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2ywedq
|
Were presidents Garfield and McKinley "sainted" after their assassinations in the same way as Lincoln and Kennedy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Garfield was already a beloved national hero due to his service in the American Civil War. He was only president for a few months before his assassination.\n\nSource: Destiny of the Republic\n\nThat being said, I believe his reputation has actually suffered due to his assassination. He wasn't in office long enough to create any sweeping legislative changes like Kennedy or Lincoln, so there is less memory of his achievements. Any that were made have certainly not been as long lasting.\n\nI made short write up of it here as well. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "265084",
"title": "History of the United States (1865–1918)",
"section": "Section::::Progressive Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "President McKinley was enjoying great popularity as he began his second term, but it would be cut short. In September 1901, while attending an exposition in Buffalo, New York, McKinley was shot by an anarchist. He was the third President to be assassinated, all since the Civil War. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt assumed the presidency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40400",
"title": "James A. Garfield",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and historical view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "For a few years after his assassination, Garfield's life story was seen as an exemplar of the American success story—that even the poorest boy might someday become President of the United States. Peskin noted that, \"In mourning Garfield, Americans were not only honoring a president; they were paying tribute to a man whose life story embodied their own most cherished aspirations.\" As the rivalry between Stalwarts and Half-Breeds faded from the scene in the late 1880s and after, so too did memories of Garfield. Beginning in 1882, the year after Garfield's death, the U.S. Post Office began issuing postage stamps honoring the late president. Despite his short term as president, nine different issues were printed over the years. In the 1890s, Americans became disillusioned with politicians, and looked elsewhere for inspiration, focusing on industrialists, labor leaders, scientists, and others as their heroes. Increasingly, Garfield's short time as president was forgotten.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13434603",
"title": "List of Presidents of the United States who died in office",
"section": "Section::::1881: James A. Garfield.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "President Garfield came to the Sixth Street Station on his way to his alma mater, Williams College, where he was scheduled to deliver a speech. Garfield was accompanied by two of his sons, James and Harry, and Secretary of State Blaine. Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln waited at the station to see the president off. Garfield had no bodyguard or security detail; with the exception of Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, early U.S. presidents never used any guards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40400",
"title": "James A. Garfield",
"section": "Section::::Assassination.:Guiteau and shooting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker, at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C. on July 2, 1881. After eleven weeks of intensive and other care Garfield died in Elberon, New Jersey, the second of four presidents to be assassinated, following Abraham Lincoln.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14320018",
"title": "Assassination of James A. Garfield",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Lincoln's assassination had taken place roughly sixteen years before in the closing stages of the Civil War. On the other hand, Garfield's term was marked (for the most part) by peacetime, and a general complacency with respect to presidential security had developed by this time. Garfield, like many other presidents, often preferred to interact directly with the public, and although some form of security was almost certainly in place, a comprehensive security detail had not been seriously considered by either Congress or the president up to that point. Remarkably, it would not be until the assassination of William McKinley some twenty years later that Congress would finally task the United States Secret Service (founded to prevent counterfeiting) with the responsibility of ensuring the president's personal safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14320018",
"title": "Assassination of James A. Garfield",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Garfield's assassination was instrumental to the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act on January 16, 1883. Garfield himself had called for civil service reform in his inaugural address and supported it as President in the belief that it would make government more efficient. It was passed as something of a memorial to the fallen President. Arthur lost the Republican Party nomination in 1884 to Blaine, who went on to lose a close election to Democrat Grover Cleveland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40400",
"title": "James A. Garfield",
"section": "Section::::Assassination.:Guiteau and shooting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The assassination of Abraham Lincoln was deemed a fluke due to the Civil War, and Garfield, like most people, saw no reason why the president should be guarded; Garfield's movements and plans were often printed in the newspapers. Guiteau knew the president would leave Washington for a cooler climate on July 2, and made plans to kill him before then. He purchased a gun he thought would look good in a museum, and followed Garfield several times, but each time his plans were frustrated, or he lost his nerve. His opportunities dwindled to one—Garfield's departure by train for New Jersey on the morning of July 2, 1881.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3l7eyp
|
how does this "cure" for tinnitus work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tinnitus isn't fully understood, but one of the hypothesis for its cause include a problem in the amplifier part of our ear.\n\nOur ears are pretty sophisticated, and including in them essentially a biological amplifier which, when there's no ambient sound around, increases sensitivity so that we can pick up quiet sounds, but when there's a lot of ambient noise tamps back on the sensitivity so that we're not overwhelmed.\n\nA problem with that leads to what is essentially feedback hum.\n\nI would imagine that this little trick helps to properly calibrate this system for at least a short time, eliminating the feedback.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "101970",
"title": "Tinnitus",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "If there is an underlying cause, treating it may lead to improvements. Otherwise, the primary treatment for tinnitus is talk therapy, sound therapy, or hearing aids. There are no effective medications or supplements that treat tinnitus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101970",
"title": "Tinnitus",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The best supported treatment for tinnitus is a type of counseling called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) which can be delivered via the internet or in person. It decreases the amount of stress those with tinnitus feel. These benefits appear to be independent of any effect on depression or anxiety in an individual. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) also shows promise in the treatment of tinnitus. Relaxation techniques may also be useful. A clinical protocol called Progressive Tinnitus Management for treatment of tinnitus has been developed by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1686266",
"title": "Tinnitus retraining therapy",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- alternative medicine – vitamin, antioxidant and herbal preparations (notably \"Ginkgo biloba\" extract, also called EGb761) are advertised as treatments or cures for tinnitus. However, none are approved by the FDA, and controlled clinical trials on their efficacy are lacking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30933644",
"title": "American Tinnitus Association",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The American Tinnitus Association (ATA) purpose is to promote relief, help prevent, and find cures for tinnitus. Starting in 1980, the association has granted close to $6 million in funding for tinnitus research. Many of these researchers have gone on to receive larger grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) based on ATA-funded research. Contributions to the association also go towards advocacy work in Washington, D.C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101970",
"title": "Tinnitus",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Objective tinnitus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Objective tinnitus can be detected by other people and is sometimes caused by an involuntary twitching of a muscle or a group of muscles (myoclonus) or by a vascular condition. In some cases, tinnitus is generated by muscle spasms around the middle ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1686266",
"title": "Tinnitus retraining therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Tinnitus retraining therapy is a form of habituation therapy designed to help people who experience tinnitus, a ringing, buzzing, hissing, or other sound in the ears when no external sound is present. Two key components of TRT directly follow from the neurophysiological model of tinnitus. One of these principles includes directive counseling aimed at reclassification of tinnitus to a category of neutral signals, while the other includes sound therapy which is aimed at weakening tinnitus related neuronal activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1686266",
"title": "Tinnitus retraining therapy",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Physiological basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "It has been proposed that tinnitus is caused by mechanisms that generate abnormal neural activity, specifically one mechanism called discordant damage (dysfunction) of outer and inner hair cells of the cochlea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eyvg3t
|
what is that line in the roof of your mouth and what is it for?
|
[
{
"answer": "That’s left over from when your hard palate fused as it should in infancy (otherwise it would be a cleft). They aren’t fused to start off, maybe in case baby’s head gets a little squeezed and bones need to shift? At any rate, you need it to make certain sounds “correctly.”",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You mean the ridge on your palate that runs from front to back? That's called the palatine raphe. It's just where the 2 halves of our face meet. When we're embryos, our faces are 2 separate halves that sort of fold in and meet in the middle. The palatine raphe is just where the bone and soft tissue of the mouth meet and fuse. Sometimes it doesn't quite close all the way and you can end up with a cleft palate or a cleft lip.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42193218",
"title": "Human digestive system",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Mouth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "The roof of the mouth is termed the palate and it separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. The palate is hard at the front of the mouth since the overlying mucosa is covering a plate of bone; it is softer and more pliable at the back being made of muscle and connective tissue, and it can move to swallow food and liquids. The soft palate ends at the uvula. The surface of the hard palate allows for the pressure needed in eating food, to leave the nasal passage clear. The lips are the mouth's front boundary and the fauces (the passageway between the tonsils, also called the throat), mark its posterior boundary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35869003",
"title": "Human mouth",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Oral cavity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The mouth, consists of 2 regions, the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the area between the teeth, lips and cheeks. The oral cavity is bounded at the sides and in front by the alveolar process (containing the teeth) and at the back by the isthmus of the fauces. Its roof is formed by hard palate at the front, and a soft palate at the back. The uvula projects downwards from the middle of the soft palate at its back. The floor is formed by the mylohyoid muscles and is occupied mainly by the tongue. A mucous membrane – the oral mucosa, lines the sides and under surface of the tongue to the gums, lining the inner aspect of the jaw (mandible). It receives the secretions from the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "539592",
"title": "Alveolar ridge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "The alveolar ridge (; also known as the alveolar margin) is one of the two jaw ridges, extensions of the mandible or maxilla, either on the roof of the mouth between the upper teeth and the hard palate or on the bottom of the mouth behind the lower teeth. Most of the roof of one's mouth is the hard palate and the soft palate. The alveolar ridges contain the sockets (alveoli, singular \"alveolus\") of the teeth. They can be felt with the tongue in the area right above the top teeth or below the bottom teeth. Its surface is covered with little ridges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29029594",
"title": "Human head",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The face is the anterior part of the head, containing the eyes, nose, and mouth. On either side of the mouth, the cheeks provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity. The ears sit to either side of the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9387918",
"title": "Human nose",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Bones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Above and to the back, the bony upper part of the nasal septum is made up of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, and the bony lower part is made up of the vomer bone that lies below. The floor of the nose is made up of the incisive bone and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones, and this makes up the hard palate of the roof of the mouth. The two horizontal plates join together at the midline and form the posterior nasal spine that gives attachment to the musculus uvulae in the uvula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32920662",
"title": "Saw-tooth roof",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "A saw-tooth roof is a roof comprising a series of ridges with dual pitches either side. The steeper surfaces are glazed and face away from the equator to shield workers and machinery from direct sunlight. This kind of roof admits natural light into a deep plan building or factory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66152",
"title": "Sea urchin",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Feeding and digestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "The mouth lies in the centre of the oral surface in regular urchins, or towards one end in irregular urchins. It is surrounded by lips of softer tissue, with numerous small, embedded bony pieces. This area, called the peristome, also includes five pairs of modified tube feet and, in many species, five pairs of gills. The jaw apparatus consists of five strong arrow-shaped plates known as pyramids, the ventral surface of each of which has a toothband with a hard tooth pointing towards the centre of the mouth. Specialised muscles control the protrusion of the apparatus and the action of the teeth, and the animal can grasp, scrape, pull and tear. The structure of the mouth and teeth have been found to be so efficient at grasping and grinding that similar structures have been tested for use in real-world applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3b9dtm
|
Are lightnings three-dimensional or two-dimensional?
|
[
{
"answer": "Certainly, [this guy](_URL_0_) recreated a lightning bolt in 3 dimensions based on a couple pictures of the same lightning bolt taken at different locations. \n\nFollow up question, do we know what the cross-section of a lightning bolt is like? Is it just circular? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The shape you are looking for is [\"dendritic\"](_URL_1_). That's greek for tree-like, and it is the term used for anything that branches (crystals, nerve cells, lightning strikes, fractures, and so on).\n\nAs has already been mentioned, lightning typically follows a complex 3D path, but it can also be 2D if you confine it (see [these images](_URL_0_)).\n\nThe lightning channel itself tend to be very narrow. We can model it as a series of cylinders, but I hesitate to call it cylindrical because that implies a lightning surface, which is not the case. Lightning is simply defined by where the electrons flow - there will be more electrons toward the center of the narrow cylinder, and less towards the edges. And the electrons don't all move in the same direction together, that's why you get the branching effect as different pockets of charge move in very erratic patterns.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21241368",
"title": "Blade (geometry)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "In three-dimensional space, 0-blades are again scalars and 1-blades are three-dimensional vectors, and 2-blades are oriented area elements. 3-blades represent volume elements and in three-dimensional space; these are scalar-like—i.e., 3-blades in three-dimensions form a one-dimensional vector space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1975821",
"title": "Skew lines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In three-dimensional geometry, skew lines are two lines that do not intersect and are not parallel. A simple example of a pair of skew lines is the pair of lines through opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron. Two lines that both lie in the same plane must either cross each other or be parallel, so skew lines can exist only in three or more dimensions. Two lines are skew if and only if they are not coplanar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1508434",
"title": "Coplanarity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Two lines in three-dimensional space are coplanar if there is a plane that includes them both. This occurs if the lines are parallel, or if they intersect each other. Two lines that are not coplanar are called skew lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "518693",
"title": "Regular polytope",
"section": "Section::::Classification and description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "In two dimensions, there are infinitely many regular polygons. In three and four dimensions, there are several more regular polyhedra and 4-polytopes besides these three. In five dimensions and above, these are the only ones. See also the list of regular polytopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1166647",
"title": "Magnetic reconnection",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Types of reconnection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In three dimensions, the geometry of the field lines become more complicated than the two-dimensional case and it is possible for reconnection to occur in regions where a separator does not exist, but with the field lines connected by steep gradients. These regions are known as quasi-separatrix layers (QSLs), and have been observed in theoretical configurations and solar flares.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "664497",
"title": "Parallel (geometry)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "In geometry, parallel lines are lines in a plane which do not meet; that is, two lines in a plane that do not intersect or touch each other at any point are said to be parallel. By extension, a line and a plane, or two planes, in three-dimensional Euclidean space that do not share a point are said to be parallel. However, two lines in three-dimensional space which do not meet must be in a common plane to be considered parallel; otherwise they are called skew lines. Parallel planes are planes in the same three-dimensional space that never meet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84840",
"title": "Kite (geometry)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "In Euclidean geometry, a kite is a quadrilateral whose four sides can be grouped into two pairs of equal-length sides that are adjacent to each other. In contrast, a parallelogram also has two pairs of equal-length sides, but they are opposite to each other rather than adjacent. Kite quadrilaterals are named for the wind-blown, flying kites, which often have this shape and which are in turn named for a bird. Kites are also known as deltoids, but the word \"deltoid\" may also refer to a deltoid curve, an unrelated geometric object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3km6ef
|
why do some chemicals change colours when mixed with other chemicals?
|
[
{
"answer": "These changes are do to new molecules being formed, making light react differently to the product. Different atoms and molecules radiate different colors of light, and the colors they radiate depend on their particular atomic and molecular structure. Specifically, the more electrons are confined, the closer the spacings between their energy levels allowing shorter wavelengths to be absorbed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19097368",
"title": "On Vision and Colours",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 13.:Chemical colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Chemical colors are more durable properties of an external object, such as the red color of an apple. A chemical color is incomprehensible because we don't know its cause. Its appearance is only known from experience and it is not an essential part of the object. Chemical colors result from changes in an object's surface. A slight change in the surface may result in a different color. Color, therefore, is not an essential property of an object. This confirms the subjective nature of color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285482",
"title": "Color of chemicals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The color of chemicals is a physical property of chemicals that in most cases comes from the excitation of electrons due to an absorption of energy performed by the chemical. What is seen by the eye is not the color absorbed, but the complementary color from the removal of the absorbed wavelengths. This spectral perspective was first noted in atomic spectroscopy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3000988",
"title": "Halochromism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The colour change of halochromic substances occur when the chemical binds to existing hydrogen and hydroxide ions in solution. Such bonds result in changes in the conjugated systems of the molecule, or the range of electron flow. This alters the wavelength of light absorbed, which in turn results in a visible change of colour. Halochromic substances do not display a full range of colour for a full range of pH because, after certain acidities, the conjugated system will not change. The various shades result from different concentrations of halochromic molecules with different conjugated systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3000978",
"title": "Ionochromism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Ionochromic materials, similar to photochromic, thermochromic and other chromic materials, alter colour in the presence of a factor and reverse to their initial state when the factor is removed. The factor which causes colour change in ionochromic substances are ions. A flow of ions through an ionochromic material results in a reaction/colour change from the material. This material is in many ways similar to electrochromic materials which change colour when electrons flow through them. Electrons, just like anions, carry a negative charge. Both electrochromic and ionochromic substances have their colour change activated by the flow of charged particles. Ionochromic substances are suitable for detection of charged particles. Some ionochromic substances can be used as indicators for complexometric titrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9722260",
"title": "Chemical substance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, and may change between these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44041",
"title": "Solvation",
"section": "Section::::Solvents and intermolecular interactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Some chemical compounds experience solvatochromism, which is a change in color due to solvent polarity. This phenomenon illustrates how different solvents interact differently with the same solute. Other solvent effects include conformational or isomeric preferences and changes in the acidity of a solute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3419165",
"title": "Marcus theory",
"section": "Section::::The one-electron redox reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "Chemical reactions may lead to a substitution of a group in a molecule or a ligand in a complex, to the elimination of a group of the molecule or a ligand, or to a rearrangement of a molecule or complex. An electron-transfer reaction may, however, also cause simply an exchange of charges between the reactants, and these redox reactions without making or breaking a bond seem to be quite simple in inorganic chemistry for ions and complexes. These reactions often become manifest by a change of colour, e.g. for ions or complexes of transition metal ions, but organic molecules, too, may change their colour by accepting or giving away an electron (like the herbicide Paraquat (\"N\",\"N\"-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium dichloride) which becomes blue when accepting an electron, thence the alternative name of methyl viologen). For this type of electron-transfer reactions R.A. Marcus has developed his theory. Here the trace of argument and the results are presented. For the mathematical development and details the original papers should be consulted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7x96ip
|
when completing in luge, what exactly are the athletes doing to control themselves and maximize their speed?
|
[
{
"answer": "The sled rides on two sharp-bottomed blades known as runners, the only part of the sled that makes contact with the ice.\n\nIn order to steer the sled, the slider uses his or her calves to apply pressure to one of the runners, or shifts their weight using their shoulders. Considering the extreme speed, athletes only need to make slight adjustments in order to steer.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17530929",
"title": "Shadowless kick",
"section": "Section::::In Wing-Chun (Yong Chun).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "3. Extreme speed is used by the martial artist - by perfecting their relaxation skills thereby allowing the kick to be sent unhindered by muscle - until the moment of contact, where the Wing-Chun base posture, provides target-ground-target energy. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8767692",
"title": "Running bounce",
"section": "Section::::The skill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Players need to readjust the distance of their bounces when running at different paces. When running faster, the ball must be bounced further in front of the player, and when running slower, the ball must be bounced closer. At very slow or stationary paces, this correction is more difficult, because it is difficult to correctly angle the ball for the return bounce at such a short distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7586820",
"title": "Alleycat race",
"section": "Section::::Race styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "BULLET::::- Task checkpoints - In some races upon arriving at a checkpoint the rider may have to perform a task or trick before being given the next location. This allows organizers to be as creative as they desire. Task checkpoints can involve physical tasks, such as climbing stairs, taking a shot of alcohol or hot sauce, performing a skillful trick, or can test the racer's mind, such as reciting trivia or messenger-related knowledge. Often there is not a task at all of the checkpoints in a race and tasks/checkpoints can sometimes be skipped (potentially at a loss of points) if a rider feels that time to complete a task is not worth the points they would earn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2390056",
"title": "Glossary of cycling",
"section": "Section::::F.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "BULLET::::- Follow a wheel: The ability to follow a wheel is the ability to match the pace of riders who are setting the tempo. Following is easier than pulling or setting the tempo and the term can be used in a derogatory manner, e.g. \"S/he only ever followed\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16824",
"title": "Korfball",
"section": "Section::::Rules and regulations.:Match.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Once a player has the ball, that player cannot dribble or walk with it; however, the player can move one foot as long as the foot on which the player landed when catching the ball stays in the same spot. Therefore, tactical and efficient teamwork is required, because players need each other in order to keep the ball moving. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4710300",
"title": "Women's Little 500",
"section": "Section::::The Exchange.:Bike-to-Bike.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "To make things a little more interesting, each team, no matter what type of exchange they are doing, has to perform their exchange in the distance of two pits. The action of slowing is not part of the exchange, but the first rider is not allowed to begin getting off the bike until one pit ahead of their team's and the second rider must have complete control of the bike by the end of the team's pit. For bike-to-bike exchanges, the second person CANNOT move until tagged by the first person and the first person MUST stop before end of her team's pit. Failure to do either of these things will result in a penalty for the team.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37779",
"title": "Luge",
"section": "Section::::Artificial tracks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "The athletes ride in a flat, aerodynamic position on the sled, keeping their heads low to minimize air resistance. They steer the sled mainly with their calves by applying pressure on the runners—right calf to turn left, left calf to turn right. It takes a precise mix of shifting body weight, applying pressure with calves and rolling the shoulders. There are also handles for minor adjustments. A successful luger maintains complete concentration and relaxation on the sled while traveling at high speeds. Most lugers \"visualize\" the course in their minds before sliding. Fastest times result from following the perfect \"line\" down the track. Any slight error, such as brush against the wall, costs time. Track conditions are also important. Softer ice tends to slow speeds, while harder ice tends to lead to faster times. Lugers race at speeds averaging around high banked curves while experiencing a centripetal acceleration of up to 5g. Men's Singles have their start locations near where the bobsled and skeleton competitors start at most tracks, while both the Doubles and Women's Singles competition have their starthouse located farther down the track. Artificial track luge is the fastest and most agile sledding sport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ougkr
|
why is latin, arguably a dead language, is still so prevalent in medicine, law, and even science?
|
[
{
"answer": "That is one of the reasons they started using it, because dead languages doesn't change!\n\nTo make it short, a swede named Carl Linnaeus got tired of the confusion that plants having different names in different languages caused, so he gave them all latin names. Most scientists at that time knew latin anyway. \nThat removed a lot of confusion, causing other branches of science to follow suit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17999",
"title": "Latin spelling and pronunciation",
"section": "Section::::Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Because it gave rise to many modern languages, Latin did not \"die\"; it merely evolved over the centuries in different regions in diverse ways. The local dialects of Vulgar Latin that emerged eventually became modern Italian, Spanish, French, Romanian, Portuguese, Catalan, Romansh, Dalmatian, Sardinian, and many others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214974",
"title": "Culture of ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1163,
"text": "Although Latin is an extinct language with very few contemporary fluent speakers, it remains in use in many ways. In particular, Latin has survived through Ecclesiastical Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Catholic Church and one of the official languages of the Vatican City. Although distinct from both Classical and Vulgar Latin in a number of ways, Ecclesiastical Latin was more stable than typical Medieval Latin. More Classical sensibilities eventually re-emerged in the Renaissance with Humanist Latin. Due to both the prevalence of Christianity and the enduring influence of the Roman civilization, Latin became western Europe's \"lingua franca\", a language used to cross international borders, such as for academic and diplomatic usage. A deep knowledge of classical Latin was a standard part of the educational curriculum in many western countries until well into the 20th century, and is still taught in many schools today. Although it was eventually supplanted in this respect by French in the 19th century and English in the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology, and in academia in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14763066",
"title": "Latinisation of names",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "During modern times Europe has largely abandoned Latin as a scholarly language (most scientific studies and scholarly publications are printed in English), but a variety of fields still use Latin terminology as the norm. By tradition, it is still common in some fields to name new discoveries in Latin. And because Western science became dominant during the 18th and 19th centuries, the use of Latin names in many scholarly fields has gained worldwide acceptance, at least when European languages are being used for communication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21983",
"title": "New Latin",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "A diminishing audience combined with diminishing production of Latin texts pushed Latin into a declining spiral from which it has not recovered. As it was gradually abandoned by various fields, and as less written material appeared in it, there was less of a practical reason for anyone to bother to learn Latin; as fewer people knew Latin, there was less reason for material to be written in the language. Latin came to be viewed as esoteric, irrelevant, and too difficult. As languages like French, German, and English became more widely known, use of a 'difficult' auxiliary language seemed unnecessary—while the argument that Latin could expand readership beyond a single nation was fatally weakened if, in fact, Latin readers did not compose a majority of the intended audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7599170",
"title": "Legal English",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "From 1066, Latin was the language of formal records and statutes, and was replaced by English in the Proceedings in Courts of Justice Act 1730. However, because only learned persons were fluent in Latin, it never became the language of legal pleading or debate. The influence of Latin can be seen in a number of words and phrases such as \"ad hoc\", \"de facto\", \"bona fide\", \"inter alia\", and \"ultra vires,\" which remain in current use in legal writing (see Legal Latin).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3771969",
"title": "Greek East and Latin West",
"section": "Section::::Use with regard to Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The term \"Latin\" has survived much longer as a unifying term for the West because the Latin language survived until very recently as a scholarly and liturgical language despite the fragmentation and religious changes in Western Europe. The Greek language, by contrast, died out somewhat quickly in the Arab lands, and the Slavic nations never fully embraced the language despite their long religious affiliation with the Eastern Romans/Byzantines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17730",
"title": "Latin",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Latin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2b6nqh
|
in the usa, what are the guidelines on having a lawyer during interactions with law enforcement?
|
[
{
"answer": "You don't have to go down to the station at all.\n\nIf they ask you to come down to answer questions, just ask \"Am I being arrested?\" if they say no, then say \"Then please leave me alone\" if they say yes just say \"I want a lawyer\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have the right to a lawyer no matter the circumstances. No one is ever going to punish you for bringing a lawyer along whenever you're dealing with something that involves the law. That's what they are there for, to help you maneuver through legal situations, at any level, in any jurisdiction.\n\nWhether you're under suspicion of murder, or just signing a lease on an apartment. Lawyers are always a good idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1897927",
"title": "Section 10 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms",
"section": "Section::::Counsel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The right to consult a lawyer is considered to be important, and the courts have been understanding if, even in cases in which the person arrested or detained preferred not to see any lawyer, it is later argued section 10 is violated because the arrested or detained person did not know any better. This applies, for example, to cases in which the arrested or detained person has a low IQ.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14141359",
"title": "Criminal defense lawyer",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In the United States, criminal defense lawyers deal with the issues surrounding an arrest , a criminal investigation, criminal charges, sentencing, appeals, and post-trial issues. Often an attorney will specialize in a niche within criminal defense, such as drug defense or DUI defense. They could work for the local, state, or federal government or they could work for private law firms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31658",
"title": "Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Rights secured.:Assistance of counsel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "As stated in \"Brewer v. Williams\", , the right to counsel \"[means] at least that a person is entitled to the help of a lawyer at or after the time that judicial proceedings have been initiated against him, whether by formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information, or arraignment.\" \"Brewer\" goes on to conclude that once adversary proceedings have begun against a defendant, he has a right to legal assistance when the government interrogates him and that when a defendant is arrested, \"arraigned on [an arrest] warrant before a judge\", and \"committed by the court to confinement\", \"[t]here can be no doubt that judicial proceedings ha[ve] been initiated.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35838782",
"title": "Alaska Bar Association",
"section": "Section::::Services to Lawyers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bar Counsel is available by phone and email to provide informal advice to lawyers with questions about ethics. The Bar provides free ethics programs to assist attorneys in meeting their yearly mandatory ethics CLE requirements. ABA Ethics Opinions are available online.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5294532",
"title": "Duty counsel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The Duty Counsel lawyer is often the first point of contact for legal advice provided to a detained or arrested individual. People arrested by police services across the province of Ontario, as well as by Canada Border Services Agency officers at land, air, and sea ports of entry in Ontario also have the right to contact Duty Counsel. Any person arrested or detained in Canada has the right to speak to a lawyer without delay (with very narrow exceptions), and the police are required to inform them of that right, and facilitate access to a lawyer. The Duty Counsel system is the way in which these rights are implemented in Ontario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14141359",
"title": "Criminal defense lawyer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "A criminal defense lawyer is a lawyer (mostly barristers) specializing in the defense of individuals and companies charged with criminal activity. Some criminal defense lawyers are privately retained, while others are employed by the various jurisdictions with criminal courts for appointment to represent indigent persons; the latter are generally called public defenders. The terminology is imprecise because each jurisdiction may have different practices with various levels of input from state and federal law or consent decrees. Some jurisdictions use a rotating system of appointments, with judges appointing a private practice attorney or firm for each case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34345431",
"title": "Assistance of Counsel Clause",
"section": "Section::::Attachment at critical stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "As stated in \"Brewer v. Williams\", , the right to counsel “[means] at least that a person is entitled to the help of a lawyer at or after the time that judicial proceedings have been initiated against him, whether by formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information, or arraignment.” \"Brewer\" goes on to conclude that once adversarial proceedings have begun against a defendant, he has a right to legal representation when the government interrogates him and that when a defendant is arrested, “arraigned on [an arrest] warrant before a judge,” and “committed by the court to confinement,” “[t]here can be no doubt that judicial proceedings ha[ve] been initiated.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
68d1lj
|
why is the dead sea not overflooding?
|
[
{
"answer": "The dead sea evaporates away leaving salt. It only has tributaries which is why the salt content is so high. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52272493",
"title": "Environmental issues in Israel",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary issues.:The Dead Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "In 2016, the DESERVE institute constructed a network of scientific monitoring stations around the Dead Sea, expanding our understanding of declining water levels, freshwater pollution, and the increased occurrence of sinkholes. Their findings have confirmed previous estimates of water level decline, by the Ministry of Environmental Protection, of approximately a meter a year. This is due, in part, to over pumping of surface water connected to the Jordan River, which leads directly into the Dead Sea. Additionally, the decline of the Dead Sea is correlated with increased sinkhole formation, although the mechanisms through which this occurs have not been confirmed. These sinkholes have caused significant damage to infrastructure and industry surrounding the Dead Sea region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530",
"title": "Dead Sea",
"section": "Section::::Recession and environmental concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Since 1930, when its surface was and its level was below sea level, the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously. In recent decades, the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a water surface of below sea level in 1970 it fell to below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530",
"title": "Dead Sea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The Dead Sea is receding at a swift rate; its surface area today is , having been in 1930. The recession of the Dead Sea has begun causing problems, and multiple canals and pipelines proposals exist to reduce its recession. One of these proposals is the Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, which will provide water to neighbouring countries, while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilise its water level. The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47910",
"title": "Jordan River",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "In modern times, the waters are 70% to 90% used for human purposes and the flow is greatly reduced. Because of this and the high evaporation rate of the Dead Sea, as well as industrial extraction of salts through evaporation ponds, the Dead Sea is rapidly shrinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16702346",
"title": "Dead Sea Transform",
"section": "Section::::Sections.:Southern section.:Dead Sea basin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The Dead Sea is formed in a pull-apart basin due to the left-stepping offset between the Wadi Arabah and Jordan Valley segments. The part of the basin with a sedimentary fill of more than 2 km is 150 km long and 15–17 km wide in its central part. In the north, the fill reaches its maximum thickness of about 10 km. The sequence includes Miocene fluvial sandstones of the Hazeva Formation overlain by a sequence of Late Miocene to early Pliocene evaporites, mainly halite, the Sedom Formation, and a lacustrine to fluvial sequence of Pliocene to recent age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15716",
"title": "Geography of Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Topography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The Dead Sea occupies the deepest depression on the land surface of the earth. The depth of the depression is accentuated by the surrounding mountains and highlands that rise to elevations of 800 to 1,200 meters above sea level. The sea's greatest depth is about 430 meters, and it thus reaches a point more than 825 meters below sea level. A drop in the level of the sea has caused the former Lisan Peninsula to become a land bridge dividing the sea into separate northern and southern basins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530",
"title": "Dead Sea",
"section": "Section::::Recession and environmental concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore—incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7kklg6
|
Can Dogs Count?
|
[
{
"answer": "Anecdotally, stray dogs in some cities have been observed riding the subways and successfully navigating the stops...unless they fall asleep and miss a stop or two. I don't think that could be explained without some ability to count assuming there wasn't some unseen confounding variable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Important to note that there's a difference between counting *n* entities and realizing it should be *n+1*, and seeing a group of familiar people and noting that one or more are absent.\n\nLike I show you a picture of Larry and Curly, you aren't counting them, you are *identifying* them and basing your conclusion that Moe is missing from that, not from the much more abstract conversion to pure number theory.\n\nTake [these](_URL_1_) guys. There's some controversy around the specifics, but basically they don't have words for exact numbers at all, just \"many\" and \"fewer\". So if you asked them how many people lived in the tribe (or even just how many fingers are on each of their hands), they couldn't tell you. But if you asked to name them all, or identify which ones were missing from a photo, no problem.\n\nIn many ways, counting puppies would be an inferior technique for a daddy dog. Recall the head-counting snafu from Home Alone. Numbers are generic and anonymous. Recognition and identity is a much surer thing, at least [within the range that you can keep it all in your head](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48845497",
"title": "Number sense in animals",
"section": "Section::::Number sense by species.:Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "A sense of number has also been found in dogs. For example, dogs were able to perform simple additions of two objects, as revealed by their surprise when the result was incorrect. It is however argued that wolves perform better on quantity discrimination tasks than dogs and that this could be a result of a less demanding natural selection for number sense in dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "968202",
"title": "Dog intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Memory.:Episodic memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Dogs have demonstrated episodic-like memory by recalling past events that included the complex actions of humans. In a 2019 study, a correlation has been shown between the size of the dog and the functions of memory and self-control, with larger dogs performing significantly better than smaller dogs in these functions. However, in the study brain size did not predict a dog's ability to follow human pointing gestures, nor was it associated with their inferential and physical reasoning abilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14343887",
"title": "Precision and recall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Suppose a computer program for recognizing dogs in photographs identifies 8 dogs in a picture containing 12 dogs and some cats. Of the 8 identified as dogs, 5 actually are dogs (true positives), while the rest are cats (false positives). The program's precision is 5/8 while its recall is 5/12. When a search engine returns 30 pages only 20 of which were relevant while failing to return 40 additional relevant pages, its precision is 20/30 = 2/3 while its recall is 20/60 = 1/3. So, in this case, precision is \"how useful the search results are\", and recall is \"how complete the results are\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "634",
"title": "Analysis of variance",
"section": "Section::::Motivating example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "The analysis of variance can be used as an exploratory tool to explain observations. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. One way to do that is to \"explain\" the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that (a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and (b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3303843",
"title": "Dog anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Senses.:Hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 221,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 221,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The frequency range of dog hearing is between 16-40 Hz (compared to 20–70 Hz for humans) and up to 45–60 kHz (compared to 13–20 kHz for humans), which means that dogs can detect sounds far beyond the upper limit of the human auditory spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9659164",
"title": "Aging in dogs",
"section": "Section::::Aging profile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "BULLET::::- Size/breed specific calculators – These try to factor in the size or breed as well. These are the most accurate types. They typically work either by expected adult weight or by categorizing the dog as \"small\", \"medium\", or \"large\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7118482",
"title": "Dog behavior",
"section": "Section::::Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, \"Chaser\", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands. After undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insolvable version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5i40fa
|
why do people put salt in cakes meant to be sweet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Salt removes bitterness. I add salt to coffee and lemonade as well. Since dark chocolate, fresh citrus, etc can be pretty bitter it allows the cake to have flavor without the bite.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Salt is an interesting ingredient, especially in baking. It heightens other flavors, slows the chemical reactions happening in the dough, and in pastry-making, it helps cut the oily mouthfeel of buttery doughs and encourages browning.\n\nAlso, the salty-sweet juxtaposition is really pleasant for a lot of people. Think chocolate covered pretzels.\n\nNow, if you're adding too much salt (which can also mean using the wrong kind of salt), or not mixing the dough/batter properly before baking, then you're going to taste it. If done right, you shouldn't taste the salt at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10261160",
"title": "Paper wrapped cake",
"section": "Section::::Serving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The cakes are typically served in the paper they were baked in. Found in bakeries, the cakes are typically eaten during breakfast, or teatime. Because of the cakes’ light flavouring, it is possible to eat much of the cake without getting sick because of an overly sugary taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43233374",
"title": "Mexican breads",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy of Mexican breads and other baked goods.:Bakery breads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The most variety comes in sweet breads because of the wide variety of flavorings and fillings. Vanilla and cinnamon are important ingredients in many of the sweet breads. Other important flavorings include almonds, coconut, sesame, peanuts, walnuts, chocolate, tequila, rum, orange peel, strawberry preserves, quince jelly, apricot preserves, apple and pineapple. In some breads, which need to puff greatly, finely ground \"tequesquite\" (saltpeter or potassium/sodium nitrate) is used. The use of this ingredient has been documented since the 1700s. Most sweet breads are baked but some are fried, usually using beef or pork fat, sometimes butter. The most popular of these are churros and buñuelos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60492138",
"title": "Soul food health trends",
"section": "Section::::Modifying soul food to fit within health trends.:Soul food with low sugar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Desserts with high sugar are commonly consumed for hedonistic rewards, especially among women. However, high sugar intake tends to increase risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardio-metabolic diseases and compromised oral health. Instead, research showed that honey is beneficial to health with its \"gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, reproductive, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, antihypertensive, antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory. Under that circumstance, honey can be replaced to add sweet flavor, such as dressing on smoothies, spreading on bread, etc. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1529408",
"title": "Welsh cake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Welsh cakes are served hot or cold dusted with caster sugar. Unlike scones, they are not usually eaten with an accompaniment, though they are sometimes sold ready split and spread with jam, and they are sometimes buttered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15727617",
"title": "Soul cake",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The cakes are usually filled with allspice, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger or other sweet spices, raisins or currants, and before baking are topped with the mark of a cross to signify that these were alms. They were traditionally set out with glasses of wine, an offering for the dead as in early Christian tradition, and either on All Hallows' Eve (Halloween), All Saints' Day or All Souls' Day, children would go \"souling\", or ritually begging for cakes door to door.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208131",
"title": "Powdered sugar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Powdered sugar is utilized in industrial food production when a quick-dissolving sugar is required. Home cooks use it principally to make icing or frosting and other cake decorations. It is often dusted onto baked goods to add a subtle sweetness and delicate decoration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7976",
"title": "Dessert",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Cakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Cakes are sweet tender breads made with sugar and delicate flour. Cakes can vary from light, airy sponge cakes to dense cakes with less flour. Common flavorings include dried, candied or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa or extracts. They may be filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit. Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial occasions, for example weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. Small-sized cakes have become popular, in the form of cupcakes and petits fours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2m0pnv
|
When listening to music, individual areas of the brain are "activated" for melody, rhythm and pitch. Are these areas in the exact same place in my brain and yours?
|
[
{
"answer": "Okay, so first, caveat, I'm a bit of an fMRI skeptic. This is not to say I think it's all lies, but it is the number 1 area of neuroscience that science writers tend to run with, and the authors never make any attempt to correct them.\n\nWhenever you read anything the that talks about fMRI, you need to remember they are reporting to you a *difference*. Everything in fMRI is a difference. What do I mean? I mean that those glowing areas of brain you see are areas where the activity is different between two situations. For instance, the \"melody\" part was probably \"found\" when the played the subjects a melodious tune, and one where they chopped up the sound, so that it no longer had melody, but had all the same pitch and rhythm components. Then the bit of brain that was active in the first case, and not the second is now supposed to be coding for melody. Maybe it just codes for \"I'm sick of listening to the nonsense noise\"? Who knows? Moreover, this is a best case example. The scientists could have been stupid and just played a highly melodious piece of music and an atonal piece of music, and looked at the brain difference. Maybe one was louder than the other, or higher pitched, or different timbre?\n\nSo the point is, fMRI experiments are really difficult to design, because you can only ever look at difference in activation.\n\nAlso: _URL_0_\n\nBut to answer your other question, are these parts the same in everyone? See the bit that is highlighted at 6:02. That is primary auditory cortex. Is is in the same part of the brain in everyone (well, 99%), as are all the primary cortices. What about other areas? Here is it harder to say because it is harder to design experiments to activate parts of the brain that might code for \"The smell of the slightly shinny red handbag my grandmother had\" across different subjects, but it certainly appears that there is some degree of overlap between people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "994097",
"title": "Auditory cortex",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Human brain scans indicated that a peripheral bit of this brain region is active when trying to identify musical pitch. Individual cells consistently get excited by sounds at specific frequencies, or multiples of that frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80077",
"title": "Ethnomusicology",
"section": "Section::::Theories and methods.:Theoretical issues and debates.:Cognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The perception of music has a quickly growing body of literature. Structurally, the auditory system is able to distinguish different pitches (sound waves of varying frequency) via the complementary vibrating of the eardrum. It can also parse incoming sound signals via pattern recognition mechanisms. Cognitively, the brain is often constructionist when it comes to pitch. If one removes the fundamental pitch from a harmonic spectrum, the brain can still “hear” that missing fundamental and identify it through an attempt to reconstruct a coherent harmonic spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1731484",
"title": "Amusia",
"section": "Section::::Neuroanatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1372,
"text": "Music-specific neural networks exist in the brain for a variety of music-related tasks. It has been shown that Broca's area is involved in the processing of musical syntax. Furthermore, brain damage can disrupt an individual's ability to tell the difference between tonal and atonal music and detect the presence of wrong notes, but can preserve the individual's ability to assess the distance between pitches and the direction of the pitch. The opposite scenario can also occur, in which the individual loses pitch discrimination capabilities, but can sense and appreciate the tonal context of the work. Distinct neural networks also exist for music memories, singing, and music recognition. Neural networks for music recognition are particularly intriguing. A patient can undergo brain damage that renders them unable to recognize familiar melodies that are presented without words. However, the patient maintains the ability to recognize spoken lyrics or words, familiar voices, and environmental sounds. The reverse case is also possible, in which the patient cannot recognize spoken words, but can still recognize familiar melodies. These situations overturn previous claims that speech recognition and music recognition share a single processing system. Instead, it is clear that there are at least two distinct processing modules: one for speech and one for music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "994097",
"title": "Auditory cortex",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Relationship to the auditory system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The primary auditory cortex is tonotopically organized, which means that neighboring cells in the cortex respond to neighboring frequencies. Tonotopic mapping is preserved throughout most of the audition circuit. The primary auditory cortex receives direct input from the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and thus is thought to identify the fundamental elements of music, such as pitch and loudness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36560848",
"title": "Temporal dynamics of music and language",
"section": "Section::::Recent research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Many aspects of language and musical melodies are processed by the same brain areas. In 2006, Brown, Martinez and Parsons found that listening to a melody or a sentence resulted in activation of many of the same areas including the primary motor cortex, the supplementary motor area, the Brocas area, anterior insula, the primary audio cortex, the thalamus, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25136770",
"title": "Cognitive musicology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1222,
"text": "Even while enjoying the simplest of melodies there are multiple brain processes that are synchronizing to comprehend what is going on. After the stimulus enters and undergoes the processes of the ear, it enters the auditory cortex, part of the temporal lobe, which begins processing the sound by assessing its pitch and volume. From here, brain functioning differs amongst the analysis of different aspects of music. For instance, the rhythm is processed and regulated by the left frontal cortex, the left parietal cortex and the right cerebellum standardly. Tonality, the building of musical structure around a central chord, is assessed by the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum (Abram, 2015). Music is able to access many different brain functions that play an integral role in other higher brain functions such as motor control, memory, language, reading and emotion. Research has shown that music can be used as an alternative method to access these functions that may be unavailable through non-musical stimulus due to a disorder. Musicology explores the use of music and how it can provide alternative transmission routes for information processing in the brain for diseases such as Parkinson's and dyslexia as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7330954",
"title": "Pattern recognition (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Music pattern recognition.:Cognitive mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "MIT researchers conducted a study to examine this notion. The results showed six neural clusters in the auditory cortex responding to the sounds. Four were triggered when hearing standard acoustic features, one specifically responded to speech, and the last exclusively responded to music. Researchers who studied the correlation between temporal evolution of timbral, tonal and rhythmic features of music, came to the conclusion that music engages the brain regions connected to motor actions, emotions and creativity. The research indicates that the whole brain \"lights up\" when listening to music. This amount of activity boosts memory preservation, hence pattern recognition. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fvxol5
|
How did the fallen angel Lucifer end up as Satan/the Devil - red-faced, horned, hooved and not what he originally was?
|
[
{
"answer": "Different people say different stuff because it's a form of Christian mythology, and different people have different explanations depending on where they were raised, the denomination or congregation they attend. It's the same reason why folk songs have many different lyrics, e.g. whether Barbary Allen's boyfriend is named William Green or Jimmy Green or Johnny Green, and whether the rose grows from his grave or her grave. Another popular example would be how the four Gospels do not tell precisely the same Passion story or Nativity -- in no gospel do the \"three wise men\" and the shepherds appear at the same time.\n\nLast year, I addressed this question as [How did the mythology of the Bible develop...?](_URL_2_), also featuring the work of /u/sunagainstgold, /u/lcnielsen and /u/idjet. You might like [this thread about whether to take Dante seriously.](_URL_0_)\n\nI have not encountered more answers addressing *Paradise Lost* since then, so an answer derived from Milton in particular would be good.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEDIT: This is not /r/eli5, others may go into greater depth than I, aiming for nuance and rich detail.\n\nEDIT2: Found [another answer about Paradise Lost/Lucifer](_URL_1_) by sunagainstgold",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18309",
"title": "Lucifer",
"section": "Section::::In Christianity.:As Satan or the devil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "Some Christian writers have applied the name \"Lucifer\" as used in the Book of Isaiah, and the motif of a heavenly being cast down to the earth, to Satan. Sigve K Tonstad argues that the New Testament War in Heaven theme of Revelation 12 (), in which the dragon \"who is called the devil and Satan … was thrown down to the earth\", was derived from the passage about the Babylonian king in Isaiah 14. Origen (184/185 – 253/254) interpreted such Old Testament passages as being about manifestations of the devil; but writing in Greek, not Latin, he did not identify the devil with the name \"Lucifer\". Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 225), who wrote in Latin, also understood (\"I will ascend above the tops of the clouds; I will make myself like the Most High\") as spoken by the devil, but \"Lucifer\" is not among the numerous names and phrases he used to describe the devil. Even at the time of the Latin writer Augustine of Hippo (354–430), \"Lucifer\" had not yet become a common name for the devil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3377600",
"title": "Devil in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Entertainment.:Literature.:Comics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "In some Marvel Comics publications, a \"Lucifer\" has been mentioned as being a Hell-lord with the same \"fallen from Heaven\" backstory. In the \"Ghost Rider\" series, Johnny Blaze faces a demon who claims to be Lucifer. In other Marvel plotlines, several high-level demons, such as Mephisto, Azazel, Marduk Kurios, and Satannish, have claimed to be the biblical Satan. In Marvel Comics, the Norse trickster-god Loki is shown as the main adversary of his adopted brother Thor and a common enemy of both Earth and Asgard. Although Loki has conjured up somewhat demonic magic, he is not a demon, but a misshapen frost giant. Among the characters related to Norse mythology, the fire giant Surtur is more reminiscent of a demon. The Egyptian demon-god Seth and the Japanese demon-god Amatsu-Mikaboshi have Satan-like roles in Marvel Comics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37373",
"title": "Paradise Lost",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Satan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Satan, formerly called Lucifer, is the first major character introduced in the poem. He was once the most beautiful of all angels, and is a tragic figure who famously declares: \"Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.\" Following his failed rebellion against God, he is cast out from Heaven and condemned to Hell. Satan's desire to rebel against his creator stems from his unwillingness to be subjugated by God and his Son, claiming that angels are \"self-begot, self-raised,\" and thereby denying God's authority over them as their creator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59999602",
"title": "List of angels in Supernatural",
"section": "Section::::List.:Lucifer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Lucifer, portrayed primarily by Mark Pellegrino, Jared Padalecki, Misha Collins, Rick Springfield and David Chisum, is the second oldest archangel, the first fallen angel, introduced as a recurring character in the fifth season of the series. From his prison in hell, he orchestrated events not only seen in seasons one through four, but decades prior, to eventually lead to his release by breaking the 66 seals. In the episode \"Sin City\", he was described as the 'father' and god of the demons, the one who gave them their form and purpose. Azazel reinforced this by referring to him as \"My Father\" while possessing a priest before slaughtering a convent of nuns. However, in \"Abandon All Hope...\", Crowley remarks that Lucifer views demons with contempt and his cannon fodder and will destroy them once he has eliminated humanity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2134037",
"title": "Shahar (god)",
"section": "Section::::Isaiah 14:12–15.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "–15 has been the origin of the belief that Satan was a fallen angel, who could also be referred to as Lucifer. It refers to the rise and disappearance of the morning star Venus in the phrase \"O light-bringer, son of the dawn.\" (\"Helel ben Shaḥar\", translated as Lucifer in the Vulgate and preserved in the early English translations of the Bible.) This understanding of seems to be the most accepted interpretation in the New Testament, as well as among early Christians such as Origen, Eusebius, Tertullian, and Gregory the Great. It may be considered a Christian \"remythologization\" of Isaiah 14, as the verse originally used Canaanite mythology to build its imagery of the hubris of a historical ruler, \"the king of Babylon\" in Isaiah 14:4. It is likely that the role of Venus as the morning star was taken by Athtar, in this instance referred to as the son of Shahar. The reference to Shahar remains enigmatic to scholars, who have a wide range of theories on the mythological framework and sources for the passage in Isaiah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92387",
"title": "Lucifer (Marvel Comics)",
"section": "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Lucifer (Prince of Darkness).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "In Hell, Lucifer looked nothing like the angel he once was. He and all of his Lieutenants had degenerated into demons; some through instruction, others adapted more naturally. But they had all over time changed into twisted creatures of evil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92387",
"title": "Lucifer (Marvel Comics)",
"section": "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Lucifer (Prince of Darkness).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Lucifer has kept his true history mysterious throughout the years through deceit and deception. It is believed that he was once an angel who led other angels in banishing the N'Garai from Earth and led a group of followers in a rebellion against \"God\" during the great war in Heaven, thus essentially representing the true \"devil\" in the Marvel Universe of Christian theology. Following his defeat, Lucifer and his lieutenants Beelzeboul, Kazann, Malachi, Pazuzu, Xaphan and others were all cast down to Hell as punishment. During this time, he became the demon known as the Prince of Lies, ruling a realm in Hell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mp0fg
|
How does the theory of wave/particle duality do away with the need to find a wave medium for light, i.e. ether?
|
[
{
"answer": "The aether was supposed to be some sparse gas through which light was an oscillation. But modern physics has things called [fields](_URL_0_). And you can think of the universe as all of these overlaid fields for electrons and quarks and electromagnetism and gluons and so on. And light, photons, are an oscillation in the electromagnetic field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't. You can do away with ether by understanding that electromagnetic waves are perturbations in the fields that propagate from charged particles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The aether was supposed to be some sparse gas through which light was an oscillation. But modern physics has things called [fields](_URL_0_). And you can think of the universe as all of these overlaid fields for electrons and quarks and electromagnetism and gluons and so on. And light, photons, are an oscillation in the electromagnetic field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't. You can do away with ether by understanding that electromagnetic waves are perturbations in the fields that propagate from charged particles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240011",
"title": "Coherence (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "In physics, two wave sources are perfectly coherent if they have a constant phase difference and the same frequency, and the same waveform. Coherence is an ideal property of waves that enables stationary (i.e. temporally and spatially constant) interference. It contains several distinct concepts, which are limiting cases that never quite occur in reality but allow an understanding of the physics of waves, and has become a very important concept in quantum physics. More generally, coherence describes all properties of the correlation between physical quantities of a single wave, or between several waves or wave packets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19882588",
"title": "Relational approach to quantum physics",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of particle and wave concepts in terms of frames of detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "It seems clear then that in the quantum theory of light detection, the particle and wave pictures are united as two sets of relative features of the same field in different frames of detection; thus they can be related to each other in such a way that Eq. (1) is left invariant - \"the principle of relativity\". This unification can be characterized by a term called \"particle-wave\" rather than 'particle or/and wave', the hyphen emphasizing the new kind of unification. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22483",
"title": "Optics",
"section": "Section::::Classical optics.:Physical optics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The wave model can be used to make predictions about how an optical system will behave without requiring an explanation of what is \"waving\" in what medium. Until the middle of the 19th century, most physicists believed in an \"ethereal\" medium in which the light disturbance propagated. The existence of electromagnetic waves was predicted in 1865 by Maxwell's equations. These waves propagate at the speed of light and have varying electric and magnetic fields which are orthogonal to one another, and also to the direction of propagation of the waves. Light waves are now generally treated as electromagnetic waves except when quantum mechanical effects have to be considered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Wave–particle duality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The concept of wave–particle duality says that neither the classical concept of \"particle\" nor of \"wave\" can fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects, either photons or matter. Wave–particle duality is an example of the [[complementarity (physics)|principle of complementarity]] in quantum physics. An elegant example of wave–particle duality, the double slit experiment, is discussed in the section below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "897539",
"title": "Hamilton–Jacobi equation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The HJE is also the only formulation of mechanics in which the motion of a particle can be represented as a wave. In this sense, the HJE fulfilled a long-held goal of theoretical physics (dating at least to Johann Bernoulli in the 18th century) of finding an analogy between the propagation of light and the motion of a particle. The wave equation followed by mechanical systems is similar to, but not identical with, Schrödinger's equation, as described below; for this reason, the HJE is considered the \"closest approach\" of classical mechanics to quantum mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33426",
"title": "Wave–particle duality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Wave–particle duality is the concept in quantum mechanics that every particle or quantum entity may be partly described in terms not only of particles, but also of waves. It expresses the inability of the classical concepts \"particle\" or \"wave\" to fully describe the behaviour of quantum-scale objects. As Albert Einstein wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1905371",
"title": "Schrödinger–Newton equation",
"section": "Section::::Quantum wave function collapse.:Problems and open matters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Finally, since the gravitational potential is linked to the wave-function in the picture of the Schrödinger–Newton equation, the wave-function must be interpreted as a real object. Therefore, at least in principle, it becomes a measurable quantity. Making use of the nonlocal nature of entangled quantum systems, this could be used to send signals faster than light, which is generally thought to be in contradiction with causality. It is, however, not clear if this problem can be resolved by applying the right collapse prescription, yet to be found, consistently to the full quantum system. Also, since gravity is such a weak interaction, it is not clear that such an experiment can be actually performed within the parameters given in our universe (cf. the discussion about a similar thought experiment proposed by Eppley and Hannah).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5t34aj
|
Just how much of an impact did Alexander Hamilton have?
|
[
{
"answer": "Although I'm not an expert on the American Revolutionary War, I am an economic historian and have extensively studied Alexander Hamilton's absolutely pivotal role in the creation of the modern american political and economic system. \n\nHamilton's close personal relationship with Washington and his role as Secretary of the Treasury (the government's money guy) led several scholars to call him Washington's \"Prime Minister.\" In spite of opposition by the likes of influential figures like Thomas Jefferson, Hamilton managed to construct a large, powerful Federal government to the detriment of individual states, with a consolidated national debt structure and a standing army. John L. Harper in his \"The American Machiavelli,\" concludes that Hamilton not only was a central, indispensable figure in the construction the apparatus of the American government, but also lay the foundation for the underlying philosophies which would guide American foreign policy: opportunistic but pragmatic, both imperialist and isolationist, \"strength through peace and peace through strength.\" \n\nI'm sorry if this sounds vague, but Hamilton's exploits has filled entire volumes, like Harper's book cited above. Is there anything specific you're interested in? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40454",
"title": "1800 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::General election.:Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "Hamilton appears to have hoped in 1796 that his influence within an Adams administration would be as great as or greater than in Washington's. By 1800, Hamilton had come to realize that Adams was too independent and thought the Federalist vice presidential candidate, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, more suited to serving Hamilton's interests. In his third sabotage attempt toward Adams, Hamilton quietly schemed to elect Pinckney to the presidency. Given Pinckney's lack of political experience, he would have been expected to be open to Hamilton's influence. However, Hamilton's plan backfired and hurt the Federalist party, particularly after one of his letters, a scathing criticism of Adams that was fifty-four pages long, fell into the hands of a Democratic-Republican and soon after became public. It embarrassed Adams and damaged Hamilton's efforts on behalf of Pinckney, not to mention speeding Hamilton's own political decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757July 12, 1804) was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was an influential interpreter and promoter of the U.S. Constitution, as well as the founder of the nation's financial system, the Federalist Party, the United States Coast Guard, and the \"New York Post\" newspaper. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the main author of the economic policies of George Washington's administration. He took the lead in the Federal government's funding of the states' debts, as well as establishing a national bank, a system of tariffs, and friendly trade relations with Britain. His vision included a strong central government led by a vigorous executive branch, a strong commercial economy, a national bank and support for manufacturing, and a strong military. Thomas Jefferson was his leading opponent, arguing for agrarianism and smaller government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4381127",
"title": "Hamilton Grange National Memorial",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Alexander Hamilton was born and raised in the West Indies and came to New York in 1772 at age 17 to study at King's College (now Columbia University). During his career, Hamilton was a military officer, lawyer, member of the United States Constitutional Convention, American political philosopher, war hero, initiator and author of the majority of the pivotal and influential \"The Federalist Papers\", and the first United States Secretary of the Treasury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342230",
"title": "Edith Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Modern influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Among those whose lives were influenced by Hamilton's writings was U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy. In the months after his brother, President John F. Kennedy, was assassinated, Robert was consumed with grief. Former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy gave him a copy of \"The Greek Way,\" which she felt was certain to help him. Political commentator David Brooks reported that Hamilton's essays helped him better understand and then recover from his brother's tragic death. Hamilton's writings remained important to him over time, as Brooks explains, and changed Kennedy's life. \"He carried his beaten, underlined and annotated copy around with him for years, reading sections aloud to audiences in a flat, unrhythmic voice with a mournful edge\" and could recite from memory various passages of Aeschylus that Hamilton had translated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60248143",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Alexander Hamilton is a 2004 biography of American statesman Alexander Hamilton, written by historian and biographer Ron Chernow. Hamilton, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, was an instrumental promoter of the U.S. Constitution, founder of the nation's financial system, and its first Secretary of the Treasury. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Post-Secretary years.:Quasi-War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Hamilton aided in all areas of the army's development, and after Washington's death he was by default the Senior Officer of the United States Army from December 14, 1799, to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion from France. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France that led to peace. There was no longer a need for the army Hamilton was running. Adams discovered that key cabinet members were more loyal to Hamilton rather than himself; he fired several of them including Timothy Pickering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48248522",
"title": "George Eacker",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Duels with Price and Philip Hamilton.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "In a letter to Rufus King, Robert Troup wrote of Alexander Hamilton, \"Never did I see a man so completely overwhelmed with grief as Hamilton had been.\" Nevertheless, after Philip's death, the elder Hamilton was said to be civil and professional in his relationship with Eacker. Hamilton would later die in a duel with Aaron Burr only a few years later, on July 11, 1804, on the same dueling ground in Weehawken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6tdc2v
|
Theoretical physics- What if there was no speed limit like the speed of light?
|
[
{
"answer": "TL;DR: In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, particles can't decay.\n\nIf you take the limit where the speed of light goes to infinity, but you keep [\"Galilean relativity\"](_URL_0_) (the notion of relativity we'd been using before special relativity), a very large change occurs at the level of elementary particle physics. \n\nIn particular, there's a theorem that allows you to classify what kind of states you can have in a quantum mechanical theory given the symmetries of your system. If you apply the symmetries associated with special relativity, you find that states \"look like\" particles - they're characterized by a mass and a spin, massless particles move at the speed of light, and particles can be created and destroyed. You can also define the \"chirality\" of particles.\n\nIn contrast, if you use the symmetries associated with just Galilean relativity, some of this changes. First, you have no massless particles, and everything must be massive. Second, chirality goes away, though spin is still there. Most drastically, you cannot have any particle decays - every particle must be infinitely stable. So a non-relativistic quantum theory of particle physics is extremely different from a relativistic one like our universe, where everything but the least massive particles decay very quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is a nice video with some discussion on that _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "can some one explain to me the whole if your travelling at 100mph and throw a tennis ball at 50mph, the tennis ball travels at 150mph, but when your taveling at 100mph, and turn your head lights on the light doesnt travel at the speed of light + 100mph?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing I can think of is dark skies at night. If light traveled instantaneously, there's would be no limit to the observable universe. All the light created would reach earth the instance it was created (not sure if it would be red shifted at those speeds), making the sky much brighter. The amount would depend on how much there is past the current observable universe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11647860",
"title": "Minkowski diagram",
"section": "Section::::The speed of light as a limit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "These considerations show that the speed of light as a limit is a consequence of the properties of spacetime, and not of the properties of objects such as technologically imperfect space ships. The prohibition of faster-than-light motion, therefore, has nothing in particular to do with electromagnetic waves or light, but comes as a consequence of the structure of spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49769929",
"title": "Lighthouse paradox",
"section": "Section::::Resolution of the paradox in special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The paradoxical aspect of each of the described thought experiments arises from Einstein’s theory of special relativity, which proclaims the speed of light (approx. 300,000 km/s) is the upper limit of speed in our universe. The uniformity of the speed of light is so absolute that regardless of the speed of the observer as well as the speed of the source of light the speed of the light ray should remain constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27303178",
"title": "François Brousse",
"section": "Section::::Innovative facets of François Brousse's thought.:Pythagorean Revelations / Scientific Lucidity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 186,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 186,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Yet, this impassable threshold was obliterated in 1996 : \"Modern physics holds the speed of light as an insurmountable barrier. A German laboratory has nevertheless succeeded in making a particle travel 4.7 times faster than the speed of light.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11701033",
"title": "Scale relativity",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Special scale relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In Galilean relativity, it was considered \"obvious\" that we could add speeds without limit (\"w\" = \"u\" + \"v\"). This composition laws for speed was not challenged. However, Poincaré and Einstein did challenge it with special relativity, setting a maximum speed on movement, the speed of light. Formally, if \"v\" is a velocity, \"v + c = c\". The status of the speed of light in special relativity is a horizon, unreachable, impassable, invariant under changes of movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28748",
"title": "Speed",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The fastest possible speed at which energy or information can travel, according to special relativity, is the speed of light in a vacuum \"c\" = metres per second (approximately or ). Matter cannot quite reach the speed of light, as this would require an infinite amount of energy. In relativity physics, the concept of rapidity replaces the classical idea of speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11701033",
"title": "Scale relativity",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Minimum and maximum invariant scales.:Minimum invariant scale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In special relativity, there is an unreachable speed, the speed of light. We can add speeds without end, but they will always be less than the speed of light. The sums of all speeds are limited by the speed of light. Additionally, the composition of two velocities is inferior to the sum of those two speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Justifications.:Casimir vacuum and quantum tunnelling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Special relativity postulates that the speed of light in vacuum is invariant in inertial frames. That is, it will be the same from any frame of reference moving at a constant speed. The equations do not specify any particular value for the speed of the light, which is an experimentally determined quantity for a fixed unit of length. Since 1983, the SI unit of length (the meter) has been defined using the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zc10q
|
when i'm about to fall asleep, i sometimes have a semi-dream that i'm walking. then i stumble and my leg jerks and wakes me up. why?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's called a [hypnic jerk](_URL_0_). They're associated with anxiety, but they occur essentially at random even if you're not stressed. Personally, I enjoy them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember reading a paper about this saying that it is some sort of mammalian reflex that primates/apes have as a precaution during sleeping to avoid falls when sleeping up on tree branches.\n\nThe truth is that there isn't a clear explanation for this other than it's a reflex but what triggers it depends from on a lot of different hypothesis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is your body's defense mechanism. This is called a hypnic jerk, and occurs when you fall asleep to fast. Your body panics a little bit when all your vitals drop so suddenly, so your body gives itself a little jolt to wake you up. I dont know about the dream part, but that could be your brain's way of processing it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always heard it was a mechanism where your brain was verifying whether or not you were asleep before you started dreaming to prevent you from getting up to act out your dreams. Your body goes into a state of sleep paralysis to prevent just such a thing from happening, so the jerk is simply a verification to see if the paralysis has kicked in yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "249357",
"title": "Sleepwalking",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1164,
"text": "Sleepwalking was initially thought to be a dreamer acting out a dream. For example, in one study published by the Society for Science & the Public in 1954, this was the conclusion: \"Repression of hostile feelings against the father caused the patients to react by acting out in a dream world with sleepwalking, the distorted fantasies they had about all authoritarian figures, such as fathers, officers and stern superiors.\" This same group published an article twelve years later with a new conclusion: \"Sleepwalking, contrary to most belief, apparently has little to do with dreaming. In fact, it occurs when the sleeper is enjoying his most oblivious, deepest sleep—a stage in which dreams are not usually reported.\" More recent research has discovered that sleepwalking is actually a disorder of NREM (non-rapid eye movement) arousal. Acting out a dream is the basis for a REM (rapid eye movement) sleep disorder called REM Behavior Disorder (or REM Sleep Behavior Disorder, RSBD). More accurate data about sleep is due to the invention of technologies, such as the electroencephalogram (EEG) by Hans Berger in 1924 and BEAM by Frank Duffy in the early 1980s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57117406",
"title": "REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Single-Question Screen",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The RBD1Q queries dream-enactment behavior of RBD with a single yes/no question:“Have you ever been told, or suspected yourself, that you seem to ‘act out your dreams’ while asleep (for example, punching, flailing your arms in the air, making running movements, etc.)?”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5067584",
"title": "Parasomnia",
"section": "Section::::Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)-related parasomnias.:Sleepwalking (somnambulism).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Normal sleep cycles include states varying from drowsiness all the way to deep sleep. Every time an individual sleeps, he or she goes through various sequences of non-REM and REM sleep. Anxiety and fatigue are often connected with sleepwalking. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep walking may involve sitting up and looking awake when the individual is actually asleep, and getting up and walking around, moving items or undressing themselves. They will also be confused when waking up or opening their eyes during sleep. Sleep walking can be associated with sleeptalking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5556885",
"title": "The Art of Dreaming",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- 3rd Gate of Dreaming (traveling): This is what is often known as an \"Out of body experience\". Arrived at when one dreams of looking at oneself. Solved when the dreaming and physical bodies become one. Crossed when one is able to control the dreaming body in the physical realm and move around at ease. Location in the body – at the lowest part of the spinal column.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39197315",
"title": "Thelma Van Rensburg",
"section": "Section::::Examples of work.:Existential Angst.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Occasionally, late at night, while trying to sleep and failing, people experience an anxiety of existence, they are aware of their entire body, the entire world, and the whole of reality itself. It's like waking from a dream, or a light going on, or a giant \"\"You are here\"\" sign appearing in the sky. The mere fact that I'm actually real and actually breathing suddenly hits me in the head with a thwack. It leaves me giddy. It causes a brief surge of clammy, bubbling anxiety, like the opening stages of a panic attack. The moment soon passes, but while it lasts it's strangely terrifying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826127",
"title": "False awakening",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Type 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Type 1 is the more common, in which the dreamer seems to wake up, but not necessarily in realistic surroundings, that is, not in their own bedroom. A pre-lucid dream may ensue. More commonly, dreamers will believe they have awakened, and then either wake up for real in their own bed or \"fall back asleep\" in the dream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14531553",
"title": "The Salt Roads",
"section": "Section::::Minor characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "\"Few more days, and you realise you're walking different. your back is straighter. You feel tall, tall. You're tired when you settle down to sleep at night, just like here on the plantation, but you fall asleep thinking of all the things your labour will bring for you. Not for you master. For you. That's what it's like\" (pg. 372). (His description of life in the bush, away from the plantation and free from enslavement.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
idvjf
|
So... does every (soft drink/water) bottle I drink from have BPA in it? If so, just how bad is this shit for you, and does anyone know what brands do not use a BPA-laden plastic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many do not these days, at least to my knowledge. The most common way to find out in my experience is to check the number on the bottle. Look for a 7 in the recycle sign, if it has a that, the bottle most likely has BPA in it.\n\nAs far as brands, not so sure. \n\nEdit: typos ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25211041",
"title": "Puberty",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Genetic influence and environmental factors.:Hormones and steroids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical used to make plastics, and is frequently used to make baby bottles, water bottles, sports equipment, medical devices, and as a coating in food and beverage cans. Scientists are concerned about BPA's behavioral effects on fetuses, infants, and children at current exposure levels because it can affect the prostate gland, mammary gland, and lead to early puberty in girls. BPA mimics and interferes with the action of estrogen—an important reproduction and development regulator. It leaches out of plastic into liquids and foods, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found measurable amounts of BPA in the bodies of more than 90 percent of the U.S. population studied. The highest estimated daily intakes of BPA occur in infants and children. Many plastic baby bottles contain BPA, and BPA is more likely to leach out of plastic when its temperature is increased, as when one warms a baby bottle or warms up food in the microwave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1001430",
"title": "Bisphenol A",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "BPA is a starting material for the synthesis of plastics, primarily certain polycarbonates and epoxy resins, as well as some polysulfones and certain niche materials. BPA-based plastic is clear and tough, and is made into a variety of common consumer goods, such as plastic bottles including water bottles, sports equipment, CDs, and DVDs. Epoxy resins containing BPA are used to line water pipes, as coatings on the inside of many food and beverage cans and in making thermal paper such as that used in sales receipts. In 2015, an estimated 4 million tonnes of BPA chemical were produced for manufacturing polycarbonate plastic, making it one of the highest volume of chemicals produced worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1997887",
"title": "Xenoestrogen",
"section": "Section::::Common environmental estrogens.:BPA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "BPA (Bisphenol A) is the monomer used to manufacture polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins used as a lining in most food and beverage cans. BPA global capacity is in excess of per year and thus is one of the highest-volume chemicals produced worldwide. The ester bonds in the BPA-based polycarbonates could be subject to hydrolysis and leaching of BPA. But in the case of epoxypolymers formed from bisphenol A, it is not possible to release bisphenol A by such a reaction. It is also noteworthy that, of the bisphenols, bisphenol A is a weak xenoestrogen. Other compounds, such as bisphenol Z, have been shown to have stronger estrogenic effects in rats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27265528",
"title": "Microplastics",
"section": "Section::::Potential effects on the environment.:Biological integration into organisms.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "BPA is a commonly well-known substance that is an ingredient used to harden plastic that can also cause a wide range of disorders. Cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and abnormalities in liver enzymes are a few disorders that can arise from even small exposure to this chemical. Although these effects have been more widely studied than other types of plastics, it is still used in the production of much clothing (polyester).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57552333",
"title": "BPA controversy",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.:Chemical manufacturers reactions to bans.:BPA substitute BPS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Some \"BPA free\" plastics are made from epoxy containing a compound called bisphenol S (BPS). BPS shares a similar structure and versatility to BPA and has been used in numerous products from currency to thermal receipt paper. Widespread human exposure to BPS was confirmed in an analysis of urine samples taken in the U.S., Japan, China, and five other Asian countries. Researchers found BPS in all the receipt paper, 87 percent of the paper currency and 52 percent of recycled paper they tested. The study found that people may be absorbing 19 times more BPS through their skin than the amount of BPA they absorbed, when it was more widely used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57552333",
"title": "BPA controversy",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "In 2012, the United States' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the use of BPA in baby bottles intended for children under 12 months. The Natural Resources Defense Council called the move inadequate, saying the FDA needed to ban BPA from all food packaging. The FDA maintains that the agency continues to support the safety of BPA for use in products that hold food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13649448",
"title": "Obesogen",
"section": "Section::::Public health implications.:Potential obesogens in everyday life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Bisphenol-A (BPA) is an industrial chemical and organic compound that has been used in the production of plastics and resins for over a half-century. It is used in products such as toys, medical devices, plastic food and beverage containers, shower curtains, dental sealants and compounds, and register receipts. BPA has been shown to seep into food sources from containers or into the body just by handling products made from it. Certain researchers suggest that BPA actually decreases the fat cell count in the body, but at the same time increasing the size of the ones remaining; therefore, no difference in weight is shown, and an individual is even likely to gain more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6o00fg
|
why is it that sounds that would normally drive is to murder, become perfectly bearable when we are the ones making them?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may have something called Misophonia. This is a psychological condition where certain sounds trigger your fight or flight response. So you hear someone chewing loudly, and either you want to leave or you want to hit them. \n\nThese sounds don't actually bother the other people. \n\nfrom _URL_0_\n\n\"Exposure to a trigger sound elicits an immediate negative emotional response from a person with sound sensitivities. The response can range from moderate discomfort to acute annoyance or go all the way up to full-fledged rage and panic. Fight or flight reactions can occur. While experiencing a trigger event, a person may become agitated, defensive or offensive, distance themselves from the trigger or possibly act out in some manner.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1073953",
"title": "Honky",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "A folk etymology is that it is from white people honking their car horns a lot to get people's attention and perhaps as a metaphor for liberal whites who make a lot of noise (honking) but do not do anything.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19414028",
"title": "Misophonia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Particularly severe cases of misophonia may result in violent impulses toward the source of the sound. One such case described in the journal \"Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology\" detailed 'involuntary violence' exhibited by a sufferer in response to a trigger in the form of another person eating loudly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24121694",
"title": "Make Some Noise (Krystal Meyers song)",
"section": "Section::::About \"Make Some Noise\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "\"Make Some Noise\" is about making noise as you stand up for what is right. Krystal writes, \"I really want me and my generation to be a part of leaving a positive impact on the world, and that's what \"Make Some Noise\" is all about. We need to stand up for what we believe, and for who we are. Don't let anyone ignore you. Don't be afraid to take a stand, because we were born to make some noise!\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78427",
"title": "Vehicle audio",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Extremely loud sound systems in automobiles may violate the noise ordinance of some municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002 the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533426",
"title": "Car alarm",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Frequently, false alarms occur because car alarm owners use high sensitivity settings. This may be the main reason why loud bass frequency sound (loud music, other cars or motorcycles with loud exhaust systems, thunderstorms, etc.) can set off car alarms. The second possible reason is that some parts of the alarm system may be improperly installed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44187",
"title": "Sound effect",
"section": "Section::::Aesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The \"Conjectural Sound\" principle applies even to happenstance sounds, such as tires squealing, doorknobs turning or people walking. If the sound editor wants to communicate that a driver is in a hurry to leave, he will cut the sound of tires squealing when the car accelerates from a stop; even if the car is on a dirt road, the effect will work if the audience is dramatically engaged. If a character is afraid of someone on the other side of a door, the turning of the doorknob can take a second or more, and the mechanism of the knob can possess dozens of clicking parts. A skillful Foley artist can make someone walking calmly across the screen seem terrified simply by giving the actor a different gait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47880216",
"title": "Externalities of automobiles",
"section": "Section::::Negative externalities.:Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Cars significantly contribute to noise pollution. While on common perception the engine is the main cause for noise, at city speeds the noise produced by wheel and asphalt is commonly the dominant factor while at highway speeds air friction noises become a major factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7n7k77
|
internet cookies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine you're reading a book. You're at a specific part of the book, somewhere in the middle. You decide \"that's enough book for today\" and you close the book. Next time you open your book, you're going to have to flip through all those pages again and manually find your page. Rather than having to remember what page you're on, why not just have the book remember for you? So you decide to put a bookmark in the book. You can also write down little notes on this bookmark, like \"This character just did this\" so that next time you open the book you can easily remember what you just read and pick up exactly where you left off. \n\nCookies are essentially bits of data that websites leave in your browser so that they can quickly easily access them next time you visit. For example, if you sign into Facebook and say \"Remember Me\", Facebook leaves a cookie that remembers that you logged in on this machine and that you want to be logged in automatically in the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yarr! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: How does internet cookies work, exactly? ](_URL_5_) ^(_9 comments_)\n1. [ELI5 what internet cookies are. ](_URL_1_) ^(_2 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: What are (internet) cookies and why am I supposed to clear them periodically? ](_URL_7_) ^(_8 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: What are internet cookies? ](_URL_8_) ^(_4 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: what actually are internet cookies, what do they do and why are they called 'cookies'? ](_URL_6_) ^(_2 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: What are internet cookies? ](_URL_3_) ^(_7 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: What exactly is a \"cookie/s\" when it comes to the internet? ](_URL_4_) ^(_7 comments_)\n1. [ELI5:Why are cookies (as in the things that track your internet history) called cookies? ](_URL_0_) ^(_4 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: What exactly are \"cookies\" in regards to internet browsing history? ](_URL_2_) ^(_2 comments_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33139",
"title": "World Wide Web",
"section": "Section::::Function.:HTTP (web) cookie.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "An \"HTTP cookie\" (also called \"web cookie\", \"Internet cookie\", \"browser cookie\", or simply \"cookie\") is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user's computer by the user's web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information (such as items added in the shopping cart in an online store) or to record the user's browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited in the past). They can also be used to remember arbitrary pieces of information that the user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5068415",
"title": "HTTP cookie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "An HTTP cookie (also called web cookie, Internet cookie, browser cookie, or simply cookie) is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user's computer by the user's web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information (such as items added in the shopping cart in an online store) or to record the user's browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited in the past). They can also be used to remember arbitrary pieces of information that the user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5068415",
"title": "HTTP cookie",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Cookies are arbitrary pieces of data, usually chosen and first sent by the web server, and stored on the client computer by the web browser. The browser then sends them back to the server with every request, introducing states (memory of previous events) into otherwise stateless HTTP transactions. Without cookies, each retrieval of a web page or component of a web page would be an isolated event, largely unrelated to all other page views made by the user on the website. Although cookies are usually set by the web server, they can also be set by the client using a scripting language such as JavaScript (unless the cookie's codice_5 flag is set, in which case the cookie cannot be modified by scripting languages).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5068415",
"title": "HTTP cookie",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Session management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Cookies were originally introduced to provide a way for users to record items they want to purchase as they navigate throughout a website (a virtual \"shopping cart\" or \"shopping basket\"). Today, however, the contents of a user's shopping cart are usually stored in a database on the server, rather than in a cookie on the client. To keep track of which user is assigned to which shopping cart, the server sends a cookie to the client that contains a unique session identifier (typically, a long string of random letters and numbers). Because cookies are sent to the server with every request the client makes, that session identifier will be sent back to the server every time the user visits a new page on the website, which lets the server know which shopping cart to display to the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5068415",
"title": "HTTP cookie",
"section": "Section::::Privacy and third-party cookies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "Cookies have some important implications on the privacy and anonymity of web users. While cookies are sent only to the server setting them or a server in the same Internet domain, a web page may contain images or other components stored on servers in other domains. Cookies that are set during retrieval of these components are called \"third-party cookies\". The older standards for cookies, RFC 2109 and RFC 2965, specify that browsers should protect user privacy and not allow sharing of cookies between servers by default. However, the newer standard, RFC 6265, explicitly allows user agents to implement whichever third-party cookie policy they wish. Most browsers, such as Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Google Chrome, do allow third-party cookies by default, as long as the third-party website has Compact Privacy Policy published. Newer versions of Safari block third-party cookies, and this is planned for Mozilla Firefox as well (initially planned for version 22 but postponed indefinitely).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228060",
"title": "Internet privacy",
"section": "Section::::Risks to Internet privacy.:HTTP cookies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "An HTTP cookie is data stored on a user's computer that assists in automated access to websites or web features, or other state information required in complex web sites. It may also be used for user-tracking by storing special usage history data in a cookie, and such cookies—for example, those used by Google Analytics—are called \"tracking cookies\". Cookies are a common concern in the field of Internet privacy. Although website developers most commonly use cookies for legitimate technical purposes, cases of abuse occur. In 2009, two researchers noted that social networking profiles could be connected to cookies, allowing the social networking profile to be connected to browsing habits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5724494",
"title": "Anonymous web browsing",
"section": "Section::::Cookies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "HTTP cookies are strings of text that are saved on a computer when a user browses different web pages. Cookies allow small bits of information to be stored, such as passwords and shopping lists. They are also used to track demographics and browsing habits. This information is sent to the user's computer and then uploaded to web databases without the user's approval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6lml2a
|
why do kids love bright colors so much, but as they get older, bright colors seem less important?
|
[
{
"answer": "As a child, bright colors are more eye-catching and attention-grabbing. A child will typically want a bright red shirt that reminds them of a fire truck over a pastel red shirt, for example. \n\nAs you get older, most people tend to shift towards a more \"professional\" style, which, thanks to the \"dandy\" color palate in England, consists of more muted and less vibrant colors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One theory is because these colors are new. Babies can only see red, black, and white for a short time after they're born. Gradually color \"appears\" and then they have all of these colors they haven't seen before. Also because kid's attention is grabbed by things out of the ordinary. Bright colors are generally out of the ordinary and eye-catching. \nSource: am developmental psych researcher ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While growing, humans use attention to collect useful information. In early childhood attention is mostly focused on easily perceivable differences between events and things like contrast, brightness, loudness, primary tastes etc When you grow older you already collected that information and unless some part of your focus got permanently attracted to some of it, like getting hobby of collecting colorful things, your attention moves onto other, more complex and nuanced differences like differences in art style, subtle tastes, refined music styles etc. \nWhy is it working this way? Because brain builds more complex concepts using more simple ones increasing neural network complexity for their representation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another factor in this phenomenon is that as a young child, the brain is making connections based off of input and using it to establish who a person is as an individual. Basically from the age of about 2-7, children begin to discover and distinguish what elements of their environment are important to them. Bright colors play a factor in this because they allow for children to easily express themselves and distinguish items that are favorable to them. Between age 6-7 there is a major shift in thinking and children begin to use social cues as the majority of their decision making. Children begin to prefer games with rules, packs of friends, and blending in. Bright colors serve to ostracize them from matching everyone else. As we age, we begin to conform because it is essential to acceptance in society. I'm just speaking from my work in Early Childhood Development and obviously every person is slightly different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28126203",
"title": "Color preferences",
"section": "Section::::Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The age when infants begin showing a preference for color is at about 12 weeks old. Generally, children prefer the colors red/pink and blue, and cool colors are preferred over warm colors. Purple is a color favored more by girls than by boys. Color perception of children 3–5 years of age is an indicator of their developmental stage. Color preferences tend to change as people age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60475502",
"title": "Optimal stimulation level",
"section": "Section::::Advertisement's color.:Hypothetical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Furthermore, plenty of variables, such as gender and age, have notable effects on individuals' colors' preferences; gender of humans influences conformance and force of colors tendency, and young people are more enjoyable in warm colors including orange and red rather than intense colors such as green which are preferred by older adults. Moreover, several personal characteristics related to colors; outgoing people are more partial to warm colors, and on the other hand, introverts engage in intense colors. Researchers prove that humans who have high optimum stimulation level are more likely to choose red colors rather than blue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1619976",
"title": "Coloring book",
"section": "Section::::Educational uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Coloring books are widely used in schooling for young children for various reasons. For example, children are often more interested in coloring books rather than using other learning methods; pictures may also be more memorable than simply words. Coloring may also increase creativity in painting, according to some research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26248376",
"title": "Color psychology",
"section": "Section::::Individual differences.:Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "Slightly older children who have developed a sense of favorite color often tend to pick items that are in that color. However, when their favorite color is not available for a desired item children choose colors that they think matches the product best. Children's preferences for chocolate bar wrappers showed that although one third of the children picked a wrapper of their favorite color, the remaining two thirds picked a wrapper they perceived as fitting the product best. For example, most children thought that a white wrapper was most fitting for white chocolate and a black wrapper for most fitting for a dark chocolate bar and therefore chose those options for those two bars. This application can be seen in The Hershey Company chocolate bars where the company strategically has light wrappers for white chocolate and brown wrappers for milk chocolate, making the product easily identifiable and understandable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26491",
"title": "Red-eye effect",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Red-eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children's eyes have more rapid dark adaption: in low light a child's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates the red-eye effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176352",
"title": "Pomacentridae",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "They display a wide range of colors, predominantly bright shades of yellow, red, orange, and blue, although some are a relatively drab brown, black, or grey. The young are often a different, brighter color than adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8758352",
"title": "Developmentally appropriate practice",
"section": "Section::::Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Preschool Years (3-5).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Three-year-olds are no longer toddlers, but they behave like toddlers at times, and they are not steady in their gains. Children's social skills are still uncertain, they are still working on how to regulate and appropriately express their emotions, and they are not yet able to communicate their ideas and feelings in skilled, complex ways. They believe in fairies and monsters and have trouble with logical sequences that seem basic to adults- which is why adults tend to underestimate their abilities. Yet at other times, their language ability, motor skills, reasoning abilities, and other behaviors make them seem older than they are.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gu1ke
|
Could it ever be possible to "download" our brains and assemble a "Wiki" of an individual's knowledge, memories, etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "No.\n\n\nA number of other threads in /r/askscience recently have been on the same, or similar topics.\n\n\nUsing the search feature with these keywords will show those:\n\n* download/downloading\n\n* upload/uploading\n\n* transfer\n\n* singularity\n\n* brain\n\n\n\nTo give you the short version: we don't know how brains work, contrary to what we like to claim. Beyond that, we have no idea how to create a technology (or algorithms) that would be anything remotely brain like. It's not just a matter of more RAM/storage/processors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20474671",
"title": "Sebastian Seung",
"section": "Section::::The Connectome Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "He proposes that every memory, skill, and passion is encoded somehow in the connectome. And when the brain is not wired properly it can result in mental disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's. Understanding the human connectome may not only help cure such diseases with treatments but also possibly help doctors prevent them from occurring in the first place. And if we can represent the sum of all human experiences and memories in the connectome, then we can download human brains on to flash drives, save them indefinitely, and replay those memories in the future, thereby granting humans a kind of immortality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1475010",
"title": "Aristoi (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Via the reno, or microminiaturized personal computer implanted in the brain in childhood, people have access to unlimited amounts of information about everything. The only restricted information is that which is protected under the \"Seal Of Aristoi\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "627206",
"title": "Transhuman Space",
"section": "Section::::Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "People can \"upload\" by recording the contents of their brains on computer disks. The individual then becomes a \"ghost\", an infomorph very easily confused with \"sapient artificial intelligence\". However, this technology has several problems as the solely available \"brainpeeling\" technique is fatal to the original biological lifeform being simulated, has a significant failure rate and the philosophical questions regarding personal identity remain equivocal. Any infomorph, regardless of its origin, can be plugged into a \"cybershell\", or a biological body, or \"bioshell\". Or, the individual can illegally make multiple \"xoxes\", or copies of themselves, and scatter them throughout the system, exponentially increasing the odds that at least one of them will live for centuries more, if not forever.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20044858",
"title": "Predictions made by Ray Kurzweil",
"section": "Section::::Future predictions.:\"The Age of Spiritual Machines\" (1999).:2029.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "BULLET::::- Computers are now capable of learning and creating new knowledge entirely on their own and with no human help. By scanning the enormous content of the Internet, some computers \"know\" literally every single piece of public information (every scientific discovery, every book and movie, every public statement, etc.) generated by human beings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50309606",
"title": "External memory (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Non-electronic external memory aids.:Collective memory/transactive memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Other individuals may also be used as external memory aids. Before the development of technology, individuals still had access to collective memory. First referred to as transactive memory by Daniel Wegner, the idea is (basically): An individual may know things that other people don't know while other people know things that that individual does not. Together, individuals know more than apart. \"In any long-term relationship, a team work environment, or other ongoing group, people typically develop a group or transactive memory, a combination of memory stores held directly by individuals and the memory stores they can access because they know someone who knows that information. Like linked computers that can address each other’s memories, people in dyads or groups form transactive memory systems.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177052",
"title": "Immortality",
"section": "Section::::Physical immortality.:Prospects for human biological immortality.:Mind-to-computer uploading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 2135,
"text": "One idea that has been advanced involves uploading an individual's habits and memories via direct mind-computer interface. The individual's memory may be loaded to a computer or to a new organic body. Extropian futurists like Moravec and Kurzweil have proposed that, thanks to exponentially growing computing power, it will someday be possible to upload human consciousness onto a computer system, and exist indefinitely in a virtual environment. This could be accomplished via advanced cybernetics, where computer hardware would initially be installed in the brain to help sort memory or accelerate thought processes. Components would be added gradually until the person's entire brain functions were handled by artificial devices, avoiding sharp transitions that would lead to issues of identity, thus running the risk of the person to be declared dead and thus not be a legitimate owner of his or her property. After this point, the human body could be treated as an optional accessory and the program implementing the person could be transferred to any sufficiently powerful computer. Another possible mechanism for mind upload is to perform a detailed scan of an individual's original, organic brain and simulate the entire structure in a computer. What level of detail such scans and simulations would need to achieve to emulate awareness, and whether the scanning process would destroy the brain, is still to be determined. It is suggested that achieving immortality through this mechanism would require specific consideration to be given to the role of consciousness in the functions of the mind. An uploaded mind would only be a copy of the original mind, and not the conscious mind of the living entity associated in such a transfer. Without a simultaneous upload of consciousness, the original living entity remains mortal, thus not achieving true immortality. Research on neural correlates of consciousness is yet inconclusive on this issue. Whatever the route to mind upload, persons in this state could then be considered essentially immortal, short of loss or traumatic destruction of the machines that maintained them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24963841",
"title": "Cognitive models of information retrieval",
"section": "Section::::Natural language searching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Another way in which cognitive models of information may help in information retrieval is with natural language searching. For instance, How Stuff Works imagines a world in which, rather than searching for local movies, reading the reviews, then searching for local Mexican restaurants, and reading their reviews, you will simply type \"\"I want to see a funny movie and then eat at a good Mexican restaurant. What are my options?\" into your browser, and you will receive a useful and relevant response. Although such a thing is not possible today, it represents a holy grail for researchers into cognitive models of information retrieval. The goal is to somehow program information retrieval programs to respond to natural language searches. This would require a fuller understanding of how people structure queries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5e9c1x
|
How bad was the economic/social state in Britain before Thatcher?
|
[
{
"answer": "The problem we get before going into the question is that we need an adequate benchmark to judge the economic performance be it by economic growth, productivity, macroeconomic parameters, competitiveness, social indicators of Britain. I think the most relevant comparison would be Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and France. By using this metric, I think it would certainly be fair to say that economic state of Britain was poor. Again, I would want to stress that this is relative because Britain being an Industrialized country offered a better quality of life than most other countries.The roots of the problem goes much deeper than merely economic policy that was adopted by the previous Government.\n\nThe most important factor was that the quality of technical management was much poorer in Britain than in other advanced European countries. One of the reasons for this was that people who would normally go into Industry in France or Germany would choose instead to enter into financial services or in public service which placed British Industry at a major disadvantage as compared to their peers. Part of the reason was that salaries for a person in middle management was almost half of France and Germany adjusted for cost of living. Britain did not stress upon the quality of technical, engineering and scientific education as did France (the Polytechnique and the Ponts et Chaussees, etc). The effect was this most noticeable in transportation. The British Government had undertaken two large public projects in 1960's but had to cancel both.\n\nThe second was the organization of trade unions with respect to their management. In Britain, there were 115 trade unions as compared to 6 major trade confederations in France and 17 major Industrial unions that were integrated into DGB in Germany. This prevented one craft in Industry to pursue it's interests as against others. Closed shops was illegal in both France and Germany as it was against the Constitution. In Germany it was illegal to go on a strike before the wage agreement had expired. This further compounded the problem in securing Industrial development in Britain. British trade unions had played a very key role in securing safer conditions for workers but they had not secured higher wages (as productivity was lower) nor shorter working hours.\n\nBritain also made a very major mistake in it's foreign policy. After World War 2, Britain wanted to be an independent power that was separate from USSR and the United States by associating itself with the Commonwealth. This was supported as early as 1920’s by Ramsay MacDonald by stating that he supported free association between free people as the model of relationship between the colonies and Britain. The Labour Party actually tried their hardest to keep colonial powers within the British sphere of influence and declared that they felt closer to Australia, New Zealand and US rather than Continental Europe. Britain had hoped to be the chief power in Europe and organize it along a British-French axis. It was for this reason that Britain refused to join the European Single Market in 1954. However, Britain continued to lose it's influence because of Suez Canal misstep and the and consequent decolonization. When Britain had finally joined the Single Market, Europe had reconstituted along a German-French axis.\n\nBritain had over extended and over estimated itself economically by refusing to join Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Netherlands who created the Treaty of Rome. Hence, it missed the opportunity to use it for it's advantage.The six participants of the Treaty were able to increase their trade with each other while Britain was left out and thus British Industry could not face the discipline of market forces and the high standards of quality control for Industries which would have forced it develop further particularly in high technology products. Britain's offer for a free trade deal with Canada was also turned down by Ottawa.\n\nUltimately, this made the crisis in 1970's much worse and contributed to the general sense of Britain's decline.\n\nReferences:\n\nBritain's decline; its causes and consequences by Nicholas Henderson\n\nRelative Decline and British Economic Policy in the 1960s by Hugh Pemberton\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31723",
"title": "History of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Postwar.:The economy in the late 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 202,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 202,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "A strict modernisation of its economy began under the controversial Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher following her election as prime minister in 1979, which saw a time of record unemployment as deindustrialisation saw the end of much of the country's manufacturing industries but also a time of economic boom as stock markets became liberalised and State-owned industries became privatised. Her rise to power was seen as the symbolic end of the time in which the British economy had become the \"sick man\" of western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85479",
"title": "Thatcherism",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "While credited with reviving Britain's economy, Thatcher also was blamed for spurring a doubling in the relative poverty rate. Britain's childhood-poverty rate in 1997 was the highest in Europe. When she resigned in 1990, 28% of the children in Great Britain were considered to be below the poverty line, a number that kept rising to reach a peak of nearly 30% during the government of Thatcher's successor, John Major. During her government, Britain's Gini coefficient reflected this growing difference, going from 0.25 in 1979 to 0.34 in 1990, at about which value it remained for the next 20 years, under both Conservative and Labour governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51327656",
"title": "Interwar Britain",
"section": "Section::::Great Depression.:Historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "The economic crisis of the early 1930s, and the response of the Labour and National governments to the depression, have generated much historical controversy. Apart from the major pockets of long-term high unemployment, Britain was generally prosperous. Historian Piers Brendon writes: \"Historians, however, have long since revised this grim picture, presenting the devil's decade as the cradle of the affluent society. Prices fell sharply between the wars and average incomes rose by about a third. The term \"property-owning democracy\" was coined in the 1920s, and three million houses were built during the 1930s. Land, labour and materials were cheap: a bungalow could be purchased for £225 and a semi for £450. The middle class also bought radiograms, telephones, three-piece suites, electric cookers, vacuum cleaners and golf clubs. They ate Kellogg's Corn Flakes (\"never miss a day\"), drove to Odeon cinemas in Austin Sevens (costing £135 by 1930) and smoked Craven A cigarettes, cork-tipped \"to prevent sore throats\". The depression spawned a consumer boom.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1959630",
"title": "Anglo-Saxon model",
"section": "Section::::History of Anglo-Saxon model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "By the end of the 1970s the British post-war economic model was in trouble. After Labour failed to solve the problems it was left to Margaret Thatcher's Conservatives to reverse Britain's economic decline. During Thatcher's second term in office the nature of the British economy and its society started to change. Marketization, privatization and the deliberate diminishing of the remnants of the post-war social-democratic model were all affected by the American ideas. The Thatcher era revived British social and economic thinking, it did not wholesale import of American ideas and practices. Therefore, the British shift to the right did not cause the any real convergence toward American socio-economic norms. However, with time British approach, that European economies should be inspired by the success of the United States, built an ideological proximity with the United States. After a process of transferring policy from the United States it became apparent that a distinctive Anglo-Saxon economic model was forming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18039495",
"title": "Tory! Tory! Tory!",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:The Road to Power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Margaret Thatcher kicked start a political change in economic policies that had far-reaching political consequences, that changed the face of Britain forever. The monetarist policies used to defeat inflation caused large-scale unemployment. Riots broke out across Britain, there was growing dissent even inside the government. How would Mrs Thatcher survive her plummeting popularity?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209218",
"title": "New wave of British heavy metal",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Social unrest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "In the second half of the 1970s, the United Kingdom was in a state of social unrest and widespread poverty as a result of the ineffective social politics of both Conservative and Labour Party governments during a three-year period of economic recession. As a consequence of deindustrialization, the unemployment rate was exceptionally high, especially among working class youth. It continued to rise in the early 1980s, peaking in February 1983. The discontent of so many people caused social unrest with frequent strikes, and culminated in a series of riots (see 1981 Brixton riot, 1981 Toxteth riots). During this period, the mass of young people, deprived of the prospect of even relatively low-skill jobs that were available to the previous generations, searched for different ways to earn money in the music and entertainment businesses. The explosion of new bands and new musical styles coming from the UK in the late 1970s was a result of their efforts to make a living in the economic depression that hit the country before the governments of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21671677",
"title": "First Thatcher ministry",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Thatcher inherited some of the worst economic statistics of postwar Britain. The nation was still feeling the effects of the numerous strikes during the recent Winter of Discontent. Inflation had recently topped 20%, and unemployment was in excess of 1.5 million for the first time since the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hagj5
|
What are some examples of historic deals which were done over beer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [throughout history questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of trivia, not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about a historical event or period or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history or /r/askhistory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748877",
"title": "Beer in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::History.:16th century to 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "In the long run, Herrero's brewery did not survive, and the production of European-style beverages such as beer and wine were heavily taxed and heavily regulated by Spain to protect home markets. The purpose of this was to make colonials import these products from Europe. While the policy mostly worked, beer brewing never entirely ceased. In the years just before independence, beer consumption was becoming established in Mexico, leading to disputes over the rights to produce it. Englishmen Gillons and Mairet, Miguel Ramos Arizpe and Justino Tuallion all claimed exclusive rights to produce beer in Mexico. After the end of the war, the beer produced by the Tuallion brewery was the most popular. After the war, colonial restrictions were gone and the industry was allowed to develop, starting in the 1820s. In 1845, a barley beer flavored with \"piloncillo\" was introduced with the names of Pila Seca and La Candelaria by Swiss Bernhard Boldgard and Bavarian Federico Herzog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3363",
"title": "Beer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "In 1516, William IV, Duke of Bavaria, adopted the \"Reinheitsgebot\" (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, hops and barley-malt. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748877",
"title": "Beer in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::History.:16th century to 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "Beer brewed with grain such as barley was produced in small quantities by Hernán Cortés’ soldiers, but it was limited due to the lack of supplies. The first official concession to brew European-style beer was granted to Alfonso de Herrero in 1543 or 1544. Its exact location is unknown, but it is thought to have been located in the south of Mexico City (where Metro Portales is today) or in Amecameca, Mexico State. Herrera's brewery struggled during its first years, as alcohol consumption was highly regulated by authorities, and the new brew had to compete with native beverages. It was also more expensive due to the lack of ingredients. However, the beverage caught on, as it was drunk by colonial authorities, leading others to want it as well. Herrera worked to expand his brewery and the land on which wheat and barley were raised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23055672",
"title": "Brasserie Brunehaut",
"section": "Section::::History (aka Patrimoine).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The brewery's history dates directly to 1096 in Tournai, and a time of severe medieval famine, locally remembered as part of \"the great plague\". Beer was already known as a safe alternative to impure local water supplies and the local community desperately needed help to avoid starvation. To promote public health, and compensate for minimal humanitarian support from far-away Rome, Benedictine Bishop Radbod included brewing permissions in the charter to re-establish Abbaye de Saint-Martin.br\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56614948",
"title": "1900 English beer poisoning",
"section": "Section::::Long-term effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The effects on the beer market were short-lived, and consumption of beer resumed over the course of the year. Attempts to revive the pure beer movement were nullified by the Commission's report, and by the fact that arsenic was present in malted barley as well as sugar. There seemed to be no direct effects on legislation resulting from the incident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15992",
"title": "Jimmy Carter",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1977–1981).:Domestic policy.:Deregulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "In 1979, Carter deregulated the American beer industry by making it legal to sell malt, hops, and yeast to American home brewers for the first time since the effective 1920 beginning of Prohibition in the United States. This Carter deregulation led to an increase in home brewing over the 1980s and 1990s that by the 2000s had developed into a strong craft microbrew culture in the United States, with 6,266 micro breweries, brewpubs, and regional craft breweries in the United States by the end of 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51033940",
"title": "American Brewing Company Plant",
"section": "Section::::Description and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The brewery was founded in 1892 by James Hanley, an Irish immigrant, and featured state of the art facilities of the period, including the installation of two industrial-scale climate control systems needed to control temperatures for the lagering of beer. It is the only industrial-scale brewery of the period to survive in the state, and is one of only a few surviving designs of Adam Wagner. The brewery was operated only until 1922, when it closed as a consequence of Prohibition. In 1936, the property was adapted for use as a warehouse and storage facility, in which use it continued until 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j8laq
|
Dear Scientists, How hard is it to synthesis Diesel or Petrol or other fuels obtain by crude oil?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not hard, just not worth it while there's cheap oil to burn.\n\nBasically, you use a [gasifier](_URL_1_) to generate a mixture of H2 and CO gasses, called \"synthesis gas\". This is basically done by burning a chunk of carbon (which can come from coal or biomass) in an oxygen-starved atmosphere, and then passing hot steam over the coals. The water molecule will yield its oxygen atoms to two different carbon atoms, so the overall reaction looks like:\n\nH2O(g) + C(s) - > H2(g) + CO(g)\n\nThis process produces other products, too, depending on the composition of your feed stock.\n\nAnyways, once you have your synthesis gas, you pass it through a [Fischer-Tropsch reactor](_URL_0_), which uses high temperatures, high pressures, and a metal catalyst to condense the hydrogen and carbon monoxide into hydrocarbons. The length of the carbon chain can be controlled by varying the reactor parameters mentioned above in addition to the \"cooking\" time.\n\nI don't know enough about chemistry to tell you how the whole catalytic process works, but hopefully somebody will come in here and enlighten both of us. Point is, the technology does exist to do what you mention and it's fairly mature; it's just not (yet) economically competitive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not hard, just not worth it while there's cheap oil to burn.\n\nBasically, you use a [gasifier](_URL_1_) to generate a mixture of H2 and CO gasses, called \"synthesis gas\". This is basically done by burning a chunk of carbon (which can come from coal or biomass) in an oxygen-starved atmosphere, and then passing hot steam over the coals. The water molecule will yield its oxygen atoms to two different carbon atoms, so the overall reaction looks like:\n\nH2O(g) + C(s) - > H2(g) + CO(g)\n\nThis process produces other products, too, depending on the composition of your feed stock.\n\nAnyways, once you have your synthesis gas, you pass it through a [Fischer-Tropsch reactor](_URL_0_), which uses high temperatures, high pressures, and a metal catalyst to condense the hydrogen and carbon monoxide into hydrocarbons. The length of the carbon chain can be controlled by varying the reactor parameters mentioned above in addition to the \"cooking\" time.\n\nI don't know enough about chemistry to tell you how the whole catalytic process works, but hopefully somebody will come in here and enlighten both of us. Point is, the technology does exist to do what you mention and it's fairly mature; it's just not (yet) economically competitive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2170613",
"title": "Synthetic fuel",
"section": "Section::::Processes.:Oil sand and oil shale processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Synthetic crude may also be created by upgrading bitumen (a tar like substance found in oil sands), or synthesizing liquid hydrocarbons from oil shale. There are a number of processes extracting shale oil (synthetic crude oil) from oil shale by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195137",
"title": "Oil refinery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils. Petrochemicals feed stock like ethylene and propylene can also be produced directly by cracking crude oil without the need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23195",
"title": "Petroleum",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for refining into fuel oil and gasoline, both important \"\"primary energy\"\" sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas. The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6187740",
"title": "Renewable fuels",
"section": "Section::::Biofuel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Pyrolysis oil is another type of fuel derived from the lignocellulosic fraction of biomass. By rapidly heating biomass in the absence of oxygen (pyrolysis), a liquid crude can be formed that can be further processed into a usable bio-oil. As opposed to other biofuels, pyrolysis oils use the non-edible fraction of biomass and can occur on the order of milliseconds and without the need for large fermentation reactors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262252",
"title": "Pyrolysis",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence and uses.:Liquid and gaseous biofuels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Synthetic diesel fuel by pyrolysis of organic materials is not yet economically competitive. Higher efficiency is sometimes achieved by flash pyrolysis, in which finely divided feedstock is quickly heated to between for less than two seconds. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15448203",
"title": "Corinth Refinery",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.:Fuels production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Crude oil is processed in the crude distillation unit, from which liquified petroleum gas (LPG), naphtha, kerosene, diesel and fuel oil are produced. Kerosene and Diesel are further treated mainly in order to remove sulfur thus complying with the required specifications and to produce jet fuel and diesel fuel respectively (both automotive and heating grades).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "808767",
"title": "Vacuum distillation",
"section": "Section::::Industrial-scale applications.:Vacuum distillation in petroleum refining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Petroleum crude oil is a complex mixture of hundreds of different hydrocarbon compounds generally having from 3 to 60 carbon atoms per molecule, although there may be small amounts of hydrocarbons outside that range. The refining of crude oil begins with distilling the incoming crude oil in a so-called \"atmospheric distillation column\" operating at pressures slightly above atmospheric pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k5de1
|
Is there any material that allows light to pass through without any interference? Is it possible to manufacture such a material?
|
[
{
"answer": "Even a completely transparent substance still has an index of refraction that bends light that goes through it and I assume that refraction would count as \"interference.\"\n\nI don't believe there's anything other than a vacuum that has a refractive index of zero, so I think the answer to your question is \"no.\"\n\nEdit: value of refractive index of a vacuum is 1, not 0.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably not in the general sense that you're after, but it would be possible to construct a metamaterial with such behavior, though it would only work for a limited band of frequencies and incidence angles. \n\nOne way you could do it is intersperse layers of refractive index greater than unity (e.g., glass) and less than unity (e.g., underdense plasma) in a fashion where the spacings between layers are smaller than the wavelength of the incident light. By tuning the spacings and plasma densities appropriately, incident light could pass through without any net phase shifts. Such a metamaterial could be fabricated with today's technology.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "351077",
"title": "Transparency and translucency",
"section": "Section::::Absorption of light in solids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Some materials allow much of the light that falls on them to be transmitted through the material without being reflected. Materials that allow the transmission of light waves through them are called optically transparent. Chemically pure (undoped) window glass and clean river or spring water are prime examples of this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27461561",
"title": "Theories of cloaking",
"section": "Section::::Tunneling light transmission cloak.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "As implied in the nomenclature, this is a type of light transmission. Transmission of light (EM radiation) through an object such as metallic film occurs with an assist of tunnelling between resonating inclusions. This effect can be created by embedding a periodic configuration of dielectrics in a metal, for example. By creating and observing transmission peaks interactions between the dielectrics and interference effects cause mixing and splitting of resonances. With an effective permittivity close to unity, the results can be used to propose a method for turning the resulting materials invisible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46545942",
"title": "Solid light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Solid light is a hypothetical material, made of light in a solidified state. Theoretically, it is possible to make such a material, and there are claims this material was already made, including claims from MIT and Harvard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30485345",
"title": "2011 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "BULLET::::- Scientists demonstrate mathematically that asymmetrical materials should be possible; such material would allow most light or sound waves through in one direction, while preventing them from doing so in the opposite direction; such materials would allow the construction of true one-way mirrors, soundproof rooms, or even quantum computers that use light to perform calculations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1982016",
"title": "Paul Steinhardt",
"section": "Section::::Photonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "These materials, which act as isotropic semiconductors for light, can be used to control and manipulate light in a wide range of applications including optical communications, photonic computers, energy harvesting, non-linear optics and improved light sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33791207",
"title": "Ultralight material",
"section": "Section::::Possible advances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Ultralight material is constantly subjected to compression and accidental physical damage or abuse during practical applications. Recent advances in ultralight magnetic framework has allowed structures made from lightweight material to self repair their structure when it is compromised. Ultralight materials are capable of healing because of pH induced coordination between iron and catecholic compounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372885",
"title": "Ames Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::History.:1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "BULLET::::- The design and demonstration of photonic band gap crystals, a geometrical arrangement of dielectric materials that allows light to pass except when the frequency falls within a forbidden range. These materials would make it easier to develop numerous practical devices, including optical lasers, optical computers, and solar cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3f76tn
|
Female Suffrage in France
|
[
{
"answer": "There was actually quite some activity towards women's suffrage in interwar France; for example, Léon Blum's government made a proposal for this (Léon Blum had probalby the best feminist pedigree in that time period), which was voted by the (left-wing) Assemblée nationale, but rejected by the (right-wing) upper house (this being one of the few ways it could actively impede government policy). There were other propositions, coming from the far-right, such as giving the vote to war widows (as a compensation for the vote of their defunct husband).\n\nA standard argument against women suffrage was that:\n1) men were better educated than women (this went back to the late XIXth century and had, among other, military reasons),\n2) women were thought to be more church-going than men,\n3) therefore, the Radicals (= anticlerical - but socially conservative - center-left, and in control of a lot of parliamentary majorities) thought that women would at best vote like their husbands - and, at worst, like their priest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46199858",
"title": "Jeanne Schmahl",
"section": "Section::::Women's suffrage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The French Union for Women's Suffrage (UFSF: \"Union française pour le suffrage des femmes\") was founded by a group of feminists who had attended a national congress of French feminists in Paris in 1908.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12606751",
"title": "Cécile Brunschvicg",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The French Union for Women's Suffrage (UFSF: \"Union française pour le suffrage des femmes\") was founded by a group of feminists who had attended a national congress of French feminists in Paris in 1908, led by Jeanne Schmahl and Jane Misme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45661535",
"title": "French Union for Women's Suffrage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The French Union for Women's Suffrage (UFSF: ) was a French feminist organization formed in 1909 that fought for the right of women to vote, which was eventually granted in 1945. The Union took a moderate approach, advocating staged introduction of suffrage starting with local elections, and working with male allies in the Chamber of Deputies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175581",
"title": "Women's suffrage",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "By the time French women were granted the suffrage in July 1944 by Charles de Gaulle's government in exile, by a vote of 51 for, 16 against, France had been for about a decade the only Western country that did not at least allow women's suffrage at municipal elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "220636",
"title": "Universal suffrage",
"section": "Section::::Expanding suffrage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, though it was never formally enacted in practice (the subsequent election occurring after the fall of the Jacobin government). The Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9333239",
"title": "Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom was a movement to fight for women's right to vote. It finally succeeded through two laws in 1918 and 1928. It became a national movement in the Victorian era. Women were not explicitly banned from voting in Great Britain until the Reform Act 1832 and the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. In 1872 the fight for women's suffrage became a national movement with the formation of the National Society for Women's Suffrage and later the more influential National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). As well as in England, women's suffrage movements in Wales and other parts of the United Kingdom gained momentum. The movements shifted sentiments in favour of woman suffrage by 1906. It was at this point that the militant campaign began with the formation of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11185",
"title": "Feminism",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th and early-20th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "In France, women obtained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Republic of 21 April 1944. The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944 proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by Fernand Grenier, they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, following the November 1946 elections, the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the \"gender gap\", stating in \"Le Populaire\" that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes. During the baby boom period, feminism waned in importance. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7uuhdm
|
how does a bill that passed overwhelmingly in the house and senate (98%+) not get enforced by the executive branch?
|
[
{
"answer": "Executive branch has the power to decide how they enforce a bill.\n\n\nWhich bill are you talking about?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In response to the title, since the Executive branch has sole authority in enforcing the law, as a consequence it can choose not to enforce the law at all.\n\nIn response to the post, since I do not know what specific bill you are talking about I can describe the two vetoes.\n\nFirst, the President can outright veto a bill on his/her desk and send it back to Congress within 10 days (or it defaults into a law) to vote on it again. If they get a two-thirds majority it becomes a law without having to go back to the President, if they do not get a two-thirds majority, it does not become a law.\n\nSecond, a pocket veto is when a President does not sign a bill into law at the end of the 10 day time limit **and** Congress is not in session at the end of the 10 day time limit to override it with a two-thirds vote.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23444",
"title": "Politics of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Legislature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Each bill needs the consent of both houses in order to be submitted to the president for his signature. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds supermajority. If either house voted down on a bill or fails to act on it after an adjournment sine die, the bill is lost and would have to be proposed to the next congress, with the process starting all over again. Congress' decisions are mostly via majority vote, except for voting on constitutional amendments and other matters. Each house has its own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties, while money bills may only be introduced by the House of Representatives. The constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try the impeached official.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3203844",
"title": "Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional Provisions.:Procedural requirements of tax legislation.:Section 53: Senate not amend money bills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Section 53, in part, prevents the Senate from introducing or amending any bill dealing with taxation, revenues or appropriation. This section limits the power of the Senate and reflects a constitutional distinction between the House of Representatives, as the house of the people and the chamber to which the government is responsible, and the Senate, as the house of the states. However, the Senate may still request omissions from or amendments to any such bill (in which case the House of Representatives deals with the request as it sees fit), or block its passage entirely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1390880",
"title": "List of United States presidential vetoes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- If the president vetoes a bill, the president's objections shall be considered by the Congress. Each house may vote to override the president's veto. If 2/3 of each house agree to override the president's veto, the bill is enacted into law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2015257",
"title": "Powers of the president of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Powers related to legislation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The president has several options when presented with a bill from Congress. If the president agrees with the bill, he can sign it into law within ten days of receipt. If the president opposes the bill, he can veto it and return the bill to Congress with a veto message suggesting changes unless the Congress is out of session then the president may rely on a pocket veto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293605",
"title": "House of Representatives of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "The House of Representatives is modeled after the United States House of Representatives; the two chambers of Congress have roughly equal powers, and every bill or resolution that has to go through both houses needs the consent of both chambers before being passed for the president's signature. Once a bill is defeated in the House of Representatives, it is lost. Once a bill is approved by the House of Representatives on third reading, the bill is passed to the Senate, unless an identical bill has also been passed by the lower house. When a counterpart bill in the Senate is different from the one passed by the House of Representatives, either a bicameral conference committee is created consisting of members from both chambers of Congress to reconcile the differences, or either chamber may instead approve the other chamber's version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33544108",
"title": "United States constitutional law",
"section": "Section::::Limiting the power of the three branches—the system of \"checks and balances\".:Boundaries of power: Congress versus the executive.:The presidential veto power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1164,
"text": "The president approves or rejects a bill in its entirety; he is not permitted to veto specific provisions. In 1996, Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed, the Line Item Veto Act of 1996, which gave the president the power to veto individual items of budgeted expenditures in appropriations bills. The Supreme Court subsequently declared the line-item veto unconstitutional as a violation of the Presentment Clause in \"Clinton v. City of New York\", . The Court construed the Constitution's silence on the subject of such unilateral presidential action as equivalent to \"an express prohibition,\" agreeing with historical material that supported the conclusion that statutes may only be enacted \"in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered, procedure\", and that a bill must be approved or rejected by the president in its entirety. The Court reasoned that a line-item veto \"would authorize the President to create a different law--one whose text was not voted on by either House of Congress or presented to the President for signature,\" and therefore violates the federal legislative procedure prescribed in Article I, Section 7.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299521",
"title": "Senate of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "The Senate was modeled upon the United States Senate; the two chambers of Congress have roughly equal powers, and every bill or resolution that has to go through both houses needs the consent of both chambers before being passed for the president's signature. Once a bill is defeated in the Senate, it is lost. Once a bill is approved by the Senate on third reading, the bill is passed to the House of Representatives, unless an identical bill has also been passed by the lower house. When a counterpart bill in the lower house is different from the one passed by the Senate, either a bicameral conference committee is created consisting of members from both chambers of Congress to reconcile the differences, or either chamber may instead approve the other chamber's version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3etaon
|
would the screen rotation function work in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Phones have devices called accelerometers which feel the pull of gravity similar to how we do. Take one of these devices on a bungee jump, and it will record the increased force that you feel at the bottom of the cord.\n\nIn orbit, everything is in constant free-fall, so there is very little apparent gravity for people on-board the ISS, but the ISS is spinning slightly, creating something called the coriolis effect. Just like those carnival rides which spin and push you up against the wall, people and objects on the ISS are ever-so-slightly pushed toward the outside of the station's spin. The accelerometers can detect this and the effect can be used to force the screen to rotate. However, the force is so much less than gravity on Earth and astronauts don't really use it very much, it is likely more of an inconsistent annoyance than a useful feature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends how it is coded. Phones often have accelerometers AND gyroscopes.\n\nAccelerometers won't be able to detect the rotation due to no gravity being present . The gyroscopes however will detect the twisting of the device. (Integrating gyro values can give you angle of rotation)\n\nSo it depends on whether the programmer based the rotation on accelerometer or gyro. Very often they are based on both.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Righty. You're trying to fall down, because you weigh something. But your legs are strong – strong enough to hold the rest of you up so you don't end up in a little pile on the floor. Your phone is pretty clever – it's got a little device inside that can detect how quickly it's trying to fall (physicists will call this the *acceleration due to gravity*), even when your hand underneath is strong enough to prevent it from dropping towards the ground. You can actually feel this acceleration when you go in an elevator (lift, if you're British, like me) – it makes your insides feel heavy when it's pulling you up (or slowing down on the way down), and light when it's letting you drop down (or slowing down on the way up). The acceleration is what makes you feel heavy, and what makes everything hard to lift – the weight is everything trying to go down while your feet and legs hold it up.\n\nIn the space station, you don't accelerate as quickly towards the ground any more – the further away you go from something big like a planet, the less it pulls you towards it with gravity. In fact the ISS is in something called freefall, which is where something is accelerating towards the ground at the same rate you would be if you weren't in it, so there's no acceleration left to make you feel your weight like normal. You phone can't tell that it's falling any more, either – it works the same way that the feeling in your stomach in the lift comes about.\n\nBut, you know when you lie down on your side and the screen turns? That's because your phone feels like down is sideways, towards the ground. But maybe you don't know that, because you've got a fancy new phone that's clever enough to look at you on the little camera above the screen, and see your face – it'll know that you're lying down, too, and decide not to swivel the display. If your phone is like that, the screen will try to align with your face so it looks the right way up to you, and if you have a phone like that in space, then it'll always know what way around to display everything, even if it's not sure which way is down!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a lot of small effects that your smartphone could pick up on and potentially rotate the screen. However, if the effect isn't strong enough the phone will ignore it. \n\nFor example, if I hold my phone vertically, set it down on a flat table, and then slowly pick it back up along the horizontal side, at some point it will change orientation, but not right away. For me at about 10 degrees off the table it decides the signal is strong enough and rotates the screen. \n\nThe gyroscopes will still detect the rotation just fine, and if the phone is programmed to primarily use the gyros, it may rotate the screen when you rotate the phone quickly. However, once again, if the signal isn't strong enough it will be ignored. If you rotate then phone slowly it may ignore the signal and fail to rotate the screen. \n\n(Technical break: Typically in attitude sensors, gyros are relied upon to detect the transient behavior and accelerometers are used to zero out steady state error. without accel. data the attitude is likely to drift)\n\nFor this reason, I personally think it is very unlikely that the screen rotation function would work consistently in space. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7290730",
"title": "Rotation formalisms in three dimensions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "An example where rotation representation is used is in computer vision, where an automated observer needs to track a target. Consider a rigid body, with three orthogonal unit vectors fixed to its body (representing the three axes of the object's local coordinate system). The basic problem is to specify the orientation of these three unit vectors, and hence the rigid body, with respect to the observer's coordinate system, regarded as a reference placement in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2307854",
"title": "Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space",
"section": "Section::::Visualization of 4D rotations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Every rotation in 3D space has an invariant axis-line which is unchanged by the rotation. The rotation is completely specified by specifying the axis of rotation and the angle of rotation about that axis. Without loss of generality, this axis may be chosen as the -axis of a Cartesian coordinate system, allowing a simpler visualization of the rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37415478",
"title": "Technologies in 2001: A Space Odyssey",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Inaccuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "There are other problems that might be more appropriately described as continuity errors, such as the back-and-forth horizontal switching of Earth's lit side when viewed from Clavius, and the schematic of the space station on the Pan Am spaceplane's monitors continuing to rotate after the plane has synchronized its motion with the station. The latter is due to the position readout actually being a rear-projected film shown in a continuous loop, and being out of sync with other visual elements. The direction of the rotation of the Earth's image outside the space station window is clockwise when Floyd is greeted by a receptionist, but counterclockwise when he phones his daughter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531432",
"title": "Autostereogram",
"section": "Section::::How they work.:Animated.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "When a series of autostereograms are shown one after another, in the same way moving pictures are shown, the brain perceives an animated autostereogram. If all autostereograms in the animation are produced using the same background pattern, it is often possible to see faint outlines of parts of the moving 3D object in the 2D autostereogram image without wall-eyed viewing; the constantly shifting pixels of the moving object can be clearly distinguished from the static background plane. To eliminate this side effect, animated autostereograms often use shifting background in order to disguise the moving parts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4692870",
"title": "Page orientation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Computer displays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Rotation is now a common feature of modern video cards, and is widely used in tablet PCs (many tablet devices can sense the direction of gravity and automatically rotate the image), and by writers, layout artists, etc. Operating systems and drivers do not always support it; for example, Windows XP Service Pack 3 conflicts with monitor rotation on many graphics cards using ATI's Catalyst control software, Nvidia's proprietary drivers for Linux do not support screen rotation unless manual changes are made to its configuration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "898572",
"title": "Goniometer",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Positioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "A positioning goniometer or goniometric stage is a device used to rotate an object precisely about a fixed axis in space. It is similar to a linear stage, however, rather than moving linearly with respect to its base, the stage platform rotates partially about a fixed axis above the mounting surface of the platform. Positioning goniometers typically use a worm drive with a partial worm wheel fixed to the underside of the stage platform meshing with a worm in the base. The worm may be rotated manually or by a motor as in automated positioning systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13810886",
"title": "Positioning goniometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "A positioning goniometer or goniometric stage is a device used to rotate an object precisely (within a small angular range) about a fixed axis in space. Its appearance is similar to that of a linear stage. However, rather than moving linearly with respect to its base, the stage platform rotates partially about a fixed axis above the mounting surface of the platform. The distance of the center of rotation from the platform mounting surface is often chosen so that two different goniometer models may be stacked in an X-Y configuration and both stages will rotate about the same point. Positioning goniometers typically use a worm drive with a partial worm wheel fixed to the underside of the stage platform meshing with a worm in the base. The worm may be rotated manually or by a motor as in automated positioning systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
st1e0
|
If a human got shrunk to a minuscule size, would physics act on him in the same way?
|
[
{
"answer": "You would probably be fine. What matters here is terminal velocity, which is proportional to mass. With the smaller mass of an insect like an ant, even falling at terminal velocity the ant won't reach a speed high enough to harm it. A smaller human would probably have the mass of an ant and may be able to escape unharmed, though this would depend on how much damage the human body can take as compared to an ant's body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm no expert in this by any means, but I seem to remember a biology textbook saying that the size of our cells are such because a certain ratio of surface area to volume is required to preform certain cellular functions. \n\nSo I'm assuming that if we were truly \"shrunk\" are bodies wouldn't be able to function normally. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My experience and knowledge is specific to water, but the principles of how bodies interact with fluids is independent of the media type.\n\nSince the physics of the fluid, air in this case, remains constant your interaction with it changes as your relative size changes. We describe the ratio of your size to the fluid viscosity by [Reynolds Number](_URL_1_)\n\nEven though old, I recommend \"The Physics of Life: Life at Low Reynolds Number\" as an introduction to what life is like for very small organisms.\n\n[Here is the video](_URL_2_)\n\n[Here is the paper](_URL_0_) warning: pdf. \n\nTo answer your question; depending on how small you get, you could be just fine. However, get too small and you would behave like a dust particle, and might take a while to settle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4899945",
"title": "Shrink ray",
"section": "Section::::Scientific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The problems of the miniaturized human do not stop there, however. Basic geometry governs such things as the relationship between cross-section, volume, and surface area. It may be impossible for a one-inch high human to kill themselves in a fall of any conceivable height, but they may be able to drown themselves with a single drop of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35663617",
"title": "Small & Frye",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Nick Small (McGavin) and Chip Frye (Blessing) are private investigators. Due to a lab accident, Frye is able to physically shrink to a height of six inches, but he can't control this ability; he could become miniature or normal size at any time. This is sometimes an aid to their investigations, and sometimes an embarrassing hindrance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1730659",
"title": "Square–cube law",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Biomechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "If an animal were isometrically scaled up by a considerable amount, its relative muscular strength would be severely reduced, since the cross section of its muscles would increase by the \"square\" of the scaling factor while its mass would increase by the \"cube\" of the scaling factor. As a result of this, cardiovascular and respiratory functions would be severely burdened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428663",
"title": "Hank Pym",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "After constant experimentation with size-changing via ingested capsules and particle-filled gas, Pym is eventually able to change size at will, and mentally generate Pym particles to change the sizes of other living beings or inanimate objects. Pym retains his normal strength when \"ant\" size, and possesses greatly increased strength and stamina when in \"giant\" form, courtesy of the increased mass. Pym's costume is synthetic stretch fabric composed of unstable molecules and automatically adapts to his shifting sizes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75827",
"title": "Thing (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The Thing's highly advanced musculature generates fewer fatigue toxins during physical activity, granting him superhuman levels of stamina. When in his Thing form, he has only four fingers on each hand. The loss of one digit on each hand, and the increase in volume of the remainder, does not affect his manual dexterity. However, he has been shown doing things like holding a pencil and using it to dial a phone (even with rotary dials), or to push buttons on a keypad, to use devices that would ordinarily be too small for him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2620578",
"title": "Shape (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The Shape's entire body is extremely rubbery, putty-like and malleable. He has approximately of body mass that he can shift from one area of his body to another; when he is relaxed it settles in his legs and lower body. He can shift up to 80% of his physical mass at will, thus altering his entire shape. He can use this mass to elongate, compress, or enlarge various parts of his body, or form non-humanoid shapes such as hammer-shaped fists or a trampoline-shaped torso, or taking the shape of a hang glider. His bones stretch to a maximum of five times their ordinary length. The Shape's below normal intelligence prevents him from thinking of more creative uses for his shifting body mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39731448",
"title": "George Littlewood",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "In 1966, and referring to his 1888 world record, a physiologist, B.B. Lloyd, writing in \"Advancement of Science\", described Littlewood's feat as \"“probably about the maximum sustained output of which the human frame is capable”\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7jtwtu
|
how do brackets move teeths from their cavity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your bone isn't a static structure, the hard mineral deposits that gives it its strength is constantly being repaired and remodeled by specialized cells.\n\nApplying force in one direction on the tooth stimulates the removal of bone on one side (by osteoclasts) and deposited on the other (by osteoblasts) so the entire cavity can be slowly shifted, similar to how your teeth erupted out of your jaw bone originally. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "902683",
"title": "Dental braces",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The application of braces moves the teeth as a result of force and pressure on the teeth. There are traditionally four basic elements that are used: brackets, bonding material, arch wire, and ligature elastic (also called an “O-ring”). The teeth move when the arch wire puts pressure on the brackets and teeth. Sometimes springs or rubber bands are used to put more force in a specific direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11850504",
"title": "Crown-to-root ratio",
"section": "Section::::Clinical importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Teeth are constantly subject to both horizontal and vertical occlusal forces. With the center of rotation of the tooth acting as a fulcrum, the surface of bone adjacent to the pressured side of the tooth will undergo resorption and disappear, while the surface of bone adjacent to the tensioned side of the tooth will undergo apposition and increase in volume. When the amount of root remaining in the bone is so short that the entire surface of bone adjacent to the root surface is constantly under compression or tension (with no middle section acting as a stabilizer for the fulcrum), the prognosis for the tooth is deemed highly unfavorable. This is usually the outcome associated with untreated secondary occlusal trauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45020035",
"title": "Lingual braces",
"section": "Section::::Treatment effects.:Intrusion of anterior teeth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Lingual brackets are located more closely to the center of resistance of a tooth than brackets placed on a buccal surface of a tooth. Thus when a patient bites down, the biting forces are directed through the center of resistance of those anterior teeth. Thus the light continuous forces directed towards the upper lingual brackets may induce slight intrusion of the upper anterior teeth. However, forces that are felt on the anterior teeth seem to be minimal, in milligrams. An optimum force needed to intrude teeth is 30-40g.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902683",
"title": "Dental braces",
"section": "Section::::Fitting procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Teeth to be braced will have an adhesive applied to help the cement bond to the surface of the tooth. In most cases the teeth will be banded and then brackets will be added. A bracket will be applied with dental cement, and then cured with light until hardened. This process usually takes a few seconds per tooth. If required, orthodontic spacers may be inserted between the molars to make room for molar bands to be placed at a later date. Molar bands are required to ensure brackets will stick. Bands are also utilized when dental fillings or other dental work make securing a bracket to a tooth infeasible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5839596",
"title": "Mouth prop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "A mouth prop (also bite block) is a wedge-shaped implement used in dentistry for dentists working with children and other patients who have difficulty keeping their mouths open wide and steady during a procedure, or during procedures where the patient is sedated. It has a rubber-like texture and is typically made from thermoplastic vulcanizate (TPV) material. They come in several different sizes, from pediatric to adult, and are typically ridged as to use the back teeth to hold them in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55222886",
"title": "Dinosaur tooth",
"section": "Section::::Dinosaur dental anatomy.:Tissue types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Cementum - This tissues covers the root of a teeth and is an attachment tissue that forms part of the periodontium. It is typically infilled with Sharpey's fibers that help anchor the tooth in place in the socket.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19857818",
"title": "Mandibular fracture",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:General considerations.:Reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The mouth is unique, in that the teeth are well secured to the bone ends but come through epithelium (mucosa). A leg or wrist, for instance, has no such structure to help with a closed reduction. In addition, when the fracture happens to be in a tooth bearing area of the jaws, aligning the teeth well usually results in alignment of the fracture segments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fm1tn
|
Before the American war of independence, did the residents of the colonies consider themselves American, or as British colonists living in America?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many of them considered themselves to be British before and during the American Revolution, and actively fought against the Colonists on the side of the British. These people were known as Loyalists. The others did not view themselves as Americans either though. They identified themselves as Virginians or Pennsylvanians or Georgians ect. depending on which colony they were from. This mentality carried on long after the Revolution for many Americans too. Even during the Civil War there are examples of this such as When Robert E. Lee declined the offer to lead the Union Army in favor of leading the Army of Northern Virginia on the side of the Confederacy. He did so even though he was strongly opposed to the idea of slavery, due to the fact that Virgina had seceded from the Union and he considered himself a Virginian before anything else. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Modern estimates for the number of loyalists in America at the time are 20%. So one in five Americans at the time of the war considered themselves as much British as American. That figure was likely higher in the decades previous to the outbreak of hostilities.\n\nA favorite tidbit of history of mine is, after the fall of Quebec to the British in 1759 which was received with much celebration in Britain itself, Americans in the northern provinces celebrated just as much as their brothers over the ocean with bonfires, bell ringing and sermons of thanksgiving. \"...I am a Briton\" said Benjamin Franklin in a letter to the Scottish Lord Kames a few months after French surrender. Some even contributed to memorials for fallen heroes of the battle such as one in Westminster Abbey for Brig.Gen. Lord Howe payed for by the people of Massachusetts in recognition of the role the British army played in the defeat of the hated Roman Catholic French. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "282220",
"title": "Colonial history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Unification of the British colonies.:Ties to the British Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "The colonies were very different from one another but they were still a part of the British Empire in more than just name. Demographically, the majority of the colonists traced their roots to the British Isles and many of them still had family ties with Great Britain. Socially, the colonial elite of Boston, New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia saw their identity as British. Many had never lived in Britain in over a few generations, yet they imitated British styles of dress, dance, and etiquette. This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style, copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale, and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe, such as the Enlightenment. The seaport cities of colonial America were truly British cities in the eyes of many inhabitants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282220",
"title": "Colonial history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Unification of the British colonies.:Colonial wars: a common defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "One event that reminded colonists of their shared identity as British subjects was the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) in Europe. This conflict spilled over into the colonies, where it was known as \"King George's War\". The major battles took place in Europe, but American colonial troops fought the French and their Indian allies in New York, New England, and Nova Scotia with the Siege of Louisbourg (1745).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "134472",
"title": "Edgefield, South Carolina",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "The colonial period was followed by the prolonged conflict with Great Britain which began in 1775. By this time there were many settlers living in present-day Edgefield County and almost all of them were involved, on one side or the other, in the Revolutionary War. Some Edgefieldians were die-hard patriots from the outset, who believed that the American colonies should be free and independent. Others were loyal to the king who had granted them land and provided a home for them in the New World. Still others wanted no part of the conflict but were inevitably drawn into it by partisans on each side. Finally, others were strictly opportunists who switched sides back and forth as they perceived their best interest. The conflict was, in this area, a bitter civil war in which personal vendettas often superseded politics as the cause for fighting. Cousins fought against cousins and neighbors against neighbors. When General Lighthorse Harry Lee later wrote about the Revolution in this area, he stated that \"in no part of the South was the war fought with such asperity as in this quarter. It often sank into barbarity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1145519",
"title": "Peter Wilson Coldham",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Works include.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"American Migrations 1765-1799\". The lives, times, and families of colonial Americans who remained loyal to the British Crown before, during and after the Revolutionary War, as related in their own words and through their correspondence\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "260356",
"title": "Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "In 1763, after Great Britain defeated France in the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War), it took possession of the French territory in North America east of the Mississippi River, including Prairie du Chien. During the American Revolutionary War, the city was used as a meeting point for British troops and their Native American allies. After the American victory, the Treaty of Paris (1783) granted the area to the new United States of America, but the British and their Loyalists were slow to withdraw. Only after the War of 1812 did the city become fully American.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242056",
"title": "House of Burgesses",
"section": "Section::::Moving toward independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Though not a unique occurrence on the frontier, colonists remained loyal to the British crown during the French and Indian War in North America from 1754 to 1763. The conflict, which somewhat uniquely began in the Ohio Valley and spread to Europe, resulted in local colonial losses and economic disruption. Higher taxes were to follow, and adverse local reactions to these and how they were determined would drive events well into the next decade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31515531",
"title": "American diaspora",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Due to the flow of people back and forth between Britain and the colonies, and America and the Caribbean, there has been an American diaspora of a sort since before the United States was founded. During the American Revolutionary War, a number of American Loyalists relocated to other countries, chiefly Canada and Great Britain. Residence in countries outside the British Empire was unusual, and usually limited to the well to do, such as Benjamin Franklin, who was able to self-finance his trip to Paris as an American diplomat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ain9b
|
How could a backdoor be put into a random number generator?
|
[
{
"answer": "Conceptually, it's somewhat straightforward. Let's say we have a deterministic RNG which requires some sort of seed. If, for some reason, someone were able to manipulate the seed source, the output of the RNG would no longer be pseudorandom.\n\nCriticisms of RdRand were the following:\n\n1. You had to put trust in Intel's CPU and its microcode.\n\n2. Under extremely heavy loads, Intel states it is theoretically possible for the demand for random numbers to exceed the rate at which the HW can supply them. This could potentially be exploited by an attacker who runs a program on the same hardware that attempts to overload the RNG while the victim is attempting to generate a key in parallel.\n\n3. (This is, I think, what you're really asking) The concern is that some combination of microcode modifications could enable seed data with low entropy to be used to generate the random bits, hence giving some attacker the ability to narrow down the possible set of keys generated for any number of crytpographic algorithms (for instance, an RSA key or an initial vector for a hash).\n\nThe solution to this, if you do not completely trust Intel, is to use RdRand in combination with some other source of entropy to make random numbers. This is, AFAIK, what Linux is currently doing.\n\nTo recap: A \"backdoor\" in a random number generator could take the form of a modification to the seed going in, thereby making the RNG output's resemblance to a completely random number less than [negligible](_URL_0_). If enough entropy is removed, then an attacker who knows the inner workings of the RNG will be able to predict with greater accuracy what keys will be generated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/HeadspaceA10 gives a good overview, but let me contribute a specific example.\n\nRSA is one common encryption algorithm. The starting point for RSA is to randomly generate two large prime numbers. These numbers constitute the \"secret\" that makes the encryption secure, and they have to be truly random so it is hard to find them.\n\nAs an example of how this could be broken with a backdoor, imagine you hardwire the random number generator to always return the numbers 5 and 7. Then you can decrypt the messages of anyone who is using your system by simply assuming they are encrypting with these numbers. The encryption is essentially removed for anyone who knows about the backdoor.\n\nOf course, something that simplistic would be easily discovered. But you can get almost the same result by making the random number generator restricted in some way, so that it only generates numbers following some pattern but otherwises appears random to the casual observer. For example, you could only produce numbers that are squares of other numbers (1, 4, 9, 16, 25...). Then you could only check for these numbers to find the secret key, which is _much_ faster than checking every possible number. (This example is also simplistic, but you get the idea.)\n\nThe concern is that Intel may have done something similar with their random number generator, hamstringing it in some way that makes its output predictable for those who have the secret key. Because we have no way of verifying the hardware implementation in the chips we are using (it's not enough to trust Intel's word or even their code), its insecure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The trick is that Intel's RdRand is a black box that we have to trust. So, conceptually, what is something they could do to \"backdoor\" the system?\n\nIn cryptography, a secure stream cipher is *indistinguishable from random* by an adversary (that is limited to probabilistic polynomial time, but details details). In other words, if you have a stream cipher, you have a way of generating a practically infinite bitstream that an attacker thinks is random, but is really not. That infinite bitstream is generated *solely* from a secret key and a random seed. \n\nSo RdRand could actually just be using a stream cipher with a baked-in secret key and a seed that Intel (or the NSA or whatever) can predict - maybe the seed is the time at which the machine booted. An RdRand user cannot determine if the bitstream is \"truly\" random, so if they use RdRand, they implicitly trust that it is not maliciously designed. On the other hand, the backdoor user knows the secret key and can test for some predictable seeds, eventually find the seed in question, and then use that key+seed to determine all of RdRand's output.\n\nThat's one possible scenario.\n\n*In general*, it's also possible for pseudorandom algorithms themselves to contain \"mathematical backdoors\" that aren't easily discovered even if you know the algorithm. An example of that is [Dual_EC_DRBG](_URL_0_). For a simplified version of the attack, view D.W.'s post [here](_URL_2_) - the section that says \"I see that you want to explain the mathematics\". In that section, he attacks a simplified version of Dual_EC_DRBG. If you want to see the real attack explained, with all of the nitty-gritty details, view my post [here](_URL_1_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "206753",
"title": "Trapdoor function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "An example of a simple mathematical trapdoor is \"6895601 is the product of two prime numbers. What are those numbers?\" A typical solution would be to try dividing 6895601 by several prime numbers until finding the answer. However, if one is told that 1931 is one of the numbers, one can find the answer by entering \"6895601 ÷ 1931\" into any calculator. This example is not a sturdy trapdoor function – modern computers can guess all of the possible answers within a second – but this sample problem could be improved by using the product of two much larger primes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360788",
"title": "Backdoor (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "A backdoor may take the form of a hidden part of a program, a separate program (e.g. Back Orifice may subvert the system through a rootkit), code in the firmware of the hardware, or parts of an operating system such as Windows. Trojan horses can be used to create vulnerabilities in a device. A Trojan horse may appear to be an entirely legitimate program, but when executed, it triggers an activity that may install a backdoor. Although some are secretly installed, other backdoors are deliberate and widely known. These kinds of backdoors have \"legitimate\" uses such as providing the manufacturer with a way to restore user passwords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360788",
"title": "Backdoor (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Compiler backdoors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "A sophisticated form of black box backdoor is a compiler backdoor, where not only is a compiler subverted (to insert a backdoor in some other program, such as a login program), but it is further modified to detect when it is compiling itself and then inserts both the backdoor insertion code (targeting the other program) and the code-modifying self-compilation, like the mechanism through which retroviruses infect their host. This can be done by modifying the source code, and the resulting compromised compiler (object code) can compile the original (unmodified) source code and insert itself: the exploit has been boot-strapped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206753",
"title": "Trapdoor function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "A trapdoor in cryptography has the very specific aforementioned meaning and is not to be confused with a backdoor (these are frequently used interchangeably, which is incorrect). A backdoor is a deliberate mechanism that is added to a cryptographic algorithm (e.g., a key pair generation algorithm, digital signing algorithm, etc.) or operating system, for example, that permits one or more unauthorized parties to bypass or subvert the security of the system in some fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360788",
"title": "Backdoor (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "The threat of backdoors surfaced when multiuser and networked operating systems became widely adopted. Petersen and Turn discussed computer subversion in a paper published in the proceedings of the 1967 AFIPS Conference. They noted a class of active infiltration attacks that use \"trapdoor\" entry points into the system to bypass security facilities and permit direct access to data. The use of the word \"trapdoor\" here clearly coincides with more recent definitions of a backdoor. However, since the advent of public key cryptography the term \"trapdoor\" has acquired a different meaning (see trapdoor function), and thus the term \"backdoor\" is now preferred, only after the term trapdoor went out of use. More generally, such security breaches were discussed at length in a RAND Corporation task force report published under ARPA sponsorship by J.P. Anderson and D.J. Edwards in 1970.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360788",
"title": "Backdoor (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "A backdoor in a login system might take the form of a hard coded user and password combination which gives access to the system. An example of this sort of backdoor was used as a plot device in the 1983 film \"WarGames\", in which the architect of the \"WOPR\" computer system had inserted a hardcoded password which gave the user access to the system, and to undocumented parts of the system (in particular, a video game-like simulation mode and direct interaction with the artificial intelligence).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20901",
"title": "Malware",
"section": "Section::::Concealment.:Backdoors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "A backdoor is a method of bypassing normal authentication procedures, usually over a connection to a network such as the Internet. Once a system has been compromised, one or more backdoors may be installed in order to allow access in the future, invisibly to the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bb4pl
|
who makes direct-to-video movies and how do they make money?
|
[
{
"answer": "They make a profit off of people who either don't know better (grandparents who vaguely remember the title of the movie that little Jimmy wanted for Christmas), people who enjoy mocking them for their poor quality(20-somethings), or possibly strange families who have an aversion to showing their kids \"popular\" movies.\n\nIs it legal? Yes. They are not technically interfering with any sort of legally protected property or trademarks. You can make movies about monsters/robots/whatever as long as you don't include anything that's trademarked or copyrighted, no matter how similar they may seem on a macro scale.\n\nThey know perfectly well that they aren't going to make the same amount of money as the \"real thing\", but they also don't put the same budget into making it, so it works out fine for them. They spend less than 1% of the budget of the real movie, and hope to make 1% of the return of the real movie. If that.\n\nThey set a low bar, then try to jump over it based on people mistakenly buying it, or buying it to mock. Either way, it's money in their pockets. They don't care why you buy it. The dollars still spend the same.\n\nAre they good? The majority of people will say no. Maybe you can enjoy them if you really want to zone out and enjoy a movie without regard to quality. What can you expect when someone tries to make a CG heavy movie at .05% the budget of the real thing?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "not all direct to video movies are bad.. \nboondock saints anybody...?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Asylum, the studio that made _Transmorphers_ and a steady stream of other \"rip-off\" titles, has apparently never lost money on one of their films. According to [this account](_URL_0_), they tend to break even in three months. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not all direct to video movies are the blatant knockoffs you're referring to. There's actually a big market for B movies, video rental stores used to buy up any they could get and now it's mostly cable/satellite tv.\n\n[Troma Studios](_URL_1_) has been making independent mostly direct to video \"B\" movies for decades. They're mostly shoestring budget, campy over the top horror but Troma fans love them. \n\nMost Troma films are made under the supervision of [Lloyd Kaufman](_URL_0_) who's produced 94 films, directed 38, written 31 and appeared in 250. He's a hero to would be indy horror movie makers and a popular guest at conventions.\n\nThe direct to DVD market is workable if you can make something watchable at a reasonable price, but then there's cable/satellite. Let's say you sell the rights to your \"B\" movie to an American cable provider but don't quite break even. No problem because then you sell it to the UK cable market. Then France, Spain, etc etc and pretty soon you've got a pretty nice paycheck for a mediocre movie that never saw a big screen. And you can usually sell your flick to all those people over the course of a few days in a single location like Cannes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Filmmaker here. To understand how studios such as \"The Asylum\" make money on movies like Transmorphers you have to understand a bit about the industry.\n\nThere are approximately 7 major studios who make the major pictures you've heard of eg. Transformers. The majors have the vast money to fund, make and distribute their own movies. But they make very few films and they're very expensive. \n\nBut internationally there is a huge demand for original content to fill television time slots. Think midnight on an obscure Japanese channel. They have to air something and they have a small budget to buy content with. Ideally but not necessarily something people will want to watch.\n\nSo below the 7 majors are approximately 300+ \"mini-majors\" who are movie distributors (\"sellers\") with the connections to these international networks (\"buyers\") but not enough money to actually make the films themselves. But they constantly need new content (\"product\") to sell to them. \n\nSo the buyers want content, the sellers want content to sell, and studios like The Asylum turn out pre-sold product to fill the demand. As long as it sounds like something people might watch they can pre-sell it. \n\nStudios like Asylum know that the foreign film buyers need to buy *something* to fill their theaters/time slots, and the mini-major distributors need *something* to sell to those hungry buyers. By aping an upcoming major release, Asylum gets all the publicity for their movies for free and are guaranteed pre-arranged sales. The distributor pre-sells the movie (\"Transmorphers\") to a multitude of the buyers based on the title and concept alone without regards to the quality. Nobody cares because they need to spend their budgets and they know Asylum will deliver *something* that's in 90 minutes and in rough focus.\n\n**tl;dr** The rights are pre-sold overseas and these movies are profitable before they're ever made. Quality doesn't matter, they're just filling an order.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43078113",
"title": "A-Company Filmed Entertainment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "A-Company Filmed Entertainment (commonly known as A-Company) is an independent film and video content provider for Central and Eastern Europe, CIS and Vietnam. A-Company distributes theatrical, home entertainment and television productions as well as Video-On-Demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47612088",
"title": "Video film era",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Videofilms in this era were produced on very low budgets and do not pass through the traditional theatrical run, as they were shot using cheap video cameras without the required cinematic quality, and edited with basic VCR machines. These films are usually funded by Marketers who act as the executive producers for the films; these marketers often have control on crucial areas of production, such as casting, and they make sure the films are made in a way they believe would attract the right audience and thereby recoup investments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51649300",
"title": "FilmDoo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Rather than relying solely on the traditional distribution system to distribute content, FilmDoo chooses to source films directly from all levels of the film distribution chain from filmmakers through to sales agents and distributors. Through this approach they have given international releases to films that had previously received no home video distribution, including films from Southeast Asia and South Africa, as well as giving exclusive UK releases to feature films such as Trinidadian crime drama \"God Loves the Fighter.\" Their international catalogue includes multiple films from such directors as Raya Martin and Wang Bing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10396807",
"title": "Film commission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Film commissions are quasi-governmental, non-profit, public organizations that attract motion media production crews (including movies, television, and commercials) to shoot on location in their respective localities, and offer support so that productions can accomplish their work smoothly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57753980",
"title": "List of film production companies in India",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "A film production company is a company that generally produces, creates and distributes motion pictures (films), musics or other programmmes by their own subsidiary companies. This is a list of notable film production houses, distributors and music studios situated or headquartered in India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1845312",
"title": "Opiate Films",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Running as more of a collective of filmmakers, rather than a formal company, it took 3 years for the company to raise the capital to buy its own equipment, members are now free to create films, music promos and TV shows of their own devising, whether live-action, animated, CGI-heavy or musical. With 15 members who work on films regularly, and around 25 members who pitch in occasionally, it is one of the fastest growing film companies in the UK, and the only one to work in its unique way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378695",
"title": "Independent film",
"section": "Section::::2010s: digital filmmaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "There are thousands of smaller production companies that produce authentic independent films yearly, in addition to these higher profile \"independent\" studios. These smaller companies look either to release their films regionally in theaters or for additional financing and resources to distribute their projects on a national scale. The direct-to-video market is not often noted as a strong outlet, nor as artistically fertile ground, but among its many entries are ambitious independent films that either failed to achieve theatrical distribution or did not seek it. As technology advances and distribution of films continues to shift more towards digital methods, the line between \"film,\" direct-to-disc productions, and feature-length videos whose main distribution channel is wholly electronic, will continue to converge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kdb6l
|
what's the difference between a state and a province?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're essentially the same. Just different names to describe the divisions of land within a specific country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Technically, a state is an independent political entity, while a province is a sub-section of a state.\n\nThe confusion arises from nomenclature not keeping pace with politics. The United States was, when founded, similar to the modern European Union. It was a union of various sovereign entities. However, after the Civil War, the entire union became a nation of its own and the 'state' label wasn't updated to reflect this fact.\n\nYou see the same issue with the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom is actually the United Kingdoms - of Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England. So you've got a nation state that's actually the union of 4 'kingdom's that are neither sovereign nor ruled by a king.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only consistent difference is the spelling.\n\nSome countries/nations/thingies/kingdoms choose to spell their subdivisions one way, and others choose to spell it a different way.\n\nIf you wish to understand the exact political relationship between the parts and whole, you have to study the politics of that country in detail, you can't just check which word it happens to use.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on the specific country. Different countries have different names for the administrative subdivisions within their country, and these administrative divisions may have varying degrees of authority or responsibilities in comparison to the federal government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15489197",
"title": "Province",
"section": "Section::::Legal aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "In many federations and confederations, the province or state is not clearly subordinate to the national or central government. Rather, it is considered to be sovereign in regard to its particular set of constitutional functions. The central- and provincial-government functions, or areas of jurisdiction, are identified in a constitution. Those that are not specifically identified are called \"residual powers.\" In a decentralized federal system (such as the United States and Australia) these residual powers lie at the provincial or state level, whereas in a centralized federal system (such as Canada) they are retained at the federal level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15489197",
"title": "Province",
"section": "Section::::Current provinces.:Modern provinces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In some nations, a province (or its equivalent) is a first-level administrative unit of sub-national government—as in the Netherlands—and a large constituent autonomous area, as in Argentina, Canada, South Africa, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It can also be a constituent element of a federation, confederation, or republic. For example, in the United States, no state may secede from the federal Union without the permission of the federal government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165100",
"title": "Provinces of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "A provincial government is autonomous of other provinces within the Republic. Each province is governed by two main elected branches of the government: executive and legislative. Judicial affairs are separated from provincial governance and are administered by the Supreme Court of the Philippines. Each province has at least one branch of a Regional Trial Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5253",
"title": "Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Governmental constitutions.:Key features.:Distribution of sovereignty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called \"states\", \"provinces\", etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519130",
"title": "List of regions of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Provincial regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "The provinces and territories are nearly all sub-divided into regions for a variety of official and unofficial purposes. The geographic regions are largely unofficial and therefore somewhat open to interpretation. In some cases, the primary regions are separated by identifiable transition zones, particularly in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario. The largest provinces can be divided into a number of primary geographic regions of comparatively large size (e.g. southern Ontario), and subdivided into a greater number of smaller secondary regions (e.g. southwestern Ontario). The primary and secondary regions in Ontario are mainly non-administrative in nature. However, they tend to be defined as geographic groupings of counties, regional municipalities, and territorial districts, so that the regions are defined by a system or collection of borders that have local administrative importance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2159124",
"title": "Legislative assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "This is a list of the Legislative Assemblies of Canada's provinces and territories. Each province's legislative assembly, along with the province's Lieutenant Governor, form the province's legislature (which is called a parliament or general assembly in some provinces). Historically, several provinces had bicameral legislatures, but they all eventually dissolved their upper house or merged it with their lower house. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "862851",
"title": "State government",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The reference to \"state\" denotes country subdivisions which are officially or widely known as \"states\", and should not be confused with a \"sovereign state\". Provinces are usually divisions of unitary states. Their governments, which are also \"provincial governments\", are not the subject of this article.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2szq9q
|
as a heavy ( > 1pack/day) smoker, why don't i wake up from nicotine withdrawals when i can barely make it two hours without a smoke?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most smokers *DO* wake up after a night's sleep with nicotine withdrawal. I do not know why you do not. That is not the usual pattern for addicted smokers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38272",
"title": "Nicotine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Reinforcement disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Normal between-cigarettes discontinuation, in unrestricted smokers, causes mild but measurable nicotine withdrawal symptoms. These include mildly worse mood, stress, anxiety, cognition, and sleep, all of which briefly return to normal with the next cigarette. Smokers have worse mood than they would have if they were not nicotine-dependent; they experience normal moods only immediately after smoking. Nicotine dependence is associated with poor sleep quality and shorter sleep duration among smokers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585815",
"title": "Health effects of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Psychological.:Cognitive function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Most smokers, when denied access to nicotine, exhibit withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, jitteriness, dry mouth, and rapid heart beat. The onset of these symptoms is very fast, nicotine's half-life being only 2 hours. The psychological dependence may linger for months or even many years. Unlike some recreational drugs, nicotine does not measurably alter a smoker's motor skills, judgement, or language abilities while under the influence of the drug. Tobacco withdrawal has been shown to cause clinically significant distress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289607",
"title": "Smoking cessation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In nicotine-dependent smokers, quitting smoking can lead to symptoms of nicotine withdrawal such as nicotine cravings, anxiety, irritability, depression, and weight gain. Professional smoking cessation support methods generally attempt to address nicotine withdrawal symptoms to help the person break free of nicotine addiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12719552",
"title": "Nicotine dependence",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Nicotine dependence leads to heavy smoking and causes severe withdrawal symptoms and relapse back to smoking. Nicotine dependence develops over time as a person continues to use nicotine. Teenagers do not have to be daily or long-term smokers to show withdrawal symptoms. Relapse should not frustrate the nicotine user from trying to quit again. A 2015 review found \"Avoiding withdrawal symptoms is one of the causes of continued smoking or relapses during attempts at cessation, and the severity and duration of nicotine withdrawal symptoms predict relapse.\" Symptoms of nicotine dependence include irritability, anger, impatience, and problems in concentrating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9126099",
"title": "Nicotine withdrawal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Nicotine withdrawal is a group of symptoms that occur in the first few weeks upon the abrupt discontinuation or decrease in intake of nicotine. Symptoms include intense cravings for nicotine, anger/irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger or weight gain, and difficulty concentrating. A smoking cessation program may improve one’s chance for success in quitting nicotine. Nicotine withdrawal is recognized in both the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual and the WHO International Classification of Diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11996885",
"title": "Electronic cigarette",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Addiction and dependence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1662,
"text": "When nicotine intake stops, the upregulated nicotinic acetylcholine receptors induce withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms can include cravings for nicotine, anger, irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger, weight gain, and difficulty concentrating. When trying to quit smoking with vaping a base containing nicotine, symptoms of withdrawal can include irritability, restlessness, poor concentration, anxiety, depression, and hunger. The changes in the brain cause a nicotine user to feel abnormal when not using nicotine. In order to feel normal, the user has to keep his or her body supplied with nicotine. E-cigarettes may reduce cigarette craving and withdrawal symptoms. Lessoning tobacco use via campaigns that portray cigarette smoking as unacceptable and harmful have been enacted, though, advocating for the use of e-cigarettes jeopardizes this with the chance of increasing nicotine addiction. It is not clear whether e-cigarette use will decrease or increase overall nicotine addiction, but the nicotine content in e-cigarettes is adequate to sustain nicotine dependence. Chronic nicotine use causes a broad range of neuroplastic adaptations, making quitting hard to accomplish. A 2015 study found that users vaping non-nicotine e-liquid exhibited signs of dependence. Experienced users tend to take longer puffs which may result in higher nicotine intake. It is difficult to assess the impact of nicotine dependence from e-cigarette use because of the wide range of e-cigarette products. The addiction potential of e-cigarettes may have risen because as they have progressed, they delivery nicotine better.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878764",
"title": "Allen Carr",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "At Allen Carr Clinics during stop-smoking sessions, smokers are allowed to continue smoking while their doubts and fears are removed, with the aim of encouraging and developing the mindset of a non-smoker before the final cigarette is extinguished. A further reason for allowing smokers to smoke while undergoing counselling is Carr's belief that it is more difficult to convince a smoker to stop until they understand the mechanism of \"the nicotine trap\". This is because their attention is diminished while they continue to believe it is traumatic and extremely difficult to quit and continue to maintain the belief that they are dependent on nicotine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23kaa4
|
What were Louis XVI's plans of counterrevolution and were they realistic?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe that I can only answer the first half of the question - I feel as though I am not competent enough to expound on the second.\n\nIt is without a doubt that Louis XVI's plans of counter-revolution were in fact due to his disaffection with the changes to the Church, the limitations of his power, and the support from the aristocrats who supported counterrevolutionary activities. After all, the aristocrats wanted to restore the old social privilege that was dismantled during the 'peaceful' (as I will say it) years of the revolution - which they were only concerned with the fate of the King. \n\nSo the plans of the counterrevolution was this: On June 20 1791, the King was to escape from the Tuileries to Montedy near the Belgian border, part of the Austrian empire at that time. It is only from there onwards that with the aid of Marie Antoinette's brother, Joseph II the Holy Roman Emperor and the supporting émigrés would they initiate a counter revolution. Norman Hampson says that the aristocrat, especially those who supported counter revolution were primarily the émigrés, and that they were prepared for civil war and foreign invasion. Of course, as we all know how the narrative goes, a series of mishaps and failures lead to the royal family being recognised by Douret, the postmaster from Ste Menehould. After witnessing the King did he dash to Varennes to warn the guards to get him arrested.\n\nA primary account of the escape can be read [here](_URL_0_). It also gives you a path of where they will be taking.\n\nHowever, I think the most beneficial and necessary part to understand in this event is seismic repercussions it generated. Different historians give a similar, yet different response when it comes to the significance.\n\nWilliam Doyle for instance, states that:\n > “The flight to Varennes opened up the second great schism of the revolution. There had been hardly any republicanism in 1789, and what there had been abated once the king was back in Paris and accepting all the Assembly sent to him. But after Varennes, the mistrust built up by his long record of apparent ambivalence burst out into widespread demands from the populace of the capital and a number of radical publicists for the king to be dethroned.”\n\nSimilarly, Hampson states that:\n\n > \"The point at issue, itself primarily constitutional, in act divided Parisian opinion along social lines, with the wealthier and more educated supporting the Assembly in its fiction that the king had been 'kidnapped' and those whom their opponents were beginning to call sans-cullotes demanding the kind of clear and forceful measures that corresponded to their view of the situation. Inevitably ,therefore, the pursuit of a compromise with the king led the Assembly to prepare for conflict with the sans-cullotes, who were organizing petitions against any hasty rehabilitation of Louis XVI.\" \n\nOther effects was the repudiation of the direction of the Revolution and many of the acts Louis XVI previously endorsed. Louis XVI himself was humiliated, compromised ad discredited Louis XVI. It showed not only did he misread the political situation of France, but one may also argue that it was the first steps into Republicanism and radicalism. After all, it was at this point at time that ministers became divided over the punishment of the King. Others called for Republicanism, others still wanted to maintain a sense of monarchy, and others called for his abdication.\n\nOne of the reactions can be seen in writing expressed by figures such as Abbe Greogire, who was in the now torn-apart Jacobins, argued that Louis XVI should be forced to abdicate:\n > \"The premier public servant abandons his post; he arms himself with a false passport; after having said, in writing to the foreign powers, that his most dangerous enemies are those who pretended to spread doubts about the monarch's intentions, he breaks his word, he leaves the French a declaration which, if not criminal, is at least -however is envisaged - contrary to the principles of our liberty. He could not be unaware that his flight exposed the nation to the dangers of civil war; and finally, in hypothesis that he wished only to go to Monmedy, I say: either he wanted to content himself with making peaceful observations to the National Assembly regarding its decrees, and in that case it was useless to flee; or he wanted to support his claims with arms, and in that case it was a conspiracy against liberty.\"\n\nSo evidently, the effects would only lead to one even to another. After this issue would this lead to the Champ de Mars massacre - something that would generate a deeper schism between the nation. It is noted that the outcome of Louis XVI's plans to escape were far more traumatising than what I wrote above, but, if you were to put the effectiveness of the plan in terms of the context of what the King faced back then, it proved to be not realistic at all. After all, Louis XVI's miscalculations accentuated any sense of antagonism against the monarchy, and it would only be his downfall. He will be later be known as 'Citizen Louis Capet' in the minds of the many. More importantly, a betrayer to his country and the revolution.\n\nIf you were you view if it was realistic in contemporary sense however, I think that can be answered by other more competent historians here.\n\nSources:\n\n1. Doyle, W 2002, *The Oxford History of the French Revolution* \n\n2. Hampson, N 1963, *A Social History of the French Revolution*\n3. McPhee, P 2002, *The French Revolution*\n\nedit: Just a question I wanted to ask the others reading (since I wanted some feedback) - is there any way you suggest for me to improve an answer? I'm learning to how write more academically as a high school student here. It's definitely not as top notch as compared to what goes on here, but I'm eager to improve. Hope this question doesn't derive the question OP asked!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3057553",
"title": "Chevalier de Saint-Georges",
"section": "Section::::Légion St.-Georges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "On January 21, 1793, Louis Capet, the former King Louis XVI, was found guilty of treason and guillotined on the Place de la Révolution (today's \"Place de la Concorde\"). General Dumouriez, who became minister of war after Pache was removed for corruption, took charge of the army of the North. Dumouriez, a Girondist, on the moderate side of the Revolution, spoke out too freely against the Jacobins of the Convention for executing the king. As a result, though revered as the hero of the French victories at Valmy and Jemappes, the National Convention ordered his arrest. Failing to dislodge him from the front, they sent a delegation led by Beurnonville, the new minister of war, to Dumouriez’s headquarters to bring him back to Paris. Colonel St. Georges was ordered to take a hundred of his chasseurs and escort the delegation from Lille to Dumouriez’s headquarters in St. Amand. On reaching the village of Orchies, claiming that the horses were fatigued after six leagues at a gallop, St. Georges asked the delegation to take another escort for the rest of the way. It is possible that, told of the purpose of the mission, he preferred not to be part of it. The delegation continued on with an escort provided by General Joseph de Miaczinsky, commander at Orchies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5362747",
"title": "Claude-Emmanuel de Pastoret",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Several times, he went up to the rostrum to separate the cause of Louis XVI from that of the advisors to the Crown, and he denounced the Protests of 20 June 1792. After the fall of the French Monarchy (10 August 1792), to secure his own safety, he fled to Provence and then into the Savoy region, from where he returned only after the fall of Robespierre (9 Thermidor II, or 27 July 1794).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201590",
"title": "Battle of Neerwinden (1793)",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Dumouriez was a monarchist at heart and he despaired when King Louis XVI went to the guillotine on 21 January 1793. He found the political situation in Paris to be chaotic. He was appalled at the tendency of radicals to interfere with army commanders. Having already negotiated with the enemy, Dumouriez offered to treat and the Austrians sent Mack on 25 March. The French commander proposed to take the army and march on Paris. He would overthrow the National Convention, crush the Jacobins and restore the Constitution of 1791. For their part, the Austrians pledged to halt their advance while he carried out his coup. But Dumouriez moved too slowly. On 1 April, four commissioners and the War Minister Pierre de Ruel, marquis de Beurnonville arrived at his headquarters to demand that the commander explain himself in Paris. They were seized and handed over to the Austrians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11188",
"title": "French Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional monarchy.:National Constituent Assembly (July 1789 – September 1791).:Royal flight to Varennes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Louis XVI was increasingly dismayed by the direction of the revolution. His brother, the Comte d'Artois and his queen, Marie Antoinette, urged a stronger stance against the revolution and support for the émigrés, while he was resistant to any course that would see him openly side with foreign powers against the Assembly. Eventually, fearing for his own safety and that of his family, he decided to flee Paris to the Austrian border, having been assured of the loyalty of the border garrisons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43721023",
"title": "Demonstration of 20 June 1792",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "In the Assembly on 3 July, Vergniaud denounced all the \"treasonous\" acts of Louis XVI. He recalled the royal veto, the disturbances it had caused in the provinces, and the deliberate inaction of the generals who had opened the way to invasion. Furthermore, he suggested to the Assembly — though by implication rather than directly — that Louis XVI might qualify under the Constitution as being \"considered to have abdicated his royal office.\" Thus, he put the idea of deposing the King into the public's minds. His speech, which made an enormous impression, was circulated by the Assembly through all the departments of France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62182",
"title": "Jean-Paul Marat",
"section": "Section::::The National Convention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was guillotined, which caused political turmoil. From January to May, Marat fought bitterly with the Girondins, whom he believed to be covert enemies of republicanism. Marat’s hatred of the Girondins became increasingly heated which led him to call for the use of violent tactics against them. The Girondins fought back and demanded that Marat be tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal. After attempting to avoid arrest for several days Marat was finally imprisoned. On 24 April, he was brought before the Tribunal on the charges that he had printed in his paper statements calling for widespread murder as well as the suspension of the Convention. Marat decisively defended his actions, stating that he had no evil intentions directed against the Convention. Marat was acquitted of all charges to the riotous celebrations of his supporters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4260451",
"title": "Parc Monceau",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Folly of the Duke of Chartres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "While The Duke was a supporter of the ideas of the French Revolution, and even voted, as a member of the Assembly, for the execution of his own cousin, Louis XVI, it did not save him. He was guillotined during the Reign of Terror in 1793, and the park was nationalized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1der30
|
When a photon is emitted from an stationary atom, does it accelerate from 0 to the speed of light?
|
[
{
"answer": "They exist at c.\n\n^^^thesuperconciseanswer",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Photos are absorbed and emitted by *moving* electrons. There is no *stationary* atom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't accelerate, they always go at c. That's the speed at which changes to the electromagnetic field propagate. If you want to look at it in terms of acceleration, consider that the mass is zero so any \"force\" applied to it will give infinite acceleration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't start off at zero, and there's no acceleration. They start off at *c* and always travel at *c*. This is because, due to special relativity, any massless particle can *only* ever move at *c*, any other speed isn't allowed physically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your main problem is that you're thinking about things strictly in terms of photons. A good rule of thumb is that light travels as a wave, but interacts with matter as a particle (that is to say it is emitted and absorbed in discrete quanta of energy called photons). It is the *energy* of the photon that is quantized.\n\nWe can define everywhere in space a static electric and magnetic field. When an electron changes energy levels, the electric and magnetic field made by the electron changes. \"Light\" is this *change* in the field that ripples outward at the speed of light. There is no need to discuss acceleration when we think of light in terms of waves. The wave travels at its natural speed (c if in vacuum) from the time the wave is created to the time it changes media or is absorbed.\n\nHopefully this helps clear up why photons don't accelerate when they are emitted from atoms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think your premise itself is slightly flawed, and that's what's causing the confusion. After an atom at rest suddenly emits a photon, the atom *is no longer stationary*. The total momentum of the atom before was 0, and after, the photon has a momentum **hf/c** (where **f** is the frequency), so after emitting the photon the atom must be moving in the opposite direction to cancel out the momentum of the photon so that the total remains 0.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think a lot of the answer to your question comes with the Bohr model. In the Bohr models that I'm sure you've down in some sort of science class, the novel feature is that the electrons exist in different orbitals (actually energy levels, but whatever). What this means in quantum mechanics is that electrons can only be in one or the other, there is no in between. Because the electron will have a different amount of energy in each orbital (If you know about Coulomb's law, then that's where the energy is coming from.) \n\nWhen an electron goes from a higher orbital to a lower orbital, it has more energy than it needs to be in it. Since the switch from orbitals is also instantaneous, that means the energy gain is also instantaneous. What does it do with this energy? It makes a photon. The photon thus doesn't need to accelerate, it just is created with that speed.\n\nThis is a gross simplification since the Bohr model has flaws and the pictures you made don't really show the actual orbitals of electrons since we don't actually know where they exist, but where they MIGHT exist (probability of where they are which is why we have the wavefunction). But a lot of your question comes from the fact that energy is quantized or comes in increments of a constant. This leads to the fact that the electron exists in certain orbitals because of quantized angular momentum (aka how much it spins around from the pull of the nucleus) which is the Bohr hypothesis. So the change in angular momentum or energy level leads to a release of a quanta or increment of energy which is a photon. \n\nHope this helps, but everyone here seems to explain in terms of relativity when I feel quantum mechanics gets more at what you are asking. If you want to know more, try finding a beginners book on quantum mechanics. The Bohr model and photoelectirc uses no calculus and just simple algebra to explain it and you could probably get a lot of insight from it.\n\nCheers",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nope, photons emitted at speed \"c\". Here is an easy way to think of it: throw a rock in a pond - the ripples don't accelerate, they are generated with a certain amount of energy and propagate out at that speed. You don't see ripples accelerating slowly over distance until they reach max speed. Light does of course work differently than do waves in water, but it is an easy analogy to follow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you want a simple explanation, you might see an atom as a speaker, an electron as a membrane, and the photons as sound waves. That should make it easy to understand why there isn't any acceleration - the movement of the membrane determines the character of the wave, and the air around it the speed. Nothing gets accelerated, the wave just suddenly exists due to the movement of the membrane.\n\nThere are obviously differences with photons - they don't need a medium to travel through (so nothing to accelerate on that level), which is generally explained with the particle/wave dualism, the normal speed is a good deal higher than that of sound, and they are subject to relativity at those speeds, meaning speed differences appear to us mostly as frequency differences, so that sunlight in the morning (when we move towards the sun) has the same speed as in the evening (when we move away), just with some shift in the spectral emission lines.\n\nLike sound waves, light travels at different speeds in different mediums, but unlike sound waves, which (very generally) travel faster in \"denser\" materials (very unscientific use of the word), it travels fastest in space and slower in more dense materials. Comparable to water waves which travel unhindered in open water, but slow down in total when rocks sticking out of the water keep them from the straight path.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aren't atoms also always at least vibrating (unless at absolute zero)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The photon is created already moving at c",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While I realize that newtonian physics doesn't apply to tiny things all that well, thinking of F = ma, and since photons have 0 mass, I guess the a is infinite, so it's probably safe to say that it's always traveling at c. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "a photon does not experience time. it is instantly born and dead. it exists in all points of the universe at once until it is observed. it does not need to accelerate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're not really particles or photons. When \"a photon is emitted from an atom\", the electron jiggles, creating a disturbance (wave) in the electric field surrounding it. This wave is light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Related question, how exactly does light \"accelerate\" back to c when leaving a medium? Is it due to a change in wavelength? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4336836",
"title": "Magneto-optical trap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "By combining the small momentum of a single photon with a velocity and spatially dependent absorption cross section and a large number of absorption-spontaneous emission cycles, atoms with initial velocities of hundreds of metres per second can be slowed to tens of centimetres per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1502669",
"title": "Rendering equation",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "BULLET::::- Relativistic Doppler effect, where light that bounces on an object that is moving in a very high speed will get its wavelength changed; if the light bounces at an object that is moving towards it, the impact will compress the photons, so the wavelength will become shorter and the light will be blueshifted and the photons will be packed more closely so the photon flux will be increased; if it bounces at an object that is moving away from it, it will be redshifted and the photons will be packed more sparsely so the photon flux will be decreased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2315180",
"title": "De Sitter double star experiment",
"section": "Section::::The effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25880",
"title": "Refractive index",
"section": "Section::::Microscopic explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "BULLET::::- If the electrons emit a light wave which is 270° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause the wave to travel faster. This is called \"anomalous refraction\", and is observed close to absorption lines (typically in infrared spectra), with X-rays in ordinary materials, and with radio waves in Earth's ionosphere. It corresponds to a permittivity less than 1, which causes the refractive index to be also less than unity and the phase velocity of light greater than the speed of light in vacuum \"c\" (note that the signal velocity is still less than \"c\", as discussed above). If the response is sufficiently strong and out-of-phase, the result is a negative value of permittivity and imaginary index of refraction, as observed in metals or plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2817855",
"title": "Larmor formula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "When any charged particle (such as an electron, a proton, or an ion) accelerates, it radiates away energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. For velocities that are small relative to the speed of light, the total power radiated is given by the Larmor formula:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24503102",
"title": "Propagation of light in non-inertial reference frames",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "In an inertial frame an observer cannot detect their motion via light signals as the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. This means an observer can detect when their motion is accelerated by studying light signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7702975",
"title": "Frank–Tamm formula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "When a charged particle moves faster than the phase speed of light in a medium, electrons interacting with the particle can emit coherent photons while conserving energy and momentum. This process can be viewed as a decay. See Cherenkov radiation and nonradiation condition for an explanation of this effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
404ma5
|
if the odds of winning the powerball is 1 in 235 million, but the jackpot is $800 million, wouldn't it make sense to buy 235 million quick picks if you could afford it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Taxes, and the unfortunate circumstances where you share your winnings with others who only bought a few hundred picks... Not a good investment no",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pretty sure it would be physically impossible for a single person to buy that many tickets between drawings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Cash value is only 496 million right now. So you would be spending 470 million to get 496 million.\n\nOr you could get a payment stream of 800 million, but if you have 470 million laying around, you don't need to buy lottery tickets to get that payment stream.\n\nAs others have said, the odds of of two people winning is also there (and very high with so many tickets sold). Last drawing had 7.1 million winners (who won anything.) Odds of winning any prize are 1 in 24.87. This info tells me that about 176 million tickets were sold last drawing, so there was a 50% chance of somebody winning (very rough number, some numbers were bought multiple times, many numbers were never bought at all. \n\nThe bottom line is you would have to put up 470 million, with a 50% odds of splitting the prize and loosing money, when it would be much easier to just be happy with what you have and not take that risk. (if this number doesn't hit, its possible IMO for the next drawing to sell every possible number, as the demand will be high enough)\n\nAnd the logistics of buying 235 million tickets would be daunting. Lottery tickets must be purchased with cash. I don't think anybody, bill gates included could get 470 million in cash in 3 days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was done in Virginia in 1992 before joining other states pooling prizes. The prize was up to 27 million which made it economically and physically possible to accomplish. \n\nAs other have stated, you do risk sharing the prize with other winners and have the logistical problem of printing the tickets between drawings.\n\nSource:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "530094",
"title": "Powerball",
"section": "Section::::Playing the game.:Basic game.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "While Mega Millions and Powerball each have similar jackpot odds despite having a different double matrix (Mega Millions is 5/75 + 1/15), since Powerball is $2 per play, it now takes $584,402,676 (not counting Power Play side bets) on average to produce a jackpot-winning ticket.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378462",
"title": "Mega Millions",
"section": "Section::::History.:October 2013 format change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The odds of winning or sharing a Mega Millions jackpot (October 19, 2013 – October 27, 2017): 1 in about 258.9 million. The overall odds of winning a prize were 1 in 14.71, including the base $1 prize for a \"Mega Ball\"-only match.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24383933",
"title": "National Lottery (Ireland)",
"section": "Section::::Games.:Lotto.:History of Lotto.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "As of September 3, 2015, the cost of buying two lines increased from €3 to €4 and players must now choose from 47 instead of 45 numbers, lengthening the odds of winning the jackpot to almost 11 million (approximately 10.7 million) to one. The odds against winning the second prize have increased also, but so too has the prize value, from €25,000 to an estimated €100,000. There will also be a new prize for matching 2 balls and the bonus ball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530094",
"title": "Powerball",
"section": "Section::::Playing the game.:Jackpot accumulation and payment options.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "When the Powerball jackpot is won, the next jackpot is guaranteed to be $40 million (annuity). If a jackpot is not won, the minimum rollover is $10 million. The cash in the jackpot pool is guaranteed to be the current value of the annuity. If revenue from ticket sales falls below expectations, game members must contribute additional funds to the jackpot pool to cover the shortage; the most likely scenario where this can occur is if the jackpot is won in consecutive drawings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11899257",
"title": "Virginia Lottery",
"section": "Section::::Games.:Virginia's multi-state draw games.:Mega Millions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "The odds of matching all six numbers to win the Mega Millions jackpot are 1 in 258,890,850. The odds of winning any prize are 1 in 14.7. As of September 2017, nine Mega Millions jackpots have been won in Virginia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10948499",
"title": "Maine Lottery",
"section": "Section::::Current Draw games.:Multi-jurisdictional games.:Powerball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Powerball jackpots begin at $40 million (annuitized), and increase by at least $10 million if not won. Games cost $2 each; with \"Power Play\", $3. There are nine prize levels; second prize is $1,000,000 (cash) in a $2 game; if \"Power Play\" was selected, $2,000,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228592",
"title": "Lottery",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical analysis.:Probability of winning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The odds of winning can also be reduced by increasing the group from which numbers are drawn. In the SuperEnalotto of Italy, players must match 6 numbers out of 90. The chance of winning the jackpot is 1 in 622,614,630.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6il5my
|
High exposure to sunlight damages your skin. What does it do to the bacterial population?
|
[
{
"answer": "The given \"sunlight damages your skin\" needs to be addressed before the question. The pathogenesis of sunburn is distinct from the mechanism of alkaline or thermal burns insofar as the agent (sunlight) is not directly traumatic. The change is mediated by signaling cascades possibly secondary to alteration of base pairs in DNA. Put another way, you can give a corpse a chemical burn or a thermal burn, but not a sunburn. It's our body's response to sun that creates the cutaneous changes, not, strictly speaking, the sun damaging our skin. \n\nSo UV light doesn't hurt, but it does disrupt DNA. In bacteria, sufficient disruption will result in cell death, however they have enzymes capable of reversing the dimerization caused by UV that are not present in humans. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am not an expert in bacteriology, so I'll leave any attempt to come up with a well rounded answer to someone more qualified, but I can add a bit of interesting knowledge.\n\nJust like virus can infect eukaryotes cells (human/animal/fungi etc.), so can bacteriophages infect bacteria. A special type of bacteriophage, called *enterobacteria phage λ*, or the lambda phage, infects bacteria and lives inside the cell in a stage known as the lysogenic stage. When exposed to UV light, the bacteriophage enters it's lytic stage, multiplying inside the cell and eventually bursting the host. So in at least this very specific case UV light would be damaging to the health of bacteria.\n\nSource:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nRead more:\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30863822",
"title": "Solar water disinfection",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Exposure to sunlight has been shown to deactivate diarrhea-causing organisms in polluted drinking water. The inactivation of pathogenic organisms is attributed to: the UV-A (wavelength 320–400 nm) part of the sunlight, which reacts with oxygen dissolved in the water and produces highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) that damage pathogens, while it also interferes with metabolism and destroys bacterial cell structures; and simultaneously the full band of solar energy (from infrared to UV) heats the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "BULLET::::- Phytophotodermatitis: UV radiation induces inflammation of the skin after contact with certain plants (including limes, celery, and meadow grass). Causes pain, redness, and blistering of the skin in the distribution of plant exposure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6907585",
"title": "Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "For human beings, skin exposure to germicidal wavelengths of UV light can produce rapid sunburn and skin cancer. Exposure of the eyes to this UV radiation can produce extremely painful inflammation of the cornea and temporary or permanent vision impairment, up to and including blindness in some cases. UV can damage the retina of the eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990",
"title": "Ultraviolet",
"section": "Section::::Human health-related effects.:Harmful effects.:Skin damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Overexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UVA) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "699110",
"title": "Light therapy",
"section": "Section::::Risks and complications.:Ultraviolet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Ultraviolet light causes progressive damage to human skin and erythema even from small doses. This is mediated by genetic damage, collagen damage, as well as destruction of vitamin A and vitamin C in the skin and free radical generation. Ultraviolet light is also known to be a factor in formation of cataracts. Ultraviolet radiation exposure is strongly linked to incidence of skin cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990",
"title": "Ultraviolet",
"section": "Section::::Human health-related effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25669714",
"title": "Health effects of sunlight exposure",
"section": "Section::::Risks to skin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation present in sunlight is an environmental human carcinogen. The toxic effects of UV from natural sunlight and therapeutic artificial lamps are a major concern for human health. The major acute effects of UV irradiation on normal human skin comprise sunburn inflammation erythema, tanning, and local or systemic immunosuppression. The most deadly form, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by indirect DNA damage from UVA radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature mutation in 92% of all melanoma. UVC is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ew08w
|
what is it about how sound waves interact that make some sounds/chords pleasing? for example, why does a 5th sound good but a tritone (diminished 5th) doesn’t? why does it seem chords/chord progressions resolve?
|
[
{
"answer": "It has to do with the ratio of one sound wave's frequency to that of another. When the value can be expressed as a simple ratio, we interpret the interval as pleasing, or \"consonant.\" If the ratio is complex, we tend to interpret the result as displeasing, or \"dissonant.\" A perfect fifth, for example, is a 3:2 ratio, while a half-step is more like 15:8 and a tritone 45:32.\n\nResolution follows similar principles, but it also heavily influenced by common notes, starting notes and the cultural dominance of specific scales in Western music. \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the frequencies of two notes are a simple ratio, they sound pleasing when played together. 3:2 (perfect fifth) sounds a lot better than a 6:5 (minor third).\n\nThe reason is that when played together, two notes will form a [composite wave](_URL_0_). The quicker the wave resolves...that is, returns to its starting point...the cleaner the sound. Notice how much longer a minor chord takes to resolve than a major chord.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14714237",
"title": "Vocal resonation",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting resonators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "A conical shaped resonator, such as a megaphone, tends to amplify all pitches indiscriminately. A cylindrical shaped resonator is affected primarily by the length of the tube through which the sound wave travels. A spherical resonator will be affected by the amount of opening it has and by whether or not that opening has a lip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569650",
"title": "Stimulus modality",
"section": "Section::::Sound modality.:Pitch, loudness and timbre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Aside from pitch and loudness, another quality that distinguishes sound stimuli is timbre. Timbre allows us to hear the difference between two instruments that are playing at the same frequency and loudness, for example. When two simple tones are put together they create a complex tone. The simple tones of an instrument are called harmonics or overtones. Timbre is created by putting the harmonics together with the fundamental frequency (a sound's basic pitch). When a complex sound is heard, it causes different parts in the basilar membrane to become simultaneously stimulated and flex. In this way, different timbres can be distinguished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1379269",
"title": "Musical acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Physical aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Whenever two different pitches are played at the same time, their sound waves interact with each other – the highs and lows in the air pressure reinforce each other to produce a different sound wave. Any repeating sound wave that is not a sine wave can be modeled by many different sine waves of the appropriate frequencies and amplitudes (a frequency spectrum). In humans the hearing apparatus (composed of the ears and brain) can usually isolate these tones and hear them distinctly. When two or more tones are played at once, a variation of air pressure at the ear \"contains\" the pitches of each, and the ear and/or brain isolate and decode them into distinct tones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "386123",
"title": "Barbershop music",
"section": "Section::::Ringing chords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "What is prized is not so much the \"overtone\" itself, but a unique sound whose achievement is most easily recognized by the presence of the \"overtone\". The precise synchrony of the waveforms of the four voices \"simultaneously\" creates the perception of a \"fifth voice\" while at the same time melding the four voices into a unified sound. The ringing chord is qualitatively different in sound from an ordinary musical chord e.g. as sounded on a tempered-scale keyboard instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6614914",
"title": "Archi language",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.:Consonants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "\"Strong phonemes are characterized by the intensiveness (tension) of the articulation. The intensity of the pronunciation leads to a natural lengthening of the duration of the sound, and that is why strong [consonants] differ from weak ones by greater length. [However,] the adjoining of two single weak sounds does not produce a strong one […] Thus, the gemination of a sound does not by itself create its tension.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9736652",
"title": "Auditory masking",
"section": "Section::::Simultaneous masking.:Critical bandwidth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "If two sounds of two different frequencies are played at the same time, two separate sounds can often be heard rather than a combination tone. The ability to hear frequencies separately is known as \"frequency resolution\" or \"frequency selectivity\". When signals are perceived as a combination tone, they are said to reside in the same \"critical bandwidth\". This effect is thought to occur due to filtering within the cochlea, the hearing organ in the inner ear. A complex sound is split into different frequency components and these components cause a peak in the pattern of vibration at a specific place on the cilia inside the basilar membrane within the cochlea. These components are then coded independently on the auditory nerve which transmits sound information to the brain. This individual coding only occurs if the frequency components are different enough in frequency, otherwise they are in the same critical band and are coded at the same place and are perceived as one sound instead of two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324749",
"title": "Sine wave",
"section": "Section::::Occurrences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "To the human ear, a sound that is made of more than one sine wave will have perceptible harmonics; addition of different sine waves results in a different waveform and thus changes the timbre of the sound. Presence of higher harmonics in addition to the fundamental causes variation in the timbre, which is the reason why the same musical note (the same frequency) played on different instruments sounds different. On the other hand, if the sound contains aperiodic waves along with sine waves (which are periodic), then the sound will be perceived to be noisy, as noise is characterized as being aperiodic or having a non-repetitive pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20wzfh
|
what exactly is gluten, and why is it bad for you?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye, and it gives bread it's chewyness.\n\nUnless you have an allergy to it or Celiac disease, it's not bad for you at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a Baker, I can't wait for this \"gluten is bad\" fad to end",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a lactose-intolerant person I find the entire intolerance-fad extremely annoying.\n\nCeliac disease is also called \"gluten allergy\" and is an allergy to the protein gluten. While celiac disease sometimes is referred to as \"gluten intolerance\", gluten \"intolerance\" or \"sensitivity\" it's mostly used by people that complain that their tummy hurts when they've eaten 10 donuts or five pounds of pasta.\n\nA lot of the food that contains gluten (bread, grains, potatoes etc) often come in forms that most people should try to limit they're intake of like white bread, pasta, pastries, potato chips, french fries and so on. It has nothing to do with gluten being unhealthy.\n\nPeople trying to claim that they're lactose intolerance when they're not is even more stupid. The fact that your stomach hurts after a full pint of Ben & Jerry's is not a sign of anything other than that eating a pint of ice cream in one go is bad for you. You would not be eating it in the first place of you were lactose intolerant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "OMG it's not bad for you unless you're allergic, but give people something to rally against and they'll raise a friggin flag.\n\nSoon afterwards, pundits start bullshitting about the benefits of avoiding it and making money publishing books.\n\nSoon after that Facebook is awash in retarded snippets of ignorance.\n\nYet again, Cunninghams Law.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gluten is not \"bad\" for you. No more than anything else. Too much gluten in your diet can make you sick, but so can too much vitamin C. I had a buddy with Celiacs disease who was so sensitive, if his GF had a sip of beer and decided to give him a kiss before brushing her teeth, he'd be sick for days. Celiac's have an immune system malfunction where gluten causes white blood to attack benevolent cells in the body. He'd get rashes on is skin, migraine headaches, and nausea.\n\nOn the other hand, I am a vegetarian, and one of my favorite dinner proteins is Seitan (literally, marinated, textured gluten). I'll eat a quarter pound of seitan, couscous (also contains gluten), and wash it down with two bottles of beer (contains gluten unless it explicitly states otherwise), and I'd feel like a champ.\n\nGluten-free dieting for non-celiacs became a hot-button fad when some tennis player went gluten free, for no particular reason, and won a bunch of championships. He said it was the change in his diet.\n\nLike most anecdotes, it may have changed this tennis players life, but have virtually no impact on any one else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not bad for you, it's a fad to not eat it. You eat bread most days I'm sure, unless you have Celiac you'll live.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1581671",
"title": "Healthy diet",
"section": "Section::::For specific conditions.:Gluten-related disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Gluten, a mixture of proteins found in wheat and related grains including barley, rye, oat, and all their species and hybrids (such as spelt, kamut, and triticale), causes health problems for those with gluten-related disorders, including celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, dermatitis herpetiformis, and wheat allergy. In these people, the gluten-free diet is the only available treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "708662",
"title": "Gluten-free diet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "A gluten-free diet (GFD) is a diet that strictly excludes gluten, which is a mixture of proteins found in wheat (and all of its species and hybrids, such as spelt, kamut, and triticale), as well as barley, rye, and oats. The inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet remains controversial, and may depend on the oat cultivar and the frequent cross-contamination with other gluten-containing cereals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13152",
"title": "Gluten",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Gluten (from Latin \"gluten\", \"glue\") is a group of proteins, called prolamins and glutelins, which occur with starch in the endosperm of various cereal grains. This protein complex comprises 75–85% of the total protein in bread wheat. It is found in related wheat species and hybrids, (such as spelt, khorasan, emmer, einkorn, and triticale), barley, rye, and oats, as well as products derived from these grains, such as breads and malts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12034989",
"title": "Gluten-related disorders",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Potential nutritional deficiencies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Gluten proteins have low nutritional and biological value and replacing grains that contain gluten is easy from the nutritional point of view. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid/carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "708662",
"title": "Gluten-free diet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Gluten proteins have low nutritional and biological value, and the grains that contain gluten are not essential in the human diet. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid/carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits. Nutritional complications can be prevented by a correct dietary education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "708662",
"title": "Gluten-free diet",
"section": "Section::::Eating gluten-free.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1156,
"text": "A gluten-free diet is a diet that strictly excludes gluten, proteins present in wheat (and all wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut), barley, rye, oat, and derivatives of these grains such as malt and triticale, and foods that may include them, or shared transportation or processing facilities with them. The inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet remains controversial. Oat toxicity in people with gluten-related disorders depends on the oat cultivar consumed because the immunoreactivities of toxic prolamins are different among oat varieties. Furthermore, oats are frequently cross-contaminated with the other gluten-containing cereals. Pure oat (labelled as \"pure oat\" or \"gluten-free oat\") refers to oats uncontaminated with any of the other gluten-containing cereals. Some cultivars of pure oat could be a safe part of a gluten-free diet, requiring knowledge of the oat variety used in food products for a gluten-free diet. Nevertheless, the long-term effects of pure oats consumption are still unclear and further studies identifying the cultivars used are needed before making final recommendations on their inclusion in the gluten-free diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13152",
"title": "Gluten",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Glutens, especially Triticeae glutens, have unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties, which give dough its elasticity, helping it rise and keep its shape and often leaving the final product with a chewy texture. These properties and its relative low cost are the reasons why gluten is so widely demanded by the food industry and for non-food uses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e7ba46
|
why our ears remain numb and produce high frequency sound post concert?
|
[
{
"answer": "There'll be a better answer by someone else soon, but:\n\nInside your ear there's an organ shaped like a snail. It has tiny hairs on it, that when they vibrate translate this into nerve impulses to send to your brain. If they are stressed too much, they stick to that organ, producing a constant signal. Some times they will never come back up, effectively making you loose that frequency forever. The beeping is called tinnitus.\n\nTldr: wear earplugs for Pete's sake! My hearing is significantly worse than that of my mates because I went to many concerts without earplugs!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The numbness you describe is threshold shift where your frequency limits have been reduced ( takes a louder volume for a particular frequency to be heard) .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stapedius (the smallest muscle in the human body) is partially responsible. In response to a very loud sound, it reduces the transmission of vibrations from the ear drum to the middle ear, hence causing the numbness, or reduced hearing. This is called the acoustic reflex (It also exerts a reduced effect during chewing, lowering the sounds of mastication) .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever been slapped? you feel that sting for long time after the slap. That's because the nerves have been over stimulated and when we over stimulate skin cells we feel pain. Our eyes and ears are just modified skin cells so when we rub our eyes, they can only send one kind of signal and that's light and our inner ear can only send one kind of signal and that's sound. \n\nClose your eyes and rub them gently but firmly, you \"see light\". Of course there's no light but that what those cells are capable of signaling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Sensory overload.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2105858",
"title": "Rock concert",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Rock concerts are often performed at very high decibel levels. Prolonged exposure to noise at these levels can permanently damage the bones of the middle ear and the nerves of the inner ear. Thus health officials recommend that concertgoers use earplugs. Since the 1960s, many musicians have worn earplugs at concerts, and some concert promoters actually give out free earplugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290807",
"title": "Low-frequency effects",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Sound effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The most challenging sounds to reproduce from a sound engineering soundpoint are usually the extremely low-pitched sound effects in the 20 Hz range, such as those used to simulate the sound of an explosion, earthquake, a rocket launch, or submarine depth charges. The human ear is not very sensitive to sounds at these low frequencies, so it takes a tremendous amount of amplification for the human ear to hear them. Further, sounds at these frequencies are more felt in the body, rather than heard. As well, since they are sound effects, they may have a longer duration or sustain than many low-pitched musical notes, which makes them harder to reproduce accurately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Relevant mechanisms.:Vibration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Excessive vibrations that occur in the inner ear can result in structural damage that will affect hearing. These vibrations result in an increase in the metabolic demands of the auditory system. During exposure to sound, metabolic energy is needed to maintain the relevant electrochemical gradients used in the transduction of sounds. The extra demands on the metabolic activity of the system can result in damage that can propagate throughout the ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "520289",
"title": "Hearing aid",
"section": "Section::::Hearing aid adaptation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 190,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 190,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Due to plasticity of central nervous system inactive hearing centers of the brain cortex switch over to processing of sound stimuli of another frequency and intensity. The brain start perceiving sounds amplified by the hearing aid right after the initial adjustment, however, it may not process them correctly at once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8620616",
"title": "Parallel compression",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The human ear is sensitive to loud sounds being suddenly reduced in volume, but less so to soft sounds being increased in volume—parallel compression takes advantage of this difference. Unlike normal limiting and downward compression, fast transients in music are retained in parallel compression, preserving the \"feel\" and immediacy of a live performance. Because the method is less audible to the human ear, the compressor can be set aggressively, with high ratios for strong effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Relevant mechanisms.:Temporary threshold shifts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "When exposed to noise, the human ear's sensitivity to sound is decreased, corresponding to an increase in the threshold of hearing. This shift is usually temporary but may become permanent. A natural physiological reaction to these threshold shifts is vasoconstriction, which will reduce the amount of blood reaching the hair cells of the organ of Corti in the cochlea. With the resultant oxygen tension and diminished blood supply reaching the outer hair cells, their response to sound levels is lessened when exposed to loud sounds, rendering them less effective and putting more stress on the inner hair cells. This can lead to fatigue and temporary hearing loss if the outer hair cells do not get the opportunity to recover through periods of silence. If these cells do not get this chance to recover, they are vulnerable to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31hfcr
|
Were there any volunteer gladiators?
|
[
{
"answer": "One exceptional example would be the Emperor Commodus, as depicted in the movie Gladiator. Commodus believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules and sought to imitate his martial accomplishments before the eyes of the Roman public. He, of course, was never in any real danger from his human opponents who (as recorded by Dio Cassius) would yield to him after token resistance rather than fight seriously, or were infirm and could not put up a fair fight in the first place. He also enjoyed killing exotic animals, such as leopards and ostriches, from a safe distance; Herodian writes that he had a circular platform built in the arena from atop which he would throw javelins at them.\n\nCommodus was assassinated not long after rumors spread that he intended to appear before the Senate in animal skins, the attire of a gladiator, and be sworn in as consul (after arranging for the death of the currently elected consul.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "346945",
"title": "Nudity in sport",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Athletic exercises by free citizens (no longer required to serve as soldiers since Marius' army reform) were partly replaced by gladiatorial games performed in amphitheatres. The gladiators were mainly recruited among slaves, war captives and death row convicts — the very lowest, who had no choice — but occasionally a free man chose this fast lane to fame and riches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12336",
"title": "Gladiator",
"section": "Section::::The gladiators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Two other sources of gladiators, found increasingly during the Principate and the relatively low military activity of the Pax Romana, were slaves condemned to the arena (\"damnati\"), to gladiator schools or games (\"ad ludum gladiatorium\") as punishment for crimes, and the paid volunteers (\"auctorati\") who by the late Republic may have comprised approximately half – and possibly the most capable half – of all gladiators. The use of volunteers had a precedent in the Iberian \"munus\" of Scipio Africanus; but none of those had been paid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1943019",
"title": "Gladiatrix",
"section": "Section::::Training and performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "There is no evidence for the existence or training of female gladiators in any known gladiator school. Vesley suggests that some might have trained under private tutors in \"Collegia Iuvenum\" (official \"youth organisations\"), where young men of over 14 years could learn \"manly\" skills, including the basic arts of war. He offers three inscriptions as possible evidence; one, from Reate, commemorates Valeria, who died aged seventeen years and nine months and \"belonged\" to her \"collegium\"; the others commemorate females attached to \"collegia\" in Numidia and Ficulea. Most modern scholarship describes these as memorials to female servants or slaves of the \"collegia\", not female gladiators. Nevertheless, female gladiators probably followed the same training, discipline and career path as their male counterparts; though under a less strenuous training regime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2648617",
"title": "Gladiator (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Gladiator is a science fiction novel by American author Philip Wylie, first published in 1930. The story concerns a scientist who invents an \"alkaline free-radical\" serum to \"improve\" humankind by granting the proportionate strength of an ant and the leaping ability of the grasshopper. The scientist injects his pregnant wife with the serum and his son Hugo Danner is born with superhuman strength, speed, and bulletproof skin. Hugo spends much of the novel hiding his powers, rarely getting a chance to openly use them. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12336",
"title": "Gladiator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Daily life.:Recreation and spectacles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers. Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training represented a costly and time-consuming investment. By contrast, \"noxii\" were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival. Physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice for the crimes they had committed. These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects. Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed-up form of human sacrifice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12336",
"title": "Gladiator",
"section": "Section::::The games.:Remembrance and epitaphs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1219,
"text": "Gladiators could subscribe to a union (\"collegia\"), which ensured their proper burial, and sometimes a pension or compensation for wives and children. Otherwise, the gladiator's \"familia\", which included his \"lanista\", comrades and blood-kin, might fund his funeral and memorial costs, and use the memorial to assert their moral reputation as responsible, respectful colleagues or family members. Some monuments record the gladiator's career in some detail, including the number of appearances, victories — sometimes represented by an engraved crown or wreath — defeats, career duration, and age at death. Some include the gladiator's type, in words or direct representation: for example, the memorial of a retiarius at Verona included an engraved trident and sword. A wealthy editor might commission artwork to celebrate a particularly successful or memorable show, and include named portraits of winners and losers in action; the Borghese Gladiator Mosaic is a notable example. According to Cassius Dio, the emperor Caracalla gave the gladiator Bato a magnificent memorial and State funeral; more typical are the simple gladiator tombs of the Eastern Roman Empire, whose brief inscriptions include the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
69dfrg
|
one day they're there and the other day gone after construction! how on earth are cranes made!??
|
[
{
"answer": "I presume you're talking about tower cranes - the type with the tall metal lattice tower?\n\nThey actually build themselves.\n\nThe very first thing that's done is that the bottom section of the tower is put in and, on top of that they put a special section of the tower that can move up and down, before plonking the top bit of the crane on top of that. To do this, they use a mobile crane, but that's only good for the bottom, as mobile cranes generally aren't as tall as tower cranes can be.\n\nSo, once they've built a little tiny tower crane, the special tower section that I mentioned jacks itself up, leaving a space where a new section of lattice tower can be slotted in. The tower crane itself lifts up the new section to where it's needed.\n\nOnce this new section is bolted in, the whole thing happens again - the top parts of the crane are lifted up on the movable section at the top, a new bit is slotted in, and so on...\n\nEdit: And here's a video, which shows it quite nicely _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "198041",
"title": "Crane (bird)",
"section": "Section::::In mythology and symbolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "Throughout Asia, the crane is a symbol of happiness and eternal youth. In Japan, the crane is one of the mystical or holy creatures (others include the dragon and the tortoise) and symbolizes good fortune and longevity because of its fabled life span of a thousand years. The crane is a favourite subject of the tradition of \"origami\", or paper folding. An ancient Japanese legend promises that anyone who folds a thousand origami cranes will be granted a wish by a crane. After World War II, the crane came to symbolize peace and the innocent victims of war through the story of schoolgirl Sadako Sasaki and her thousand origami cranes. Suffering from leukemia as a result of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and knowing she was dying, she undertook to make a thousand origami cranes before her death at the age of 12. After her death, she became internationally recognised as a symbol of the innocent victims of war and remains a heroine to many Japanese girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "318378",
"title": "Crane (machine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "The first known crane machine was the shadouf, a water-lifting device that was invented in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and then appeared in ancient Egyptian technology. Construction cranes later appeared in ancient Greece, where they were powered by men or animals (such as donkeys), and used for the construction of buildings. Larger cranes were later developed in the Roman Empire, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4146025",
"title": "Katoomba railway station",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Crane (1884, moved 1891).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The crane is a Class 1, standard 5 tonne jib hand crane, No. T171, fixed on a stone base adjacent to the western timber platform. The stone base was not widely used. It is still in use irregularly and in fair condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1049126",
"title": "Garden Island (New South Wales)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hammerhead crane.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The hammerhead crane was built between 1944 and 1951 on the Fitting Out Wharf at Garden Island. The electrically powered crane had a radius of and a total height of . The electrical and mechanical equipment was sourced from England, while the steel frame was fabricated in Sydney. Although officially declared completed in January 1952, the crane was operational from March 1951. The crane's primary purpose was the removal and installation of warship gun turrets, although it was regularly used for other machinery and loads, and had a lifting capacity of up to . It was last used in 1996.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3729154",
"title": "Weald and Downland Living Museum",
"section": "Section::::Buildings.:Crane.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The crane was made by John Smith Ltd of Keighley, Yorkshire, in 1900 and was originally installed at a farm in Alton, Hampshire. It is rated at 5 tons capacity and is worked by hand. It forms part of a reconstructed timber yard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449821",
"title": "Red-crowned crane",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "In Japan, this crane is known as the \"tanchōzuru\" and is said to live for 1,000 years. A pair of red-crowned cranes was used in the design for the Series D 1000-yen note (reverse side). In the Ainu language, the red-crowned crane is known as \"sarurun kamuy\" or \"marsh-kamuy\". At Tsurui, they are one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan. Cranes are said to grant favours in return for acts of sacrifice, as in \"Tsuru no Ongaeshi\" (\"crane's return of a favor\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45495582",
"title": "Falles of Alzira",
"section": "Section::::Artistic monuments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Many professionals such as sculptors, painters, and other craftsmen work on the construction of the \"falles\" for months. They are hired by the commissions. The \"falles\" are erected in the streets on the night of the 15th of March. This day is known as the \"Plantà\". In actual fact, nowadays the process of erecting the \"falles\" starts several days earlier, due to their size and the need to use cranes. The monuments are burnt on the day of the \"Cremà\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32m7ji
|
how dangerous is it to taste a small amount of cocaine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not that dangerous. At worse it'll make your mouth go numb.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't. People have been chewing coca leaves for generations without any side effects more detrimental than drinking coffee. It's the fact that it is so pure and concentrated that makes it addictive. Tasting a tiny amount probably wouldn't do anything apart from numbing your mouth and maybe giving you similar effects to drinking coffee (depending on the exact dose).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While I certainly don't support developing a \"habit,\" pure Cocaine is not very dangerous. It's a stimulant and a topical anesthetic. That's about it.\n\nCocaine is not very physiologically addictive, either. In fact, both Caffeine and Nicotine are more physiologically addictive that Cocaine. Cocaine is, however, Psychologically addictive, which is where the real danger lies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It wasn't the taste that got me, it was the smell",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I imagine this question popped into your head because of the movie trope where someone dips their finger or knife into some white powder then tastes it or rubs it on their gums to confirm \"Yup, that's cocaine.\"\n\nThe small amount of exposure to the drug there would likely be too small to feel an effect, let alone have a dangerous reaction. Well, an effect other than local tingling or numbness of the tongue or gums, which is more likely what our hero is checking for rather than him knowing what cocaine tastes like.\n\nHowever, perhaps on day one of high school chemistry, you might've learned that tasting an unknown substance to find out what it might be is a monumentally bad idea.\n\nWhat if those barrels, bags or bricks contained any number of dangerous and toxic chemicals that are white powders, or how about anthrax for pete's sake?\n\nTL;DR:\n\nTasting a small amount of cocaine = not dangerous.\n\n\nTasting a small amount of white powder = pretty damn stupid.\n\nEDIT: I forgot this was ELI5, so replace \"high school chemistry\" with \"kindergarten\" and \"tasting an unknown substance to find out what it might be is a monumentally bad idea.\" with \"Don't put that in your mouth! That's yucky!\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23484653",
"title": "Medrogestone",
"section": "Section::::Overdose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The acute toxicity of the drug is low. Overdose causes only harmless side effects such as nausea and vaginal bleeding. The has been found to range between 500 mg/kg in dogs and over 3000 mg/kg in rats. Chronic toxicity has been examined in animals, but nothing but the typical adverse effects of progestogens, and reduction of prostatic weight in rhesus monkeys, have been found. Accidental intake of the drug, including in children, is normally not dangerous. Intake of extremely large doses, or intake by patients with epilepsy or impaired kidney function, can result in central nervous cramping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19681345",
"title": "Crack cocaine",
"section": "Section::::Overdose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Large amounts of crack cocaine (several hundred milligrams or more) intensify the user's high, but may also lead to bizarre, erratic, and violent behavior. Large amounts can induce tremors, vertigo, muscle twitches, paranoia, or, with repeated doses, a toxic reaction closely resembling amphetamine poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18556316",
"title": "Contaminated currency",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The discovery that cocaine is so prevalent in U.S. banknotes has a legal application that reactions by drug-sniffing dogs is not immediately cause for arrest of persons or confiscation of banknotes. (The drug content is too low for prosecution but not too low to trigger response to drug-sniffing dogs.), though this has been contested legally in a number of U.S. states as a standard of what constitutes 'unusual' levels of contamination remains to be achieved (\"see below\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19681345",
"title": "Crack cocaine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Reinforcement disorders.:Tolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "An appreciable tolerance to cocaine's high may develop, with many addicts reporting that they seek but fail to achieve as much pleasure as they did from their first experience. Some users will frequently increase their doses to intensify and prolong the euphoric effects. While tolerance to the high can occur, users might also become more sensitive (drug sensitization) to cocaine's local anesthetic (pain killing) and convulsant (seizure inducing) effects, without increasing the dose taken; this increased sensitivity \"may\" explain some deaths occurring after apparent low doses of cocaine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5028483",
"title": "Cheese (recreational drug)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1115,
"text": "Due to the high concentrations of non-opiate substances relative to the diamorphine content of the drug, abuse and overdose of cheese are more dangerous than pure-form opiate overdoses. Emergency personnel must address the overdose effects of each component of the drug, since the contents and concentrations of each component vary widely among batches they must wait for either the completion of the toxicology report to begin treatment or wait for the effects of each drugs overdose to manifest. The acetaminophen content of the drug induces severe, irreversible damage to the liver when taken in high doses for long periods of time. Very high doses of acetaminophen are capable of producing acute liver failure and death within hours, patients who survive this acute phase of the toxicity generally require dialysis and eventually a liver transplant. Due to the many methods of preparation a user can not know how much acetaminophen is in any given batch and therefore can not reliably determine a safe dose. A dose of the last batch which produced no toxic effects may produce lethal effects in the next batch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7701",
"title": "Cocaine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the reward pathway in the brain. After a short period of use, there is a high risk that dependence will occur. Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, and sudden cardiac death. Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar, which can result in additional toxicity. Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure and be very physically tired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7701",
"title": "Cocaine",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Recreational.:Injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "An injected mixture of cocaine and heroin, known as \"speedball\" is a particularly dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, including celebrities such as comedians/actors John Belushi and Chris Farley, Mitch Hedberg, River Phoenix, grunge singer Layne Staley and actor Philip Seymour Hoffman. Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mc6da
|
Does plate tectonic activity have a measurable effect on the weather?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tectonics has a huge influence on the climate (the difference between weather and climate being a question of a very short vs a longer timescale, so by proxy, tectonics have an influence on the weather, but it's easier and more appropriate to think about tectonics and climate as these evolve on more similar timescales) in a myriad of ways:\n\n**1)** The growth of mountain ranges dramatically influence atmospheric circulation, distribution of precipitation, etc. On a small scale, it's easy to think about the [orographic effect](_URL_3_) that mountains have on weather systems leading to 'wet' and 'dry' sides of ranges. On larger scales, massive mountain ranges like the Andes or Himalaya have fundamentally changed the climates of these regions through this and related effects. The monsoonal climate of both the [Himalayas](_URL_4_) and [Andes](_URL_0_) have been linked to the topographic growth of those mountain ranges and their influence on atmospheric circulation.\n\n**2)** Staying with mountain building, there is a hypothesis that independent of any changes to atmospheric circulation induced by the topographic growth of mountain ranges, that large mountain building events lead to global cooling events. The [idea here](_URL_1_) is that mountain building leads to increased rates of chemical weathering of silicate minerals, the process of chemical weathering removes CO2 from the atmosphere (i.e. CO2 is a reactant in chemical weathering processs of various minerals), leading to global cooling. Last I checked people are still arguing about the veracity of this hypothesis (i.e. it makes sense in theory, but tying global cooling to chemical weathering rates in the past is tricky).\n\n**3)** Plate movements change ocean currents, which change climate. This is often the most extreme in the case of closing a 'gateway', i.e. shutting off communication of two large portions of the ocean via development of a land barrier. A great example of this is the formation of the [isthmus of Panama](_URL_2_) which shut off communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and is credited with leading to the development of the Gulf Stream which dramatically influences the climate of the North American and western portion of Eurasian (i.e. Europe) continents.\n\n**4)** The distribution of landmasses themselves can have a large influence on climate. Specifically, whether or not there are significant landmasses in the high latitudes influence whether large accumulations of ice can form (i.e. ice sheets). The presence of large ice sheets, among other things, influences the albedo of the Earth and thus have an influence on global temperature (snow/ice has a high albedo, reflects more sunglight, etc).\n\nThese are just the ones I could think of off the top of my head, others may have more influences that I'm forgetting, but the TL;DR is that tectonics is one of the primary influences on long term climate changes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47512",
"title": "Climate change",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:External forcing mechanisms.:Plate tectonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Over the course of millions of years, the motion of tectonic plates reconfigures global land and ocean areas and generates topography. This can affect both global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere-ocean circulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31670958",
"title": "Tectonic–climatic interaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Tectonic–climatic interaction is the interrelationship between tectonic processes and the climate system. The tectonic processes in question include orogenesis, volcanism, and erosion, while relevant climatic processes include atmospheric circulation, orographic lift, monsoon circulation and the rain shadow effect. As the geological record of past climate changes over millions of years is sparse and poorly resolved, many questions remain unresolved regarding the nature of tectonic-climate interaction, although it is an area of active research by geologists and palaeoclimatologists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Geodynamics.:Continental drift.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year. This is expected to continue, causing the plates to relocate and collide. Continental drift is facilitated by two factors: the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a hydrosphere. With the loss of either of these, continental drift will come to a halt. The production of heat through radiogenic processes is sufficient to maintain mantle convection and plate subduction for at least the next 1.1 billion years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37154099",
"title": "River terraces (tectonic–climatic interaction)",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic–climatic interactions and terraces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Tectonic uplift and climatic factors interact as a positive feedback system, where each forcing mechanism drives the other. One of the greatest examples of this feedback between tectonic and climatic interactions may be preserved in the Himalayan front and in the development of the rain shadow effect and the Asian Monsoon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286818",
"title": "Tectonics",
"section": "Section::::Main types of tectonic regime.:Strike-slip tectonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Strike-slip tectonics is associated with the relative lateral movement of parts of the crust or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found along oceanic and continental transform faults which connect offset segments of mid-ocean ridges. Strike-slip tectonics also occurs at lateral offsets in extensional and thrust fault systems. In areas involved with plate collisions strike-slip deformation occurs in the over-riding plate in zones of oblique collision and accommodates deformation in the foreland to a collisional belt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1415891",
"title": "Tectonic uplift",
"section": "Section::::Density distribution of the crust and underlying mantle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Although the raised surfaces of mountain ranges mainly result from crustal thickening, there are other forces at play that are responsible for the tectonic activity. All tectonic processes are driven by gravitational force when density differences are present. A good example of this would be the large-scale circulation of the Earth's mantle. Lateral density variations near the surface (such as the creation, cooling, and subduction of oceanic plates) also drive plate motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9083935",
"title": "Submarine earthquake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Understanding plate tectonics helps to explain the cause of submarine earthquakes. The Earth's surface or lithosphere comprises tectonic plates which average approximately 50 miles in thickness, and are continuously moving very slowly upon a bed of magma in the asthenosphere and inner mantle. The plates converge upon one another, and one subducts below the other, or, where there is only shear stress, move horizontally past each other (see transform plate boundary below). Little movements called fault creep are minor and not measurable. The plates meet with each other, and if rough spots cause the movement to stop at the edges, the motion of the plates continue. When the rough spots can no longer hold, the sudden release of the built-up motion releases, and the sudden movement under the sea floor causes a submarine earthquake. This area of slippage both horizontally and vertically is called the epicenter, and has the highest magnitude, and causes the greatest damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8xxx7r
|
Is there a compound that can be found naturally but cannot be made artificially?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends in what way you mean by 'made artificially'. Proteins and enzymes are very complex structures that can't really be made by standard chemical reactions, and require a living organism such as bacteria to be produced in a lab. \n\n\n\nA good example is insulin, a hormone used to treat diabetics. It was originally isolated in the early 20th century by harvesting it from the pancreas of a dog, but nowadays its produced by specially cultivated bacteria.\n It's not currently possible to synthesise insulin chemically (along with a lot of other biological compounds) as the molecules are so complex. Edit:[More info about insulin](_URL_0_)\n\n\nEdit2: I just learned that insulin can in fact be synthesised! See below comment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might be stretching your definition of \"compound\" somewhat, but I don't believe we have the technology to manufacture [neutronium](_URL_0_), a degenerate form of matter making up neutron stars. At least not in any significant quantities or periods of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess “can be found in nature” doesnt count if they have gone extinct recently, however, I remember a certain type of sea sponge that pharmaceutical companies farmed to extinction. They were trying to get a molecule in it that they absolutely could not make in the lab due to its chirality. \n\nThe sponges made so little that the researchers had to gather lots of specimen to get minor amounts of drug. By the second or third return to gather more they couldnt find any because they made them go extinct. Ill try to find it. Learned about it in biopharm class",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From a theoretical standpoint, no. Potentially anything that is possible in nature (on earth) we could theoretically produce artificially.\n\nFrom a practical standpoint, absolutely. There are countless natural compounds we do not know how to produce, and papers get published all the time by some organic chemist demonstrating a route to produce said compound.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well first we have to define what is a \"compound\", and what's the difference between \"natural\" and \"artificial\". And neither of those definitions are trivial.\n\nTake a glass of wine for example. Since we're doing science let's buy something nice, like a Stag's Leap Cabernet.\n\nIf you pick any one molecule in the glass of Stag's Leap Cab, chances are it is something that can be produced in a reactor. But does that mean you could \"synthesize\" a glass of high-end Cabernet? Of course not. The interaction between different molecules in wine is so complex, you're never going to achieve exactly the same flavor as a Cabernet. You might achieve something with a similar color and alcohol content, but you probably wouldn't want to drink it, and you could definitely tell the difference between the \"synthetic\" Cab and a real Cab.\n\nBut then we have an even tougher question to think about: what makes a production method \"natural\" versus \"artificial\"? Our high-end Cabernet is clearly a natural product because it was made with grapes, yeast, wooden barrels, and other all-natural ingredients.\n\nBut what about \"artificial\" ethyl alcohol? You could buy industrial-grade ethanol, the stuff that we put in our gas tanks, but that is almost entirely produced by fermentation of food crops (primarily corn). Isn't that exactly the same as wine? So our gas tank ethanol is a \"natural\" product too!\n\nOne might suggest making \"artificial\" ethanol by using chemical processes to break down larger carbohydrates. But where did those carbohydrates come from? All of the complex carbon molecules on Earth were produced by a living organism at some point.\n\nSo what about petroleum, is it really an \"artificial\" compound or a \"natural\" compound? If you're willing to call Vaseline an artificial substance, then what about the vast amounts of petroleum jelly sitting deep beneath the Earth untouched by mankind? It's chemically the same.\n\nAnd why is it that we consider MSG an artificial flavoring when it's sprinkled into your wonton soup, but the MSG in seaweed and mushrooms is chemically identical to the MSG in a jar... In fact, the MSG in a jar was probably extracted from seaweed or mushrooms to begin with!\n\nThe answer is that \"artificial\" versus \"natural\" is a purely semantic distinction, and there is no hard physical basis for calling something artificial or natural.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1781641",
"title": "Synthon",
"section": "Section::::Carbanionic synthons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Since synthons are idealized structures, it is often difficult to find equivalent chemical compounds in the real world. Many carbanion synthons, as drawn, present stability issues that render the molecule’s existence in reality impossible. For example, an acyl anions are not stable species, but the acyl anion synthon can be used to represent reagents such as lithiated dithianes, which are nucleophilic and often used in umpolung chemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22203",
"title": "Organic compound",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Natural compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are still extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially. Examples include most sugars, some alkaloids and terpenoids, certain nutrients such as vitamin B, and, in general, those natural products with large or stereoisometrically complicated molecules present in reasonable concentrations in living organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425461",
"title": "1828 in science",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- Urea becomes the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised, by Friedrich Wöhler, establishing that organic compounds could be produced from inorganic starting materials and potentially disproving a cornerstone of vitalism, the belief that life is not subject to the laws of science in the way inanimate objects are.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "782890",
"title": "Semisynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "Drugs derived from natural sources are usually produced by isolation from the natural source, or, as described here, by semisynthesis from such an isolated agent. From the viewpoint of chemical synthesis, living organisms are remarkable chemical factories, capable of producing structurally complex chemical compounds with ease by biosynthesis. In contrast, engineered chemical synthesis is necessarily simpler, with a lower chemical diversity in each reaction, than the incredibly diverse biosynthesis pathways that are crucial to life. As a result, certain functional groups are much easier to prepare via engineered synthesis than others – for example, acetylation – where certain biosynthetic pathways can generate groups and structures with minimal economic input that would be prohibitive via total synthesis. Plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria are all used as sources for these tricky precursor molecules, including the use of bioreactors at the meeting point between engineered and biological chemical synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379978",
"title": "In situ",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry and chemical engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "There are numerous situations in which chemical intermediates are synthesized \"in situ\" in various processes. This may be done because the species is unstable, and cannot be isolated, or simply out of convenience. Examples of the former include the Corey-Chaykovsky reagent and adrenochrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15507",
"title": "Compounds of carbon",
"section": "Section::::Organic compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "It was once thought that organic compounds could only be created by living organisms. Over time, however, scientists learned how to synthesize organic compounds in the lab. The number of organic compounds is immense and the known number of defined compounds is close to 10 million. However, an indefinitely large number of such compounds are theoretically possible. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2870273",
"title": "Chiral auxiliary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Most biological molecules and pharmaceutical targets exist as one of two possible enantiomers; consequently, chemical syntheses of natural products and pharmaceutical agents are frequently designed to obtain the target in enantiomerically pure form. Chiral auxiliaries are one of many strategies available to synthetic chemists to selectively produce the desired stereoisomer of a given compound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yg5tk
|
If I ate this whole bottle of vitamins, what would happen to me?
|
[
{
"answer": "[International Units](_URL_6_) or IUs are biological equivalents for substances like vitamins. There is no standard conversion such as 1 IU always equals 0.5mg. It depends on what vitamin we are talking about. This may seem unnecessary at first, but when you consider that various versions of pre-vitamins result in different amounts of usable vitamin in your body it starts to make sense. \n\nWith a quick glance, my eyes are immediately drawn to the non-water soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) of which your multivitamin contains all but K. \n\nVitamin A is renown for its potential [toxicities](_URL_2_), and the 200,000 IU of preformed vitamin seems like a lot, but is still far below the lethal dose of 7.5M IU theorized by Rodahl and Moore in their [1943 paper](_URL_1_) which brought to light the potential dangers of polar bear and seal liver. \n\nThe 20,000 IU of Vitamin D is probably also not an acute concern though high doses are associated with elevated calcium levels: \n\n > Long-term intakes above the UL increase the risk of adverse health effects [1] (Table 4). Most reports suggest a toxicity threshold for vitamin D of 10,000 to 40,000 IU/day and serum 25(OH)D levels of 500–600 nmol/L (200–240 ng/mL). [ODS on Vitamin D](_URL_4_) \n\nVitamin E overdose can lead to clotting problems, but 2000 IU/d has been deemed safe over the short term [ODS on vitamin E](_URL_3_). \n\nOf the other listed ingredients, Zinc is probably not an acute concern but may be a chronic concern depending on whether that 5 mg is elemental or Zinc Sulfate as listed in the ingredients: \n\n > One case report cited severe nausea and vomiting within 30 minutes of ingesting 4 g of zinc gluconate (570 mg elemental zinc). Intakes of 150–450 mg of zinc per day have been associated with such chronic effects as low copper status, altered iron function, reduced immune function, and reduced levels of high-density lipoproteins. [ODS on Zinc](_URL_0_). \n\nAt a glance, I don't believe that consuming this whole bottle would lead to immediate death. (though this thought experiment obviously shouldn't be carried out) Long term effects of high doses of vitamins are discussed at length in my cited resources. \n\nSomething to always watch out for in vitamins though is Iron. \n\n > In children, death has occurred from ingesting 200 mg of iron. [ODS on iron](_URL_5_) \n\nThis can be a big problem with candy flavored multivatimins which often contain large amounts of iron in order to help certain populations (such as women after the age of first menstruation and before menopause) but have a limited usefulness in most children.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "939876",
"title": "Hypervitaminosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Vitamin overdose can be avoided by not taking more than the normal or recommended amount of multi-vitamin supplement shown on the bottle. and not ingesting multiple vitamin-containing supplements concurrently\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2941264",
"title": "Hypervitaminosis A",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Toxicity results from ingesting too much preformed vitamin A from foods (such as fish or animal liver), supplements, or prescription medications and can be prevented by ingesting no more than the recommended daily amount.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32509",
"title": "Vitamin C",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin, with dietary excesses not absorbed, and excesses in the blood rapidly excreted in the urine, so it exhibits remarkably low acute toxicity. More than two to three grams may cause indigestion, particularly when taken on an empty stomach. However, taking vitamin C in the form of sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate may minimize this effect. Other symptoms reported for large doses include nausea, abdominal cramps and diarrhea. These effects are attributed to the osmotic effect of unabsorbed vitamin C passing through the intestine. In theory, high vitamin C intake may cause excessive absorption of iron. A summary of reviews of supplementation in healthy subjects did not report this problem but left as untested the possibility that individuals with hereditary hemochromatosis might be adversely affected. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7888444",
"title": "Food chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Vitamins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble (Vitamin C) or fat-soluble (Vitamin E). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent diseases such as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32509",
"title": "Vitamin C",
"section": "Section::::Diet.:Food preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is leaching, where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C does not leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows broccoli seems to retain more than any other. Research has also shown that freshly cut fruits do not lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2379726",
"title": "Calcification",
"section": "Section::::Causes of soft tissue calcification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Intake of excessive vitamin D can cause vitamin D poisoning and excessive intake of calcium from the intestine, when accompanied by a deficiency of vitamin K (perhaps induced by an anticoagulant) can result in calcification of arteries and other soft tissue. Such metastatic soft tissue calcification is mainly in tissues containing \"calcium catchers\" such as elastic fibres or sour mucopolysaccharides. These tissues especially include the lungs (pumice lung) and the aorta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35325932",
"title": "Bigu (grain avoidance)",
"section": "Section::::Early textual references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "If you would not distress yourself, it is best not to dispense with starches but merely to regulate the diet, for which there are about a hundred methods. Sometimes, after a few dozen pills of interior-protecting medicines have been taken, it is claimed that appetite is lost for forty or fifty days. (Other times, one or two hundred days are claimed, or the pills must be taken for days or months.) Refined pine and cypress as well as thistle can also protect the interior, but they are inferior to the great medicines, and last only ten years or less. At other times, fine foods are first prepared and consumed to utter satiation, and then medicines are taken to nurture the things that have been eaten, so that they may not be digested. This is claimed to remain valid for three years. If you then wish to revert to the eating of starches, it is necessary to start by swallowing mallows and lard, so that the fine food you prepared will pass from you undigested. (15, tr. Ware 1966:244) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3xdhlb
|
If person A is travelling at a fast speed away from person B, why is it that person A's time runs slower when you could say that person B is travelling away relative to A?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your assessment is spot on. They both see the others clock running slow, which is generally called 'the principle of reciprocity' in introductory textbooks.\n\nIf you have two space ships pass each other while traveling at constant velocities, each will feel 'at rest' with respect to the other. This results in each of them seeing the others time slow down. This may seem spooky, but it's a straight forward consequence of the Lorentz transformations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a gross simplification, and it will be a thousand things for everyone else to pick a part and say that I'm wrong about, but this is solely meant to help with the idea and concept.\n\nRight now while you were sitting there at your computer you are moving in four directions. You have an up/down speed, left/right speed, forward/backwards speed, and a time speed.\n\nIf you add all of these numbers up they must equal \"1\". The speed of light on this case.\n\nThe thing is, you are really hauling ass through the time direction. You were falling through time at the speed of one second per second. All of the other directions that you're moving are miniscule in comparison. So almost all of that light speed that you were traveling right now is going in the direction of time.\n\nSo now let's put you on a rocket. You start moving forwards, and you go faster and faster. All of those numbers still have to add up to one. So if you think of time as an actual direction that you are falling towards, once your speed gets high enough instead of falling almost straight down you are ever so slightly turning. \n\nSo keeping that image in your head imagine to sky divers that are traveling at the same speed. One skydiver fall straight down, the other falls at let's say a 45 degree angle. After a few moments, the skydiver who is falling straight down is much closer to the ground. The one who is traveling at a 45 degree angle that crosses the same distance would be higher.\n\nIn this example, the height would represent time, and because one of them is moving more horizontally, they have traveled through less time.\n\nNow if you think about it, this also explains why you can't go backwards in time. Because if you take every drop of that speed that is dedicated to time and go forward with it (meaning you were traveling at the speed of light in the forward direction) there is no more speed to take from anywhere else. You are a skydiver who is moving horizontally. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can I take this a way further. I've always wondered how plausible this is if the technology was available. \n\nTraveling into the future, is there a scenario where you're traveling at some speed near c that you can arrive back to your origin (maybe in a loop) a number of years into the future. \n\nAnother way of asking is if person A boarded a ship and left traveling at the speed of light, could he come back to earth 1000 years later in person B's frame of reference (person B never leaves earth).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't. Both person A and person B see the other one as passing through time more slowly than themselves.\n\nThe key is that they can't compare their clocks within the same reference frame until at least one of them accelerates to match the other one's velocity. How the clocks match up depends on which one does the accelerating. If (as in the traditional twin paradox) B accelerates away from A, travels around for a while, then approaches A again and decelerates to a stop at A's position, they will agree that B experienced less time. On the other hand, if both accelerate directly away from each other at the same rate, then reverse and come back together and stop when they meet, both will have experienced the same amount of subjective time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The difference lies not in who's traveling, but what's called a change in reference frame. The only way it could be determined that person A is travelling and person B is not, is that person A is (or has) experienced acceleration. For example, in the famous [Twin Paradox](_URL_0_), the difference in age for the person who travels comes from the fact that person A had to start moving, stop moving, turn around, start moving back, and stop at the end. The asynchronicity did not happen merely because they were travelling really fast, but due to their enormous changes in speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It comes down to which person is accelerating (including acceleration due to gravity) more. Crudely, who feels the most Gs for how long.\n\nThus in the twin astronauts problem, the one who stays on Earth does not experience the acceleration that their traveling twin does, and why in the satellite relativity problem people on the surface of the Earth age *slightly* slower than satellites in freefall/orbit.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental role in physics.:Upper limit on speeds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "More generally, it is normally impossible for information or energy to travel faster than \"c\". One argument for this follows from the counter-intuitive implication of special relativity known as the relativity of simultaneity. If the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by \"c\" then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B, others in which B precedes A, and others in which they are simultaneous. As a result, if something were travelling faster than \"c\" relative to an inertial frame of reference, it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame, and causality would be violated. In such a frame of reference, an \"effect\" could be observed before its \"cause\". Such a violation of causality has never been recorded, and would lead to paradoxes such as the tachyonic antitelephone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74263",
"title": "Frame of reference",
"section": "Section::::Examples of inertial frames of reference.:Simple example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Consider a situation common in everyday life. Two cars travel along a road, both moving at constant velocities. See Figure 1. At some particular moment, they are separated by 200 metres. The car in front is travelling at 22 metres per second and the car behind is travelling at 30 metres per second. If we want to find out how long it will take the second car to catch up with the first, there are three obvious \"frames of reference\" that we could choose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13740536",
"title": "Bridge and torch problem",
"section": "Section::::Solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "A second equivalent solution swaps the return trips. Basically, the two fastest people cross together on the 1st and 5th trips, the two slowest people cross together on the 3rd trip, and EITHER of the fastest people returns on the 2nd trip, and the other fastest person returns on the 4th trip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1125312",
"title": "Two-second rule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The two-second rule is useful as it can be applied to any speed. Drivers can find it difficult to estimate the correct distance from the car in front, let alone remember the stopping distances that are required for a given speed, or to compute the equation on the fly (BD = (SMPH/20)*SMPH). The two-second rule gets around these problems and provides a simple and common-sense way of improving road safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5927798",
"title": "Blinovitch Limitation Effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "It is usually understood as having two aspects: firstly, that a time traveller cannot \"redo\" an act that he has previously committed, and secondly, that a dangerous energy discharge will result if two temporal versions of the same person come into contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31591",
"title": "Time travel",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:The grandfather paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "A common objection to the idea of traveling back in time is put forth in the grandfather paradox or the argument of auto-infanticide. If one were able to go back in time, inconsistencies and contradictions would ensue if the time traveler were to change anything; there is a contradiction if the past becomes different from the way it \"is\". The paradox is commonly described with a person who travels to the past and kills their own grandfather, prevents the existence of their father or mother, and therefore their own existence. Philosophers question whether these paradoxes make time travel impossible. Some philosophers answer the paradoxes by arguing that it might be the case that backward time travel could be possible but that it would be impossible to actually \"change\" the past in any way, an idea similar to the proposed Novikov self-consistency principle in physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1125312",
"title": "Two-second rule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "To estimate the time, a driver can wait until the rear end of the vehicle in front passes any distinct and fixed point on the roadway—e.g. a road sign, mailbox, line/crack/patch in the road. After the car ahead passes a given fixed point, the front of one's car should pass the same point no less than two seconds later. If the elapsed time is less than this, one should increase the distance, then repeat the method again until the time is at least two seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jfwtg
|
Does the concept of religion differ outside of Abrahamic religions?
|
[
{
"answer": "This isn't really a history question, but some here may want to answer. Meanwhile, you might consider x-posting this question to r/AskReligion, r/AskAnthropology, or r/AskSocialScience ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2671343",
"title": "Criticism of religion",
"section": "Section::::Definition of religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Today, religion is broadly conceived as an abstraction which entails beliefs, doctrines and sacred places—even though the ancient and medieval cultures that produced religious texts, like the Bible or the Quran, did not have such conceptions or ideas in their languages, cultures, or histories. However, there is still no scholarly consensus over what a religion is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13906453",
"title": "Abrahamic religions",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Adam Dodds argues that the term \"Abrahamic faiths\", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences. For example, the common Christian beliefs of Incarnation, Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus are not accepted by Judaism or Islam (see for example Islamic view of Jesus' death). There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as strict monotheism and adherence to Divine Law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Bahá'í Faith not shared by Judaism (such as the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus, respectively).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25414",
"title": "Religion",
"section": "Section::::Concept and etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1646,
"text": "The concept of religion was formed in the 16th and 17th centuries, despite the fact that ancient sacred texts like the Bible, the Quran, and others did not have a word or even a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written. For example, there is no precise equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. One of its central concepts is \"halakha\", meaning the walk or path sometimes translated as law, which guides religious practice and belief and many aspects of daily life. Even though the beliefs and traditions of Judaism are found in the ancient world, ancient Jews saw Jewish identity as being about an ethnic or national identity and did not entail a compulsory belief system or regulated rituals. Even in the 1st century CE, Josephus had used the Greek term \"ioudaismos\", which some translate as Judaism today, even though he used it as an ethnic term, not one linked to modern abstract concepts of religion as a set of beliefs. It was in the 19th century that Jews began to see their ancestral culture as a religion analogous to Christianity. The Greek word \"threskeia\", which was used by Greek writers such as Herodotus and Josephus, is found in the New Testament. \"Threskeia\" is sometimes translated as religion in today's translations, however, the term was understood as worship well into the medieval period. In the Quran, the Arabic word \"din\" is often translated as religion in modern translations, but up to the mid-1600s translators expressed \"din\" as law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265452",
"title": "List of religious sites",
"section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The three major Abrahamic faiths (in chronological order of revelation) are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some strict definitions of what constitutes an Abrahamic religion include only these three faiths. However, there are many other religions incorporating Abrahamic doctrine, theology, genealogy and history into their own belief systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29266",
"title": "Relationship between religion and science",
"section": "Section::::History.:Concepts of science and religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1368,
"text": "It was in the 17th century that the concept of \"religion\" received its modern shape despite the fact that ancient texts like the Bible, the Quran, and other sacred texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written. In the 19th century, Max Müller noted that what is called ancient religion today, would have been called \"law\" in antiquity. For example, there is no precise equivalent of \"religion\" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. The Sanskrit word \"dharma\", sometimes translated as \"religion\", also means law or duty. Throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between \"imperial law\" and universal or \"Buddha law\", but these later became independent sources of power. Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of \"religion\" since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding, among other things, freedom of religion, the country had to contend with this Western idea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16395",
"title": "Judeo-Christian",
"section": "Section::::Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Advocates of the term \"Abrahamic religion\" since the second half of the 20th century have proposed a hyper-ecumenicism that emphasizes not only Judeo-Christian commonalities but that would include Islam as well (the rationale for the term \"Abrahamic\" being that while only Christianity and Judaism give the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) the status of scripture, Islam does also trace its origins to the figure of Abraham as the \"first Muslim\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5362648",
"title": "God in Abrahamic religions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes called Abrahamic religions because they all accept the tradition of the God (known as Yahweh in Hebrew and Allah in Arabic) that revealed himself to the prophet Abraham. The theological traditions of all Abrahamic religions are thus to some extent influenced by the depiction of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, and the historical development of monotheism in the history of Judaism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bk3en
|
what is the keynesian multiplier, and how does it help disprove supply-side economics?
|
[
{
"answer": "The mythical Keynesisn multiplier falls hard for the Broken Window Fallacy. It measures what is seen in one part of the economy and neglects to subtracts out the unseen losses in the rest of the economy. If it were true we would never have another recession. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Keynesian multiplier is an economic magic trick where the government takes money from taxpayers and spends it on projects, thus cycling the money back into the economy and improving it.\n\nThis principle is also used in medicine when doctors perform blood transfusions by pumping blood from the patient's right arm into his left arm, thus giving him more blood.\n\nYou can try it at home. Fill a swimming pool half up, then pour the water from one half into the other to fill it the rest of the way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9986126",
"title": "Complex multiplier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The complex multiplier is the multiplier principle in Keynesian economics (formulated by John Maynard Keynes). The simplistic multiplier that is the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save is a special case used for illustrative purposes only. The multiplier applies to any change in autonomous expenditure, in other words, an externally induced change in consumption, investment, government expenditure or net exports. Each of these operates to increase or reduce the equilibrium level of income in the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17326",
"title": "Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Keynesian economics ( ; sometimes called Keynesianism) are a group of various macroeconomic theories about how in the short run – and especially during recessions – economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand (total demand in the economy). In the Keynesian view, named for British economist John Maynard Keynes, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity of the economy; instead, it is influenced by a host of factors and sometimes behaves erratically, affecting production, employment, and inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80327",
"title": "New Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "New Keynesian economics is a school of contemporary macroeconomics that strives to provide microeconomic foundations for Keynesian economics. It developed partly as a response to criticisms of Keynesian macroeconomics by adherents of new classical macroeconomics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17326",
"title": "Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Keynesian economics served as the standard economic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945–1973), though it lost some influence following the oil shock and resulting stagflation of the 1970s. The advent of the financial crisis of 2007–08 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought, which continues as new Keynesian economics. Keynesian economics developed during and after the Great Depression from the ideas presented by Keynes in his 1936 book, \"The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money\". Keynes contrasted his approach to the aggregate supply-focused classical economics that preceded his book. The interpretations of Keynes that followed are contentious and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80327",
"title": "New Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Two main assumptions define the New Keynesian approach to macroeconomics. Like the New Classical approach, New Keynesian macroeconomic analysis usually assumes that households and firms have rational expectations. However, the two schools differ in that New Keynesian analysis usually assumes a variety of market failures. In particular, New Keynesians assume that there is imperfect competition in price and wage setting to help explain why prices and wages can become \"sticky\", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8693555",
"title": "Schools of economic thought",
"section": "Section::::Keynesian economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 244,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 244,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "Keynesian economics has developed from the work of John Maynard Keynes and focused on macroeconomics in the short-run, particularly the rigidities caused when prices are fixed. It has two successors. Post-Keynesian economics is an alternative school—one of the successors to the Keynesian tradition with a focus on macroeconomics. They concentrate on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes, and research micro foundations for their models based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. Generally associated with Cambridge, England and the work of Joan Robinson (see Post-Keynesian economics). New-Keynesian economics is the other school associated with developments in the Keynesian fashion. These researchers tend to share with other Neoclassical economists the emphasis on models based on micro foundations and optimizing behavior, but focus more narrowly on standard Keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. These are usually made to be endogenous features of these models, rather than simply assumed as in older style Keynesian ones (see New-Keynesian economics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17326",
"title": "Keynesian economics",
"section": "Section::::Keynesian models and concepts.:The Keynesian multiplier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "The value Keynes assigns to his multiplier is the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save: \"k\" = 1 / \"S\" '(\"Y\" ). This is the same as the formula for Kahn's mutliplier in a closed economy if all saving, and not just hoarding, constituted leakage. Keynes gave his formula almost the status of a definition (it is put forward in advance of any explanation). His multiplier is indeed the value of \"the ratio ... between an increment of investment and the corresponding increment of aggregate income\" under his Chapter 13 model of liquidity preference, which implies that income must bear the entire effect of a change in investment. But under his Chapter 15 model a change in the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital has an effect shared between the interest rate and income in proportions depending on the partial derivatives of the liquidity preference function. The resulting multiplier has a more complicated formula and a smaller numerical value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wy23w
|
what causes some tv shows/movies to look somehow "off" on newer screens (kind of soap opera-looking)?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have motion interpolation turned on. It is a function that inserts computer-generated estimate frames between the existing frames of video to create smoother motion, but it's an aesthetic associated with camcorders and soap operas, so people often dislike it.\n\nLook through your TV's menu and turn it off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks to frogs, I found this if anyone's interested: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! I tried showing it to my family and nobody else saw it...glad I'm not crazy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15522867",
"title": "Motion interpolation",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Soap opera effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Many complain that the soap opera effect ruins the theatrical look of cinematic works, by making it appear as if the viewer is either on set or watching a behind the scenes featurette. For this reason, almost all manufacturers have built in an option to turn the feature off or lower the effect strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28579296",
"title": "Phua Chu Kang The Movie",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Phin Wong of \"TODAY\" found that the adaptation from small to big screen \"ends up looking less like a film and more like a series of skits built around a barely-there story, with a handful of inexplicable melodrama thrown in\", also calling it \"an unfortunate waste of a talented cast playing well-loved characters capable of so much more.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20715044",
"title": "Game of Thrones",
"section": "Section::::Reception and achievements.:Critical response.:Lighting issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "The lighting, or lack of light, in darker scenes has been a recurring point of criticism since season 6 of the series. In 2016, \"Bustle\"s Caitlyn Callegari listed 31 examples of scenes where the lighting caused viewers problems ranging from not being able to tell a character's hair color to not being able to see what was going on. Some reviewers have noted this is part of a wider trend among shows that are made by people who have experience working primarily on films, suggesting they \"haven't grasped the nuances (or lack thereof)\" of television as a medium, especially the differences between watching a scene on a television screen versus watching it on the big screen in a movie theater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243548",
"title": "Bad Girls (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Production format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "\"Bad Girls\" was one of the more earlier television series to be produced in widescreen format . Although most of Britain were still viewing standard screen televisions, the early years of the series were seen in a format of on analog television and cropped to pan and scan for the DVD releases of the first three series. These series' of the show are now available in their original widescreen format, as they have been re-screened on ITV3 and CBS Drama, and the DVD re-releases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "684740",
"title": "Gregg Toland",
"section": "Section::::Similarities between \"Citizen Kane\" and \"The Long Voyage Home\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "For instance, both movies contain shots that create an artificial lighting situation such that a character is lit in the background and walks or runs through dark areas to the foreground, where his arrival triggers, off-screen, a light not on before. The result is so visually dramatic because a character moves, only barely visible, through vast pools of shadow, only to exit the shadow very close to the camera, where his whole face is suddenly completely lit. This use of much more shadow than light, soon one of the main techniques of low-key lighting, heavily influenced film noir.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224148",
"title": "Cinerama",
"section": "Section::::History.:Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The impact these films had on the big screen cannot be assessed from television or video, or even from 'scope prints, which marry the three images together with the seams clearly visible. Because they were designed to be seen on a curved screen, the geometry looks distorted on television; someone walking from left to right appears to approach the camera at an angle, move away at an angle, and then repeat the process on the other side of the screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "950929",
"title": "The Haunting (1963 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Effects and editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "Other effects also relied on simple cinema tricks. Early in the film, the audience sees Abigail Crain lying in bed, aging from a young child to an old woman. A camera was fixed over the bed, and four different actresses (each a different age) posed in the bed beneath the camera. Dissolves were then used to illustrate the aging process. In another scene, the characters come across a \"cold spot\" in the haunted mansion. Wise had initially wanted the actors to simply play up \"the 'quality of [being] cold' in [the] sequence\", but he quickly recognized that an additional visual effect was needed to more clearly emphasize the temperature drop. To overcome the unique issue of having to \"photograph 'nothing'\", Wise instructed the makeup department to apply a special makeup onto the actors. This makeup contained a compound that was usually invisible to the naked eye but that appeared under certain filters. When it came time to film, the actors walked onto the portion of the set that was supposed to represent the cold spot, and these filters were gradually drawn over the set's lights. This gave the visual impression that the characters had turned pale due to a drop in temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6q22em
|
why some people can float, while others can' t?
|
[
{
"answer": "People can float in water if they learned or figured out how to do so. Those who cannot did not learn how. But no one is incapable of it. In fact its harder to not float than it is to float, because of your lungs, since they are filled with air.\n\nIf you wanna see what I mean, try getting a basketball underwater.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24538293",
"title": "Gaga (dance vocabulary)",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.:Float.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "A floating sensation (referred to as 'float') is cultivated throughout. Float does not ignore the existence of gravity. However rather than giving into gravity and adhering to heaviness, the body uses gravity as a force of energy and even elevation of the limbs. Naharin states, “we sense the weight of our body parts, yet, our form is not shaped by gravity.” Additionally, float is intended to facilitate a constant awareness and activeness in which dancers are never completely released, even when they are doing nothing, leaving them 'available' for movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245982",
"title": "Buoyancy",
"section": "Section::::Density.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "A ship will float even though it may be made of steel (which is much denser than water), because it encloses a volume of air (which is much less dense than water), and the resulting shape has an average density less than that of the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179636",
"title": "Floater",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Floaters are able to catch and refract light in ways that somewhat blur vision temporarily until the floater moves to a different area. Often they trick persons who are troubled by floaters into thinking they see something out of the corner of their eye that really is not there. Most persons come to terms with the problem, after a time, and learn to ignore their floaters. For persons with severe floaters it is nearly impossible to ignore completely the large masses that constantly stay within almost direct view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12878756",
"title": "Lake island",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Floating islands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The term floating island is sometimes used for accumulations of vegetation free-floating within a body of water. Due to the lack of currents and tides, these are more frequently found in lakes than in rivers or the open sea. Peaty masses of vegetable matter from shallow lake floors may rise due to the accumulation of gases during decomposition, and will often float for a considerable time, becoming ephemeral islands until the gas has dissipated enough for the vegetation to return to the lake floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "951435",
"title": "Floating island",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "A floating island is a mass of floating aquatic plants, mud, and peat ranging in thickness from several centimetres to a few metres. Floating islands are a common natural phenomenon that are found in many parts of the world. They exist less commonly as an artificial phenomenon. Floating islands are generally found on marshlands, lakes, and similar wetland locations, and can be many hectares in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2118128",
"title": "Pool float",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Swimming float-assisted can be more difficult than swimming without the float, because if the float is held in front of the swimmer a more vigorous workout for the legs is given as the swimmer's weight is propelled solely by the legs, and vice versa for the arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16698188",
"title": "Floating population",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Floating population is a terminology used to describe a group of people who reside in a given population for a certain amount of time and for various reasons, but are not generally considered part of the official census count.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1batg0
|
Q from my 5-year old: did dinosaurs have boogers?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Birds are more likely related to dinosaurs](_URL_2_), rather than reptiles to dinosaurs, and birds do get [nasal mucus](_URL_1_).\n\nA booger by any other name is still a [booger](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8583165",
"title": "Stegosaurus in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1155,
"text": "\"Stegosaurus\" has long been featured in popular informational books about dinosaurs. This is ostensibly due to its status as being one of the most famous dinosaurs in popular culture. Several older nonfiction books incorrectly stated that \"Stegosaurus\" had two brains, due to a mistake made by Marsh during the 1800s, in which a bundle of nerves located in the hips was thought to be a \"second brain\". However, newer informational works have corrected this, and most nonfiction dinosaur books published nowadays correctly state that \"Stegosaurus\" had only one — albeit tiny — brain, located in its skull, as all other known vertebrates do. \"Stegosaurus\" has also featured in numerous video games such as \"\" and \"Carnivores\". In the latter game, the animal was depicted as an awkward, lumbering reptile, similar to many outdated illustrations, even though the game was released in 1998, at least a decade after the general public recognized \"Stegosaurus\" and other dinosaurs as active warm-blooded beasts. Players can play as \"Stegosaurus\" in \"Combat of Giants\". A stuffed \"Stegosaurus\" makes an appearance in the video game \"Gone Home\", nicknamed Steggy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4898707",
"title": "Nuthetes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Nuthetes is the name given to a dubious, possibly dromaeosaurid, genus of theropod dinosaur, known only from fossil teeth and jaw fragments found in rocks of the middle Berriasian (Early Cretaceous) age in the Cherty Freshwater Member of the Lulworth Formation in England. As a dromaeosaurid \"Nuthetes\" would have been a small predator, about two metres long.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68485",
"title": "Jurassic Park (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Dinosaurs on screen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Brachiosaurus\" is the first dinosaur seen by the park's visitors. It is inaccurately depicted as chewing its food and standing up on its hind legs to browse among the high tree branches. According to artist Andy Schoneberg, the chewing was done to make the animal seem docile, resembling a cow chewing its cud. The dinosaur's head and upper neck was the largest puppet without hydraulics built for the film. Despite scientific evidence of their having limited vocal capabilities, sound designer Gary Rydstrom decided to represent them with whale songs and donkey calls to give them a melodic sense of wonder. Penguins were also recorded to be used in the noises of the dinosaurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3533514",
"title": "Archaeornithoides",
"section": "Section::::Possible predation by mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Elzanowski and Wellnhofer noted that the specimen has distinct bite marks while the back of the head fragment was ragged, and suggested that the jaws were bitten off from its braincase by a deltatheridiid (\"Deltatheridium\") mammal the size of a weasel (adding that these are common in the Bayn Dzak assemblage). Clark and colleagues (2002) noted that it may have also passed through the digestive tract of the predator before fossilization. If true, this may be the first known evidence of Mesozoic mammals feeding on dinosaurs (see \"Repenomamus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2821220",
"title": "Kritosaurus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Kritosaurus is an incompletely known genus of hadrosaurid (duck-billed) dinosaur. It lived about 74.5-66 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous of North America. The name means \"separated lizard\" (referring to the arrangement of the cheek bones in an incomplete type skull), but is often mistranslated as \"noble lizard\" in reference to the presumed \"Roman nose\" (in the original specimen, the nasal region was fragmented and disarticulated, and was originally restored flat).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4857416",
"title": "Kerberosaurus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Kerberosaurus (meaning \"Kerberos lizard\") was a genus of saurolophine duckbill dinosaur from the late Maastrichtian-age Upper Cretaceous Tsagayan Formation of Blagoveshchensk, Amur Region, Russia (dated to 66 million years ago). It is based on bonebed material including skull remains indicating that it was related to \"Saurolophus\" and \"Prosaurolophus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1360138",
"title": "Corythosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Skull.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Over twenty skulls have been found from this dinosaur. As with other lambeosaurines, the animal bore a tall, elaborate bony crest atop its skull, which contained the elongate narial passages. The narial passages extended into the crest, first into separate pockets in the sides, then into a single central chamber and onward into the respiratory system. The skull of the type specimen has no dermal impressions on it. During preservation it was compressed laterally, so now the width is about two-thirds what it would have been in real life. According to Brown, the compression also caused the nasals to shift where they pressed down on the premaxillaries. Because they were pressed on the premaxillaries, the nasals would have closed the nares. Apart from the compression, the skull appears to be normal. Contrary to what Brown assumed, the areas concerned were fully part of the praemaxillae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jv6t7
|
calvinism
|
[
{
"answer": "John Calvin was a theologian who was part of the reformation. His theology became known as Calvinism. \n\nBasically Calvinism is boiled down to the TULIP beliefs. \n\n* T - Total Depravity - All parts of man are affected by sin\n* U - Unconditional Election - We are saved by Christ without any conditions. We do not earn it, it is completely a gift.\n* L - Limited Atonement - Jesus died on the cross only for those who follow Him. His atonement for sins was not for everyone.\n* I - Irresistible Grace - If God wants you to follow Him you can't resist the call.\n* P - Perseverance of the Saints -Once saved always saved. You can't lose your salvation.\n\nNot every Calvinist agrees with all 5 points. In fact, some say Calvin didn't believe in all of them (the term TULIP was made up after he died) but these are the basic theological points.\n\n**tl;dr - There are two main camps of Christian theology. Men are in control and choose to follow God (Arminianism) and God is in control and chooses who follows Him (Calvinism).** ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9523738",
"title": "History of Christian theology",
"section": "Section::::Renaissance and Reformation.:Calvinism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Calvinism is a system of Christian theology and an approach to Christian life and thought within the Protestant tradition articulated by John Calvin, a Protestant Reformer in the 16th century, and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin, his interpretation of scripture, and perspective on Christian life and theology. Calvin's system of theology and Christian life forms the basis of the reformed tradition, a term roughly equivalent to \"Calvinism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23000716",
"title": "Christianity in the 16th century",
"section": "Section::::Protestant Reformation.:Calvinism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Calvinism is a system of Christian theology and an approach to Christian life and thought within the Protestant tradition articulated by John Calvin and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin and his interpretation of Scripture, and perspective on Christian life and theology. Calvin's system of theology and Christian life forms the basis of the Reformed tradition, a term roughly equivalent to \"Calvinism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6024",
"title": "Calvinism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1937,
"text": "Calvinists broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. Calvinists differ from Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers, among other things. As declared in the Westminster and Second Helvetic confessions, the core doctrines are predestination and election. The term \"Calvinism\" can be misleading, because the religious tradition which it denotes has always been diverse, with a wide range of influences rather than a single founder. In the context of the Reformation, Huldrych Zwingli began the Reformed tradition in 1519 in the city of Zürich. His followers were instantly labeled \"Zwinglians\", consistent with the Catholic practice of naming heresy after its founder. Very soon, Zwingli was joined by Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, William Farel, Johannes Oecolampadius and other early Reformed thinkers. The namesake of the movement, French reformer John Calvin, converted to the Reformed tradition from Roman Catholicism only in the late 1520s or early 1530s as it was already being developed. The movement was first called \"Calvinism\", referring to John Calvin, by Lutherans who opposed it. Many within the tradition find it either an indescriptive or an inappropriate term and would prefer the word \"Reformed\" to be used instead. Some Calvinists prefer the term Augustinian-Calvinism since Calvin credited his theology to Augustine of Hippo. The most important Reformed theologians include John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, and R. C. Sproul were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I. Packer, John MacArthur, Timothy J. Keller, David Wells, and Michael Horton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6024",
"title": "Calvinism",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552. It was a common practice of the Roman Catholic Church to name what it viewed as heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles. Calvin denounced the designation himself:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37718834",
"title": "Channel Islands Witch Trials",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Calvinism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Calvinism is a very strict form of Protestantism and the islands found their churches being changed with the removal of paintings and religious symbols such as statues, decorated altars and fonts and the removal of crosses. By using the Ecclesiastical courts in the islands they enforced compulsory attendance at church twice every Sunday, bans of gambling and dancing and many other restrictions, especially on Sundays, upon pain of flogging, locking in stocks, imprisonment in the town cages or in castle dungeons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12927067",
"title": "Soar y mynydd",
"section": "Section::::Calvinistic Methodists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The Calvinistic Methodists are a Welsh Protestant revivalist movement forming the Presbyterian Church of Wales. They trace their origins back to the evangelism and preaching of George Whitefield and especially Howell Harris in the late 1730s and 40s. They formed a separate body from the Church of England and from other Methodists after 1821, when their Rules of Discipline were published, followed in 1823 by their Confession of Faith based on the predestinationist Five Points of Calvinism. The working language of the Calvinistic Methodists has always been Welsh, and the services at Soar-y-mynydd are held in Welsh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21953056",
"title": "New Calvinism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "New Calvinism, also known as the Young, Restless, and Reformed Movement, is a movement within conservative evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th-century Calvinism while seeking to engage these historical doctrines with present-day culture. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
an7lgu
|
I always hear how "Wilt played against milkmen" or "NFL players had day jobs as oil workers". How did sports contracts go from the equivalent of a second job to multi-million dollar deals?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer boils down to about two points: Market size and collective negotiations. \n\nBack in the day, sports athletes were considered amateurs and were more motivated by passion to engage in a hobby more than working a primary job for earning income. As time went on through the 30s and 40s, competition and swelling audience sizes encouraged the development of a more professional caste of athletes who were naturally a bit better paid than their amateur predecessors, but we’re still not close to the modern multimillion dollar contract. \nBy the 1950s broadcasting emerged as the big game changer, catapulted by effective collective action. With broadcasting the audience size increased exponentially, and earning of the overall sport. As owners and broadcasters made more and more, players increasingly organized to bargain for better pay. Through the 1970s and onward, as player organizations and unions became powerful and ubiquitous, and rating soared to higher and higher levels, players’ salaries ballooned.\n\nKeep in mind, though, players’ salaries vary wildly even with the same league or even the same team. \n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7964994",
"title": "Bonus rule",
"section": "Section::::Bonus babies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Bonus babies were the group of amateur baseball players who went straight to the Major Leagues between the years 1947 and 1965 and received a signing bonus in excess of $4,000. The bonus rule prevented the player from spending time in the Minor League Baseball system that was, and is, the training ground for most professional baseball players in the United States, and came under criticism because it often caused such a player to languish on a major league bench instead of gaining experience in the minors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1821416",
"title": "Tom Tupa",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "That season also marked the last time Tupa was used regularly as a quarterback; since then he almost exclusively punted, with only emergency occasions or trick plays making use of his throwing skills. Tupa sat out the 1993 NFL season, having been cut by the Cleveland Browns right before the season. However, he was re-signed by the Browns the following year and stayed with them for two seasons as their starting punter, and he scored the first ever 2-point conversion in the history of the NFL by rushing from a fake extra point kick attempt. He joined the New England Patriots in 1996 and played for them for three years. In 1999, Tupa signed with the New York Jets. It was during this season that Tupa received his first invitation to the Pro Bowl. He also made his first pass attempt since 1996, and went 6-of-11 for 165 yards and two touchdowns during the Jets' week one matchup against the New England Patriots. Tupa was put in at quarterback in the first quarter after Vinny Testaverde tore his achilles tendon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10681285",
"title": "United States national rugby sevens team",
"section": "Section::::Current team.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "An article in \"The Guardian\" in 2014 noted that the inclusion of sevens in the Olympics had greatly expanded funding available to the sport, and that the large pool of American football players who may be unable to earn professional contracts in the NFL meant there were many sportsmen who had skills and strengths they could transfer to rugby union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24074429",
"title": "John Jerry",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.:Miami Dolphins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "In February 2014, the NFL released the \"Wells Report\" finding that Jerry, along with Dolphins teammates Richie Incognito and Mike Pouncey, had bullied and harassed lineman Jonathan Martin, another unnamed player, and an assistant trainer during the 2012-13 seasons. The harassment of the assistant trainer, in which Jerry took part, included racial insults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32536028",
"title": "John Rickert",
"section": "Section::::Success in NFL free agency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In 2010 Rickert successfully negotiated more NFL free agent contracts than any other NFL agent, most notably that of Joshua Cribbs of the Cleveland Browns, which was made famous by Deion Sanders on NFL Network when he on air began to refer to Cribbs as \"Pay The Man\". He also negotiated contracts for Lorenzo Alexander, Artis Hicks, Rex Hadnot, and Matt Ware in the 2010 free agency period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2541915",
"title": "Ed Hochuli",
"section": "Section::::Officiating career.:NFL career.:2001 officials' strike.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Hochuli has served as the head of the NFL Referees Association, the union which represents NFL game officials. The union was responsible for negotiating a new contract for the officials prior to the 2001 NFL season. At the time, salaries ranged from a first-year official earning US$1,431 a game to a veteran official with twenty years of experience making $4,330 a game. Officials were looking for a 400 percent increase in salary while the league was offering just 40 percent. During the negotiations, Hochuli believed the issue in finding a resolution was to convince the league that officials are full-time employees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6022145",
"title": "The Bob & Tom Show",
"section": "Section::::Public service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Bob and Tom had a friendly wager with former Indianapolis Colts center Jeff Saturday that if he ever got a touchdown they would donate $5,000 to the charity of his choice. During the 2006–07 NFL season, they increased the wager to $10,000. They assumed that they were safe since offensive linemen almost never score points in NFL games. In January 2007 in the AFC Championship game against the rival New England Patriots, on a play near New England's goal line, Dominic Rhodes carried into the middle of the line and fumbled. Saturday fell on the ball in the end zone for the touchdown. Bob and Tom made good on their wager and donated $10,000 total with $5,000 each going to People's Burn Foundation of Indiana and Kid's Voice of Indiana, Inc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
407ktr
|
what are the benefits to running in the cold
|
[
{
"answer": "I played rugby in high school and I much preferred training and playing in the cold because of how tired and overheated I felt after. At first it sucked since I was all clammy and cold but after you get blood moving this is no longer an issue. At the end of the day, I always preferred playing and training in the cold, especially if it was rainy and muddy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, I have to start by saying that 60 degrees isn't \"cold\", certainly not too cold for outdoor exercise. Depending on your tolerance you might want to wear slightly warmer clothes, but as long as you do a decent warm-up, you're fine. \n\nI've gone running in as low as 20 degrees. Other than using more energy to stay warm, plus carrying a lot more weight in clothing alone, it doesn't really give you more benefits than running would, in general. In fact, if you don't prepare and equip correctly, it can be downright *dangerous*. \n\nTo be honest with you, I tend to find a different exercise routine for the winter. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of running.:Mental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Running is an effective way to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and tension. It helps people who struggle with seasonal affective disorder by being more outside running when it's sunny and warm. Running can improve mental alertness and also improve sleep which is needed for good mental health. Both research and clinical experience have shown that exercise can be a treatment for serious depression and anxiety even some physicians prescribe exercise to most of their patients. Running can have a longer lasting effect than anti-depressants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of running.:Cardiovascular benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "While there exists the potential for injury while running (just as there is in any sport), there are many benefits. Some of these benefits include potential weight loss, improved cardiovascular and respiratory health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced total blood cholesterol, strengthening of bones (and potentially increased bone density), possible strengthening of the immune system and an improved self-esteem and emotional state. Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can effectively slow or reverse the effects of aging. Even people who have already experienced a heart attack are 20% less likely to develop serious heart problems if more engaged in running or any type of aerobic activity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of running.:Mental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Running can also have psychological benefits, as many participants in the sport report feeling an elated, euphoric state, often referred to as a \"runner's high\". Running is frequently recommended as therapy for people with clinical depression and people coping with addiction. A possible benefit may be the enjoyment of nature and scenery, which also improves psychological well-being (see Ecopsychology § Practical benefits).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57276769",
"title": "Physiology of marathons",
"section": "Section::::Alternative factors contributing to marathon performance.:Environmental.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "Environmental factors such as air resistance, rain, terrain, and heat all contribute to a marathon runner's ability to perform at the full potential of their physiological characteristics. Air resistance or wind and the physical terrain of the marathon course (hilly or flat) were often associated with increased intensities in order to maintain pace. The rain can affect a marathon runner's performance by adding weight to the attire of the marathon runner causing their overall load to carry to be slightly heavier. Temperature, in particular the heat, is the strongest contributor of environmental factors leading to poorer marathon performance. An increase in air temperature affects all the runners the same. This negative correlation of increased temperature and decreased race time is affiliated with marathon runners' hospitalizations and exercise induced hyperthermia. There are other environmental factors less directly associated with marathon performance such as the pollutants in the air and even prize money associated with a specific marathon itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4886790",
"title": "Winter swimming",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Winter swimming isn't dangerous for healthy persons, but should be avoided by individuals with heart or respiratory diseases, obesity, high blood pressure and arrhythmia, as well as children and the elderly. Through conditioning, experienced winter swimmers have a greater resistance to effects of the cold shock response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55405106",
"title": "International Skyrunning Federation",
"section": "Section::::Scientific Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1505,
"text": "Studies reveal that such enduring and extreme running on mountains also bring the health benefits such as low energy costs for those runners. Although there are individual differences, those frequent mountain running could develop much slower energy cost system that could be 14% lower than average individuals. As a type of mountain race, sky running could allow for the strong development in the physical competence, like the prolonged running time, faster speed, and other competitive aspects that will allow an individuals to improve their ability in cope with dangers and get survival in some extreme situations. The most important changes in the physical status for different types of mountain runners, including sky runners, is the heart rates. Runners intend to develop stronger physical system with the heart rate stable enough to cope with the extreme situations. that could extend runners’ adaptation to the competition intensity of the races. Heart can be strengthened with improvement in cardiac biomarkers, electro- and echocardiography. Another discovery is that skyrunning will challenge people's physical status for long duration and distance and professional skyrunners usually develop low body mass index and low body fat. Although there are gender differences in the improvement in physical status with women is less strong than male in those indexes, the gender differences are narrowing for those men and women who have participated in those long-distance or long-duration activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10986517",
"title": "Competitive trail riding",
"section": "Section::::Electrolyte supplementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "If the weather is hot and humid, or horses are moving at a faster speed, horses are more likely to need supplemental electrolytes. Usually, horses that drink regularly have little need for electrolyte supplementation. Excitable, anxious horses or horses that sweat excessively for any reason may need supplementation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34w95e
|
how do huge herbivores such as elephants and rhino's build muscle and mass without meat? what makes a human's body unable to grow similarly from just grass/leaves?
|
[
{
"answer": "As for cows, their stomachs are designed to readily break down and redigest food in 4 different stomach cavities. Ruminants like bovines do this through a predigestion process that ferments this plant matter. This, along with regurgitating some plant matter to further help break it down by chewing it more, is how they break plants down to be absorbed as ample nutrients.\n\nAs for the other animals listed, I have no real experience with them, but I would be surprised if they where not ruminants as well.\n\nFun facts! Due to the cow's aggressive stomach acid, when they regurgitate food to chew more (called chewing their cud), they have horrendous teeth! They can also produce more than 100 liters of saliva a day!\nSource: I grew up farming, and have had my fair share of cows spit in my face.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Au contraire! Vegetables, especially grains, have all kinds of protein in them. Here's a series of charts.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nI think they get enough protein because they consume enough in their food. \n\nElephants are not ruminants.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans can get muscle mass without meat. [Like these guys.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interestingly, cattle can create protein from many other nitrogen sources. Cattle farmers in dry areas give their stock supplements that include urea, which the cattle use to create muscle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The elephants intestine is 19 metres long (a human's is about 1.5 metres). So there is much more time for food to be digested.\n\nIn addition, they have gut bacteria that can ferment cellulose (the material around plant cells) so that it can be digested. This happens in an organ called the caecum, which in elephants is massive, and divided into lots of sections.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Side note, peas are a complete/quality protein source, meaning they have all the amino acids needed to turn protein into human protein. People also need a small amount of cholesterol to be healthy which you can't get from plants...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "802146",
"title": "Rhinoceros",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Members of the rhinoceros family are some of the largest remaining megafauna, with all species able to reach or exceed one tonne in weight. They have a herbivorous diet, small brains (400–600 g) for mammals of their size, one or two horns, and a thick (1.5–5 cm) protective skin formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice structure. They generally eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter when necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the two African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front of their mouths, relying instead on their lips to pluck food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33807629",
"title": "Hindgut fermentation",
"section": "Section::::Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The ability to process food more rapidly than foregut fermenters gives hindgut fermenters an advantage at very large body size, as they are able to accommodate significantly larger food intakes. The largest extant and prehistoric megaherbivores, elephants and indricotheres (a type of rhino), respectively, have been hindgut fermenters. Study of the rates of evolution of larger maximum body mass in different terrestrial mammalian groups has shown that the fastest growth in body mass over time occurred in hindgut fermenters (perissodactyls, rodents and proboscids).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37256524",
"title": "Captive elephants",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Elephants have the largest brains of all land animals, and ever since the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, have been renowned for their cognitive skills, with behavioural patterns shared with humans. Pliny the Elder described the animal as being closest to a human in sensibilities. They also have a longer lifespan than most livestock. Elephants exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, including those associated with grief, learning, allomothering, mimicry, play, altruism, use of tools, compassion, cooperation, self-awareness, memory, and language. The adult male elephant occasionally goes through a \"musth\" period, making him dangerously aggressive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1416251",
"title": "African elephant",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and ecology.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "While feeding, elephants use their trunks to pluck at leaves and their tusks to tear at branches, which can cause enormous damage to foliage. A herd may deplete an area of foliage depriving other herbivores for a time. African elephants may eat up to of vegetation per day, although their digestive system is not very efficient; only 40% of this food is properly digested. The foregut fermentation used by ruminants is generally considered more efficient than the hindgut fermentation employed by proboscideans and perissodactyls; however, the ability to process food more rapidly than foregut fermenters gives hindgut fermenters an advantage at very large body size, as they are able to accommodate significantly larger food intakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2273006",
"title": "Columbian mammoth",
"section": "Section::::Paleobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1451,
"text": "Like that of modern elephants, the mammoth's sensitive, muscular trunk was a limb-like organ with many functions. It was used for manipulating objects and social interaction. Although healthy adult mammoths could defend themselves from predators with their tusks, trunks, and size, juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves and big cats. Bones of juvenile Columbian mammoths, accumulated by \"Homotherium\" (the scimitar-toothed cat), have been found in Friesenhahn Cave in Texas. Tusks may have been used in intraspecies fighting for territory or mates and for display, to attract females and intimidate rivals. Two Columbian mammoths that died in Nebraska with tusks interlocked provide evidence of fighting behavior. The mammoths could use their tusks as weapons by thrusting, swiping, or crashing them down, and used them in pushing contests by interlocking them, which sometimes resulted in breakage. The tusks' curvature made them unsuitable for stabbing. On Goat Rock Beach in Sonoma Coast State Park, blueschist and chert outcrops (nicknamed \"Mammoth Rocks\") show evidence of having been rubbed by Columbian mammoths or mastodons. The rocks have polished areas above the ground, primarily near their edges, and are similar to African rubbing rocks used by elephants and other herbivores to rid themselves of mud and parasites. Similar rocks exist in Hueco Tanks, Texas, and on Cornudas Mountain in New Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5656241",
"title": "Stegomastodon",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "\"Stegomastodon mirificus\" is known from NMNH 10707, a roughly 30-year-old male, of which most of the skeleton has been found. Alive, it stood about tall, with a weight around . Like modern elephants, but unlike most of its closer relatives, it had just two tusks, which curved upward and were about long. \"Stegomastodon\"'s molars were covered in enamel and had a complex pattern of ridges and knobbly protrusions on them, giving the creature a large chewing surface that enabled it to eat grass. Its brain weighed about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28237497",
"title": "Mammal tooth",
"section": "Section::::Diversity.:Elephants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Elephants' tusks are specialized incisors for digging food up and fighting. Elephants are polyphyodonts with teeth are similar to those in manatees, and it is notable that elephants are believed to have undergone an aquatic phase in their evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3g5oe2
|
why are female pornstars paid more than male pornstars? isn't that illegal?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it's not illegal to pay one person more than another. It's actually a very common way to do business, based on legitimate business needs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its a basic supply and demand thing. Probably all boys wana shoot porn, but not all girls do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nah, the vast majority of people don't watch straight porn to look at the guys. A lot of porns, like POV style for example, you don't even see the guy's face, he's basically just a prop for the female to perform.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How many beautiful women do you know that are willing to let a complete stranger fuck them in the ass and spray semen on their faces? Now, while you're pondering that I ask you, how many guys do you know that would fuck a beautiful woman they've never met in the ass and spray semen on their face? I believe it all comes down to supply and demand....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is not illegal for two reasons. First, generally speaking, there is nothing illegal about paying people different amounts. There isn't even anything illegal about paying men one amount, and women another amount. This is especially true when the people are in different jobs (like say, \"person with penis in them\" vs. \"person putting penis in someone else\")\n\nWhat is illegal is paying one sex more (or less) than the other because of their sex. So, if it so happens that the CEO is a man, and every other employee is a woman, the CEO getting paid the most doesn't cause any legal issues. Likewise, you can pay Brad Pitt more than Ellen DeGeneres to be in your movie, so long as you're paying him more because he's more famous or negotiated better or something else, and not just because he's a man. \n\nBut, you may be asking, surely it can't be that easy. If I could just only hire one sex for the high paying jobs, and the other sex for the lower paying jobs, then any legal protection for the salaries would be meaningless. And that's true. \n\nBut that's where we get to the second issue, which has two parts. First, as with the pay, to be illegal you'd have to be splitting up your hires based on their sex. So, if you happen to hire all male doctors and all female nurses, it's only a legal issue if you're also turning away female doctors and refusing to hire male nurses. \n\nOf course, that's exactly what's happening in the kind of porn your talking about---they're hiring men for the male roles, and women for the women roles. But that's the second part of this issue: you're allowed to \"discriminate\" by gender when that discrimination is a \"bona fide\" occupational requirement, and for entertainers, gender can be just such a requirement. \n\nIt's the same for porn as it would be for a staging of *A Midsummer Night's Dream*: If in your vision of Othello, the main character has to be an Asian Woman, you are fine to discriminate against non-Asian women when casting the role. Same if you're casting *A MidSummer Night's Cream*. \n\nEDIT: As /u/Cliffy73 points out, the example at the end is a bit flawed. The first amendment is what allows you to cast a play, movie, or porn film using race as a criteria for a part. Race can never be a bona fide occupational qualification. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Female porn stars tend to be the \"product\" to a far greater extent than their male counterparts. No I'm not objectifying women, I'm saying that the consumers (as a rule of thumb) are much more interested in the women than the men and the women are compensated accordingly. As an interesting end note guys participating in gay porn tend to be paid similarly to the women. There was an askreddit thread that discussed most of this a couple weeks ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17322723",
"title": "Pornographic film actor",
"section": "Section::::Industry practices.:Pay rates.:By scene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 2015,
"text": "Payment for pornstars is dependent on the sex acts performed; however, in a single scene, female actresses typically make between $100 and $6000, while male actors make between $100 and $400. In 2017, the Independent reported that female performers in scenes with male performers typically earn around $1,000, compared with $700-800 in scenes with other females. The Independent also claimed that pay rates are subject to variation up or down by around 10-20%, depending on various factors. The Daily Beast claimed in 2019 that female performers could make between $300 and $2500 per scene, depending on their level of experience and the sex acts performed. Higher paid female performers could make around $1200 per scene. The \"Los Angeles Times\" reported, in 2009, that the pay rates for a female actress performing heterosexual scenes were $700 to $1,000. According to the porn website Videobox in 2008, actresses make these rates: Blowjobs: $200–$400; Straight sex: $400–$1,200; Anal sex: $900–$1,500; Double Penetration: $1,200–$1,600; Double anal: $2,000. For more unusual fetishes, women generally get 15% extra. Ron Jeremy has commented that in 2008, \"The average guy gets $300 to $400 a scene, or $100 to $200 if he's new.\" According to producer Seymore Butts in 2007, who runs his own sex-film recruitment agency, as well as producing sex films; \"depending on draw, female performers who perform in both straight and lesbian porn earn more than those who do just heterosexual scenes usually make about US$200–800 while those who only do oral sex (blow job) usually only make about US$100–300 for the scene\". In an 2004 interview conducted by Local10 news of Florida, it was claimed that individuals were offered $700 for sexual intercourse while shooting a scene of the popular series Bang Bus. In 2001, actress Chloe said of pay-rates; \"In Gonzo, you're paid not by the picture, but by the scene. So it's girl-girl: $700, plus $100 for an anal toy. Boy-girl: $900. Anal: $1,100. Solo: $500. DP: $1,500.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1772673",
"title": "Gay-for-pay",
"section": "Section::::Pornography.:Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Male pornographic actors are commonly paid more for homosexual work than heterosexual. There are also more opportunities to become a \"star\" in gay porn than in straight porn, where the attention is on female performers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19186899",
"title": "Gay pornography",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gay-for-pay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Among gay-for-pay actors, there is divided preference for the performance roles of top vs. bottom. It is common for gay-for-pay porn actors to start out as tops before they eventually give in to fan and industry pressure to shoot a scene or more as a bottom. Gay-for-pay actors are typically more comfortable being tops because the role of top is analogous to the \"less gay\" penetrator role of the man in straight sex. On the other hand, some gay-for-pay porn actors prefer to act as bottoms because they can do so without maintaining an erection. The implication here is that they are not even necessarily aroused during sex, making this the \"less gay\" of the two positions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17322723",
"title": "Pornographic film actor",
"section": "Section::::Industry practices.:Pay rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Most male performers in heterosexual porn are paid less than their female counterparts. Some state that homosexual male porn generally pays men much more than heterosexual porn. Men who identify themselves as \"heterosexual\" but perform in gay pornography are said to do gay-for-pay. This means they perform in gay movies only for the paycheck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36973425",
"title": "Feminist pornography",
"section": "Section::::Pro-pornography feminists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "At both large and small pornography studios, men typically marginalize the viewpoints and concerns of women. The studios place more emphasis on what men want because they feel that their products will sell more. Furthermore, these companies will often create a competitive environment which pits women against each other. Black performers often receive only half to three-quarters of what White performers are paid. Just as in other industries, women and men of color face discrimination and disparities in structural and interpersonal forms. Porn industry workers are striving to get more control over their labor and the products they create. The Internet is by far the most efficient and rapid way to democratize the porn industry. There is a range of women from diverse backgrounds who enter the pornography business, such as soccer moms, single mothers, and college students, who are filming themselves and presenting their own pornographic fantasies. The majority of women in pornography feel strongly that society should not treat porn as problematic and socially immoral. However, women in the industry highlight that conditions can be improved, particularly with regard to workers’ rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17322723",
"title": "Pornographic film actor",
"section": "Section::::Industry practices.:Pay rates.:Other payment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Besides appearing in films, porn stars often make money from endorsements and appearance fees. For instance, in 2010, some night clubs were paying female porn stars and Playboy Playmates to appear there to act as draws for the general public; the Los Angeles Times reported that Jesse Jane was paid between $5,000 to $10,000 for one appearance by a Chicago club. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17322723",
"title": "Pornographic film actor",
"section": "Section::::Industry practices.:Pay rates.:Salaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Salaries for female actresses typically range from $60,000 to $400,000, compared with $40,000 for male actors. In 2017, the Independent reported that top porn performers' salaries were around $300,000 to $400,000. In 2011, the manager of Capri Anderson said, \"A contract girl will only shoot for one company, she won't shoot for anyone else. Most actresses in the adult industry are free agents – they'll shoot for anyone. Most contract girls make $60,000 a year. In one year, a contract girl will shoot, on average, four movies and each movie takes about two or three weeks to shoot.\" Ron Jeremy has commented on the salaries of performers, stating in 2008 that \"A woman makes $100,000 to $250,000 at the end of the year.\" and in 2003 that \"Girls can easily make 100-250k per year, plus stuff on the side like strip shows and appearances. The average male makes $40,000 a year.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iw7m2
|
How can Planck's Constant be well... a constant if we know that space itself has and is expanding?
|
[
{
"answer": "Physical constants are immutable with respect to time by definition. If for instance the speed of light would speed up or slow down for some magical reason, it would from a physical stand point be the meter which gets longer or shorter as the speed of light and the passing of time must be constant.\n\nIn your example, the Planck energy:\n\n E=hc/λ (Energy = Planck Constant*speed of light/wavelength) \n\nof a photon would decrease as it propagated through the expanding universe, but since the speed of light and Planck constant are constants, it's the wavelength which gets expanded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > tiny though it is, has dimensions\n\nReading your question leads me to wonder if you think the word \"dimensions\" in this context means that Planck's Constant actually has dimensions like width, length, and height. In this context, when we say that something has dimensions, we're not talking about its size, but the units in which we measure it. The speed of your car has \"dimensions\" because it is measured in \"meters per second,\" or \"miles per hour,\" or more generally in \\[Length\\] per \\[Time\\].\n\nPlanck's constant, in the MKS system, is 6.626⨉10^(-34) kilogram · meter^2 / second. The \"kilogram · meter^2 / second\" part is its dimensions. The universe expands, but not our definitions of meters, kilograms, or seconds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19594213",
"title": "Planck constant",
"section": "Section::::Significance of the value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19594213",
"title": "Planck constant",
"section": "Section::::Significance of the value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The Planck constant is related to the quantization of light and matter. It can be seen as a subatomic-scale constant. In a unit system adapted to subatomic scales, the electronvolt is the appropriate unit of energy and the petahertz the appropriate unit of frequency. Atomic unit systems are based (in part) on the Planck constant. The physical meaning of the Planck's constant could suggest some basic features of our physical world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19594213",
"title": "Planck constant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The Planck constant (denoted , also called Planck's constant) is a physical constant that is the quantum of electromagnetic action, which relates the energy carried by a photon to its frequency. A photon's energy is equal to its frequency multiplied by the Planck constant. The Planck constant is of fundamental importance in quantum mechanics, and in metrology it is the basis for the definition of the kilogram.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174386",
"title": "Planck time",
"section": "Section::::Physical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The Planck time is the unique combination of the gravitational constant , the special-relativistic constant , and the quantum constant , to produce a constant with dimension of time. Because the Planck time comes from dimensional analysis, which ignores constant factors, there is no reason to believe that exactly one unit of Planck time has any special physical significance. Rather, the Planck time represents a rough time scale at which quantum gravitational effects are likely to become important. This essentially means that while smaller units of time can exist, they are so small their effect on our existence is negligible. The nature of those effects, and the exact time scale at which they would occur, would need to be derived from an actual theory of quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33710707",
"title": "Planck units",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "The term \"Planck scale\" refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the Standard Model, quantum field theory and general relativity are no longer reconcilable, and quantum effects of gravity are expected to dominate. This region may be characterized by energies around (the Planck energy), time intervals around (the Planck time) and lengths around (the Planck length). At the Planck scale, current models are not expected to be a useful guide to the cosmos, and physicists have no scientific model to suggest how the physical universe behaves. The best known example is represented by the conditions in the first 10 seconds of our universe after the Big Bang, approximately 13.8 billion years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5173456",
"title": "Scalar field theory",
"section": "Section::::Classical scalar field theory.:Dimensional analysis and scaling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "One conceivable objection is that this theory is classical, and therefore it is not obvious how Planck's constant should be a part of the theory at all. If desired, one could indeed recast the theory without mass dimensions at all: However, this would be at the expense of slightly obscuring the connection with the quantum scalar field. Given that one has dimensions of mass, Planck's constant is thought of here as an essentially \"arbitrary fixed reference quantity of action\" (not necessarily connected to quantization), hence with dimensions appropriate to convert between mass and inverse length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "748908",
"title": "Planck length",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The Planck length is the scale at which quantum gravitational effects are believed to begin to be apparent, where interactions require a working theory of quantum gravity to be analyzed. The Planck area is the area by which the surface of a spherical black hole increases when the black hole swallows one bit of information. To measure anything the size of Planck length, the photon momentum needs to be very large due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and so much energy in such a small space would create a tiny black hole with the diameter of its event horizon equal to a Planck length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kguz1
|
why my torrents go so slow even though there's more seeders than leechers?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are several possibilities. \n\n1. If you are using a public site like piratebay most of those \"seeders\" are probably limiting their upload to a few k/s\n\n2. Your internet provider might be limiting your download over torrents. \n\n3. You might not be connectable the port you are using is not open. This limits who you can connect to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those seeders aren't *only* seeding that particular torrent. They may be seeding ten, thirty, or five hundred torrents at once. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several possibilities. \n\n1. If you are using a public site like piratebay most of those \"seeders\" are probably limiting their upload to a few k/s\n\n2. Your internet provider might be limiting your download over torrents. \n\n3. You might not be connectable the port you are using is not open. This limits who you can connect to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those seeders aren't *only* seeding that particular torrent. They may be seeding ten, thirty, or five hundred torrents at once. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1838905",
"title": "Super-seeding",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Super seeding transfers stall when there is only one downloading client. The seeders will not send more data until a second client receives the data. To avoid this, rTorrent continues to offer more pieces to the peers without waiting for confirmation, until it is uploading at its configured capacity. This improves the upload speed until enough peers have joined the swarm, at the cost of not being able to detect cheating peers, who engage in such anti-social actions as downloading only from seeds, downloading from the fastest peers, or advertising false pieces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1838905",
"title": "Super-seeding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The algorithm applies to a scenario in which there is only one seed in the swarm. By permitting each downloader to download only specific parts of the files listed in a torrent, it equips peers to begin seeding sooner. Peers attached to a seed with super-seeding enabled therefore distribute pieces of the torrent file much more readily before they have completed download themselves. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239098",
"title": "BitTorrent",
"section": "Section::::Technologies built on BitTorrent.:Web seeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "Web \"seeding\" was implemented in 2006 as the ability of BitTorrent clients to download torrent pieces from an HTTP source in addition to the \"swarm\". The advantage of this feature is that a website may distribute a torrent for a particular file or batch of files and make those files available for download from that same web server; this can simplify long-term seeding and load balancing through the use of existing, cheap, web hosting setups. In theory, this would make using BitTorrent almost as easy for a web publisher as creating a direct HTTP download. In addition, it would allow the \"web seed\" to be disabled if the swarm becomes too popular while still allowing the file to be readily available. This feature has two distinct specifications, both of which are supported by Libtorrent and the 26+ clients that use it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2349829",
"title": "Leecher (computing)",
"section": "Section::::P2P networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "However, on most BitTorrent tracker sites, the term \"leecher\" is used for all users who are not seeders (which means they do not have the complete file yet). As BitTorrent clients usually begin to upload files almost as soon as they have started to download them, such users are usually not freeloaders (people who don't upload data at all to the swarm). Therefore, this kind of leeching is considered to be a legitimate practice. Reaching an upload/download ratio of 1:1 (meaning that the user has uploaded as much as they downloaded) in a BitTorrent client is considered a minimum in the etiquette of that network. In the terminology of these BitTorrent sites, a leech becomes a seeder (a provider of the file) when they finished downloading and continues to run the client. They will remain a seeder until the file is removed or destroyed (settings enable the torrent to stop seeding at a certain share ratio, or after X hours have passed seeding).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239098",
"title": "BitTorrent",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Downloading torrents and sharing files.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "Although \"swarming\" scales well to tolerate \"flash crowds\" for popular content, it is less useful for unpopular or niche market content. Peers arriving after the initial rush might find the content unavailable and need to wait for the arrival of a \"seed\" in order to complete their downloads. The seed arrival, in turn, may take long to happen (this is termed the \"seeder promotion problem\"). Since maintaining seeds for unpopular content entails high bandwidth and administrative costs, this runs counter to the goals of publishers that value BitTorrent as a cheap alternative to a client-server approach. This occurs on a huge scale; measurements have shown that 38% of all new torrents become unavailable within the first month. A strategy adopted by many publishers which significantly increases availability of unpopular content consists of bundling multiple files in a single swarm. More sophisticated solutions have also been proposed; generally, these use cross-torrent mechanisms through which multiple torrents can cooperate to better share content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1838905",
"title": "Super-seeding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In file sharing, super-seeding (aka 'Initial Seeding') is an algorithm developed by John Hoffman for the BitTorrent communications protocol that helps downloaders to be able to become uploaders more quickly, but it introduces the danger of total seeding failure if there is only one downloader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13391779",
"title": "Seedbox",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "Seedboxes generally make use of the BitTorrent protocol for uploading and downloading files, although they have also been used on the eDonkey2000 network. Seedboxes are usually connected to a high-speed network, often with a throughput of 100 Mbit/s or even 1 Gbit/s. Some providers are testing and offering 10 Gbit/s shared servers, while others are developing other systems that will allow users to scale their needs on the fly. Files are downloaded from the torrent site and its users, and from there they can be downloaded at high speeds to a user's personal computer via the HTTP, FTP, SFTP, or rsync protocols. This allows for anonymity and, usually, removes the need to worry about share ratio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b17v4i
|
Vikings and winged helmets?
|
[
{
"answer": "You could really cover all the basics of Iron Age Norse helmets in a few paragraphs. There are a few helmets from fancy ship burials in Sweden from the Vendel Age (550-800), the centuries preceding the Viking Age. Examples would be [Vendel I](_URL_8_) from Vendel (these very finds gave name to the age), [Vendel XIV](_URL_13_), [Valsgärde VII](_URL_7_) and [Valsgärde VIII](_URL_10_) from Valsgärde. The numbers are which grave they're from; the two sites are about 25 km from each other, both not far north of Old Uppsala in Uppland, Sweden. There's also the [Ulltuna helmet](_URL_0_) which is a bit different but with some common features. It's often remarked upon that these also have many similarities to the [Sutton Hoo helmet](_URL_16_) from England, which is contemporary Anglo-Saxon one, also from a fancy grave. This right here is most of the reasonably-complete helmets contemporary with the Vendel Age. For instance from Norway there are only 3 confirmed helmet fragments from the era. \n\nAs these are elaborate grave goods from elaborate royal tombs (that contained ships, animal sacrifices and lots and lots of other stuff), they probably don't represent what the average Sven was wearing at the time. It also seems a bit unlikely someone would go into battle with a garnet-encrusted helmet like Valsgärde VII. Which hasn't stopped plenty of Viking fiction for utilizing the designs though.\n\nThere are also decorations from the Vendel Age such as the [Torslunda plaes](_URL_11_) which depict apparently-ceremonial helmets with boars and animals on them, and one guy with big horned helmets and a bear-like warrior. (we don't really know exactly what these depict, although there's no shortage of theories) A similar picture of guys with big-horned helmets holding spears, is on the Sutton Hoo helmet. Together these are called the ['dancing warrior'](_URL_17_) motif. It's possible this referred to some kind of ceremonial helmet that actually existed in the Vendel Period, but we haven't found one. (it's not the source of the horned-viking helmet idea though) The type of helmet with the boar has been found in England, with the [Benty Grange helmet](_URL_3_) (7th cent). Again showing cultural connections between the Norse and Anglo Saxon world.\n\nBut from the Viking Age, there is only a single helmet fragment that's reasonably whole, which is the [Gjermundbu helmet](_URL_12_), dated to the 950s. It's a simpler and less design than the Vendel helmets but similar, and was formerly decked out with gold, and likely had the same ceremonial purpose. The [Lokrume fragment](_URL_2_) from Gotland and [Tjele fragment](_URL_15_) from Denmark. Both fragments are of the characteristic 'eyebrow' bits which is how they could easily be identified as helmet fragments.\n\nThere are a couple more fragments but this is basically it, all the known helmet and helmet fragments from Viking Age Scandinavia and the preceding three centuries. \n\nSo not only no horns nor wings, but not a heck of a lot of evidence they even wore helmets _at all._ Now, the Sagas and Eddas do mention the wearing of helmets here and there. Some of them are even made of gold. And that's the thing; the stories are about kings and heroes and gods, so again we can't expect them to tell us much about the regular people. \n\nThere _are_ Viking Age artistic depictions of helmets though; such as the [Rällinge statue](_URL_4_). This figure, which has been suggested to represent Freyr (on the basis of him having an erection, ergo fertility god) is wearing a pointy helmet with a nose guard. You can find a similar helmet depicted on the 11th century [Ledberg Stone](_URL_1_) (which has been suggested to be Odin despite the cross on the stone, mainly on the basis of him holding a spear). These kinds of helmets - [nasal helmets](_URL_5_) did exist in contemporary Europe. Quite famously there's a lot of them on the [Bayeux tapestry](_URL_14_) illustrating William the Conqueror's conquest of England (so, 1066). \n\nBut as we've seen, if vikings had nasal helmets, they've not left any concrete trace of it. (by comparison, there have been thousands of spear-tips and hundreds of swords found) So if you assume they did have these helmets, the question is why they're not here. (not least when there's often so much other stuff in graves) And that just requires further assumptions so you don't really get anywhere. \n\nSo there's no real consensus about actual Viking helmets; whether they had any or what they looked like if they did. One narrative is that they may have had less-ornate versions of the Vendel/Valsgärde helmets in that period, and Gjermundbu being end-of-the line model as they shifted over to nasal helmets. At the opposite end of the spectrum, one could imagine they had no helmets at all, except for these ceremonial/status-symbol ones.\n\nThe portrayal of Vikings as having horned helmets as well as winged helmets are thus not based in history at all but 19th century Viking-Romantic imagery. For instance, the Swedish painter August Malmström's paintings [illustrating Frithiof's Saga](_URL_6_) he gave the hero a winged helmet. Otherwise _horned_ helmets seem to belong mainly to the English Viking-Romantic art, such as [Dicksee's \"Funeral of a Viking\"](_URL_9_). (also illustrating the burning-ship-burial trope) The costume design for Wagner's Ring Cycle is often credited with creating the horned-helmet trope, and if so it likely created or contributed much to the winged-helmet trope as well, as there are plenty of winged helmets in it too. (e.g. Brunnhilde often has one) \n\nSo anyway, we know so little that if you've read this far, you too are now a bit of an expert on Viking Age helmets. But there's every reason to hope and believe another find will be made some day that'll advance our knowledge on the topic. (actually so many large burial mounds remain unexcavated it's practically a guarantee another helmet find will be made, some day)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you so much, especially for all the links! I swear reddit is way more helpful than the entirety of the rest of the internet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610",
"title": "Vikings",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Common misconceptions.:Horned helmets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Viking helmets were conical, made from hard leather with wood and metallic reinforcement for regular troops. The iron helmet with mask and mail was for the chieftains, based on the previous Vendel-age helmets from central Sweden. The only original Viking helmet discovered is the Gjermundbu helmet, found in Norway. This helmet is made of iron and has been dated to the 10th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1091379",
"title": "Viking Age arms and armour",
"section": "Section::::Armor.:Helmet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "From runestones and other illustrations, it is known that the Vikings also wore simpler helmets, often caps with a simple noseguard. Research indicates that Vikings may have only rarely used metal helmets. Helmets with metal horns, presumably for ceremonial use, are known from the Nordic Bronze Age, 2,000 years prior to the Viking Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610",
"title": "Vikings",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Common misconceptions.:Horned helmets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
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"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The Vikings were often depicted with winged helmets and in other clothing taken from Classical antiquity, especially in depictions of Norse gods. This was done to legitimise the Vikings and their mythology by associating it with the Classical world, which had long been idealised in European culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44563788",
"title": "Viking raid warfare and tactics",
"section": "Section::::Common weapons.:Defensive equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Only the wealthiest Vikings could afford helmets, as they were expensive. The one piece of defensive equipment that every warrior had was a shield. The shield itself was round and not oval shaped which made it easier to carry and move with; however, it left the legs and some of the lower body exposed. Shields were made out of soft wood, unlike any other shields in existence at the time. This was done in order to allow the shield to bend and give a small amount to prevent them from breaking as often. In addition to this, the weapons of their enemies sometimes became stuck in the shield, allowing the Viking an opportunity to kill them. Shields had handholds on the inside and were about 1 m in diameter (about 3 ft).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56183777",
"title": "Lokrume helmet fragment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The fragment is from around the 10th century AD, and is one of five Viking helmets to survive in any condition; the others are another fragment from Gotland, one from Kiev, the Tjele helmet fragment from Denmark, and the Gjermundbu helmet from Norway. These are all examples of the \"crested helmets\" that entered use in Europe around the 6th century, and are derivatives of the earlier Anglo-Saxon and Vendel Period helmets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610",
"title": "Vikings",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Common misconceptions.:Horned helmets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Apart from two or three representations of (ritual) helmets—with protrusions that may be either stylised ravens, snakes, or horns—no depiction of the helmets of Viking warriors, and no preserved helmet, has horns. The formal, close-quarters style of Viking combat (either in shield walls or aboard \"ship islands\") would have made horned helmets cumbersome and hazardous to the warrior's own side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54398274",
"title": "Tjele helmet fragment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Tjele helmet fragment is a Viking Age fragment of iron and bronze, originally comprising the eyebrows and noseguard of a helmet. It was discovered in 1850 with a large assortment of smith's tools in Denmark, and though the find was sent to the National Museum of Denmark, for 134 years the fragment was mistaken for a saddle mount. In 1984 it was properly identified by an assistant keeper at the museum as the remainder of one of only five known helmets from the Viking era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fxnvov
|
How did Hitler finance the industrial build up to WW2? The story’s of wheelbarrow bread buyers would make one assume it be impossible to ramp up such huge industrial undertaking... where did the money come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "He did the same thing most modern economies do. Deficit spending. \n\nHitler and his Finance minister, Hjalmar Schacht, knew that simply printing money to pay for rearmament would lead to inflation, so they decided to re-finance industry by using credit. Schacht and the largest German industrial firms teamed up and issued \"Mefo\" bills. Mefo was short for \"Mettalurgische Forschungsgesellschaft\" - Mettalurgical Research corporation.\n\nSimply put, they used these bills instead of money. They were guaranteed by the state and could be exchanged for Cash at the Reichsbank. They also regulated the Mefo bills so each bill issued was tied to a batch of newly produced goods. This way, they were able to avoid inflation. Unfortunately, this eventually led to a huge amount of internal state Debt, which was fine for Hitler. His end goal was to expand his \"German Reich\" by invading Europe, and debt gave him the opportunity to make everyone see things his way.\n\nTo make the most of the opportunities presented by the Mefo Bills, Hitler also instituted other controls. First and foremost, Hitler cracked down on labor unions not affiliated with the Nazis. This was intended to stop unions from advocating for rights and benefits for workers, which allowed Employers and Big Businesses to spend more money on investing to expand their businesses, since they could cut down on their Employees' wages and other assorted benefits. Also, in order to be able to participate in the Mefo scheme, Businesses would have to agree to re-invest most of their earnings (62%) into rearmament and the economy.\n\nIn summary, the money came from thin air. Hitler and Schacht issued Mefo bills that were essentially promissory notes/IOUs, which German big businesses used as credit to finance rearmament. \n\nReferences\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nETA: links and spelling fixed",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "Section::::Post-war controversy.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "After the war, Albert Speer claimed that the German economy achieved greater armaments output, not because of diversions of capacity from civilian to military industry but through streamlining of the economy. Richard Overy pointed out some 23 percent of German output was military by 1939. Between 1937 and 1939, 70 percent of investment capital went into the rubber, synthetic fuel, aircraft and shipbuilding industries. Hermann Göring had consistently stated that the task of the Four Year Plan was to rearm Germany for total war. Hitler's correspondence with his economists also reveals that his intent was to wage war in 1943–1945, when the resources of central Europe had been absorbed into the \"Third Reich\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21212",
"title": "Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:Wartime economy and forced labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1195,
"text": "In 1942, after the death of Armaments Minister Fritz Todt, Hitler appointed Albert Speer as his replacement. Wartime rationing of consumer goods led to an increase in personal savings, funds which were in turn lent to the government to support the war effort. By 1944, the war was consuming 75 percent of Germany's gross domestic product, compared to 60 percent in the Soviet Union and 55 percent in Britain. Speer improved production by centralising planning and control, reducing production of consumer goods, and using forced labour and slavery. The wartime economy eventually relied heavily upon the large-scale employment of slave labour. Germany imported and enslaved some 12 million people from 20 European countries to work in factories and on farms. Approximately 75 percent were Eastern European. Many were casualties of Allied bombing, as they received poor air raid protection. Poor living conditions led to high rates of sickness, injury, and death, as well as sabotage and criminal activity. The wartime economy also relied upon large-scale robbery, initially through the state seizing the property of Jewish citizens and later by plundering the resources of occupied territories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144657",
"title": "Alfred P. Sloan",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Nazi collaboration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Defending the German investment strategy as \"highly profitable\", Alfred P. Sloan told shareholders in 1939 GM's continued industrial production for the Nazi government was merely sound business practice. In a letter to a concerned shareholder, Sloan said that the manner in which the Nazi government ran Germany \"should not be considered the business of the management of General Motors...We must conduct ourselves as a German organization. . . We have no right to shut down the plant.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10561838",
"title": "History of General Motors",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Nazi collaboration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "In 1939, defending the German investment strategy as \"highly profitable\", Alfred P. Sloan had told shareholders that GM's continued industrial production for the Nazi government was merely sound business practice. In a letter to a concerned shareholder, Sloan said that the manner in which the Nazi government ran Germany \"should not be considered the business of the management of General Motors...We must conduct ourselves as a German organization. . . We have no right to shut down the plant.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44551490",
"title": "European interwar economy",
"section": "Section::::Germany’s Fascist Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Hitler completely reorganized the economic landscape in Germany. The economic chamber of the Third Reich consisted of over two hundred organizations and national councils involved in industry, commercial, and craft lines. Large public works programs, such as the construction of the Autobahn, stimulated the economy and reduced unemployment. These programs also prevented the recurrence of inflation, which plagued the German economy immediately following World War 1 and led to widespread civil unrest. As the economy slowly recovered under the Nazi Party, Hitler adapted the economy to cater towards war preparations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2731583",
"title": "Adolf Hitler",
"section": "Section::::Nazi Germany.:Economy and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "In August 1934, Hitler appointed \"Reichsbank\" President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews. Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936. Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25 percent. The average work week increased during the shift to a war economy; by 1939, the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "Section::::Post-war controversy.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Adam Tooze wrote that the German economy was being prepared for a long war. The expenditure for this war was extensive and put the economy under severe strain. The German leadership were concerned less with how to balance the civilian economy and the needs of civilian consumption but to figure out how to best prepare the economy for total war. Once war had begun, Hitler urged his economic experts to abandon caution and expend all available resources on the war effort but the expansion plans only gradually gained momentum in 1941. Tooze wrote that the huge armament plans in the pre-war period did not indicate any clear-sighted blitzkrieg economy or strategy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
41gkl8
|
how do artists who don't make their own music... get their music?
|
[
{
"answer": "Songs are bought by music producers from writers either on spec or commissioned and then given to the artist to test out and possibly record. Commercial music artists pretty much just record the vocals of songs in studios, and then they are mixed with hired gun musicians (aka studio musicians). They are the front of businesses, they don't have a lot to say on what they sing or what is released. They're expensive popular employees.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3929577",
"title": "Mechanical license",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Musicians often use this license for self-promotion. For instance, a cellist who performed a musical work on a recording may obtain a mechanical license so he can distribute copies of the recording to others as an example of his cello playing. Recording artists also use this when they record cover versions of songs. This is common among artists who don't usually write their own songs. In the United States, this is required by copyright law regardless whether or not the copies are for commercial sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1821528",
"title": "Stupid Dream",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1363,
"text": "\"When I was writing some of the songs of the album I was very much aware of this contradiction between being an artist, being a musician, trying to be creative and write songs and, then, at the point you finish an album, the music is finished, the creative side is finished, you then have to go out and sell and market and promote. And that's like a completely different experience. It's not a very creative process. It's quite - in some ways - a cynical process going on having to sell your music. But you have to do it. I mean, if a modern musician is going to survive as a musician, you have to - in a sense - 'prostitute yourself' to try and sell your music and your art. And I was very much aware of that contradiction. If you think about that too much, it can drive you crazy, you know. It's an absurd thing to be doing. That kind of led me thinking about when I was a teenager, when I was just starting out and I was interested in being a musician. And I think a lot of teenage kids have this dream of being pop stars, of being a professional musician. This 'stupid dream' of being famous and 'life is a ball and everything is wonderful'. And, of course, actually the reality is that being a professional musician is a very hard work. It can be very heartbreaking, there's a lot of disappointment, there's a lot of hard work, there's a lot of travelling.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7468123",
"title": "Michael Wagener",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "\"Some [bands] are very open minded and you can make suggestions about musical changes or ideas and they will pick it up and make it their own. Others don't want a lot of outside influences, because they are scared it would take away from their creativity or credit. In those cases, if you want to achieve a certain result, you have to plant a \"creative seed\" which, in a few days will turn into the result you are looking for, but it still seems like it was all the idea of the musician him/herself. The downside, of course is, that the musician looks at it as if he did ALL the work and the producer \"didn't really do anything\". The logical next step for those kind of musicians is to produce their next album themselves, their ego telling them they don't need a producer and, like in the above mentioned case, they might fall flat on their face, and come up with an album that doesn't sell anywhere near what the previous one did.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4537000",
"title": "Unsigned artist",
"section": "Section::::Record labels.:Independent vanity record labels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Artists can also create their own record labels and sell their music under the label's imprint as well. Services such as Nimbit gives facilities for independent musicians to release their music independently as well as under a record label create by artist itself. Other efforts made in this field include Magnatune, an independent record label based in Berkeley, California, United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4537000",
"title": "Unsigned artist",
"section": "Section::::History and current scene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Many unsigned artists used to sell their music and music-related merchandise without the financial support of a record label, while often seeking a recording contract through the recording of demos. Recently, the Internet has helped promote independent artistic material. Artists tend to post their music on websites such as MySpace, and ILike, and sometimes have their music played on podcast shows like Kooba Radio. In recent times, artists such as Nine Inch Nails and Radiohead, who once had major label record deals, have started to release their music independently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17343536",
"title": "New Music Economy",
"section": "Section::::Term usage history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Bands, artists & labels are able to utilize music licensing for opportunity. Businesses are legally required to pay for the music they use to promote their product. Music has a positive effect on consumer behavior\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53093210",
"title": "Art release",
"section": "Section::::Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Musical performers often self-release (self-publish) their recordings without the involvement of an established record label. While some acts who enjoy local or small scale popularity have started their own labels in order to release their music through stores, others simply sell the music directly to customers, for example, making it available to those at their live concerts. With the growth of the Internet as a medium for publicizing and distributing music, many musical acts have sold their recordings over the Internet without a label. Unlike self-publishing a novel, which is usually done only when no other options exist, even well-established musicians will choose to self-release recordings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1v0lpe
|
Why did the Neanderthals (200,000 BCE - 30,000 BCE) start burying their dead?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not to discourage any responses, but this is more of a question for /r/askanthropology/ since it pre-dates written history. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14825120",
"title": "Paleolithic religion",
"section": "Section::::Middle Paleolithic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Though disputed, evidence suggests that the Neanderthals were the first humans to intentionally bury the dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. Exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "723048",
"title": "Grave goods",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "There are disputed claims of intentional burial of Neanderthals as old as 130,000 years. Similar claims have been made for early anatomically modern humans as old as 100,000 years. The earliest undisputed cases of burials are found in modern human sites of the Upper Palaeolithic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3095774",
"title": "Religious instinct",
"section": "Section::::Observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Archaeologists have established the existence of burial rituals among Neanderthals some 50,000 years ago: their appearance has sometimes been taken as evidence of the human capacity to \"transform\" instinct, rather than to be driven by it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27298083",
"title": "Neanderthal",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Claims that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead, and if they did, whether such burials had any symbolic meaning, are heavily contested. The debate on deliberate Neanderthal burials has been active since the 1908 discovery of the well-preserved Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 skeleton in a small hole in a cave in southwestern France. In this controversy's most recent installment, a team of French researchers reinvestigated the Chapelle-aux-Saints cave and in January 2014 reasserted the century-old claim that the 1908 Neanderthal specimen had been deliberately buried, and this has in turn been heavily criticised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35277096",
"title": "Gibraltar 1",
"section": "Section::::Gibraltar as a refuge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Until the late twentieth century, it was believed that the last Neanderthals disappeared about 35,000 years ago. However, studies have suggested that Neanderthals survived in southern Iberia and Gibraltar to less than 30,000 years before the present. Radiocarbon dating performed on charcoal in Gorham's Cave in Gibraltar in 2006 suggests that Neanderthals lived there 24,000 to 28,000 years ago, well after the arrival of \"Homo sapiens\" in Europe 40,000 years ago. Vanguard Cave and Gorham's Cave are still the sites of active archaeological excavation in 2012. These caves may have represented the refugium of Gibraltar's Neanderthals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19004606",
"title": "Timeline of religion",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.:50th to 11th millennium BCE.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "BULLET::::- 35-000-26,000 BCE:Neanderthal burials are absent from the archaeological record. This roughly coincides with the time period of the Homo sapiens' introduction to Europe and decline of the Neanderthals; individual skulls and/or long bones began appearing, heavily stained with red ochre and separately buried. This practice may be the origin of sacred relics. The oldest discovered \"Venus figurines\" appeared in graves. Some were deliberately broken or repeatedly stabbed, possibly representing the murders of the men with whom they were buried, or owing to some other unknown social dynamic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19011806",
"title": "Evolutionary origin of religions",
"section": "Section::::Prehistoric evidence of religion.:Paleolithic burials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Neanderthals are also contenders for the first hominids to intentionally bury the dead. They may have placed corpses into shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. The presence of these grave goods may indicate an emotional connection with the deceased and possibly a belief in the afterlife. Neanderthal burial sites include Shanidar in Iraq and Krapina in Croatia and Kebara Cave in Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20janf
|
why are gas stations still advertising gas as unleaded?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not all engines that use gasoline use unleaded gasoline. It's best to specify lest somebody fill up their gas tank and find their engine doesn't work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only place I believe you can buy leaded fuel is an airport. It still exists and can case damage to modern cars emission systems. I would speculate it clears manufactures from liability if someone where to fill their tank up with it, or add it as an additive. \n\nTetraethyllead (lead) was added to fuel to increase fuel stability which allowed higher compression ratios and subsequently power. Obviously breathing it is bad and it didn't play well with catalytic converters. Unleaded cars have hardened valve seats to combat valve wear. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61260",
"title": "Filling station",
"section": "Section::::Fuel prices.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Due to heavy fluctuations of gasoline price in the United States, some gas stations offer their customers the option to buy and store gas for future uses, such as the service provided by First Fuel Bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38801111",
"title": "Generic Advertisement Service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Generic Advertisement Service (GAS): An IEEE 802.11u service that provides over-the-air transportation for frames of higher-layer advertisements between Wi-Fi stations (802.11 Stations) or between a server in an external network and a station. GAS may be used prior stations are authenticated, or associated to a wireless Access Point (AP) in a Basic Service Set (BSS). GAS supports higher-layer protocols that employ a query/response mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46934903",
"title": "Firebird 2015 AD",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "In the year 2015 the US government outlaws the distribution of gasoline to the public, reserving it only for the politicians, the Military and law enforcement. While it is implied this is due to a fuel shortage, later dialogue rebuffs this stating that gasoline is in abundance. Civilians are also banned from owning or using any form of motor vehicle, and those that do are refer to as Burners who do so as a form of rebellion. Burners however are monitored and dealt with harshly by the DVC; The Department of Vehicle Control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2944393",
"title": "Gasoline theft",
"section": "Section::::Theft from station.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Gasoline theft (sometimes known colloquially as fill and fly, gas and dash, and drive-off) is the removal of gasoline from a station without payment. The thief will usually use some form of decoy to prevent nearby witnesses from noticing the lack of payment until they have left the station. Common decoys include pretending to press the wrong buttons after swiping the credit card, or having multiple people get gas at the same time with one paying for another person and the other running off with both cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3030216",
"title": "Gasoline price website",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The main utility of these websites is that they allow users to find the lowest price of gasoline in their area, since gasoline prices often vary significantly between gas stations in the same neighborhood. In addition to listing prices for particular filling stations, some of sites also show the average cost of gasoline in the area and price trends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33589",
"title": "Walmart",
"section": "Section::::Operating divisions.:Walmart U.S..:Walmart Supercenter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Some locations also have fuel stations which sell gasoline distributed by Murphy USA (which spun off from Murphy Oil in 2013), Sunoco, Inc. (\"Optima\"), the Tesoro Corporation (\"Mirastar\"), USA Gasoline, and even now Walmart-branded gas stations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47419",
"title": "Convenience store",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Some convenience stores in the United States also sell gasoline. Only 2,500 stores had self-serve at the pump by 1969. It was not until the 1970s that retailers realized selling gasoline could be profitable—and competitive. In 2011, there were approximately 47,195 gas stations with convenience stores that generated $326 billion in revenue. Out of those over 3,008 of the gas stations had gas station TV installed at the gas station pumps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ao8d23
|
physiologically how do some scents cause certain animals to panic in fear even if they are naive to the origin of the scent?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not about smells but there's a cool paper on how water fleas develop protective helmets and longer tail spines in response to a chemical from a fish predator. \n\nEven if they've never met the fish before they will develop these traits. This means that the response was inherited from their parents because they realise that the chemical means \"crap there's a fish better armour up so it doesn't eat me\" and that message was passed through their DNA.\n\nThey also found that if the populations weren't exposed to the fish predators for many generations then they respond slower. So the link between the chemical and the need to protect themselves gets weaker over time if they haven't seen the fish in a while.\n\nHere's a blog about the paper, probably explains it better than me: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Psychological.:Evolutionary psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "When people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased bloodflow in the amygdala. In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49033",
"title": "Epigenetics",
"section": "Section::::Psychology and psychiatry.:Fear conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Studies on mice have shown that certain conditional fears can be inherited from either parent. In one example, mice were conditioned to fear a strong scent, acetophenone, by accompanying the smell with an electric shock. Consequently, the mice learned to fear the scent of acetophenone alone. It was discovered that this fear could be passed down to the mice offspring. Despite the offspring never experiencing the electric shock themselves the mice still displayed a fear of the acetophenone scent, because they inherited the fear epigenetically by site-specific DNA methylation. These epigenetic changes lasted up to two generations without reintroducing the shock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665492",
"title": "Toxiphobia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Toxiphobia in animals is rejection of foods with tastes, odors, or appearances which are followed by illness resulted from toxins found in these foods. In humans, toxiphobia is fear of poisons and being poisoned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4906415",
"title": "Mister Fear",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Mister Fear employs a compound based on the flight scent pheromone—chemicals produced by most animals, used to communicate a variety of simple messages over distances. This flight-scent pheromone stimulates fear reactions in herd animals. The drug is tailored for human beings, whose reactions to pheromones are not completely understood. It induces severe anxiety, fear, and panic, and sometimes nightmarish hallucinations in his victims, rendering them incapable of fighting or resisting his will. The drug is most commonly used in the form of gas pellets shot from a gun. The pellets rupture on contact, releasing the flight scent, which is inhaled by the victim. The dosage contained in one pellet is enough to incapacitate a normal adult male for about 15 minutes, or an exceptionally fit male, such as Daredevil, for about five minutes. The side effects of anxiety, edginess, and mild nausea can persist for several days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10828",
"title": "Fear",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Neurocircuit in mammals.:Pheromones and why fear can be contagious.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "In threatening situations insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones (\"Schreckstoff\" in German). This is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31532584",
"title": "Open field (animal test)",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Animals such as rats and mice display a natural aversion to brightly lit open areas. However, they also have a drive to explore a perceived threatening stimulus. Decreased levels of anxiety lead to increased exploratory behavior. Increased anxiety will result in less locomotion and a preference to stay close to the walls of the field (thigmotaxis).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57628",
"title": "Multiple chemical sensitivity",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In addition to extreme sensitivity to low concentrations of certain chemicals, several hypotheses have been proposed. The distinction between physiological and psychological causes is often difficult to test, and it is particularly challenging for MCS because many substances used to test for sensitivity have a strong odor. Odor cues make double blind studies of MCS patients difficult, as scents can provoke a psychosomatic response or recall expectations and prior beliefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k0tqi
|
Might the radioactive water from Fukushima create radioactive rain on the west coast of the United States?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a [team in Berkeley which measures radiation in rainwater](_URL_0_). They found some I-131 during the weeks after the meltdown, but quickly fell below detectable levels, and has stayed that way ever since.\n\nFood took a little bit longer, but they [haven't found anything in quite a while at this point](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31275000",
"title": "Radiation effects from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::Total emissions.:Water releases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "A year after the disaster, in April 2012, sea fish caught near the Fukushima power plant still contain as much radioactive Cs and Cs compared to fish caught in the days after the disaster. At the end of October 2012 TEPCO admitted that it could not exclude radioactivity releases into the ocean, although the radiation levels were stabilised. Undetected leaks into the ocean from the reactors, could not be ruled out, because their basements remain flooded with cooling water, and the 2,400-foot-long steel and concrete wall between the site's reactors and the ocean, that should reach 100 feet underground, was still under construction, and would not be finished before mid-2014. Around August 2012 two greenling were caught close to the Fukushima shore, they contained more than 25 kBq per kilogram of caesium, the highest caesium levels found in fish since the disaster and 250 times the government's safety limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39343070",
"title": "Jinshan Nuclear Power Plant",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "In August 2013, it was reported that there might have been radioactive water leaks for three years from the storage pools of the nuclear power plant's two reactors. Official from Taipower said that the water might come from different sources, such as condensation water or water used for cleaning up the floors. The water however has been collected in a reservoir next to the storage pools used for spent nuclear rods and has been recycled back into the storage pools, thus is claimed to pose no threat to the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8161728",
"title": "Sizewell nuclear power stations",
"section": "Section::::Sizewell A.:Decommissioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "On 7 January 2007 a contractor working on the decommissioning of the station noticed water leaking on to the floor of the laundry where he was washing his clothes. The water was found to be cooling water from the pond that holds the reactor's spent nuclear fuel which had dropped more than without activating any of the alarms. It is estimated that up to 40,000 gallons (151,500 litres) of radioactive water had leaked from a 15 ft (4.6 m) split in a pipe, with some spilling into the North Sea. According to the HM Nuclear Installation Inspectorate's report of the incident, without the chance intervention of the contractor, the pond could have drained before the next scheduled plant inspection. If the exposed irradiated fuel had caught fire, it would have resulted in an airborne off-site release of radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31167895",
"title": "Timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::December 2011.:Saturday, 3 December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 257,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 257,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Forty-five tons of highly radioactive water leaked from the apparatus being used to decontaminate the water at the plant. Plant workers attempted to contain the leak, but it was unknown if any of the water escaped into the water table or the ocean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31162817",
"title": "Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Radioactive contamination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Radioactive material was released from the containment vessels for several reasons: deliberate venting to reduce gas pressure, deliberate discharge of coolant water into the sea, and uncontrolled events. Concerns about the possibility of a large scale release led to a exclusion zone around the power plant and recommendations that people within the surrounding zone stay indoors. Later, the UK, France, and some other countries told their nationals to consider leaving Tokyo, in response to fears of spreading contamination. In 2015, the tap water contamination was still higher in Tokyo compared to other cities in Japan. Trace amounts of radioactivity, including iodine-131, caesium-134, and caesium-137, were widely observed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31162817",
"title": "Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Radioactive contamination.:Contamination in the eastern Pacific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 1559,
"text": "In March 2014, numerous news sources, including NBC, began predicting that the radioactive underwater plume traveling through the Pacific Ocean would reach the western seaboard of the continental United States. The common story was that the amount of radioactivity would be harmless and temporary once it arrived. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration measured caesium-134 at points in the Pacific Ocean and models were cited in predictions by several government agencies to announce that the radiation would not be a health hazard for North American residents. Groups, including Beyond Nuclear and the Tillamook Estuaries Partnership, challenged these predictions on the basis of continued isotope releases after 2011, leading to a demand for more recent and comprehensive measurements as the radioactivity made its way east. These measurements were taken by a cooperative group of organizations under the guidance of a marine chemist with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and revealed that total radiation levels, of which only a fraction bore the fingerprint of Fukushima, were not high enough to pose any direct risk to human life and in fact were far less than Environmental Protection Agency guidelines or several other sources of radiation exposure deemed safe. Integrated Fukushima Ocean Radionuclide Monitoring project (InFORM) also failed to show any significant amount of radiation and as a result its authors received death threats from supporters of a Fukushima-induced \"wave of cancer deaths across North America\" theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31275000",
"title": "Radiation effects from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::Radiation at the plant site.:Discharge to seawater and contaminated sealife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In addition to the large releases of contaminated water (520 tons and 4.7 PBq) believed to have leaked from unit 2 from mid-March until early April, another release of radioactive water is believed to have contaminated the sea from unit 3, because on 16 May TEPCO announced seawater measurements of 200 Bq per cubic centimeter of caesium-134, 220 Bq per cubic centimeter of caesium-137, and unspecified high levels of iodine shortly after discovering a unit-3 leak.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
72fyow
|
Sensitive, somewhat weepy male characters abound in late 18th c. Gothic novels and are not presented as unmanly or unattractive. Is there any truth in the claim I've occasionally seen that men's crying was more socially acceptable before the Industrial Revolution than it has been ever since?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hopefully it is acceptable to ask for context? Which characters and novels specifically are you thinking of?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was hailed by a mod. I have barely posted here in years, but this is fun and I love this stuff. Forgive my rustiness, I am in another career field now.\n\nLet's go!\n\nAll this socially acceptable crying is part of a movement called Romanticism. \n\nRomanticism comes to us on the heels of the Napoleonic challenge; Napoleon Bonaparte has gone and overthrown the balance of Europe, and the region is righting itself again after war. Decades of it. Three million people in Europe are dead because of the French Revolution and Napoleon's grab for power, you've got conservatism rising to denounce revolution as anarchy, you've got a demand to return to \"property rights, prejudice, and tradition.\" (Thanks, Edmond Burke.) And you know what prejudice is? Old traditions. Burke says things based on thousands of years of tradition deserve respect! The throne and the altar are important pillars of strength, and by going against them, you've undermined all of society! If we're going to restore the countries of Europe to some sort of stability and power, let the old traditions be our moral compass!\n\nYou know what that means?\n\nConstitutional monarchy is back! So the monarchies have been restored, most based on legitimacy, including the French one. \n\nDo we have the order that everyone wanted? \n\nNo! It's never that easy!\n\nThe British aristocracy doesn't want to loosen its grip; they suspended habeas corpus so they could war with France, suppressing their own population with the abolishment of rights of man and freedom of expression, as well as the criminalization of demands for political reform. (This is where the Peterloo Massacre happens.) And over in France, Napoleon has left a power vacuum of censorship, and the revamped education system has kicked out any trace of liberalism, giving the Church serious power. And if you keep going East, it gets harsher; Austria is laying down the Metternich system in the Germanic states, which will rule for the next forty years, blacklisting anyone who speaks in the behalf of nationalism, and blacklisting means you'll never find a job in any German state. University students and professors are by far hit the hardest, particularly as the tiny educated minority group. Russia has Alexander wiping out any trace of liberalism to the point that liberal roots *still* haven't taken much in Russia even today. The more East-ward you go, the more authoritarian and tight the regime.\n\nPlease, God, who will help us in this age of stodgy, unthinking, unfeeling tradition that wants to shove us all back in our little boxes after years of revolution had promised us FREEDOM?! \n\n**ARTISTS!**\n\nArtists become the main social voice criticizing social order, and they make up Romanticism. And Romanticism *is* liberalism; it's fighting all the things that tie down literature and art and society, and well, it's romantic –– it's about *feelings*, one's mood!\n\nThink of the artists from this time period. Musicians like Beethoven, Chopin, Rossini, Liszt. Writers like Goethe, Novalis, Heine, Byron, Hugo! And the visual arts –– Friedrich, Turner, Delacroix! Art can be passionate in any time period, but now the Feelings are out. It's dialed up to 11 at all times. Even a painting of a shipwreck is *actually* about destiny and what nature decides and how no man can guarantee his actions because life is unexpected! (The Shipwreck by Turner.) And you're not just marching to liberate your country, you're marching with Liberty herself, a beautiful naked woman who is the purity of your revolution, your demand for a better society! Everything is dramatic! (Liberty Leading The People by Delacroix.)\n\nAnd literature! One particularly popular piece of literature is \"The Sorrows of Young Werther\" by Goethe. It is exactly as the title suggests, about how crap poor Werther's life is, particularly due to unrequited love, and then he –– spoiler alert! –– kills himself and nobody even goes to his funeral! This book is an immediate success, to the tune of inspiring hundreds (if not thousands) of young men to kill themselves because of their own tortured love affairs. It even prompts a fanfic in response that rewrites the ending so Werther lives, and lives happily at that, and Goethe isn't very pleased and it's all crazy. Crazy passionate.\n\nAnd Byron –– oh lord, Byron. Despite Britain being home to some of the coldest and stiffest lips, Byron and his crowd make up the best of the Romantic writers, and Byron writes with *feeling*, and he demands open hearts of young men. He writes his teenage boys with emotional turmoil, and the love letters pour in from fangirls; imagine that, men with feelings! And when Byron's passion leads him to sleeping with people you weren't supposed to be sleeping with in that time period, he has to flee to avoid execution, and he decides to just make lemonade out of lemons and travels to Italy and Greece to take up the cause of liberalism! (He died doing this; tragic and romantic in life and death, which netted him a massive funeral attended mostly by young women.) And his good pal Percy Bysshe Shelley, also an incredible poet, has decided to denounce the church and promote atheism, and write essays criticizing British society! He dies in a shipwreck, hunted out of Britain, tragic and romantic.\n\nAnd Beethoven, Beethoven who had liked Napoleon, until Napoleon decided to go and declare himself emperor, the ultimate of selfish power grabs. Beethoven scratches out the dedication to Napoleon on his symphonies. Fuck megalomania, right?\n\nAnd Chopin, a man of Polish descent when Poland is now largely under Russian control; he felt the only way he could keep his prestige and the spirit of Poland was to bring Polish elements into his music, and so his music includes those elements to piss off the Russians *as a rebellion.*\n\nAnd have you ever heard of that song, Lisztomania by Phoenix? It's great, and very catchy. It's referencing Lisztomania, a hysteria for the Hungarian composer Franz Liszt, whose mere presence could drive people into an emotional mania. Even the fellow who coined this term, writer Heinrich Heine, noted this hysteria to be politically motivated: \"I shrugged my shoulders pityingly [...] [I] looked on it as a sign of the politically unfree conditions existing beyond the Rhine...\" And yet he, too, was swept up in the audience's applause and outpouring of emotions at the concert.\n\nSo that's what you're seeing: art meet politics often, and it offered a new interpretation for life. Enlightenment promoted the mind, but without a heart you’re a robot. And at this point in history, you might as well throw everything to the wind and put all your feelings out there. Fucking cry, Werther!\n\nTL;DR: Nothing is more manly than crying during a revolution.\n\nSources:\n\n* John Merriman, Modern Europe vol.2\n\n* T.C.W. Blanning, The Nineteenth Century\n\n* Robert Gildea, Barricades and Borders, Europe 1800-1914\n\n* And some old-ass lecture notes from the wonderful V. Dimitriadis of the University of Toronto's Department of History. :')",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1952472",
"title": "Restoration literature",
"section": "Section::::Theatre.:Drama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1126,
"text": "In the 1670s and 1680s, a gradual shift occurred from heroic to pathetic tragedy, where the focus was on love and domestic concerns, even though the main characters might often be public figures. After the phenomenal success of Elizabeth Barry in moving the audience to tears in the role of Monimia in Thomas Otway's \"The Orphan\" (1680), \"she-tragedies\" (a term coined by Nicholas Rowe), which focused on the sufferings of an innocent and virtuous woman, became the dominant form of pathetic tragedy. Elizabeth Howe has argued that the most important explanation for the shift in taste was the emergence of tragic actresses whose popularity made it unavoidable for dramatists to create major roles for them. With the conjunction of the playwright \"master of pathos\" Thomas Otway and the great tragedienne Elizabeth Barry in \"The Orphan\", the focus shifted from hero to heroine. Prominent she-tragedies include John Banks's \"Virtue Betrayed, or, Anna Bullen\" (1682) (about the execution of Anne Boleyn), Thomas Southerne's \"The Fatal Marriage\" (1694), and Nicholas Rowe's \"The Fair Penitent\" (1703) and \"Lady Jane Grey\", 1715.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32519093",
"title": "Iain Blair",
"section": "Section::::Writing career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "\"When No Man Cries\", a story set in Glasgow during the inter war years, features a central character who overcomes social and financial hardships and ultimately finds the woman he loves. The book was an immediate success and generated good sales. Blair followed it with a series of other Emma Blair stories, many of them set in Scotland. Writing of Blair, \"The Scotsman's\" Alasdair Steven said: \"Many of his books were of that genre: strongly romantic but very realistic. Blair had a fine ability to reflect social conditions within the body of his writing while the romantic element provides the main thrust to the story. He was a fine wordsmith and an exceptional story-teller...As he indeed demonstrated in two of his most acclaimed books. \"Flower of Scotland\" was about a family of whisky distillers in Perthshire as the First World War is about to break out. The family face many problems and as the war ends, they return to Scotland much changed.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23463707",
"title": "Sorrow (emotion)",
"section": "Section::::Cult.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Romanticism saw a cult of sorrow develop, reaching back to \"The Sorrows of Young Werther\" of 1774, and extending through the nineteenth century with contributions like Tennyson's \"In Memoriam\" — \"O Sorrow, wilt thou live with me/No casual mistress, but a wife\" — up to W. B. Yeats in 1889, still \"of his high comrade Sorrow dreaming\". While it may be that \"the Romantic hero's cult of sorrow is largely a matter of pretence\", as Jane Austen pointed out satirically through Marianne Dashwood, \"brooding over her sorrows... this excess of suffering\" may nevertheless have serious consequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1037487",
"title": "She-tragedy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "The term she-tragedy, also known as \"\"pathetic tragedy\"\" refers to a vogue in the late 17th and early 18th centuries for tragic plays focused on the sufferings of a woman, sometimes innocent and virtuous but often a woman who had committed some sort of sexual sin. Prominent she-tragedies include Thomas Otway's \"The Orphan\" (1680), John Banks' \"Virtue Betrayed, or, Anna Bullen\" (1682), Thomas Southerne's \"The Fatal Marriage\" (1694), Mary Pix's \"Ibrahim, the Thirteenth Emperor of the Turks\" and Nicholas Rowe's \"The Fair Penitent\" (1703) and \"Lady Jane Grey\" (1715). Rowe was the first to use the term \"she-tragedy,\" in 1714.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301517",
"title": "Damsel in distress",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The misadventures of the damsel in distress of the Gothic continued in a somewhat caricatured form in Victorian melodrama. According to Michael Booth in his classic study \"English Melodrama\" the Victorian stage melodrama featured a limited number of stock characters: the hero, the villain, the heroine, an old man, an old woman, a comic man and a comic woman engaged in a sensational plot featuring themes of love and murder. Often the good but not very clever hero is duped by a scheming villain, who has eyes on the damsel in distress until fate intervenes to ensure the triumph of good over evil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "29966940",
"title": "The Odd Women",
"section": "Section::::Title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The novel's title is derived ostensibly from the notion that there was an excess of one million women over men in Victorian England. This meant there were \"odd\" women left over at the end of the equation when the other men and women had paired off in marriage. A cross-section of women dealing with this problem are described in the book and it can be inferred that their lifestyles also set them apart as odd in the sense of strange.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35799861",
"title": "Drowning Girl",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "The subject of \"Drowning Girl\" is an example of Lichtenstein's post-1963 comics-based women who \"look hard, crisp, brittle, and uniformly modish in appearance, as if they all came out of the same pot of makeup.\" In the early 1960s, Lichtenstein produced several \"fantasy drama\" paintings of women in love affairs with domineering men causing women to be miserable, such as \"Drowning Girl\", \"Hopeless\" and \"In the Car\". These works served as prelude to 1964 paintings of innocent \"girls next door\" in a variety of tenuous emotional states. \"In \"Hopeless\" and \"Drowning Girl\", for example, the heroines appear as victims of unhappy love affairs, with one displaying helplessness ... and the other defiance (she would rather drown than ask for her lover's help).\" \"Drowning Girl\", the aforementioned works and \"Oh, Jeff...I Love You, Too...But...\" are among those tragedies that make the author a popular draw at museums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f0kd8o
|
Pre 1800s how was money transferred between bank accounts across different countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "I answered a very similar question [here](_URL_0_)\n\nIn your specific case of traveling to Italy from the US pre-1800, I am not sure. But, generally,, you would look to find and pay a merchant or bank that did enough business there to make up a letter of credit that said, essentially, pay John Smith 1,000 ducats. When you arrived, you would go to that other merchant or bank and present your letter. There would be signatures on file and on the document to be compared, that could discourage fraud. There would be a discount- i.e. they might only pay you , say, 950 ducats. There might also be a delay: they might hold the note and ask for someone to vouch for you. You might also get a couple of letters, for different banks, etc., as you might not know until you got there really whether a note/letter was good.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "208286",
"title": "Banknote",
"section": "Section::::Issue of banknotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Generally, a central bank or treasury is solely responsible within a state or currency union for the issue of banknotes. However, this is not always the case, and historically the paper currency of countries was often handled entirely by private banks. Thus, many different banks or institutions may have issued banknotes in a given country. Commercial banks in the United States had legally issued banknotes before there was a national currency; however, these became subject to government authorization from 1863 to 1932. In the last of these series, the issuing bank would stamp its name and promise to pay, along with the signatures of its president and cashier on a preprinted note. By this time, the notes were standardized in appearance and not too different from Federal Reserve Notes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180846",
"title": "Federal Reserve Note",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Prior to centralized banking, each commercial bank issued its own notes. The first institution with responsibilities of a central bank in the U.S. was the First Bank of the United States, chartered in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton. Its charter was not renewed in 1811. In 1816, the Second Bank of the United States was chartered; its charter was not renewed in 1836, after President Andrew Jackson campaigned heavily for its disestablishment. From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era there was no formal central bank, and banks issued their own notes again. From 1862 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act. The first printed notes were Series 1914. In 1928, cost-cutting measures were taken to reduce the note to the size it is today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270680",
"title": "Banknotes of the pound sterling",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Until the middle of the 19th century, privately owned banks in Great Britain and Ireland were free to issue their own banknotes. Paper currency issued by a wide range of provincial and town banking companies in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland circulated freely as a means of payment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5666",
"title": "Central bank",
"section": "Section::::History.:Bank of England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation. Many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act 1844. Under the 1844 Act, bullionism was institutionalized in Britain, creating a ratio between the gold reserves held by the Bank of England and the notes that the Bank could issue. The Act also placed strict curbs on the issuance of notes by the country banks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6490640",
"title": "Money changer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The advent of paper money in the mid-17th century and the development of modern banking and floating exchange rates in the 20th century allowed a foreign exchange market to develop. This provided a way for banks and other specialist financial companies such as bureaux de change and forex brokers to easily change one country's money for another, and with the added confidence of transparency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208286",
"title": "Banknote",
"section": "Section::::History.:Central bank issuance of legal tender.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were the common form of currency throughout England, outside London. The Bank Charter Act of 1844, which established the modern central bank, restricted authorisation to issue new banknotes to the Bank of England, which would henceforth have sole control of the money supply in 1921. At the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt. The Act gave the Bank of England an effective monopoly over the note issue from 1928.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2671675",
"title": "History of banking",
"section": "Section::::17th–19th centuries – The emergence of modern banking.:Development of central banking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation. Many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under the 1844 Act, bullionism was institutionalized in Britain, creating a ratio between the gold reserves held by the Bank of England and the notes that the Bank could issue. The Act also placed strict curbs on the issuance of notes by the country banks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23997s
|
what happens when you cancel an installation process?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you cancel, the installation process will remove the files.\n\nIf you ctrl-alt-del and kill the installation process, it will not be given that opportunities so installed files will be at the installation destination folder. They will fill up your hard drive space; but not if you try to install again because then they'll only be overwritten with the same files again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the program has a GOOD installer, then it will go back and delete any files and revert back any registry changes it may have made. If the installer is crap it will just leave everything right where it was, which can sometimes cause problems if you try to install the program again.\n\nIf you forcekill the installer from ctrl+alt+del, then it doesn't have a chance to reverse anything and all the files/registry changes sit right where they are. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1158591",
"title": "Windows Installer",
"section": "Section::::Setup phases.:Rollback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "All installation operations are transactional. In other words, for each operation that Windows Installer performs, it generates an equivalent undo operation that would revert the change made to the system. In case any script action fails during deferred execution, or the operation is cancelled by the user, all the actions performed until that point are rolled back, restoring the system to its original state. Standard Windows Installer actions automatically write information into a rollback script; package authors who create custom actions that change the target system should also create corresponding rollback actions (as well as uninstall actions and uninstallation-rollback actions). As a design feature, if applied correctly this mechanism will also roll back a failed uninstall of an application to a good working state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7791133",
"title": "Factory reset",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "A factory reset, also known as master reset, is a software restore of an electronic device to its original system state by erasing all of the information stored on the device in an attempt to restore the device to its original manufacturer settings. Doing so will effectively erase all of the data, settings, and applications that were previously on the device. This is often done to fix an issue with a device, but it could also be done to restore the device to its original settings. Such electronic devices include smartphones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38855647",
"title": "Fakesysdef",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Initial infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Additionally, some Win32/FakeSysdef variants that may terminate running processes during installation and may block launched application after the computer restarts. During the installation process, they may terminate all running processes and force the computer to restart. After the restart, FakeSysdef attempts to block every launched program, and may then display fake error messages offering to fix the problem. It then repeatedly restarts the computer until the user agrees to buy the fake software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7791133",
"title": "Factory reset",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Computer factory resets will restore the computer to the computer's original operating system and delete all of the user data stored on the computer. Microsoft's Windows 8 and Windows 10, and Apple's macOS have options for this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "634625",
"title": "Installation (computer programs)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Installation typically involves code (program) being copied/generated from the installation files to new files on the local computer for easier access by the operating system, creating necessary directories, registering environment variables, providing separate program for un-installation etc.. Because code is generally copied/generated in multiple locations, uninstallation usually involves more than just erasing the program folder. For example, registry files and other system code may need to be modified or deleted for a complete uninstallation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58799900",
"title": "Reboot to restore software",
"section": "Section::::Other System Restoration Software.:Reset [Windows 8].\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The Reset option was introduced with Windows 8 and is used for restoring systems to factory defaults. It re-installs the Windows OS and permanently discards all files and system settings other than the pre-installed applications. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19004505",
"title": "Nano-RK",
"section": "Section::::Features of Nano-RK.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "processor’s reset signal REBOOT ON ERROR. By default, it is enabled when the system boots and reset each time the scheduler executes. If the system fails to respond within the predefined time period, the system will reboot and run the initialization instruction sequence to hopefully regain control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m4ga4
|
why can't i just drink water and eat bread (or some such food for calories) and take in all other nutrients via vitamins or supplements and be healthy?
|
[
{
"answer": "First, you're going to be healthiest with the appropriate protein/carb/fat balance. Bread has WAY too many carbs, and it's typically not a complete protein. But assume you had a food that did have the right balance, and included complete proteins. Would that work?\n\nProbably, yes. The risk you run is that you don't get any vitamin-like substances which we haven't yet identified as such. But you probably won't suffer from any malnutrition, you just won't get the benefit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really an answer to your question, but somewhat related..\n\nI cant remember it exactly but in this documentary...\n\n_URL_0_\n\n..it is mentioned that an experiment was run where a very overweight man did not eat for over a year (or something like that, I dont have time to re-watch it) and only took supplements (vitamins etc). He lost a lot of weight and it was proven that a person can survive off their fat reserves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Our bodies also don't process vitamins and supplements the best.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, you're going to be healthiest with the appropriate protein/carb/fat balance. Bread has WAY too many carbs, and it's typically not a complete protein. But assume you had a food that did have the right balance, and included complete proteins. Would that work?\n\nProbably, yes. The risk you run is that you don't get any vitamin-like substances which we haven't yet identified as such. But you probably won't suffer from any malnutrition, you just won't get the benefit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really an answer to your question, but somewhat related..\n\nI cant remember it exactly but in this documentary...\n\n_URL_0_\n\n..it is mentioned that an experiment was run where a very overweight man did not eat for over a year (or something like that, I dont have time to re-watch it) and only took supplements (vitamins etc). He lost a lot of weight and it was proven that a person can survive off their fat reserves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Our bodies also don't process vitamins and supplements the best.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6112487",
"title": "Sports nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Supplements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Dietary supplements contain one or more dietary ingredients (including vitamins; minerals; amino acids; herbs or other botanicals; and other substances) or their constituents is intended to be taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid. Athletes may choose to consider taking dietary supplements to assist in improving their athletic performance. There are many other supplements out there that include performance enhancing supplements (steroids, blood doping, creatine, human growth hormone), energy supplements (caffeine), and supplements that aid in recovery (protein, BCAAs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18761393",
"title": "Animal nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Constituents of diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Other dietary substances found in plant foods (phytochemicals, polyphenols) are not identified as essential nutrients but appear to impact health in both positive and negative ways. Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt provides sodium and chloride, both essential nutrients, but will cause illness or even death in too large amounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235195",
"title": "Mineral (nutrient)",
"section": "Section::::Dietary nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "546256",
"title": "Great Gospel of John",
"section": "Section::::Theology and Religious practice.:Cult and laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "In chapter 242 of the first book (verse 10 and 13) of the \"Great Gospel of John\", it is preached that certain food should be avoided for health reasons. Such foods includes unripe fruits, potatoes and coffee. But then what one eats or drinks for the necessary strengthening of the body, will not make him either blessed nor unblessed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32512",
"title": "Vitamin",
"section": "Section::::Supplementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33453728",
"title": "Brandon Westgate",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Green apple, carrot, celery, parsley, ginger, kale, maybe a little bit of lemon or something, but that’s a standard juice we make ... I think the best thing to do, even if you’re not vegetarian, is to juice vegetables. There’s no possible way to eat all that—you can’t consume it all. So you drink it and get all the nutrients, and also it gets in your body faster because your body doesn’t have to break it down or anything. Juicing is one of the best things to do to heal or replenish your body and get rid of all the toxins ... When I’d go on trips I’d just feel like shit and eat like shit ... I think I just feel healthier in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21525",
"title": "Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Malnutrition.:Unbalanced.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "When too much of one or more nutrients is present in the diet to the exclusion of the proper amount of other nutrients, the diet is said to be unbalanced. High calorie food ingredients such as vegetable oils, sugar and alcohol are referred to as \"empty calories\" because they displace from the diet foods that also contain protein, vitamins, minerals and fiber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3oecqo
|
why does money go to the hundredths decimal place?
|
[
{
"answer": "We use base-10 so we like to dived things by 10. Dividing by 10 twice gives you 1/100. Divide by ten again and you get 1/1000 which is now ~~(and has always been)~~ too small to be useful for transactions. So, 1/100 **used to be** the smallest [order of magnitude](_URL_1_) of our currencies that was still useful for making transactions. [Now, because of inflation, it's completely worthless.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "524783",
"title": "Denomination (currency)",
"section": "Section::::Decimal vs. non-decimal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "A decimal currency is a currency where the ratio between the main unit and the subunit is an integral power of 10. Non-decimal currencies are now rare but had some advantages in daily life transactions. For example, 1 South German Gulden = 60 Kreuzer. 60 can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 or 30 parts that are still integers, making pricing easy. This advantage (in an age without mechanical or electronic calculators) and the lack of widespread accurate weighing apparatus (meaning an item might sometimes simply be divided in 2,4,6 etc.) coupled with tradition were the reasons why non-decimal currencies were used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "317062",
"title": "Significant figures",
"section": "Section::::Rounding and decimal places.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "In financial calculations, a number is often rounded to a given number of places (for example, to two places after the decimal separator for many world currencies). This is done because greater precision is immaterial, and usually it is not possible to settle a debt of less than the smallest currency unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2979509",
"title": "Sixpence (British coin)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Beginning with Lord Wrottesley's proposals in the 1820s, there were various attempts to decimalise the pound sterling over the next century and a half. These attempts came to nothing significant until the 1960s when the need for a currency more suited to simple monetary calculations became pressing. The decision to decimalise was announced in 1966, with the pound to be divided into 100, rather than 240, pence. Decimal Day was set for 15 February 1971, and a whole range of new coins were introduced. Sixpences continued to be legal tender with a value of new pence until 30 June 1980.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270673",
"title": "Pound sterling",
"section": "Section::::Subdivisions and other units.:Decimal coinage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Since decimalisation on Decimal Day in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence (denoted on coinage, until 1981, as \"new pence\"). The symbol for the penny is \"p\"; hence an amount such as 50p (£0.50) properly pronounced \"fifty pence\" is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced \"fifty pee\" /fɪfti pi/. This also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system. A decimal halfpenny was issued until 1984 but was removed due to having a higher cost to manufacture than its face value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249726",
"title": "Mixed radix",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Prior to decimalisation, monetary amounts in the UK were described in terms of pounds, shillings, and pence, with 12 pence per shilling and 20 shillings per pound, so that \"£1 7s 6d\", for example, corresponded to the mixed-radix numeral 176.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16522275",
"title": "Shilling (British coin)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Beginning with Lord Wrottesley's proposals in the 1820s there were various attempts to decimalise the pound sterling over the next century and a half. These attempts came to nothing significant until the 1960s when the need for a currency more suited to simple monetary calculations became pressing. The decision to decimalise was announced in 1966, with the pound to be redivided into 100, rather than 240, pence. Decimal Day was set for 15 February 1971, and a whole range of new coins were introduced. Shillings continued to be legal tender with a value of 5 new pence until 31 December 1990.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211017",
"title": "Decimalisation",
"section": "Section::::Decimal currency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "Historically, non-decimal currencies were much more common: such as the British pound sterling before decimalisation in 1971. Until 1971, the pound sterling had sub-units of account of shillings (20 to a pound) and pence (12 to a shilling). Like other currencies, it also had coins with other names (ha'pence, guineas, and crowns); and in addition, until 1960 the penny was divided into 4 farthings. There were nineteen different fractions of a pound of a whole number of pence. For example, a third, quarter, fifth and sixth of a pound were respectively 80, 60, 48, and 40 pence, normally written as shillings and pence: 6/8, 5/-, 4/-, and 3/4. There were eight additional fractions which were a whole number of farthings (for example, one sixty-fourth of a pound was three pence three farthings, written d).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
298rtr
|
Is there any material/chemocal that can go from a solid to a gas and skip the liquid state?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are lots, its not a property of the material so much as its a property of its tempature/pressure. Remember that water has different boiling points at diffrent pressures. Low pressure, low temp required, however at higher pressure (think pressure cooker) higher tempatures are required to boil (change into a gas) the water\n\nthe solid to gas transition is called Sublimation. Wiki page here: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2393984",
"title": "Liquid–liquid extraction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Liquid–liquid extraction is possible in non-aqueous systems: In a system consisting of a molten metal in contact with molten salts, metals can be extracted from one phase to the other. This is related to a mercury electrode where a metal can be reduced, the metal will often then dissolve in the mercury to form an amalgam that modifies its electrochemistry greatly. For example, it is possible for sodium cations to be reduced at a mercury cathode to form sodium amalgam, while at an inert electrode (such as platinum) the sodium cations are not reduced. Instead, water is reduced to hydrogen. A detergent or fine solid can be used to stabilize an emulsion, or third phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "Section::::Phase transitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is used in plasma is symbolized as (p).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16037610",
"title": "Janus particles",
"section": "Section::::Synthesis.:Masking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "An example of a more traditionial liquid–solid technique has been described by Sardar \"et al.\" by beginning with the immobilization of gold nanoparticles on a silanized glass surface. Then the glass surface was exposed to 11-mercapto-1-undecanol, which bonded to the exposed hemispheres of the gold nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were then removed from the slide using ethanol containing 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid, which functionalized the previously masked hemispheres of the nanoparticles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8301",
"title": "Distillation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the field of industrial chemistry, large amounts of crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to separate them, either from other products, from impurities, or from unreacted starting materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593167",
"title": "Heat",
"section": "Section::::Heat capacity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Beyond this, most substances have three ordinarily recognized states of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. Some can also exist in a plasma. Many have further, more finely differentiated, states of matter, such as for example, glass, and liquid crystal. In many cases, at fixed temperature and pressure, a substance can exist in several distinct states of matter in what might be viewed as the same 'body'. For example, ice may float in a glass of water. Then the ice and the water are said to constitute two phases within the 'body'. Definite rules are known, telling how distinct phases may coexist in a 'body'. Mostly, at a fixed pressure, there is a definite temperature at which heating causes a solid to melt or evaporate, and a definite temperature at which heating causes a liquid to evaporate. In such cases, cooling has the reverse effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993816",
"title": "Solid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being liquid, gas, and plasma). In solids particles are closely packed. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other, either in a regular geometric lattice (crystalline solids, which include metals and ordinary ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass), and are typically low in energy. Solids cannot be compressed with little pressure whereas gases can be compressed with little pressure because in gases molecules are loosely packed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1951419",
"title": "Critical point (thermodynamics)",
"section": "Section::::Liquid-vapor critical point.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "\"Above\" the critical point there exists a state of matter that is continuously connected with (can be transformed without phase transition into) both the liquid and the gaseous state. It is called supercritical fluid. The common textbook knowledge that all distinction between liquid and vapor disappears beyond the critical point has been challenged by Fisher and Widom who identified a p,T-line that separates states with different asymptotic statistical properties (Fisher-Widom line).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mnreb
|
how much does "data" cost internet/service providers? where does the actual overhead come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "The overhead comes from running an extremely complex network with lots of infrastructure that requires highly trained and specialized engineers operating significant portions of it. Depending on what kind of a connection you're looking at setting up, your minimum entry cost is tens of thousands of dollars for a simple connection to millions of dollars for more complex connections. If you were laying an undersea cable, your costs could easily get into the hundreds of millions of dollars depending on the scope and complexity of your project.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Data costs internet providers nothing - what does cost money is hardware, support, cables, installation costs, and maintenance. Internet providers have a (somewhat) fixed amount of total network throughput. For example, on a 10 Gbps network, the hardware can only pass 10 Gb each second. \n\nRunning this hardware (wear and tear, electricity, support, etc.) has some cost. Therefore, there is some \"cost per unit time\" for running this hardware. If we rearrange this relationship by including the network throughput, (dividing cost per unit time by network throughput), we end up with \"cost per Gb\". This value is quantified by the internet providers and is used in part to determine the rate which they can charge you for your data. Market pressures (competition), other company overhead, and targeted margin, are among the other factors that are factored into how much they decide to charge you per unit data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11340736",
"title": "Internet in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Data caps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 374,
"text": ", only 40% of internet connections now have a fixed data cap. Once users have exceeded their data cap, they typically have the option of having the speed limited to 64-128 kbit/s for the rest of the month or paying for any extra data used. Most RSP's (retail service providers) offer unlimited data plans. On average (May 2018), each household uses 204GB of data per month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48458239",
"title": "Internet Plus",
"section": "Section::::Practical application.:Internet+Finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "\"Internet + Finance\" means that financial industries can apply internet technology to their service provision and product sale. For instance, clients can pay bills or transfer money from one account to another through internet. The number of Internet users has reached about 649 million in China, while the amount of e-commerce has been more than 13 trillion yuan (Chinese monetary unit). China's import and export transactions of cross-border e-commerce has exceeded 3 billion yuan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "962428",
"title": "Bryggenet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Internet access is provided in two sizes: 'basic internet' with 70 Mbit/s per 1000 subscribers, and 'fast internet' with 280 Mbit/s per 1000 subscribers. Prices are currently approx. $10/month and $25/month flat fee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7038155",
"title": "Breakage",
"section": "Section::::In telecommunications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Similarly, if many users are shown to use 14 GB of data per month on a data plan, then offering data plans of 10 GB or 30 GB will force many users to pay for much more data than they need, which will expire at the end of each month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2308577",
"title": "Paid content",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Some internet content has always historically been paid for — until recently there has been little discussion about paying for scientific, technical and medical (STM) content as well as certain trade information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "287866",
"title": "I-mode",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "An i-mode user pays for both sent and received data. There are services to avoid unsolicited e-mails. The basic monthly charge is typically on the order of JPY ¥200 - ¥300 for i-mode not including the data transfer charges, with additional charges on a monthly subscription basis for premium services. A variety of discount plans exist, for example family discount and flat packet plans for unlimited transfer of data at a fixed monthly charge (on the order of ¥4,000/month).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15507762",
"title": "Internet in Azerbaijan",
"section": "Section::::Internet penetration and Internet Service Providers (ISPs).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "The cost of Internet service is steadily decreasing: as of 2010, monthly unlimited ADSL connection of 1 Mbit/s cost around US$20–25 per month. While the cost of international traffic has gone down over the last several years, the cost for usage of the local infrastructure remains unchanged. Approximately 50 percent of the expenses of small ISPs are local connection costs paid to the state-owned company controlling the market. Because these expenses are the same for all providers, they agreed among themselves to charge end users the same price for unlimited monthly dial-up service. Larger providers temporarily blocked the ISPs that tried to contravene the concerted practice. In December 2007, for example, two small providers—SuperOnline and AvirTel —were blocked by local ISPs (Adanet and IntraNS) while trying to provide service at a lower price for customers. Shortly after the providers agreed to bring the price of their services into line, the block was lifted. For similar reasons, the larger ISPs blocked another smaller local ISP, Azeronline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g94pj
|
why does amazon constantly have "sales" with $0.03 off?
|
[
{
"answer": "For me, it's a classic marketing trick.\n\nPure and simply; it's designed to get you in the store or at least looking at the item.\n\nJust because it's $0.03 off, doesn't mean it's not technically a sale.\n\nIt's like when a store has a massive sign outside saying \"50% OFF SALE!\". Most people fail to see the \"Up To\" in small writing before the 50%.\n\nYou walk in, and almost everything is still full price. You get angry and leave.\n\nTechnically, the store isn't lying. They do have 50% off, but it's on, say, a pair of socks nobody wants. As long as they have 1 item for 50% off, they can legally put a big sign outside advertising said 50% off.\n\nPeople assume it applies to everything in store so they walk in. And the store layout/design kicks in, designed to draw your eye to X items. You forget about the sale, and you see something you like, so you buy it. \n\nYou probably wouldn't have gone in if it weren't for the massive 50% off sign outside the store.\n\nSame thing applies here.\n\nAmazon are doing it to draw your eye.\n\nPeople are constantly looking for deals where they can save money, so they see the red line through the price and a new price next to it and BAM, you've got a savings. Suddenly, the person is interested. Everyone wants to save money.\n\nCombine that with the methods I'm sure Amazon employ to reduce tax payments and maximize profits through financial algorithms, and it's in Amazon's best interest to apply said \"sales\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29736990",
"title": "Criticism of Amazon",
"section": "Section::::Anti-competitive practices.:Canadian site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "In January 2017, Amazon.ca was required by the Competition Bureau to pay a $1M penalty, plus $100,000 in costs, over pricing practices for failing to provide \"truth in advertising\" according to Josephine Palumbo, the deputy commissioner for deceptive marketing practices. This fine was levied because some products on Amazon.ca were shown with an artificially high \"list price\", making the lower selling price appear to be very attractive, producing an unfair competitive edge over other retailers. This is a frequent practice among some retailers and the fine was intended to \"send a clear message [to the industry] that unsubstantiated savings claims will not be tolerated\". The Bureau also indicated that the company has made changes to ensure that regular prices are more accurately listed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Amazon.com is primarily a retail site with a sales revenue model; Amazon takes a small percentage of the sale price of each item that is sold through its website while also allowing companies to advertise their products by paying to be listed as featured products. , Amazon.com is ranked 8th on the Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60898024",
"title": "Advertising revenue",
"section": "Section::::Notable platforms.:Amazon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "As of 2018, Amazon was reported to be the third largest online advertising platform and saw predicted advertising revenues sit at above $4 billion. With a reported 197 million unique online visitors per month, Amazon has a wide customer outreach similar to Google and Facebook. Amazon currently allows its users to pay to have their products made more visible on target customer's screens and also allows sellers to act as affiliates, being paid a referral commission of up to 15%. As of May 2019, Amazon is attempting to expand its affiliate advertising program by partnering with other large online media agencies and heavily trafficked websites. Amazon has reportedly reached out to online media giants Buzzfeed and The New York Times with an offer that would see them being paid in order to recommend or advertise products on their site. Such advertisements would include a link to the Amazon page where a potential customer could buy the product and in return, the media agencies would receive a percentage commission of the purchase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "For the fiscal year 2018, Amazon reported earnings of US$10.07 billion, with an annual revenue of US$232.887 billion, an increase of 30.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Since 2007 sales increased from 14.835 billion to 232.887 billion, thanks to continued business expansion. Amazon's market capitalization was valued at over US$803 billion in early November 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::Amazon sales rank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "The Amazon sales rank (ASR) provides an indication of the popularity of a product sold on any Amazon locale. It is a relative indicator of popularity that is updated hourly. Effectively, it is a \"best sellers list\" for the millions of products stocked by Amazon. While the ASR has no direct effect on the sales of a product, it is used by Amazon to determine which products to include in its bestsellers lists. Products that appear in these lists enjoy additional exposure on the Amazon website and this may lead to an increase in sales. In particular, products that experience large jumps (up or down) in their sales ranks may be included within Amazon's lists of \"movers and shakers\"; such a listing provides additional exposure that might lead to an increase in sales. For competitive reasons, Amazon does not release actual sales figures to the public. However, Amazon has now begun to release point of sale data via the Nielsen BookScan service to verified authors. While the ASR has been the source of much speculation by publishers, manufacturers, and marketers, Amazon itself does not release the details of its sales rank calculation algorithm. Some companies have analyzed Amazon sales data to generate sales estimates based on the ASR, though Amazon states:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8786058",
"title": "Dynamic pricing",
"section": "Section::::Dynamic pricing today.:Retail.:Amazon.com.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Amazon.com engaged in price discrimination for some customers in the year 2000, showing different prices at the same time for the same item to different customers, potentially violating the Robinson–Patman Act. The company stopped and apologised after it was discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Income taxes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Amazon paid no federal income taxes in the U.S. in 2017 and 2018, and actually got tax refunds worth millions of dollars, despite recording several billion dollars in profits each year. CNN reported that Amazon's tax bill was zero because they took advantage of provisions in years when they were losing money that allowed them to offset future taxes on profits, as well as various other tax credits. Amazon was criticized by political figures for not paying federal income taxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t3r8r
|
Could giant humans survive?
|
[
{
"answer": "I know taller people tend not to live as long as shorter people, but that doesn't mean people couldn't slowly evolve to be quite large, since most people stop reproducing long before they die of old age. So basically my guess is \"yes\" but not for long.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ratio of volume to surface area will not scale properly. I can't think of the math(on my phone so I can't look it up), but doubling the volume of your lung, for example, will not lead to the same increase in their surface. So, no, a straight scaling would not work.\n\nThat being said, if you might be able to adjust the anatomy of a human such that the ratios would be restored at the new size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know the specific answer, but [this article](_URL_0_) deals with some of the problems of scaling up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If we consider some of the largest animals to walk on land, like amphicoelias, we can see oxygen concentrations wouldn't limit animal size to merely 10 times that of a human. Arthropods have a size limiting issue regarding air oxygen content, but this is because their breathing system is a series of tubes rather than a dedicated specialized organ like the lungs. I think there would be support issues from the sheer mass of such a human though, I don't think any bipedal animal has become that large.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might run into problems of the heart pumping that much blood against gravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36136909",
"title": "Serer creation myth",
"section": "Section::::Cosmogony.:Creation of the Universe.:Crisis and reorganization of the Universe.:Roog's reorganisation of the Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Humans were the least affected. The only thing they have lost was their original size and duration of life. Along with being giants, the first humans were believed to have had larger eyes and bigger bones than the present. Roog did not touch the human spirit. Instead, it allowed them to develop their minds and put their own branding on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Human influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Should the human race become extinct, then the various features assembled by humanity will begin to decay. The largest structures have an estimated decay half-life of about 1,000 years. The last surviving structures would most likely be open pit mines, large landfills, major highways, wide canal cuts, and earth-fill flank dams. A few massive stone monuments like the pyramids at the Giza Necropolis or the sculptures at Mount Rushmore may still survive in some form after a million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78470",
"title": "Giants (Greek mythology)",
"section": "Section::::Named Giants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- Aristaeus: According to the \"Suda\", he was the only Giant to \"survive\". He is probably named on an Attic black-figure dinos by Lydos (Akropolis 607) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, fighting Hephaestus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2678638",
"title": "Dunbar's number",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "Philip Lieberman argues that since band societies of approximately 30–50 people are bounded by nutritional limitations to what group sizes can be fed without at least rudimentary agriculture, big human brains consuming more nutrients than ape brains, group sizes of approximately 150 cannot have been selected for in paleolithic humans. Brains much smaller than human or even mammalian brains are also known to be able to support social relationships, including social insects with hierarchies where each individual knows its place (such as the paper wasp with its societies of approximately 80 individuals ) and computer-simulated virtual autonomous agents with simple reaction programming emulating what is referred to in primatology as \"ape politics\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162780",
"title": "Megafauna",
"section": "Section::::Ecological strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Megafauna – in the sense of the largest mammals and birds – are generally K-strategists, with high longevity, slow population growth rates, low mortality rates, and (at least for the largest) few or no natural predators capable of killing adults. These characteristics, although not exclusive to such megafauna, make them vulnerable to human overexploitation, in part because of their slow population recovery rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1907175",
"title": "Land of the Giants",
"section": "Section::::Show premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The little people's objectives are: (1) survival, by obtaining food and avoiding capture by the Giants or attacks from animals, such as cats and dogs; and (2) repair of their spacecraft, so they can attempt to return to Earth. They largely manage to survive by the help of sympathizers and stealth, making the most of their small size, plus their ingenuity in using their technology where it's superior to that of the Giants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19443918",
"title": "Pan Wenshi",
"section": "Section::::Academic thoughts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 2014,
"text": "In his book \"The Natural Refuge of Giant Panda at Qinling\" () co-authored with postgraduates under his supervision, researchers and other collaborators, Pan put forward for the first time arguments supporting “giant pandas in Qinling can survive living in natural conditions” which was acclaimed by international peers to be “significant contribution to the biological theory of giant panda”. Following that in his book Chance for Continual Survival () Pan commented that “since the cause leading to the near-extinct of giant panda was human error, it must require human to rectify their acts in order giant pandas could have a chance for continual survival”. In the book The White Dolphins of Qinzhou () Pan and his co-authors unveiled that Chinese white dolphin appeared in Beibu Gulf only from 6000 years ago and that in the Beibu Gulf population is preserved an ancient and rare genotype that is so far never found in populations in other territorial waters. In the book he as well suggested that the social developments of Qinzhou must be planned to optimize a win-win situation between its economy and nature conservation for that is the only way to achieve sustainable development. The Natural History of White-headed Langur () is a live record of researches in wilderness. When Pan went into the Nongguan Mountains he noticed there the sustenance environment was almost totally devastated and that “human was suffering more miserably than the langurs there”. In view of which he suggested “the core issue of nature conservation in Nongguan Mountains is to improve the living conditions of the people there. Only after people’s lives been improved could white-headed langur conservation be anticipated”. 20 years practice of his words has proved his foresight; during the period the white-headed langur population in Nongguan Mountains has increased from the initial of about 100 individuals to about 820 individuals, and the people there have as well gradually improved their livings to well-off standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1i5tg1
|
How 'German' was Eastern Prussia under Frederick the Great?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just to correct a few things first: That doesn't correspond to the modern Baltic states, which are further northeast, that's broadly the north and west of modern Poland and the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad, formerly Königsberg. It's also a map of Prussia under the German Empire (1871-1918), not a map of Prussia under Frederick the Great ([see here](_URL_0_) for the latter).\n\nEast Prussia corresponds to the original Duchy of Prussia, or so-called *Altpreußen* (Old Prussia). From the 13th century, this area had been colonised by Germans, originally under the aegis of the Teutonic Order, which had aimed to convert the region to Christianity. The Teutonic state *did* extend up to the modern Baltic states, but these areas, then known as Courland and Livonia, were culturally mixed -- though after they were subsumed by Russia, they remained dominated by a German aristocracy until the fall of the Russian Empire.\n\nThe area that became Ducal Prussia was more firmly Germanised, and certainly by the time of Frederick the Great in the 18th century there was little doubt that it was, essentially, German. Königsberg was the capital of East Prussia and became a seat of German-speaking culture under Frederick, paying host to philosophers such as Immanuel Kant.\n\nThis situation prevailed more or less up until the end of the Second World War, when the Polish borders were rearranged by the victorious Soviets, who incorporated the eastern territories of Poland while compensating the Poles by awarding them eastern Germany. A process of ethnic cleansing then took place whereby Germans were forcibly expelled and Poles resettled in the area. At the same time, Königsberg was annexed to the Soviet Union and renamed Kaliningrad, again coupled with a policy of ethnic cleansing and resettlement. That area remains a Russian province to this day, despite having been cut off from the rest of Russia by the fall of the Soviet Union.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "68743",
"title": "East Prussia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "East Prussia (, ; ; ; ; ) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and again from 1878 (with the Kingdom itself being part of the German Empire from 1871); following World War I it formed part of the Weimar Republic's Free State of Prussia, until 1945. Its capital city was Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad). East Prussia was the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4747726",
"title": "List of retronyms",
"section": "Section::::Geographic retronyms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 246,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 246,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"East Prussia\" : Prussia began as a duchy in what is now Poland. As the highest-ranking dignity of the Hohenzollern dynasty, the name came to be applied to their territories stretching across Germany. The name East Prussia became more significant when it was separated from the rest of Prussia and Germany by the Polish Corridor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "757195",
"title": "West Prussia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "The Province of West Prussia (; ; ) was a province of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and 1878 to 1922. West Prussia was established as a province of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1773, formed from Royal Prussia of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth annexed in the First Partition of Poland. West Prussia was dissolved in 1829 and merged with East Prussia to form the Province of Prussia, but was re-established in 1878 when the merger was reversed and became part of the German Empire. From 1918, West Prussia was a province of the Free State of Prussia within Weimar Germany, losing most of its territory to the Second Polish Republic and the Free City of Danzig in the Treaty of Versailles. West Prussia was dissolved in 1922, and its remaining western territory was merged with Posen to form Posen-West Prussia, and its eastern territory merged with East Prussia as the Region of West Prussia district.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "371248",
"title": "Prussia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Prussia (; , , Old Prussian: \"Prūsa\" or \"Prūsija\") was a historically prominent German state that originated in 1525 with a duchy centred on the region of Prussia on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It was de facto dissolved by an emergency decree transferring powers of the Prussian government to German Chancellor Franz von Papen in 1932 and de jure by an Allied decree in 1947. For centuries, the House of ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised and effective army. Prussia, with its capital first in and then, in 1701, in Berlin, decisively shaped the history of Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "499479",
"title": "Former eastern territories of Germany",
"section": "Section::::History.:Foundation of German Empire, 1871.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "At the time of the foundation of the German Empire in 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia was the largest and dominant part of the empire. Prussian territory east of the Oder–Neisse line included West Prussia and Posen (taken by Prussia in the first two Partitions of Poland in the 18th century), also Silesia, East Brandenburg, and Pomerania. Later, these territories would come to be called in Germany \"\"Ostgebiete des deutschen Reiches\"\" (Eastern territories of the German Empire).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242701",
"title": "Kingdom of Prussia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "The kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a great power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia, which became a military power under Frederick William, known as \"The Great Elector\". Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more commonly known as Frederick the Great, who was the third son of Frederick William I. Frederick the Great was instrumental in starting the Seven Years' War, holding his own against Austria, Russia, France and Sweden and establishing Prussia's role in the German states, as well as establishing the country as a European great power. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a major power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles, and many wars. Because of its power, Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states (excluding the German cantons in Switzerland) under its rule, although whether Austria would be included in such a unified German domain was an ongoing question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "371247",
"title": "Prussia (region)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1612,
"text": "Prussia (Old Prussian: \"Prūsa\"; ; ; ; ) is a historical region in Europe, stretching from Gdańsk Bay to the end of Curonian Spit on the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea, and extending inland as far as Masuria. The territory and inhabitants were described by Tacitus in Germania in 98, where Suebi, Goths and other Germanic people lived on both sides of the Vistula River, adjacent to the Aesti (further east). About 800 to 900 years later the Aesti were named Old Prussians, who, since 997, repeatedly defended themselves against take-over attempts by the newly created Duchy of the Polans. The territory of the Old Prussians and neighboring Curonians and Livonians was unified politically in the 1230s as the Teutonic Order State. Prussia was politically divided between 1466 and 1772, with western Prussia under protection of the Crown of Poland and eastern Prussia a Polish–Lithuanian fief until 1660. The unity of both parts of Prussia remained preserved by retaining its borders, citizenship and autonomy until western and eastern Prussia were also politically reunited under the German Kingdom of Prussia (which despite the name was based in Berlin, Brandenburg). It is famous for many lakes, as well as forests and hills. Since the military conquest of the area by the Soviet Army in 1945 and the expulsion of the German-speaking inhabitants it was divided between northern Poland (most of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship), Russia's Kaliningrad exclave, and southwestern Lithuania (Klaipėda Region). The former German kingdom and later state of Prussia (1701–1947) derived its name from the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e7eh7
|
Why do some ants have such a high brain to body mass ratio?
|
[
{
"answer": "As the article you linked to, along with [this one](_URL_1_) describe, brain size does not scale linearly (isometrically) with body size. Instead, it scales *allometrically*, proportional to approximately (body mass)^(k), where the exponent k is somewhere around 0.5 to 0.75 (depending on the group of animals being studied; it's ~0.7 for mammals). This means that in terms of percentage total body mass, small animals have larger relative brain size. As a measure of intelligence relative to body size, it is therefore more typical to look at how much an animal's brain size deviates from the expected size for an animal for that size. For example, both humans and mice have brains that weigh ~2-3% of their total body mass. Since humans are much larger, they would be expected to have a lower percentage than mice. The fact that they do not suggests higher relative intelligence. Ants, being very small animals, have a very high percentage brain mass. \n\nAs to why this scaling law is the case, that is not known. However, it is one of several well known allometric scaling laws in biology, all with exponents in a similar range. One reason mentioned by the wikipedia article is that neurons have approximately the same size in all species, although this is now known [not to be true](_URL_0_). Nevertheless, some type of 'overhead' may play a role in this relationship. For example, certain neuronal circuits are required for basic functions, e.g., breathing. Such circuits need not necessarily involve 100 times as many neurons in species that are 100 times larger, since they serve the same basic function. [This paper](_URL_2_) confirms that different brain structures scale differently with body size. Nevertheless, the exact reason for the scaling relationship of brain mass with body size is not known.\n\n**TL;DR:** Brain mass scales with body size, such that smaller animals tend to have a higher percentage brain mass. The reason for this is not yet known.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17682224",
"title": "Evolution of the brain",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of the human brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "It is also important to note that the measure of brain mass or volume, seen as cranial capacity, or even relative brain size, which is brain mass that is expressed as a percentage of body mass, are not a measure of intelligence, use, or function of regions of the brain. Total neurons, however, also do not indicate a higher ranking in cognitive abilities. Elephants have a higher number of total neurons (257 billion) compared to humans (100 billion). Relative brain size, overall mass, and total number of neurons are only a few metrics that help scientists follow the evolutionary trend of increased brain to body ratio through the hominin phylogeny.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2452832",
"title": "Evolution of human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Social brain hypothesis.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1246,
"text": "Phylogenetic studies of brain sizes in primates show that while diet predicts primate brain size, sociality does not predict brain size when corrections are made for cases in which diet affects both brain size and sociality. The exceptions to the predictions of the social intelligence hypothesis, which that hypothesis has no predictive model for, are successfully predicted by diets that are either nutritious but scarce or abundant but poor in nutrients. Researchers have found that frugivores tend to exhibit larger brain size than folivores. One potential explanation for this finding is that frugivory requires 'extractive foraging,' or the process of locating and preparing hard-shelled foods, such as nuts, insects, and fruit. Extractive foraging requires higher cognitive processing, which could help explain larger brain size. However, other researchers argue that extractive foraging was not a catalyst in the evolution of primate brain size, demonstrating that some non primates exhibit advanced foraging techniques. Other explanations for the positive correlation between brain size and frugivory highlight how the high-energy, frugivore diet facilitates fetal brain growth and requires spatial mapping to locate the embedded foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1144487",
"title": "Encephalization quotient",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Recent research indicates that whole brain size is a better measure of cognitive abilities than EQ for non-human primates at least. The relationship between brain-to-body mass ratio and complexity is not alone in influencing intelligence. Other factors, such as the recent evolution of the cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding, which increases the surface area (and volume) of the cortex, are positively correlated to intelligence in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2452832",
"title": "Evolution of human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Group selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "These concepts can be tied to the social brain hypothesis, mentioned above. This hypothesis posits that human cognitive complexity arose as a result of the higher level of social complexity required from living in enlarged groups. These bigger groups entail a greater amount of social relations and interactions thus leading to a expanded quantity of intelligence in humans. However, this hypothesis has been under academic scrutiny in recent years and has been largely disproven. In fact, the size of a species' brain can be much better predicted by diet instead of measures of sociality as noted by the study conducted by DeCasien et. al. They found that ecological factors (such as: folivory/frugivory, environment) explain a primate brain size much better than social factors (such as: group size, mating system).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2678638",
"title": "Dunbar's number",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "Comparisons of primate species show that what appears to be a link between group size and brain size, and also what species do not fit such a correlation, is explainable by diet. Many primates that eat specialized diets that rely on scarce food have evolved small brains to conserve nutrients and are limited to living in small groups or even alone, and they lower average brain size for solitary or small group primates. Small-brained species of primate that are living in large groups are successfully predicted by diet theory to be the species that eat food that is abundant but not very nutritious. Along with the existence of complex deception in small-brained primates in large groups with the opportunity (both abundant food eaters in their natural environments and originally solitary species that adopted social lifestyles under artificial food abundances), this is cited as evidence against the model of social groups selecting for large brains and/or intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065970",
"title": "Brain-to-body mass ratio",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Recent research indicates that, in non-human primates, whole brain size is a better measure of cognitive abilities than brain-to-body mass ratio. The total weight of the species is greater than the predicted sample only if the frontal lobe is adjusted for spatial relation. The brain-to-body mass ratio was however found to be an excellent predictor of variation in problem solving abilities among carnivoran mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45365929",
"title": "Temnothorax rugatulus",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Laziness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "It is known that some of T. \"rugatulus\" specializations in colonies include being lazy. Some scientists disputed this as an inaccurate conclusion because T. \"rugatulus\" has primarily been studied in the laboratory, where conditions may not reflect their natural habitat. Researchers have found; however, that there is no significant difference in ant activity between laboratory and field observations. It is thought that because ants are exotherms, they are unable to adjust their internal environment to match their activity level like most endotherms do. When they are in a laboratory setting, they are less stimulated than they would be in nature, expressing a seemingly decreased level of activity in a laboratory setting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6jysf0
|
If Einstein hasn't came up with relativity was anyone else working on the similar theories?
|
[
{
"answer": "(As a warning, I got slightly jargony in this post. \nSR = special relativity\nGR = general relativity\nc = speed of light\nEM = electromagetism\nB-field = magnetic field)\n\nFirst off, SR probably would have been developed within a few years of Einstein's publication. This is because the root problem that Einstein was trying to address using SR was actually very well known to the physics community at the turn of the last century, and had to do with the behavior of Maxwell's Equations near the speed of light. Maxwell's Equations are the set of four equations that completely describe electromagnetic interactions and wave propagation in free space, and are one of the intellectual triumphs of physics (SR/GR being one of the others).\n\nThe problem facing physicists around 1900 was that Maxwell's Equations begin to break as you approach the speed of light. Specifically, an observer traveling at a substantial fraction of c with some EM system in front of them (at the same velocity) would see completely different system properties than a stationary observer watching the same system. As one example, the stationary observer would see an electric current in the system (due to the system's velocity), which would generate a magnetic field, but the traveling observer would see a set of stationary charges and hence no B-field. The is physically impossible, so people recognized that something was wrong somewhere.\n\nThe initial solution was created by Hendrik Lorentz, who devised a set of frame transformations, now known as the \"Lorentz\" transformations, that allowed Maxwell's Equations to act correctly near the speed of light. These are in contrast to the Galilean transformations that govern our day-to-day lives, and which were being applied previously.\n\nSo that's the background. The crucial insight that Einstein had that led him to SR was the physical interpretation of the transformations. Namely, that they implied that the speed of light is the same for all observers, the speed of light is a sort of universal speed limit, and that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial (non-accelerated) reference frames. Since the Lorentz transformations also change the relative passage of time between two reference frames traveling at two different velocities, Einstein also realized that the \"distance\" between two events needed to be described using a single \"spacetime\" distance, rather than separate distances in space and in time. That got him to treating space and time as a single 4-dimensional construct.\n\nThe experimental, theoretical, and mathematical basis for SR were thus all pretty well established when Einstein came along. All he needed to do was to assemble all of the disparate pieces and assemble them into a unified system of thought. So it seems very reasonable to suppose that if Einstein had not developed SR in 1905, some one else would have gotten there within a few years.\n\n(N.B. - I say \"all he had to do,\" but that in no way is meant to trivialize what Einstein accomplished. As was demonstrated 20 years later in the development of Quantum Mechanics, the experiments and the math are often the relatively easy bits. It's figuring out what it all actually means that is hard.)\n\nOnce you have SR developed, getting to GR is the next logical step. Recall that SR deals with inertial (non-accelerating) reference frames. GR is the extension of SR to also account for accelerating frames (both via gravity and via something like rockets). This makes GR considerably more complicated than SR, but the basic ideas behind it, or at least the idea that you need to figure it out, are all in place once you've got SR worked out.\n\nOnce major practical difference in GR that would probably arise of Einstein had never existed is the notation used to do the calculations and display the results. Einstein actually invented his own new mathematical notation to help with GR calculations, and this is now known as \"Einstein\" notation. It allows one to compactly write out and work with linear algebra operations.\n\nWithout Einstein, it seems reasonable that this specific notation would not have been developed. Insofar as a notation system influences how we think about what we're working with, this would have then changed how people dealt with and interpreted the results of alternate-GR. A nice example of what I mean here would be to look at the different views of Calculus coming from Leibniz's and Newton's notation for the same problems.\n\nSource: I have a PhD in astrophysics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Several experiments predating Einstein's 1905 paper are now interpreted as evidence for relativity. Of these it is known Einstein was aware of the Fizeau experiment before 1905, and historians have concluded that Einstein was at least aware of the Michelson–Morley experiment as early as 1899 despite claims he made in his later years that it played no role in his development of the theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171377",
"title": "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences",
"section": "Section::::Responses to Wigner's original paper.:Richard Hamming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hamming argues that Albert Einstein's pioneering work on special relativity was largely \"scholastic\" in its approach. He knew from the outset what the theory should look like (although he only knew this because of the Michelson–Morley experiment), and explored candidate theories with mathematical tools, not actual experiments. Hamming alleges that Einstein was so confident that his relativity theories were correct that the outcomes of observations designed to test them did not much interest him. If the observations were inconsistent with his theories, it would be the observations that were at fault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "736",
"title": "Albert Einstein",
"section": "Section::::Scientific career.:Quantum mechanics.:Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Einstein was displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925. Contrary to popular belief, his doubts were not due to a conviction that God \"is not playing at dice.\" Indeed, it was Einstein himself, in his 1917 paper that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, who first proposed the fundamental role of chance in explaining quantum processes. Rather, he objected to what quantum mechanics implies about the nature of reality. Einstein believed that a physical reality exists independent of our ability to observe it. In contrast, Bohr and his followers maintained that all we can know are the results of measurements and observations, and that it makes no sense to speculate about an ultimate reality that exists beyond our perceptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57264039",
"title": "Einstein's thought experiments",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Pursuing a beam of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Rather than the thought experiment being at all incompatible with aether theories (which it is not), the youthful Einstein appears to have reacted to the scenario out of an intuitive sense of wrongness. He felt that the laws of optics should obey the principle of relativity. As he grew older, his early thought experiment acquired deeper levels of significance: Einstein felt that Maxwell's equations should be the same for all observers in inertial motion. From Maxwell's equations, one can deduce a single speed of light, and there is nothing in this computation that depends on an observer's speed. Einstein sensed a conflict between Newtonian mechanics and the constant speed of light determined by Maxwell's equations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57264039",
"title": "Einstein's thought experiments",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Trains, embankments, and lightning flashes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "However, all of the above is supposition. In later recollections, when Einstein was asked about what inspired him to develop special relativity, he would mention his riding a light beam and his magnet and conductor thought experiments. He would also mention the importance of the Fizeau experiment and the observation of stellar aberration. \"They were enough\", he said. He never mentioned thought experiments about clocks and their synchronization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "Special relativity was originally proposed by Albert Einstein in a paper published on 26 September 1905 titled \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\". The inconsistency of Newtonian mechanics with Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and, experimentally, the Michelson-Morley null result (and subsequent similar experiments) demonstrated that the historically hypothesized luminiferous aether did not exist. This led to Einstein's development of special relativity, which corrects mechanics to handle situations involving all motions and especially those at a speed close to that of light (known as \"\"). Today, special relativity is proven to be the most accurate model of motion at any speed when gravitational effects are negligible. Even so, the Newtonian model is still valid as a simple and accurate approximation at low velocities (relative to the speed of light), for example, the everyday motions on Earth. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4022767",
"title": "Relativity priority dispute",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Albert Einstein presented the theories of special relativity and general relativity in publications that either contained no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his predecessors for fundamental results on which he based his theories, most notably to the work of Hendrik Lorentz for special relativity, and to the work of Carl F. Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, and Ernst Mach for general relativity. Subsequently, claims have been put forward about both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before Einstein. At issue is the extent to which Einstein and various other individuals should be credited for the formulation of these theories, based on priority considerations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7rjboj
|
how do zero gravity pens work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They inject pressurized gas into the ink capsule, that constantly pushes the ink toward the tip regardless of gravity or orientation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30182396",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)",
"section": "Section::::Cold War (1946–1991).:1960s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 269,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 269,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Space Pen, also known as the Zero Gravity Pen, is a pen that uses pressurized ink cartridges and is claimed to write in zero gravity, upside down, underwater, over wet and greasy paper, at any angle, and in extreme temperature ranges. The ballpoint is made from tungsten carbide and is precisely fitted in order to avoid leaks. A sliding float separates the ink from the pressurized gas. The thixotropic ink in the hermetically sealed and pressurized reservoir is claimed to write for three times longer than a standard ballpoint pen. In 1965, the space pen was invented and patented by Paul C. Fisher. After two years of testing at NASA, the space pen was first used during the \"Apollo 7\" mission in 1968.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5251215",
"title": "May 1965",
"section": "Section::::May 19, 1965 (Wednesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "BULLET::::- American inventor Paul C. Fisher filed for the patent on the \"Anti-gravity pen\", known also as the \"space pen\", which used \"a pressurized ink supply which enables the pen to write when the force of gravity acts against the flow of ink in the ink cartridge\" in order for astronauts to write data observations in a weightless environment. Although there is an urban legend that NASA spent millions of dollars to develop an unnecessary replacement to a pencil, Fisher was privately funded and earned his costs back when both the American and Soviet space programs began purchasing pens, which were necessary because of the hazards of broken pencil tips, graphite dust, and flammable wood; the pens themselves were sold for six dollars apiece. U.S. Patent Number 3,285,228 would be granted on November 15, 1966.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16908902",
"title": "Writing in space",
"section": "Section::::Writing instruments specifically intended for space writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "The Fisher Space Pen is a gas-charged ball point pen that is rugged and works in a wider variety of conditions, such as zero gravity, vacuum and extreme temperatures. Its thixotropic ink and vent-free cartridge release no significant vapor at common temperatures and low pressures. The ink is forced out by compressed nitrogen at a pressure of nearly 35 psi (240 kPa), and it functions at altitudes up to 12,500 feet (3800 m) and at temperatures from −30 to 250 °F (−35 to 120 °C). However, it is more expensive than the aforementioned alternatives. It has been used by both NASA and Soviet/Russian astronauts on Apollo, Shuttle, Mir, and ISS missions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4519",
"title": "Ballpoint pen",
"section": "Section::::Types of ballpoint pens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Because of a ballpoint pen's reliance on gravity to coat the ball with ink, most cannot be used to write upside-down. However, technology developed by Fisher pens in the United States resulted in the production of what came to be known as the \"Fisher Space Pen\". Space Pens combine a more viscous ink with a pressurized ink reservoir that forces the ink toward the point. Unlike standard ballpoints, the rear end of a Space Pen's pressurized reservoir is sealed, eliminating evaporation and leakage, thus allowing the pen to write upside-down, in zero-gravity environments, and reportedly underwater. Astronauts have made use of these pens in outer space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9985325",
"title": "Paul C. Fisher",
"section": "Section::::Fisher Space Pen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The Fisher Space Pen is a ballpoint pen which works with thixotropic ink and a pressurized ink cartridge. It can write on almost any substance ranging from butter to steel. It also can survive a wide array of temperatures, ranging from -50 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16908902",
"title": "Writing in space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "A common urban legend states that, faced with the fact that ball-point pens would not write in zero-gravity, NASA spent a large amount of money to develop a pen that would write in the conditions experienced during spaceflight (the result purportedly being the Fisher Space Pen), while the Soviet Union took the simpler and cheaper route of just using pencils. The Fisher Space Pen was developed independently by a private organization in the 1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "817680",
"title": "Thixotropy",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Thixotropic ink (along with a gas pressurized cartridge and special shearing ball design) is a key feature of the Fisher Space Pen, used for writing during zero gravity space flights by the US and Russian space programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g1603c
|
Where do the photons go after the light is turned off in the room?
|
[
{
"answer": "They get absorbed by the surroundings! Photons are electromagnetic waves, so when they come to matter, they \"wave\" the electrons in the matter around, so the photons lose their energy are are absorbed. This is why a wall in the sun feels hot! The light is being absorbed by the wall and all energy goes into the wall feeling hot.\n\nAs a side note, this is a simplification. Like mirrors don't absorb light, they reflect it. For that matter, most materials reflect some amount of light, that's why we can see them. But all materials absorb light, even in small amounts, so eventually all the light would be absorbed by the material.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "when the light is turned off the photons already in the room will eventually collide with a particle in the wall/air/furniture. That particle will absorb the photon. This particle's speed will now increase (vibration, rotation, linear, or combination off all 3). Now theres 2 options. either the particle will re-emit a photon and lose speed OR bounce into another particle and transfer some speed to it. Since the particles in your room are always bouncing and rubbing up against one another, after a few repititions of absorb- > re emit- > reabsorb, all the photon energy in the room will have eventually just been converted to speed energy. This happens super fast. Thats why it kinda looks like the light just disappeared instantly. \n\n\nAnother word for average speed energy of all the particles in a room is Temperature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone explain how colors works with cones and rods. When a room is dimly lit colors appear washed out and almost grey. They are still the color they are but our perception almost makes them black and white. The light itself doesn’t give things their color, but the intensity of the light changes our perception of the object. \n\nIs color more dependent on the light source/intensity or our eyes?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1379266",
"title": "Ring-imaging Cherenkov detector",
"section": "Section::::Ring-imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detector.:Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Note that, because the points of emission of the photons can be at any place on the (normally straight line) trajectory of the particle through the radiator, the emerging photons fill a light-cone in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3474980",
"title": "Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment",
"section": "Section::::Simple interferometer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "If a single photon is emitted into the entry port of the apparatus at the lower-left corner, it immediately encounters a beam-splitter. Because of the equal probabilities for transmission or reflection the photon will either continue straight ahead, be reflected by the mirror at the lower-right corner, and be detected by the detector at the top of the apparatus, or it will be reflected by the beam-splitter, strike the mirror in the upper-left corner, and emerge into the detector at the right edge of the apparatus. Observing that photons show up in equal numbers at the two detectors, experimenters generally say that each photon has behaved as a particle from the time of its emission to the time of its detection, has traveled by either one path or the other, and further affirm that its wave nature has not been exhibited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4720277",
"title": "Lev Vaidman",
"section": "Section::::The Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "If the \"lower-path\" photon did not detect a bomb, it will arrive at a second half-silvered mirror at the same time as the \"upper-path\" photon. This will result in the single photon interfering with itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41460",
"title": "Optical isolator",
"section": "Section::::Optical isolators and thermodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "It might seem at first glance that a device that allows light to flow in only one direction would violate Kirchhoff's law and the second law of thermodynamics, by allowing light energy to flow from a cold object to a hot object and blocking it in the other direction, but the violation is avoided because the isolator must absorb (not reflect) the light from the hot object and will eventually reradiate it to the cold one. Attempts to re-route the photons back to their source unavoidably involve creating a route by which other photons can travel from the hot body to the cold one, avoiding the paradox.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "886766",
"title": "Bell test experiments",
"section": "Section::::Notable experiments.:Giustina et al. (2013), Larsson et al (2014): overcoming the detection loophole for photons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The detection loophole for photons has been closed for the first time in a group by Anton Zeilinger, using highly efficient detectors. This makes photons the first system for which all of the main loopholes have been closed, albeit in different experiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3554435",
"title": "National Synchrotron Light Source",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Once in the ring, VUV or X-ray, the electrons orbit and lose energy as a result of changes in their angular momentum, which cause the expulsion of photons. These photons are deemed white light, i.e. polychromatic, and are the source of synchrotron radiation. Before being used in a beamline endstation, the light is collimated before reaching a monochromator or series of monochromators to get a single and fixed wavelength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3474980",
"title": "Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment",
"section": "Section::::Double-slit version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "In this thought experiment the telescopes are always present, but the experiment can start with the detection screen being present but then being removed just after the photon leaves the double-slit diaphragm, or the experiment can start with the detection screen being absent and then being inserted just after the photon leaves the diaphragm. Some theorists aver that inserting or removing the screen in the midst of the experiment can force a photon to retroactively decide to go through the double-slits as a particle when it had previously transited it as a wave, or vice versa. Wheeler does not accept this interpretation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
41d6pl
|
how is it possible that sites like _url_0_ or any other movie streaming service violating copyright laws are still up and running?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not hosted on a server in the United States, perhaps?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18059606",
"title": "Pirate Cinema",
"section": "Section::::Helsinki.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Professor Jukka Kemppinen, an expert on copyright legislation, states that Pirate Cinema is a deliberate provocation, but that, despite it being illegal, there is no point in making a big issue out of it. Kemppinen states \"It is no more illegal than showing a legally rented DVD to residents of an apartment building after an afternoon of volunteer work.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5275733",
"title": "You can click, but you can't hide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "\"There are websites that provide legal downloads. This is not one of them. This website has been permanently shut down by court order because it facilitates the illegal downloading of copyrighted motion pictures. The illegal downloading of motion pictures robs thousands of honest, hard-working people of their livelihood, and stifles creativity. Illegally downloading movies from sites such as these without proper authorization violates the law, is theft, and is not anonymous. Stealing movies leaves a trail. The only way not to get caught is to stop.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "984508",
"title": "Internet censorship in Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "In June 2015, the country passed an amendment which will allow the court-ordered censorship of websites deemed to primarily facilitate copyright infringement. In December 2016, the Federal Court of Australia ordered more than fifty ISP's to censor 5 sites that infringe on the Copyright Act after rights holders, Roadshow Films, Foxtel, Disney, Paramount, Columbia and the 20th Century Fox companies filed a lawsuit. The sites barred include The Pirate Bay, Torrentz, TorrentHound, IsoHunt and SolarMovie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52023510",
"title": "Putlocker",
"section": "Section::::History.:2016–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "In July 2017, the \"International Business Times\" reported that \"15% of internet users in the UK are either infringing copyright through streaming or illegal downloads, with pirated TV material primarily accessed through Kodi (16%) or Putlocker (17%)\". In August 2017, Justice John Nicholas of the Federal Court of Australia ordered Australian internet service providers to block access to 42 piracy sites in a case brought by Village Roadshow, with Putlocker, KissCartoon, and GoMovies being among those ordered to be blocked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34567598",
"title": "Free Internet Act",
"section": "Section::::Points of Discussion.:Copyright.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "Kevin Lincoln, a writer for Business Insider, argued that the Act is extremely weak in protecting copyright because under the act, content that may infringe on copyright can only be policed after it is uploaded. Only the uploader, not the website hosting possibly illegal content, would be penalized. To prove that someone violated copyright, the accuser must prove that the uploader knew they were uploading illegal content and they didn’t know they were uploading it for Fair Use. The accused person must be notified 30 days before the content is taken down so they have adequate time to fight the claim. Monitoring of content being downloaded, uploaded or edited would not be allowed without legal permission, and to try to remove content without a court order would be considered against the freedom of speech and the perpetrator would be subject to legal penalty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33629639",
"title": "Stop Online Piracy Act",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "The second section covers penalties for streaming video and for selling counterfeit drugs, military materials, or consumer goods. The bill would increase penalties and expand copyright offenses to include unauthorized streaming of copyrighted content and other intellectual property offenses. The bill would criminalize unauthorized streaming of copyrighted content if they knowingly misrepresent the activity of the site, with a maximum penalty of five years in prison for ten such infringements within six months. The copyrighted content can be removed, and infringements can lead to the site being shut down. In July 2013, the Department of Commerce's Internet Policy Task Force issued a report endorsing \"[a]dopting the same range of penalties for criminal streaming of copyrighted works to the public as now exists for criminal reproduction and distribution.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60577749",
"title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Asia",
"section": "Section::::Little or no censorship or surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 218,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 218,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "BULLET::::- Amendments to the copyright law in 2012 criminalized intentionally downloading content that infringes on copyright. There were calls for civil rather than criminal penalties in such cases. Downloading this content may be punishable by up to 2 years' imprisonment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2glf0j
|
How can a paper cup full of water not burn up on a 2400 degree billet of steel?
|
[
{
"answer": "The reason is that, perhaps surprisingly, the paper simply does not get hot enough. Paper has an autoignition temperature (the temperature at which it will burst into flame) of about 210-250^o C. If you were to just put an empty paper cup on the hot steel, it would rapidly reach this temperature and start burning. However, with water in the cup the situation is different. The presence of water on the other side of the wall of paper will reduce the rate at which the paper can be heated by the steel because it will cool the material. This cooling can be fairly efficient since [convection](_URL_0_) will cause hot water to move away from the walls, letting cool water replace it. Once you reach 100^o C, the water will start boiling. However the temperature of the water will not rise any further at that point, because as happens at any phase transition, all the extra heat added to the system will go into that driving that transition (boiling). \n\nSo surprising as it may sound, you can get into a steady state regime, where even if the water is hot enough to boil, because this process occurs at 100^o C, the boiling water may still be \"cool\" enough to prevent the paper from going above 210^o C(ish) and burn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "491484",
"title": "Paper machine",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Press section.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The second section of the paper machine is the press section, which removes much of the remaining water via a system of nips formed by rolls pressing against each other aided by press felts that support the sheet and absorb the pressed water. The paper web consistency leaving the press section can be above 40%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23020667",
"title": "Environmental impact of paper",
"section": "Section::::Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Over 6.5 million trees were cut down to make 16 billion paper cups used by US consumers only for coffee in 2006, using of water and resulting in 253 million pounds of waste. Overall, North Americans use 58% of all paper cups, amounting to 130 billion cups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277288",
"title": "Spirit duplicator",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The duplicating fluid typically consisted of a 50/50 mix of isopropanol and methanol, both of which were inexpensive, readily available in quantity, evaporated quickly, and would not wrinkle the paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1418996",
"title": "Grog (clay)",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Its melting point is approximately . Its boiling point is over . Its water absorption is maximum 7%. Its thermal expansion coefficient is 5.2 mm/m and thermal conductivity is 0.8 W/(m·K) at 100 °C and 1.0 W/(m·K) at 1000 °C. It is not easily wetted by steel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293465",
"title": "Pulp and paper industry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water. Whereas, when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16861908",
"title": "Paper",
"section": "Section::::Papermaking.:Producing paper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266412",
"title": "Cutting fluid",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Liquids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Water is a good conductor of heat but has drawbacks as a cutting fluid. It boils easily, promotes rusting of machine parts, and does not lubricate well. Therefore, other ingredients are necessary to create an optimal cutting fluid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6olsl
|
what is a probation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically means he can live feely as long as he abides by certain conditions (not out after certain time, keep the peace, and/or abstain from drugs/alcohol, etc...). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": ".....\n\nit means instead of going to a prison, you can be elsewhere, but have to follow a bunch of rules and check in with law enforcement frequently. there's usually rules about where you can go and when, drug testing, alcohol testing, or things like that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probation is kind of like a \"second chance\" sentencing, or can be seen as a \"we trust you, but you still did something wrong\" sentence.\n\nDepending on the conditions of your release you can have either Supervised or Unsupervised Probation.\n\nWith Supervised you are required to check in with your Probation Officer, abstain from drugs and alcohol, report immediately if you have ANY interactions with The Law, and (of course) not get arrested again. Once you've done your time, and the terms of probation have been satisfied, the judge will typically dismiss your charges or offer the prior agreed upon sentencing (which will be lesser than the original sentence).\n\nProbation, in a nutshell, is an alternative to jail/prison time to allow you to remain a productive part of society under the presumption that you are an honest person and simply made a mistake.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30551673",
"title": "Rehabilitation Policy",
"section": "Section::::Policies.:Probation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Probation is a period of time where an offender lives under supervision and under a set of restrictions. Violations of these restrictions could result in arrest. Probation is typically an option for first time offenders with high rehabilitative capacity. At its core, it is \"a substitute for prison\", with the goal being to \"spare the worthy first offender from the demoralizing influences of imprisonment and save him from recidivism\". In the United States, there are 4,162,536 probationers. Probationers are supervised by probation officers just as parolees are supervised by parole officers. Probation officers have similar authority as parole officers do to restrict mobility, social contact, and mandate various other conditions and requirements. Probationers just like parolees are at high risk of imprisonment due to violation of their restrictions that may not be classified as criminal. In the United States, 40% of probationers were sent to jail or prison for technical and criminal violations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54975972",
"title": "Probation in Ukraine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Probation is a system of supervision and social-pedagogic activities over offender, ordered by a Court and in accordance to the legislation; enforcement of certain types of a criminal penalty, not concerned the deprivation of liberty and to provide the Court with information characterized the offender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2116398",
"title": "Probation (workplace)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "In a workplace setting, probation (or probationary period) is a status given to new employees of a company or business or new members of organizations, such churches, associations, clubs or orders. It is widely termed as the Probation Period of an employee. This status allows a supervisor or other company manager to evaluate closely the progress and skills of the newly hired worker, determine appropriate assignments, and monitor other aspects of the employee such as honesty, reliability, and interactions with co-workers, supervisors or customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406786",
"title": "Probation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "In some jurisdictions, the term \"probation\" applies only to community sentences (alternatives to incarceration), such as suspended sentences. In others, probation also includes supervision of those conditionally released from prison on parole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6158798",
"title": "Academic probation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Academic probation in the United Kingdom is a period served by a new academic staff member at a university or college when they are first given their job. It is specified in the conditions of employment of the staff member, and may vary from person to person and from institution to institution. In universities founded prior to the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, it is usually three years for academic staff and six months to a year for other staff. In the universities created by that Act, and in colleges of higher education, the period is generally just a year across the board, for both academic and other staff.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28682747",
"title": "Disciplinary probation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Disciplinary probation is a disciplinary status that can apply to students at a higher educational institution or to employees in the workplace. For employees, it can result from both poor performance at work or from misconduct. For students, it results from misconduct alone, with poor academic performance instead resulting in scholastic probation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26226578",
"title": "United States federal probation and supervised release",
"section": "Section::::Probation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "Since probation is a form of punishment, once the sentence of probation has commenced, the court will run afoul of the double jeopardy clause if it increases the penalty. Probation's primary objective is to protect society by rehabilitating the offender. A person placed on probation is considered a probationer of the court as a whole, and not that of a particular judge thereof. When a defendant is placed on probation, he expressly agrees to be subject to supervision appropriate to a probationer, to avoid the more onerous regimen of a prisoner; accordingly, the defendant retains those rights of an ordinary citizen that are compatible with probationary status, although certain rights, such as the right against self-incrimination, are impaired. There is no requirement that probation must be granted on a specified showing. Probation is considered a privilege and not a right. The action of a district court in refusing to grant probation is not reviewable on appeal except possibly for arbitrary or capricious action on the part of the District Court amounting to abuse of discretion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wo1gt
|
what's the religious situation in the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "The nation is mostly Christian, and within Christianity there are many denominations. Judaism and Islam are also popular religions among the populace. The Indian population in the US has gone up drastically in the past years bringing with them Hinduism. And there are other smaller religions scattered around.\n\nThere are lots of people that identify with a religion, but do not practice it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The two biggest religions are, as you could guess, Protestantism and Catholicism. Protestantism diverges into many branches, including Lutherans, Baptists, Southern Baptists, Methodists, and more. Catholicism here is as it is everywhere else- The Church (different from Orthodox, which is the most popular religion in most of Eastern Europe). Generally speaking, and without citing any information, Protestantism is the more popular religion. \n\nMormonism and Scientology are relatively new, very American ideologies that must be examined within their context. They have little to do with either main branch of Christianity. Other fringe churches, such as the Westboro Baptists, claim to affiliate with other Protestant religions, but are really more of a hate-group (not sure about their tax-exempt status). \n\nAmish people are extremely religious Protestants, generally associated with the Mennonite church. \n\n\nThis is mostly a direct reflection of European religious prosecution, although I'm no scholar, and therefore cannot elucidate further. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Westboro Baptist Church is just one church, and it's not even a particularly large church (under 100 people). The only reason why anyone knows they exist is because of the extreme lengths they go to in order to protest against things that they don't like. They aren't a religion or even a denomination, they're just a tiny group of crazy people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[#1: the Wikipedia page for Religion in the US](_URL_0_)\n\n > Westboro baptists, Amish, Scientologists, mormons\n\nThree out of these 4 groups are really small. The WBC (in no way affiliated with the Baptists) only has 40 members according to Wikipedia; they're just really, really, vocal and crazy, which gives them the lopsided media attention. The Amish are only about 250,000, which is roughly equal to the number of Sikhs here too. They're well-known for being quaint relics of the past. They are closely related to Mennonites, which is part of the old Anabaptist movement (not to be confused with the Baptists). Scientology supposedly has about 25,000 and is arguably not a religion. \n\nMormonism is the main exception, but it's concentrated around Utah. It falls under the Protestant umbrella, but its place inside (some would say outside) of Christianity is debatable. It originated in the US, but its members were forced to move west into what is now Utah. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Westboro Baptist Church isn't a religion. It's a bigoted and angry old man and his family. There are a couple members that aren't related to the Phelps family. There are a lot of family members who have dropped out of the church as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "399372",
"title": "Public holidays in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Holidays with religious, cultural or historical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The religious and cultural holidays in the United States is characterized by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. However, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that \"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ...\" and Article VI specifies that \"no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.\" As a result, various religious faiths have flourished, as well as perished, in the United States. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unique among developed nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19792942",
"title": "Americans",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Religion in the United States has a high adherence level compared to other developed countries, as well as a diversity in beliefs. The First Amendment to the country's Constitution prevents the Federal government from making any \"law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof\". The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted this as preventing the government from having any authority in religion. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unusual among developed countries, although similar to the other nations of the Americas. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including both later imports spanning the country's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those founded within the country; these have led the United States to become the most religiously diverse country in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4958298",
"title": "Catholic Church and politics in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Present day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Religion plays a part in American elections. Religion is part of the political debate over LGBT rights, abortion, the right to die/assisted suicide, universal health care, workers rights and immigration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5081497",
"title": "Unchurched Belt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "A 2011 Gallup poll showed that when it comes to the number of people seeing religion as important in everyday life, New Hampshire and Vermont were the least religious, both with 23%, followed up with 25% in Maine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25631554",
"title": "Religion and politics in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Religion in the United States is remarkable in its high adherence level compared to other developed countries. The First Amendment to the country's Constitution prevents the government from having any authority in religion, and guarantees the free exercise of religion. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unusual among developed nations, though similar to other nations in the Americas. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including imports spanning the country's multicultural heritage as well as those founded within the country, and have led the United States to become the most religiously diverse country in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16650960",
"title": "Irreligion in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "A 2008 Gallup survey reported that religion is not an important part of daily life for 34% of Americans. In May of that year, a Gallup poll asking the question \"Which of the following statements comes closest to your belief about God: you believe in God, you don't believe in God but you do believe in a universal spirit or higher power, or you don't believe in either?\" showed that, nationally, 78% believed in God, 15% in \"a universal spirit or higher power\", 6% answering \"neither\", and 1% unsure. The poll also highlighted the regional differences, with residents in the Western states answering 59%, 29%, and 10% respectively, compared to the residents in the Southern states that answered 86%, 10%, and 3%. Several of the western states have been informally nicknamed Unchurched Belt, contrasting with the Bible Belt in the southern states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45463521",
"title": "Secular movement",
"section": "Section::::Lawsuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "As America's secular demographic has grown and become more visible and active, a number of lawsuits have been brought to challenge references to God and religion in government. These cases have had limited success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ptuye
|
what is the ndaa and why did obama veto it?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's basically a defense spending bill. He vetoed it because it had provisions that prohibited removing spending cuts and prohibited the closing of Guantanamo Bay.\n\n[sauce](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48308712",
"title": "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016",
"section": "Section::::Bill vetoed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "On September 30, 2015, President Barack Obama threatened to veto the NDAA 2016. The reason for the veto threat by the Obama administration was that the bill bypassed the Budget Control Act of 2011 spending caps by allocating nearly $90 billion to the Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) account, designating routine spending as emergency war expenses exempted from the caps. On October 22, 2015, Obama vetoed the bill. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38978117",
"title": "Native Americans and reservation inequality",
"section": "Section::::Violence against Native women.:Re-authorization of the Violence Against Women Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "President Obama's White House administration vowed to veto any re-authorization of VAWA that failed to include the tribal protection clause. On February 28, 2013, President Barack Obama received the Senate's re-authorization of VAWA after a vote passing the act in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35892640",
"title": "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013",
"section": "Section::::Bill enactment history, content and reactions.:Feinstein-Lee Amendment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The NDAA, an otherwise mundane annual bill that lays out the use of funds for the Department of Defense, has come under attack during the Obama administration for the introduction of a provision in 2012 that allows the military to detain United States citizens indefinitely without charge or trial for mere suspicions of ties to terrorism. Under the 2012 NDAA's Sec. 1021, U.S. President Obama did not agree to give the military the power to arrest and hold Americans without the writ of habeas corpus as he promised with that year's signing statement that his administration would not abuse that privilege.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41138703",
"title": "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014",
"section": "Section::::Procedural history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "The NDAA 2014 was introduced into the United States House of Representatives on October 22, 2013 by Rep. Theodore E. Deutch (D, FL-21). It was referred to the United States House Committee on Armed Services. On October 28, 2013, the House voted to pass the bill by a voice vote. It was received in the United States Senate and referred to the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services on October 29, 2013. The Senate passed the bill on November 19, 2013, with amendments. The House agreed to the Senate amendments and added their own amendments on December 12, 2013. The compromise agreement was structured in a \"fast-track process that precludes senators from tacking on controversial amendments dealing with Iran sanctions and other divisive issues.\" The Senate agreed to those amendments on December 19, 2013 in Roll Call Vote 284 by a vote of 84-15. On December 26, 2013, President Barack Obama signed the bill into law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30559739",
"title": "Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 (, ), is a law in the United States signed by President Barack Obama on January 7, 2011. As a bill it was originally H.R.5136 in the 111th Congress and later co-sponsored by Representative Ike Skelton as H.R. 6523 and renamed. The overall purpose of the law is to authorize funding for the defense of the United States and its interests abroad, for military construction, and for national security-related energy programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350567",
"title": "Mitch McConnell",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Senate (1985–present).:Foreign policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1031,
"text": "Also in September 2016, both the Senate and the House of Representatives overrode President Obama's veto to pass the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA), which targets Saudi Arabia, into law. Despite McConnell voting to override the President, McConnell would criticize JASTA within a day of the bill's passing, saying that it might have \"unintended ramifications\". McConnell appeared to blame the White House regarding this as he quoted that there was \"failure to communicate early about the potential consequences\" of JASTA, and said he told Obama that JASTA \"was an example of an issue that we should have talked about much earlier\". In vetoing the bill, Obama had provided three reasons for objecting to JASTA: that the courts would be less effective than \"national security and foreign policy professionals\" in responding to a foreign government supporting terrorism, that it would upset \"longstanding international principles regarding sovereign immunity\", and that it would complicate international relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43134397",
"title": "North American Energy Infrastructure Act",
"section": "Section::::Debate and discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "President Barack Obama released a statement saying that the bill \"would impose an unreasonable deadline that would curtail the thorough consideration of the issues involved, which could result in serious security, safety, foreign policy, environmental, economic, and other ramifications.\" Obama threatened to veto the bill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
73m32p
|
Does our moon have a name in common english?
|
[
{
"answer": "The proper English name for the moon is \"the Moon\". ([source](_URL_0_)). \"Luna\" is sometimes used in literature, and is the name of the Roman goddess that was the personified moon to the Romans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "826574",
"title": "Naming of moons",
"section": "Section::::Naming of moons by Solar System object.:Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Every human language has its own word for the Earth's Moon, and these words are the ones normally used in astronomical contexts. However, a number of fanciful or mythological names for the Moon have been used in the context of astronomy (an even larger number of lunar epithets have been used in non-astronomical contexts). In the 17th century, the Moon was sometimes referred to as \"Proserpina\". More recently, especially in science-fictional contexts, the Moon has been called by the Latin name \"Luna\", presumably on the analogy of the Latin names of the planets, or by association with the adjectival form \"lunar\". In technical terminology, the word-stems \"seleno-\" (from Greek \"selēnē\" \"moon\") and \"cynthi-\" (from \"Cynthia\", an epithet of the goddess Artemis) are sometimes used to refer to the Moon, as in \"selenography, selenology,\" and \"pericynthion.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19331",
"title": "Moon",
"section": "Section::::Name and etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The usual English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is \"the Moon\", which in nonscientific texts is usually not capitalized. The noun \"moon\" is derived from Old English \"mōna\", which (like all Germanic language cognates) stems from Proto-Germanic \"*mēnô\", which comes from Proto-Indo-European \"*mḗh₁n̥s\" \"moon\", \"month\", which comes from the Proto-Indo-European root \"*meh₁-\" \"to measure\", the month being the ancient unit of time measured by the Moon. Occasionally, the name \"Luna\" is used. In literature, especially science fiction, \"Luna\" is used to distinguish it from other moons, while in poetry, the name has been used to denote personification of Earth's moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34890531",
"title": "Moon (Korean name)",
"section": "Section::::Family name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "As a family name, Moon is written with one hanja, meaning \"writing\" (; 글월 문 \"geulwon mun\"). The 2000 South Korean census found a total of 426,927 people and 132,881 households with this family name. They identified with 47 different surviving bon-gwan (origin of a clan lineage, not necessarily the actual residence of the clan members):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826574",
"title": "Naming of moons",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The naming of moons has been the responsibility of the International Astronomical Union's committee for Planetary System Nomenclature since 1973. That committee is known today as the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11432",
"title": "Full moon",
"section": "Section::::In folklore and tradition.:Full moon names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Historically, month names are names of moons (lunations, not necessarily full moons) in lunisolar calendars. Since the introduction of the solar Julian calendar in the Roman Empire, and later the Gregorian calendar worldwide, people no longer perceive month names as \"moon\" names. The traditional Old English month names were equated with the names of the Julian calendar from an early time (soon after Christianization, according to the testimony of Bede around AD 700).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32455359",
"title": "List of lunar features",
"section": "Section::::Water features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "\"Lunar maria\" (singular \"mare\") are large, dark, regions of the Moon. They do not contain any water, but are believed to have been formed from molten rock from the Moon's mantle coming out onto the surface of the Moon. This list also includes the one \"oceanus\" and the features known by the names \"lacus\", \"palus\" and \"sinus\". The modern system of lunar nomenclature was introduced in 1651 by Riccioli. Riccioli's map of the Moon was drawn by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who has a crater named after him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826574",
"title": "Naming of moons",
"section": "Section::::Naming of moons by Solar System object.:Uranus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The first two Uranian moons, discovered in 1787, did not receive names until 1852, a year after two more moons had been discovered. The responsibility for naming was taken by John Herschel, son of the discoverer of Uranus. Herschel, instead of assigning names from Greek mythology, named the moons after magical spirits in English literature: the fairies Oberon and Titania from William Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", and the sylphs Ariel and Umbriel from Alexander Pope's \"The Rape of the Lock\" (Ariel is also a sprite in Shakespeare's \"The Tempest\"). The reasoning was presumably that Uranus, as god of the sky and air, would be attended by spirits of the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4by66h
|
absolute and apparent magnitude
|
[
{
"answer": "Apparent magnitude is how bright a star appears to an observer on Earth. Absolute magnitude is a measure of how bright the star would appear to an observer on earth if the star were 10 parsecs away.\n\nAbsolute magnitude allows astronomers to compare the inherent brightness of stars since the variations caused by distance are removed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* apparent - how bright it looks in the sky\n* absolute - how bright it *really* is, corrected for distance...specifically, how bright it would appear at 10 parsec (32.6 light years)\n\nFor example, 68 Cygni A has an apparent magnitude of 5, making a dim star you probably would even see unless you were well out of the city. \n\nHowever, it is a giant star that is very far away. Its absolute magnitude is -10, making it nearly as bright as the moon if it was 10 parsecs away.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1963",
"title": "Absolute magnitude",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Absolute magnitude () is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object, on an inverse logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale. An object's absolute magnitude is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were viewed from a distance of exactly , without extinction (or dimming) of its light due to absorption by interstellar matter and cosmic dust. By hypothetically placing all objects at a standard reference distance from the observer, their luminosities can be directly compared on a magnitude scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1962",
"title": "Apparent magnitude",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Absolute magnitude differs from apparent magnitude in that it is a measure of the intrinsic luminosity (rather than the apparent brightness) of a celestial object, expressed on the same inverse logarithmic scale. Absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that a star or object would have if it were observed from a standard reference distance of 10 parsecs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1962",
"title": "Apparent magnitude",
"section": "Section::::Calculations.:Absolute magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "While apparent magnitude is a measure of the brightness of an object as seen by a particular observer, absolute magnitude is a measure of the \"intrinsic\" brightness of an object. Flux decreases with distance according to an inverse-square law, so the apparent magnitude of a star depends on both its absolute brightness and its distance (and any extinction). For example, a star at one distance will have the same apparent magnitude as a star four times brighter at twice that distance. In contrast, the intrinsic brightness of an astronomical object, does not depend on the distance of the observer or any extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631494",
"title": "Moment magnitude scale",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Moment magnitude (M) is considered the authoritative magnitude scale for ranking earthquakes by size because it is more directly related to the energy of an earthquake, and does not \"saturate\". (That is, it does not underestimate magnitudes like other scales do in certain conditions.) It has become the standard scale used by seismological authorities (such as the U.S. Geological Survey), replacing (when available, typically for M 4) use of the (Local magnitude) and (surface-wave magnitude) scales. Subtypes of the moment magnitude scale (, etc.) reflect different ways of estimating the seismic moment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31211773",
"title": "Earthquake casualty estimation",
"section": "Section::::Estimates of shaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The magnitude for great earthquakes is often underestimated, at first. The standard teleseismic measure of the ‘size’ of an earthquake is the surface wave magnitude, , which has to be derived by definition from the surface waves with 20 second period. A more reliable and more modern scale is that of the moment magnitude, .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2500686",
"title": "Magnitude (astronomy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Astronomers use two different definitions of magnitude: apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude. The \"apparent\" magnitude () is the brightness of an object as it appears in the night sky from Earth. Apparent magnitude depends on an object's intrinsic luminosity, its distance, and the extinction reducing its brightness. The \"absolute\" magnitude () describes the intrinsic luminosity emitted by an object and is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were placed at a certain distance from Earth, 10 parsecs for stars. A more complex definition of absolute magnitude is used for planets and small Solar System bodies, based on its brightness at one astronomical unit from the observer and the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1962",
"title": "Apparent magnitude",
"section": "Section::::Calculations.:Absolute magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The absolute magnitude , of a star or astronomical object is defined as the apparent magnitude it would have as seen from a distance of 10 parsecs (about 32.6 light-years). The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (green) and 5.48 in the B band (blue).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
119dcv
|
If Ulysses S Grant was such a bad president why is he on the $50 bill?
|
[
{
"answer": "His administration was prone to charges of corruption. Certainly, he showed bad judgment in the political realm and was easily influenced by some unsavory characters.\n\nAs for his popularity, he was the most famous General in U.S. history, save for Washington himself. And he was considered the military leader who saved the union during the Civil War. That reputation got him elected twice and got him studied in military academies and got him forever on the $50 bill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's less to do with the substance of his Presidency, and more to do with him winning the Civil War for the United States as a General, and then being elected to the Presidency. When Grant first appeared on a $50 gold certificate in 1913, he'd been dead for nearly 30 years: long enough to forgive some of the bad things, and recent enough to remember the hero. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You need to realize just how wildly popular he was at the time. Grant was [first featured on US Currency in 1886](_URL_0_), only one year after his death. I remember watching [an episode of American Experience on PBS that featured Grant](_URL_1_) in which they describe him, not Lincoln, as being the most popular American of the 19th century. While modern historians are able to point of his lack of accomplishments after the Civil War, he achieved this rockstar status among his contemporaries who credited him with saving the union. Today, Lincoln receives most of the \"credit\" and Grant is largely remembered as one of Lincoln's employees.\n\nBy the way, I have to disagree with your professor's opinion of other historians. While Washington and Jefferson and pretty much universally adored among historians, FDR and Lincoln are an entirely different story. FDR is an especially controversial president.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Grant was a terrible politician because he was too good a human being. I know this sounds ironic because of his role in the Civil War but it's true. His biggest fault was an abundance of trust and loyalty towards his friends. This worked well in combat but not in political office. Rather than assist investigations of alleged corruption within his administration, Grant chose to fiercely defend his friends and this has haunted his reputation ever since. \n\nHere is a quote from Jean Edward Smith's biography on Grant that illustrates his \"flaw\" as President:\n\n\"Once, Grant offered an appointment to a man who had befriended him when he was down and out. When the man pointed out he was a Democrat, the president brushed it aside. \"Just before the Civil War, when I was standing on a street corner in St. Louis by a wagon loaded with wood, you approached and said: 'Captain, haven't you been able to sell your wood?' I answered, 'No.' Then you said, ' I'll buy it and whenever you haul a load of wood to the city and can't sell it, just take it around to my residence and throw it over the fence and I'll pay you for it.' I haven't forgotten it.\"\n\nThis is off topic but personally, I think Grant is one of the greatest Americans to have ever lived. Ever. I read his Memoirs and thought those were fantastic. Then I read a biography on his life and... wow. General. President. World Traveler. Best Selling author. Humble. Loyal. Remained in love with one person from youth until death. What an inspiration!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54433584",
"title": "Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant",
"section": "Section::::Presidency and post-presidential world tour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "According to historian John Y. Simon, had Grant served only one term of office, he would have been considered a great President by more historians, particularly noted for his successful negotiations of the \"Alabama Claims\" under his Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, his strong enforcement of civil rights for blacks, his concilliation with former Confederates, and for the delivery of a strong economy. However, his second term, the Liberal Republican bolt had deprived Grant of the needed support from party intellectuals and reformers, while the Panic of 1873 devastated the national economy for years and was blamed on Grant. When Grant left office in 1877 the age of the Civil War and Reconstruction ended, and his second administration foreshadowed the future administrations of Benjamin Harrison and William McKinley. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25370157",
"title": "Grant administration scandals",
"section": "Section::::Scandals and corruption.:Whiskey Ring.:President Grant's deposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Many of Grant's friends who knew him claimed that the President was \"a truthful man\" and it was \"impossible for him to lie.\" Yet Treasury Clerk A. E. Willson told future Supreme Court Justice John Harlan, \"What hurt Bristow most of all and disheartened him is the final conviction that Grant is himself in the Ring and knows all about [it]\" Grant's popularity, however, decreased significantly in the country as a result of his testimony and after Babcock was acquitted in the trial. Grant's political enemies used this deposition as a launchpad to public office. The New York Tribune stated that the Whiskey Ring scandal \"had been met at the entrance of the White House and turned back.\" However, the national unpopularity of Grant's testimony on behalf of his friend Babcock ruined any chances for a third term nomination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25775809",
"title": "Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant",
"section": "Section::::Historical evaluations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 1090,
"text": "The 20th-century historical views of Grant were less favorable. Political analyst Michael Barone noted in 1998 that, \"Ulysses S. Grant is universally ranked among the greatest American generals, and his Memoirs are widely considered to belong with the best military autobiographies ever written. But he is inevitably named, by conservatives as well as liberals, as one of the worst presidents in American history.\" Barone argues that: \"This consensus, however, is being challenged by writers outside the professional historians' guild.\" Barone points to a lawyer Frank Scaturro, who led the movement to restore Grant's Tomb while only a college student, and in 1998 wrote the first book of the modern era which portrays Grant's presidency in a positive light. Barone said that Scaturro's work was a \"convincing case that Grant was a strong and, in many important respects, successful president. It is an argument full of significance for how we see the course of American political history ... Scaturro's work ... should prompt a reassessment of the entire Progressive-New Deal Tradition.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25775809",
"title": "Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant",
"section": "Section::::Historical evaluations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 192,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 192,
"end_character": 1104,
"text": "Grant's presidency has traditionally been viewed by historians as incompetent and full of corruption. An examination of his presidency reveals Grant had both successes and failures during his two terms in office. In recent years historians have elevated his presidential rating because of his support for African American civil rights. Grant had urged the passing of the 15th Amendment and signed into law the Civil Rights Bill of 1875 that gave all citizens access to places of public enterprise. He leaned heavily toward the Radical camp and often sided with their Reconstruction policies, signing into law Force Acts to prosecute the Ku Klux Klan. In foreign policy Grant won praise for the Treaty of Washington, settling the Alabama Claims issue with Britain through arbitration. Economically he sided with Eastern bankers and signed the Public Credit Act that paid U.S. debts in gold specie, but was blamed for the severe economic depression that lasted 1873–1877. Grant, wary of powerful congressional leaders, was the first President to ask for a line item veto—though Congress never allowed one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "237121",
"title": "Tim Pawlenty",
"section": "Section::::Governorship.:State budget.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "During his second term, Pawlenty erased a $2.7-billion deficit by cutting spending, shifting payments, and using one-time federal stimulus money. His final budget (2010–2011) was the state's first two-year period since 1960 in which net government expenditures decreased. Pawlenty has claimed this as \"the first time in 150 years\" that spending has been cut, but fact-checkers have disputed this claim as no public budget records prior to 1960 are known to exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6820176",
"title": "Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign",
"section": "Section::::Fundraising.:Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Over time, Bill Clinton took up most of the fundraising burden, sending out fundraising letters, signing campaign memorabilia, and selling appearances with him. By the start of 2012, the debt was down to about $250,000. A team of Obama donors, including Steve Spinner and Jane Watson Stetson, who wanted to thank Clinton for her service during the Obama administration, took up the cause; they used public records to find potential donors who still had not reached contribution limits for 2008. In addition, the Clinton campaign's donor list was rented out to Obama's 2012 re-election campaign, bringing in around $63,000 in October 2012. The Clinton campaign finally declared it had paid off all its debt in a report filed at the beginning of 2013, showing in fact a $205,000 surplus, just as Clinton was about to end her tenure as Secretary of State.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2240593",
"title": "Ron Chernow",
"section": "Section::::Professional background.:American politics.:Ulysses S. Grant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "In 2011, Chernow signed a deal to write a comprehensive biography on Ulysses S. Grant. Chernow explained his transition from writing about George Washington to Grant: \"Makes some sense as progression. Towering general of Revolution to towering general of Civil War. Both two-term presidents, though with very different results.\" \"Grant\" was released on October 10, 2017 and the biography strongly argues against conventional wisdom that Grant was an \"...adequate president, a dull companion and a roaring drunk.\" The book received overwhelmingly positive reviews and was named by The New York Times as one of the 10 Best Books of 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wze84
|
To what extent did the typical 15th/16th century European peasant know about/be affected by the Age of Exploration?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, there was the introduction of the potato, sugar (in loaves) from canes (as opposed to beets) and coffee. Oh, and tobacco. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16743222",
"title": "Turquerie",
"section": "Section::::History of the movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "In the wake of the Age of Exploration, roughly between the 15th and 18th centuries, there was an explosion in the number of commodities and availability of products. People were using newly created cartography and using these maps to explore the world on paper. There was an accumulation of more objects and a desire for more acquisitions. Coupling this, there was the value of exoticism, valuing things that came from a great distance. Europeans and Ottomans alike were developing a consciousness of themselves in relation to the broader world. At the same time the Ottomans were slowly ceasing to be regarded as a serious military threat to Western Europe, despite their continuing occupation of the Balkans, and campaigns such as that ended by the Battle of Vienna as late as 1683.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1610496",
"title": "Economic history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early 19th century.:Agriculture, commerce and industry.:Population growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Although there was relatively little immigration from Europe, the rapid expansion of settlements to the West, and the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, opened up vast frontier lands. The high birth rate, and the availability of cheap land caused the rapid expansion of population. The average age was under 20, with children everywhere. The population grew from 5.3 million people in 1800, living on 865,000 square miles of land to 9.6 million in 1820 on 1,749,000 square miles. By 1840, the population had reached 17,069,000 on the same land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50610120",
"title": "Pyreneism",
"section": "Section::::20th century pyreneism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The 20th century, following in Henri Beraldi's wake, keeps developing a pyreneist subjectivity linked with the post-exploration and post-conquest. Although at the end of the 19th century another type of conquest already begins with the search for new trails, we witness a new form of conquest based notably on an important technical evolution, European at first, then under the influence of North America. Thus is set, similarly to the \"difficulty alpinism\", a \"difficulty pyreneism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31658772",
"title": "Iberian nautical sciences, 1400–1600",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1126,
"text": "Throughout the early age of exploration, it became increasingly clear that the residents of the Iberian Peninsula were experts at navigation, sailing, and expansion. From Henry the Navigator's first adventures down the African coast to Columbus's fabled expedition resulting in the discovery of the new world, the figures that catalyzed the European appetite for expansion and imperialism heralded from either Spain or Portugal. However, merely a century earlier, nautical travel for most peoples was resigned to keeping within sight of a coastline and very rarely did ships venture out into deeper waters. The period's ships were not able to handle the forces of open ocean travel and the crewmen had neither the ability nor the necessary materials to keep themselves from getting lost. A sailor's ability to travel was dictated by the technology available, and it wasn’t until the late 15th century that the development of the nautical sciences on the Iberian Peninsula allowed for the genesis of long distance shipping by directly effecting, and leading to the creation of, new tools and techniques relative to navigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144571",
"title": "Commercial Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Colonialism and Mercantilism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "Geopolitical, monetary, and technological factors drove the Age of Discovery. During this period (1450-17th century), the European economic center shifted from the Islamic Mediterranean to Western Europe (Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and to some extent England). This shift was caused by the successful circumnavigation of Africa, which opened up sea-trade with the east: after Portugal's Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed in Calicut, India in May 1498, a new path of eastern trade was possible, ending the monopoly of the Ottoman Turks and the Italian city-states. The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade. Following this, Portugal became the controlling state for trade between east and west, followed later by the Dutch city of Antwerp. Direct maritime trade between Europe and China started in the 16th century, after the Portuguese established the settlement of Goa, India in December 1510, and thereafter that of Macau in southern China in 1557. Since the English came late to the transatlantic trade, their commercial revolution was later as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31642145",
"title": "European and American voyages of scientific exploration",
"section": "Section::::Maritime exploration in the Age of Enlightenment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "From the mid-18th century through the 19th century scientific missions mapped the newly discovered regions, brought back to Europe the newly discovered fauna and flora, made hydrological, astronomical and meteorological observations and improved the methods of navigation. This stimulated great advances in the scientific disciplines of natural history, botany, zoology, ichthyology, conchology, taxonomy, medicine, geography, geology, mineralogy, hydrology, oceanography, physics, meteorology etc. – all contributing to the sense of \"improvement\" and \"progress\" that characterized the Enlightenment. Artists were used to record landscapes and indigenous peoples, while natural history illustrators captured the appearance of organisms before they deteriorated after collection. Some of the world's finest natural history illustrations were produced at this time and the illustrators changed from informed amateurs to fully trained professionals acutely aware of the need for scientific accuracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21992152",
"title": "Economic history of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Early modern Europe: 1500–1800.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1640,
"text": "The age of discovery, seen from the European point of view, introduced major economic changes. The Columbian exchange resulted in Europe adopting new crops, as well as shaking up traditional cultural ideas and practices. The commercial revolution continued, with Europeans developing mercantilism and European imports of luxury goods (notably spices and fine cloth) from eastern and southern Asia switching from crossing Islamic territory in the present-day Middle East to passing the Cape of Good Hope. Spain proved adept at plundering the gold and silver of the Americas, but incompetent at converting its new wealth into a vibrant domestic economy, and declined as an economic power. The centres of commerce and manufactures shifted definitively from the Mediterranean to the centres of shipping and colonisation on the western Atlantic coastal fringe: economic activity went into a relative decline in the Italian peninsula and in the Ottoman Empire - but to the advantage of Portugal, Spain, France, the Dutch Republic and England/Britain. In eastern Europe, Russia suppressed the Tatar slave-trade, expanded commerce in luxury furs from Siberia and rivalled the Scandinavian and German states in the Baltic. \"Colonial goods\" like sugar and tobacco from the Americas came to play a role in the European economy. Meanwhile, changes in financial practice (especially in the Netherlands and in England), the second agricultural revolution in Britain and technological innovations in France, Prussia and England not only promoted economic changes and expansion in themselves, but also fostered the beginnings of the industrial revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pggzg
|
what the different url means
|
[
{
"answer": "They're just supposed to denote what kind of organisation is using the website. The usual .com was originally intended for commercial sites, .org for nonprofit organisations, and .net for networking technologies (guess what .tv was supposed to be used for?), but they ended up being unrestricted so anyone can use mostly anything (.mil and .gov are obvious examples of ones that aren't open to public use). There are also country-specific ones that are an offshoot, ._URL_0_ (British site) and .de (German site) being the most commonly seen ones, but most countries again don't really restrict their usage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32146",
"title": "Uniform Resource Identifier",
"section": "Section::::URLs and URNs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "As such, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, the term \"URL\" remains widely used. Additionally, the term \"web address\" (which has no formal definition) often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the \"http\" or \"https\" schemes. Such assumptions can lead to confusion, for example, in the case of XML namespaces that have a visual similarity to resolvable URIs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47817022",
"title": "URL",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web address, is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21076839",
"title": "Web page",
"section": "Section::::Features.:URLs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), or web address, is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333697",
"title": "Uniform Resource Name",
"section": "Section::::URIs, URNs, and URLs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "A URI is a string of characters used to identify a name or resource. URIs are used in many Internet protocols to refer to and access information resources. URI schemes include the familiar codice_1, as well as hundreds of others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1710720",
"title": "XML namespace",
"section": "Section::::Namespace names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "A \"namespace name\" is a uniform resource identifier (URI). Typically, the URI chosen for the namespace of a given XML vocabulary describes a resource under the control of the author or organization defining the vocabulary, such as a URL for the author's Web server. However, the namespace specification does not require nor suggest that the namespace URI be used to retrieve information; it is simply treated by an XML parser as a string. For example, the document at http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml itself does not contain any code. It simply describes the XHTML namespace to human readers. Using a URI (such as \"http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml\") to identify a namespace, rather than a simple string (such as \"xhtml\"), reduces the probability of different namespaces using duplicate identifiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32146",
"title": "Uniform Resource Identifier",
"section": "Section::::Relation to XML namespaces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "In XML, a namespace is an abstract domain to which a collection of element and attribute names can be assigned. The namespace name is a character string which must adhere to the generic URI syntax. However, the name is generally not considered to be a URI, because the URI specification bases the decision not only on lexical components, but also on their intended use. A namespace name does not necessarily imply any of the semantics of URI schemes; for example, a namespace name beginning with \"http:\" may have no connotation to the use of the HTTP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13259",
"title": "Home page",
"section": "Section::::Website home page.:Website structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The uniform resource locator (URL) of a home page is most often the base-level domain name, such as https://wikipedia.org. Historically it may also be found at http://domain.tld/index.html or http://domain.tld/default.html, where \"tld\" refers to the top-level domain used by the website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5viqw8
|
What is the current Academic consensus - Anglo-Saxon Invasion, Anglo-Saxon Migration or none of the above?
|
[
{
"answer": "'It's complicated.'\n\nThere are a few different ways to approach this question.\n\n**Textual accounts**\n\nThe first, and the method longest favored, has been to trust the written sources. These include Gildas' sermon, Bede, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and other later texts. Each tells a slightly different version of the arrival, in boats, of Saxon mercenaries who turn on the hapless Britains, conquering and/or enslaving and/or driving them from England into the hills of Wales.\n\nYou are correct that these texts are no longer trusted, however. Why? First, scholars have done a lot of legwork to track down Bede's sources, and it's very clear that Bede based his account of the Anglo-Saxon arrival directly on Gildas. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (which, remember, was written 400 years after these events) gives no indication of having any other unique sources either. Hence, these are not actually three separate accounts that agree, but one story, repeated two additional times. If we read Gildas, we're on the same footing as Bede.\n\nSo what happens when we read Gildas? Late Antique historians have, for the past 30 years, done a lot of really good work studying the genre and literary function of ancient and early medieval texts. What I mean by this is that we've come to recognize that ancient texts weren't written by people who necessarily were interested in telling the same kinds of stories we assume they are. A modern historian would, for instance, be interested in knowing precisely what people did, and how these actions influenced the events that followed. Late Antique authors, however, were often much more interested in how people's actions communicated their *moral* virtue, and hence tend to write stories where our ability to understand whether someone was good or bad is privileged over strict attention to causality. The author of the Historia Augusta doesn't tell us about Elagabalus' kinky sex life so we know *why* he was assassinated; he tells us about it so we know that the emperor *deserved what he got*. The things that authors emphasize vary by genre, by the author's context, by the objectives of the piece they were writing -- lots of factors. So just as a good literary scholar much think hard about how to distill meaning from a work of fiction, we must approach our historical texts with great care if we want to know what they're really on about.\n\nGildas wrote a sermon, and the central theme is about the consequences of rebellion against God. He uses examples from the scriptures to warn of the consequences of sin, goes through a list of corruption practiced by five bad contemporary kings, criticized the contemporary church, and calls his listeners / readers to repent. He also uses a long example from history to set this up, and this comes at the beginning of the sermon. It's easy to read this example from history as an objective account, but we have to remember that it's actually an introduction meant to get us to the real issue Gildas cares about, which is the consequences of rebelling against God.\n\nIn this historical story, Gildas rattles off the history of Britain, and he frames it as a sequence of rebellion vs submission. The Britons were weak by themselves, but Rome conquered them and made them strong. They rebelled, which made them weak, but the Romans conquered them again and this was actually good because submission to Rome made them strong. Then the Romans gave them Christianity, and they got even stronger. But they rebelled *twice*: against the Romans (by sending a usurper, Magnus Maximus, to the Continent with their armies), and against God (by embracing the Pelagian heresy). And that made them weak.\n\nThis is where we get to the part that historians of the Anglo-Saxon conquest care about. Britain was being raided in the fifth century, and they asked for help -- Rome sent it, they were saved, but then the Romans left because the soldiers were needed elsewhere. Before they left, the Romans built a wall in the north (Hadrian's Wall?? Only, that was built 300 year earlier). Britain was raided a second time -- the Roman army came and saved them again, building another wall (the Antonine Wall? Again, the chronology is way off -- but ok). A third time, Britain called for aid -- and Rome was fighting off the Huns and could spare no men. So the British asked for Saxon mercenaries, and they came, and they stayed. Shortly thereafter, these mercenaries were burning down Romano-British towns, killing their inhabitants, and Britain was ruined. But GOD sent the last Roman, Ambrosius, who beat the Saxons at Badon Hill. The moral? Britain never should have rebelled in the first place. But GOD *will* help you get back on the right path after you've sinned. So repent now, before it's too late!\n\nSo -- what do we do with this as a historical document? It's actually very vague on details. There's no mention of Hengist or Horsa, the two brothers (both named 'horse') who supposedly led the Saxon mercenaries. Gildas, in fact, is talking about events as though he expects his audience to already know what's going on. And he's clearly embroidering the story to make it work for his story, adding dramatic elements like the construction of Hadrian's Wall in the fifth century to make the narrative more compelling. His real goal isn't to tell us what happened; it's to get his kings to repent and turn back to God. But there are some details lurking in the text that are probably true. So let's leave Gildas with a ?, and look at the next source of evidence.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9941",
"title": "Æthelberht of Kent",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "In the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples had developed into full-scale migrations. The newcomers are known to have included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, and there is evidence of other groups as well. These groups captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mount Badon (Mons Badonicus) halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years. From about 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within twenty-five years it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2090427",
"title": "Barbarian Invasion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "Historians give differing dates regarding the duration of this period, but the Invasion Period is typically regarded as beginning with the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia in 375 and ending either with the conquest of Italy by the Lombards in 568,[3] or at some point between 700 and 800.[4] Various factors contributed to this phenomenon, and the role and significance of each one is still very much discussed among experts on the subject. Starting in 382, the Roman Empire and individual tribes made treaties regarding their settlement in its territory. The Franks, a Germanic tribe that would later found Francia—a predecessor of modern France and Germany—settled in the Roman Empire and were given a task of securing the northeastern Gaul border. Western Roman rule was first violated with the Crossing of the Rhine and the following invasions of the Vandals and Suebi. With wars ensuing between various tribes, as well as local populations in the Western Roman Empire, more and more power was transferred to Germanic and Roman militaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2645367",
"title": "History of Anglo-Saxon England",
"section": "Section::::Migration and the formation of kingdoms (400–600).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons into Britain can be seen in the context of a general movement of Germanic peoples around Europe between the years 300 and 700, known as the Migration period (also called the Barbarian Invasions or Völkerwanderung). In the same period there were migrations of Britons to the Armorican peninsula (Brittany and Normandy in modern-day France): initially around 383 during Roman rule, but also c. 460 and in the 540s and 550s; the 460s migration is thought to be a reaction to the fighting during the Anglo-Saxon mutiny between about 450 to 500, as was the migration to Britonia (modern day Galicia, in northwest Spain) at about the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21430675",
"title": "Gregorian mission",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "The Anglo-Saxon invasions coincided with the disappearance of most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Anglo-Saxons, including the economic and religious structures. Whether this was a result of the Angles themselves, as the early medieval writer Gildas argued, or mere coincidence is unclear. The archaeological evidence suggests much variation in the way that the tribes established themselves in Britain concurrently with the decline of urban Roman culture in Britain. The net effect was that when Augustine arrived in 597 the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had little continuity with the preceding Roman civilisation. In the words of the historian John Blair, \"Augustine of Canterbury began his mission with an almost clean slate.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1299531",
"title": "British Iron Age",
"section": "Section::::The people of Iron Age Britain.:Celtic movement from the continent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Examples of events that could be labelled \"invasions\" include the arrival in Southern Britain of the Belgae from the end of the 2nd century BC, as described in Caesar's \"Commentaries on the Gallic War.\" Such sudden events may be invisible in the archaeological record. In this case, it depends on the interpretation of Aylesford-Swarling pottery. Regardless of the \"invasionist\" vs. \"diffusionist\" debate, it is beyond dispute that exchanges with the continent were a defining aspect of the British Iron Age. According to Julius Caesar, the Britons further inland than the Belgae believed that they were indigenous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37780",
"title": "Anglo-Saxons",
"section": "Section::::Early Anglo-Saxon history (410–660).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The early Anglo-Saxon period covers the history of medieval Britain that starts from the end of Roman rule. It is a period widely known in European history as the Migration Period, also the \"Völkerwanderung\" (\"migration of peoples\" in German). This was a period of intensified human migration in Europe from about 400 to 800. The migrants were Germanic tribes such as the Goths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons, Lombards, Suebi, Frisii, and Franks; they were later pushed westwards by the Huns, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars, and Alans. The migrants to Britain might also have included the Huns and Rugini.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103155",
"title": "Migration Period",
"section": "Section::::Chronology.:First phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1714,
"text": "The first phase of invasions, occurring between AD 300 and 500, is partly documented by Greek and Latin historians but difficult to verify archaeologically. It puts Germanic peoples in control of most areas of what was then the Western Roman Empire. The Tervingi entered Roman territory (after a clash with the Huns) in 376. Some time thereafter in Marcianopolis, the escort to Fritigern (their leader) was killed while meeting with Lupicinus. The Tervingi rebelled, and the Visigoths, a group derived either from the Tervingi or from a fusion of mainly Gothic groups, eventually invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 410, before settling in Gaul, and then, 50 years later, in Iberia, founding a kingdom that lasted for 250 years. They were followed into Roman territory first by a confederation of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian warriors, under Odoacer, that deposed Romulus Augustulus on 4 September 476, and later by the Ostrogoths, led by Theodoric the Great, who settled in Italy. In Gaul, the Franks (a fusion of western Germanic tribes whose leaders had been aligned with Rome since the third century AD) entered Roman lands gradually during the fifth century, and after consolidating power under Childeric and his son Clovis’s decisive victory over Syagrius in 486, established themselves as rulers of northern Roman Gaul. Fending off challenges from the Allemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths, the Frankish kingdom became the nucleus of what would later become France and Germany. The initial Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain occurred during the fifth century, when Roman control of Britain had come to an end. The Burgundians settled in northwestern Italy, Switzerland and Eastern France in the fifth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jmwid
|
How do astronauts tell how fast they are going in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is just as valid for an astronaut to say they are still and all else is moving as it is to say the earth is still (we know it rotates on its axis and around the sun).\n\nThere will be someone on the ground telling them by radio their speed and position **relative** to the shuttle/satellite/station.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several ways to estimate an a space-object's velocity, relative to the Earth.\n\nFor things like rockets, you can use an [inertial guidance system](_URL_0_). These things keep track of the forces acting on your spacecraft, like acceleration and rotation, and calculates velocity from them using physics equations. The space shuttles and Apollo spacecrafts use these devices to keep track of their velocity.\n\nA different method is used for GPS satellites (and possibly the ISS), which orbit around the Earth. You can calculate any orbiting object's velocity if you can know it's altitude. You can get an orbiter's altitude by calculating how much time a radio signal (which travels at the speed of light) takes to travel between the orbiter and a receiver on the earth.\n\nLastly, for things far away (well, astronauts won't be on these, but whatever), you can get it's velocity by measure it's [Doppler Shift](_URL_1_). We use this to determine the velocities of stuff like asteroids and other galaxies. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5876973",
"title": "Lunar escape systems",
"section": "Section::::Details.:Navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "There was no mass or power available in the LESS for an Inertial Measurement Unit to measure acceleration and tell the astronauts where they were, where they were going or how fast they would be getting there, or even for a radar altimeter to show altitude above the lunar surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16343705",
"title": "List of vehicle speed records",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In order to unambiguously express the speed of a spacecraft, a frame of reference must be specified. Typically, this frame is fixed to the body with the greatest gravitational influence on the spacecraft, as this is the most relevant frame for most purposes. Velocities in different frames of reference are not directly comparable; thus the matter of the \"fastest spacecraft\" depends on the reference frame used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "With current technology severely limiting the velocity of space travel, however, the differences experienced in practice are minuscule: after 6 months on the International Space Station (ISS) (which orbits Earth at a speed of about 7,700 m/s) an astronaut would have aged about 0.005 seconds less than those on Earth. The cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Sergei Avdeyev both experienced time dilation of about 20 milliseconds compared to time that passed on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37844",
"title": "Mass driver",
"section": "Section::::Fixed mass drivers.:On Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "To launch a space vehicle with humans on board, a mass driver's track would need to be several hundreds of kilometers long if providing almost all the velocity to Low Earth Orbit, though a lesser length could provide major launch assist. Required length, if accelerating mainly at near a constant maximum acceptable g-force for passengers, is proportional to velocity squared. For instance, half of the velocity goal could correspond to a quarter as long of a tunnel needing to be constructed, for the same acceleration. For rugged objects, much higher accelerations may suffice, allowing a far shorter track, potentially circular or helical (spiral). Another concept involves a large ring design whereby a space vehicle would circle the ring numerous times, gradually gaining speed, before being released into a launch corridor leading skyward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2831127",
"title": "Traffic flow",
"section": "Section::::Traffic stream properties.:Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Space mean speed\" is measured over the whole roadway segment. Consecutive pictures or video of a roadway segment track the speed of individual vehicles, and then the average speed is calculated. It is considered more accurate than the time mean speed. The data for space calculating space mean speed may be taken from satellite pictures, a camera, or both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612440",
"title": "Heteroscedasticity",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "BULLET::::- Imagine you are watching a rocket take off nearby and measuring the distance it has traveled once each second. In the first couple of seconds your measurements may be accurate to the nearest centimeter, say. However, 5 minutes later as the rocket recedes into space, the accuracy of your measurements may only be good to 100 m, because of the increased distance, atmospheric distortion and a variety of other factors. The data you collect would exhibit heteroscedasticity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1264904",
"title": "Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Project Mercury astronauts could only adjust yaw, pitch, or roll, but Gemini crewmen had full manual control over their flight path. Walter Schirra said that on Gemini 6 \"I was amazed at my ability to maneuver. I did a fly-around inspection of Gemini 7, literally flying rings around it, and I could move to within inches of it in perfect confidence\". Because there is no turbulence in space \"It was like the Blue Angels at 18,000 miles per hour, only it was easier\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4i1qsp
|
if a non-english speaker learns english from a natural english speaker, why exactly do they have an accent?
|
[
{
"answer": "If a person already knows a language they will make some sounds similar to what they already know. For example Spanish speakers rolling their \"r\". They are use to rolling their r's so when they learn another language they still roll that r because that is what they are use to doing.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not as easy as you think to \"emulate sounds\".\n\nBasically, the older we get, the harder it is to learn new skills. Learning how to pronounce sounds is easy when you're a baby -- literally child's play. But once you're past puberty, it gets harder to learn new sounds.\n\nTo actually make intelligible sounds that mean something, a lot of things have to work very closely together. Your diaphragm, vocal cords, glottis, tongue, jaw and lips have to move in very precisely controlled ways and all in sync just to make the right sounds. This means creating neural pathways in the brain to deal with all this, something that gets harder as we get older.\n\nIt would be interesting to hear how you cope with learning a new foreign language. I would wager that no matter how good you think you are, you would have a very noticeable accent.\n\n > If you learn a word, but cannot properly pronounce it, have you actually learned it?\n\nYes. You would be pronouncing it as best you could, given the limitations imposed by your own brain. You may know exactly what sounds you're aiming for, but you're simply not capable of getting them exactly right because your brain isn't wired up to cope with them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "226958",
"title": "Non-native pronunciations of English",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The speech of non-native English speakers may exhibit pronunciation characteristics that result from their imperfectly learning the sound system of English, either by transferring the phonological rules from their mother tongue into their English speech (\"interference\") or through implementing strategies similar to those used in primary language acquisition. They may also create innovative pronunciations for English sounds not found in the speaker's first language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4051786",
"title": "Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The following is a list of common non-native pronunciations that English speakers make when trying to speak foreign languages. Many of these are due to transfer of phonological rules from English to the new language as well as differences in grammar and syntax that they encounter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415406",
"title": "English as a second or foreign language",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties for learners.:Pronunciation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing them. For example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256791",
"title": "Accent (sociolinguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Social factors.:Being understood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Many teachers of English as a second language neglect to teach speech/pronunciation. Many adult and near-adult learners of second languages have unintelligible speech patterns that may interfere with their education, profession, and social interactions. Pronunciation in a second or foreign language involves more than the correct articulation of individual sounds. It involves producing a wide range of complex and subtle distinctions which relate sound to meaning at several levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226958",
"title": "Non-native pronunciations of English",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Non-native pronunciations of English result from the common linguistic phenomenon in which non-native users of any language tend to carry the intonation, phonological processes and pronunciation rules from their first language or first languages into their English speech. They may also create innovative pronunciations for English sounds not found in the speaker's first language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256791",
"title": "Accent (sociolinguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Social factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "When a group defines a standard pronunciation, speakers who deviate from it are often said to \"speak with an accent\". However, everyone speaks with an accent. People from the United States would \"speak with an accent\" from the point of view of an Australian, and vice versa. Accents such as BBC English or General American may sometimes be erroneously designated in their countries of origin as \"accentless\" to indicate that they offer no obvious clue to the speaker's regional or social background.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18089868",
"title": "Linguistic discrimination",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic prejudice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1346,
"text": "It can be noted that use of language such as certain accents may result in an individual experiencing prejudice. For example, some accents hold more prestige than others depending on the cultural context. However, with so many dialects, it can be difficult to determine which is the most preferable. The best answer linguists can give, such as the authors of \"Do You Speak American?\", is that it depends on the location and the individual. Research has determined however that some sounds in languages may be determined to sound less pleasant naturally. Also, certain accents tend to carry more prestige in some societies over other accents. For example, in the United States speaking General American (i.e., an absence of a regional, ethnic, or working class accent) is widely preferred in many contexts such as television journalism. Also, in the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation is associated with being of higher class and thus more likeable. In addition to prestige, research has shown that certain accents may also be associated with less intelligence, and having poorer social skills. An example can be seen in the difference between Southerners and Northerners in the United States, where people from the North are typically perceived as being less likable in character, and Southerners are perceived as being less intelligent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lnpgi
|
If Earth had a huge equatorial ocean like it did in the past, would it be possible we'd observe persistent hurricanes lasting months or even years, like a mini-version of Jupiter's great red spot?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not quite.\n\nGlobal winds and ocean currents on planets are based off numerous factors.\n\n- The tilt of the planet (not just seasons, but if influences the amount of sunlight at the equator and the poles)\n\n- Positioning of continents (alters ocean currents)\n\n- Positioning of continents (warm and cold air)\n\n- Speed of the planet rotation (Coriolis effect)\n\n- Size of Planet\n\n- What 'substances' are being involved (we still don't know for sure what is in the Great Red Spot).\n\nIf earth contained only land at the poles, and was just ocean from 60S to 60N, you would see some systematic weather. Earth (with continents) has ocean currents surround our continents and impact our climates.\n\nAn example: Western Europe should be Taiga (as Taiga forests usually occur around 60N and 60S). However, the Gulf Stream which hits the Eastern United States Seaboard provides warm currents to Europe; Europe, as we know, contains deciduous forest.\n\n_____\n\nNow about Jupiter and other planets:\n\nIt is not uncommon for gas giants to have bizarre weather. There is little 'atmosphere', let alone friction from the surface of the planet. We still don't know what makes the Great Red Spot 'exist'. A theory is that hot gases rise to higher levels, eddies form, and ultimately fuel the Great Red Spot.\n\n\nAnticyclonic storms, or storms which 'spin' in the wrong direction (like Great Red Spot), are not impacted by the Coriolis effect because they are so 'small' compared to the planet's size. We know this because tornados on Earth can sometimes spin backwards.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is an excellent question! \n\nAlso, are there any other planets covered in ocean? I know we have yet to find liquid water on another celestial body (save for the little bit near recently discovered near the poles of Mars). \n\nI do know liquid methane exists on other plants though, and moons like Europa may possibly have liquid water beneath its frozen surface. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "130312",
"title": "Storm",
"section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial storms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Storms do not only occur on Earth; other planetary bodies with a sufficient atmosphere (gas giants in particular) also undergo stormy weather. The Great Red Spot on Jupiter provides a well-known example. Though technically an anticyclone, with greater than hurricane wind speeds, it is larger than the Earth and has persisted for at least 340 years, having first been observed by astronomer Galileo Galilei. Neptune also had its own lesser-known Great Dark Spot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8282374",
"title": "Tropical cyclone",
"section": "Section::::Long-term activity trends.:Climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "According to 2006 studies by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, \"the strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the earth's climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28760070",
"title": "Tropical cyclones and climate change",
"section": "Section::::Research.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "According to 2006 studies by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, \"the strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the Earth's climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27325497",
"title": "1875 Atlantic hurricane season",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The 1875 Atlantic hurricane season featured three landfalling tropical cyclones. However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated. There were five recorded hurricanes and one major hurricane – Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33408461",
"title": "1863 Atlantic hurricane season",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "The 1863 Atlantic hurricane season featured five landfalling tropical cyclones. In the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated. There were seven recorded hurricanes and no major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. Of the known 1863 cyclones, seven were first documented in 1995 by José Fernández-Partagás and Henry Diaz, while the ninth tropical storm was first documented in 2003. These changes were largely adopted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in their updates to the Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT), with some adjustments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3373620",
"title": "Atlantic hurricane",
"section": "Section::::Trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes, many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile tourism; therefore, the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances. The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology. Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes, therefore, experts regard the early data as suspect. Christopher Landsea \"et al.\" estimated an undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910. These undercounts roughly take into account the typical size of tropical cyclones, the density of shipping tracks over the Atlantic basin, and the amount of populated coastline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407233",
"title": "Global dimming",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to hydrological cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "A natural form of large scale environmental dimming effect on the development of tropical cyclones originates from Sahara desert dust, when the drifting sand and mineral particles laden air moves over the Atlantic Ocean. The particles reflect and absorb sunlight, less sun rays reach Earth surface layers, thus resulting in cooler water and land surface temperatures, and also less cloud formation, subsequently dampening the development of hurricanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7pun5t
|
What physical properties make Iron, Cobalt and Nickel ferromagnetic?
|
[
{
"answer": "It all has to with the spins of the electrons. When all of the electrons in the orbitals are paired up, their spins (+1/2 & -1/2) cancel each other out. This results in a diamagnetic material that is slightly repelled by an external magnetic force. Conversely, paramagnetic materials have electrons that are unpaired causing a slight attraction in the presence of an external magnetic force. However, when the external magnetic force is removed, random thermal motion randomizes the spins therefore causing the material to lose its magnetic properties. Ferromagnetic materials are similar to that of paramagnetic, however they do not lose their magnetic properties in the absence of an external magnetic force. \n\nThis is a cool interactive that may help you understand \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is complicated. Paramagnetism and diamagnetism can be explained in terms of electron spins and electron orbital motion around an atom. If there are too many spins that are unpaired then the spins align with the field (para), if the spins are paired then the spins play no role and it is all about orbital motion which opposes the field (dia).\n\nFor transition metals it is more complicated, because you cannot longer see the problem in the atom by atom picture. Iron, cobalt and nickel have important electron electron interactions that give rise to interesting phenomena. You have to consider the whole material, and think it terms of energy bands. The bands of transition metals are very narrow and large. This materials have unfilled \"d-bands\", one for up spins and one for down spins and interactions may favor one of this bands. As the bands are very large, even having a slight difference between the two bands, means having a lot of electrons pointing at the same direction. \n\nIf a field is applied electrons may point in the direction of the field. Surely, not all unpaired bands can point in the same direction in the material because it would be too energetic. But, you can have different domains in your material to counteract this effect. Anyhow, the direction of the magnetic field would be preferable. When you turn off the field it may cost some energy to randomize the domains again, so the material would prefer to keep a remnant magnetization. Impurities in the material may help to pin the domains.\n\nShort anwser: it depends on the interactions, the number and properties of the valence electrons and the impurities of the material\n\nEdit: typos",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46659847",
"title": "Heavy metals",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Strength- or durability-based.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The workability and corrosion resistance of iron and chromium are increased by adding gadolinium; the creep resistance of nickel is improved with the addition of thorium. Tellurium is added to copper (Tellurium Copper) and steel alloys to improve their machinability; and to lead to make it harder and more acid-resistant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21274",
"title": "Nickel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "Nickel is one of four elements (the others are iron, cobalt, and gadolinium) that are ferromagnetic at approximately room temperature. Alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys; about 68% of world production is used in stainless steel. A further 10% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 7% for alloy steels, 3% in foundries, 9% in plating and 4% in other applications, including the fast-growing battery sector. As a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses, such as a catalyst for hydrogenation, cathodes for batteries, pigments and metal surface treatments. Nickel is an essential nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an active site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6186026",
"title": "Alloy steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications, such as in the turbine blades of jet engines, in spacecraft, and in nuclear reactors. Because of the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in transformers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8520359",
"title": "Nickel aluminide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Nickel aluminide is unique in that it has very high thermal conductivity combined with high strength at high temperature. These properties, combined with its high strength and low density, make it ideal for special applications like coating blades in gas turbines and jet engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24580536",
"title": "Cobalt",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. Cobalt has a relative permeability two-thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is , but in practice the energy difference between them is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24580536",
"title": "Cobalt",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In nature, cobalt is frequently associated with nickel. Both are characteristic components of meteoric iron, though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free (but alloyed) metal, though neither element is seen in that form in the ancient terrestrial crust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24580536",
"title": "Cobalt",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Alloys.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "Cobalt-based superalloys have historically consumed most of the cobalt produced. The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for gas turbines and aircraft jet engines, although nickel-based single-crystal alloys surpass them in performance. Cobalt-based alloys are also corrosion- and wear-resistant, making them, like titanium, useful for making orthopedic implants that don't wear down over time. The development of wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the stellite alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear-resistant. Special cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts (hip and knee replacements). Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel, which may be allergenic. Some high-speed steels also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium-cobalt magnet) are used in permanent magnets. It is also alloyed with 95% platinum for jewelry, yielding an alloy suitable for fine casting, which is also slightly magnetic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3631fi
|
what constitutes resisting arrest? if i just go ragdoll when arrested, would that count?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you do not comply with the officers instructions, then you are resisting. They will instruct you to do certain things with your hands, and to get into certain positions, and if you just go rag-doll and refuse to comply then you will be treated as non-compliant and resisting arrest. It's passive resistance, not violent resistance, but resistance none-the-less, and the officers will likely apply cooperative measures to ensure that you obey their commands.\n\nIf an officer says \"get your hands up\" or \"face me\" and you just stand there all rag-doll he's going to take you down you so fast that your head will spin while it's getting a knee jammed into it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nobody has an answer to this. It's incredibly vague, and could apply to just about any thing you do, compliance included. If the cop knows how to articulate, then you're resisting arrest. \n\nThere's a reason most resisting arrest charges come from a small percentage of cops. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050068",
"title": "Resisting arrest",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Arizona.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "A person commits resisting arrest by intentionally preventing or attempting to prevent a person reasonably known to him to be a peace officer, acting under color of such peace officer's official authority, from effecting an arrest by: (1). Using or threatening to use physical force against the peace officer or another (2) Using any other means creating a substantial risk of causing physical injury to the peace officer or another (3) Engaging in passive resistance. B. Resisting arrest pursuant to subsection A, paragraph 1 or 2 of this section is a class 6 felony. Resisting arrest pursuant to subsection A, paragraph 3 of this section is a class 1 misdemeanor. C. For the purposes of this section, \"passive resistance\" means a nonviolent physical act or failure to act that is intended to impede, hinder or delay the effecting of an arrest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050068",
"title": "Resisting arrest",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Arkansas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "A person commits the offense of resisting arrest if he or she knowingly resists a person known by him or her to be a law enforcement officer effecting an arrest. (2) As used in this subsection, \"resists\" means using or threatening to use physical force or any other means that creates a substantial risk of physical injury to any person. (3) It is no defense to a prosecution under this subsection that the law enforcement officer lacked legal authority to make the arrest if the law enforcement officer was acting under color of his or her official authority. (4) Resisting arrest is a Class A misdemeanor. (b) (1) A person commits the offense of refusal to submit to arrest if he or she knowingly refuses to submit to arrest by a person known by him or her to be a law enforcement officer effecting an arrest. (2) As used in this subsection, \"refuses\" means active or passive refusal. (3) It is no defense to a prosecution under this subsection that the law enforcement officer lacked legal authority to make the arrest if the law enforcement officer was acting under color of his or her official authority. (4) Refusal to submit to arrest is a Class B misdemeanor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050068",
"title": "Resisting arrest",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The courts in the United States regard resisting arrest as a separate charge or crime in addition to other alleged crimes committed by the arrested person. It is possible to be charged, tried and convicted on this charge alone, without any underlying cause for the original decision to arrest or even if the original arrest was clearly illegal. Accordingly, it is never advisable to resist even an unlawful arrest as it will likely result in the use of force by the arresting officer and the addition of the charge of resisting. In most states, see below, resisting arrest is a misdemeanor which can result in jail time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050068",
"title": "Resisting arrest",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Hawaii.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "A person commits the offense of resisting arrest if the person intentionally prevents a law enforcement officer acting under color of the law enforcement officer's official authority from effecting an arrest by: (a) Using or threatening to use physical force against the law enforcement officer or another; or (b) Using any other means creating a substantial risk of causing bodily injury to the law enforcement officer or another. (2) Resisting arrest is a misdemeanor. [L 1972, c 9, pt of §1; gen ch 1993; am L 2001, c 91, §4]\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1322844",
"title": "Arrestment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Arrestment, in Scots law, is the process by which a creditor detains the goods or effects of his debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due to him shall be paid. It is divided into several kinds:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050068",
"title": "Resisting arrest",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Massachusetts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1799,
"text": "RESISTING ARREST The defendant is charged with resisting arrest. Section 32B of chapter 268 of our General Laws provides as follows: “A person commits the crime of resisting arrest if he [she] knowingly prevents or attempts to prevent a police officer, acting under color of his [her] official authority, from effecting an arrest of [himself] or another [either] by using or threatening to use physical force or violence against the police officer or another; or [by] using any other means which creates a substantial risk of causing bodily injury to such police officer or another.” In order to prove the defendant guilty of this offense, the Commonwealth must prove four things beyond a reasonable doubt: First: That the defendant prevented or attempted to prevent a police officer from making an arrest (of the defendant) (or) (of another person); Second: That the officer was acting under color of his (her) official authority at the time; Third: That the defendant resisted: either by using, or threatening to use, physical force or violence against the police officer (or another person); or by using some other means which created a substantial risk of causing bodily injury to the police officer (or another person); and Fourth: That the defendant did so knowingly; that is to say, that the defendant knew at the time that he (she) was acting to prevent an arrest by a police officer acting under color of his (her) official authority. As I have indicated, the Commonwealth must prove that the police officer was acting “under color of official authority.” A police officer acts “under color of official authority” when, in the regular course of assigned duties, he (she) makes a judgment in good faith, based on the surrounding facts and circumstances, that he (she) should make an arrest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050068",
"title": "Resisting arrest",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Kentucky.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "A person is guilty of resisting arrest when he intentionally prevents or attempts to prevent a peace officer, recognized to be acting under color of his official authority, from effecting an arrest of the actor or another by: (a) Using or threatening to use physical force or violence against the peace officer or another; or (b) Using any other means creating a substantial risk of causing physical injury to the peace officer or another. (2) Resisting arrest is a Class A misdemeanor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3odcrx
|
How strong/durable would a sheet of diamond be?
|
[
{
"answer": "Diamond is the hardest naturally occuring substance, which means it's scratch resistant. But it doesn't mean it won't break. That's more of a toughness thing. Toughness measures how much energy it takes to break it.\n\nDiamond has a toughness of about 2.0 MPa m^(1/2). Glass is about 0.7 to 0.8 MPa m^(1/2). So diamonds would be about 2.6 times tougher. Imagine throwing a rock to break a window. You'd need to throw a rock 2.6 times heavier the same speed or the same rock 1.4 times faster to break a diamond window than a glass window.\n\nIn case you're wondering, strength refers to how much force it takes to break something. If it flexes more, a material that's just as strong can be tougher. I can't find anything saying how strong diamond is though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1566768",
"title": "Material properties of diamond",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1392,
"text": "Diamond is the allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the specific type of cubic lattice called diamond cubic. Diamond is an optically isotropic crystal that is transparent to opaque. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Yet, due to important structural weaknesses, diamond's toughness is only fair to good. The precise tensile strength of bulk diamond is unknown, however compressive strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and it could be as high as 90–100 GPa in the form of nanometer-sized wires or needles (~100-300 nanometers in diameter),with a corresponding local maximum tensile elastic strain in excess of 9%. The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting. Diamond has a high refractive index (2.417) and moderate dispersion (0.044) properties which give cut diamonds their brilliance. Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present. Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond's crystal structure, and in some cases structural defects, are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond. Most diamonds are electrical insulators but extremely efficient thermal conductors. Unlike many other minerals, the specific gravity of diamond crystals (3.52) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1566768",
"title": "Material properties of diamond",
"section": "Section::::Hardness and crystal structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown, however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and theoretically it could be as high as 90–225 GPa depending on the sample volume/size, the perfection of diamond lattice and on its orientation: Tensile strength is the highest for the [100] crystal direction (normal to the cubic face), smaller for the [110] and the smallest for the [111] axis (along the longest cube diagonal). Diamond also has one of the smallest compressibilities of any material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1566768",
"title": "Material properties of diamond",
"section": "Section::::Hardness and crystal structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1407,
"text": "Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας – \"adámas\" (\"proper\", \"unalterable\", \"unbreakable\") and sometimes called adamant, diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material, scoring 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond is extremely strong owing to the structure of its carbon atoms, where each carbon atom has four neighbors joined to it with covalent bonds. The material boron nitride, when in a form structurally identical to diamond (zincblende structure), is nearly as hard as diamond; a currently hypothetical material, beta carbon nitride, may also be as hard or harder in one form. It has been shown that some diamond aggregates having nanometer grain size are harder and tougher than conventional large diamond crystals, thus they perform better as abrasive material. Owing to the use of those new ultra-hard materials for diamond testing, more accurate values are now known for diamond hardness. A surface perpendicular to the [111] crystallographic direction (that is the longest diagonal of a cube) of a pure (i.e., type IIa) diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa when scratched with a nanodiamond tip, while the nanodiamond sample itself has a value of 310 GPa when tested with another nanodiamond tip. Because the test only works properly with a tip made of harder material than the sample being tested, the true value for nanodiamond is likely somewhat lower than 310 GPa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8082",
"title": "Diamond",
"section": "Section::::Material properties.:Mechanical properties.:Hardness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Diamond is the hardest known natural material on both the Vickers scale and the Mohs scale. Diamond's great hardness relative to other materials has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196186",
"title": "Superhard material",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Diamond is the hardest known material to date, with a Vickers hardness in the range of 70–150 GPa. Diamond demonstrates both high thermal conductivity and electrically insulating properties and much attention has been put into finding practical applications of this material. However, diamond has several limitations for mass industrial application, including its high cost and oxidation at temperatures above 800 °C. In addition, diamond dissolves in iron and forms iron carbides at high temperatures and therefore is inefficient in cutting ferrous materials including steel. Therefore, recent research of superhard materials has been focusing on compounds which would be thermally and chemically more stable than pure diamond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146847",
"title": "Beta carbon nitride",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The material was first proposed in 1985 by Marvin Cohen and Amy Liu. Examining the nature of crystalline bonds they theorised that carbon and nitrogen atoms could form a particularly short and strong bond in a stable crystal lattice in a ratio of 1:1.3. That this material would be harder than diamond on the Mohs scale was first proposed in 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8082",
"title": "Diamond",
"section": "Section::::Material properties.:Mechanical properties.:Toughness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property \"toughness\", which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7.5–10 MPa·m. This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughnesses over 100 MPa·m. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting. \"Impact toughness\" is one of the main indexes to measure the quality of synthetic industrial diamonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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