the nearly always-fatal disease. The treatment consists of a series of injections of rabies vaccine and immunoglobulin. Rabies vaccine is given to both humans and animals who have been potentially exposed to rabies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63790",
"title": "Bacteriocin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Bacteriocins were first discovered by André Gratia in 1925. He was involved in the process of searching for ways to kill bacteria, which also resulted in the development of antibiotics and the discovery of bacteriophage, all within a span of a few years. He called his first discovery a \"colicine\" because it killed \"E. coli.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46722965",
"title": "Pierre-Victor Galtier",
"section": "Section::::Work on rabies.:1879.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Galtier also had a brilliant idea: he began experiments to find an agent capable of neutralizing rabies virus. He thought that the discovery of an effective preventive was almost equivalent to the discovery of a cure, especially if it was effective when administered within a day or two of an infected bite. It is this 'genius idea which is the basis of preventive treatment for rabies by vaccination'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6226636",
"title": "Brodifacoum",
"section": "Section::::Human poisoning.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "The primary antidote to brodifacoum poisoning is immediate administration of vitamin K (dosage for humans: initially slow intravenous injections of 10–25 mg repeated at 3–6 hours until normalisation of the prothrombin time; then 10 mg orally four times daily as a \"maintenance dose\"). It is an extremely effective antidote, provided the poisoning is caught before excessive bleeding ensues. As high doses of brodifacoum can affect the body for many months, the antidote must be administered regularly for a long period (several months, in keeping with the substance's half-life) with frequent monitoring of the prothrombin time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ib34t
|
how do they film those commercials/videos where people are frozen, but the camera moves all around them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mannequin challenge? No tricks, just very still people:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They use a lot of cameras and select different images from each camera, like [this](_URL_0_). The first instance of this technique I'm aware of was in the matrix, they called it bullet time, I don't know if it has a more formal name these days since becoming more common. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "396968",
"title": "Motion capture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Camera movements can also be motion captured so that a virtual camera in the scene will pan, tilt or dolly around the stage driven by a camera operator while the actor is performing. At the same time, the motion capture system can capture the camera and props as well as the actor's performance. This allows the computer-generated characters, images and sets to have the same perspective as the video images from the camera. A computer processes the data and displays the movements of the actor, providing the desired camera positions in terms of objects in the set. Retroactively obtaining camera movement data from the captured footage is known as \"match moving\" or \"camera tracking\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1624732",
"title": "Time-lapse photography",
"section": "Section::::Time-lapse camera movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "A variation of these are rigs that move the camera during exposures of each frame of film, blurring the entire image. Under controlled conditions, usually with computers carefully making the movements during and between each frame, some exciting blurred artistic and visual effects can be achieved, especially when the camera is mounted on a tracking system that enables its own movement through space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "662606",
"title": "Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased)",
"section": "Section::::Filming \"Randall and Hopkirk\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1170,
"text": "Hopkirk's appearances were achieved by the simplest and cheapest of means, which had been in use since the earliest days of cinema. While the camera remained static, the other actors would freeze, Kenneth Cope would enter the scene and the other actors would unfreeze. Cutting out the extraneous footage in between was all that was necessary. Disappearances used the same method in reverse. Optical effects, which were prohibitively expensive and time-consuming at the time, were largely avoided, although superimposition or bluescreen travelling matte shots were very occasionally used. The Victorian theatrical illusion Pepper's Ghost was used on at least once, notably in the opening episode where the pair are in the hotel, and while searching for the murderer Marty is unable to glide through a door. Egged on by Jeff, Marty closes his eyes and backs up to charge the door, but goes too far and glides through the door opposite, before charging forward at the original door. The slightly-overlit illusion is obvious, but fun nevertheless, and was used to great effect in other episodes, such as \"Whoever Heard Of A Ghost Dying?\" and \"But What A Sweet Little Room\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "396968",
"title": "Motion capture",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Since 2001, motion capture is being used extensively to produce films which attempt to simulate or approximate the look of live-action cinema, with nearly photorealistic digital character models. \"The Polar Express\" used motion capture to allow Tom Hanks to perform as several distinct digital characters (in which he also provided the voices). The 2007 adaptation of the saga \"Beowulf\" animated digital characters whose appearances were based in part on the actors who provided their motions and voices. James Cameron's highly popular \"Avatar\" used this technique to create the Na'vi that inhabit Pandora. The Walt Disney Company has produced Robert Zemeckis's \"A Christmas Carol\" using this technique. In 2007, Disney acquired Zemeckis' ImageMovers Digital (that produces motion capture films), but then closed it in 2011, after a string of failures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5314231",
"title": "Freeze-frame shot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "In film and video, a freeze frame is when a single frame of content shows repeatedly on the screen—\"freezing\" the action. This can be done in the content itself, by printing (on film) or recording (on video) multiple copies of the same source frame. This produces a static shot that resembles a still photograph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41180",
"title": "Freeze frame television",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Freeze frame television: Television in which fixed (\"still\") images (the frames of the video) are transmitted sequentially at a rate far too slow to be perceived as continuous motion by human vision. The receiving device typically holds each frame in memory, displaying it until the next complete frame is available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6777",
"title": "Computer animation",
"section": "Section::::Animation methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "In contrast, a newer method called \"motion capture\" makes use of live action footage. When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated. His/her motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers and that performance is then applied to the animated character.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2txk4j
|
why do movie theaters still use film reels when there is other technology available?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the most part they aren't anymore. I forget the movie, but a recent one (possibly even an upcoming one) was/is supposed to be available on film only due to director preference and a bunch of theater chains are giving loud wtf's on that. They all just spent a bunch of money upgrading to digital projectors so nobody needs to physically ship film reels anymore...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "cause film is better quality than a low end digital projector. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of them don't; digital technology is available. But converting the projectors is quite pricey, so not all theaters have converted. The old film projectors are reasonably reliable and do a good job. \n \nOne of the biggest impetus to change is from the film distributors, since they have to ship around those large reels, and replace them when the film quality goes to heal due to wear and tear. But they don't want to pay the theater owners to convert.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like people have said, most don't. Those that do, probably do so in part because it costs a lot of money to upgrade equipment like that. The studios may also be incentivizing it to some degree, because it's much harder to convert something from film to digital than it would be to rip the media from a digital DCP drive and convert it to another format.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aside from the digital vs 35mm aesthetic debate I can answer from the theatre operator perspective. \n\nA digital projector is so expensive a theatre likely has to lease it out over a very long contract with the company that makes the projectors. Now, this cuts into ticket price LOT. Like, so much a theatre can't afford it. \n\nSo, the theatre cuts another contract with a film distributor(s), who helps pay for the contract by requiring you to show X amount of their films. \n\nSo now your stuck in a shitty three way contract but at least your obligated to receive films to show on it. \n\nAnd it all cost more than -14- 35mm projectors. Oh, and The digital upgrade requires an entirely new audio system. And it draws so much power and generates so much heat you need to get an HVAC guy and hire an electrician to redo your projection booth. Oh, and you better hope your screen reflects enough light or that needs replaced too. \n\nOr you can keep ordering films in 35mm from your distributor and they get half the box office take. \n\nAnd you know what? I liked the look of 35mm films that were shot using traditional cameras better. Not every film is Interstellar or 48fps teledrama hobbit, but that's just personal preference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4552880",
"title": "Film distribution",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "Historically, all mass-marketed feature films were made to be shown in movie theaters. The development of television has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being shown in theaters. In 1971 U-Matic became the first magnetic format in which movies could be enjoyed in institutions outside the theatre. Later that year, the first cartrivision videocassettes of movies became available to consumers to watch in their own homes. Recording technology has since enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on VHS or DVD (and the older formats of laserdisc, VCD and SelectaVision – see also videodisc), and Internet downloads may be available and are revenue sources for film production companies. Some films may be made specifically for non-theatrical formats, being released as a \"television movie\" or \"direct-to-video\" movie. The production values on these films are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases in similar genres; some films that are rejected by their own movie studios upon completion may be distributed through these markets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "731779",
"title": "Movie projector",
"section": "Section::::Principles of operation.:Film transport elements.:Film supply and takeup.:Automation and the rise of the multiplex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The single reel system can allow for the complete automation of the projection booth operations, given the proper auxiliary equipment. Since films are still transported in multiple reels they must be joined together when placed on the projector reel and taken apart when the film is to be returned to the distributor. It is the complete automation of projection that has enabled the modern \"multiplex\" cinema – a single site typically containing from 8 to 24 theaters with only a few projection and sound technicians, rather than a platoon of projectionists. The multiplex also offers a great amount of flexibility to a theater operator, enabling theaters to exhibit the same popular production in more than one auditorium with staggered starting times. It is also possible, with the proper equipment installed, to \"interlock\", i.e. thread a single length of film through multiple projectors. This is very useful when dealing with the mass crowds that an extremely popular film may generate in the first few days of showing, as it allows for a single print to serve more patrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "731779",
"title": "Movie projector",
"section": "Section::::Principles of operation.:Film transport elements.:Film supply and takeup.:Changeover.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Because a single film reel does not contain enough film to show an entire feature, the film is distributed on multiple reels. To prevent having to interrupt the show when one reel ends and the next is mounted, two projectors are used in what is known as a \"changeover system,\" after the switching mechanism that operates between the end of one reel on the first projector and the beginning of the next reel on the second projector. The two-reel system was used almost universally for movie theaters before the advent of the single-reel system in order to be able to show feature-length films. Although one-reel long-play systems tend to be more popular with the newer multiplexes, the two-reel system is still in significant use to this day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179166",
"title": "Cinemax",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "Cinemax succeeded in its early years because cable television subscribers typically had access to only about three dozen channels due to system headends at the time of Cinemax's debut being capable of carrying only a limited number of channels. Movies were the most sought-after program category among cable subscribers at the time, and that Cinemax would show classic films without commercial interruptions and editing for time and content made the channel an attractive add-on for HBO subscribers. In many cases, cable providers would not sell Cinemax to customers who did not already have a subscription to HBO. The two channels were typically sold as a package, and were usually offered at a discount for subscribers that chose to get both channels. The typical pricing for a monthly subscription to HBO in the early 1980s was US$12.95 per month, while Cinemax typically could be added for between US$7 and $10 extra per month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31917827",
"title": "Projection booth",
"section": "Section::::Current usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1576,
"text": "Modern cinemas are now highly automated and few would ever have a need to run nitrate film. The need to do changeovers has been effectively superseded with the introduction of continuous loop projection systems. These systems operate by having all the reels of film for the entire showing, main feature, supporting film, trailers etc all stuck together in one gigantic reel that is normally mounted horizontally and the film is fed from the centre of the spool to the projector where it is screened and then wound back on the outside of the same horizontal spool. Quite often these spools will be located some way from the projector and the film path may be over rollers along the ceiling of the projection room and surrounds. The lenses of the projector can be automatically rotated in front of the projector light aperture to accommodate the correct lens for a given format. The picture to the right shows a semi-automatic system using vertical spools that can hold an entire movie, however these are not the continuous loop projection systems and the film will need to be rewound after the screening. Also the rotating lens turret can be seen on the projector to the right of the image. Both of the automated methods of screening need very few staff in very often one projectionist will look after the screening of three or four auditoria in one cinema complex. Although there is no longer a need for the shutter or the small porthole like windows in the projection room they are still installed, mainly to reduce ambient light in the projection room reaching the screen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22317769",
"title": "Digital Cinema Media",
"section": "Section::::Digital advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Upon the original change of image in April 2011, all reels were produced in digital format for all films at cinemas that were capable of showing them. DCM stopped using standard film in September 2012, and is currently in the process of converting every cinema site that it supplies advertising, to digital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41496067",
"title": "History of film technology",
"section": "Section::::Digital film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "Digital cinema, the use of digital technology to distribute or project motion pictures has also largely replaced the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film. Whereas traditional film reels had to be shipped to movie theaters, a digital movie can be distributed to cinemas in a number of ways: over the Internet or dedicated satellite links or by sending hard drives or optical discs such as Blu-ray discs. Digital movies are projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and is not dependent on using television or high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, or frame rates. In digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K (2048×1080 or 2.2 megapixels) or 4K (4096×2160 or 8.8 megapixels). As digital cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most of the theaters across the world converted to digital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13zvee
|
I found this small ice formation in my garden. It has the appearance of a stalagmite however there was nothing above it which could have dripped on to it, suggesting the ice rose upwards on its own. Can anyone explain the process by which this could have occurred?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't have any scientific expertise in this area, but your description does remind me of ice cube tray ice spikes. I don't know if they're related, but [here's some reading](_URL_0_) if you're interested!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45046091",
"title": "King Baudouin Ice Shelf",
"section": "Section::::Supposed meteor crater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "In early 2015, scientists announced the discovery of an almost circular structure in the ice surface, about wide. First hypothesis for its origin, among other ice-shelf processes, was the impact of a meteor. The feature was discovered by German scientist Christian Müller as he conducted an aerial survey on 20 December 2014. If found, this is likely to be the largest, identified, Antarctic meteorite, as the rule of thumb is that the meteorite causing a crater is about 5-10% of the diameter of the crater, or roughly 200m in this case. Initial analysis of satellite images indicates that the feature could have been present before the supposed impact, even for 25 years. In December 2016, researchers concluded that the structure is a collapsed underground lake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28982",
"title": "Snowball Earth",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.:Open-water deposits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "It appears that some deposits formed during the snowball period could only have formed in the presence of an active hydrological cycle. Bands of glacial deposits up to 5,500 meters thick, separated by small (meters) bands of non-glacial sediments, demonstrate that glaciers melted and re-formed repeatedly for tens of millions of years; solid oceans would not permit this scale of deposition. It is considered possible that ice streams such as seen in Antarctica today could have caused these sequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4386326",
"title": "Anchor ice",
"section": "Section::::Types and formation.:In the Antarctic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Anchor ice crystals in the Antarctic are generally in the form of thin, circular platelets of 2–10 cm in diameter. Large masses of irregularly-oriented crystals form anchor ice formations, which may be as large as 4m in diameter when attached to large immovable objects on the sea floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21976103",
"title": "Ceraunius Tholus",
"section": "Section::::Glaciers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Some scientists believe that glaciers may have existed on many of the volcanoes in Tharsis including Olympus Mons, Ascraeus Mons, and Pavonis Mons. Ceraunius Tholus may have even had its glaciers melt to form some temporary lakes in the past. The smoothness and flatness of the Ceraunius Tholus caldera floor suggests that in the past meltwater accumulated in a caldera lake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25340494",
"title": "Ice lens",
"section": "Section::::Ice sphere formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "The formation of an ice sphere can happen when an object is about 0.5 ft - 1 ft above where the water reaches repeatedly. The water will form a thin layer of ice on any surface it reaches. Each wave is an advancement and recession of water. The advancement soaks everything on the shore. When the wave recedes, it's left exposed to freezing temperatures. This brief moment of exposure causes a thin layer of ice to form. When that formation is suspended in the air by dead vegetation or erect objects, the ice will begin to form a sphere or teardrop-like shape. Similar to how a condensation nucleus forms, the sphere needs a base that is not water. Most commonly on vegetation, the sphere starts as a dot of ice on a branch or stem. As waves soak the shore in water and briefly expose the soaked objects to freezing temperatures, the dot begins to grow as each thin layer wraps itself around the previous layer. Over time, they form spheres or teardrop-like formations\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "677892",
"title": "Arsia Mons",
"section": "Section::::Glaciers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Recent work provides evidence for glaciers on Arsia Mons at both high and low elevations . A series of parallel ridges resemble moraines dropped by glaciers. Another section looks as if ice melted under the ground and formed a knobby terrain. The lower part has lobes and seems to be flowing downhill. This lobed feature may still contain an ice core that is covered with a thin layer of rocks that has prevented ice from sublimating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49513763",
"title": "Dorsa Argentea Formation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The Dorsa Argentea Formation represents a time when there was melting and drainage of meltwater from a giant ice sheet around the Martian South Pole. Various mechanisms may have caused the ice to melt. Possible mechanisms may have been a warmer atmosphere, volcanism, or increased thickness of the ice cap from accumulating snow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ov64p
|
Diminishing returns on exercise. How big are we talking?
|
[
{
"answer": "The first hour a week is far and away the most important, because it stimulates the metabolism and muscle growth of an otherwise unhealthy/unsporty person. Someone who works out regularly should not notice a positive effect of such an extend after each individual workout.\n\nOther than that, you can't really define \"benefit\" in a broad sense; cardiovescular exercises have an entirely different effect than exercises for muscle gain.\n\nThe former have a fairly marginal \"diminishing returns\" effect - especially if you're working towards fat loss, you'll burn twice as many calories if you work out twice as often.\n\nFor muscle growth, on the other hand, too much exercise is actually counterproductive. A muscle needs approx. 48h rest after a workout.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16413778",
"title": "Ageing",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and delay.:Lifestyle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Physical exercise may increase life expectancy. People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who are not physically active. Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging and improving quality of life by reducing inflammatory potential. The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week. For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for 25 minutes on a daily basis would \"together\" achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "432986",
"title": "Physical fitness",
"section": "Section::::Activity guidelines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The more exercise you do, the better. Everyone should do a minimum of 150 minutes a week of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise but that really is the minimum for health benefits. If you can go beyond 150 minutes, you’ll gain even more health benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26224040",
"title": "James O'Keefe (cardiologist)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "O'Keefe's research and publications have focused mostly on exercise, diet and evolution. Daily exercise is one of the key components of lifestyle for promoting health and longevity, and will reduce risks for heart disease, Alzheimer's, hypertension, osteoporosis, depression and diabetes dramatically. However, excessive endurance exercise may potentially cause CV damage. This work has garnered attention in both the cardiology world and the general public. The articles suggest that extreme endurance exercise such as marathons, ironman distance triathlons, and long distance bicycle races may, over many years to decades, in some individuals lead to adverse structural changes in the heart and large arteries, predisposing to \"cardiac overuse injury.\" CV damage can include fibrosis (scarring) in the heart muscle, accelerated plaque buildup in coronary arteries and atrial fibrillation. These papers emphasize that exercise best confers benefits to longevity and cardiac health at moderate doses. O'Keefe discusses this in a TEDx Talk entitled: \"Run for your life! At a comfortable pace and not too far.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31595228",
"title": "Psychological stress",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Exercising to reduce stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Studies have shown that exercise reduces stress. Exercise effectively reduces fatigue, improves sleep, enhances overall cognitive function such as alertness and concentration, decreases overall levels of tension, and improves self-esteem. Because many of these are depleted when an individual experiences chronic stress, exercise provides an ideal coping mechanism. Despite popular belief, it is not necessary for exercise to be routine or intense in order to reduce stress. As little as five minutes of aerobic exercise can begin to stimulate anti-anxiety effects. Further, a 10-minute walk may have the same psychological benefits as a 45-minute workout, reinforcing the assertion that exercise in any amount or intensity will reduce stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34253810",
"title": "2012 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:November.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 654,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 654,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::- Leisure-time physical activity extends life expectancy by as much as 4.5 years, according to a study by the National Cancer Institute. Even half of the recommended weekly exercise can add 1.8 years. (Science Daily)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26639763",
"title": "Weight management",
"section": "Section::::Popular diets.:GM Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "Regular exercise is required to maintain the state of recovery from weight loss management. If resistance training is employed to maintain muscle mass for better glucose-disposal and glucose-control capability, a 12 to 48 hours of rest between sessions is a required time for the muscles to recover depending on intensity of exercise or training load. A change in hormone levels occurs in case of drastic dietary changes, like leptin - a satiety hormone, made by fat cells showed declination in levels, its function is to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger and at the same time, there is also a rise in levels of ghrelin – a hormone secreted in the gastrointestinal tract when a person's stomach is empty and informs one they are hungry. Changes in production of these hormones along with other satiating hormones in extreme weight loss managements showed suppressed resting metabolic rate (RMR) which resulted many subjects regaining much of the lost weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37002564",
"title": "Rebound exercise",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Today, there appears to be an upsurge of interest in rebound exercise, in part due to increasing quality of equipment and in part due to its use in physical therapy and the fight against obesity generally. Rebound exercise is especially popular in holistic health circles, as rebounding is said to combat a number of ailments (see “Claimed Benefits” below) given its ability to generally and gently stimulate the immune system and provide aerobic exercise without jarring the physical structures of the body as the elastic element of the rebounder is said to take up to 85% of the shock that the body would otherwise experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4xi8gn
|
Question about kingship and the Holy Roman Empire
|
[
{
"answer": "In a sense, it developed around 1000 A.D. that \"Rex Romanorum\" was the title that the electors confered on the elected, before that it was \"Rex Germaniae\" or even \"Rex Francorum\" - they meant East Francia.\n\nBefore Maximilian it was implied that the elected would have to get the pope to crown him to be emperor. In 1508, Maximilan got the pope, Julius II., to confer upon him that he could call himself \"Elected Roman Emperor\" without getting crowned by the pope. \nHis greatson, Charles V. called himself \"Elected Emperor\" after his election and the pope concured in 1520.\nHowever, Charles still managed to get crowned in 1530 by the pope in person.\nHis successors kept the \"Elected Emperor\" part and weren't crowned by the pope anymore.\n\nThe difference between a crowned and annoited Emperor and the \"King of the Romans\" was prestige; going to Rome and getting the Pope to crown the King of the Romans showed that he was quite powerfull. For example, from 1220 to 1312 there was no coronation.\n\nCompare that to what happened to Sigismund, who had to wait 22 years to be crowned.\n\nMost emperors before Maximilian (his father and the emperors before 1220) and most of his successors sought to have their son crowned \"King of the Romans\" to have a successor to be monarch without another election after their death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29545",
"title": "Salian dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The four Salian kings of the dynasty—Conrad II, Henry III, Henry IV, and Henry V—ruled the Holy Roman Empire from 1027 to 1125, and firmly established their monarchy as a major European power. They achieved the development of a permanent administrative system based on a class of public officials answerable to the crown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13277",
"title": "Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Institutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was not a highly centralized state like most countries today. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by kings, dukes, counts, bishops, abbots, and other rulers, collectively known as princes. There were also some areas ruled directly by the Emperor. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13277",
"title": "Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Late Middle Ages.:Rise of the territories after the Hohenstaufens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The kings beginning with Rudolf I of Germany increasingly relied on the lands of their respective dynasties to support their power. In contrast with the \"Reichsgut\", which was mostly scattered and difficult to administer, these territories were relatively compact and thus easier to control. In 1282, Rudolf I thus lent Austria and Styria to his own sons. In 1312, Henry VII of the House of Luxembourg was crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor since Frederick II. After him all kings and emperors relied on the lands of their own family (\"Hausmacht\"): Louis IV of Wittelsbach (king 1314, emperor 1328–47) relied on his lands in Bavaria; Charles IV of Luxembourg, the grandson of Henry VII, drew strength from his own lands in Bohemia. It was thus increasingly in the king's own interest to strengthen the power of the territories, since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6865",
"title": "Concordat of Worms",
"section": "Section::::Gregorian Reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The Holy Roman Emperors of Ottonian dynasty, when they came to the throne, believed they should have the power to appoint the pope. They also believed they should appoint minor church officials. The result was that, more often than not, bishops, abbots of monasteries, and even the pope were not independent, but resembled lackeys or sycophants of the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. This attitude was bolstered by the general conception that the Holy Roman Emperor and all other European Kings were chosen by God to be leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30583",
"title": "Thirty Years' War",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1403,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states (a fragmentation that the Peace of Westphalia would solidify). The position of the Holy Roman Emperor was mainly titular, but the emperors, from the House of Habsburg, also directly ruled a large portion of imperial territory (lands of the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bohemia), as well as the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian domain was thus a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. Another branch of the House of Habsburg ruled over Spain and its empire, which included the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas. In addition to Habsburg lands, the Holy Roman Empire contained several regional powers, such as the Duchy of Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate and the Landgraviate of Hesse. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free cities, abbeys, prince-bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimes extended to no more than a single village) rounded out the empire. Apart from Austria and perhaps Bavaria, none of those entities was capable of national-level politics; alliances between family-related states were common, due partly to the frequent practice of partible inheritance, i.e. splitting a lord's inheritance among his various sons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11071897",
"title": "Imperial vicar",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was an elective monarchy, not a hereditary one. When a King or Holy Roman Emperor died, if a King of the Romans had not already been elected, there would be no new Emperor for a matter of several months until all the Electors, or their representatives, could assemble for a new imperial election. During that time, imperial institutions still required oversight. This was performed by two imperial vicars. Each vicar, in the words of the Golden Bull, was \"the administrator of the empire itself, with the power of passing judgments, of presenting to ecclesiastical benefices, of collecting returns and revenues and investing with fiefs, of receiving oaths of fealty for and in the name of the holy empire\". All acts of the vicars were subject to ratification by the elected King or Emperor. On many occasions, however, there was no interregnum, as a new king had been elected during the lifetime of his predecessor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19012",
"title": "Monarch",
"section": "Section::::Titles and precedence in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Within the Holy Roman Empire, there were numerous titles used by noblemen whose authority within their territory sometimes approached sovereignty, even though they acknowledged the Holy Roman Emperor as suzerain; Elector, Grand Duke, Margrave, Landgrave and Count Palatine, as well as secular princes like kings, dukes, princes and \"princely counts\" (\"Gefürstete Grafen\"), and ecclesiastical princes like Prince-Archbishops, Prince-Bishops and Prince-Abbots. A ruler with a title below emperor or king might still be regarded as a monarch, outranking a nobleman of the same ostensible title (e.g., Antoine, Duke of Lorraine, a reigning sovereign, and his younger brother, Claude, Duke of Guise, a nobleman in the peerage of France).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
asjvrt
|
Is there a defining symptom for comas?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the difficulties with answering this question is that the term \"coma\" is not used in medicine at all. It's a layman's term, so the definition varies broadly. I think the most reasonable definition that medical personnel would agree with is a person who is unresponsive in all ways (voice or movement), cannot move their body spontaneously, and has no functional memory. Beyond that I cannot further define coma because, again, it is not a medical term. \n\nYou can't fake a coma. There are a few tests that can be done to assess your level of consciousness the simplest of which is just causing pain and seeing if you react. Even if you don't react and keep your body limp, we can always just stick a bispectral index monitor or just an EEG on you and see your brain activity. You can't fake the brain activity of someone in a \"coma\".\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The severity and mode of onset of coma depends on the underlying cause. For instance, severe hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) or hypercapnia (increased carbon dioxide levels in the blood) initially cause mild agitation and confusion, but progress to obtundation, stupor, and finally, complete unconsciousness. In contrast, coma resulting from a severe traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid hemorrhage can be instantaneous. The mode of onset may therefore be indicative of the underlying cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Although diagnosis of coma is simple, investigating the underlying cause of onset can be rather challenging. As such, after gaining stabilization of the patient's airways, breathing and circulation (the basic ABCs) various diagnostic tests, such as physical examinations and imaging tools (CAT scan, MRI, etc.) are employed to access the underlying cause of the coma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "A coma is a deep state of prolonged unconsciousness in which a person cannot be awakened; fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound; lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle; and does not initiate voluntary actions. Coma patients exhibit a complete absence of wakefulness and are unable to consciously feel, speak or move. Comas can be derived by natural causes, or can be medically induced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41907939",
"title": "Maternal somatic support after brain death",
"section": "Section::::Brain death vs. similar conditions.:Difference between brain death and coma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "People in comas have \"presence of brain stem responses, spontaneous breathing or non-purposeful motor responses.\" However, comas can result in brain death, or recovery or even a persistent vegetative state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23623716",
"title": "Bromism",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Neurological and psychiatric symptoms are widely varied and may include the symptoms of restlessness, irritability, ataxia, confusion, hallucinations, psychosis, weakness, stupor and, in severe cases, coma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1275750",
"title": "Induced coma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "An induced coma, also known as a medically induced coma, a barbiturate-induced coma, or a barb coma, is a temporary coma (a deep state of unconsciousness) brought on by a controlled dose of a barbiturate drug, usually pentobarbital or thiopental. Barbiturate comas are used to protect the brain during major neurosurgery, as a last line of treatment in certain cases of status epilepticus that have not responded to other treatments, and in refractory intracranial hypertension following traumatic brain injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11894361",
"title": "Myxedema coma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Myxedema coma is a state of decompensated hypothyroidism. A person may have lab values identical to a \"normal\" hypothyroid state, but a stressful event (such as an infection, myocardial infarction or stroke) precipitates the myxedema coma state, usually in the elderly. Primary symptoms of myxedema coma are altered mental status and low body temperature. Low blood sugar, low blood pressure, hyponatremia, hypercapnia, hypoxia, slowed heart rate, and hypoventilation may also occur. Myxedema, although included in the name, is not necessarily seen in myxedema coma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8j8550
|
Are there any books on ancient martial arts practices, exercises, and philosophies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two books are:\n\n* Michael B. Poliakoff, *Combat Sports in the Ancient World: Competition, Violence, and Culture*, Yale University Press, 1987. As the title suggests, this is restricted to sports (mostly wrestling, boxing, and pankration), and focusses on Greek sports. Egyptian stick-fighting is covered in a few pages.\n\n* Peter A. Lorge, *Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century*, Cambridge University Press, 2012. Covers ancient, Medieval, and modern Chinese martial arts, with about 1/4 of the book covering ancient China up to the end of the Han Dynasty.\n\nThe most important and prominent ancient Chinese martial art was archery, and a significant amount of written work on technique, practice, and philosophy has survived. A useful book collecting material on Chinese archery, ancient and later, is:\n\n* Stephen Selby, *Chinese Archery*, Hong Kong University Press, 2000\n\nMoving past \"ancient\", much more material has survived from the late Medieval period and later, from Europe, the Middle East, China, Japan, and Korea (I'm not familiar with Indian martial arts texts). The majority of this material deals with armed martial arts. Some deals with unarmed martial arts, and some is heavy on philosophy/theory. One example of the latter, from the 18th century, is\n\n* Chang Naizhou (original author), Marnix Wells (translator and editor), *Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou's Theory of Internal Martial Arts and the Evolution of Taijiquan*, North Atlantic Books, 2005\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47344488",
"title": "Harley MS 3542",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The manuscript contains instruction of martial techniques and is one of three extant sources on martial techniques in Middle English, the other two being Cotton MS Titus A XXV folio. 105 and Additional MS 39564.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5568326",
"title": "Zhou Tong (archer)",
"section": "Section::::Fiction.:Students.:Yue Fei.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1232,
"text": "Books written by modern-day martial artists make many claims that are not congruent with historical documents or current scholarly thought. For instance, internalist Yang Jwing-Ming says Zhou was a scholar who studied martial arts in the Shaolin Monastery and later took Yue as his student after the young man worked as a tenant farmer for the official-general Han Qi (, 1008–1075). During this time, he learned all types of military weapons, horseback riding, and hand-to-hand combat. The General later created Xingyi and Eagle Claw boxing from his internal and external training under Zhou. However, history Prof. Meir Shahar notes that unarmed boxing styles did not develop at Shaolin until the late Ming Dynasty. He also states that Ji family memoirs and Qing Dynasty records suggest Xingyi was created hundreds of years after the death of Yue by a spearplayer named Ji Jike (fl. 1651). In addition, the appearance of Han Qi in the story is a chronological anachronism since he died nearly 30 years before Yue's birth. Yue historically worked as a tenant farmer and bodyguard for descendants of Han Qi in 1124 after leaving the military upon the death of his father in late 1122, but he learned from Zhou well before this time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3376850",
"title": "Indian martial arts",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical period (3rd to 10th centuries).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Like other branches of Sanskrit literature, treatises on martial arts become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD. Vajra-musti, an armed grappling style, is mentioned in sources of the early centuries AD. Around this time, tantric philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini, chakra, and mantra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10050914",
"title": "History of martial arts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Specific martial traditions become identifiable in Classical Antiquity, with disciplines such as shuai jiao, Greek wrestling or those described in the Indian epics or the Spring and Autumn Annals of China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "858344",
"title": "Historical European martial arts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "While there is limited surviving documentation of the martial arts of classical antiquity (such as Greek wrestling or gladiatorial combat), surviving dedicated technical treatises or martial arts manuals date to the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period. For this reason, the focus of HEMA is \"de facto\" on the period of the half-millennium of ca. 1300 to 1800, with a German and an Italian school flowering in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance (14th to 16th centuries), followed by Spanish, French, English and Scottish schools of fencing in the modern period (17th and 18th centuries). Arts of the 19th century such as classical fencing, and even early hybrid styles such as Bartitsu may also be included in the term HEMA in a wider sense, as may traditional or folkloristic styles attested in the 19th and early 20th centuries, including forms of folk wrestling and traditional stick-fighting methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3376850",
"title": "Indian martial arts",
"section": "Section::::Texts.:Agni Purana.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "One of the earliest extant manual of Indian martial arts is in the Agni Purana (dated to between the 8th and the 11th century), The dhanurveda section in the Agni Purana spans chapters 248–251, categorizing weapons into thrown and unthrown classes and further divided into several sub-classes. It catalogs training into five major divisions for different types of warriors, namely charioteers, elephant-riders, horsemen, infantry, and wrestlers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293133",
"title": "Culture of India",
"section": "Section::::Sports and martial arts.:Indian martial arts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "One of the best known forms of ancient Indian martial arts is the \"Kalarippayattu\" from Kerala. This ancient fighting style is mentioned in Sangam literature 400 BCE and 600 CE and is regarded as one of the oldest surviving martial arts. In this form martial arts, various stages of physical training include ayurvedic massage with sesame oil to impart suppleness to the body (\"uzichil\"); a series of sharp body movements so as to gain control over various parts of the body (\"miapayattu\"); and, complex sword fighting techniques (\"paliyankam\").Silambam, which was developed around 200 AD, traces its roots to the Sangam period in southern India. Silambam is unique among Indian martial arts because it uses complex footwork techniques (\"kaaladi\"), including a variety of spinning styles. A bamboo staff is used as the main weapon. The ancient Tamil Sangam literature mentions that between 400 BCE and 600 CE, soldiers from southern India received special martial arts training which revolved primarily around the use of spear (\"vel\"), sword (\"val\") and shield (\"kedaham\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vcn3d
|
Do animals that don't sweat require additional water when it is hot?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm no expert but animals that don't sweat can have other forms of thermoregulation that involve evaporating water.\nie. dogs stick their tongues out and pant when it's hot, therefore they would require more water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18588842",
"title": "Xerocole",
"section": "Section::::Water conservation.:Avoiding evaporation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Xerocoles have developed a variety of mechanisms to reduce water loss via evaporation. Mammalian xerocoles sweat much less than their non-desert counterparts. For example, the camel can survive ambient temperatures as high as without sweating, and the kangaroo rat lacks sweat glands entirely. Both birds and mammals in the desert have oils on the surface of their skin to \"waterproof\" it and inhibit evaporation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378645",
"title": "Endotherm",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Avoiding overheating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "In equatorial climates and during temperate summers, overheating (hyperthermia) is as great a threat as cold. In hot conditions, many warm-blooded animals increase heat loss by panting, which cools the animal by increasing water evaporation in the breath, and/or flushing, increasing the blood flow to the skin so the heat will radiate into the environment. Hairless and short-haired mammals, including humans, also sweat, since the evaporation of the water in sweat removes heat. Elephants keep cool by using their huge ears like radiators in automobiles. Their ears are thin and the blood vessels are close to the skin, and flapping their ears to increase the airflow over them causes the blood to cool, which reduces their core body temperature when the blood moves through the rest of the circulatory system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155056",
"title": "Dehydration",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In warm or humid weather or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for the active secretion of sweat. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24106558",
"title": "Endurance running hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical and physiological adaptations.:Increased efficiency.:Thermoregulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "The majority of mammals, including humans, rely on evaporative cooling to maintain body temperature. Most medium-to-large mammals rely on panting, while humans rely on sweating, to dissipate heat. Advantages to panting include cooler skin surface, little salt loss, and heat loss by forced convection instead of reliance on wind or other means of convection. On the other hand, sweating is advantageous in that evaporation occurs over a much larger surface area (the skin), and it is independent of respiration, thus is a much more flexible mode of cooling during intense activity such as running. Because human sweat glands are under a higher level of neuronal control than those of other species, they allow for the excretion of more sweat per unit surface area than any other species. Heat dissipation of later hominins was also enhanced by the reduction in body hair. By ridding themselves of an insulating fur coat, running humans are better able to dissipate the heat generated by exercise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378783",
"title": "Ectotherm",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In addition to behavioral adaptations, physiological adaptations help ectotherms regulate temperature. Diving reptiles conserve heat by heat exchange mechanisms, whereby cold blood from the skin picks up heat from blood moving outward from the body core, re-using and thereby conserving some of the heat that otherwise would have been wasted. The skin of bullfrogs secretes more mucus when it is hot, allowing more cooling by evaporation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "395477",
"title": "Exercise physiology",
"section": "Section::::Human adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body, unlike that of the animals they hunt, to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans, unlike other animals that catch prey, remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "928652",
"title": "Licking",
"section": "Section::::In animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Thermoregulation: Some animals use licking to cool themselves. Cats do not sweat the way humans do and the saliva deposited by licking provides a similar means of evaporative cooling. Some animals spread saliva over areas of the body with little or no fur to maximise heat loss. For example, kangaroos lick their wrists and rats lick their testicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ioxc8
|
What did soldiers in the Mongol army do in their "free time"?
|
[
{
"answer": "They trained archery, horsemanship and wrestling the three manly skills. _URL_1_. These were important for the Mongols. You can read about the Genghis khan and his empire forging in the book \"Genghis khan and the making of the Modern World\" by Jack Weatherford. Also Conn Iggulden's \"Conqueror\" series is good, albeit not historically accurate, but one gets the broad lines of Mongol conquests. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Military organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly armored than many of the armies they faced but were able to make up for it with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with multiple horses, allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of supply lines, considerably speeding up army movement. Skillful use of couriers enabled the leaders of these armies to maintain contact with each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Military organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance, and the gathering of sensitive information relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization, and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909414",
"title": "Mongol military tactics and organization",
"section": "Section::::Mobility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Each Mongol soldier typically maintained 3 or 4 horses. Changing horses often allowed them to travel at high speed for days without stopping or wearing out the animals. When one horse tired, the rider would dismount and rotate to another. Though the used mount would still have to travel, it would do so without the weight of the rider. Their ability to live off the land, and in extreme situations off their animals (mare's milk especially), made their armies far less dependent on the traditional logistical apparatus of agrarian armies. In some cases, as during the invasion of Hungary in early 1241, they covered up to per day, which was unheard of by other armies of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909414",
"title": "Mongol military tactics and organization",
"section": "Section::::Training and discipline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Mongol armies practiced horsemanship, archery, and unit tactics, formations and rotations over and over again. This training was maintained by a hard, but not overly harsh or unreasonable, discipline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2530755",
"title": "Siege of Baghdad (1258)",
"section": "Section::::Hulagu's expedition.:Planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "In preparation for his invasion, Hulagu raised a large expeditionary force, conscripting one out of every ten military-age males in the entirety of the Mongol Empire, assembling what may have been the most numerous Mongol army to have existed and, by one estimate, 150,000 strong. Generals of the army included the Oirat administrator Arghun Agha, Baiju, Buqa Temür, Guo Kan, and Kitbuqa, as well as Hulagu's brother Sunitai and various other warlords. The force was also supplemented by Christian forces, including the King of Armenia and his army, a Frankish contingent from the Principality of Antioch, and a Georgian force, seeking revenge on the Muslim Abbasids for the sacking of their capital, Tiflis, decades earlier by the Khwarazm-Shahs. About 1,000 Chinese artillery experts accompanied the army, as did Persian and Turkic auxiliaries, according to Ata-Malik Juvayni, a contemporary Persian observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13941281",
"title": "Destruction under the Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Strategy.:Terror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "As Mongol conquest spread, this form of psychological warfare proved effective at suppressing resistance to Mongol rule. There were tales of lone Mongol soldiers riding into surrendered villages and executing peasants at random as a test of loyalty. It was widely known that a single act of resistance would bring the entire Mongol army down on a town to obliterate its occupants. Thus they ensured obedience through fear. Peasants frequently appear to have joined the troops or readily accepted their demands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909414",
"title": "Mongol military tactics and organization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Transfer of troops between units was forbidden. The leaders on each level had significant license to execute their orders in the way they considered best. This command structure was highly flexible and allowed the Mongol army to attack \"en masse\", divide into smaller groups to encircle their enemies and either lead them into an ambush or divide them into small groups of roughly 10 to mop up a fleeing and broken army. Although they fought as a unit, individual soldiers were responsible for their equipment, weapons, and up to five mounts. Their families and herds would accompany them on foreign expeditions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
139vd2
|
Why are Lagrangian points only limited to the orbital plane?
|
[
{
"answer": "At any given point in the orbit, yes- but they won't stay in that configuration. For orbits outside of the orbital plane, as they move through their orbit they will change their location with respect to the other two bodies, thus no longer will the forces add correctly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, there are no such points. So the whole Lagrangian points are only relevant in a rotating reference frame so that's what we're going to use. There are three forces present. Gravitational force towards each of the two bodies and the centrifugal force (centrifugal force is very real in our reference frame, don't go on about pointing how it's not a real force). The sum of these three need to be zero for the object to be stationary. Centrifugal force is always parallel to the plane of rotation, not directly away from the central body. And obviously the two gravitational forces are directly towards the two bodies. If you are out of the orbital plane, then you have two forces with a component towards the orbital plane and the centrifugal force is parallel to it so it has no such component. Thus the sum of the forces can't be zero, there's nothing to cancel that component of the gravitational force towards the orbital plane.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18285",
"title": "Lagrangian point",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Lagrangian points are the constant-pattern solutions of the restricted three-body problem. For example, given two massive bodies in orbits around their common barycenter, there are five positions in space where a third body, of comparatively negligible mass, could be placed so as to maintain its position relative to the two massive bodies. As seen in a rotating reference frame that matches the angular velocity of the two co-orbiting bodies, the gravitational fields of two massive bodies combined providing the centripetal force at the Lagrangian points, allowing the smaller third body to be relatively stationary with respect to the first two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783",
"title": "Coriolis force",
"section": "Section::::Coriolis effects in other areas.:Lagrangian point stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "In astronomy, Lagrangian points are five positions in the orbital plane of two large orbiting bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies. The first three Lagrangian points (L, L, L) lie along the line connecting the two large bodies, while the last two points (L and L) each form an equilateral triangle with the two large bodies. The L and L points, although they correspond to maxima of the effective potential in the coordinate frame that rotates with the two large bodies, are stable due to the Coriolis effect. The stability can result in orbits around just L or L, known as tadpole orbits, where trojans can be found. It can also result in orbits that encircle L, L, and L, known as horseshoe orbits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18285",
"title": "Lagrangian point",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "In celestial mechanics, the Lagrangian points ( also Lagrange points, L-points, or libration points) are the points near two large bodies in orbit where a smaller object will maintain its position relative to the large orbiting bodies. At other locations, a small object would go into its own orbit around one of the large bodies, but at the Lagrangian points the gravitational forces of the two large bodies, the centripetal force of orbital motion, and (for certain points) the Coriolis acceleration all match up in a way that cause the small object to maintain a stable or nearly stable position relative to the large bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45527",
"title": "Linear congruential generator",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "One flaw specific to LCGs is that, if used to choose points in an n-dimensional space, the points will lie on, at most, hyperplanes (Marsaglia's Theorem, developed by George Marsaglia). This is due to serial correlation between successive values of the sequence \"X\". Carelessly chosen multipliers will usually have far fewer, widely spaced planes, which can lead to problems. The spectral test, which is a simple test of an LCG's quality, measures this spacing and allows a good multiplier to be chosen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10228498",
"title": "Lissajous orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "In practice, any orbits around Lagrangian points , , or are dynamically unstable, meaning small departures from equilibrium grow over time. As a result, spacecraft in these Lagrangian point orbits must use their propulsion systems to perform orbital station-keeping. Although they are not perfectly stable, a modest effort of station keeping keeps a spacecraft in a desired Lissajous orbit for a long time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47568",
"title": "Low Earth orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The LEO region is defined by some sources as the region in space that LEO orbits occupy. Some highly elliptical orbits may pass through the LEO region near their lowest altitude (or perigee) but are not in an LEO Orbit because their highest altitude (or apogee) exceeds . Sub-orbital objects can also reach the LEO region but are not in an LEO orbit because they re-enter the atmosphere. The distinction between LEO orbits and the LEO region is especially important for analysis of possible collisions between objects which may not themselves be in LEO but could collide with satellites or debris in LEO orbits. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10228498",
"title": "Lissajous orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "In orbital mechanics, a Lissajous orbit (), named after Jules Antoine Lissajous, is a quasi-periodic orbital trajectory that an object can follow around a Lagrangian point of a three-body system without requiring any propulsion. Lyapunov orbits around a Lagrangian point are curved paths that lie entirely in the plane of the two primary bodies. In contrast, Lissajous orbits include components in this plane and perpendicular to it, and follow a Lissajous curve. Halo orbits also include components perpendicular to the plane, but they are periodic, while Lissajous orbits are not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2g7g5e
|
why is there speculation about 9/11? why do some believe that the us government knew about it beforehand?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is conspiracy about every major event. For a lot of people, it's a way to feel superior those around them, i.e.: \"You're all sheep but **I** think for myself\". In other cases, it's the same logic as ancient man inventing myths about the rising sun or thunder: \"I can't explain something, therefore I will speculate\". \n \nThe internet has made this more prominent because it gives everyone an equal voice, which makes it appear that the conspiracy theorists are a much larger group than they actually are. There were always people who denied the holocaust or claimed the moon landing was fake, but the internet forces us to hear about them much more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because if we have no control over our world, things would be scary.\n\nYou'll notice that people who think the government are ultra-meticulous masterminds also accuse them of amazingly inept when talking about other grievances.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a combination of:\n\n* deep mistrust for authority\n* the desire to inject meaning into seemingly random events\n* the desire to show superiority by knowing \"the truth\" when everyone else has it wrong\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Motives.:Invasions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "Conspiracy theorists have questioned whether \"The Oil Factor\" and 9/11 provided the United States and the United Kingdom with a reason to launch a war they had wanted for some time, and suggest that this gives them a strong motive for either carrying out the attacks, or allowing them to take place. For instance, Andreas von Bülow, a former research minister in the German government, has argued that 9/11 was staged to justify the subsequent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Former Malaysian premiere Mahathir Mohamad was quoted as saying that there was \"strong evidence\" that the attacks were faked so the United States could go to war against Muslims. In spite of these allegations, the Bush administration specifically rejected proposals to immediately attack Iraq in response to 9/11, and acknowledged that there was no evidence of Iraqi involvement in the attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2658444",
"title": "9/11 Truth movement",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Many adherents of the 9/11 Truth movement suspect that United States government insiders played a part in the attacks, or may have known the attacks were imminent, and did nothing to alert others or stop them. Some within the movement who argue that insiders within the United States government were directly responsible for the September 11 attacks often alleging that the attacks were planned and executed in order to provide the U.S. with a pretext for going to war in the Middle East, and, by extension, as a means of consolidating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29681635",
"title": "Responsibility for the September 11 attacks",
"section": "Section::::United States advance knowledge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "The 9/11 Commission Report stated that \"the 9/11 attacks were a shock, but they should not have come as a surprise. Islamic extremists had given plenty of warnings that they meant to kill Americans indiscriminately and in large numbers.\" During the spring and summer of 2001, US intelligence agencies received a stream of warnings about an imminent al-Qaeda attack; according to George Tenet, Director of Central Intelligence, \"the system was blinking red.\" The warnings varied in their level of detail and specificity, and included warnings from both domestic intelligence operations and warnings from foreign governments and intelligence agencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "204511",
"title": "Skeptical movement",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Ron Lindsay has argued that while some of the claims appear to be harmless or \"soft targets,\" it is important to continue to address them and the underlying habits of thought that lead to them so that we do not \"have a lot more people believing that 9/11 was an inside job, that climate change is a hoax, that our government is controlled by aliens, and so forth -- and those beliefs are far from harmless.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pre-attack warnings of varying detail of the planned attacks against the United States by al-Qaeda were ignored due to a lack of communication between various law enforcement and intelligence personnel. For the lack of interagency communication, the 9/11 report cited bureaucratic inertia and laws passed in the 1970s to prevent abuses that caused scandals during that era, most notably the Watergate scandal. The report faulted both the Clinton and the Bush administrations with \"failure of imagination.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14549316",
"title": "Cognitive traps for intelligence analysis",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Target fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "\"Familiarity with terrorist methods, repeated attacks against U.S. facilities overseas, combined with indications that the continental United States was at the top of the terrorist target list might have alerted us that we were in peril of a significant attack. And yet, for reasons those who study intelligence failure will find familiar, 9/11 fits very much into the norm of surprise caused by a breakdown of intelligence warning.\" The breakdown happened, in part, because there was poor information-sharing among analysts (in different FBI offices, for example). At a conceptual level, US intelligence knew that al-Qaida actions almost always involve multiple, near-simultaneous attacks; however, the FBI did not assimilate piecemeal information on oddly behaving foreign flight-training students into this context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12711627",
"title": "Opinion polls about 9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::World opinion polls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The summary of the poll noted that \"Though people with greater education generally have greater exposure to news, those with greater education are only slightly more likely to attribute 9/11 to al Qaeda.\" Steven Kull, director of \"WorldPublicOpinion.org\", commented \"It does not appear that these beliefs can simply be attributed to a lack of exposure to information.\" Of those who said the United States was the perpetrator, Kull says many believe it was an attempt to justify an impending U.S. invasion of Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cmd82
|
Fight or flight is controlled by the adrenal glands (atop the kidneys). Does someone who has had kidney transplants lose this response?
|
[
{
"answer": "there are a few misunderstandings in your question. innervation of adrenal glands do not originate in the kidneys. their removal does not prevent innervation (but does affect adrenal function). secondly, you are right that some nerve connections do not regenerate but that is isolated for the most part to central nerves (ie. brain and spinal). in fact, we study peripheral nerves in attempt to learn and induce regrowth in central nerves. it's an ongoing and very complicated field of research.\n\nback to hampering adrenal function during a kidney removal. the architecture of the body is not identical on either side. the right-side kidney empties into the inferior vena cava whereas the left-side kidney empties into the left adrenal vein. because removal of the left kidney would necessitate clamping off the left adrenal vein, the function of the left adrenal gland would be severely hampered. removal of the right kidney would not have that effect as it drains directly into the inferior vena cava and does not need to be clamped off.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2452832",
"title": "Evolution of human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Reduction in aggression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "This downregulation of sympathetic nervous system reactivity is also believed to be accompanied by a compensatory increase in a number of opposing organs and systems. Although these are not as well specified various candidates for such \"organs\" have been proposed: the parasympathetic system as a whole, the septal area over the amygdala, the oxytocin system, the endogenous opioids and various forms of quiescent immobilization which antagonize the fight-or-flight reflex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485923",
"title": "Physiological psychology",
"section": "Section::::Emotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 377,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lastly, hormones released facilitate the autonomic response. For example, the autonomic response, which has sent out the fight-or-flight response, would be aided by the release of such chemicals like epinephrine and norepinephrine, both secreted by the adrenal gland, in order to further increase blood flow to aid in muscular rejuvenation of oxygen and nutrients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470843",
"title": "Fight-or-flight response",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilises and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33784314",
"title": "Social stress",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) becomes activated in response to stress. Sympathetic arousal stimulates the medulla of the medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood stream, which facilitates the fight-or-flight response. Blood pressure, heart rate, and sweating increase, veins constrict to allow the heart to beat with more force, arteries leading to muscles dilate, and blood flow to parts of the body not essential for the fight or flight response decreases. If stress persists in the long run, then blood pressure remains elevated, leading to hypertension and atherosclerosis, both precursors to cardiovascular disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2110969",
"title": "Flight zone",
"section": "Section::::Animal handling.:General Adaptation Syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "BULLET::::- The first phase is the fight or flight response - the animal flight zone is included in this. Over penetration of the animal flight zone causes stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The SNS produces localised adjustments and responses; this includes the excretion of large quantities of epinephrine from the medulla of the adrenal gland. Epinephrine is commonly known as adrenaline. Adrenaline increases the supply of oxygen to vital organs and decreases supply to others. Frequent subjection to fight or flight situations causes severe endocrine disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4527469",
"title": "Superior cervical ganglion",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Sympathetic Nervous System.:The Eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The postganglionic axons of the Superior cervical ganglion innervate the eye and lacrimal gland and cause vasoconstriction of the iris and sclera, pupillary dilation, widening of the palpebral fissure, and the reduced production of tears. These responses are important during Fight-or-flight response of the ANS. Dilation of the pupils allows for an increased clarity in vision, and inhibition of the lacrimal gland stops tear production allowing for unimpaired vision and redirection of energy elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77432",
"title": "Hypertension",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Hypertensive crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "In hypertensive emergency, there is evidence of direct damage to one or more organs. The most affected organs include the brain, kidney, heart and lungs, producing symptoms which may include confusion, drowsiness, chest pain and breathlessness. In hypertensive emergency, the blood pressure must be reduced more rapidly to stop ongoing organ damage, however, there is a lack of randomized controlled trial evidence for this approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tq9to
|
why don't porn sites end with .xxx instead of .com?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the porn companies can get more visitors on .com sites, since that's what everyone searches for, so that's what they register",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's make this simple.\n\n- .Com used to be default, and porn has existed as long as the internet, so a lot of sites have their original .com\n\n- .Com is easy, and known. Everyone knows .com\n\n- .xxx isn't as easy to advertise, isn't as appealing, isn't as nice.\n\nit'd be more practical and child friendly, but it seems too much effort for not enough reward.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The .xxx domain only came up a few years ago. Most major porn websites existed long before.\n\nThey could in theory have their old .com just redirect to an .xxx version, but why bother really? Nothing stops them continuing as-is. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Assuming you aren't clever enough to browse incognito, which would you rather have in your history?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I remember correctly, there was a campaign a few years ago (sometime in 2007-2008) to make porn sites end with .xxx. That was stopped however for comfort and monetary reasons, probably.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To my knowledge, \"xxx\" is just as easy for a child to type as \"com\". Maybe easier. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31115",
"title": "Top-level domain",
"section": "Section::::Proposed domains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Around late 2000, when ICANN discussed and finally introduced aero, biz, coop, info, museum, name, and pro TLDs, site owners argued that a similar TLD should be made available for adult and pornographic websites to settle the dispute of obscene content on the Internet and the responsibility of US service providers under the US Communications Decency Act of 1996. Several options were proposed including xxx, \"sex\" and \"adult\". The .xxx domain went live in 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14022900",
"title": "Porn 2.0",
"section": "Section::::Serviced.:Porn 2.0 image websites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Various Porn 2.0 websites exist that have a majority of free promotional and user-generated material. A popular platform for 2.0 image websites is a Pinterest clone that is used by sites such as Sex.com and PicFapPin.com, which work the same way as other social media sites except that they are specialist on pornographic content only. Social Media sites that allow adult content include Twitter, reddit, stumbleupon and PornToot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14022900",
"title": "Porn 2.0",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Porn 2.0, named after \"Web 2.0\", refers to pornographic websites featuring user-generated content. Sites may include social networking media including features such as user-based categorizing, webcam hosting, blogs and comments. This is in contrast to the static content offered by \"Web 1.0\" porn sites. Porn 2.0 sites may offer features similar to mainstream Web 2.0 services such as video communities (Metacafe, Vimeo, YouTube) and social sites (Tumblr, Twitter), general blogging, (Blogger, DailyBooth, Lookbook.nu) and photo hosting (Flickr, Photobucket, Picasa).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28192199",
"title": "Internet censorship in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Current status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In 2006, the government of South Africa began prohibiting sites hosted in the country from displaying X18 (explicitly sexual) and XXX content (including child pornography and depictions of violent sexual acts); site owners who refuse to comply are punishable under the Film and Publications Act 1996. In 2007 a South African \"sex blogger\" was arrested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60577763",
"title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Little or no censorship or surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In 2006, the government of South Africa began prohibiting sites hosted in the country from displaying X18 (explicitly sexual) and XXX content (including child pornography and depictions of violent sexual acts); site owners who refuse to comply are punishable under the Film and Publications Act 1996. In 2007 a South African \"sex blogger\" was arrested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11340243",
"title": "Internet in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Internet censorship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In 2006, the government of South Africa began prohibiting sites hosted in the country from displaying X18 (explicitly sexual) and XXX content (including child pornography and depictions of violent sexual acts); site owners who refuse to comply are punishable under the Film and Publications Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9384857",
"title": "XXXchurch.com",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "XXXchurch.com is a non-profit Christian website that aims to help those who struggle with pornography. It targets porn industry performers and consumers. The organization describes itself as a \"Christian porn site designed to bring awareness, openness and accountability to those affected by pornography.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2webbh
|
Does anything exist in between solar systems?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, the so called [interstellar medium](_URL_1_), which is made of hot and cold gas, cosmic rays and dust particles. There are also [rogue planets](_URL_0_) and rogue comets between the stars, if you don't consider them as own systems. Similarly to the interstellar medium, there is a [intergalactic medium](_URL_2_) primarily made of very hot gas. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what u/Schublade said, it depends on where said solar systems are, too. Concentrations of gas and dust vary a lot inside a galaxy. Take a look at pictures of Andromeda or any of the other large, comparatively nearby galaxies, and you'll see big patches of nebulosity out in the spiral arms. We have the same thing over here, and if you look for obscuring dark clouds instead of lit-up brighter ones, you can see that those are patchy as well. Here's an example: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "252372",
"title": "Planetary system",
"section": "Section::::System architectures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "At present, few systems have been found to be analogous to the Solar System with terrestrial planets close to the parent star. More commonly, systems consisting of multiple Super-Earths have been detected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252372",
"title": "Planetary system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "orbit around a star or star system. Generally speaking, systems with one or more planets constitute a planetary system, although such systems may also consist of bodies such as dwarf planets, asteroids, natural satellites, meteoroids, comets, planetesimals and circumstellar disks. The Sun together with the planets revolving around it, including Earth, is known as the Solar System. The term exoplanetary system is sometimes used in reference to other planetary systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43519",
"title": "List of hypothetical Solar System objects",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "A hypothetical Solar System object is a planet, natural satellite, moonmoon or similar body in the Solar System whose existence is not known, but has been inferred from observational scientific evidence. Over the years a number of hypothetical planets have been proposed, and many have been disproved. However, even today there is scientific speculation about the possibility of planets yet unknown that may exist beyond the range of our current knowledge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:With the right arrangement of planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "Observations of exo-planets have shown that arrangements of planets similar to our Solar System are rare. Most planetary systems have super Earths, several times larger than Earth, close to their star, whereas our Solar System's inner region has only a few small rocky planets and none inside Mercury's orbit. Only 10% of stars have giant planets similar to Jupiter and Saturn, and those few rarely have stable nearly circular orbits distant from their star. Konstantin Batygin and colleagues argue that these features can be explained if, early in the history of the Solar System, Jupiter and Saturn drifted towards the Sun, sending showers of planetesimals towards the super-Earths which sent them spiralling into the Sun, and ferrying icy building blocks into the terrestrial region of the Solar System which provided the building blocks for the rocky planets. The two giant planets then drifted out again to their present position. However, in the view of Batygin and his colleagues: \"The concatenation of chance events required for this delicate choreography suggest that small, Earth-like rocky planets – and perhaps life itself – could be rare throughout the cosmos.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46326758",
"title": "Satellite system (astronomy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1015,
"text": "Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems, though their origin is still unclear. Notable examples include the largest satellite system, the Jovian system, with 79 known moons (including the large Galilean moons) and the Saturnian System with 62 known moons (and the most visible ring system in the Solar System). Both satellite systems are large and diverse. In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings, and it is inferred that this is a general pattern. Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons, including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common center of mass, as well as many asteroids and plutinos. Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars' system of two tiny natural satellites, the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems, although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252372",
"title": "Planetary system",
"section": "Section::::System architectures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The Solar System consists of an inner region of small rocky planets and outer region of large gas giants. However, other planetary systems can have quite different architectures. Studies suggest that architectures of planetary systems are dependent on the conditions of their initial formation. Many systems with a hot Jupiter gas giant very close to the star have been found. Theories, such as planetary migration or scattering, have been proposed for the formation of large planets close to their parent stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7186519",
"title": "Hypothetical astronomical object",
"section": "Section::::Types of hypothetical astronomical objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Hypothetical astronomical objects have been speculated to exist both inside and outside of the Solar System, and speculation has included different kinds of stars, planets, and other astronomical objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c4p2p
|
Is there historical doubt of the "historical Muhammad"?
|
[
{
"answer": "From my Early Islamic History class, what I would say is that there is no doubt that there was a very charismatic man named Muhammad whose general life story (somewhat successful business man, left for Medina, returned to Mecca, etc) is not in doubt. He died in 632 or so and by 634 you already have the \"Muslims\" (unclear to what extent this was developed as its own religion, my professor actually thought that early Islam was in fact less its own religion rather than a rigorist monotheist apocalyptic movement that embraced Jews, Christians, and newly monotheistic Arabs) attacked Persian and Byzantium/Eastern Roman Empire. \n\nWhat is in doubt are many of the sayings in the Koran, which were compile in the next century, and especially the hadith, which were the sayings of Muhammad that were collected ~200 years later. While there is no specific reason to doubt any of these, and they were rigorously examined to prove their accuracy at the time they were collected (they each have a transmission chain of X told by Y who heard from Z who was with the Prophet when...) you do have to deal with the fact that they were collected and written down much later (although, as I said above, this doesn't mean they aren't true).",
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"answer": "Tom Holland's ideas aren't exactly new, since the sceptical approach to Islamic history has been on the rise for a few decades now. I think it was only the fact that it was written for a popular audience that made it anywhere near controversial. As it is, there is a general consensus amongst Western historians that Muhammad existed, but as always there are more interesting theories with less proof (my favourite one is that the Koran was written in Syriac and so can be interpreted completely differently, the virgins promised to martyrs would be er... grapes)\n\nThe main problem is evidence. Islamic traditions are plentiful, but should generally be taken with a pinch of salt, as they are written at the earliest a century later. Obviously there are oral transmissions and some hadiths are no doubt accurate, but most of them were probably altered in some form or other, especially in the highly politicised atmosphere of the first two Islamic civil wars, giving Umayyads, Shiites and Abbasids plenty of reason to alter things (for example, the first surviving biography of Muhammad was written by Ibn Ishaq and you can definitely see him bigging up the role of Ali, the 'leader' of the Shiites, in the earlier stories). One of the interesting things I read lately was that the accounts of the first two civil wars were conflated by the victors, so that Ali's death did not mark the end of the first civil war but instead died during in the war's middle years, and his son's last stand during the second civil war was in fact during the first war too. Not sure what to think of that, but John Howard-Johnston made a good case for it in *[Witnesses to a World Crisis](_URL_0_)*. Generally, if assessed critically, most sources provide very different interpretations. A Christian monk met by Muhammad in his youth called Bahira for instance was either in Syria or Yemen, was a Nestorian or a Miaphysite etc according to different stories. Some (like Holland) would see all of them therefore as pure fabrication, I and my tutors think they are just divergent strands of the same 'core' truth.\n\nTom Holland's solution to lack of accurate written Islamic evidence was to pretty much ignore them, as they are inherently untrustworthy, and use non-Islamic sources instead. There are surprising numbers of them (Robert Hoyland wrote a compilation of all of them in *[Seeing Islam as Others Saw It](_URL_1_)*). But the most common interpretation of the various Christian histories/polemics is that a man called Muhammad existed and did a lot of things that conformed to Islamic traditions, so Holland's interpretation is a bit out there. Even the outliers of these sources, such as Muhammad being persuaded by the Jews to lead them in an attack on the Roman Empire, can be partially corroborated. Within the Ibn Ishaq's biography, there is a detailed agreement called the constitution of Medina that was Muhammad's way to end infighting in Medina. Most historians would say its an authentic document from Muhammad's time, since it was fairly legalistic, depicted Muhammad giving compromises and generally makes sense within the early 7th century context. A key part of this involved the Jewish tribes of Medina becoming part of the Umma, Muhammad's community of believers but still keeping their religion. In effect, we can see that Muhammad dealt positively with the Jews and so its not out of the realm of possibility that Jews were also part of the armies he sent out, especially as Christian sources were written quite far away and won't get accurate information even if they were contemporary. This particular example of Muhammad being persuaded by the Jews is found in an Armenian history, so quite a bit away from Syria, where more accurate information would be available.\n\nSo the barebones outline of Muhammad's life is probably accurate. Other stuff... not so much. The Meccan background for example can be doubted - everyone thought Mecca was a bustling luxury-trading city, but there is very little evidence for that and it is more likely it traded common goods like leather at best. The specifics of Muhammad's life is argued over endlessly, so I won't go into them here. Basically, I think it comes down to how you would reconcile the many many different stories told by the sources - do you think there is a common root, or are they made up.\n\nHope this helps!\n\nEdit: Figured out how to add links :P",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You have to take a guy like Tom Holland with a grain of salt in general. He's not a rigorous historian and he's not interested in writing an academic history. He's interested in writing a piece of popular literature and selling lots of books. That means he cuts corners to keep his narrative going and he hides weak points in his arguments with pretty prose.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8783541",
"title": "Historicity of Muhammad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "While the existence of Muhammad is established by contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous historical records, attempts to distinguish between the historical elements and the ahistorical elements of many of the reports of Muhammad have not been very successful. Hence the historicity of Muhammad, aside from his existence, is debated. The earliest Muslim source of information for the life of Muhammad, the Quran, gives very little personal information and its historicity has been questioned. Next in importance is the sīra literature and hadith, which survive in the historical works of writers from the third, and fourth centuries of the Muslim era (c. 800−1000 AD). There are also a relatively small number of contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources, which confirm the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both in themselves and for comparison with Muslim sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7559740",
"title": "Criticism of the Quran",
"section": "Section::::Claim of divine origin.:Preexisting sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Ibn Ishaq, an Arab Muslim historian and hagiographer who collected oral traditions that formed the basis of the important biography of Muhammad, also claimed that as a result of these discussions, the Qur'an was \"revealed\" addressing all these arguments – leading to the conclusion that Muhammad may have incorporated Judeo-Christian tales he had heard from other people. For example, in al-Sirah an-Nabawiyyah (an edited version of Ibn Ishaq's original work), Ibn Hishām's report\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18934",
"title": "Muhammad",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Childhood and early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend. It is known that he became a merchant and \"was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.\" Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname \"al-Amin\" (Arabic: الامين), meaning \"faithful, trustworthy\" and \"al-Sadiq\" meaning \"truthful\" and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator. His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a 40-year-old widow. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5127956",
"title": "Muhammad Qutb",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Muhammad was an author in his own right and his writings are widespread in the Arab world and nearly as prolific as his brother's. \"Jahiliyya in the Twentieth Century\" is perhaps his best-known work, and gained notoriety as an alleged terrorist handbook (along with his brother's \"Milestones\") when the government claimed to find the two in police searches of plotters' homes and environs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7559856",
"title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his unwarranted appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures, vituperation of the Jewish faith, and proclaiming himself as \"the last prophet\" without performing any miracle nor showing any personal requirement demanded in the Hebrew Bible to distinguish a true prophet chosen by the God of Israel from a false claimant; for these reasons, they gave him the derogatory nickname \"ha-Meshuggah\" (, \"the Madman\" or \"the Possessed\"). During the Middle Ages various Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers considered Muhammad to be a perverted, deplorable man, a false prophet, and even the Antichrist, as he was frequently seen in Christendom as a heretic or possessed by the demons. Some of them, like Thomas Aquinas, criticized Muhammad's promises of carnal pleasure in the afterlife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36898024",
"title": "Islam: The Untold Story",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Holland looks at the earliest evidence for Muhammad, Mecca and Islam in the first century of the Arab Empire, pointing to a lack of evidence in the historical record to support the traditional account. He points out that there is almost no contemporary historical evidence about the life of Muhammad, with no mention of him at all in historical texts until 70 years after his death. He states that contrary to Islamic doctrine which says Islam was behind the creation of the Arab Empire, Muawiyah I became leader of the Arab Empire in Jerusalem 30 years after Muhammad's death despite showing little sign of being Muslim, and that no mention of Muhammad or Islam can be found in any of Muawiyah's inscriptions, coins, or documents. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8783541",
"title": "Historicity of Muhammad",
"section": "Section::::Views of modern historians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "As early as 1930, the question for the existence of Muhammad was raised by Soviet orientalist Klimovich, yet his thesis found no resonance in Islamic Studies. The question for the historicity of Muhammad was put on the agenda, when in the 1970s the so-called Revisionist School of Islamic Studies raised fundamental doubts about the reliability of traditional Islamic sources and applied the historical-critical methods to the early Islamic period. After the first provocative theses, the revisionist approach differentiated and moderated and spread in Islamic Studies with various intensity. Today, only a minority of historians of early Islam doubt the historicity of Muhammad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kwrr3
|
Do we have any actual clue on what happened to the Vikings in Greenland after 1408?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a Denmark-based international research group that's been pushing *hard* at this question in the last 5-10 years (although the project goes back to 1982 or something nuts like that); *Journal of the North Atlantic* has had a few special issues devoted to archaeological and paleobotanical research from various angles. \n\nEarlier presumptions of a high medieval shift to a marine-based (hunting/fishing) diet instead of livestock have been confirmed, along with some evidence of attempts at cereal agriculture that were similarly abandoned in the 13th-14th century (Ledger et al. 2014). So the Greenlanders were adapting to whatever the changing conditions (environmental, trade) were throwing at them--while it was still useful for them to hold on.\n\nTraditional and bioarchaeological work has shown a couple things that point to Greenland being just \"not worth it\" for 15th century residents. First, we've known for awhile (Berglund 1986) that basically no valuable items (personal seals, rings, weapons) were left behind. Scholars now see this as evidence of purposeful abandonment and taking their valuables with them. \n\nSecond, Lynnerup 2014 argues for gradual decline rather than sudden collapse. That is, that over the course of the 14C in particular, environmental and economic conditions made Greenland less attractive to new immigrants (there are fewer and fewer female skeletons found) and made *emigration* more attractive (new and improved opportunities in Iceland; changing trade patterns and economic conditions after the Black Death and new trade routes).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21697226",
"title": "Arnved Nedkvitne",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The book \"Norse Greenland: Viking Peasants in the Arctic\" (Routledge, 2018) discusses how a community of 2000–3000 Viking peasants survived in Arctic Greenland for 430 years (ca. 985–1415), and why they finally disappeared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4830098",
"title": "Hvalsey",
"section": "Section::::Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Archaeological evidence shows that over the next hundred years the last Norse settlements in Greenland slowly died out. It was not until 1721 that a joint merchant-clerical expedition led by Danish missionary Hans Egede discovered that the Norse colonies in Southern Greenland had disappeared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52476",
"title": "History of Greenland",
"section": "Section::::Norse failure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "There are many theories as to why the Norse settlements in Greenland collapsed after surviving for some 450–500 years (985 to 1450–1500). Among the factors that have been suggested as contributing to the demise of the Greenland colony are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52476",
"title": "History of Greenland",
"section": "Section::::Danish recolonization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1581,
"text": "Most of the old Norse records concerning Greenland were removed from Trondheim to Copenhagen in 1664 and subsequently lost, probably in the Copenhagen Fire of 1728. The precise date of rediscovery is uncertain because south-drifting icebergs during the Little Ice Age long made the eastern coast unreachable. This led to general confusion between Baffin Island, Greenland, and Spitsbergen, as seen, for example, in the difficulty locating the Frobisher \"Strait\", which was not confirmed to be a bay until 1861. Nonetheless, interest in discovering a Northwest Passage to Asia led to repeated expeditions in the area, though none were successful until Roald Amundsen in 1906 and even that success involved his being iced in for two years. Christian I of Denmark purportedly sent an expedition to the region under Pothorst and Pining to Greenland in 1472 or 1473; Henry VII of England sent another under Cabot in 1497 and 1498; Manuel I of Portugal sent a third under Corte-Real in 1500 and 1501. It had certainly been generally charted by the 1502 Cantino map, which includes the southern coastline. The island was \"rediscovered\" yet again by Martin Frobisher in 1578, prompting King Frederick II of Denmark to outfit a new expedition of his own the next year under the Englishman James Alday; this proved a costly failure. The influence of English and Dutch whalers became so pronounced that for a time the western shore of the island itself became known as \"Davis Strait\" () after John Davis's 1585 and 1586 expeditions, which charted the western coast as far north as Disko Bay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52476",
"title": "History of Greenland",
"section": "Section::::Norse failure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1221,
"text": "Although Greenland seems to have been uninhabited at the time of initial Norse settlement, the Thule people migrated south and finally came into contact with the Norse in the 12th century. There are limited sources showing the two cultures interacting; however, scholars know that the Norse referred to the Inuit (and Vinland natives) as skræling. The \"Icelandic Annals\" are among the few existing sources that confirm contact between the Norse and the Inuit. They report an instance of hostility initiated by the Inuit against the Norse, leaving eighteen Greenlanders dead and two boys carried into slavery. Archaeological evidence seems to show that the Inuit traded with the Norse. On the other hand, the evidence shows many Norse artefacts at Inuit sites throughout Greenland and on the Canadian Arctic islands but very few Inuit artefacts in the Norse settlements. This may indicate either European indifference—an instance of cultural resistance to Inuit crafts among them—or perhaps hostile raiding by the Inuit. It is also quite possible that the Norse were trading for perishable items such as meat and furs and had little interest in other Inuit items, much as later Europeans who traded with Native Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46414831",
"title": "Herjolfsnes",
"section": "Section::::Disappearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1335,
"text": "Although there is no first-hand account of Norse Greenlanders living after 1410, analysis of the clothing buried at Herjolfsnes suggests that there was a remnant population who continued to have some sort of contact with the outside world for at least a few more decades. One pathos-laden account comes from a sailor dubbed Jon The Greenlander, not from origin of birth, but because \"\"...he had drifted to Greenland no fewer than three times...Once when he was sailing with some German merchants from Hamburg, they entered a deep still Greenland fjord...upon going ashore they saw boat-houses, fish-sheds and stone houses for the drying of fish such as are in Iceland...There they found a dead man lying face downwards. On his head was a well-sewn cap. The rest of his garments were partly of wadmal, partly of sealskin. Beside him lay a sheath-knife, much worn from frequent whetting...\"\" Since Herjolfsnes was the only major sea-facing homestead in Norse Greenland, and thus most visible and accessible to visiting ships, many have speculated that Jon The Greenlander's landfall was at or near Herjolfsnes, and the corpse he discovered perhaps being that of the last Norse Greenlander, who perished alone with none to bury him. This account comes from the early 16th century, but it is not clear when the incident actually happened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35693742",
"title": "Bergen Greenland Company",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "Egede's (now ship-borne) explorations found no Norse survivors along the western shore and future work was hampered by the two mistaken beliefs both prevalent at the time that the Eastern Settlement would be located on Greenland's east coast (it was later established it had been among the fjords of the island's extreme southwest) and that a strait existed nearby communicating with the western half of the island. In fact, his 1723 expedition found the churches and ruins of the Eastern Settlement, but he considered them to be those of the Western. At the end of the year, having found no Norse survivors after months of searching, he turned north to establish a whaling station on Nipisat Island and begin a mission among the Inuit. The whaling station was quickly burnt by the Dutch, whose better quality and lower-priced goods made the Bergen Company's trading operations impossible. The mission proved more successful and in 1724 Egede baptized his first child converts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4p00qc
|
why did old-timey western saloons have swinging doors ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hollywood exaggerated their prevalence considerably. Most saloons of old had normal full length doors, and were very small inside. Basically a closed hallway with a bar on one side. Real estate was very expensive and a huge bar with tables all over was very rare. \n\nThe \"batwing\" style doors were almost never used as a front door. They used them between the kitchen and the seating area, and are still in prevalence today (though the swinging doors from the kitchen are usually full length, now). This is so staff can go through the doors no problem with both their hands full. Some bars indeed had swinging front doors for staff to carry cases of booze through, however they generally had full length doors as well that they would keep open during business hours, but close at night and during inclement weather.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Batwing wing doors were probably the minority, especially as it would have been too cold in winter in many places. However they certainly existed - here is a nice page with some photographs and speculation on why they were used. _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This would be a better question for another sub such as /r/askhistorians as this isn't a complicated subject that needs to be explained simple terms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5987957",
"title": "Western saloon",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "A pair of \"batwing\" doors at the entrance was one of the more distinctive features of the typical saloon. The doors operated on double action hinges and extended from chest to knee level. Further in the American West, some sold liquor from wagons, and saloons were often formed of materials at hand, including \"sod houses. ...a hull of an old sailing ship\" or interiors \"dug into the side of a hill\". As the size of towns grew, many hotels included saloons, and some stand-alone saloons, such as the Barlow Trail Saloon in Damascus, Oregon, featured a railed porch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8637",
"title": "Door",
"section": "Section::::Design and styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "BULLET::::- Saloon doors are a pair of lightweight swing doors often found in public bars, and especially associated with the American west. Saloon doors, also known as cafe doors, often use bidirectional hinges that close the door regardless of which direction it is opened by incorporating springs. Saloon doors that only extend from knee-level to chest-level are known as batwing doors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27430011",
"title": "Long Branch Variety Show",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The exterior of the new Long Branch Saloon was built in 1958 and modeled on period photographs of the original Long Branch Saloon building, which burned down in 1885 and was not rebuilt. The interior is largely based on the \"Gunsmoke\" television show and is consistent with period saloons of the era. It is furnished with an 1881 bar and two Golden Eagles on top of the back bar that were once owned by Chalkley Beeson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "615633",
"title": "Hillman Avenger",
"section": "Section::::1970: Hillman Avenger.:Introduction of body and trim variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The two-door saloon models were added in March 1973, with all engine and trim options of the existing four-door range. Styling of the two-door was similar to the four-door, but the side profile was less curvaceous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5987957",
"title": "Western saloon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "A Western saloon is a kind of bar particular to the Old West. Saloons served customers such as fur trappers, cowboys, soldiers, lumberjacks, businessmen, lawmen, miners and gamblers. A saloon might also be known as a \"watering trough, bughouse, shebang, cantina, grogshop, and gin mill\". The first saloon was established at Brown's Hole, Wyoming, in 1822, to serve fur trappers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "272207",
"title": "Bar",
"section": "Section::::Locations.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "During the 19th century, drinking establishments were called \"saloons\". In the American Old West the most popular establishment in town was usually the Western saloon. Many of these Western saloons survive, though their services and features have changed with the times. Newer establishments have sometimes been built in Western saloon style for a nostalgic effect. In American cities there were also numerous saloons, which allowed only male patrons and were usually owned by one of the major breweries. Drunkenness, fights, and alcoholism made the saloon into a powerful symbol of all that was wrong with alcohol. Saloons were the primary target of the Temperance movement, and the Anti-Saloon League, founded in 1892, was the most powerful lobby in favor of Prohibition. When Prohibition was repealed, President Franklin D. Roosevelt asked the states not to permit the return of saloons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2131305",
"title": "Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Two-door version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "A two-door saloon was introduced early in 1966 followed by a convertible in 1967. There are two different versions for the two-door saloon, one by Mulliner Park Ward featuring \"coke bottle\" style fenders and the very rare James Young model which was only built in fifty examples comprising 35 Rolls-Royces and 15 Bentleys. The James Young version was discontinued in 1967, leaving only the curvier Mulliner Park Ward model. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f96m5q
|
how do pit stops work in racing ? do you lose your spot
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes you lose your spot. The other cars keep driving while you're in the pit and it's possible they will pass you, but keep in mind eventually they will also have to pit while you're still driving so it kinda evens out.\n\nHaving a fast pit crew is important when fractions of a second matter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes you do lose your spot but in long races with stops allowed there is a strategy involved with doing them, a car that plans to do a certain number of pit stops can refuel, meaning they can carry less fuel during the race which will make the car lighter, they can also change the tires which will make it handle better on corners. A car that doesn't pit stop runs the risk of having lighter cars pass it, or it messing up a tight turn because of worn out tires or other things that mess up during the race like brakes. Also all the cars will end up pit stopping some time during the race so there are chances to catch up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You do. But since everyone has to pit at some point you gain it back. \n\nOr you don’t. Depends on how well the other car performs as you are pitting. \n\nI don’t think modern racing (f1 I mean) requires pit stops for anything else other than strategy. In fact modern f1 races are only interesting to watch during the pit windows.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With some teams like to \"undercut\", or pit early on in the race to get the driver and car some clear air (as in they dont have any cars in front of them because more airflow = faster laptimes). Other teams will \"overcut\" and wait until after most of the field has pitted, so they can get on fresh tires after other teams have already begun wearing theirs down. Then of course theres the teams that dont do either, opting for a more balanced strategy.\n\nTheres also the chance of a safety car that has to be considered, because if you pit during a safety car, even though you lose your position, you will be much closer to the cars in front of you than if you pitted while under green flag.\n\nAnd a fast pitstop can make or break a race. If you go into the pits right behind someone, and your stop is 1 second faster, you will (most likely) exit the pitlane in front of them.\n\nA good example of this is the Supercars Championship, the pitstop often play a major role in the outcome of the race.\n\nTldr; theres alot of strategy involved",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who cares? We go fast and turn to the left sometimessss!!!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25313098",
"title": "Formula One (1985 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Pit stops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The pit-crew also has a deciding factor in each race because the more funds are applied into it, the faster they work when in pit stops. The pit stop events are controlled by the player, when a car has the need to go in for a pit stop the player controls one of the mechanics in the pits, which changes the tires one by one, and applies any other repairs if necessary. The faster the mechanic moves, the less time is spent in pit stops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51369006",
"title": "Pitstop (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "\"Pitstop\" implements pit stops, a concept not featured in many other contemporary racing video games. Color-based damage is shown on the player's car whenever it hits another vehicle or a wall on the track, both of which wear out the tires. The player also has a fuel meter that gradually depletes during each race. If the player's vehicle displays a red color from taking too much damage, or if it is running low on fuel, it must make a pit stop. Unlike other racing video games, the pit crew is fully controlled by the player, who must refuel the vehicle and replace its worn-out tires. Up to four players can play by taking alternating turns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21130709",
"title": "Glossary of motorsport terms",
"section": "Section::::P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 220,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 220,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pit board: A board that is held up from the pit wall to the side of the finishing straight when a driver goes past, to confirm their position in the race and the number of laps remaining. Before the introduction of radio communication, also used to instruct drivers to pit for fuel and/or tires, or to comply with rules violations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29006007",
"title": "NASCAR The Game: 2011",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1361,
"text": "Other features on the game include pit stops and spotters. The pit stop feature displays the pit crew changing the tires and fueling the car. Pit stops average 14 seconds. Each animation was actually photographed from real Sprint Cup Series teams. The spotter feature informs the player of the drivers in the race that assists them, such as bump drafting, blocking, and slingshot. The spotter also alerts the player of any hazards happening ahead, as well as behind. Furthermore, the spotter has calculated suggestions on pit strategy, such as fuel level, tire wear, the number of laps remaining, and the player's position in the race and in the point standings. The game has an interactive celebration mode where players can do burnouts and your victory lap, as well. The player then goes to an animation involving an out-of-car celebration, which if you're Carl Edwards, can result in a backflip off of the car. If he or she is in career mode, they will go to victory lane and pop the ceremonious bottle and pour it all on their team. In the game, players can earn NASCAR experience points to unlock rewards. Some rewards include career sponsorships and special races throughout career mode. These special races are called \"invitational events.\" What these do is allow you to unlock special custom paint schemes after completing each challenge in each event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "451919",
"title": "The Amazing Race",
"section": "Section::::The Race.:Race legs.:Pit Stop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "The Pit Stop is the final destination in each leg of the race, and where all non-eliminated teams go after checking in at the mat. During Pit Stops, teams are given lodging (from simple accommodations as tents or cots to complete hotel service) and food free of charge. Teams forfeit \"Race\" materials such as clues to the production staff at this time. Teams will also give interviews with the production team to describe their activities from the last leg, which are interspersed during \"Race\" footage of that leg on subsequent broadcast. Teams are generally sequestered to the lodgings but may otherwise use their time freely. In early seasons, teams were allowed to \"eat, sleep, and mingle\" with each other, as described by the host, often creating friendships between teams. From around season 14 to season 25, teams were sequestered from each other during Pit Stops, and would often not learn of the previous elimination until they saw other teams on the next leg. Following season 25, teams have once again been allowed to mingle with other teams during Pit Stops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "893509",
"title": "Pit stop",
"section": "Section::::Endurance racing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "In the various forms of sports car endurance racing, pit stops are a more leisurely affair, but no less important than in other forms of racing. While stops take longer, much more routine maintenance is scheduled during such pit stops, needed to keep the car running for as long as twenty-four hours; this includes major aerodynamic changes to deal with the changing temperature in such a long race, and replacement of certain wear-limited parts, such as brake pads. Due to the fact that the race is scheduled to last a certain length of time rather than a specific distance, pit strategies are generally not designed to be synchronised with the race distance, but rather to happen on a schedule based on the car's requirements for routine service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "640543",
"title": "Formula One regulations",
"section": "Section::::Current rules and regulations.:Sporting.:Race procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The pit lane opens thirty minutes before the start of a race (t−30:00), during which time drivers may drive around the track as much as they like, driving through the pitlane each time around in order to avoid the grid. Drivers must be in their cars and in place on the grid by time the pit lane closes at t−15:00; otherwise they must start the race from the pits. Meanwhile, teams may work on their cars on the grid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x4b8k
|
When did we move away from the notion of "primitive" peoples?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's interesting to look across historical sub-disciplines, because one of the things you notice is that various fields are at different stages of epistemological and theoretical maturity. For example, western European medievalists often consider the Byzantine field to be approximately 20 years behind in this regard.\n\nThere are many reasons why a field can \"fall behind\" - the Byzantinists, for example, have a significantly steeper learning curve with respect to required languages for study (reading proficiency in at least 8), which sets the bar significantly higher. More important, however, is the silo-ing off of subdisciplines. I just attended a talk in the classics dept, for example, where a person presented her revolutionary thesis on the mental construction of law and social groups in 6th century Constantinople, something that medievalists have been talking about forever. \n\nAll this serves as a long preamble to this: I don't think academia has, as a whole, moved away from the notion of \"primitive peoples\", even if it has become a more marginal view. Different disciplines and sub-disciplines move at different rates.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6258",
"title": "Civilization",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Through history, successful civilizations have spread, taking over more and more territory, and assimilating more and more previously-uncivilized people. Nevertheless, some tribes or people remain uncivilized even to this day. These cultures are called by some \"primitive\", a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. \"Primitive\" implies in some way that a culture is \"first\" (Latin = \"primus\"), that it has not changed since the dawn of humanity, though this has been demonstrated not to be true. Specifically, as all of today's cultures are contemporaries, today's so-called primitive cultures are in no way antecedent to those we consider civilized. Anthropologists today use the term \"non-literate\" to describe these peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2169442",
"title": "Primitivism",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The desire of the \"civilized\" to be restored to a \"state of nature\" is as longstanding as civilization itself. In antiquity the superiority of \"primitive\" life principally found expression in the so-called Myth of the Golden Age, depicted in the genre of European poetry and visual art known as the Pastoral. Primitivist idealism between gained new impetus with the onset of industrialization and the European encounter with hitherto unknown peoples after the colonization of the Americas, the Pacific and other parts of what would become the modern imperial system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20838732",
"title": "Saving the Appearances: A Study in Idolatry",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:§4: Participation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Primitive people’s behavior towards the world (as exemplified for example in totemism and animism in ancient literature, artwork, and philosophy) entails above all a different kind of \"figuration\"—not a primitive alpha thinking applied to the same kind of figuration as that of moderns. The first three chapters of the book focus on the fact that we still participate in the representations, although it is mostly unconscious for us today. Barfield emphasizes that it is no part of his purpose to advocate a return to the primitive's \"original participation.\" He explores how our type of figuration grew out of the primitive type, and can evolve further toward a new form of figuration which he calls \"final participation.\" More generally, the book is concerned with the \"evolution of consciousness\" over the last three thousand years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102999",
"title": "Collective unconscious",
"section": "Section::::Application to politics and society.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Although civilization leads people to disavow their links with the mythological world of uncivilized societies, Jung argued that aspects of the primitive unconscious would nevertheless reassert themselves in the form of superstitions, everyday practices, and unquestioned traditions such as the Christmas tree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102262",
"title": "John Zerzan",
"section": "Section::::Zerzan's anarchism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Zerzan's claims about the status of primitive societies are based on a certain reading of the works of anthropologists such as Marshall Sahlins and Richard B. Lee. Crucially, the category of primitives is restricted to pure hunter-gatherer societies with no domesticated plants or animals. For instance, hierarchy among Northwest Coast Native Americans whose main activities were fishing and foraging is attributed to their having domesticated dogs and tobacco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1571390",
"title": "Sociocultural evolution",
"section": "Section::::Modern theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "In 1941 anthropologist Robert Redfield wrote about a shift from ‘folk society’ to ‘urban society’. By the 1940s cultural anthropologists such as Leslie White and Julian Steward sought to revive an evolutionary model on a more scientific basis, and succeeded in establishing an approach known as neoevolutionism. White rejected the opposition between \"primitive\" and \"modern\" societies but did argue that societies could be distinguished based on the amount of energy they harnessed, and that increased energy allowed for greater social differentiation (White’s law). Steward on the other hand rejected the 19th-century notion of progress, and instead called attention to the Darwinian notion of \"adaptation\", arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2267869",
"title": "Multilineal evolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "By the 1940s cultural anthropologists such as Leslie White and Julian Steward sought to revive an evolutionary model on a more scientific basis, and succeeded in establishing an approach known as the neoevolutionism. White rejected the opposition between \"primitive\" and \"modern\" societies but did argue that societies could be distinguished based on the amount of energy they harnessed, and that increased energy allowed for greater social differentiation. Steward on the other hand rejected the 19th century notion of progress, and instead called attention to the Darwinian notion of \"adaptation\", arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ryebk
|
why do animals have so many different shapes of pupil and colours of iris?
|
[
{
"answer": "The eye is actually fairly uncomplicated from an evolutionary perspective. It only takes a few thousand years to grow, and every small evolution is a massive advantage \n\nDawkins did a great presentation on \"what use is half an eye\": _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167553",
"title": "Goat",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and health.:Eyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Goats have horizontal, slit-shaped pupils. Because goats' irises are usually pale, their contrasting pupils are much more noticeable than in animals such as cattle, deer, most horses and many sheep, whose similarly horizontal pupils blend into a dark iris and sclera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74819",
"title": "Pupil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "In humans, the pupil is round, but other species, such as some cats, have vertical slit pupils, goats have horizontally oriented pupils, and some catfish have annular types. In optical terms, the anatomical pupil is the eye's aperture and the iris is the aperture stop. The image of the pupil as seen from outside the eye is the entrance pupil, which does not exactly correspond to the location and size of the physical pupil because it is magnified by the cornea. On the inner edge lies a prominent structure, the collarette, marking the junction of the embryonic pupillary membrane covering the embryonic pupil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86801",
"title": "Iris (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Eye color.:Genetic and physical factors determining iris color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "All the contributing factors towards eye color and its variation are not fully understood. Autosomal recessive/dominant traits in iris color are inherent in other species but coloration can follow a different pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8161395",
"title": "Crotalus oreganus",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "This species, in its various forms, shows considerable ontogenetic variation. Juveniles usually have more or less distinct patterns, but these fade as the animals mature. The color of the iris often matches the ground color, which may be bronze, gold, or different shades of tan, pink, or gray.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86801",
"title": "Iris (anatomy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In humans and most mammals and birds, the iris (plural: irides or irises) is a thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupil and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. Eye color is defined by that of the iris. In optical terms, the pupil is the eye's aperture, while the iris is the diaphragm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157898",
"title": "Eye",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colours. The visual fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception. In other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximise the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, which have monocular vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19730812",
"title": "Arthropod eye",
"section": "Section::::Eyes and functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Most arthropods have at least one of two types of eye: lateral compound eyes, and smaller median ocelli, which are simple eyes. When both are present, the two eye types are used in concert because each has its own advantage. Some insect larvae, e.g., caterpillars, have a different type of simple eye known as stemmata. These eyes usually provide only a rough image, but (as in sawfly larvae) they can possess resolving powers of 4 degrees of arc, be polarization sensitive and capable of increasing their absolute sensitivity at night by a factor of 1,000 or more. Flying insects can remain level with either type of eye surgically removed, but the two types combine to give better performance. Ocelli can detect lower light levels, and have a faster response time, while compound eyes are better at detecting edges and are capable of forming images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1slwiz
|
if the us congress has less than a 10% approval rating, why haven't we fired them?
|
[
{
"answer": "A great many people believe that \"their guy\" is the only good one in congress. Since that's the only one they CAN vote for, he gets reelected, and the electorate continues to complain about all the \"other guys\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I haven't seen or heard of a petition or movement to do this. There has to be a legal precedence.\n\nYou can't fire your congressmen. You can only choose not to re-elect them.\n\nThus, you need to find a guy better than your guy. Also, you don't have control of all of the US congress only your one representative and two senators.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, you can't fire them. There is no legal precedence for firing an elected official. Many states allow for recall elections, but those typically require some sort of malfeasance or corruption on the part of the official. Even then, recall only extends to those holding a state office.\n\nMembers of Congress are elected under the purview of the U.S. Constitution. The Constitution does not have anything in its terms or qualifications about recall. In order to make members subject to recall, you would need a constitutional amendment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I haven't seen or heard of a petition or movement to do this. \n\nThat's because this would be extremely detrimental to the function of our government.\n\n > There has to be a legal precedence. \n\nNot really.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The 10% approval rating refers to what people think about ALL of congress. It is not a measurement of what people think about their specific representatives, i.e. the ones they elected. Most congresspeople enjoy decent approval ratings of the citizens in their districts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You get the chance to fire them every two years.\n\nBut, incumbents have big donors in the form of PAC money and lobbyists, which means they can afford to smear their opponents into the ground, no matter how good the challenger might actually be.\n\nThe day Americans wake up and realize, \"Hey! These guys really *are* shitheads, and it's time to give a whole new crop of people a chance,\" that will be a very good day.\n\n(Apologies for swearing at a five year old)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31756",
"title": "United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::Congress and the public.:Advantage of incumbency.:Public perceptions of Congress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in the Gallup confidence poll with only 9% having \"a great deal\" or \"quite a lot\" of confidence in their legislators. Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress's approval rating among Americans at 10% or below three times. Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5% in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed 'nonessential government' shut down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28881123",
"title": "U.S. Congress and citizens",
"section": "Section::::Challenges of reelection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63% in 1960, but has been falling since. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, generally been low. Approval ratings in December 2007 were 25%, meaning only 1 out of 4 Americans approved of Congress. Approval ratings from 1974 to 2009 have varied within a range from 20% to 50%, with variation, with a spike of over 84% in October 2001 after the 9/11 attacks. From 2006 to 2009, ratings have hovered in the 25% range, with a high of 37% in early 2007, and an all-time low of 14% in late 2008. Vanderbilt professor Dana D. Nelson in \"Bad for Democracy\" argues that all citizens seem to do, politically, is vote for president every four years, and not much else; they've abandoned politics. Apathy was lower in the 2008 election, which featured a competitive election for president. However, voter turnout in 2008 (62%) was the highest since 1968.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25325879",
"title": "Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration",
"section": "Section::::Control of Congress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The 112th United States Congress (January 2011 to January 2013) was able to block many of President Obama's other legislative plans, resulting in one of the least productive Congresses since World War 2, with record low approval ratings. Obama faced a highly unpopular split or Republican Congress thereafter. According to a Gallup Poll released in August 2014, the 113th Congress had the highest disapproval rating of any Congress since 1974, when data first started being collected: 83% of Americans surveyed said that they disapproved of the job Congress was doing, while only 13% said that they approved. The 112th and later Congresses limited Obama's legislative accomplishments to primarily budgetary matters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3414021",
"title": "George W. Bush",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (2001–2009).:Cultural and political image.:Domestic.:Job approval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "In the spring of that year, Bush's disapproval ratings reached the highest ever recorded for any president in the 70-year history of the Gallup poll, with 69 percent of those polled in April 2008 disapproving of the job Bush was doing as president and 28 percent approving—although the majority (66 percent) of Republicans still approved of his job performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8096220",
"title": "Public image of George W. Bush",
"section": "Section::::Domestic perception of Bush.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "In April 2006, the president's approval continued to decline. Four states continue to maintain a positive approval rating: Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Nebraska. His disapproval rating in traditionally red states had risen, with higher than 60% of voters disapproving in Ohio, Florida, Arkansas, New Mexico, Nevada, Colorado, Virginia, Missouri, and Iowa. Even in his conservative-spun homestate of Texas, disapproval reached 51 percent. His disapproval rating in several American states had reached an all-time high, with more than 70% disapproving in Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Delaware, Vermont, and New York. His highest approval rating stood at 55% in Utah, and his lowest, 24%, in Rhode Island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44576877",
"title": "Assets for Independence",
"section": "Section::::Problems.:Funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Congress underfunds AFI each year because there are other programs that have priority, and are larger in size. Congressional oversights are caused because of heavy emphasis on other programs, and consequently, AFI has been scraping by on annual appropriations, which have been slashed by 40 percent in recent years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4096888",
"title": "2006 United States elections",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for Democratic win.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Congressional approval, which had been slightly negative since before the 2004 election, began a steady drop beginning in March 2005. Congress's unprecedented and unpopular involvement in the Terri Schiavo controversy is often pointed to as the catalyst for this drop. Congressional scandals, such as the Jack Abramoff lobbying scandal, the sentencing of Duke Cunningham to over eight years in prison, the indictment of then House majority leader Tom DeLay, the corruption of William J. Jefferson and Bob Ney, the misconduct of Cynthia McKinney, and the Mark Foley scandal all continued to pull down congressional popularity. In the months leading up to the election, congressional approval ratings flirted with all-time historical lows. Because congress was controlled by Republicans, this high disapproval affected Republicans much more negatively than it did Democrats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d888b
|
If differences in human phenotypes such as skin colour, hair colour, etc. are due to clinal adaptation, what clines lead to the development of East-Asian slanted eyes?
|
[
{
"answer": "The explantation for epicanthus is that Central Asian steppes, the area where proto-Mongoloids origated, were very dusty with common dust storms and the epicanthus helped them to protect their vision. But it's also possible that it was a random mutation and an example of the founder effect.\n\nBecause epicanthus doesn't occur only in Mongoloid-descended populations, but also in some tribes in Africa, like the Sudanese Dinkas and some Bushmen. But the Malagasy people on Madagascar have it from Mongoloids, since the first settlers there were Austronesians who originally came from Taiwan.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The trait you are speaking of is called the [Epicanthic fold](_URL_0_) and the evolutionary basis for it is not well understood, but it is often attributed to acting as [a sun visor protecting the eyes from overexposure to ultraviolet radiation or as a blanket insulating them from the cold.](_URL_1_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You know that not every trait that is expressed has to be adaptive, right? \n\n\n\n\nIt is enough for it to not be maladaptive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "May i add a question to piggy back this one?\n\nOnce removed from skulls, are all human eyes essentially the same? (ie size, shape, dimensions etc) despite outward appearance across races?\n\nThanks for any answers! Interesting stuff :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30231169",
"title": "Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans",
"section": "Section::::Neanderthals.:Genetics.:Changes in modern humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "In Eurasia, modern humans acquired adaptive introgression from archaic humans, which provided a source of advantageous genetic variants that are adapted to local environments and a reservoir for additional genetic variation. Adaptive introgression from Neanderthals have targeted genes involved with keratin filaments, sugar metabolism, muscle contraction, body fat distribution, enamel thickness, and oocyte meiosis, as well as brain size and functioning. There are signals of positive selection, as the result of adaptation to diverse habitats, in genes involved with variation in skin pigmentation and hair morphology. In the immune system, introgressed variants have heavily contributed to the diversity of immune genes, of which there's an enrichment of introgressed alleles that suggest a strong positive selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99645",
"title": "Homo sapiens",
"section": "Section::::Recent evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Some climatic adaptations, such as high-altitude adaptation in humans, are thought to have been acquired by archaic admixture. Introgression of genetic variants acquired by Neanderthal admixture have different distributions in European and East Asians, reflecting differences in recent selective pressures. A 2014 study reported that Neanderthal-derived variants found in East Asian populations showed clustering in functional groups related to immune and haematopoietic pathways, while European populations showed clustering in functional groups related to the lipid catabolic process. A 2017 study found correlation of Neanderthal admixture in phenotypic traits in modern European populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57280323",
"title": "Neanderthal genetics",
"section": "Section::::Interbreeding with modern humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Similar conclusions were reached by Kim and Lohmueller (2015): \"Using simulations of a broad range of models of selection and demography, we have shown that this hypothesis [that the greater proportion of Neandertal ancestry in East Asians than in Europeans is due to the fact that purifying selection is less effective at removing weakly deleterious Neandertal alleles from East Asian populations] cannot account for the higher proportion of Neandertal ancestry in East Asians than in Europeans. Instead, more complex demographic scenarios, most likely involving multiple pulses of Neandertal admixture, are required to explain the data.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99645",
"title": "Homo sapiens",
"section": "Section::::Recent evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1069,
"text": "Recent divergence of Eurasian lineages was sped up significantly during the Last Glacial Maximum, the Mesolithic and the Neolithic, due to increased selection pressures and due to founder effects associated with migration. Alleles predictive of light skin have been found in Neanderthals, but the alleles for light skin in Europeans and East Asians, associated with KITLG and ASIP, are () thought to have not been acquired by archaic admixture but recent mutations since the LGM. Phenotypes associated with the \"white\" or \"Caucasian\" populations of Western Eurasian stock emerge during the LGM, from about 19,000 years ago. Average cranial capacity in modern human populations varies in the range of 1,200 to 1,450 cm (adult male averages). Larger cranial volume is associated with climatic region, the largest averages being found in populations of Siberia and the Arctic. Both Neanderthal and EEMH had somewhat larger cranial volumes on average than modern Europeans, suggesting the relaxation of selection pressures for larger brain volume after the end of the LGM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623866",
"title": "Quantitative trait locus",
"section": "Section::::Quantitative traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "An example of a polygenic trait is human skin color variation. Several genes factor into determining a person's natural skin color, so modifying only one of those genes can change skin color slightly or in some cases, such as for SLC24A5, moderately. Many disorders with genetic components are polygenic, including autism, cancer, diabetes and numerous others. Most phenotypic characteristics are the result of the interaction of multiple genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30231169",
"title": "Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans",
"section": "Section::::Neanderthals.:Genetics.:Subpopulation admixture rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "A higher Neanderthal admixture was found in East Asians than in Europeans, which is estimated to be about 20% more introgression into East Asians. This could possibly be explained by the occurrence of further admixture events in the early ancestors of East Asians after the separation of Europeans and East Asians, dilution of Neanderthal ancestry in Europeans by populations with low Neanderthal ancestry from later migrations, or natural selection that may have been relatively lower in East Asians than in Europeans. Studies simulating admixture models indicate that a reduced efficacy of purifying selection against Neanderthal alleles in East Asians could not account for the greater proportion of Neanderthal ancestry of East Asians, thus favoring more-complex models involving additional pulses of Neanderthal introgression into East Asians. Such models show a pulse to ancestral Eurasians, followed by separation and an additional pulse to ancestral East Asians. It is observed that there is a small but significant variation of Neanderthal admixture rates within European populations, but no significant variation within East Asian populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45412506",
"title": "Midphalangeal hair",
"section": "Section::::Inheritance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "From a literature review and their own study in Brazil, Saldanha and Guinsburg (1961) suggested that lack of middle phalangeal hair may be determined by a pair of recessive genes, but noted that the occurrence of sex, age, and possibly environmental differences make genetic analysis of the trait difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1h4o3v
|
®, ©, and ™
|
[
{
"answer": "The purpose of these marks are to simply put the public on notice that a person/company has registered the trademark/copyright for the preceding word or phrase.\n\nA trademark is a symbol or name or the like that indicates a product came from a specific company. (E.g., the Nike swoosh). The fact that it's registered simply means that you have registered the trademark with the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). Registration gives you a legal advantage because if someone tries to steal your trademark, you have evidence (i.e., the registration) that shows you originated it. That said, you don't have to register your trademark for it to be valid - it's just a really good idea to do so.\n\nA copyright is a person's/company's right to use/publish/show/play a creative work. Generally speaking, a person has a copyright in whatever he creates, as soon as he creates it. But as with trademarks, you can also register copyrights, for much the same reasons you register trademarks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "© indicates the owner and copyright properties of a creative work. For example, if I drew a picture in 2009, I could say © mustardgreens 2009, and then list the specific copyright restrictions. \n\n® indicates an officially registered trademark. e.g. [McDonald's®, I'm lovin' it®](_URL_1_)\n\n™ indicates a registered or unregistered trademark. e.g. [McDonald's™, I'm lovin' it™](_URL_0_) \n\nIn the examples above ® and ™ are interchangeable. But if McDonald's wanted to come out with a new slogan, for example \"Where smiles happen\", they would have to use ™ instead of ® until the trademark is officially registered. \n\nNote that trademarks only apply to *products*, not services. If you invent a chemical that cleans computer CPUs, you could trademark the chemical or the name of the chemical. But if you want to offer a cleaning service with the chemical, you need to use the Service Mark symbol: ℠\n\n**tl;dr** ® and ™ are mostly interchangeable. © is for attributing art and shit.\n\nBonus for windows users: Alt+02222 = ®, Alt+0153 = ™ \n\nAnd for other curious cereal box perusers, the dagger mark † indicates a footnote in the same way as an asterisk *.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5949300",
"title": "Brand licensing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Licensing means renting or leasing of an intangible asset. It is a process of creating and managing contracts between the owner of a brand and a company or individual who wants to use the brand in association with a product, for an agreed period of time, within an agreed territory. Licensing is used by brand owners to extend a trademark or character onto products of a completely different nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935023",
"title": "Trademark",
"section": "Section::::Symbols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The two symbols associated with trademarks, ™ (the trademark symbol) and ® (the registered trademark symbol), represent the status of a mark and accordingly its level of protection. While ™ can be used with any common law usage of a mark, ® may only be used by the owner of a mark following registration with the relevant national authority, such as the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO or PTO). The proper manner to display either symbol is immediately following the mark in superscript style.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40412",
"title": "License",
"section": "Section::::Patent licensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "A Licensing agreement is an arrangement whereby a licensor grants the right to intangible property to another entity for a specified period, and in return, the licensor receives a royalty fee from the licensee. Intangible property includes patents, inventions, formulas, processes, designs, copyrights, and trademarks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1813153",
"title": "Brand alliances",
"section": "Section::::Brand licenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Brand licenses are a contractual agreement where a company lets another organisation use its brand on other products in exchange for a licensing fee. An example of brand licensing is seen in the Walt Disney Company's relationship to Tokyo Disneyland. The theme park is owned by The Oriental Land Company, which licenses the theme from The Walt Disney Company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5949300",
"title": "Brand licensing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Brand licensing is a well-established business, both in the area of patents and trademarks. Trademark licensing has a rich history in American business, largely beginning with the rise of mass entertainment such as the movies, comics and later television. Mickey Mouse's popularity in the 1930s and 1940s resulted in an explosion of toys, books, and consumer products with the lovable rodent's likeness on them, none of which were manufactured by the Walt Disney Company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33445796",
"title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Rules governing subsequent changes in ownership.:Different types of rights.:Exclusive licence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "An exclusive licence is an ordinary licence granted to the licensee along with a contractual promise from the copyright owner not to provide a similar permission to anyone else, and a contractual promise from the copyright owner not to do the licensed activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935023",
"title": "Trademark",
"section": "Section::::Other aspects.:Licensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Licensing means the trademark owner (the licensor) grants a permit to a third party (the licensee) in order to commercially use the trademark legally. It is a contract between the two, containing the scope of content and policy. The essential provisions to a trademark license identify the trademark owner and the licensee, in addition to the policy and the goods or services agreed to be licensed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hnymp
|
I want to actually learn physics. What math or (other classes) should I take first?
|
[
{
"answer": "The basics: algebra, geometry\n\nBeyond the basics: calculus\n\nStarting to actually understand things: vector calculus, differential equations, linear algebra\n\nGoing in deeper: partial differential equations, group theory (never took this myself)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "calculus is a must. Start with derivatives, learn integrals, then learn vector calculus. Newton invented calculus (or Leibinitz depending on who you ask) so that he could solve physics problems.\n\nAfter you go a good understanding of that learn linear algebra and then matrix theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think to facilitate your learning so you actually enjoy what you're doing, you should just step straight into physics. Take it step by step. If you don't understand one thing, take a math book or google and figure it out. \n\nMe personally, I would get bored learning abstract calculus methods such as integration by parts without having something to apply it to. However, if I can figure out whether a wing will produce enough lift to let a plane fly by calculating the pressure distributions which make it possible, making me learn calculus in the process, then it's more fun.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1579586",
"title": "Physics First",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Physics First is an educational program in the USA, that teaches a basic physics course in the ninth grade (usually 15-year-olds), rather than the biology course which is more standard in public schools. This course relies on the limited math skills that the students have from pre-algebra and algebra I. With these skills students study a broad subset of the introductory physics canon with an emphasis on topics which can be experienced kinesthetically or without deep mathematical reasoning. Furthermore, teaching physics first is better suited for English Language Learners, who would be overwhelmed by the substantial vocabulary requirements of Biology. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23269",
"title": "Physicist",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics, electricity and magnetism, non-relativistic quantum mechanics, optics, statistical mechanics and thermodynamics, and laboratory experience. Physics students also need training in mathematics (calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, complex analysis, etc.), and in computer science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43821526",
"title": "The Theoretical Minimum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The Theoretical Minimum: What You Need to Know to Start Doing Physics is a popular science book by Leonard Susskind and George Hrabovsky. The book was initially published on January 29, 2013 by Basic Books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181889",
"title": "Science education",
"section": "Section::::Fields of science education.:Physics education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Physics First, a program endorsed by the American Association of Physics Teachers, is a curriculum in which 9th grade students take an introductory physics course. The purpose is to enrich students' understanding of physics, and allow for more detail to be taught in subsequent high school biology and chemistry classes. It also aims to increase the number of students who go on to take 12th grade physics or AP Physics, which are generally elective courses in American high schools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21258076",
"title": "A. Philip Randolph Career Academy",
"section": "Section::::Academics.:Science.:Twelfth Grade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Physics- a conceptual and problem solving course designed to teach the basic relationships between matter and energy. Through the use of laboratory experiences, students will come to learn and understand the physical laws that govern the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1579586",
"title": "Physics First",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "In addition, many scientists and educators argue that freshmen do not have an adequate background in mathematics to be able to fully comprehend a complete physics curriculum, and that therefore quality of a physics education is lost. While physics requires knowledge of vectors and some basic trigonometry, many students in the Physics First program take the course in conjunction with geometry. They suggest that instead students first take biology and chemistry which are less mathematics-intensive so that by the time they are in their junior year, students will be advanced enough in mathematics with either an algebra 2 or pre-calculus education to be able to fully grasp the concepts presented in physics. Some argue this even further, saying that at least calculus should be a prerequisite for physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3330130",
"title": "Summit High School (New Jersey)",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The general pattern for students is to study physics in ninth grade, biology in tenth grade, and chemistry in eleventh grade; these subjects can be studied at different levels, from modified to regular and to advanced/honors. Science department supervisor Tom O'Dowd explained that \"teaching physics in ninth grade has been identified as the best option because physics is the fundamental science ... It is potentially the most concrete and the best suited for inquiry-based learning.\" A movement towards teaching physics has been going on for years, explained one school spokesperson, who explained that physics is \"more basic than biology\" and \"makes for a more rigorous and thoughtful curriculum.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aijv77
|
nonpolar molecules with polar bonds?
|
[
{
"answer": "ELI20: It comes down to geometry. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is such an example, with the C=O bonds each having a dipole moment, but because of the linear geometry of the molecule, the dipole moments cancel each other out and you’re left with a net zero dipole moment — i.e. a nonpolar molecule. \n\nA slightly more complex example is methane (CH4). Each C–H bond has its own dipole moment, but the symmetric geometry of the molecule (tetrahedral) makes the dipole moments cancel.\n\nELI5: Think of it like a seesaw. If you and your (identically-sized) friend are sitting at equivalent positions on your own ends of the seesaw (molecule), you balance each other! This situation is “nonpolar”. But if one of you moves forward or backwards, it becomes unbalanced and there is now a “polarity”. \n\nDitto for a four-way seesaw (is that a thing?). As long as you and your friends are sitting in equivalent spots with each other, you can balance the 4saw (molecule) and keep it nonpolar. But if even one of you moves out of the right spot, that creates an imbalance, and the 4saw is now polar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You’d agree carbon-oxygen bonds are polar right? Carbon has an electronegativity of around 2.5, oxygen is around 3.5. Yet carbon dioxide is a non polar gas.\n\nWhy? Because the molecule is symmetrical, it looks like O=C=O all in a line, so the extra pull of electrons that the oxygens have (technical term is bond dipole) cancels out exactly, and the end result is it’s non polar. \n\nAnother example is carbon tetrachloride, which isn’t linear this time it’s tetrahwedral but the same situation occurs, all the dipoles cancel out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "361038",
"title": "Chemical polarity",
"section": "Section::::Polarity of bonds.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Bonds can fall between one of two extremesbeing completely nonpolar or completely polar. A completely nonpolar bond occurs when the electronegativities are identical and therefore possess a difference of zero. A completely polar bond is more correctly called an ionic bond, and occurs when the difference between electronegativities is large enough that one atom actually takes an electron from the other. The terms \"polar\" and \"nonpolar\" are usually applied to covalent bonds, that is, bonds where the polarity is not complete. To determine the polarity of a covalent bond using numerical means, the difference between the electronegativity of the atoms is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361038",
"title": "Chemical polarity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Polar molecules must contain polar bonds due to a difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms. A polar molecule with two or more polar bonds must have a geometry which is asymmetric in at least one direction, so that the bond dipoles do not cancel each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361038",
"title": "Chemical polarity",
"section": "Section::::Polarity of molecules.:Nonpolar molecules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "A molecule may be nonpolar either when there is an equal sharing of electrons between the two atoms of a diatomic molecule or because of the symmetrical arrangement of polar bonds in a more complex molecule. For example, boron trifluoride (BF) has a trigonal planar arrangement of three polar bonds at 120°. This results in no overall dipole in the molecule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5993",
"title": "Chemical bond",
"section": "Section::::Strong chemical bonds.:Covalent bond.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with a significant ionic character. This means that the two shared electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge. Such bonds occur between two atoms with moderately different electronegativities and give rise to dipole–dipole interactions. The electronegativity difference between the two atoms in these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2923964",
"title": "Inductive effect",
"section": "Section::::Bond polarization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "For example, the water molecule has an electronegative oxygen atom that attracts a negative charge. This is indicated by δ- in the water molecule in the vicinity of the O atom, as well as by a δ+ next to each of the two H atoms. The vector addition of the individual bond dipole moments results in a net dipole moment for the molecule. A polar bond is a covalent bond in which there is a separation of charge between one end and the other - in other words in which one end is slightly positive and the other slightly negative. Examples include most covalent bonds. The hydrogen-chlorine bond in HCl or the hydrogen-oxygen bonds in water are typical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361038",
"title": "Chemical polarity",
"section": "Section::::Polarity of molecules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "While the molecules can be described as \"polar covalent\", \"nonpolar covalent\", or \"ionic\", this is often a relative term, with one molecule simply being \"more polar\" or \"more nonpolar\" than another. However, the following properties are typical of such molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5993",
"title": "Chemical bond",
"section": "Section::::Overview of main types of chemical bonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1100,
"text": "In a polar covalent bond, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei. Covalent bonds often result in the formation of small collections of better-connected atoms called molecules, which in solids and liquids are bound to other molecules by forces that are often much weaker than the covalent bonds that hold the molecules internally together. Such weak intermolecular bonds give organic molecular substances, such as waxes and oils, their soft bulk character, and their low melting points (in liquids, molecules must cease most structured or oriented contact with each other). When covalent bonds link long chains of atoms in large molecules, however (as in polymers such as nylon), or when covalent bonds extend in networks through solids that are not composed of discrete molecules (such as diamond or quartz or the silicate minerals in many types of rock) then the structures that result may be both strong and tough, at least in the direction oriented correctly with networks of covalent bonds. Also, the melting points of such covalent polymers and networks increase greatly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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