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3po14e
|
pulse vs hearth-rate
|
[
{
"answer": "**Heart**-rate\n\nYour pulse can have a little extra information on your health. A heart rate is the number of beats per minute that your heart makes, but on top of that a pulse can add the strength and consistency of the heartbeat at the point where it's measured. For example, a pulse can be characterized as \"weak and thready\" meaning your circulation system is having difficulty moving blood around due to a blood clot somewhere, even if your heart rate is normal.\n\nAs for sources for further reading, this is ELI5, not \"quote your sources\". Google it if you want more than a layman's explanation.",
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"answer": "Commonly, they are used as synonyms, because they basically mean the same thing. But what they actually are is cause and effect: Your Heart Rate is rate your heart is pumping, and your pulse is the effect of your heart pumping blood.\n\nAn example of a difference would be in [Atrial](_URL_0_) or [Ventricular](_URL_2_) [fibrillation](_URL_1_) where your heart rate goes *too* fast. Rather pumping blood like it should, the muscles are just spasming; so even though your heart rate is very high, your pulse diminishes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2250081",
"title": "Vital signs",
"section": "Section::::Primary vital signs.:Pulse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The pulse is the rate at which the heart beats while pumping blood through the arteries, recorded as beats per minute (bpm). It may also be called \"heart rate\". The pulse is commonly taken at the wrist (radial artery). Alternative sites include the elbow (brachial artery), the neck (carotid artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), or in the foot (dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial arteries). The pulse rate can also be measured by listening directly to the heartbeat using a stethoscope. The pulse varies with age: a newborn or infant can have a heart rate of 130–150 bpm, a toddler of 100–120 bpm, an older child of 60–100 bpm, an adolescent of 80–100 bpm, and an adult of 50–80 bpm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41600",
"title": "Pulse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1127,
"text": "In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by auscultation, traditionally using a stethoscope and counting it for a minute. The radial pulse is commonly measured using three fingers. This has a reason: the finger closest to the heart is used to occlude the pulse pressure, the middle finger is used get a crude estimate of the blood pressure, and the finger most distal to the heart (usually the ring finger) is used to nullify the effect of the ulnar pulse as the two arteries are connected via the palmar arches (superficial and deep). The study of the pulse is known as sphygmology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9889145",
"title": "Vagal tone",
"section": "Section::::Noninvasive vagal tone quantification.:Other estimates of vagal tone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- Indexes of beat-to-beat variability such as RMSSD reported by The Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Heart Rhythm Society. Frequency analysis of heart rate in the range 0.15–0.4 Hz has been reported to quantify vagal tone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41600",
"title": "Pulse",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The first person to accurately measure the pulse rate was Santorio Santorii who invented the \"pulsilogium\", a form of pendulum, based on the work by Galileo Galilei. A century later another physician, de Lacroix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304942",
"title": "Heart rate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Heart rate is the speed of the heartbeat measured by the number of contractions (beats) of the heart per minute (bpm). The heart rate can vary according to the body's physical needs, including the need to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide. It is usually equal or close to the pulse measured at any peripheral point. Activities that can provoke change include physical exercise, sleep, anxiety, stress, illness, and ingestion of drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41600",
"title": "Pulse",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Claudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse. The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41600",
"title": "Pulse",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of pulse.:Rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The pulse rate can be used to check overall heart health and fitness level. Generally lower is better, but bradycardias can be dangerous. Symptoms of a dangerously slow heartbeat include weakness, loss of energy and fainting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
evcwlo
|
how there can be so much money in network tv advertising and so little in comparative online advertising?
|
[
{
"answer": "What people don't like about broadcast and cable TV is the ads aren't avoidable. Online advertising is easy to block, and streaming services with ads see a lot fewer subscribers than ones that don't show ads.\n\nWith a network TV license and franchise you have geographic exclusivity. For the people that live in that area, you are the only game in town. This isn't even a meaningful concept on the Internet.\n\nYouTube is owned by Google, one of the highest income companies on the Internet. Sorry, but I don't understand your premise.",
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{
"answer": "First off, Youtube is not struggling to profit; neither is Netflix. Netflix made more than $2 Billion in profit and $20 billion in revenue last year, far more than any TV station. Alphabet Inc (parent of Google/Youtube) is the 3rd largest company on earth with a value of $988200000000.\n\nSecondly, there are few TV stations. There are only 5 broadcast networks in the US: ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox, and The CW. There are a few dozen pay channels available via cable. There are literally millions of websites. It's very easy to start a website. It's very difficult to start a TV station; you either need a license to broadcast or an agreement with a cable provider. So a TV station doesn't have to fight as hard for viewers.\n\nEveryone sees the same ads on TV, whereas ads on websites are individualized. An ad that 50 million people see is worth more than an ad that 1 thousand people see.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1549666",
"title": "Advertising network",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The advertising network market is a large and growing market, with Internet advertising revenues expected to grow from $135.42 bn in 2014 to $239.87 bn in 2019. Digital advertising revenues in the United States alone are set to reach $107.30 bn in 2018 which is an 18.7% increase from 2017 ad spend. This growth will result in many new players in the market and encourage acquisitions of ad networks by larger companies that either enter the market or expand their market presence. Currently, there are hundreds of ad networks worldwide and the landscape changes daily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28014782",
"title": "Criticism of advertising",
"section": "Section::::Costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Advertising has developed into a multibillion-dollar business. In 2014, 537 billion US dollars were spent worldwide for advertising. In 2013, TV accounted for 40.1% of ad spending, compared to a combined 18.1% for internet, 16.9% for newspapers, 7.9% for magazines, 7% for outdoor, 6.9% for radio, 2.7% for mobile and 0.5% for cinema as a share of ad spending by medium. Advertising is considered to raise consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555671",
"title": "Online advertising",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "In 2016, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and broadcast television. In 2017, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $83.0 billion, a 14% increase over the $72.50 billion in revenues in 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19296",
"title": "Economy of Morocco",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Media and advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Television retained the lion's share of advertising expenditure, with 55% of above-the-line advertising. In a 2006 poll, GAM found that 94% of its members used outdoor advertising, although 81% companied about problems, mainly caused by quality issues and delays. The potential for expansion is huge, and while telecoms should remain the largest advertising segment, fast-growing sectors of the economy such as retail, automobile and real estate are providing advertising companies with new opportunities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54513046",
"title": "Advertising industry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Revenues of U.S. advertising agencies (more than 65,000 advertising businesses employing more than 248,000 employees) were $166.8 billion in 2014. In 2016, global advertising sales reached $493 billion. For 2017 it was estimated that digital ad sales were first to surpass the TV market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45151433",
"title": "Television advertising workflow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "With global advertising spend more than doubling its growth rate from 2.6% to 5.7% from 2013 to 2014, and with a study by ZenithOptimedia finding that TV advertising still accounts for 39.6% of adspend in 2014, television advertising and its workflow is a thriving and growing industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15861377",
"title": "Media of Ukraine",
"section": "Section::::Media ownership.:Concentration and pluralism.:Current situation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Only around 7 percent of advertising money goes to newspapers. 45 percent goes to broadcast media. Still, even if this is the largest share, regional TV channels receives a little part of this, with most money going to national ones. But since there are fifteen nationwide TV channels, the slices are still small. State-owned media offers lower rates than private one, because they do not need advertising money for their survival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r37tg
|
Need to explain gravity and falling objects to my 9yo...
|
[
{
"answer": "Dropping things may not be the way to go. You should try rolling them down a hill. I think this was the way Galileo went about some of his experiments (though not a hill and more precise). I think the only time you'd get into a problem would be with weird shapes so you should be able to do a bit better experiment with different weighted balls. \n\nWith respect to the paper book issue. Isn't the paper loosing part of its downward speed from gravity by moving in a lateral direction? That may be easier for a kid to understand. ",
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"answer": "The key difference here is between force and acceleration. You won't really be able to get away with avoiding inertia to explain this.\n\nSee, the gravitational *force* is indeed stronger for an object with more mass. However, that object also has more mass and thus more inertia. This means that it takes a larger force to reach the same *acceleration* for that object. It just so happens that the dependence on mass cancels out for gravity; every object experiences the same *acceleration* due to gravity.\n\nHowever, the *force* of air resistance does not depend on mass; it depends on the shape of the object (and its speed). The result is that, while all objects of the same shape (moving at the same speed) experience the same *force* of air resistance, due to different amounts of inertia (mass) they experience different *accelerations* due to air resistance. In particular, since the heavy object has more inertia, the same force produces less acceleration than on a light object.\n\nTo summarize: gravity produces more force on a heavier object than a light one but the same acceleration, while air resistance produces the same force on each but less acceleration for the heavy one.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "For an simple unscientific demonstration, you can [build a parachute out of a plastic bag, some tape, and some yarn](_URL_0_) and have him experiment with different weights, to show that wind resistance is a limited thing that only slows objects by a certain rate.\n\nLike hook a toy action figure up to it, and drop it from the balcony (if you have one) and then hook up something heavier, and he can see that the same parachute and the same air affect objects differently. You could even hook up the book to the parachute and race it against the sheet of paper.\n\nThat way you don't have to get into the maths of wind resistance, and you can show him the difference in practical terms.\n\nEDIT: There's also the Apollo 15 video (one example of it is here: _URL_1_) where they dropped a hammer and a feather on the Moon, you can let him see what happens when there's no air.",
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"answer": "The thing is, that gravity **does** pull with different force on different things.\n\nThe actual constant value is *acceleration* not *force*. The sheet of paper and the book are being accelerated equally towards the ground. Since their shape is the same, the force of air resistance should be roughly the same too. However, since the book has more mass, the earth pulls harder on the book, thus making it fall faster.\n\n\nThe mathematical description is as follows: (This is meant to give **you** additional insight in order to give you well funded knowledge to share with your son)\n\n \nNewton's law of gravity states that F_Gravity=G * m * M/r^2 (G being the gravitational constant, M & m the masses and r the distance between them)\n\nNow, Newtons Axiom states that the movement of a mass under the influence of a force is given by F=m*a\n\nIf we substitute F with F_Gravity we get G * m * M/r^2 = m * a.\n\nAs you can see, m can be canceled out of the equation.\n\nThis leaves us with a = g = G*M/r^2 .\nThis equation shows, that the acceleration of all masses in a gravitational field is, indeed, equal.\n\nThen why are some things heavier than others?\n\nTo answer this question, we have to ask ourselves, what weight is. Weight is the force with which an object is pulled towards the earth.\nSince the force, is given by F=m * a, and the mass of different object differs, the force which objects are pulled towards the ground is does not necessarily have to be constant.\n\n",
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"answer": "So, to answer this you have to understand the difference between \"force\" and \"acceleration\" (I know, you're thinking- of course I do! But, your explanation shows a misunderstanding between them). Gravity attempts to *accelerate* everything at the same rate- and it does this by pulling on heavier things with more *force.* \n\nA nine year old might not be able to fully understand Newton's second law (F = m\\*a if you need a refresher) but you can probably explain it to him pretty well. Tell him to imagine a rocket hooked up to a car, and how that rocket can make the car go fast. Now imagine that instead of a car, it is a big truck. The rocket, which puts out the same force regardless, will push the truck slower than the car. And now hook that rocket up to a train, and the train might not move at all. Or if it does, it will move slowly. This is the basics of Newton's second law- if you apply the same force to objects, the heavier ones will move slower than the light ones. You can do this experiment by trying to push a book across the table, or a stack of books- you'll have to push harder for the stack. \n\nOK, so gravity isn't a rocket. Gravity pulls harder on things which are heavier. In fact, if you double the mass of the object, gravity will pull twice as hard. So that is like if you made a car twice as heavy, but also attached two rockets- the acceleration would be the same regardless. So, gravity provides *twice the force* on an object twice as heavy, but due to Newton's second law, that is *the same acceleration.*\n\nSo now, add in air. Air resistance comes from the object having to move air molecules out of the way as it falls. So, it makes sense that the force of air resistance would be dependent on two things- the \"surface area\" or shape of the object in the direction it is falling and the speed at which it falls. The larger the surface area (again, only in the direction of falling, a book turned up on its spine would have less air resistance than a book lying flat), the more air molecules it has to move out of the way. Also, the faster it is falling, it will hit more air molecules it has to move. So, the larger those things are, the larger the force of air resistance. \n\nThus, as you might expect, a book and a single sheet of paper should have the same air resistance (at least, when it first starts to fall- eventually the book will have more because it is moving faster). So, they have the same force pushing up on them- but that *force* causes more *acceleration* on the lighter object (the sheet of paper) than the heavy one (the book). \n\nPlaying with some numbers (we'll choose easy ones). Imagine you have a 1 kg book and a 2 kg book, and we'll say the acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s^(2). The, using Newton's 2nd law we can see that the force due to gravity on the first book is 10 Newtons (A Newton is the SI equivalent to a pound, it has units of force) and the second book at a force of 20 N. But now imagine each of them have 5 Newton's of air resistance acting on them. So, the total force acting on book 1 is 5 N, and the total force acting on book 2 in 15 N (Forces add- and since they are in opposite directions you are getting 10-5 and 20-5). So now, we can use Newton's second law to calculate their acceleration:\n\n > a = F/m (just re-arranged) \n\n > a1 = 5N/1kg = 5 m/s^2\n\n > a2 = 15N/2kg = 7.5 m/s^2\n\nSo, the book that weighs more (but has the same air resistance) accelerates faster. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I think one of the first mind-blowing things one learns in life is when you are taught that *everything* attracts *everything else*. Please include this in your discussions. It is not obvious at all, and only nowadays do we have experiments sensitive enough to measure the influence of, say, a solid sphere upon another test object. You can however easily convey this by pointing out that the earth moves around the sun, and the moon around the earth. The simplest explanation is that both the sun and the earth 'exert gravity', and from there that everything 'exerts gravity'.\n\nRelated: does anyone know when this idea was conceived? Did the early inventors of heliocentric models immediately make this implication, or was it not until Hooke and Newton that is was fully realized?",
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{
"answer": "A simple thing that no one's mentioned is to put the piece of paper on top of and underneath the book when you drop them, rather than side by side. If they actually fall at different speeds, they would separate in one case. They'll fall together in both though, because the paper is shielded from air resistance effects by the book. If air resistance wasn't what was causing the difference, then this wouldn't matter.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Smart kid. Tells it like it is.\n\nWind resistance is proportional to the area of the object. But heavier objects are heavier and push down harder on the air. So if two objects of the same size are falling through the air, the heavier object will fall faster.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Please, please please show your son this:\n\nHold the paper and book up in the air shoulder width apart and drop them at the same time. The book hits the floor first.\n\nNow place the paper on top of the book. Make sure it's pretty flat and hugs the top of the book as best you can get it (edges of the paper must not extend past edges of book). Now drop the book. They fall together.\n\nIf nothing else this will astound him enough that he won't forget it and will continue to seek answers.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Little OFF: If you explain something to your kid (or any kids) it is a common wish for them to understand it. Sometimes explain the matter more advanced way (without the simplification). This way the kid will learn that there are things he cannot understand, and in time, that many things you don't understand either. It will open his perspective about the nature of knowledge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19048",
"title": "Mass",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Inertial vs. gravitational mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "This particular equivalence often referred to as the \"Galilean equivalence principle\" or the \"weak equivalence principle\" has the most important consequence for freely falling objects. Suppose an object has inertial and gravitational masses \"m\" and \"M\", respectively. If the only force acting on the object comes from a gravitational field \"g\", the force on the object is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80825",
"title": "Free fall",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Technically, an object is in free fall even when moving upwards or instantaneously at rest at the top of its motion. If gravity is the only influence acting, then the acceleration is always downward and has the same magnitude for all bodies, commonly denoted formula_1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44044088",
"title": "Paradox of radiation of charged particles in a gravitational field",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Closely tied in with this equivalence is the fact that gravity vanishes in free fall. For objects falling in an elevator whose cable is cut, all gravitational forces vanish, and things begin to look like the free-floating absence of forces one sees in videos from the International Space Station. It is a linchpin of general relativity that everything must fall together in free fall. Just as with acceleration versus gravity, no experiment should be able to distinguish the effects of free fall in a gravitational field, and being out in deep space far from any forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2561693",
"title": "Intelligent falling",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Intelligent Falling proposes that the scientific explanation of gravitational force cannot explain all aspects of the phenomenon, so credence should be given to the idea that things fall because a higher intelligence is moving them. Furthermore, IF asserts that theories explaining gravity are not internally consistent nor mathematically reconcilable with quantum mechanics, making gravity a \"theory in crisis\". IF also makes the claim that gravity is \"only a theory\", parodying the claims made by creationists regarding the theoretical status of evolution. IF apologists jokingly advocate that IF should be taught in school along with the theory of gravity so that students can make \"an informed decision\" on the subject in a parody of the demands to \"teach the controversy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental forces.:Gravitational.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
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"text": "For an object in free-fall, this force is unopposed and the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reaction forces applied by their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since a normal force (a reaction force) is exerted by the ground upward on the person that counterbalances his weight that is directed downward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::From special to general relativity.:Tidal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The equivalence between gravitational and inertial effects does not constitute a complete theory of gravity. When it comes to explaining gravity near our own location on the Earth's surface, noting that our reference frame is not in free fall, so that fictitious forces are to be expected, provides a suitable explanation. But a freely falling reference frame on one side of the Earth cannot explain why the people on the opposite side of the Earth experience a gravitational pull in the opposite direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "389836",
"title": "G-force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Objects allowed to free-fall in an \"inertial trajectory\" under the influence of gravitation only feel no g-force, a condition known as zero-g (which means zero g-force). This is demonstrated by the \"zero-g\" conditions inside an elevator falling freely toward the Earth's center (in vacuum), or (to good approximation) conditions inside a spacecraft in Earth orbit. These are examples of coordinate acceleration (a change in velocity) without a sensation of weight. The experience of no g-force (zero-g), however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4s4bf1
|
in the way that people are able to build their own pcs, how far away are we from being able to build our own cellphones?
|
[
{
"answer": "The major issue there is that most cellphone technology is extremely compact and build to fit around preselected parts where computers have components that can come in diffrent shapes and sizes, the designs are also far less modular. When I replied my iPhones charging port I had to use tweasers to re attach some components. They also lack a uniform standees design like computers making most parts incompatibl.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "45063324",
"title": "Keepod",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "The majority of people around the world still do not have access to personal computing. Many of the current efforts to bridge the digital divide are failing and it is difficult for organizations to make a dent in this large demand. The idea of providing a “laptop per child” sounds feasible in theory, but there is merely not enough funding to do so. Other initiatives to provide students with mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablets, are struggling to provide a fulfilling educational experience, especially if students aspire to go into the professional world. The distribution of relatively expensive mobile devices can pose a danger to many students in low income communities throughout the world, as children become potential targets of crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "16142167",
"title": "History of personal computers",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Microprocessor and cost reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
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"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "A few researchers at places such as SRI and Xerox PARC were working on computers that a single person could use and that could be connected by fast, versatile networks: not home computers, but personal ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15508064",
"title": "Internet in Tajikistan",
"section": "Section::::Internet penetration and ISPs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "One respected Tajik NGO estimates that 1 percent of households own personal computers and that most people access the Internet from home by way of dial-up connections. Access with DSL and wireless (Wi-Fi and WiMAX) technologies is limited by relatively high costs, and therefore restricted to a small number of commercial companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18457137",
"title": "Personal computer",
"section": "Section::::Sales.:Market share.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "As of June 2008, the number of personal computers in use worldwide hit one billion, while another billion is expected to be reached by 2014. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58% of the worldwide installed PCs. The emerging markets were expected to double their installed PCs by 2012 and to take 70% of the second billion PCs. About 180 million computers (16% of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12% annually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16142167",
"title": "History of personal computers",
"section": "Section::::Market size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 198,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 198,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "As of June 2008, the number of personal computers worldwide in use hit one billion. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58 percent of the worldwide installed PCs. About 180 million PCs (16 percent of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12 percent annually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10854413",
"title": "Participatory culture",
"section": "Section::::Challenges of participatory cultures.:Concerns in education.:Participation gap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "Passing out the technology free of charge is not enough to ensure youth and adults learn how to use the tools effectively. Most American youths now have at least minimal access to networked computers, be it at school or in public libraries, but \"children who have access to home computers demonstrate more positive attitudes towards computers, show more enthusiasm, and report more enthusiast and ease when using computer than those who do not (Page 8 Wartella, O'Keefe, and Scantlin (2000)). As the children with more access to computers gain more comfort in using them, the less tech-savvy students get pushed aside. It is important to note that it is more than a simple binary at work here, as working-class youths may still have access so some technologies (e.g. gaming consoles) while other forms remain unattainable. This inequality would allow certain skills to develop in some children, such as play, while others remain unavailable, such as the ability to produce and distribute self-created media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2313092",
"title": "Education in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Educational technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1326,
"text": "The American One Laptop per Child (OLPC) project, launched in several African countries in 2005, aimed to equip schools with laptop computers at low cost. While the average price of an inexpensive personal computer was between US$200 and US$500, OLPC offered its ultraportable XO-1 computer at the price of US$100. This technological breakthrough marked an important step in potential access to ICT. OLPC became an institutional system: the programme was “bought” by governments, which then took responsibility for distribution to the schools. The underlying logic of the initiative was one of centralization, thus enabling the largescale distribution of the equipment. Almost 2 million teachers and pupils are now involved in the programme worldwide (http://one.laptop.org/) and more than 2.4 million computers have been delivered. Following on from OLPC, the Intel group launched Classmate PC, a similar programme also intended for pupils in developing countries. Though it has a smaller presence in sub-Saharan Africa than the OLPC project, Classmate PC has enabled laptop computers to be delivered to primary schools in the Seychelles and Kenya, particularly in rural areas. Also in Kenya, the CFSK (Computer for School in Kenya) project was started in 2002 with the aim of distributing computers to almost 9,000 schools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31uzwn
|
what is programmatic advertising?
|
[
{
"answer": "Using programming (computers) to buy ads. Some are sold in what's called real time bidding. Basically when you visit a website with the ad in question whoever is selling the ad starts a short \"auction\" among some competitors and whoever has the highest bid gets the add and that's what you see. So obviously this all happens very fast, less than a second. The sellers then obviously will use computer programs to make this efficient. \n\nWhen you visit a web page certain information is available about you from your browser, your IP (which can reveal information about where you are browsing from), cookies and other things that which can reveal more personal information. Computers are much faster than humans at calculations if you tell them the right thing to do so when all this information is available you can have the computer figure out how much to bid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748825",
"title": "Advertising management",
"section": "Section::::Advertising and advertising management: definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "While advertising refers to the advertising message, per se, advertising management refers to the process of planning and executing an advertising campaign or campaigns; that is, it is a series of planned decisions that begins with market research continues through to setting advertising budgets, developing advertising objectives, executing the creative messages and follows up with efforts to measure the extent to which objectives were achieved and evaluate the cost-benefit of the overall advertising effort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16777474",
"title": "Targeted advertising",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Contextual advertising is a strategy to place advertisements on media vehicles, such as specific websites or print magazines, whose themes are relevant to the promoted products. Advertisers apply this strategy in order to narrow-target their audiences. Advertisements are selected and served by automated systems based on the identity of the user and the displayed content of the media. The advertisements will be displayed across the user's different platforms and are chosen based on searches for key words; appearing as either a web page or pop up ads. It is a form of targeted advertising in which the content of an ad is in direct correlation to the content of the webpage the user is viewing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2963328",
"title": "Contextual advertising",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Contextual advertising is a form of targeted advertising for advertisements appearing on websites or other media, such as content displayed in mobile browsers. The advertisements themselves are selected and served by automated systems based on the identity of the user and the content displayed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1817986",
"title": "Advertising campaign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "An advertising campaign is a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme which make up an integrated marketing communication (IMC). An IMC is a platform in which a group of people can group their ideas, beliefs, and concepts into one large media base. Advertising campaigns utilize diverse media channels over a particular time frame and target identified audiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748825",
"title": "Advertising management",
"section": "Section::::Theories of advertising effects.:Cognitive information models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Advertising researchers have a long-standing interest in understanding both the degree and type of cognitive elaboration that occurs when consumers are exposed to persuasive messages. Cognitive information models assume that consumers are rational decision-makers and that advertising provides consumers with information utility by reducing the need to search for other information about a brand. For example, an advertisement in the \"Yellow Pages\" or an online directory means that the consumer does not have to travel from store to store in search of a product or service. Consumers process this information at a cognitive level before forming an attitude to the brand and purchase intent. A cognition is any thought that surfaces during the elaboration of the information. Cognitive information models are also known as the \"central route to persuasion\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605735",
"title": "Mass communication",
"section": "Section::::Types of mass communication.:Advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Advertising, in relation to mass communication, is marketing a product or service in a persuasive manner that encourages the audience to buy the product or use the service. Because advertising generally takes place through some form of mass media, such as television, studying the effects and methods of advertising is relevant to the study of mass communication. Advertising is the paid, impersonal, one-way marketing of persuasive information from a sponsor. Through mass communication channels, the sponsor promotes the adoption of goods, services or ideas. Advertisers have full control of the message being sent to their audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16777474",
"title": "Targeted advertising",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1100,
"text": "Advertising provides advertisers with a direct line of communication to existing and prospective consumers. By using a combination of words and/or pictures the general aim of the advertisement is to act as a \"medium of information\" (David Oglivy) making the means of delivery and to whom the information is delivered most important. Advertising should define how and when structural elements of advertisements influence receivers, knowing that all receivers are not the same and thus may not respond in a single, similar manner. Targeted advertising serves the purpose of placing particular advertisements before specific groups so as to reach consumers who would be interested in the information. Advertisers aim to reach consumers as efficiently as possible with the belief that it will result in a more effective campaign. By targeting, advertisers are able to identify when and where the ad should be positioned in order to achieve maximum profits. This requires an understanding of how customers' minds work (see also neuromarketing) so as to determine the best channel by which to communicate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qeoyc
|
why do you hear so much more regarding desperate and lonely men rather than desperate and lonely women? shouldn't there be more or less an equal amount of both?
|
[
{
"answer": "If a guy bitches about being lonely anywhere public, he may get listened to or ignored, perhaps ridiculed. If a woman bitches about it, she is likely to be inundated with sex offers and pictures of naked guys from the previous sentence, which is unlikely to help her, so they are likely more silent as a self defence mechanism.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure why it's voiced that way. Probably a part of it has to do with the comment EvictYou said, its simply easier for a desperate woman to have sex than a desperate man. But when it comes to a broken heart, broken love, BOTH genders feel lonely at times, even when the break up was necessary. Lonely for intimacy and lonely for love are different things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Women have far better support systems available compared to men.\n\nIt's socially acceptable for women to feel hurt and express those feelings. They usually get ample sympathy and support from friends, family, colleagues and the public. When a man tries the same, he's ignored, ridiculed and perceived as weak.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1570429",
"title": "Loneliness",
"section": "Section::::Frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "Americans seem to report more loneliness than any other country, though this finding may simply be an effect of greater research volume. A 2006 study in the \"American Sociological Review\" found that Americans on average had only two close friends in which to confide, which was down from an average of three in 1985. The percentage of people who noted having no such confidant rose from 10% to almost 25%, and an additional 19% said they had only a single confidant, often their spouse, thus raising the risk of serious loneliness if the relationship ended. The modern office environment has been demonstrated to give rise to loneliness. This can be especially prevalent in individuals prone to social isolation who can interpret the business focus of co-workers for a deliberate ignoring of needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56519274",
"title": "Social predictors of depression",
"section": "Section::::Negative social life events.:Sex and gender differences in sensitivity to social loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "In general, women are at much higher risk of developing depression after a social loss than men. One explanation for this is that women tend to have larger networks of meaningful supporters than men where an important loss can happen. Evidence for this comes primarily from the finding that both sexes are equally likely to become depressed in response to conflict or death within the nuclear family, while women are more likely to become depressed in response to the loss of a friend and family members outside of the nuclear family. In addition to this, women may also be more sensitive to depression when conflict exists and is physically expressed as evidenced by women being more likely to be depressed after a physical attack but not men\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14556668",
"title": "Occupational sexism",
"section": "Section::::Social role theory effects on women.:Mental Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Depression and mental health issues are also effects of the social role theory. In general, women are found to be almost twice as depressed as men. A possible explanation for the larger numbers of depression in women compared to men is the amount of sexism faced in occupations having an emotional effect. Women are becoming more depressed as a result of these stereotypical ideas against them. There is an intense amount of pressure placed on women when they encounter certain stereotypes and sexual roles in the workplace and this can take a toll on their mental health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42730418",
"title": "Depression and culture",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Gender.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "As is true in Western societies, depression is more prevalent in women than in men in collective cultures. Some have hypothesized that this is due to their inferior positions in the culture, in which they may experience domestic violence, poverty, and blatant inequality that can greatly contribute to depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31741",
"title": "Unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Costs.:Individual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Unemployment can also bring personal costs in relation to gender. One study found that women are more likely to experience unemployment than men and that they are less likely to move from temporary positions to permanent positions. Another study on gender and unemployment found that men, however, are more likely to experience greater stress, depression, and adverse effects from unemployment, largely stemming from the perceived threat to their role as breadwinner. This study found that men expect themselves to be viewed as \"less manly\" after a job loss than they actually are, and as a result they engage in compensating behaviors, such as financial risk-taking and increased assertiveness, because of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25087791",
"title": "Male unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Effects of unemployment on men.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Unemployment has been linked to extremely adverse effects on men's mental health. Professor Ian Hickie of the University of Sydney said that evidence showed that men have more restricted social networks than women, and that those they do have are heavily work-based. Therefore for men the loss of a job means the loss of a whole set of social connections as well. This loss can then lead to men becoming socially isolated very quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7338160",
"title": "Self-confidence",
"section": "Section::::Theories and correlations with other variables and factors.:Variation between different categorical groups.:Men versus women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Another common finding is that males who have low generalized self-confidence are more easily persuaded than males of high generalized self-confidence. Women tend to respond less to negative feedback and be more averse to negative feedback than men. Niederle and Westerlund found that men are much more competitive and obtain higher compensation than women and that this difference is due to differences in self-confidence, while risk and feedback-aversion play a negligible role. Some scholars partly attribute the fact to women being less likely to persist in engineering college than men to women's diminished sense of self-confidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3iarsy
|
how is orange juice economically viable when it takes me juicing about 10 oranges to have enough for a single glass of orange juice?
|
[
{
"answer": "Also the citrus processors extract things like oil from the peels, they don't just squeeze the juice and throw the rest away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They use machinery that grinds the orange down to more or less nothing, and can extract every tiniest little drop of juice from it. The machinery pretty much grinds up the oranges whole, skin and all, and then extracts every drop of juice from the ground-up mess. So they get more juice per orange than we can by hand, or even really with a countertop juicer. Multiply this by the scale at which they work - truckloads of oranges at a time - and that's how it works.\n\nDid some IT consulting at the Tropicana factory in Bradenton, FL for a while. I learned some pretty interesting things about orange juice while I was there. Also had to wash my hair 2-3 times when I came home on Fridays or I'd smell like oranges all weekend.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Remember that when you buy an orange, you're buying a small number of oranges, from the end of a chain of producers.\n\nWhen an orange juice manufacturer buys oranges, they're going to a producer directly and buying the entire crop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "10 oranges are really cheap when they don't have to be transported all the way to the store.\n\nNot only that, but to add to what dalidrow said, most orange juice sold in stores is often not real orange juice, it's also actually made from oranges stored so long they have to scoop mold off the top, and it's lost it's flavor and is actually flavored with artificial orange flavors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First [watch this](_URL_0_).\n\nBasically \"second class\" oranges that have the same food quality has a much lower price. And of course, they are juiced with machines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they can store it indefinitely. The pasteurization process makes it keep for a long time... It also destroys the flavor. The actual flavor of orange juice comes from companies like Chanel that produce a flavor pack that re-flavors the mass produced pasteurized and stored OJ. They buy in bulk, extract every last drop of moisture, and can have it on shelves nationwide year round. \n\nBecause of that, it's profitable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, the orange juice you buy in a store is not all orange juice...not even close.. not even anywhere near half.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "10 oranges for a single glass? Either you have very small oranges, very large glasses or a very bad juicer. A single orange usually has around one third of a cup of juice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fancy machinery is one part, but another big reason is the quality of the fruit. Generally they come in 4 grades. Firsts, seconds, juicing and rotten. There isn't a wide gulf from juicing to rotten. Don't think about it too much.\n\nSource: orchardist background",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is easier to fill a carton than it was 10 years ago. Good luck finding a 64 ounce carton. They are all 60 ounces now. Multiply that by millions and $$$ to Tropicana and the like.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might not be using the proper oranges. I live in the south east of spain, in a region called Valencia, well known for its oranges. There are those for juice, those for eating, sweeter oranges, etc. We've got different types of oranges depending on the season, the area, the soil ... Agriculture bitches!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of folks are pointing out that the oranges themselves are different, and that fancy equipment can get more juice out of the oranges. All that is true, but it doesn't explain how OJ is economically viable. \n\nIf one orange tree can produce X bottles of juice, and maintaining the tree + harvesting + land + all the other costs ends up being Y dollars per tree, then all you have to do is do a little math to figure out how much you can sell bottles for and come out ahead.\n\nI think what you're really asking is how can orange juice be so cheap compared to the cost of the oranges it would take you to produce the same amount. Here you have to remember that orange growers aren't charging for oranges based on their expenses but based on *how much you'll pay for them.* If you'll pay 50 cents for an orange then they charge that. You might not want to pay a dollar. They're going to sell an amount of oranges that maximizes value. Better 1,000 oranges at 50 cents than 200 oranges at a dollar.\n\nIf we assume that selling oranges in their natural form is the most profitable way for growers to sell them, then they would sell all of them this way if possible. If they flood the market with oranges though the price will go down. At a certain point it would become cost-prohibitive. If oranges were selling for a penny a piece then everyone would go out of business (probably). So if orange growers only sell 10% of their oranges this way before it becomes inefficient, they can use the other 90% to make juice.\n\nMaking juice might only yield a profit of 1 penny per orange, while selling oranges straight up yields a nickel per orange. But it's better to make that 1 penny than flood the market with oranges and go out of business. \n\nTL;DR it's all about meeting demand at efficient levels for each portion of the market. Gotta do something (profitable) with all them oranges.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They use shit oranges you wouldn't buy off the shelf and they use an industrial juicer that grinds every molecule of moisture off that sumbitch. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know how grocery store OJ is economically viable but I will tell you that the fresh-squeezed OJ you get at a cafe or health food store is economically viable because it is as expensive as fuck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The oranges you use for juicing are not the typical bright orange ones you get a the store. They are bigger. Some of ours can be almost the size of a small grapefruit. Not as pretty, but they make the best juice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Son, you are using some shitty juicer, I get a glass of juice from 1 orange and the leftover product is dry as paper. The juicer was like 500$ tho : (",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oranges are cheap. You pay a lot more for them at the grocery than Tropicana does with its farmers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My father worked in various divisions of Tropicana for nearly 40 years, going from factory work and into corporate. He has more knowledge about the industry than nearly anyone in the world, though he retired several years ago.\n\nHere's what he has to say:\n\nA standard box of oranges (as bought from a grower in Florida) weighs 90 lbs. That box when extracted by a processor will generate 5.5 to 6.0 gallons of orange juice. A typical box of oranges will supply 180 to 220 oranges ... depending on the maturity and the variety of orange. That means that it takes about 34.8 oranges to produce a gallon of OJ.\n\nRe cost .... the economics of \"table fruit\" that you buy to eat is different than the economics of field run processed fruit. Table run fruit is sorted for appearance, boxed, and sold at a premium. Some varieties of table fruit are also processed but mostly used as table fruit and sell at a significant premium to processed fruit. Valencia, Parson Brown, \"Pineapple\" oranges and Hamlins are the main varieties of oranges used in Florida to make OJ in processing plants. Extractor do not \"grind up the fruit\". There are 2 types of extractors .... one \"reems\" the fruit like you do at home and the objective of the reem is to get all of the juice, pulp and inside of the orange without impacting the white interior of the fruit (albedo) which is very bitter. The peels and waste material are then sent to a feed mill where they are pressed to reduce liquid content and dried to make cattle feed. The pressed liquid is run through an evaporator to turn it into molasses and added back to the cattle feed to sweeten it up.\n\nA comment in the string says \"don't let them tell you they don't add water because they do\". They don't add water to not from concentrate Orange Juice .... it is against the law and no reputable brand would do this.\nThe cost of the oranges is so different because when you buy table fruit it is at most a bag .... processors sign contracts to buy whole groves of oranges .... sometimes buying millions of 90 lb boxes at a time. If you look in the commodity exchange ... you will see \"Orange Juice Concentrate Futures\". This is the price a processor is expecting to pay for a standard pound solid (about one gallon of single strength orange juice) in the future. That cost typically runs from $1.25 to $2.00 ..... for about 35 processing oranges. (See math at the top of this note)\n\nNuf said ... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you been to a diner? Orange juice is served in a thimble and costs twelve dollars. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because champagne, mods told me mimosas wasn't an elaborate enough answer for an ELI5. But I'm currently 7 tall boys of lone star in. So, ya know, I'm reaching now. \n\nI also keep waking up my cats which makes me guilty but I've been working doubles and yesterday was my Friday ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would add that they juice the oranges near the orchards in Florida. Then concentrate the juice to a paste, freeze it, and then ship it via tanker truck or train to other states where they either can it and sell it frozen or they add water and put it into bottles and jugs. \n\nSo it's economically viable due to concentration and bulk transport and distribution.\n\nFurther, oranges in Florida are cultivated for their juice. They aren't usually table oranges. As such they may posses blemishes or discoloration. So then, they are less expensive to produce. Require less maintenance and insecticide, and all the fruit can be harvested and sold.\n\nHowever, those that grow table oranges must protect them from weather and insects so they don't have blemishes. All the fruit must be perfectly orange with no green or deformities and then it is shipped fresh across the country. So then, there is greater expense is producing the fruit, more waste when harvesting because much is thrown out, and greater expense in shipping around the world. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is because you are using commercial oranges. They have been picked, culled, shipped, and profits are made every step of the way. They have to be free of blemishes and \"perfect.\"\n\nThe oranges the commercial juice makers use are plain old oranges, mechanically picked, imperfect, and sometimes pretty horrible looking. They use huge presses to get the juice out--hundreds or thousands at a time.\n\nIn short, you are using the finished product to make more finished product. They are using raw materials to make their finished product.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I live in Brazil, here a box of oranges (40.8 Kg = 90 lbs) cost R$ 9.70 (around US$ 2.80). Assuming that each orange is about 200 grams (0.45 lbs), one box = ~200 oranges\n\nThat's US$ 0.014 per orange. I think the cost to extract the juice for each orange is greater than the fruit itself, lol\n\n10 oranges will be 14¢. Add to that the price of production, services... And yeah, you have a viable product!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Orange juice and oranges have different costs based on where the oranges are grown and what it costs to get them to your super market. \n\nThe oranges in your OJ are grown and juiced in Brazil and the juice is shipped to the US in large tanker boats, much bigger than would fit in your bath tub. The juice is heated and stored in a way that means it can make the slow journey by ship and even be stored for up to a year without going bad. But the flavor is taken away by the storage so the juice would taste bad. When the orange juice comes to the US the workers carefully make it taste good again by adding orange flavor that comes from oranges like orange oil and orange essence. Cheaper labor, the ability to store juice, and a process to make juice taste the same year round makes it juice cheaper.\n\nOranges you buy in the store need to taste good, and look pretty. This means the oranges need to be the best looking, and carefully shipped. This makes them more expensive than all the processing that goes into orange juice.",
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"answer": "What you pay for a produce is not the cost of growing. Farmers only get a fraction of what you pay. The real costs are transport, shelf life (15-25% of all fresh products end up in the trash, either at the supermarket or at home),... \nThe transport cost for juice is far, far, faaaar less than fresh oranges. Concentrated juice is transported like petrol: _URL_0_\nShelf life is almost infinite, compared to fresh oranges.\n\nWhat I like best is the fact that most juice in Europe comes through the port of Ghent (largest juice port in the world). Ships offload in 2 terminals: Citrus Coolstore and Dreyfus. Juice manufacturers purchase from these. So ALL the juice brands in Europe use the same concentrated juice. The only difference is the mixture pulp/juice and sugar/water added. \n\n\"But\", you might say \"some are Dreyfus and some are Coolstore\"? Nope: juice ship arrives at Dreyfus, unloads half its cargo, and then unloads the other half at Citrus.\n\nSo that premium juice you are drinking? Same juice as the low-cost brand. ",
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"answer": "Because companies buy in bulk. So they pay far less for those 10 oranges than we do. Which results at lower costs, which CAN lead to being profitable.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A lot of people saying shit here,i'm a brazilian, here the orange juice made at home is actually cheaper than the orange juice, specially outside our major cities.\n\nThe reason of this diference envolves shipping prices and orange juice making process.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "They use the culls to make OJ. Any orange that does not meet the criteria for a sell able orange is sold to the jucier at a price that hardly ever meets the cost of production. These are the blemished, frozen on the tree, oranges with insect, bird, disease damage. In other words OJ is make of the oranges that they would toss out.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "My grandparents used to own a farm. On the conveyor belt the smallest apples were the first to roll off into a big cardboard carton which was described as \"the box the goes off to the juicer\".\n\n Furthermore the packers would inspect all the apples and if they had any blemish at all they were labelled seconds and likely got delivered to your cheaper grocery stores or neighbourhoods, and anything that was bruised or battered or slightly rotting got thrown into the juicing pile.\n\nSo essentially - you would never sell the fruit that goes to the juicers in the first place, and as a farmer you're happy that someone will take them off your hands, so naturally you sell them for less. \n\nBTW in Australia the farmers get a bad deal... They get cents in the dollar for each piece of fruit they grow. Most of the money goes into to transport and the supermarket. The juicers as not paying anywhere near the prices you are, even if they were to use first grade fruit that is sold in the shops.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Same reason cherry is an inexpensive flavor of jelly.\n\nMost of the crop isn't able to be sold fresh, so it's immediately juiced and then frozen.\n\nYou'll see this with a lot of fruits that you rarely see fresh, but you see as jellys, or as flavors in other things. (blueberries, raspberries, etc)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "But consider the nutritional value of 10 oranges versus eating one orange. You get fiber which helps slow the rate of the sugars releasing. Double bonus. Otherwise, fruit juice isn't really all that healthy. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "also Juicing oranges are a completely different breed of orange from the ones you get in the grocery store. They're uglier looking and produce wayyyy more juice. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In addition to a lot that has been posted below, cheap labor has a lot to do with it. They are able to harvest mass quantities, and pay relatively small amounts for that labor due to migrant workers.\n\nNot to get political, but that is one of the major things that conservatives in the US don't get when they talk about \"building a wall\". Losing that access to cheap labor (for jobs that the vast majority of Americans are not willing to do) would cause a sharp increase in the price of most food.\n\nSOURCE: I grew up on a farm in the south.",
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"answer": "You're also buying your oranges at retail price, and store fruit is also the fruit that looks extra nice, no weird shapes or bumps, because we spoiled first-worlders just don't want any ugly, wonky-looking fruit. (Baby carrots aren't baby carrots, they're ugly/bent carrots thrown into a machine that grinds off the nubby bits, and marketed cleverly, so you pay a premium for stuff people wouldn't buy whole.)\n\nJuice companies buy in bulk, and have a lot of bargaining power. They probably get a good deal on buying an entire orchard's crop.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "If you buy freshly squeezed orange juice, (whole foods, for example, usually does it at their locations daily) you will notice two things:\n\n1.) it tastes so much better than any other orange juice (and the vitamin C content is like double that of regular OJ.)\n\n2.) it is expensive as fuck. Like $10 or $11 for 64 oz. \n\nI have read that mass produced orange juice is pasteurized so much that they have to chemically reintroduce the orange flavor. The taste difference is real. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Juicing oranges are less good looking and less store viable, and therefore cheaper. Also it costs a lot of money to ship oranges to the store which raises the price. So for juicing oranges the oranges are cheaper, and they can just machine juice them and ship the juice (or the concentrate, usually) which all around is much cheaper than shipping you 10 oranges that you then juice. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "How \"premium\" orange juice is really made: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Terms like \"Premium\" are just marketing terms, no legal weight behind it. To make oj cheap and available, oranges are sourced when they are in season and plentiful. They don't get the best oranges, but the most economical to make juice. And that includes outsourcing the farm labor which often means exploited families and kids ( by law, kids can work in fields for far less than minimum wage.)\n\nJuice is squeezed from oranges, and when they squeeze, they squeeze, even the bitter white pith, they want every last drop out of those oranges. If oranges have dirt or insect filth on it, have no fear, the next step, pasteurization takes care of it. The juice is flash heated and cooled so there's no loss of flavor, but really, if you ever boiled oj, you know that shit tastes cooked, same with pasteurization, no way to get around it unless you use the high-pressure method which the oj manufacturers dont do because its expensive.\n\nNext, this juice is stored in big tanks, for months. Why not immediately pour into containers and sell? Because it's not economically feasible as mfg look for big profits for their shareholders with minimum cost. \n\nSo now the juice is stored, and poured out when its needed. There juice at this point has been sitting for several months now, and some flavor has been lost, not to worry, they add \"natural flavor\" to make it whole, and more importantly, to make oj taste uniformly even so oj from 6 years ago would taste exactly like oj poured several months ago. It's a branding thing, minute maid always tastes like minute maid, and Tropicana tastes like tropicana. By law, mfg don't have to disclose they added flavor, or artificial sweetener to oj, that's just is,... And because of lobbying.\n\nIf you want fresh squeeze orange juice, go to your local whole foods type market and see what they have. Read the label to make sure the oj is not pasteurized if you want to retain that sweet freesh squeeze flavor, and not taste like boiled oj. High pressure treatment is alternative and ok as this kills any remote possibility of bacteria in the product.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "As /u/apennypacker said, you're eating a different kind of orange.\n\nHowever, I spent some time in Holland, and every grocery store there and many food vendors have [this machine](_URL_0_) made by Zumex, and you fill the bottle right there with consumer oranges. It's about 3 euros for a 1 litre bottle, but the orange juice is far superior and/or doesn't taste like Minute Maid pissed in a bottle. \nThen I'd walk over to the sandwich meats and buy rare roast beef that was still dripping juice. God I miss that food. All in all though, fresh food was a hell of a lot cheaper there. The joys of a tiny supply chain serving a huge population.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aside from the differences in oranges. There is the economy of scale and the fact that these are juiced by the acre and stored in tanks and pumped with inert gas. Flavor is then added back then",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also ... the part of the orange that is \"waste\" to you is probably used in some form or other by the juice company.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Believe it or not, oranges don't actually cost money, they just appear on trees who use the rain and the sun to make oranges.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you seen the price of OJ lately? My insatiable desire for such a pricey fruit juice in the morning is whats not economically viable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well understand that the flavor of orange juice would vary between every squeezing. So Tropicana, Minute Maid excetera each have flavor profile packets which were added to completely stripped orange extracted product after a complex process...but they were able to get away with with calling it natural because everything comes from oranges and they pay politicians to make it legal. They use a particular type of orange for the process which involves extracting all the flavor out of it and then adding standardized orange based flavor profile back in.\n\nYou'd be shocked how many terms are legally defined but are not what you and I would expect them to mean. \"Fresh\" chicken can be kept frozen at some point, but only for a short time, but they can retain being labelled \"fresh.\" There's another level I believe called \"fresh frozen\" which is frozen for a longer period of time, and then of course there's frozen.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Orange producers select the pretty oranges to sell in stores. \"Imperfect\" fruit don't sell, so when it's a bit weird looking, lumpy, discolored, etc, they need to do something with that fruit. \n\nBlammo! Juice the ugly suckers!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Dude, you're doing it wrong. Buy the right oranges and you can get a nice full glass (even if you strain out all the pulp and whatnot) in a quick minute with 2 to 2-1/2 oranges slapped on a cheap electric juicer. Even 10 dryish, out-of-season oranges would probably get you at least > four 8oz glasses if done properly.\n\nSource: A Chicagoan who, by trial-and-error, figured out what, where, and when to buy oranges for juicing and has since made fresh orange juice every day they're in season.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "When you buy oranges from a grocery store, you are paying not just for the oranges but a lot more though in tiny amount\n\n0. Rent and utility of the store\n1. Grocery store owner's profit\n2. Salary of store's employees\n3. Tax\n4. For all the oranges that didn't sell and got spoiled\n5. Transport of oranges\n-- > packaging\n-- > gasoline\n-- > driver's salary/food\n-- > Loss during transport\n\nSo the final price of oranges has to include all of the above costs and more. When juicing oranges from the factory, the cost per orange would be very very less. So it is economically viable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two main reasons:\n\n1. The oranges you buy at the grocery store are not juice oranges from Florida, but table oranges from California. \n\n2. Juicing oranges are purchased wholesale and are processed before entering the retail chain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is because you are using commercial oranges. They have been picked, culled, shipped, and profits are made every step of the way. They have to be free of blemishes and \"perfect.\"\nThe oranges the commercial juice makers use are plain old oranges, mechanically picked, imperfect, and sometimes pretty horrible looking. They use huge presses to get the juice out--hundreds or thousands at a time.\nIn short, you are using the finished product to make more finished product. They are using raw materials to make their finished product.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Also, think of your equipment. You are using a store bought juicer. You may even have a super juicer that says it can juice a ribeye. Orange juice companies have industrial squeezing and straining machines, massive filters, and specific process technology. These cats know how to extract every amount of juice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From my experience in managing super markets, the actual cost of a warehouse to buy oranges in mass quantities is a fraction of what you pay per orange. If you pay $1 for an orange, the store probably bought that for .50, and the warehouse that supplied that orange paid even less. Buying in large quantities is always cheaper than per-piece. We used to make 'commitments' to specific supply companies 3 months ahead of time assuring our store would take a certain amount of product, and they'd give it to us even cheaper than when we simply ordered that product to fill shelves. I hope this made sense, I don't remember the exact figures, but that's my estimate and my answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How it's made is a pretty good program that details the production process of orange juice. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At home you waste a lot of orange while at the factory they use the whole orange and add water at the end.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, the oranges we buy at the grocery store are not bred to be juiced. Juicing oranges yield way more juice. Source: sorry too lazy, just remember watching it on like Alton Brown or something.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You will find that produce that is unappealing to the human eye is usually consumed in a different way. Ketchup? Take some shitty tomatoes and smash them up with vinegar and sugar. Same with orange juice, apple butter etc. This is also the reason that these products have a much larger concentration of insect parts. Just remember that a whole beautiful piece of produce is worth selling it that way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are probably using the wrong type of oranges, there are juice oranges and table oranges, suitable for different purposes, as there are different apples for different purposes. Ten juice oranges should make easilly one litre.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they use the nastiest fruit that is no good for anything else except to make juice. Frozen fruit is also disgusting before it frozen.\n\nSource: work in agriculture and have seen the sorted fruit sent to be turned into juice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is no one talking about the real reason? It's because they buy specific strain of oranges in bulk during picking season, juice it all at once (more economically viable), then send that juice to tanks to sit.\n\nSo they juice them, put the juice in these GIANT tanks that have the oxygen sucked out from them. When the juice is stripped of oxygen it is also stripped of flavor-providing chemicals. The result is a giant tank of \"orange juice\" that is essentially flavorless and can remain in that state for up to a year. One year of flavorless orange juice or pretty economically viable from a business stand point you see. But the orange juice has no taste, so what do they do?\n\n\n\nThey hire flavor and fragrance specialists. And this is the real reason why most big business orange juice companies get away with having the same taste all year long. Because they dont have to include that they use \"flavor packs\" on the label since it's all derived \"100%\" from oranges - yet, in reality, it's all cooked up in a lab and is not natural, but ya'know \"derived entirely from oranges\" - so, therefore, the FDA decides they dont need to include that information on the label. (Good ol' FDA always looking out for the industry rather than the people.)\n\nSo, from my understanding, OJ companies are allowed to do this, but are not required to print this information on the label because the flavors and fragrances are technically derived from orange essence and oil. Yet you're essentially just buying flavorless orange juice that has been hit with a chemical cocktail to make it taste and smell like orange juice.\n\nHows that for economically viable? ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "You ever heard the term \"they don't grow on trees\" to describe something of limited resource? \n\nOranges literally grow on trees. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I worked picking oranges in South Australia. Among the oranges we were picking, the ones for eating can only be picked once it reaches a certain temperature outside. The juicing oranges did not matter, and were generally repulsive and gigantic oranges that you could not even sell based on looks alone. I opened one and tried it and it was disgusting, but loaded with juice. Not to mention the people picking it were being paid at a rate that borderlines on slavery (I made half of Australia's minimum wage per day, paid to pick per bin).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also - wasn't it found that Orange Juice has a lot of shit in it not listed in ingredients due to loopholes with FDA",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They extract all of the juice they can by grinding down the entire orange then burn what is left to operate the factory that processes it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There seems to be a common misconception on this thread that they \"juice\" premium retail grade (think Sunkist @ $0.50 to $0.75 per orange) oranges. \n They don't.\n They juice oranges that you would never want to see on your grocers shelf and if you did see them....you'd never buy them.\n\nThey're not your \"Christmas oranges\", in a bottle of juice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of this has to do with the quality and attractiveness of the food. If you go to a grocery store, you'll typically find that your fruit, eggs, etc. are labeled \"Grade A\" or such. These are the biggest, best looking, and most consistent products and are sold to average consumers. The rest are the blemished, misshapen, or small products that aren't what you would typically want to buy. These are used commercially to make juices and other products. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We use immigrants who are paid 9cents a pound to pick the oranges and the mechanism for juicing is automated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most cheap \"orange juice\" is made from concentrate, which is dehydrated fruit juice from unattractive fruit, in powdered form. Since this is vastly easier and cheaper to transport, this is the cheap fruit juice you will see on shelves, since all the producer needs to do is buy the concentrate, and combine it with water.\n\nReal fruit juice is more expensive, and you are being vastly overcharged for the fruit you buy, since you are paying retail and not wholesale, like the concentrate manufacturers. Furthermore, fruits are expensive to truck around, since they require refrigeration, take up more space, and are heavier.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4984440",
"title": "Orange (fruit)",
"section": "Section::::Juice and other products.:Products made from oranges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "BULLET::::- Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a \"juicer\" or \"squeezer\") and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "Section::::Commercial orange juice and concentrate.:Freshly squeezed, unpasteurized juice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Fresh-squeezed, the unpasteurized juice is the closest to consuming the orange itself. This version of the juice consists of oranges that are squeezed and then bottled without having any additives or flavor packs inserted. The juice is not subjected to pasteurization. Depending on storage temperature, freshly squeezed, unpasteurized orange juice can have a shelf life of 5 to 23 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 662,
"text": "Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as \"pulp\" in American English, and \"(juicy) bits\" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "Section::::Standards and regulations.:Regulations in Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "Section::::Processing and manufacture.:Manufacture of \"not from concentrate\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "Section::::Standards and regulations.:Regulations in the United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across the UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925/2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "Section::::Standards and regulations.:Regulations in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "In the United States, orange juice is regulated and standardized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh/frozen/pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of the following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, sugar syrup, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, dextrose, corn syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup, and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of orange juice soluble solids, excluding any added sweetening ingredients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2601fs
|
Do we know of any contact between Ancient Egypt and East Asia ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ah. I enjoyed that book and it does an excellent job of telling stories, but yes, it's age shows in quite a few places. Short answer: no.\n\nEssentially, the book is proposing a model called diffusionism, although hyper-diffusionism might be more accurate. This was a theory, or more accurately a methodology, that proposed singular origins for practically everything, thus, if something appears in two places, it necessarily moved from one to another. Independent development is generally rejected. Add to that, there is a longstanding tradition in European thought called *ex orientia lux* that tends to view everything a arising in the Eastern Mediterranean region, particularly Egypt, and spreading from there. These can lead to conclusions that can sometimes seem a bit absurd, such as the one you give--Austronesian ship design, from materials used to the rigging used, has practically no similarity with Egyptian design.\n\nToday, diffusionism is rejected as a default explanation. It happens, certainly, but is to be demonstrated rather than assumed.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3496504",
"title": "Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Middle Kingdom (before c. 1648 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Eastward contacts are represented by objects and motific works of ancient Egypt found in the Near East, including modern Anatolia and Byblos and those ancient regions around Canaan and Syria. Some kings of Byblos have been found buried with Egyptian items.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "33916992",
"title": "Ancient Egyptian trade",
"section": "Section::::Prehistoric transport and trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Foreign artifacts dating to the 5th millennium BCE in the Badarian culture in Egypt indicate contact with distant Syria. In predynastic Egypt, by the beginning of the 4th millennium BCE, ancient Egyptians in Maadi were importing pottery as well as construction ideas from Canaan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "60383627",
"title": "Egypt-Mesopotamia relations",
"section": "Section::::Influences on Egyptian trade and art (3500-3200 BCE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "There was generally a high-level of trade between Ancient Egypt and the Near-East throughout the Pre-dynastic period of Egypt, during the Naqada II (3600-3350 BCE) and Naqada III (3350-2950 BCE) phases. These were contemporary with the Late Uruk (3500-3100 BCE) and Jemdet Nasr (3100-2900 BCE) periods in Mesopotamia. The main period of cultural exchange, particularly consisting in the transfer of Mesopotamian imagery and symbols to Egypt, is considered to have lasted about 250 years, during the Naqada II to Dynasty I periods. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "4620",
"title": "Bronze Age",
"section": "Section::::History.:Near East.:Levant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The earliest known Ugarit contact with Egypt (and the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a carnelian bead identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971–1926 BC. A stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found. However, it is unclear at what time these monuments got to Ugarit. In the Amarna letters, messages from Ugarit BC written by Ammittamru I, Niqmaddu II, and his queen, were discovered. From the 16th to the 13th century BC, Ugarit remained in constant touch with Egypt and Cyprus (named Alashiya).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37952187",
"title": "Syro-Lebanese in Egypt",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "The relations between Egypt and the Levant go back to ancient times. However, the earliest instance of modern Levantine migration to Egypt happened after 1724, when a schism in the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch resulted in a separate branch of Levantine Christians attached to Rome known as the Melkite Greek Catholics. Once the Syrian and Lebanese Greek Orthodox community was split, a migratory flow resulted in which Melkite Greek Catholics began leaving cities such as Damascus, Aleppo, Zahle, and Sidon to move to Egypt. Regarding an early Maronite presence in Egypt dating from the 18th century, it is said that the Holy See of Rome appointed two Maronite priests to serve as advisers to the Franciscans who came from the Custody of the Holy Land to evangelize Egypt because \"no one knows the land and mentality of the Copts like the Maronites\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3496504",
"title": "Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Late Period (before c. 343 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Foreign contacts in the Late Period of Ancient Egypt seem to have been mere extensions of those of the New Kingdom. Military expeditions again persist, everywhere but in ancient Greece. In fact, there is in this period evidence of Greek soldiers fighting for Egyptian pharaohs and the establishment of a Greek trading post, called Naucratis, within Egypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1587039",
"title": "Userkaf",
"section": "Section::::Reign.:Trade and military activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Userkaf's reign might have witnessed a revival of trade between Egypt and its Aegean neighbors as shown by a series of reliefs from his mortuary temple representing ships engaged in what may be a naval expedition. Further evidence for such contacts is a stone vessel bearing the name of his sun temple that was uncovered on the Greek island of Kythira. This vase is the earliest evidence of commercial contacts between Egypt and the Aegean world. Finds in Anatolia, dating to the reigns of Menkauhor Kaiu and Djedkare Isesi, demonstrate that these contacts continued throughout the Fifth Dynasty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ojkbo
|
why do some women look super pregnant at 8ish months, yet others are barely noticeable?
|
[
{
"answer": "The boring, obvious answer is that women have a wide variety of body types and sizes. A tall, larger woman will appear less pregnant than a short, small woman. A woman with a tiny waist will show a pregnancy more than a woman with wide hips. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11173456",
"title": "Diastasis recti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "BULLET::::- Women are more susceptible to develop diastasis recti when over the age of 35, high birth weight of child, multiple birth pregnancy, and multiple pregnancies. Additional causes can be attributed to excessive abdominal exercises after the first trimester of pregnancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1721169",
"title": "Village of the Damned (1960 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Two months later, all women and girls of child-bearing age in the affected area are discovered to be pregnant, sparking many accusations of both infidelity and extramarital sex. The accusations fade as the extraordinary nature of the pregnancies is discovered, with seven-month fetuses appearing after only five months. All the women give birth on the same day. Their children have an unusual appearance, including \"arresting\" eyes, odd scalp hair construction and colour (platinum blonde), and unusually narrow fingernails. As the children grow and develop at a rapid rate, it becomes clear they also have a powerful telepathic bond with one another. They can communicate with each other over great distances, and as one learns something, so do the others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2300688",
"title": "Complications of pregnancy",
"section": "Section::::Maternal problems.:Infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "A pregnant woman is more susceptible to certain infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus, as well as secondary to maternal physiological changes including a decrease in respiratory volumes and urinary stasis due to an enlarging uterus. Pregnant individuals are more severely affected by, for example, influenza, hepatitis E, herpes simplex and malaria. The evidence is more limited for coccidioidomycosis, measles, smallpox, and varicella. Mastitis, or inflammation of the breast occurs in 20% of lactating individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18958648",
"title": "Obesity in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Total costs to the US.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Obesity has also been shown to increase the prevalence of complications during pregnancy and childbirth. Babies born to obese women are almost three times as likely to die within one month of birth and almost twice as likely to be stillborn than babies born to women of normal weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21490868",
"title": "Female body shape",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Changes to body shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "During and after pregnancy, a woman experiences body shape changes. After menopause, with the reduced production of estrogen by the ovaries, there is a tendency for fat to redistribute from a female's buttocks, hips and thighs to her waist or abdomen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8053575",
"title": "Maternal health",
"section": "Section::::Factors influencing maternal health.:Pre-existing conditions.:Maternal weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "During pregnancy, women of an average pre-pregnancy weight (BMI 18.5-24.9) should expect to gain between 25-35 pounds over the course of the pregnancy. Increased rates of hypertension, diabetes, respiratory complications, and infections are prevalent in cases of maternal obesity and can have detrimental effects on pregnancy outcomes. Obesity is an extremely strong risk factor for gestational diabetes. Research has found that obese mothers who lose weight (at least 10 pounds or 4.5 kg) in-between pregnancies reduce the risk of gestational diabetes during their next pregnancy, whereas mothers who gain weight actually increase their risk. Women who are pregnant should aim to exercise for at least 150 minutes per week, including muscle strengthening exercises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42236542",
"title": "Women's rights in Nepal",
"section": "Section::::Access to Health Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The most common illnesses that females at reproductive age face are anaemia and malnutrition, due to the discrimination faced in childhood and in growing up. As females, especially girls, are considered to be of the lowest status in the household, they are often the last to eat and thus do not receive the proper nutrition required. Almost 70% of females who have reached puberty suffer from these common illnesses. Also, many women often delay seeking medical help out of fear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11ivvp
|
Is the next generation of humans getting stronger and taller than the previous one? Also when would it stop?
|
[
{
"answer": "Humans are generally getting taller and stronger than previous generations. Many scientists believe this is due to nutrition (increased calories, increased protein intake) rather than genetics. Given that vitamins and proteins are ubiquitous, it is unlikely that height would increase as a function of nutrition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11773",
"title": "Flynn effect",
"section": "Section::::Proposed explanations.:Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "Improved nutrition is another possible explanation. Today's average adult from an industrialized nation is taller than a comparable adult of a century ago. That increase of stature, likely the result of general improvements of nutrition and health, has been at a rate of more than a centimeter per decade. Available data suggest that these gains have been accompanied by analogous increases of head size, and by an increase in the average size of the brain. This argument had been thought to suffer the difficulty that groups who tend to be of smaller overall body size (e.g. women, or people of Asian ancestry) do not have lower average IQs. Richard Lynn, however, claims that while people of East Asian origin may often have smaller bodies, they tend to have larger brains and higher IQs than average whites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32156908",
"title": "Muscular evolution in humans",
"section": "Section::::Upper body/back.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1198,
"text": "Humans became taller as the years passed after becoming bipedal which lengthened back muscles at the base of the tail bone and hips which in effect made them weigh more, further hampering their abilities in the trees. Early human ancestors had a tail where modern humans’ tail bone is located. This aided in balance when in the trees but lost its prominence when bipedalism was adapted. The arms also became shorter (opposite in comparison to legs) for carrying objects and using them as multi-tasking agents instead of climbing and swinging in trees. It is well known that the \"Homo sapien\" line of primates developed the opposable thumb which opened the door to many muscle functions not yet possible in the hand and other upper body regions. The stretching muscles of the forearms whose tendons allowed the human to concentrate its force and abilities within his/her hands and fingers contributed to great new abilities. Overall, upper body muscles developed to deal with more activities that involved the concentration of strength in those muscles such as: holding, throwing, lifting, running with something to assist in escaping danger, hunting, and the construction of habitats and shelters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1217802",
"title": "Felipe Birriel",
"section": "Section::::Later years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Birriel was unique in reaching a relatively old age while being as tall as he was; most extremely tall people tend to experience serious disabling medical conditions such as the ones that eventually crippled, and then killed, Robert Wadlow (the tallest human in the world during his lifetime) at an early age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "905957",
"title": "Human height",
"section": "Section::::Role of an individual's height.:Height and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "At the extreme end, being excessively tall can cause various medical problems, including cardiovascular problems, because of the increased load on the heart to supply the body with blood, and problems resulting from the increased time it takes the brain to communicate with the extremities. For example, Robert Wadlow, the tallest man known to verifiable history, developed trouble walking as his height increased throughout his life. In many of the pictures of the later portion of his life, Wadlow can be seen gripping something for support. Late in his life, although he died at age 22, he had to wear braces on his legs and walk with a cane; and he died after developing an infection in his legs because he was unable to feel the irritation and cutting caused by his leg braces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2237801",
"title": "Short stature",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Short stature can also be caused by the bone plates fusing at an earlier age than normal, therefore stunting growth. Normally, the bone age is the same as the biological age but for some people, it is older. For many people with advanced bone ages, they hit a growth spurt early on which propels them to average height but stop growing at an earlier age. However, in some cases, people who are naturally shorter combined with their advanced bone age, end up being even shorter than the height they normally would have been because of their stunted growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "498286",
"title": "Turkana Boy",
"section": "Section::::Adolescence and maturity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Ronda Graves and colleagues in 2010 concluded that he would \"have grown an additional five to 14 cm before reaching adulthood\" and that \"if, at death, he was eight to ten years of age, [he would have been] tall, and growing faster than a modern human but slower than a chimpanzee. According to this scenario, KNM-WT 15000 would have attained an adult stature ranging between and .\" Moreover, that \"according to our preferred models of growth and development, [his] growth in stature [would have been] completed by 12 years of age (4 years after death), so that the majority of growth has already occurred\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6208186",
"title": "National Organization of Short Statured Adults",
"section": "Section::::Princeton economist study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1379,
"text": "In August 2006, a study by Princeton University economists Anne Case and Christina Paxson, \"Stature and Status: Height, Ability, and Labor Market Outcomes\" concluded that tall people are smarter than their height-challenged peers. The researchers report, \"On average, taller people earn more because they are smarter. As early as age 3 — before schooling has had a chance to play a role — and throughout childhood, taller children perform significantly better on cognitive tests. The correlation between height in childhood and adulthood is approximately 0.7 for both men and women, so that tall children are much more likely to become tall adults. As adults, taller individuals are more likely to select into higher paying occupations that require more advanced verbal and numerical skills and greater intelligence, for which they earn handsome returns.\" Case and Paxson emphasized that the correlation between height and intelligence was due to non-genetic factors, such as health and nutrition in utero and in childhood. As they explained, \"Our results say nothing about the relationship between cognitive ability and that part of height that is determined by genetic background. Our results speak to that part of height that is driven by health and nutrition. There are very many very smart short people (Einstein comes to mind) and, frankly, many not-so-smart tall people.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2to4k3
|
What is the place of the battleship Yamato in the Japanese consciousness/culture?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would definitely say the Yamato has some sort of place in the hearts of the Japanese people even today. In the late 30s, when it was laid down it was praised for being the biggest battleship in history and at the time many people still thought that size was the most important feature for these kind of Battleships.\nIn theory it outgunned and outranged any US or British Battleship it would have faced, which in the thinking of WW1 or the Russo-Japanese War was the key to victory. \nHistory taught us that it wasn't enough, although the Yamato also had design flaws, as [/u/kieslowskifan](_URL_0_) pointed out in this earlier [thread](_URL_1_).\n\nWhile the Japanese were proponents of naval aviation themselves, they underestimated just how vulnerable giants like the Yamato would be to attacks from the air.\n\nThe whole concept of Battleships proved to be flawed in WW2, as can be seen in many other exemplary cases like the Bismarck, the Roma or the Sinking of the British ships 'Prince of Wales' and Repulse (by the Japanese themselves).\nAnd although many famous ships were essentially a waste of resources there is often still an almost mythological meaning to them in their respective countries, just for what they represented at the time and how tragic their loss was. ('Bismarck' for Germany, 'Hood' for Britain, 'Arizona' for the USA ...)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Yamato and the Mushashi were huge battleships, dubbed unoffically \"superbattleships\" because of their 60k+ tonnes displacement and hugely powerful armament. The Ultranationalists of Japan, while not restricted by the League of Nations' naval treaties, greatly pushed for the expansion of the navy, including the creation of the Yamato-class battleship. Thanks to its size, power and speed, it's a no brainer that such gigantic and impressive looking ships came to represent the might of Imperial Japan, especially with the Empire's fierce defiance to the Western powers, obviously the US being the big one. It became a symbol of pride for all Japanese people\n\nThe Japanese knew that they couldn't go against the US naval output, so the Yamato was designed to be a hugely powerful battleship that could engage multiple targets. But as history has shown, battleships were in their twilight, this was the era of aircraft carriers. Both the Yamato and the Mushashi were sunk by aircraft carriers, and the Shinano, the third of its class, was in the middle of being converted into an aircraft carrier. \n\nEven decades later, the symbol of Yamato remained strong. One of the most popular animes, Space Battleship Yamato, obviously being named after the ship. Thanks to the popularity of the series, the name Yamato was immortalized for another generation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe im a bit too late but I can try my best to give out a few answer.\n\nAs you said, the name *Yamato* or in kanji, *大和* carried a bit of cultural weight as it means Big Japan. As what the other users in the thread has pointed out, the super size of the battleship is the personification of the national pride. The Japanese navy played the important part of its propaganda.\n\nJapan, being an island nation similar to Britain knows that having a strong navy means they are pretty much living in a fortress. Of course times changed and the nature of navy fighting has already evolved. \n\nThe modern culture of Japan still revered greatly at *Yamato*. Example is the anime, [Space Battleship Yamato](_URL_0_).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer is yes, this particular battleship has been romanticized in postwar Japanese. The mystique of the *Yamato* is partly a function of its size, which is also a draw for non-Japanese audiences as well. However, the *Yamato* taps into a number of important postwar Japanese cultural archetypes that give the ship a unique staying power in public consciousness. \n\nAlthough the ship itself had little military impact on the war, the *Yamato*'s historical narrative meshes well with the larger historical narrative of Japan's defeat. The IJN intended the ship to be the expression of Japan's technical expertise and ability to transcend superior numbers to achieve victory. In this goal, the IJN clearly failed and *Yamato* paid the price. The *Yamato* became an analogue of sorts for the postwar memory and interpretation of Japanese defeat: Japan thought it had the means to win, but discovered its reach far exceeded its grasp. While other IJN ships had a more colorful service, few match this specific narrative. Films like 2005's *Otoko-tachi no Yamato*, based upon a bestselling nonfiction book, hew to this narrative, where its main protagonists, boy sailors, genuinely believe that the *Yamato* will lead Japan to victory and most of them die during the ship's sinking. In this way, the ship acts as a metaphor for Japan's whole wartime effort and erases some of the uncomfortable portions of its wartime aggression by recentering a narrative upon Japan's hubris (which can be hoisted on a few military leaders) and eventual victimhood. \n\nIn Ivan Morris's 1975 classic, *The Nobility of Failure* he argues that Japanese culture celebrates heroes who fail and yet stay true to their spirit and goals. While this is only one strain of Japanese culture, the story of the *Yamato* meshes well with this cultural archetype. In the aforementioned *Otoko-tachi no Yamato*, the ship's officers have an acrimonious meeting with the ship's commander over Operation Ten-Go. Many note, with great justification, that the ship's mission to Okinawa is a waste and the stuffed shirts at headquarters will not be called upon to make the same sacrifice. The ship's commander quiets down these objections by noting that the sacrifice of the ship will be a lesson for the Japan of the future, much like how late-Tokugawa samurai who encountered Western guns showed that the old samurai ways were not effective, so to would *Yamato*'s sinking. The ship's crew bonds over the course of the film and most die in the end. There's a similiar narrative in the flashback portions of the anime *Space Battleship Yamato* where the crew stoically face defeat. \n\n*Space Battleship Yamato* brings up another aspect of *Yamato*'s postwar cultural transformation: the ability of fiction to transform defeat into a victory. In this particular anime, the wreckage of the *Yamato* become a starship that saves the earth multiple times. William Ashbaugh cogently argues that this particular anime refights the war in a way that Japan wins, albeit in this case Japanese stoicism and technical expertise saves humanity rather than advances imperialist goals. The animation of the final space battle mirrors the animation of the ship's 1945 one, although this time, the *Yamato* triumphs over superior odds. Similarly, the technothriller anime/manga *Silent Service* has a JMSDF nuclear submarine named *Yamato* go rogue and triumph over the more numerous American and other antagonists. In this way, fiction is reversing the trauma of defeat and crafting an alternative narrative wherein defeat led to a new victory. \n\nAlthough the *Yamato* has a certain cachet in Japanese public consciousness, it is important to realize the caveat that reception is a different animal than transmission. The symbolism of turning defeat into victory of *Space Battleship Yamato* might be irrelevant to Japanese audiences who simply enjoyed a rollicking space opera. There is also a degree of apathy among the wider Japanese public about the Second World War and its relevance to contemporary Japan. *Otoko-tachi no Yamato* had a respectable box-office run but came in well behind Western films like *Revenge of the Sith* and *Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire*. There's a clear Japanese market for *Yamato* merchandise, as evidenced by [HobbyLink Japan's search result for \"Yamato\"](_URL_0_) or videogames like [Kantai Collection](_URL_1_). Yet what *Yamato* means for the larger Japanese population as a whole in 2015 is somewhat nebulous. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1180073",
"title": "Yamato-class battleship",
"section": "Section::::Cultural significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "\"Yamato\", and especially the story of her sinking, has appeared often in Japanese popular culture, such as the anime \"Space Battleship Yamato\" and the 2005 film \"Yamato\". The appearances in popular culture usually portray the ship's last mission as a brave, selfless, but futile, symbolic effort by the participating Japanese sailors to defend their homeland. One of the reasons that the warship may have such significance in Japanese culture is that the word \"Yamato\" was often used as a poetic name for Japan. Thus, the end of battleship \"Yamato\" could serve as a metaphor for the end of the Japanese empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28954",
"title": "Space Battleship Yamato",
"section": "Section::::English title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "For many years, English-language releases of the anime bore the title \"Space Cruiser Yamato\". This romanization has appeared in Japanese publications because Nishizaki, a sailing enthusiast who owned a cruiser yacht, ordered that this translation be used out of love for his boat. However, in reference to naval nomenclature, it is technically inaccurate, as means \"battleship\" and not \"cruiser\" (which in Japanese would be ). Leiji Matsumoto's manga adaptation was titled \"Cosmoship Yamato\". Today, \"Yamato\" releases, including the Voyager Entertainment DVD, are marketed either as \"Star Blazers\" or \"Space Battleship Yamato\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10176348",
"title": "Yamato Museum",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The museum opened on April 23, 2005. It is nicknamed the Yamato Museum due to the display in the lobby of the large model ship, Yamato, a 1/10 scale model of the battleship \"Yamato\", the flagship of the Japanese Combined Fleet in the World War II. It was sunk south of the Japanese island of Kyushu in 1945. The museum is located where the battleship was completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206932",
"title": "Japanese battleship Yamato",
"section": "Section::::Cultural significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "In 2005, the \"Yamato\" Museum was opened near the site of the former Kure shipyards. Although intended to educate on the maritime history of post Meiji-era Japan, the museum gives special attention to its namesake; the battleship is a common theme among several of its exhibits, which includes a section dedicated to Matsumoto's animated series. The centrepiece of the museum, occupying a large section of the ground floor, is a long model of \"Yamato\" (1:10 scale).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4582566",
"title": "Space Battleship Yamato (fictional spacecraft)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Space Battleship \"Yamato\" was the title spaceship from the anime series \"Space Battleship Yamato\", designed by Leiji Matsumoto in the 1970s. According to the fictional continuity of the anime series, the spacecraft was built inside the remains of the Japanese battleship \"Yamato\". In the American dub of the series \"Star Blazers\", the spaceship has the same origin, but was renamed the \"Argo\" (after the mythical ship \"Argo\" of Jason and the Argonauts). In Spanish-speaking countries, its name was changed to \"Intrépido\" (\"Intrepid\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977032",
"title": "Japanese battleship Mutsu",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Mutsu was the second and last dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) at the end of World War I. It was named after the province, In 1923 she carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake. The ship was modernized in 1934–1936 with improvements to her armour and machinery, and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40171501",
"title": "JS Izumo",
"section": "Section::::Design and construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The ship is as large as a Japanese carrier of second World War-era. It resembles the amphibious assault carriers used by U.S. Marines but lacks a well deck for launching landing craft. \"Izumo\" is called a destroyer because the Japanese constitution forbids the acquisition of offensive weapons but the vessel allows Japan to project military power well beyond its territorial waters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ai7kn
|
Going into the Korean war, did the US ever have the goal of completely absorbing the north into the south, or was an eventual retreat from the Yalu planned?
|
[
{
"answer": "Going in was long before the Yalu. The intent was simply to keep the south from being incorporated into the north. Americans' concern was not to be embarrassed by having to retreat from Pusan. There was no UN mandate to do more which is why it was a UN police action, not a US war. Anyway, America was war weary after WW II and had disarmed. Civilians could buy jeeps and M-1s. Optics for Norden gun sights were available in the first simple catalogues of Edmund Scientific. The focus was on Europe and we certainly didn't want war with the new Communist regime in China. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "To add to /u/ApuleiusBooks' answer, before the war broke out, the U.S. was in the process of withdrawing its soldiers and heavy equipment from the peninsula in reciprocity for the Soviet draw-down in the North in (IIRC) 1947-8. If Kim il-Sung had twiddled his thumbs for another few months to a year, it's possible that no serious U.S. presence would have remained on the Korean peninsula at all. The U.S. already had expensive obligations to worry about in West Germany and Japan, and there was never as much domestic support for the Korean occupation as these. (Korea had been part of the Japanese empire during World War II and not a belligerent.) Moreover, part of the reason for the withdrawal was to deny Syngman Rhee (then president of South Korea) access to weapons and equipment that he wanted for a possible invasion of the North. The U.S. didn't want to antagonize the Soviets or the Chinese, and wanted to stick to the Korean reunification process that it was then pursuing through the U.N. \n\nInvading the North to repel the invasion and deter Kim il-Sung from future attacks was one thing (that was the subject of the U.N. mandate that the U.S. had anyway), but *occupying* and rebuilding the country would have been something else altogether. Again, the Korean occupation was already a domestic political issue in the States and would not in any way have been improved by adding to it. \n\nAnd finally, if the U.S. had forcibly reunified the peninsula under one government, a U.S.-occupied territory would then directly share a land border with China (hostile) and the U.S.S.R. (hostile). Nobody wanted that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "591515",
"title": "Rollback",
"section": "Section::::Cold War.:Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In the Korean War, the United States and the United Nations officially endorsed a policy of rollback—the destruction of the North Korean government—and sent UN forces across the 38th parallel to take over North Korea. The rollback strategy, however, caused the Chinese to intervene, and US forces were pushed back to the 38th parallel. The failure of a complete rollback despite its advocacy by MacArthur, moved the United States to commit to the alternate strategy of containment. The U.S. had moved from a strategy of containment, to one of rollback, and returned to containment in late 1950-early 1951.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34655512",
"title": "No Gun Ri massacre",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The division of Japan's former Korean colony into two zones at the end of World War II led to years of border skirmishing between U.S.-allied South Korea and Soviet-allied North Korea. On June 25, 1950, the North Korean Army invaded the south to try to reunify the peninsula, beginning the Korean War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325329",
"title": "Cold War",
"section": "Section::::Containment and the Truman Doctrine (1947–1953).:Korean War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1219,
"text": "The U.S. initially seemed to follow containment when it first entered the war. This directed the action of the US to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty, allowing North Korea's survival as a state. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt a rollback strategy instead and to overthrow communist North Korea, thus allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices. General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th Parallel into North Korea. The Chinese, fearful of a possible US presence on their border or even an invasion by them, then sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them back below the 38th parallel. Truman publicly hinted that he might use his \"ace in the hole\" of the atomic bomb, but Mao was unmoved. The episode was used to support the wisdom of the containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed to roughly around the original border, with minimal changes. Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised NATO to develop a military structure. Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29578885",
"title": "Battle of Pusan Perimeter logistics",
"section": "Section::::Background.:North Korean advance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "In the west, US forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance. Forces from the 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry Regiment, newly arrived in the country, were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27, leaving open a pass to the Pusan area. Soon after, Chinju to the west was taken, pushing the 19th Infantry Regiment back and leaving routes to the Pusan open for North Korean forces. US units were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2. Suffering mounting losses, the North Korean force on the west flank withdrew for several days to re-equip and receive reinforcements. This granted both sides several days of reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10378124",
"title": "United Nations Security Council Resolution 82",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The resolution called on the North to immediately halt its invasion and to move its troops back to the 38th parallel. Seen as a diplomatic victory for the United States, the resolution was completely ignored by North Korea. This brought the UN and the US to take further action, setting the state for massive international involvement and the expansion of the Korean War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462221",
"title": "Eighth United States Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Korean War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1368,
"text": "Both South and North Korea were almost entirely occupied by United Nations forces. However, once U.S. units neared the Yalu River and the frontier between North Korea and China, the Chinese intervened and drastically changed the character of the war. Eighth Army was decisively defeated at the Battle of the Chongchon River and forced to retreat all the way back to South Korea. U.S. historian Clay Blair noted that the Eighth Army was left completely unprotected on its right flank due to the Turkish Brigade's retreat despite myths that arose about the Turks killing 200 enemies by bayonet. The defeat of the U.S. Eighth Army resulted in the longest retreat of any U.S. military unit in history. General Walker was killed in a jeep accident on 23 December 1950, and replaced by Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway. The overstretched Eighth Army suffered heavily with the Chinese offensive, who were able to benefit from shorter lines of communication and with rather casually deployed enemy forces. The Chinese broke through the U.S. defenses despite U.S. air supremacy and the Eighth Army and U.N. forces retreated hastily to avoid encirclement. The Chinese offensive continued pressing U.S. forces, which lost Seoul, the South Korean capital. Eighth Army's morale and \"esprit de corps\" hit rock bottom, to where it was widely regarded as a broken, defeated rabble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "856325",
"title": "Battle of the Imjin River",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "Following the North Korean invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950, a UN counter-offensive had reached the North Korean border with China. Fearing for its own security, China intervened with three offensives between October 1950 and January 1951 which pushed the UN forces south of the original border between North and South Korea along the 38th Parallel and captured Seoul. A fourth offensive in mid-February was blunted by UN forces in the Battle of Chipyong-ni and Third Battle of Wonju. At the end of February the UN launched a series of offensive operations, recapturing Seoul on 15 March and pushing the front line back northwards. In early April Operation Rugged established the front in a line that followed the lower Imjin river, then eastwards to the Hwacheon Reservoir and on to the Yangyang area on the east coast, known as the \"Kansas Line\". The subsequent Operation Dauntless pushed out a salient between the Imjin river as it dog-legged north and the Hwacheon Reservoir, known as the \"Utah Line\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3w8d37
|
Is there literally ZERO resistance in superconductors or is it just miniscule or neglectable (like stuff normally is in real-life as opposed to theory)?
|
[
{
"answer": "The best theory we have suggests that the electrical resistance of a superconductor can be exactly zero. Unfortunately it's a bit tricky to definitively validate this result experimentally since we simply can't measure a resistance of 0. Even though [most experiments seem to show that the resistance vanishes](_URL_1_), there is always an uncertainty associated with the instruments used that prevents us from saying that the resistance measured truly is zero. \n\nNevertheless, through ever more sensitive measurements, we can increasingly lower the upper bound of whatever finite resistance (if any) might exist. For example, for high purity aluminum, the [resistivity](_URL_0_) (or the specific resistance) has been measured to be less than 2.5\\*10^(-25)Ωm. This number corresponds to a drop of at least 13 orders of magnitude at the superconducting transition, and is more than 17 orders of magnitude smaller than the resistivity of copper at room temperature (1.6\\*10^(-8)Ωm). For all practical purposes we can say that the resistance of such superconductors really is zero.\n\nedit: corrected units",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on what kind of superconductor you have. There are two categories of superconductor: type I and type II. Type I superconductors genuinely exhibit zero resistance, as do type II superconductors in low magnetic fields. However, at certain values of magnetic field and current density, type II superconductors can enter a vortex state, where the magnetic field lines form flux vortices through the material. If these flux lines are free to move around, then the changing magnetic field will induce a voltage, which can cause a resistance to appear. You can prevent this by including impurities or defects in the material, which will pin the flux lines in place, but even then, you can get what's known as flux creep, as vortices slowly shift between metastable states. This is a problem, as any dissipation will heat up your material, which can stop it from being a superconductor. This non-superconductor will then heat up, which will cause more of your superconductor to heat up, and you can clearly see that this leads to a catastrophic runaway effect where your superconductor stops being a superconductor. This happened at the LHC. One of their superconducting magnets stopped being superconducting, which caused it to heat up, which caused the liquid helium that was supposed to be cooling it to boil, which caused a rupture, which meant liquid helium spilled out over a large section of tunnel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26884",
"title": "Superconductivity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Superconductivity is the set of physical properties observed in certain materials, wherein electrical resistance no longer exists and from which magnetic flux fields are expelled. Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down to near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993816",
"title": "Solid",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Electrical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Many materials also exhibit superconductivity at low temperatures; they include metallic elements such as tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys, some heavily doped semiconductors, and certain ceramics. The electrical resistivity of most electrical (metallic) conductors generally decreases gradually as the temperature is lowered, but remains finite. In a superconductor, however, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61577",
"title": "Electrical resistance and conductance",
"section": "Section::::Superconductivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Superconductors are materials that have exactly zero resistance and infinite conductance, because they can have V=0 and I≠0. This also means there is no joule heating, or in other words no dissipation of electrical energy. Therefore, if superconductive wire is made into a closed loop, current flows around the loop forever. Superconductors require cooling to temperatures near 4 K with liquid helium for most metallic superconductors like niobium–tin alloys, or cooling to temperatures near 77K with liquid nitrogen for the expensive, brittle and delicate ceramic high temperature superconductors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61580",
"title": "Electrical resistivity and conductivity",
"section": "Section::::Causes of conductivity.:Superconductivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered. In ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14896",
"title": "Inductor",
"section": "Section::::Circuit analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The effect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes in current through it by developing a voltage across it proportional to the rate of change of the current. An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to a constant direct current; however, only superconducting inductors have truly zero electrical resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26941794",
"title": "Superconducting electric machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Superconducting electric machines are electromechanical systems that rely on the use of one or more superconducting elements. Since superconductors have no DC resistance, they typically have greater efficiency. The most important parameter that is of utmost interest in superconducting machine is the generation of a very high magnetic field that is not possible in a conventional machine. This leads to a substantial decrease in the motor volume; which means a great increase in the power density. However, since superconductors only have zero resistance under a certain superconducting transition temperature, \"T\" that is hundreds of degrees lower than room temperature, cryogenics are required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23355682",
"title": "Flux pumping",
"section": "Section::::Background.:E-J Power Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The most popular model used to describe superconductivity is the Bean or Critical State model and variations such as the Kim-Anderson model. However the Bean model assumes zero resistivity and that current is always induced at the critical current. A more useful model for engineering applications is the so-called E-J power law in which the field and the current are linked by the following equations:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
frtb4m
|
Just how long has vinegar been around in any form?
|
[
{
"answer": "Vinegar is created by *acetobacter,* a kind of bacteria that is naturally occurring- notably, occurring in the guts of fruit flies. When yeast ( a fungi) encounter sugar, they will start to ferment it into alcohol. If *acetobacter* bacteria are present ( and, of course, that can occur because fruit flies are going to be drawn to the smell of fruit juice) and conditions are right, they will begin to ferment the alcohol to acetic acid.\n\nWhenever wine, beer, hard cider etc are made, there is a chance that it will be turned into vinegar accidentally. But if , say, a farmer had vinegar in a barrel, adding wine or cider to it would result in more vinegar being produced.\n\nSo, essentially, your question is , how long have people done fermentation, made beer or wine? That's going back to [at least 7,000 BC , for China.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19916594",
"title": "Acetic acid",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Vinegar was known early in civilization as the natural result of exposure of beer and wine to air, because acetic acid-producing bacteria are present globally. The use of acetic acid in alchemy extends into the 3rd century BC, when the Greek philosopher Theophrastus described how vinegar acted on metals to produce pigments useful in art, including \"white lead\" (lead carbonate) and \"verdigris\", a green mixture of copper salts including copper(II) acetate. Ancient Romans boiled soured wine to produce a highly sweet syrup called \"sapa\". Sapa that was produced in lead pots was rich in lead acetate, a sweet substance also called \"sugar of lead\" or \"sugar of Saturn\", which contributed to lead poisoning among the Roman aristocracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33205478",
"title": "Zhenjiang Vinegar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Chinese legend ascribes the invention of the vinegar to Heita, a son of Dukang, one of the culture heroes credited with inventing alcoholic beverages in China's prehistory. Supposedly, Heita forgot a vat of wine for 21 days and, remembering it at dusk, found it pleasantly sour -- the legend is reflected upon the Chinese character 醋. Historical records for the present vinegar can be traced back 1400 years. The primary producer of Zhenjiang vinegar at present—the Jiangsu Hengshun Vinegar Industry Company—was established in 1840.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19916594",
"title": "Acetic acid",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Oxidative fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Nowadays, most vinegar is made in submerged tank culture, first described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method, alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is supplied by bubbling air through the solution. Using modern applications of this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 24 hours in batch process, even 20% in 60-hour fed-batch process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21697262",
"title": "Four thieves vinegar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Early recipes for this vinegar called for a number of herbs to be added into a vinegar solution and left to steep for several days. The following vinegar recipe hung in the Museum of Paris in 1937, and is said to have been an original copy of the recipe posted on the walls of Marseilles during an episode of the plague:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14195544",
"title": "Sarson's",
"section": "Section::::History and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The vinegar was first brewed by Thomas Sarson in 1794 from malt barley. James Thomas Sarson was a vinegar maker living at Brunswick Place, Shoreditch in 1841. Sales rocketed when his son Henry James Sarson took over. It was renamed \"Sarson's Virgin Vinegar\" in 1884, referencing a Biblical story of The Wise and Foolish Virgins, by which he was inspired, as opposed to the purity of the product, but this name was soon dropped. In 1893, the company was trading under the name of Henry Sarson and Sons from \"The Vinegar Works\", Catherine Street, City Road, Shoreditch, London. Two of Henry's sons, Henry Logsdail Sarson and Percival Stanley Sarson also joined the family business as vinegar brewers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21697262",
"title": "Four thieves vinegar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "This specific vinegar composition is said to have been used during the medieval period when the black death was happening to prevent the catching of this dreaded disease. Other similar types of herbal vinegars have been used as medicine since the time of Hippocrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40124",
"title": "Acetic acid bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Vinegar is produced when acetic acid bacteria act on alcoholic beverages such as wine. They are used to perform specific oxidation reactions through processes called “oxidative fermentations”, that creates vinegar as a byproduct. In the biotechnological industry, these bacterias' oxidation mechanism is exploited to produce a number of compounds such as l-ascorbic acid, dihydroxyacetone, gluconic acid, and cellulose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2oc4vz
|
When was the second first developed as a unit of time? Were there any areas where a different standard was used?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! I've got a pile of links for you, so settle in...\n\nFirst up, the FAQ has a couple of posts on [Hours, minutes, and seconds](_URL_11_)\n\nOrigins\n\n* [Has everyone always used a 24 hour day?](_URL_5_)\n\n* [As far as I can tell, nearly all of the world divides a day into 24 hours, each of which in turn divides into 60 minutes. When and how did this come about, and were there any radically different systems of time that we've now lost?](_URL_6_) - Sumeria, also China, Japan, Scandinavia\n\n* [How did people decide on how many seconds there would be in a minute, how many minutes in an hour, and how many hours in a day?](_URL_9_) - Babylon\n\n* [How/when did we develop measurements of time?](_URL_13_) - Babylon\n\n* [When did the hour-minute-second system of measuring time (in particular, using base 60) become the world standard, and what other ways of measuring times of less than one day have been common?](_URL_1_) - Babylon\n\n* [What is the history of time(keeping)?](_URL_3_) - Mesopotamia, also Mesoamerica\n\n* [When was our concept of time developed? How did other cultures in the past measure time? When did the world agree to the 24 hour day?](_URL_7_) - also Inuit\n\n* [How did an hour become an hour?](_URL_12_) - Europe\n\n* [In a world that can't agree on anything else, how did we all come to use hours, minutes and seconds?](_URL_0_)\n\nOther systems\n\n* [What were the common ways of time measurement in ancient Egypt and Mesopatamia?](_URL_10_) - Egypt\n\n* [Have we always used a 12 or 24 hour clock for measuring time? [x-post from /r/AskHistory]](_URL_2_) - Rome, China, Japan, Maya\n\n* [Did Far East Asia use the same standard units of time measurement (seconds, hours, days) that we use today?](_URL_4_) - China\n\n* [Did/Do native Americans have their own time system ?](_URL_8_) - Alaska\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26873",
"title": "Second",
"section": "Section::::History of definition.:Fraction of solar day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "In 1832, Gauss proposed using the second as the base unit of time in his millimeter-milligram-second system of units. The British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) in 1862 stated that \"All men of science are agreed to use the second of mean solar time as the unit of time.\" BAAS formally proposed the CGS system in 1874, although this system was gradually replaced over the next 70 years by MKS units. Both the CGS and MKS systems used the same second as their base unit of time. MKS was adopted internationally during the 1940s, defining the second as of a mean solar day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241342",
"title": "24-hour clock",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The 24-hour time system has its origins in the Egyptian astronomical system of decans, and has been used for centuries by scientists, astronomers, navigators, and horologists. In East Asia, time notation was 24-hour before westernization in modern times. Western-made clocks were changed into 12 dual-hours style when they were shipped to China in the Qing dynasty. There are many surviving examples of clocks built using the 24-hour system, including the famous Orloj in Prague, and the Shepherd Gate Clock at Greenwich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41835",
"title": "Universal Time",
"section": "Section::::Universal Time and standard time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Standard time, as originally proposed by Scottish-Canadian Sir Sandford Fleming in 1879, divided the world into twenty-four time zones, each one covering 15 degrees of longitude. All clocks within each zone would be set to the same time as the others, but differed by one hour from those in the neighboring zones. The local time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was announced as the recommended base reference for world time on 22 October 1884 at the end of the International Meridian Conference. This location was chosen because by 1884 two-thirds of all nautical charts and maps already used it as their prime meridian. The conference did not adopt Fleming's time zones because they were outside the purpose for which it was called, which was to choose a basis for universal time (as well as a prime meridian).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26873",
"title": "Second",
"section": "Section::::History of definition.:Fraction of solar day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The earliest mechanical clocks which appeared starting in the 14th century had displays that divided the hour into halves, thirds, quarters and sometimes even 12 parts, but never by 60. In fact, the hour was not commonly understood to be the duration of 60 minutes. It was not practical for timekeepers to consider minutes until the first mechanical clocks that displayed minutes appeared near the end of the 16th century. By that time, sexagesimal divisions of time were well established in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30890",
"title": "Time zone",
"section": "Section::::History.:Worldwide time zones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "Scottish-born Canadian Sir Sandford Fleming proposed a worldwide system of time zones in 1879. He advocated his system at several international conferences, and is credited with \"the initial effort that led to the adoption of the present time meridians\". In 1876, his first proposal was for a global 24-hour clock, conceptually located at the centre of the Earth and not linked to any surface meridian. In 1879 he specified that his universal day would begin at the anti-meridian of Greenwich (180th meridian), while conceding that hourly time zones might have some limited local use. He also proposed his system at the International Meridian Conference in October 1884, but it did not adopt his time zones because they were not within its purview. The conference did adopt a universal day of 24 hours beginning at Greenwich midnight, but specified that it \"shall not interfere with the use of local or standard time where desirable\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "480675",
"title": "History of time in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The history of standard time in the United States began November 18, 1883, when United States and Canadian railroads instituted standard time in time zones. Before then, time of day was a local matter, and most cities and towns used some form of local solar time, maintained by some well-known clock (for example, on a church steeple or in a jeweler's window). The new standard time system was not immediately embraced by all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33366803",
"title": "Introduction to the metric system",
"section": "Section::::Units.:Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "When the metric system was first introduced in 1795, all metric units could be defined by reference to the standard metre or to the standard kilogram. In 1832 Carl Friedrich Gauss, when making the first absolute measurements of the Earth's magnetic field, needed standard units of time alongside the units of length and mass. He chose the second (rather than the minute or the hour) as his unit of time, thereby implicitly making the second a base unit of the metric system. The hour and minute have however been \"accepted for use within SI\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sx9ji
|
When, how, and why did sports (in general) become such a high-dollar enterprise in the United States?
|
[
{
"answer": "( I'm typing this on my phone, so please excuse any grammar/spelling mistakes)\n\nAlthough I'm not an expert, I would have to guess this happened around the late 1800s/early 1900s. During this time Americans disposable incomes and leisure time increased due to achievements by unions and other average Americans. Major league sports was a new way to pass the time. The earliest specific example of major-league organized sports would be (Vincent?) Spaulding, the baseball magnate after whom his baseball brand was named. He was the first to realize how much money could be made in organized sports, and his league included teams like the Black Sox.\n\nSports entertainment became really popular because it was a cheap alternative to things like going to the opera, museums etc.. So it appealed to many poor/working class people. It was a way to relax on the weekend after a long week of manual labor. To cater to this crowd, games were made to be a lot more rowdier and beer was sold at events. Later, to make baseball appear to more rich folks, the stuff I mentioned before was removed from games.\n\nAlso, speaking about other countries, I cant really think of any example of major organized sports before my previous example. I would guess that with increasing Americanization around the world, American culture seeped into foreign cultures, and sports was a part of it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7161167",
"title": "American football in the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::1985 - 1989: Dutch competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Many factors combined to produce an explosive growth in this new sport which had been imported from the United States. The number of teams grew from 8 in 1985 to around 40 by the end of the 1980s. In addition, the teams from larger cities were able to professionalise further by obtaining large sponsors, attracted by the freshness of the sport and the considerable media attention both in the TV and press, which enabled them to hire American players and coaches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35700682",
"title": "Professional sports in the Western United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41195713",
"title": "International Hat Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:First location and early company history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "On the macroeconomic level, the company was founded at a time of ascendance for the United States. In 1916, the United States economic output, for the first time in history, was greater than that of the British Empire, establishing the United States as the world's largest economic superpower. From World War I to the beginnings of the Great Depression, it was under these economic environmental conditions that the company originally produced a product line of harvest hats. Such hats of the period were a staple of farmers and field hands across the US. By the 1920s, St. Louis replaced New England as the world's dominant manufacturing center for harvest hats. International Harvest Hat was a major contributor to this regional shift in industrialization. By the early 1920s, the company had become the largest industrial producer of harvest hats in the world. In 1928, the company produced over 36,000 per day and approximately 9.4 million harvest hats per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6137001",
"title": "California hide trade",
"section": "Section::::International political ramifications and multicultural interactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Though many nations including Russia and the United Kingdom came and traded along the California coastline at major ports, contributing to this economic growth, the United States became the most influential. American trade initially began with sailors from New England, who found an interest in the California otter and seal skins industry which diminished in prominence rapidly after the beginning of the nineteenth century. As hides and tallow replaced seals and otters as the primary products of commerce, corporations such as John Begg and Company of the United Kingdom and Bryant and Sturgis, William Appleton and Company, and Marshall and Wildes of Boston began to demonstrate a vested interest in the hide trade. The John Begg and Company representatives Hugh McCullough and William Hartnell were able to ensure British influence in the trade for three years beginning in 1822, the de facto first year of the enterprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1610496",
"title": "Economic history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Late 19th century.:Commerce, industry and agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 247,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 247,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "In the last third of the 19th century the United States entered a phase of rapid economic growth which doubled per capita income over the period. By 1895, the United States leaped ahead of Britain for first place in manufacturing output. For the first time, exports of machinery and consumer goods became important. For example, Standard Oil led the way in exporting kerosene; Russia was its main rival in international trade. Singer Corporation led the way in developing a global marketing strategy for its sewing machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21977638",
"title": "United States Baseball League",
"section": "Section::::History.:Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Many sports historians view the U.S. Baseball League as \"a major precursor to the Federal League of 1914–1915\". The Federal League, which was the last independent major league, was financed by magnates including oil \"baron\" Harry F. Sinclair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52613646",
"title": "Globalization of sports",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Later on, globalization of sports was fueled by the expansion of technology and the introduction of commercial aspects to sports. On one hand newspaper, radio and especially television exposed sports to the wider international audience (first FIFA World Cup was televised in 1956 and first Summer Olympics in 1960), on the other commercial advertising allowed to profit from them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7mt07q
|
after showers, whenever i rub my skin i get rolls of dirt/dead skin cells. why is this?
|
[
{
"answer": "You need to exfoliate better. Or shower more often. Grab a wash cloth or loofa and wash, don't just use your hands.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(disclaimer: I'm no scientist.) Your skin regenerates/replaces itself every 27 days, that means, shedding off old skin cells, and replacing them with new ones. Your entire body does that, just not as fast as your skin does, as its constantly in touch with the outside world. If you dislike your dead skin cells, consider buying something to scrub your body while showering.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3202287",
"title": "Darier's sign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In general, the skin becomes swollen, itchy and red. This is a result of compression of mast cells, which are hyperactive in these diseases. These mast cells release inflammatory granules which contain histamine. It is the histamine which is responsible for the response seen after rubbing the lesional skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58394",
"title": "Narconon",
"section": "Section::::Drug rehabilitation program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "David Root, an occupational medicine practitioner and a member of the Narconon Scientific Advisory Board, defended the program’s validity. He told the San Francisco Chronicle in 1991 that drugs and other poisons “come out through the skin in the form of sebaceous, or fatty, sweat. The material is frequently visible and drips, or is rubbed off on towels.” This apparently explains the need for “daily doses of vitamins, minerals, and oils, including niacin.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10088683",
"title": "Aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly",
"section": "Section::::Clothing stains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "When mixed with sweat, aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly is known to stain clothing with a yellowish tint. It can also cause a stiffening of the affected areas of clothing. These stains can be removed with the application of vinegar or a mild bleach. If excessive amounts of aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly mixed with sweat come in contact with a material, bleach marks may develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2887977",
"title": "Sleepsack (BDSM)",
"section": "Section::::Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Rubber sleepsacks do not disperse moisture at all. For this reason hydration is a very important consideration for people who spend any amount of time in a rubber sleepsack. Sweating can often be profuse even if the occupant is only lying inside it. All fluids from the body accumulate in the sack, which also makes the rubber sleepsack a choice for those who are also have a urination fetish. Rubber sleepsacks are easy to clean as they can simply be rinsed with water. Sweat leaking out from the neck, as well as through any zippers along the sack, can often occur while lying flat and should be a consideration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6624732",
"title": "McGhee v National Coal Board",
"section": "Section::::Facts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "James McGhee was employed to clean out brick kilns and developed dermatitis from the accumulation of coal dust on his skin. Because there were no shower facilities at his workplace, he would cycle home each day, increasing the risk he would contract dermatitis. Had his employer provided shower facilities, the coal dust could have been washed off before cycling, reducing the risk of contracting dermatitis. Due to the limits of scientific knowledge, it was impossible to rule out the possibility that he hadn't contracted dermatitis during the non-wrongful exposure to brick dust while working in the kiln.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429437",
"title": "Waterbed",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.:Regarding usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Another advantage of a waterbed is its easy cleaning. It is impossible for dirt and dead skin particles to penetrate the water mattress, which can then be wiped periodically with a cloth and vinyl cleaner. The cover over the mattress can be regularly washed—thus virtually eliminating house dust mites in the bed. Dust mites can trigger asthma, eczema, and allergies in people sensitive to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "732173",
"title": "Cellulitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Cellulitis is caused by a type of bacteria entering the skin, usually by way of a cut, abrasion, or break in the skin. This break does not need to be visible. Group A \"Streptococcus\" and \"Staphylococcus\" are the most common of these bacteria, which are part of the normal flora of the skin, but normally cause no actual infection while on the skin's outer surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6fqopp
|
why does 25 mph on a bicycle seem so much faster than in a car?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because you don't have metal/plastic guarding your body. You can feel the force of the wind completely. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I credit being closer to the ground makes it feel like you are going faster. Going even 15mph on a bike vs a skate board is a noticeable difference. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's mostly because you have less clutter in your vision, so you experience motion from whole the field of your view, and also because you're a bit closer to the ground. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you're on a bike not in a box that shields you from outside elements which force your awareness of the speed (wind, closeness to the ground).\n\nIs this question for real?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A car is designed to insulate you from the noise, wind and bumps, on a bike you get to feel all of it- which is scary and awesome. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You feel like you're going extremely fast on a bike because you *feel* more.\n\nCars have very well developed suspension systems that \"even out\" the bumps on the road. As long as you're not dealing with a serious pothole or a speed-bump, the car's suspension is going to face-tank most of the shock so that you don't have to. Larger tires can also take some of the shock out of the road, but it's not as effective. Bikes generally *don't* have awesome suspension, and tires of *comparable* size. That means that you feel every bump in the road, or close enough to every bump in the road as not to matter.\n\nBeyond that, cars are enclosed capsules. Your body's perception of \"speed\" relies on three things: what you see with your eyes, what your inner-ear feels, and what your skin feels. When you're on a bike, you can feel the wind running over your body. That allows you to \"feel\" your speed when you aren't accelerating or slowing down. Your eyes give you a sense of speed, but the brain is pretty good at filtering out unwanted implications from the eyes.\n\n > Side Note\n\n > The Inner Ear mostly just registers acceleration, for the purposes of this conversation. It picks up when you speed up, or when you slow down. It's also a part of your sense of balance, but that's not too crucial to note in this situation.\n\nIt's basically a combination of being able to feel the wind, and the poor shock-absorption.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Velocitation, why a roller coaster feels crazy fast at 55MPH but you do 75MPH routinely while driving and feels slow. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So why does a boat feel so fast when in fact it's actually quite slow when compared to a car doing same speed?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Comfort. Drive a car manufactured in 1985 going at 60MPH, then drive the same model of car, manufactured in 2015 at 60MPH. And just because of the comfort level increase (from both internal & external forces) it'll feel a lot slower going in the newer model. Commercial airlines feel slow and they're travelling much faster than cars. You see less, you feel less, you're more comfortable. The more comfortable it feels, the slower it feels. \n\n-\n\nComment is based on experiences, not entirely sure if factual. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Amateur cyclist here. I'm sure part of the \"seem,\" has to do with the stopping distance/time. Your body and brain have a fear instinct that will kick in at speeds that would harm you. You can stop pretty much instantly up to 10mph. Above that you have to slow down a little bit more gradually. \n \nYou get desensitized to it in cars because you spend so much time in them. If you brought people from two centuries ago into our timeline and put them in a 75mph car, they would be *terrified.* \n \nWhen I'm at my top speed cycling, I definitely have to be paying close attention to the roadway. Even a seemingly small bump can really hurt and potentially throw you off course. You also have to use your back brake first and then your front on so you don't throw yourself over the handlebars. Remember - there are no seat belts on a bike! \n \nEdit: Like I said, amateur. Apparently people think I'm supposed to use the front brake first and with more pressure. I'll try it. But that is not OPs question, and I stand by the stopping distance and perception statements.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I bought my first nice car (Audi A7), it was so much smoother than my previous car that I initially would find myself going 80 mph when I thought I was doing more like 50.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nobody has mentioned the actual reason yet. [Parallax](_URL_0_). \n\nAs you travel, objects near you appear to be traveling at a much higher rate of speed than objects further away. On a bike, you can view the apparent speed of objects very close to you, especially the ground. They seem to be whipping by. In a car, the doors and floor and body prevent you from seeing the ground below or immediately in front of you. Your vision is restricted to things that are higher up and further away, like trees and buildings and traffic lights, which appear to be moving much more slowly. \n\nEdit: obligatory RIP inbox. \n\nAnd to the doubters--sure, wind and danger play a role. But why do you think [this scene](_URL_1_) was set in a forest?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Next time you're going 25 mph stick your body as far out of the window as you can and see how it feels.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(In David Attenborough's voice) Conversely, 25mph seems exorbitantly slow on a similar-but-different mode of transportation, the \"motorcycle\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why does 550MPH in a car seem so much faster than in a plane?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "2 Main Reasons:\n\n 1. In the car some of your senses are not feeling the speed as they should. (Wind on the skin, wind sound, bumps and surface abnormalities (better shock absorbers on a car), and turning acceleration (also in a car the absorbers minimize the acceleration you feel))\n 2. An effect called [Parallax](_URL_0_). On 2 wheels you focus more on the road just ahead of you, while on the car you look on the car that is in front of you, other obstacles in order to break in time. This effect also explains why we don't feel the speed (500 to 600 MPH) on passenger jets while being on car with speed will be terrifying. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "After you drive in a car 150mph and then slow down back to 90, it feels like you're walking.\n\nIf you drove your bike at 50 for a few minutes and slowed down to 25, it then would feel slow.\n\nFor me 25 feel fast in a car too, the moment I start driving in the morning, but after I've driven for a few minutes at higher speeds, 25 feels very slow. And If I have to take the high way and drive 90 then the first minute or so feels super fast and scary too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't believe parallax is the reason for this. If you were to run at 25mph, thus not having anything blocking your view, I'm certain that you would feel like you are going faster then on a bike/car.\n\nI believe this has more to do with the size of the object traveling at speed. Let's take short distance, like, 500 meters, each object is traveling at the same speed, however the multiplication of the size of the object to cover that distance is very different. For example a it would take about 100 car lengths to travel that distance, whereas it would take 200 bikelengths to cover the same distance. Just imagine a ant and a train both going 25 mph (yes, ridiculous for the ant, but it's just the idea), they will both be going the same speed, but because train is big and long, it won't appear to be going as fast, whereas a ant would.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because in a car you'll rarely go any slower than that. On the bike you rarely go any faster than that. It's 100% perspective related.\n\nFor example I recently drove on the autobahn for the first time. I topped 260 km/h many times. But then suddenly they'll introduce an 80 speed limit and you seriously feel like you're standing still.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its mostly psycological, and has already been pointed to you its about how you feel about it.\n\nI wanted to point, as anecdote, I had the chance of having my first driving car to be my moms car, which was my age at the time (19 years old when I was 19). This was a cheap citroen AX, stripped out of everything model my parents used to move within the city, because it was easier to park. The kind of car they advertise in a sale and then they try to upsell you to the actual car with things. This car was so basic it lacked comodities such as backseat headrests or seatbelts.\n\nThe suspension was crap, the car would tilt awfuly to the sides whenever you took a curve, the motor was only 51Hp but you wouldn't notice the lack of power because the thing weighted less than half ton (less than 1000lbs, in barbarian units), this thing accelerated like the flash, the top speed was crap, you might get to 140Km/h (87MPH) on a down slope long enough, but it wouldnt matter, because this thing was already terrifying to drive at barely 80km/h (50MPH), the engine giving its best made the whole car vibrate like it was going to fall apart, so bad the dashboard had cuts everywhere because it just couldnt hold itself.\n\nSame road in my dad's car I could easily go top speed (120km/h) without feeling like I was going to die.\n\nHow comfortable the ride is and the amount of security it does its what does the trick. Thats why also you feel faster doing 25MPH in a bicycle, but doesn't feel as fast if you are riding a motorbike (as lon gas it isn't a crappy one, like my mom's car).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Motorcyclist here. I believe you get more comfortable with speed. I remember 40mph felt like reckless speed and now twice as fast is effortless.\n\nFWIW, I ride a bicycle too and the same thing happened. Without all the motorcycle gear, riding a bicycle felt like I was naked while straddling a rickety fence. Even though I was riding a much slower speed, it felt fast and dangerous because I was aware of how vulnerable I was.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically there is a part of the brain the measures how close to dying you are. So in a car it's not really activated, but on a bike it's all, \"DONT FUCK UP DONT FUCK UP.\"\n\nI was worried someone would read this and take it seriously, but then I calmed down. No one will read it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a car you manly feel the speed of you with respect to the car (your reference frame), wich is 0 MPH. In addition, you see the world go by the car fast. (And you feel a littlebit of shaking and acceleration)\n\nOn a bike you feel the speed of you with respect to the world. This is because you are not in a closed room.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You notice, how when you're driving the closer objects seem to move faster relative to you...\nWhen you're on a bike, the closest thing is the ground, but when you're in a car, there is nothing as close as this visible to you, hence, all the movement you can see can never seem as rapid as on a bike.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one has mentioned that our (the US at least) road systems are an enormous illusion to try to keep you from being terrified. For example, how long do the lane lines look? 2ft? They are [10 feet long](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I ride a motorcycle, and at first I noticed that I'd give it a little power and 40MPH felt like hyper speed. Just going the speed limit on the road, even though I wasn't flying by cars, it really felt like it. I'm thinking with a bicycle, it could be peddling using all that energy it might feel like it's faster. (I'm not sure, of course) But I agree with other motorcyclists - now 120-150MPH feels effortless to maintain. You get used to the speed and all the wind pushing you. I remember riding with one hand on my motorcycle felt really weird/uncomfortable even at low speeds and now I kinda just cruise at 70-80 MPH on the highway with one hand. \n\nEDIT: I would never break the law by speeding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Direct wind resistance, and maybe a time-conditioned understanding of control.\n\nThe latter is more relevant when you compare a motorbike/scooter v bicycle\n\nBecause you've spent more time on a motor vehicle and at much higher speeds, your body kind of knows the ceiling speed. And is conditioned to handle it. Additionally, your control of the vehicle via the brakes is also much more responsive. So you're probably more comfortable going 40 on a bike than 25 on a cycle.\n\nVisualise it this way, at the exact same speed 25mph you're going downhill and you see a car coming into your path from out of sight. And you reactively hit the brakes. On the bike it's almost effortless, as your muscles clench up and you come to a steady halt. But with a bicycles brakes you have lesser control, and you may even skid and and on your ass or fail to stop in time",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess nobody said that yet:\n\nIn a car you usually drive way faster than 25mph. \n\nYou're used to the car doing way above 25mph so when sitting in the car 25mph is slow. \nThat was funnily the thing with the (very) early trains. People never experienced such speeds so it was really really fast to them. \n\nAnd the thing with the bicycle... 25mph is on the top end of speed possible with bikes. You've rarely been faster on a bike so you're not used to it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Been riding bike for about 15 years now for exercise and fun.\n\nThe way I usually portray the \"dangerous feeling\" is you are in a metal box that protects you and you can't really see the road zooming by. By that I mean the actual pavement below you.\n\nNext time you are in a car (in a safe place) open the door at 25mph, and stick your head out so you can see how fast you are traversing over the pavement/road. I bet you'll forget for a split second how safe you feel until you close the door again.\n\nThat plus the fear of tipping over isn't as present in most cars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A book I just finished sums this up. It's remotely relatable and I'll never forget this quote. \n\"In a car you're always in a compartment, and because youre used to it you don't realize that through that car window everything you see is just more TV. You're a passive observer and it is all moving by you boringly in a frame. \n\nOn a cycle the frame is gone. You're completely in contact with it all. You're in the scene, not just watching it anymore, and the sense of presence is overwhelming.\"\n\n\"You're in the scene\".. I just love that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always felt it was an anxiety related issue. \n\nOn a flimsy bike with no protective shell going 25 miles per hour could easily kill you if you fell.\n\nSitting inside 3000 pounds of metal and plastic going 25 miles an hour just inherently feels a lot safer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a car you have the surrounding static environment and distance from objects to alter the \"feeling\" of speed. On a bike you are in the open, able to see the ground and your environment moving quickly without interference.\n\nThis is not science based but rather my experience as a car driver and motorcycle rider.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bicycle is less polygons so it renders screen faster which means faster frame rates and time perception.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9848870",
"title": "Energy efficiency in transport",
"section": "Section::::Land transport means.:Bicycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "A standard lightweight, moderate-speed bicycle is one of the most energy-efficient forms of transport. Compared with walking, a cyclist riding at requires about half the food energy per unit distance: 27 kcal/km, per 100 km, or 43 kcal/mi. This converts to about . This means that a bicycle will use between 10-25 times less energy per distance traveled than a personal car, depending on fuel source and size of the car. This figure does depend on the speed and mass of the rider: greater speeds give higher air drag and heavier riders consume more energy per unit distance. In addition, because bicycles are very lightweight (usually between 7–15 kg) this means they consume very low amounts of materials and energy to manufacture. In comparison to an automobile weighing 1500 kg or more, a bicycle typically requires 100-200 times less energy to produce than an automobile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "972955",
"title": "Single-speed bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Vis-à-vis multi-speed bicycles.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "As the single-speed bicycle lacks alternative gearing ratios, it is less versatile, as it cannot be pedaled efficiently outside of its single gearing range. Without lower gearing options, the single speed bicycle is generally more difficult to pedal uphill. Conversely, its dedicated gear ratio also limits top speed, and is slower than a multi-geared bicycle on flat or descending terrain once bicycle speed exceeds the rider's ability to maintain continuing increases in \"cadence\" (pedaling revolutions per minute), typically 85–110 rpm. Compared to a fixed-gear bicycle, a singlespeed is easier to ride downhill and around corners (the inside pedal can be kept up to avoid grounding). However, it does not help the rider pedal around the dead centres like a fixed gear, nor does it allow the fine speed control or easy trackstands that a fixed gear permits. The pawls of a dirty and unmaintained freewheel can also clog, leaving the rider with no drive; this is impossible on a \"fixie\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364446",
"title": "Feet forwards motorcycle",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "BULLET::::- Performance - Journey times - a car is generally a lot slower than a motorcycle for city journeys due to congestion. A greater percentage of weight redistribution to counter directional momentum is available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28982091",
"title": "Motor-paced racing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Motor-paced racing and motor-paced cycling refer to cycling behind a pacer in a car or more usually on a motorcycle. The cyclist follows as close as they can to benefit from the slipstream of their pacer. The first paced races were behind other cyclists, sometimes as many as five riders on the same tandem. Bordeaux-Paris and record attempts have been ridden behind cars. More usually races or training are behind motorcycles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "972955",
"title": "Single-speed bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Types of single-speed bicycles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "While track bicycles are always single speed, mountain bicycles, road bicycles, cyclo-cross bicycles, and hybrid bicycles can be made as or changed into a single speed. Mountain bike single speeds designed for trail riding often have a relatively low, or easy and slow, gear ratio. This allows them to climb hills and deal with obstacles and gradients better. This typically requires the rider to be more fit or skilled than the average rider in order to traverse the same terrain. Single speed bicycles designed for road riding typically have higher, or harder and faster, gear ratios.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58271116",
"title": "Dodge Viper (SR I)",
"section": "Section::::Specifications and performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The car is able to accelerate from in 4.6 seconds, in 9.2 seconds, completes a quarter mile (402 m) in 12.6 seconds at the speed of and has a maximum speed of . Its large tires allowed the car to average 0.96 lateral \"g\" in corners, which placed it among the best performance cars of its day, however, the car proved tricky for the unskilled drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3219409",
"title": "Motorcycling",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for riding a motorcycle.:Speed appeal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Speed draws many people to motorcycling because the power-to-weight ratio of even a low-power motorcycle is in league with that of an expensive sports car. The power-to-weight ratio of many modestly priced sport bikes is well beyond any mass-market automobile and rivals that of supercars for a fraction of the price. The fastest accelerating production cars, capable of in under 3.5 seconds, or in under 12 seconds is a relatively select club of exotic names like Porsche and Lamborghini, with a few extreme sub-models of popular sports cars, like the Shelby Mustang, and mostly made since the 1990s. Conversely, the fastest accelerating motorcycles meeting the same criteria is a much longer list and includes many non-sportbikes, such as the Triumph Tiger Explorer or Yamaha XT1200Z Super Ténéré, and includes many motorcycles dating back to the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4zxyqc
|
Zion Harvey got a double hand transplant at 9 years old. Will his hands continue to grow along with the rest of his anatomy as he ages?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes the cells will keep working normally and normal physiological growth is expected. Abnormal groiwth is also relatively common (please correct me) due to post transplant medication that supresses the immune system thus not stopping some spurs of organ/limb growth that medication would normally stop.\n\nPS: I'm by all means not an expert. This was a fact I know due to a friend who has received a transplant, and honestly, I asked him the same question...\n\nWhich (specifically talking about hand transplant here) DNA is in the hands? With skin being able to regenerate, I'm not sure. The hosts or the donor DNA?\n\n:)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "902715",
"title": "Hand transplantation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "On July 28, 2015, doctors at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia performed the first successful bilateral hand transplant on a child. At the age of 2, Zion Harvey lost his hands and feet to a life-threatening infection. Six years later, at age 8, he had both of his hands replaced in a double hand transplant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902715",
"title": "Hand transplantation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1306,
"text": "On October 26, 2016, the Director of hand transplantation at UCLA, Dr. Kodi Azari, and his team, performed a hand transplant on 51-year-old entertainment executive from Los Angeles, Jonathan Koch at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. Koch underwent a 17-hour procedure to replace his left hand, which he lost to a mysterious, life-threatening illness that struck him in January 2015. On June 23, 2015, Koch had the amputation surgery, also performed by Dr. Kodi Azari, which was designed to prep him to receive a transplanted limb. This included severing the left hand closer to the wrist than the elbow. Azari kept all the nerves and tendons long and extended, which would give him plenty to work with later. Then he sutured them together and attached them to the stump of bone to keep them from retracting. This is the first known hand transplant case in which the hand was amputated in preparation for a hand transplant, as opposed to previous hand transplant patients who have undergone typical amputation surgeries. Azari's theory about prepping the hand for a transplant during the initial amputation surgery would later be supported by Koch when he was able to move his thumb only two hours after he woke up from the 17-hour transplant surgery and move his entire hand only two days after surgery. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902715",
"title": "Hand transplantation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "On December 27, 2012, 51-year-old Mark Cahill received a right hand transplant at Leeds General Infirmary in the UK. The recipient's hand was removed during the same 8 hour operation, reportedly allowing very accurate restoration of nerve structures, believed to be an international first.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56540663",
"title": "Jonathan Koch (producer)",
"section": "Section::::Hand Transplant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "He spent the next 18 months rebuilding with several painful surgeries, multiple prosthetic fittings, and endless rehabilitation appointments. But day after day, he exceeded his doctors’ expectations. One doctor in particular, a pioneering surgeon, recognized that Jonathan carried the mental and physical strength to successfully receive a human hand transplant. One year later, Jonathan Koch made medical history when he received a revolutionary, first of its kind, experimental hand transplant. Usually, it takes several years to learn how to use a new hand. Not with Jonathan. Four months later, he was back on the tennis court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902715",
"title": "Hand transplantation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "The first hand transplant to achieve prolonged success was directed by a team of Kleinert Kutz Hand Care surgeons including Warren C. Breidenbach, Tsu-Min Tsai, Luis Scheker, Steven McCabe, Amitava Gupta, Russell Shatford, William O'Neill, Martin Favetto and Michael Moskal in cooperation with the Christine M. Kleinert Institute, Jewish Hospital and the University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky. The procedure was performed on New Jersey native Matthew Scott on January 14, 1999. Scott had lost his hand in a fireworks accident at age 24. Later in 1999, the Philadelphia Phillies baseball team asked him to do the honors of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch. The Louisville group went on to perform the first five hand transplants in the United States and have performed 12 hand transplants in ten recipients as of 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902715",
"title": "Hand transplantation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "On January 13, 2015, doctors at the Kochi-based Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre (AIMS) successfully conducted India's first hand transplant. A 30-year-old man, who had lost both his hands in a train accident, received the hands of a 24-year-old accident victim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36909853",
"title": "Warren C. Breidenbach",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Warren C. Breidenbach III (born California) is an American hand surgeon most well known for having performed the first long-term successful hand transplant surgery in the world at Jewish Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky. The surgery was performed by Breidenbach and hand surgeon, Tsu-Min Tsai, both of Kleinert, Kutz and Associates Hand Care Center, leading a team of surgeons to attach a donor left hand to replace New Jersey native Matthew Scott's left hand. The Louisville hand surgery team went on to perform additional hand transplants between 1999 and 2011, when Breidenbach relocated to the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona to start a Composite Tissue Allotransplantation center at the university's medical center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6e8ysm
|
where did trigonometric functions come from? and why do they work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Trigonometric functions were developed by various ancient cultures, mostly dealing with measuring astronomic phenomenon which requires dealing with angles and triangles and such.\n\nBasically, we had a certain set of questions (if you know the sides of a triangle how to calculate its angles, and vice versa) that trigonometric functions were developed to answer.\n\nDifferent cultures tackled the problem differently. For example, Euclid and Archimedes used various geometric proofs to get the same answer.\n\nUltimately, mathematicians developed tables. They drew various triangles of various shapes, measured the sides and angles and wrote down what all the answers were.\n\nThe \"table\" method is what was basically used under modern day calculators came about. Before then, if you wanted to know the sine of an angle, you measured the angle, then looked the answer up in a table in a book.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They come from the [unit circle](_URL_1_).\n\nTake a circle of radius 1, and then draw a line from the center to some point on the circle. That line will make some angle with the x axis. Every trig function is just a way to say something about that line, based on that angle.\n\nFor example, the simplest ones are sin and cos. These are the y- and x-coordinates of the point where your line hits the circle. At an angle of zero (horizontal), your line intersects the circle at (1,0). Thus cos(0) = 1, sin(0)=0. And so on. It's all just geometry.\n\nYou can see a diagram of all these geometric definitions in [this diagram](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30367",
"title": "Trigonometric functions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions, angle functions or goniometric functions) are real functions which relate an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios of two side lengths. They are widely used in all sciences that are related to geometry, such as navigation, solid mechanics, celestial mechanics, geodesy, and many others. They are among the simplest periodic functions, and as such are also widely used for studying periodic phenomena, through Fourier analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30367",
"title": "Trigonometric functions",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "All six trigonometric functions in current use were known in Islamic mathematics by the 9th century, as was the law of sines, used in solving triangles. Al-Khwārizmī produced tables of sines, cosines and tangents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18717261",
"title": "Trigonometry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Trigonometry (from Greek \"trigōnon\", \"triangle\" and \"metron\", \"measure\") is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships between side lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies. In particular, 3rd-century astronomers first noted that the ratio of the lengths of two sides of a right-angled triangle depends only on one acute angle of the triangle. These dependencies are now called trigonometric functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30367",
"title": "Trigonometric functions",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "While the early study of trigonometry can be traced to antiquity, the trigonometric functions as they are in use today were developed in the medieval period. The chord function was discovered by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180–125 BCE) and Ptolemy of Roman Egypt (90–165 CE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1775329",
"title": "Elementary mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Strands of Elementary Mathematics.:Slopes and trigonometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6785051",
"title": "History of trigonometry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Systematic study of trigonometric functions began in Hellenistic mathematics, reaching India as part of Hellenistic astronomy. In Indian astronomy, the study of trigonometric functions flourished in the Gupta period, especially due to Aryabhata (sixth century CE), who discovered the sine function. During the Middle Ages, the study of trigonometry continued in Islamic mathematics, by mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi and Abu al-Wafa. It became an independent discipline in the Islamic world, where all six trigonometric functions were known. Translations of Arabic and Greek texts led to trigonometry being adopted as a subject in the Latin West beginning in the Renaissance with Regiomontanus. The development of modern trigonometry shifted during the western Age of Enlightenment, beginning with 17th-century mathematics (Isaac Newton and James Stirling) and reaching its modern form with Leonhard Euler (1748).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6785051",
"title": "History of trigonometry",
"section": "Section::::Development.:European renaissance and afterwards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The \"Opus palatinum de triangulis\" of Georg Joachim Rheticus, a student of Copernicus, was probably the first in Europe to define trigonometric functions directly in terms of right triangles instead of circles, with tables for all six trigonometric functions; this work was finished by Rheticus' student Valentin Otho in 1596.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27kpp9
|
what happened to telescoping fm antennas on cars?
|
[
{
"answer": "None. The smaller antennas are less efficient. In other words, if you drive an 87 Cutlass out of a city for 75 miles, you might still be getting some of the radio stations. If you drive a 2014 Santa Fe out of a city, you might lose that city's stations at 60 miles.\n\nBut, with more in-car entertainment options since the 80s, the radio is a less important piece of the car for owner satisfaction. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most new cars embed them inside the windshield or rear window which gives them a much better and bigger area of reception. The wire used is nearly invisible to the eye and you don't have to worry about a motor burning out or breaking it in the car wash as with the telescoping ones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Better/cheaper amplifiers combined with cheaper ways to etch antennae into glass.\n\nThe antennae in new cars are either embedded into one of the windows (sometimes the front, sometimes the back, sometimes a rear side window in wagons/SUVs, sometimes more than one of these places) or are contained in a small pod (e.g. the little \"sharkfin\" thing above the rear window on new BMWs). However, becasue these antennae are slightly less efficient, they need an amplifier to boost their signal. \n\nWhile this was possible before (for example the Porsche 944 had its antenna embedded into the front windshield back in 1985), it was expensive because the amplifier wasn't cheap back then, and because the technology of the time required that the antenna be sandwiched between two layers of glass which greatly increased the cost of the windshield.\n\nWith better technology, the costs associated with building these hidden/embedded antennae are smaller, as are the costs of having the amplifier for the antenna's signal. Newer antenna amplifiers also do a better job of boosting only the signal and not the \"noise\" as well, which makes them more reasonable choices too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1436547",
"title": "DMC DeLorean",
"section": "Section::::Production changes.:Other changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The first 2,200 cars produced used a windshield-embedded antenna. This type of antenna proved to be unsuitable with poor radio reception. Oftentimes the radio would continually \"seek\", attempting to find a signal. A standard whip antenna, which was later changed to a manually retractable antenna, was added to the outside of the front right fender. While improving radio reception, this resulted in a hole in the stainless steel, and an unsightly antenna. As a result, the antenna was again moved. The final antenna was an automatic retractable version installed under the rear induction grill behind the rear driver's-side window.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29173151",
"title": "Bird Technologies",
"section": "Section::::Model 43 Thruline Directional Wattmeter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "In the 1970s, the mobile radio had advanced from the trunk of the car to the car's front interior. The Model 43 was still used in the same capacity of testing the RF output and matching the transmitter to the antenna. However, the new interior position of the mobile radio, and the existing rear antenna position required a longer transmission line. This still provided easy access to test and measure the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9551008",
"title": "Robert Adler",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to the remote control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "A system based on radio waves was briefly considered but rejected because the signals could easily travel through walls and could inadvertently change the channel on a neighbor's television. Furthermore, the marketing people at Zenith desired a remote control which did not require batteries, as it was perceived at the time that if the battery died, the customer might think something was wrong with the television set itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4773858",
"title": "WJAC-TV",
"section": "Section::::Digital television.:Analog-to-digital conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Because the audio portion of VHF channel 6 was transmitted at 87.75 MHz, it was possible to listen to the television station on most FM car radios (or any standard FM radio for that matter). This was a feature frequently employed by area residents. However, this is no longer an option after the digital conversion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29173151",
"title": "Bird Technologies",
"section": "Section::::Model 43 Thruline Directional Wattmeter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "In the 1960s the mobile radio had the majority of its components stored in the trunk of a car and was comparable in size to a microwave oven. A Model 43 wattmeter was used to test the power output of the two-way mobile radio transmitter and to match it to an antenna most commonly mounted on the trunk. The transmission line to the antenna was very short providing easy access to the equipment which in turn made measuring the equipment convenient. Additionally, the same wattmeter was used to measure the RF power in the operational base station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1056585",
"title": "Improved Mobile Telephone Service",
"section": "Section::::Technical Information.:Terminal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "The mobile antennas almost always required a hole to be drilled in the body of the car to mount the antenna in; until the 1970s there were no \"on-glass\" antennas - these were developed later for the cellular car-mounted telephones. These whip antennas looked much like those used for CB radios and were about 19 in. long (1/4 wavelength at 155 MHz). These mobile telephone systems required a large amount of power (10 to 15 amperes at 12 volts) and this was supplied by thick power cabling connected directly to the automobile's battery. It therefore was quite possible and not uncommon for an IMTS telephone to drain an automobile's battery if used for moderate periods of time without the automobile engine running or if left on overnight. Optionally these units were also connected to the car's horn and could honk the horn as a ringer to summon a user who was away from the car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1312416",
"title": "WRGB",
"section": "Section::::History.:FM audio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "As WRGB has returned to channel 6, it has proposed an unconventional approach, by which it has requested to operate an analog FM radio transmitter at one edge of its digital TV allocation, using vertical polarization to retain compatibility with standard broadcast car radio receivers. According to WRGB's site, \"We hope that the FCC will allow us to continue to operate on 87.7. We are building a unique transmitter for 87.7 that can operate simultaneously with our DTV signal on channel 6. TV transmissions always use horizontal antennas. Our new 87.7 transmitter will be vertically polarized. The use of vertical polarization for 87.7 will allow reception of our audio in a car radio or any other FM radio with a whip type antenna. \"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gqi65
|
if heat rises up, why does global warming occur instead of the heat just dissipating through outer space?
|
[
{
"answer": "global warming is the buildup of gasses that PREVENT exactly what you are talking about (heat dissipating up, its called albido). These gasses act like a mirror pointed back at earth, reflecting said heat back into the system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its not that heat rises its that hot air rises, because it becomes less dense than the cooler air around it.\n\nAlso the heat cant easily dissipate into outer space because as you know space is a vacuum, therefor not much for the heat to pass into. If space was completely full of some dense gas I suppose that would be a different story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3545917",
"title": "Masonry oven",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Thermodynamics of insulating masonry ovens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Here on earth, the sun delivers lots of bounce, and the atmosphere surrounds it with a wall that reflects the energy back in. In outer space, however, there’s nothing — a vacuum — and the bounce all disappears very quickly, leaving very little moving. Lack of motion means little heat, and almost no transfer — very cold. Closer to home, if you wrap your hot coffee in a thermos — a hollow cylinder with all the air sucked out of it — there’s also very little in the way of excitable particles to move the energy from your hot coffee to the cold air around it. Your coffee stays hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6890573",
"title": "Liquid cooling and ventilation garment",
"section": "Section::::Space applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Because the space environment is essentially a vacuum, heat cannot be lost through heat convection, and can only be directly dissipated through thermal radiation, a much slower process. Thus, even though the environment of space can be extremely cold, excessive heat build-up is inevitable. Without an LCVG, there would be no means by which to expel this heat, and it would affect not only EVA performance, but the health of the suit occupant as well. The LCVG used with the Apollo/Skylab A7L suit could remove heat at a rate of approximately 586 watts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59211",
"title": "Altitude",
"section": "Section::::In atmospheric studies.:Temperature profile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "496730",
"title": "Alpine climate",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224312",
"title": "Lapse rate",
"section": "Section::::Convection and adiabatic expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "944638",
"title": "Earth's energy budget",
"section": "Section::::Natural greenhouse effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1852572",
"title": "Marangoni effect",
"section": "Section::::Significance to transport phenomena.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "Under earth conditions, the effect of gravity causing natural convection in a system with a temperature gradient along a fluid/fluid interface is usually much stronger than the Marangoni effect. Many experiments (ESA MASER 1-3) have been conducted under microgravity conditions aboard sounding rockets to observe the Marangoni effect without the influence of gravity. Research on heat pipes performed on the International Space Station revealed that whilst heat pipes exposed to a temperature gradient on Earth cause the inner fluid to evaporate at one end and migrate along the pipe, thus drying the hot end, in space (where the effects of gravity can be ignored) the opposite happens and the hot end of the pipe is flooded with liquid. This is due to the Marangoni effect, together with capillary action. The fluid is drawn to the hot end of the tube by capillary action. But the bulk of the liquid still ends up as a droplet a short distance away from the hottest part of the tube, explained by Marangoni flow. The temperature gradients in axial and radial directions makes the fluid flow away from the hot end and the walls of the tube, towards the center axis. The liquid forms a droplet with a small contact area with the tube walls, a thin film circulating liquid between the cooler droplet and the liquid at the hot end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
i4o29
|
Would we be able to detect an extraterrestrial spacecraft in orbit around our Sun?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Voyager](_URL_2_) or [Voyager](_URL_0_)? :P\n\nIn all seriousness though, [this](_URL_1_) says that by 2028 we hope to have detected 90% of all near-Earth asteroids of diameter 140 meters or larger. So it's *very* unlikely we'd detect a Voyager-sized spacecraft in orbit around the Sun (unless it happened to be at the same orbital radius as Earth, and pretty close ahead/behind in our orbit). Orbiting around the *Earth* however, I'm not sure there's a single answer. The probability of detection would depend strongly on the orbital radius.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39919360",
"title": "Technosignature",
"section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial artifacts and spacecraft.:Spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Interstellar spacecraft may be detectable from hundreds to thousands of light-years away through various forms of radiation, such as the photons emitted by an antimatter rocket or cyclotron radiation from the interaction of a magnetic sail with the interstellar medium. Such a signal would be easily distinguishable from a natural signal and could hence firmly establish the existence of extraterrestrial life were it to be detected. In addition, smaller Bracewell probes within the Solar System itself may also be detectable by means of optical or radio searches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252908",
"title": "Mars Exploration Rover",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft design.:Cruise stage.:Navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The star scanner (without a backup system) and sun sensor allowed the spacecraft to know its orientation in space by analyzing the position of the Sun and other stars in relation to itself. Sometimes the craft could be slightly off course; this was expected, given the 500-million-kilometer (320 million mile) journey. Thus navigators planned up to six trajectory correction maneuvers, along with health checks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50147624",
"title": "Breakthrough Starshot",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Earth-size planet Proxima Centauri b was discovered in 2016 orbiting within the Alpha Centauri system habitable zones, compelling the Breakthrough Starshot to try to aim its spacecraft within 1 astronomical unit (150 million kilometers or 93 million miles) of it. From this distance, a craft's cameras could potentially capture an image of high enough quality to resolve surface features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46528307",
"title": "Comparative planetary science",
"section": "Section::::Astrobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The Galileo mission, while performing a gravity assist flyby of Earth, treated our planet as an extraterrestrial one, in a test of life detection techniques. Conversely, the Deep Impact mission's High Resolution Imager, intended for examining comets starting from great distances, could be repurposed for exoplanet observations in its EPOXI extended mission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51313762",
"title": "Proxima Centauri b",
"section": "Section::::Future observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "A team of scientists think they can image Proxima Centauri b and probe the planet's atmosphere for signs of oxygen, water vapor, and methane, combining ESPRESSO and SPHERE on the VLT. The James Webb Space Telescope may be able to characterize the atmosphere of Proxima Centauri b, but there is no conclusive evidence for transits combining MOST and HATSouth photometry, giving it less than a 1 percent chance of being a transiting planet. Future telescopes (the Extremely Large Telescope, the Giant Magellan Telescope, and the Thirty Meter Telescope) could have the capability to characterize Proxima Centauri b.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47289377",
"title": "Breakthrough Initiatives",
"section": "Section::::Projects.:Breakthrough Starshot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1376,
"text": "The interstellar journey may include a flyby of \"Proxima Centauri b\", an Earth-sized exoplanet that is in the habitable zone of its host star in the Alpha Centauri system. From a distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (150 million kilometers or 93 million miles), the four cameras on each of the spacecraft could potentially capture an image of high enough quality to resolve surface features. The spacecraft fleet would have 1000 craft, and each craft, named \"StarChip\", would be a very small centimeter-sized craft weighing several grams. They would be propelled by several ground-based lasers of up to 100 gigawatts. Each tiny spacecraft would transmit data back to Earth using a compact on-board laser communications system. Pete Worden is the head of this project. The conceptual principles to enable this interstellar travel project were described in \"A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight\", by Philip Lubin of UC Santa Barbara. METI president Douglas Vakoch summarized the significance of the project, saying that \"by sending hundreds or thousands of space probes the size of postage stamps, Breakthrough Starshot gets around the hazards of spaceflight that could easily end a mission relying on a single spacecraft. Only one nanocraft needs to make its way to Alpha Centauri and send back a signal for the mission to be successful. When that happens, Starshot will make history.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1884129",
"title": "Neptune Orbiter",
"section": "Section::::Instruments.:Orbiter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The orbiter would have carried out the main mission objectives. Some proposed instruments were a multispectral imaging system to image the planet from ultraviolet to infrared, and a magnetometer, to investigate why the Neptune's magnetic field is oriented so far from the planet's axis of rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ef6ow
|
what is the catch with those auction sites that claim to sell ipads and high end laptops for $20?
|
[
{
"answer": "They charge you a fee for each bid and this fee is usually substantial. Also you may have laptops going for $20 once in a blue moon, but I'll be that most of them go for close to retail.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have to pay for each bid, and you can only improve the previous bid by a small increment each time. So as an example. Lets say an IPad costs $500. Each bid costs you $1. You can bid it up by .01 each time. So in aggregate people need to spend $2000 to win the right to buy the item for $20. And once people start bidding they feel like they have a certain amount invested so they keep going. Plus there are bots that autobid things up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Building on the previous two responses, the website raises your bid by one penny. However, each bid you supply costs 10 cents. Therefore, and IPad that was sold for 20.00 USD actually netted the website $200.00 in revenue plus the $20 that you pay at the end of the auction. The other important item to note is the website will add an additional 30 seconds to the bidding time with each bid that is submitted. Therefore, the website will force you to sit watching the auction screen for hours and constantly inserting another bid. At the end, the only way you will win a bid is if you are patient enough and everyone else gives up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39292620",
"title": "Amazon Coin",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Amazon introduced Amazon Coins on July 13, 2013 in the United States and gave 500 free coins valued $5/£3 to all users of Kindle Fire devices, who could use the coins to purchase apps, games, and in-app purchases on the Amazon Appstore. However, in 2014, Amazon started allowing all Android users in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States to earn, buy, and spend Amazon Coins on the Appstore using Android phones and tablets. Users could also get discounts when they bought the coins in bulk and earn coins through certain apps on the Appstore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14312829",
"title": "Amazon Kindle",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Specific Kindle device sales numbers are not released by Amazon; however, according to anonymous inside sources, over three million Kindles had been sold as of December 2009, while external estimates, as of Q4-2009, place the number at about 1.5 million. According to James McQuivey of Forrester Research, estimates are ranging around four million, as of mid-2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15945818",
"title": "Rakuten.com",
"section": "Section::::History.:Buy.com (1997–2010).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Buy.com officially launched a partnership with eBay in April 2008, striking a deal to sell millions of items on eBay. Buy.com would quickly become the largest seller on eBay. Many independent sellers were upset that, unlike other sellers, Buy.com was allowed to sell on eBay without paying listing fees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29736990",
"title": "Criticism of Amazon",
"section": "Section::::Competitive advantages.:Effects on small businesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "Due to its size and economies of scale, Amazon is able to out price local small scale shop keepers. Stacy Mitchell and Olivia Lavecchia, researchers with the Institute for local self-reliance argue that this has caused most local small scale shop keepers to close down in a number of cities and towns in the United States. Additionally, a merchant cannot have an item in the warehouse available to sell prior to Amazon if they choose to list it as well; monopolizing the product and price. Many times fraudulent charges have been made on the company banking and financial channels without approval; since Amazon prides itself on keeping all financial data permanently on file in their database. If they charge your account they will not refund the money back to the account they took it from, they will only provide an Amazon credit. All other credit card company disputes the funds are returned to the card; not to Dillard's where one bought a product from. Additionally, there is not any merchant customer support which at times needs to be handled in real time. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15945818",
"title": "Rakuten.com",
"section": "Section::::History.:Buy.com (1997–2010).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "In 2002, Buy.com went beyond selling solely electronics, movies and music, adding more soft goods to their catalog, such as sports equipment, apparel, shoes, health and beauty products. It was at this time that Blum placed a full-page ad in \"The Wall Street Journal\" promising Amazon.com customers that Buy.com would prove to be the better buying option. This statement came shortly after Buy.com announced a 10% below Amazon.com cost on all books sold on the site and free shipping site-wide, with no minimum purchase required. At the time, Amazon had 25 million customers, approximately five times as many as Buy.com.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33667887",
"title": "Nook Tablet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "According to estimates by Forrester Research, about 5 million units were sold by mid-October 2012, making the Nook Tablet the third best selling tablet after Apple's iPad and Amazon's Kindle Fire in 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55640808",
"title": "Sunrisers Hyderabad in 2013",
"section": "Section::::Players Acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "They opened their account at 2013 auction by buying South-African wicket-keeper Quinton de Kock at base price of $20,000. They also got two overseas bowling options in the form of right-arm Australian fast-bowler Clint McKay and right-arm off-spinner Nathan McCullum, both at their base price of $100,000. Their most expensive buy in their maiden IPL auction came in with the purchase of Sri-Lankan all-rounder Thisara Perera at a whooping price of $675,000. They also bagged West-Indian all-rounder Darren Sammy for $425,000 to improve their options for the squad. Towards the end, they picked up Sudeep Tyagi, their only Indian purchase at the base price of $100,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1texlf
|
What were the casualties expected in an invasion of mainland Japan and how did they compare to the actual casualties caused by using nuclear weapons ?
|
[
{
"answer": "The atomic bombs dropped on Japan killed at least 150,000, and probably more than 250,000 eventually died as a direct result of the bombings. Just to keep things in perspective, neither the bombing of Hiroshima or Nagasaki were individually as deadly as the March 9-10 1945 firebombing of Tokyo (100,000 dead). The invasion of mainland Japan was estimated to cost at least million casualties on both sides - the U.S. military ordered so many Purple Hearts that they're still handing out them today. I'm afraid I can't comment on the accuracy of their casualty predictions, but they were based on four years of brutal warfare, and both the Japanese military and civilians had proved more willing to die than accept defeat or surrender (for example: on Iwo Jima, the Japanese commander ordered his men to kill ten Americans *before they died* - not \"kill ten and you can go home,\" or \"kill ten and we'll win,\" but \"you're going to do die and you need to kill as many of the enemy as possible;\" the U.S. took 218 prisoners of the 22,000 Japanese soldiers present; civilians on Saipan and Okinawa committed mass suicide); I see no reason not to accept the military's prediction of over 1,000,000 dead and wounded Americans (and equivalent or greater numbers of Japanese) as at least a probable outcome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43315285",
"title": "USS PC-598",
"section": "Section::::Invasion of Okinawa (Operation Iceberg).:Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "These casualty figures, as well as those from other island campaigns, were used by U.S. military planners to estimate that Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands, would result in well over 1,000,000 U.S. and 5,000,000 Japanese casualties. These estimates put the decision made to use atomic weapons against the Japanese in context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30319330",
"title": "Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "In 1949, the Japanese Economic Stabilization Agency calculated that the Allied naval bombardments and other forms of attack other than bombing had caused 3,282 casualties, representing 0.5 percent of all casualties inflicted by the Allies in the Japanese home islands. The casualties attributed to naval bombardments and other causes included 1,739 fatalities, 46 persons who were still classified as missing and 1,497 people who were wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30319330",
"title": "Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The Allied naval bombardments disrupted industrial production in the cities targeted, and convinced many Japanese civilians that the war was lost. Up to 1,739 Japanese were killed in the attacks, and about 1,497 were wounded. The only Allied casualties were 32 Allied prisoners of war killed in the bombardments of Kamaishi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9559286",
"title": "Air raids on Japan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "The Allied bombing campaign was one of the main factors which influenced the Japanese government's decision to surrender in mid-August 1945. However, there has been a long-running debate over the morality of the attacks on Japanese cities, and the use of atomic weapons is particularly controversial. The most commonly cited estimate of Japanese casualties from the raids is 333,000 killed and 473,000 wounded. There are a number of other estimates of total fatalities, however, which range from 241,000 to 900,000. In addition to the loss of mostly civilian life, the raids contributed to a large decline in industrial production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13121116",
"title": "Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki",
"section": "Section::::Support.:Part of total war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "For six months prior to the use of nuclear weapons in combat, the United States Army Air Forces under LeMay's command undertook a major strategic bombing campaign against Japanese cities through the use of incendiary bombs, destroying 67 cities and killing an estimated 350,000 civilians. The \"Operation Meetinghouse\" raid on Tokyo on the night of 9/10 March 1945 stands as the deadliest air raid in human history, killing 100,000 civilians and destroying of the city that night, which caused more civilian deaths and damage to urbanized land than any other single air attack, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9559286",
"title": "Air raids on Japan",
"section": "Section::::Assessments.:Casualties and damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 1481,
"text": "The air attacks on Japan caused hundreds of thousands of casualties, though estimates of the number who were killed and wounded vary considerably. The strategic attacks by the Twentieth Air Force caused most of the casualties and damage. The figures most frequently cited in the literature on the campaign are sourced from the USSBS report \"The Effects of Bombing on Health and Medical Services in Japan\" which estimated that 333,000 Japanese were killed and 473,000 wounded. Included in this figure were an estimated 120,000 dead and 160,000 injured in the two atomic bomb attacks. Another USSBS report, \"The Effects of Strategic Bombing on Japanese Morale\", included a much higher estimate of 900,000 killed and 1.3 million injured which was reached by a Japanese research team using a statistical sampling methodology. While this figure is also occasionally cited, the USSBS' investigators regarded the work of their statistical teams as unsatisfactory, and the researchers were unable to calculate the error rate of this estimate. The postwar Japanese government calculated in 1949 that 323,495 people had been killed by air attacks in the home islands. The destruction of buildings housing government records during air raids contributed to the uncertainty about the number of casualties. The Twentieth Air Force lost 414 B-29s during attacks on Japan. Over 2,600 American bomber crew members were killed, including POWs who died in captivity, and a further 433 were wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2194173",
"title": "Home front during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Axis.:Japan.:Deaths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The American aerial bombing of a total of 65 Japanese cities took from 400,000 to 600,000 civilian lives, with 100,000+ in Tokyo alone, over 200,000 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined. The Battle of Okinawa resulted in 80,000–150,000 civilian deaths. In addition civilian death among settlers who died attempting to return to Japan from Manchuria in the winter of 1945 were probably around 100,000. The total of Japanese military fatalities between 1937 and 1945 were 2.1 million; most came in the last year of the war and were caused by starvation or severe malnutrition in garrisons cut off from supplies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18t2d9
|
Is there proof of mutation introducing new material into the genome?
|
[
{
"answer": "How your friend put it is a bit misleading.\n\nMutations happen all the time. And they aren't noticeable because many don't cause any change in that gene's function. Point mutations occur in which bases (nucleotides in your DNA) are altered. There are insertions, deletions or frameshifts.. which I don't want to get into. Long regions of DNA can be copied moved around and duplicated in error. Typically this results in nothing except maybe altered expression but can lead to interesting results in a variety of ways.\n\nPoint is... mutations are noticeable when they turn genes on and off, but that's DEFINITELY not the only way they occur. You could have a mutation in you right now that causes a certain protein to have less affinity to it's substrate making it less effective.. this can be caused by a change in a single amino acid residue in that protein. An individual could spontaneously develop an enzyme that allows that to metabolize aspartame (wouldn't that be hilarious). \n\nThere is evidence for this happening (look at ecoli long term evolution experiment where the bacteria spontaneously developed the ability to metabolize citrate). \n\nHow do you think new genes come about? Typically another gene was duplicated erroneously, and then underwent many many mutations over thousands to millions of years... or less, depending on selection pressure, and viola, a new gene, with a new protein derived off old genetic code.\n\nSorry it's a rant, but it's a pretty open ended question. Your friend does not do justice to the complexity of mutations at an evolutionary standpoint, but then again neither do I.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a very long running experiment in E. Coli, running since 1988. Approximately 50.000 generations have passed now, and new mutations have shown up. The most striking one is the ability of one strain of bacteria to adept to a new food source, see [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure I know what you're asking. A mutation introduces new material *by definition*.\n\nOriginal sequence:\n\n GATTACA\n\nMutated sequence:\n\n GATGACA\n\nThe new information is the G in the fourth position.\n\n---\n\nEDIT: I can see how you might say \"But they're the same number of bases, so they're the same amount of information.\" Well, that's not quite how information theory works, but it's easier to understand on an evolutionary scale.\n\nIf your population of 10 individuals has this sequence in common, at the same place in the genome:\n\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n\nyou could say \"they all have GATTACA at that position\".\n\nIf one of them gets a mutation, even a deletion that actually reduces the length of the sequence,\n\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n ...GATTACA...\n\nyou need to say \"they all have GATTACA at that position, except one that has GATACA\". The complexity of the information in this gene pool has increased.\n\nIn this sense, random mutation is actually a force for *maximizing* the information in the genome, and natural selection is a force that *reduces* it, selectively. Most mutations are deleterious, i.e. they add information that puts the organism at a disadvantage, and selection preferentially removes those.\n\nMore on quantifying information (tangential to my field so I'm not sure I can answer detailed questions): _URL_1_ (my example is specifically a demonstration of [Kolmogorov complexity](_URL_0_))\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look up retroviruses and transposons. \n\nRetroviruses insert their genetic material into a host genome - this can disrupt a host gene, or a region that is important for gene expression, as well as introducing new genetic material that acts as a substrate for evolution. \n\nTransposons are relics of this process - sometimes the DNA inserted by retroviruses retains the ability to copy and insert itself and can \"jump\" around the genome. There are two main types of transposons - one just jumps, the other copies itself and inserts elsewhere, leading to an extra copy of the sequence. \n\nThese insertions can been seen by sequencing, or by cutting the DNA at known sites and observing a size increase from an insertion. It's possible to compare the sequences of transposons with those of retroviruses and see that certain transposons have evolved from certain retroviruses.\n\nI study epigenetics, and although it concerns marks which are \"above\" the genetics, \"above\" the DNA sequence (epi = Greek for above or upon), the positioning of the marks and proteins comes down to sequence. *Which* of the potential positions is marked, and which proteins are bound, is affected by interactions with the environment, but the landscape of potential is determined by DNA sequence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Relevant old thread: [What are the current theories on de novo protein synthesis?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "167544",
"title": "Transcription (biology)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "A molecule that allows the genetic material to be realized as a protein was first hypothesized by François Jacob and Jacques Monod. Severo Ochoa won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1959 for developing a process for synthesizing RNA \"in vitro\" with polynucleotide phosphorylase, which was useful for cracking the genetic code. RNA synthesis by RNA polymerase was established \"in vitro\" by several laboratories by 1965; however, the RNA synthesized by these enzymes had properties that suggested the existence of an additional factor needed to terminate transcription correctly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1763082",
"title": "History of genetics",
"section": "Section::::Emergence of molecular genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "A series of subsequent discoveries led to the realization decades later that the genetic material is made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). In 1941, George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum showed that mutations in genes caused errors in specific steps in metabolic pathways. This showed that specific genes code for specific proteins, leading to the \"one gene, one enzyme\" hypothesis. Oswald Avery, Colin Munro MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty showed in 1944 that DNA holds the gene's information. In 1952, Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling produced a strikingly clear x-ray diffraction pattern indicating a helical form, and in 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick demonstrated the molecular structure of DNA. Together, these discoveries established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA which is transcribed by DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040550",
"title": "Maclyn McCarty",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "However, by 1953, influenced by the enormous impact of , the majority of researchers had fully accepted the 1944 paper. In fact, one might say, formal proof that DNA encoded genetic material was approximated only much later by the laboratory synthesis of oligonucleotides, and by the demonstration of genetic material's biological activity, for example, genes for tRNA or small DNA viruses. Long before this formal proof, most commentators had accepted the untrammeled heuristic value of the proposition that, indeed, genes were made of DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4009213",
"title": "Viral eukaryogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1259,
"text": "In 2006, researchers suggested that the transition from RNA to DNA genomes first occurred in the viral world. A DNA-based virus may have provided storage for an ancient host that had previously used RNA to store its genetic information (such host is called ribocell or ribocyte). Viruses may initially have adopted DNA as a way to resist RNA-degrading enzymes in the host cells. Hence, the contribution from such a new component may have been as significant as the contribution from chloroplasts or mitochondria. Following this hypothesis, archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes each obtained their DNA informational system from a different virus. In the original paper it was also an RNA cell at the origin of eukaryotes, but eventually more complex, featuring RNA processing. Although this is in contrast to nowadays more probable eocyte hypothesis, viruses seem to have contributed to the origin of all three domains of life ('out of virus hypothesis'). It has also been suggested that telomerase and telomeres, key aspects of eukaryotic cell replication, have viral origins. Further, the viral origins of the modern eukaryotic nucleus may have relied on multiple infections of archaeal cells carrying bacterial mitochondrial precursors with lysogenic viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49394420",
"title": "Jürgen Brosius",
"section": "Section::::Scientific contributions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "2. Retroposition (conversion of RNA to DNA) is an ancient process, but has persisted throughout the evolution of most eukaryotes. This process has contributed to the mass of genomes of modern multicellular organisms, at the same time keeping genomes in flux and presenting raw material for the de novo evolution of genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199406",
"title": "Michael Smith (chemist)",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Researcher.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Smith and his team began to investigate possibility of the creation of mutations of any site within a viral genome. If possible, this process could be an efficient method to engineer heritable changes in genes. Finally, in 1977 they confirmed Smith's theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219268",
"title": "Population genetics",
"section": "Section::::Four processes.:Mutation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination. This leads to copy-number variation within a population. Duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes. Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mwm7d
|
Why isn't the sky completely white at night?
|
[
{
"answer": "You've hit upon a very old question called [\"Olbers' Paradox\"](_URL_0_).\n\nThe solution relies on the fact that the universe is not infinitely old, so only finitely many stars and galaxies are observable and they collectively subtend an angle on the sky much smaller than the full sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The sky doesn't appear white because of a few things. I'm not going to use the paradox that another poster used.\n\nFirst off you need to take into account the fact that these stars are extremely far away and that their intensity (power per unit solid angle) drops off at a 1/d^2 relation where d is the distance away from the source. So when the light gets to earth it is extremely dim. This leads to the fact that your eye isn't sensitive enough to then see the most faint o the stars. If you take a long exposure photograph of the sky (making sure to track the sky as the photo is being taken) you will see more stars than you normally would because over that amount of time more photons hit the ccd of the camera. \n\nWhen Hubble takes its super deep field images they are over extremely long exposure times. The objects are there, it's just that they are extremely dim.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even if the universe was infinite, the [observable universe](_URL_0_) is finite because of it's expansion ([~74.3 kilometers per second per megaparsec](_URL_1_)), we can't see the areas in space that are going away from us \"faster\" than the speed of light.\n\nMoreover, light emmited from far away is so redshifted that the light emitted is not visible light anymore. \n[Here is an exemple of infrared image from a distant galaxy](_URL_2_).\n\nAnd like /u/GracefulFaller said, most of the stars that still emit visible light can't be visible to the naked eye.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astronomy.:Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The nighttime sky on Earth is black because the part of Earth experiencing night is facing away from the Sun, the light of the Sun is blocked by Earth itself, and there is no other bright nighttime source of light in the vicinity. Thus, there is not enough light to undergo Rayleigh scattering and make the sky blue. On the Moon, on the other hand, because there is no atmosphere to scatter the light, the sky is black both day and night. This phenomenon also holds true for other locations without an atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195193",
"title": "Sky",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "During daylight, the sky appears to be blue because air scatters more blue sunlight than red. At night, the sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. During the day, the Sun can be seen in the sky unless obscured by clouds. In the night sky (and to some extent during the day) the Moon, planets and stars are visible in the sky. Some of the natural phenomena seen in the sky are clouds, rainbows, and aurorae. Lightning and precipitation can also be seen in the sky during storms. Birds, insects, aircraft, and kites are often considered to fly in the sky. Due to human activities, smog during the day and light pollution during the night are often seen above large cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astronomy.:Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue. This is known as Rayleigh scattering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18323093",
"title": "Skyscape art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The sky is really nothing more than the denser gaseous zone of the earth’s atmosphere. Sky can be depicted as many different colors, such as a pale blue or the lack of any color at all, such as the night sky, which has the appearance of blackness, albeit with a scattering of stars on a clear night. During the day, the sky is seen as a deep blue due to the sunlight reflected on the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1068627",
"title": "Tyndall effect",
"section": "Section::::Similar phenomena that are not Tyndall scattering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "When the daytime sky is overcast, sunlight passes through the turbid layer of the clouds, resulting in scattered, diffuse light on the ground. This exhibits Mie scattering instead of Tyndall scattering because the cloud droplets are larger than the wavelength of the light and scatters all colors approximately equally. When the daytime sky is cloudless, the sky's color is blue due to Rayleigh scattering instead of Tyndall scattering because the scattering particles are the air molecules, which are much smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. On occasion, the term \"Tyndall effect\" is incorrectly applied to light scattering by large (macroscopic) dust particles in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "617947",
"title": "Weather lore",
"section": "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Red sky at night.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "A red sky – in the morning or evening, is a result of high pressure air in the atmosphere trapping particles of dust or soot. Air molecules scatter the shorter blue wavelengths of sunlight, but particles of dust, soot and other aerosols scatter the longer red wavelength of sunlight in a process called Rayleigh scattering. At sunrise and sunset, the sun is lower in the sky causing the sunlight to travel through more of the atmosphere so scattering more light. This effect is further enhanced when there are at least some high level clouds to reflect this light back to the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28779877",
"title": "Atmospheric optics",
"section": "Section::::Sky coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The sky can turn a multitude of colors such as red, orange, pink and yellow (especially near sunset or sunrise) and black at night. Scattering effects also partially polarize light from the sky, most pronounced at an angle 90° from the sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42tshr
|
what causes a rolled up piece of paper to act like a spring and what other materials want to naturally return to a flat sheet when rolled
|
[
{
"answer": " > Are there other elastic materials similar to these that would want to snap back to a flat sheet?\n\nSure. They're everywhere. Metal, plastic, wood, rubber, and on and on. Pretty much any common solid material will snap back to its resting arrangement when you let go, provided you don't stress it too far. Think of a paper clip: you can bend it a little bit, and it will snap back to its normal shape and clamp onto your paper. But if you bend it too far, you bend it permanently, and you won't be able to get it back to normal. You get the same effect with those cheap plastic Bic pens, or with creasing a sheet of paper.\n\nSnapping back after stretching is known as [elastic deformation](_URL_0_). Permanent deformation after bending too far is its opposite, *plastic deformation*. The stress level where a material switches from elastic to plastic is known as the [yield strength](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3852732",
"title": "Linenizing",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "A paper roll is threaded between two hard rollers, usually made from steel. One or both of the steel rollers has a linen pattern engraved on it. As the nip pressure between the two hard rollers increases, the pattern from the engraved roller(s) is pressed into the paper. The end result is a pattern that looks like a linen table cloth or linen dress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1776243",
"title": "Folding machine",
"section": "Section::::Paper folders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Most paper folders push paper into the machine by use of a friction wheel; this grabs paper using friction. Friction-feed paper folders do not work well with glossy paper as the friction wheel slips on the paper's surface. Pneumatic paper folders are preferable for folding glossy paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7005434",
"title": "Inkjet paper",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to standard office paper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Paper is manufactured by forming pulp fibers into a mat on an open mesh screen (a deckle), and then drying and pressing this mat into paper. Large areas of inkjet color, such as in graphics and photographs, soak the paper fibers with so much moisture that they swell and return to their original shape before pressing, resulting in a wavy buckling of the paper surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21182020",
"title": "History of paper",
"section": "Section::::Precursors: papyrus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Paper contrasts with papyrus in that the plant material is broken down through maceration or disintegration before the paper is pressed. This produces a much more even surface, and no natural weak direction in the material which falls apart over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1313623",
"title": "Calender",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In the past, for paper, sheets were worked on with a polished hammer or pressed between polished metal sheets in a press. With the continuously operating paper machine it became part of the process of rolling the paper (in this case also called web paper). The pressure between the rollers, the \"nip pressure\", can be reduced by heating the rolls or moistening the paper surface. This helps to keep the bulk and the stiffness of the web paper which is beneficial for its later use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15615888",
"title": "Book folding",
"section": "Section::::Folding machines.:Buckle folder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "In a buckle folder, the paper is first passed through 2 spinning rollers, which feed the paper into a pair of guide plates that redirect the paper at a slight angle, bending the paper. At the far end of the guide plates is a \"paper stop\". As the rollers continue to spin, the paper continues to slide in between the guides until it hits the paper stop, then, having nowhere else to go, buckles at the interface between the rollers and the angled guides. As the rollers continue to spin, the buckle increases, until it is eventually caught by a pair of \"nip\" rollers, which pull the buckle in and compresses and flattens it into a neat crease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1776243",
"title": "Folding machine",
"section": "Section::::Buckle folders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Buckle folders work by feeding the paper at high speeds until it can move no further; the reaction of the paper is to buckle. High friction rollers then grip the paper and push it through, folding the paper, which is squeezed between the rollers, in the process. Attached rubber provides the rollers with the required grip. The front edge of the paper is then finally placed into a \"pocket\"—a result of the rollers pressing together with the aid of a spring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13y7y3
|
Wednesday AMA: I am Mr_Bimmler, ask me anything regarding WWII Weapons or Vehicles.
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's talk about the Thompson M1928 in British and early American service, pre-M1 models. How many of this particular model was fielded and how much of a bother was the front grip to those who used it in action? I've heard accounts of the front grip getting stuck in webbing or pulling on uniforms when pulled from the back/from the side into action or carrying it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does it need to be military vehicles? \n\nBecause I'm extremely interested in wood gas (or wood burning) automobiles and there use in both a civilian and, if applicable, military capacity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the United States we have done a generally good job at preserving many of the 20th century era American battleships all of the Iowa class ships are still preserved ( and well worth seeing) and several of the Carolina class ships as well. However I have always found it curious that Britain didn't preserve any of her battleships especially given the strong connection of the country to her navy. Obviously economically Britain was weak after the war, but was there a movement to preserve any of the ships?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've been waiting for this AMA for two weeks. So thanks for your time and effort. \n\n1) I recently read [this](_URL_0_) about the T-34 being overrated. What are your opinions? Were they really as influential as (amateur?) historians seem to think? I actually have a ton of questions about tanks and tank design but I will spare you from a wall of questions. \n\n2) I bought a Enfield no.5 mk.1 Jungle carbine a few weeks ago. Did these see widespread action in WWII? Do you know of any accounts or memoirs of a soldier who used one? Did the troops like them or prefer the standard longer barreled version? Hell, any info you have on the jungle carbines is appreciated. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I recently purchased a Colt Commando Revolver. Just a couple of days ago I received my letter for it from the Colt historian indicating that my gun had been shipped from Colt to the Boston Police Department(BPD) in 1943 \n\n_URL_0_\n\nPrior to this it was my understanding that all of the production from Colt of that model was under control of the Springfield Ordnance District, who would have been the recipient of the shipments. Yet my gun was specifically engraved by Colt for the BPD, and shipped directly to the BPD. Can you explain how/why this would have occurred? I should note that while I have just started going through the records of the BPD, I have yet to find anything in the budgetary statements that would indicate a payment to Colt. Would this be a case of the War Department paying for the guns and having them directly shipped?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Were there any weapons fielded that were great from a psychological warfare perspective? The only thing that comes to mind are the V rockets, but were there others?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Assuming we're counting the pacific theater, How much of a role did battleships play in the war? I know that we eventually switched to Aircraft Carriers, but I am curious to what role they played in WWII.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a question regarding the general reliability of military ground vehicles in WWII. How often would a German Tiger tank or an American Sherman need to be serviced? Could a Jeep travel thousands of miles with nothing more than filling it up with gas? Who would perform the actual maintenance if something were to fail in the field? It seems like you would need some pretty heavy duty equipment to repair a tank especially if the repair was somewhat serious. Thank you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How reliable (i.e. how often did the tank break down/need repairs) were T-34's in comparison to the Sherman?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How was it decided what type of weapon a soldier would carry into combat?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Why did the Germans \"Usually\" never recover or try and repair vehicles lost or heavily damaged in battle?\n\n2. Also which do you think is better the M1941 Johnson Rifle or M1 Garand?\n\nEdit-Can you recommend any books?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi - thanks for availing yourself for questions! Any specific and easy to digest books that you recommend to learn more about WWII weapons and strategies? Also, would love to learn more about specific \"game changer\" weapons or vehicles (e.g. Japanese Zero) used by the various countries in WWII. Thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What WW2 era Rifle, Subgun, and Pistol were the most effective? Assuming you had to survive a wide variety of tactical and environmental situations and wouldn't have reliable ammo and logistics support.\n\nI might choose an M1 garand except it would rip my finger off trying to load it under stress. Not kidding! And the 30-06 may be a bit much for closer fighting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Forgive the banal, unacademic questions, but I'm always interested in the personal element when it comes to things like this...\n\n1. What WWII-era vehicle (preferably combat-related) would you most like to experience first-hand yourself? Sitting in it, I mean -- even operating it. My own would be the Ju-87, though I am considerably hampered in that I have no idea how to fly a plane.\n\n2. What's the most interesting one you *have* personally experienced?\n\n3. How did you come to have such a specific area of interest?\n\n4. What's something that people keep saying about [WWII Vehicle X] that you wish they wouldn't?\n\nThanks again for volunteering.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a child, my father took me to the Polish films *Ashes and Diamonds* and *Kanal.*\n\nI forget which one, but one of them had a scene with a Nazi small, squat, tank-like machine with a mounted machine gun. The thing that left a real impression was that it was operated by a cabled remote control.\n\nWas this a real thing? And if it was, was it effective at all? Was it particularly rare?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How critical was the Lend-Lease Program's vehicular aid to the Red Army? I've read bits of Mawdsley's *Thunder in the East* and Glantz's *When Titans Clashed* that suggest the Lend-Lease vehicles, particularly trucks, were important in helping the Red Army get back on its feet logistically after Barbarossa. I'm also aware that many early Katyusha launchers were mounted on Studebaker trucks. Conversely, many Russian commanders were, after the war, dismissive of the role of Lend-Lease. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Jack Churchill](_URL_0_) seems to come up on Reddit at least once a week, and this doesn't surprise me. With his purported longbow and claymore, he cuts a very romantic figure in a war that was so often brutal and disgusting.\n\nI have two questions for you, pursuant to this:\n\n- What is your opinion on Churchill, if you have one?\n\n- Was he an isolated incident? Or were there others like him (fighting for whatever side) who also went beyond the expected bounds of available weapons technology to achieve weird or interesting things?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a question about lucky vehicles, planes or ships in WWII. I recently read about the IJN destroyer [Yukikaze](_URL_0_) and I wanted to know if there were similar units with other combatants who had unusual luck in surviving or accomplishing their mission? Thanks for doing the AMA.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do you think the Australian Cruiser IV would have fared against similar opposition?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "MP40 or Thompson > ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks for doing one!\n\n1) Do you have a favorite superweapon? (I love the [Schwerer Gustav](_URL_0_), myself)\n\n2) How much money was put into giant weapon development, compared to small arms development?",
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"answer": "How far were really the Germans of detonating a nuclear bomb?\n\nDid Heisenberg deliberately made a mistake when he calculated the necessary amount of enriched uranium?\n\nWhere would have Germans used a nuclear bomb? London? New York?",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "What would the performance of the German E-Series tanks been like? Were there any prototypes built? Was there anything groundbreaking in their design or construction? Thanks!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Somebody asked earlier what the best small arms of WW2 would be - what about the opposite? What would be, say, the five worst small arms that saw reasonably widespread use?",
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{
"answer": "Hey, thanks for doing this AMA! Could you explain the difference between the planes built in the RAF and the LuffeWaffe and why the RAF managed to hold back the LuffeWaffe? ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Which WW2 tank would be the most comfortable to have sex in?",
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{
"answer": "I've been waiting for this AMA :D. Thanks for doing it!\n\nI've read a lot about the lack of a true long-range, heavy bomber on the German side. What's the difference in range and payload between the Luftwaffe bombers versus the USAAF heavy bombers? \n\nIf Germany did have heavy bombers at their disposal, how do you think it would have affected bombing campaigns of London or Stalingrad?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "How did a typical tank battle play out? For example, when Panzer IVs and T-34s engaged each other on the battlefield, from how far out would the firsts shots be fired from? How close would they get to each other? Did the tanks stay together in large formations, or did they break up into small groups? \n\nHow mobile were they? Did opposing tanks attempt to flank or encircle each other? Or did tanks fire from a primarily static position? How often were infantry used in tank battles, and what role did they perform? \n\nHow many hits could a tank take before being knocked out of the battle? How often were tanks knocked out due to mobility kills versus being completely destroyed? \n\nWere there significant differences in German tank doctrine versus Soviet doctrine? Did the Germans or Soviets change their tank tactics over the course of the war? \n\nThanks again for doing this AMA, and feel free to ignore any of my questions if I asked too many :)",
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"answer": "So apparently my girlfriend's father has an original Arisaka (I believe, a Type 38). I was looking at info on them on Wikipedia, and I noticed this:\n\n*\"Post-war inspection of the Type 38 by both the U.S. military and the National Rifle Association showed that the Type 38's receiver was the strongest bolt action of any nation and capable of handling more powerful cartridges.\"*\n\nIs there any truth to that? I'm having a really hard time believing that an Arisaka action would be more solid than a Mauser action, mostly because the Mauser-derived rifles are still in production, but I don't exactly see a whole bunch of Arisaka clones floating around.",
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"answer": "Comparing stats.. which bomber was better? A B 17 flying fortress or a B 24 Liberator? Ive always admired the B 24 but my friends say its a B 17.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "What was the oldest specific weapon still in use? Like a model of pistol, or type of bayonet?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I heard or read somewhere that surprisingly few died of gun shots compared to the amount of shots fired. Is this true? If so, care to elaborate? What did most soldiers die from?",
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"answer": "Okay, so I play World of Tanks, the tank fighting MMO. Now, I like a lot of people have been told time and again that Russian tanks were the absolute indisputable best of the war. Now, I know the game is nerfed and tweaked to make it competitive, but I have found German tanks tend to be rolling metal tubs that are just plain nasty to fight; great range, high penetration and rate of fire, great armor, but of course they are about as maneuverable as a slug of lead. \n\nMeanwhile Russian tanks are quick, reactive, maneuverable, fast on the reload, but squishy and give poor penetration.\n\nI have also found that American tanks are better than they are perceived to be. They are quick, the turrets can take a beating, spry, but are weak in the hull and the guns are mediocre at best. But they aren't the death traps we are lead to believe.\n\nHow accurate is this assessment to the reality of WWII?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Why did Australian infantry forces seem to achieve so much success with the outdated SMLE? Also, how effective was the Bren gun compared to Japanese (woodpecker or something?) light machine guns given its small magazine size. Cheers for the AMA",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I actually have a question regarding your account name, it being a Python reference and all. Might it be safe to assume as a Python fan and a historian you're familiar with Terry Jones's work as a presenter of historical documentaries? If so, what's your opinion of his perspective? He's crafted a specific voice as a dispeller of historical misconceptions, but do you find his editorializing to be overstated or off base at all? I realize this has nothing to do with the topic and I don't expect you to have an opinion if you're not familiar with it. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I remember reading one of the biggest advantages the Russians had in tank warfare was the complete lack of variety in their tanks which meant they always had the compatible parts available for repairs to their tanks as opposed to the many German varieties that often didn't have the right type of parts due to the ever changing tank designs.\n\nCan you shed any light on the issue, the advantages and disadvantages of variety or lack thereof in tank divisions and how it impacted the eastern front for each side?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In WWII films, namely Saving Private Ryan, shooting a flamethrower gas tank yields a fiery explosion and a gruesome death for the operator. I've always wondered if this would actually happen in the real world, or if it would just be an anticlimactic pffft of fuel with no ignition. Can you comment on this topic?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So this is a longshot and I can't remember the details but I remember hearing a story about a US Marine in the pacific that took a machine gun or cannon off of a crashed fighter plane and converted it into an infantry weapon with a shoulder stock and everything. I remember thinking the story was pretty incredible at the time. Have you ever heard of anything like this or know the story yourself?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was told that the WWII Jeep had a camshaft that ran in the iron block without bearings, because that would give an engine life of 1500 miles, Normandy to Berlin about 2-3 times. Any truth to this old soldier's tale?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's \"common knowledge\" that in WW2 the equipment profiles of the belligerents looked like what i list below. I realize that what I'm saying below is far from the complete picture but I'd like to hear about the stereotypical view.\n\n- Russia, Reliable if unsophisticated weapons and vehicles.\n- Germany, high-tech, limited numbers (german engineering etc.).\n- USA, massive quantities optimized for mass production, not always the most advanced.\n\nTo what degree do you think these stereotypes are true?\n\nAnd if the stereotypes are true, to what degree was there an overall \"national strategy\" for production according to these stereotypical principles?\n\nI guess what I'm as asking is did eg. Albert Speer sit down with Hitler one day and go \"right, we're going to make some really advanced tanks, lets not consider if they can be built in mass quantities or what they cost or how easy they are to maintain\". The same goes for the other major belligerents, did they have an overall strategy for wartime design and production?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I cannot not do this! It's against everything, but..\nDid you have fun in Stalingrad, Mr. Bimmler? \n\nOn a serious note, do you know about the dog-bombs and the like? And did only the soviets use them?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2149605",
"title": "List of Sd.Kfz. designations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Sonderkraftfahrzeug (abbreviated Sd.Kfz., German for \"special purpose vehicle\" or \"special ordnance vehicle\") was the ordnance inventory designation used by Nazi Germany during World War II for military vehicles; for example \"Sd.Kfz.\" 101 for the Panzer I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "332282",
"title": "Panzer 38(t)",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- Captured German WW2 vehicles - A PDF file presenting the German vehicles based on captured and modified foreign equipment (10.5 cm leFH 18(Sf) auf Geschützwagen, Marder I, Panzerjäger I, Marder III, Grille, Munitionspanzer 38(t)) still existing in the world\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41455921",
"title": "Tanks of Czechoslovakia",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- Captured German WW2 vehicles - A PDF file presenting the German vehicles based on captured and modified foreign equipment (10.5 cm leFH 18(Sf) auf Geschützwagen, Marder I, Panzerjäger I, Marder III, Grille, Munitionspanzer 38(t)) still existing in the world\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4726440",
"title": "Flames of War",
"section": "Section::::Rules and sourcebooks.:Second Edition sourcebooks.:Mid-War period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Mid-War Monsters\", this covers various experimental armoured fighting vehicles of World War Two, including the M6 Heavy Tank, the Boarhound Armoured Car, the Sturer Emil Self Propelled Anti-tank Gun, and the KV-5 Heavy Tank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2114887",
"title": "List of combat vehicles of World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "This is a list of combat vehicles of World War I, including conceptual, experimental, prototype, training and production vehicles. The vehicles in this list were either used in combat, produced or designed during the First World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23171616",
"title": "Darkest Hour: Europe '44-'45",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Over 20 World War II era firearms can be used including the M1 Garand, M1 Carbine, .30-cal, Bren LMG, FG 42, Thompson, Lee–Enfield, American Bazooka, British PIAT and German Panzerschreck. Crewable vehicles include the King Tiger, Jagdpanther, Sherman, Cromwell, M10 Wolverine and Kübelwagen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46381024",
"title": "M19 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The M19 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage (MGMC) was a World War II United States Army self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon on the M24 light tank chassis. It was equipped with two Bofors guns. It was produced by Cadillac and Massey-Ferguson of Canada near the end of 1944.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1om4xl
|
why is cyberbullying a problem?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Basically my question is this, if you're being bullied over social networking (or even through your phone) why continue to participate?\n\nYou don't have to participate directly for it to affect you. Even if you ignore the bully, if other people in your social group are still paying attention to them, it will eventually make its way back to you. Worse, you've also left yourself in a position where you can no long directly defend yourself from any accusations.\n\nFurther, it's much easier to \"cyber-stalk\" (ugh, I hate phrases like that) someone. For instance, someone can set up lots of email addresses to keep harassing you even if you've blocked known addresses. They can get cohorts to continue to harass you over social media, and blocking the number of people needed to not see the harassment could leave you socially ostracized.\n\nAll of this seems to stem from young teens being in a mental place where peer acceptance is of primary importance, and absolutely *anything* will stir up drama among friends.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah. I'm not 16. I was fortunate to get out of high school before this nonsense started. However, I am volunteering to help with a summit on it soon. I think some problems stem from: (1) a bully can now publish his or her remarks to a very large audience. For instance, a college freshman was recorded by his roommate masturbating with a hidden webcam and the recording was spread all over school. (2) Social media is a major part of many young people's lives. For some it almost replaces off-line media. You're asking for someone to essentially shut themselves off from the world. (3) Bullying has always been a problem but now there's greater awareness of it. This is especially true when now there is online evidence of the evil stuff people say to each other.\n\nMy thoughts anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "424739",
"title": "Abuse",
"section": "Section::::Types and contexts of abuse.:Cyber abuse or cyber bullying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Cyberbullying \"involves the use of information and communication technologies to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behavior by an individual or group, that is intended to harm others.\" -Bill Belsey\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32492747",
"title": "Cyberbullying",
"section": "Section::::Legislation.:Research on preventative legislation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "'Cyberbullying' is the use of technology to bully a person, or threatening an individual online. Cyberbullying has become more common nowadays because of all the technology that children have access to. The most common apps that teenagers use to cyberbully are Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat. Cyberbullying has become harder to stop because parents and teachers are unaware of when and where it is happening. Online bullying has become a bigger problem and 33% of all youth has been a victim of cyberbullying. Teens will say awful things to one another online and what they do not realize is that once it is said and published online it will not go away. Home used to be a safe place for teens but now a child is still within reach of becoming a victim of cyberbullying- whether it is through YouTube, Ask.fm, or a text message.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8223796",
"title": "Internet safety",
"section": "Section::::Personal safety.:Cyberbullying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Cyberbullying is the use of electronic means such as instant messaging, social media, e-mail and other forms of online communication with the intent to abuse, intimidate, or overpower an individual or group. In a 2012 study of over 11,925 students in the United States, it was indicated that 23% of adolescents reported being a victim of cyber bullying, 30% of which reported experiencing suicidal behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9620112",
"title": "Online disinhibition effect",
"section": "Section::::Possible consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Cyberbullying is the act of trying to make another person feel embarrassed, intimidated, or bad about themselves through the internet. Online disinhibition plays a role in the act of cyberbullying. Anonymity usually leads to meaner comments towards others (cyberbullying) but it alone doesn't cause cyberbullying. Asynchronous communication allows the bully to say what they have to say and then log out like nothing happened, having to face no consequence outside of the internet. Empathy deficit is what allows the bully to post the messages in the first place, the victim is reduced to a name on a computer screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42422280",
"title": "Bullying of students in higher education",
"section": "Section::::Cyberbullying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Cyberbullying is the use of electronic communication to bully a person, typically by sending messages of an intimidating or threatening nature. This form of bullying can easily go undetected because of lack of parental/authoritative supervision. Because bullies can pose as someone else, it is the most anonymous form of bullying. Cyberbullying includes, but is not limited to, abuse using email, instant messaging, text messaging, websites, social networking sites, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32492747",
"title": "Cyberbullying",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Cyberstalking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Cyberstalking is a form of online harassment in which the perpetrator uses electronic communications to stalk a victim. This is considered more dangerous than other forms of cyberbullying because it generally involves a credible threat to the victim's safety. Cyberstalkers may send repeated messages intended to threaten or harass. They may encourage others to do the same, either explicitly or by impersonating their victim and asking others to contact them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "225761",
"title": "Proxemics",
"section": "Section::::Applied research.:Cyberbullying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Cyberbullying is a communication phenomenon in which a bully utilizes electronic media in order to harass peers. Adolescents favor texting or computer-mediated communication as an alternative to the more directly combative face-to-face interactions because it takes advantage of evading imposed social norms such as \"school rules\", which are likely to be especially repressive of aggression involving females. Online bullying has a lot in common with bullying in school: Both behaviors include harassment, humiliation, teasing and aggression. Cyberbullying presents unique challenges in the sense that the perpetrator can attempt to be anonymous, and attacks can happen at any time of day or night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6k4psl
|
Cathedrals are large and ornate, necessitating significant investment to construct. Did Cathedrals they serve any practical purpose for the village/town/city aside from hosting religious proceedings.
|
[
{
"answer": "For clarification, is there a specific time period or geographical area in which you are specifically interested?",
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},
{
"answer": "There actually are a few ways that churches functioned aside from housing worshipers for Mass, but these are, of course, directly related to the church’s larger spiritual aims which took precedence in the Middle Ages. I can’t demonstrate every way that the space of the church was used at this time but I can give a few specific examples. Incidentally, both of these also relate to how churches raised funds for their own repairs and construction. \n\nPerhaps one of the more prominent practices that became widespread during the range of dates you specified was the practice of pilgrimage in which devout churchgoers would visit the shrine of a saint or holy person—this could consist of their physical remains or some object that they had touched worn, etc—and pray in the presence of these objects so that they could for example, be forgiven for their sins, or be granted a miracle. Over time, some of these objects gained a reputation for being miraculous and thus attracted the attention of more pilgrims. This led not only changes to in the physical structure of the church itself but also alternative uses for its space. A well-known example of this is the Church of Santiago de Compostela, completed in 1211, and built to house the relics of St. James. As it was made for the benefit of pilgrims rather than local parishioners, this church had a prominent ambulatory with small chapels around it so that visitors could venerate the relics without interrupting mass [(floor plan)](_URL_0_). They could enter through the transept (side-entrance), explore the space of the church, and visit the relics located around the perimeter without disturbing the activities taking place in the nave and high altar. This practice became fairly widespread and even became the impetus for a sort of economy with hostels, pilgrimage churches and other forms of proto-tourist infrastructure popping up along major pilgrimage routes. \n\nAnother example of the popularity of pilgrimage can be seen with Chartres Cathedral [(floorplan)] (_URL_4_) [(exterior)] (_URL_1_) and, incidentally, it is also an interesting example of how major construction projects came to be funded. The relic it contained was purported to be a shift worn by the Virgin as she gave birth to Christ. This particular relic had healing powers attributed to it which made Chartres a major pilgrimage destination. In fact, during its rebuilding in 1145, wagonloads of donors arrived with food and construction materials to sustain the builders and in return were allowed to see the relics (Freeman 115). In yet another creative way of raising funds (in addition to those from bishops, church officials, and aristocratic patrons, of course), the churchmen at this cathedral played on the public’s particular interest in this relic and sent it on tour as a way to generate money for the construction of this church. This practice positions pilgrimage as a major factor in a sort of medieval proto-tourism and an influence on the economy of Europe. \n\nAnother more peripheral way that the church functioned during the medieval era was as the base for larger monastic communities. Although here the space was still used in largely the same way, it did spur the construction of supporting communities of monks whose interactions with the surrounding community broadened the ways that individuals could interact with the church. For example, if you look at the [St. Gall plan] (_URL_3_), a plan of what an ideal monastic space should look like, you can see that while the church forms the bulk of the architectural space, it also contained a hostel, guesthouse, school, and infirmary. While this particular plan was never executed, (it represented an ideal layout of space) it does show how monastic communities provided public services that could be later associated with the church. \n\nSources consulted:\n\n* Charles Freeman, *Holy Bones, Holy Dust: How Relics Shaped the History of Medieval Europe*\n\n* Carolingian Culture at Reichenau & St. Gall: _URL_2_",
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{
"answer": "Let me start of by saying that I'm probably not the most qualified person here to answer your question. But i really like the question and i think it deserves an answer. I'm not a church or social historian. I'm a medieval historian that focusses on the northern low countries mainly in the period between 1100 and 1500. This means that first of all my answer is going to mainly be true for that period and that area, when i give examples that aren't found in the norther low countries i will specifically mention place names. It also means that i wont be able to provide a proper source for most of this, since it is quite general information that i picked up at lectures or symposiums. If anybody would like a source on something i said, please let me know and ill try and find it somewhere.\n\nIf i may, i would like to change the question a little bit. A cathedral isn't a big or ornate church, it is the seat of a bishop. Not every cathedral was big and ornate and not every big and ornate church was a cathedral. I would like to answer the question for any big ornate urban church in the high till low middle ages. One of the reasons for this change is that my area of expertise, the norther low countries, only had one cathedral in Utrecht but many more big urban churches.\n\nSo the question would be. What were the practical functions of big urban churches between 1100 and 1500? There are a couple of uses and functions big urban churches would have during the middle ages and i think the following 6 points are the most important out of all of them. But this is by no means an exhaustive overview.\n\n* Prestige\n* Tourism\n* Capittel/Collegiate churches\n* Schools\n* Lay involvement\n* Social center\n\n**Prestige**\n\nIn the middle ages being part of an urban community meant something to the members. Cities in the northern low countries were still real communities. The norther low countries had many small till medium sized cities. The biggest city being Utrecht, having around 10.000 inhabitant, most cities having around 3000 people living in them. The people living in those cities were burghers of these cities and as such had certain rights and privileges within the medieval world. They were proud of these privileges and freedoms and as such the city was often the highest unit of government they felt a real loyalty to. For the burghers having a big church that would rival a cathedral even though there was no bishop was a point of pride. Having a big altar stone made of foreign rock, a full time choir that fills the church with song or the highest tower of the region was a real concern and something they were prepared to spend a lot of money on. If a rival trading town would build a church more ornate then the one of their own community, the civil leadership would sometimes attempt to raise money to one up them.\n\n**Tourism**\n\nThat's right, medieval tourism. Well maybe it would be more accurate to call it pilgrimage. Anybody who has read the Canterbury tales is probably familiar with the concept of tourism in the middle ages. Some people would have been moved by spirituality or the need to heal a certain ailment other just wanted to see the sights and drink beer. Having a big ornate church with relics could help attracting pilgrims to the city who would in turn spend money on food, drink, bed and souvenirs. Some extreme examples of cities that had a real tourism industry would be Canterbury or Santiago de Compostela. But every city had their regional legends and saints. (This was before the papacy regulated sainthood) Even relatively small towns could try and attract pilgrims. Most wouldn't be on a European scale, but having a famous relic or miracle would even attract pilgrims to small town or village churches on a regional scale.\n\n**Capittel/Collegiate churches**\n\nThis is were we venture in a little bit of less known territory. By the late middle ages every city of some importance would have had at least one church with a capittel. Utrecht besides their cathedral had 5 churches that had a capittel staffed by cannons. Being a canon was a particular lucrative ecclesiastical position often staffed by university educated career clerics and the low nobility. Having some level of learnedness was often required and this was a way for the patrons of the church may they be nobility or as was often the case civil to bind influential or skilled clerics to them. The position of canon was particularly lucrative because they were more often then not connected to a prebend. A prebend is a collection of land or other goods that would produce the income of the canon. This college of cannons were headed by a deacon or provost (sometimes both) who often head a very substantial prebend. This meant that big churches were often also administration centers for big estates and sometimes even had lordly rights over villages or areas. In cities with a bishop the canons would also be officially responsible for choosing the new bishop, so they would have to be bribed by anyone or their patron aspiring to that position.\n\n**Schools**\n\nCapittel churches often had schools. Before there was the university there was the capittel school and in western Europe many Universities have their roots in capittel schools. The professors were often canons, giving out lucrative prebends with these canonships was a way to bind professors to the school or attract more learned and famous ones. While classes and lectures would often be held outside of the church itself, these professors and students were bound to the church and therefor to the city. While especially in the late middle ages when Universities and secular latin schools started to gain ground, in the high middle ages these were some of the most important cultural and knowledge centers of Europe. (Along with a handful of really important monasteries) Having a capittel church with lucrative prebends would have been a way for a town to attract both professors and students. While students would often bring trouble, they would also bring money.\n\n**Lay involvement**\n\nFrom around 1300 onward lay involvement in churches would flourish in the northern low countries. Lay brotherhoods were founded for people wishing to get spiritually involved, but not able or willing to take the vows. Guilds also played a big part spiritual revival of sorts in lay culture. Both these lay brotherhoods and guilds payed to have chapels build inside or next to big churches. They would furnish and decorate these chapels, bury their important death in them and pay for a chaplain to perform services in these chapels. These chapels were more then just spiritual places for these brotherhoods and guilds. From these brotherhoods in the low countries would form so called \"rederijkerskamers\", these were brotherhoods of lay people that were amateur writers, musicians and stage performance. These were the first real clubs for amateur artists in the low countries and the civil expression of culture that would displace the courtly literature that was popular during the high middle ages. These clubs gave the burghers a cultural voice and are regarded as being very important by scholars of Dutch language literature, these clubs were really just lay brotherhoods based out of churches.\n\n**Social center**\n\nFrom the smallest parish church till the biggest urban cathedral. The church was a place for the community to gather. Churches were not just open during mass or sermon, but were often open during the day. People would come in to pray, listen to the choir, look at art or in the northern low countries even read sermons pinned to the wall or pillars. But there weren't just spiritual reasons to visit the church. Often merchants would conclude business deals in the church. It was a public place, often very central and maybe even more important; who would try and cheat or lie about a deal in a church? But people could also come in and converse. Urban churches were full of life, not only during mass. They were often quite busy the entire day. There were priests, chaplains, canons, students, singers, musicians, merchants, guild members, lay brothers, normal townsfolk and often even cats and dogs in the church. \n\n\nI hope this answers most of your questions about how these big ornate buildings were practically used in day to day life. If you want i can tell you a little bit about how the medieval theologians felt about the buildings beings so ornate if you're interested, but i would type that up some other time.\n\n**Some sources:** (I'm sorry that i cant do better)\n\nAbout the role of capittel churches in medieval education: Charles Homer Haskings, *The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century* (Cambridge 1927).\n\nAbout capittels in the northern low countries general: A.J van den Hoven van Genderen, *De heren van de kerk : de kanunniken van Oudmunster te Utrecht in de late middeleeuwen* (Zuthpen 1997).\n\nAbout medieval society: W. Blockmans and P. Hoppenbrouwers, *Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300-1500* (Routledge 2007).\n\n\n\n\n ",
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},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45883",
"title": "Cathedral",
"section": "Section::::Buildings.:Artworks, treasures and tourism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Because many cathedrals took centuries to build and decorate, they constitute a major artistic investment for the city in which they stand. Not only may the building itself be architecturally significant, but the church often houses treasures such as stained glass, stone and wood statues, historic tombs, richly carved furniture and objects of both artistic and religious significance such as reliquaries. Moreover, the cathedral often plays a major role in telling the story of the town, through its plaques, inscriptions, tombs, stained glass and paintings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45883",
"title": "Cathedral",
"section": "Section::::Buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Cathedral buildings, especially those dating from the Medieval period, are frequently the grandest of churches in the diocese (and country). The ancient cathedrals of England, of Northern France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Germany and Sicily, the Baroque cathedrals of South America, and many individual cathedrals from Italy and other parts of Europe, are among the largest and finest religious buildings. Many are renowned for their architecture or their decorative features such as sculpture, stained glass and frescos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32516987",
"title": "Christian culture",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "Cathedrals in particular, as well as many abbey churches and basilicas, have certain complex structural forms that are found less often in parish churches. They also tend to display a higher level of contemporary architectural style and the work of accomplished craftsmen, and occupy a status both ecclesiastical and social that an ordinary parish church does not have. Such a cathedral or great church is generally one of the finest buildings within its region and is a focus of local pride. Many cathedrals and basilicas, and a number of abbey churches are among the world's most renowned works of architecture. These include St. Peter's Basilica, Notre Dame de Paris, Cologne Cathedral, Salisbury Cathedral, Prague Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, the Basilica of St Denis, the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, the Basilica of San Vitale, St Mark's Basilica, Westminster Abbey, Saint Basil's Cathedral, Washington National Cathedral, Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis, Gaudí's incomplete Sagrada Familia and the ancient church of Hagia Sophia, now a museum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180750",
"title": "Architecture of cathedrals and great churches",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "Cathedrals, as well as many abbey churches and basilicas, have certain complex structural forms that are found less often in parish churches. They also tend to display a higher level of contemporary architectural style and the work of accomplished craftsmen, and occupy a status both ecclesiastical and social that an ordinary parish church does not have. Such a cathedral or great church is generally one of the finest buildings within its region and is a focus of local pride. Many cathedrals and basilicas, and a number of abbey churches are among the world's most renowned works of architecture. These include St. Peter’s Basilica, Notre Dame de Paris, Cologne Cathedral, Salisbury Cathedral, Prague Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, the Basilica of St Denis, the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, the Basilica of San Vitale, St Mark's Basilica, Westminster Abbey, Saint Basil's Cathedral, Gaudí's incomplete Sagrada Familia and the ancient church of Hagia Sophia, now a museum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45883",
"title": "Cathedral",
"section": "Section::::Buildings.:Artworks, treasures and tourism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Many cathedrals, because of their large size and the fact that they often have towers, spires or domes, have until the 20th century, been the major landmarks in cities or in views across the countryside. With highrise building, civil action has been taken in some cases, such as the Cologne Cathedral to prevent the vista of the cathedral from being spoiled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28649756",
"title": "Russian church architecture",
"section": "Section::::Aesthetic and spiritual considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "Naturally, it is the interior architecture of cathedrals that provide the most magnificent setting for Orthodox liturgy. Rather than being merely an aesthetic backdrop to the rituals of the clergy, cathedral architecture is planned so as to enhance the experience of worship. A cathedral’s architecture, therefore, becomes an active participant in the sensory experience of the parishioners during Orthodox ritual. Further, the architecture of the church is planned so as to enhance the actions of the clergy; this is related to the strong mystic aspect of the church born out of Orthodoxy’s Byzantine roots. The clergy become a central component of the aesthetic experience of the worship service. The architecture of the surrounding building, evenly distributed light, swirling incense smoke, and resounding sound of the worship service all work together to create the aesthetic experience of the Orthodox form of worship. Church architecture does not constitute a background to the Orthodox service; rather, church architecture is central to the actions of the service itself. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6325",
"title": "Church (building)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval times.:Gothic architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Cathedrals were built in a very lavish way, as in the romanesque era. Examples for that are the Notre-Dame de Paris and the Notre-Dame de Reims in France, but also the San Francesco d’Assisi in Palermo, the Salisbury Cathedral and the Wool Church in Lavenham, England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sh4zt
|
Why does snow accumulate in stripes? (Pic)
|
[
{
"answer": "It is because of wind. It works like sand dunes. You start with an even accumulation, then wind blows in one direction. Imperfections in the ground surface cause some flakes to stick, and others stick to them, until all of the snow is in drifts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5594272",
"title": "Slush",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In the natural environment, slush forms when ice or snow melts. This often mixes with dirt and other materials, resulting in a gray or muddy brown color. Often, solid ice or snow can block the drainage of fluid water from slushy areas, so slush often goes through multiple freeze/thaw cycles before completely disappearing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4338212",
"title": "Chlamydomonas nivalis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Chlamydomonas nivalis is a unicellular red-coloured photosynthetic green alga that is found in the snowfields of the alps and polar regions all over the world. They are one of the main algae responsible for causing the phenomenon of watermelon snow, where patches of snow appear red or pink and emit a ripe watermelon odour upon disturbance. The first account of microbial communities that form red snow was made by Aristotle. Researchers have been active in studying this organism for over 100 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286260",
"title": "Precipitation",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Snowflakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles. The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. Rarely, at a temperature of around , snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry—triangular snowflakes. The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. No two snowflakes are alike, as they grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere through which they fall on their way to the ground. The METAR code for snow is SN, while snow showers are coded SHSN.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23607823",
"title": "Snowflake",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Appearance.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Although ice by itself is clear, snow usually appears white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the scattering of light by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes of which it is comprised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24663798",
"title": "Snow patch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Snow patches often start in sheltered places where both thermal and orographical conditions are favourable for the conservation of snow such as small existing depressions, gullies or other concave patterns. The main process that creates these accumulations is called nivation. It is a complex of processes that includes freeze–thaw action (weathering by the alternate freezing and melting of ice), mass movement (the downhill movement of substances under gravity), and erosion by meltwater which is the main agent of the surroundings' influence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4337752",
"title": "Watermelon snow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Watermelon snow, also called snow algae, pink snow, red snow, or blood snow, is a phenomenon caused by \"Chlamydomonas nivalis\", a species of green algae containing a secondary red carotenoid pigment (astaxanthin) in addition to chlorophyll. Unlike most species of fresh-water algae, it is cryophilic (cold-loving) and thrives in freezing water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "929631",
"title": "Ski wax",
"section": "Section::::Science of sliding on snow.:Snow properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "Snowflakes have a wide range of shapes, even as they fall; among these are: six-sided star-like dendrites, hexagonal needles, platelets and icy pellets. Once snow accumulates on the ground, the flakes immediately begin to undergo transformation (called \"metamorphosis\"), owing to temperature changes, sublimation, and mechanical action. Temperature changes may be from the ambient temperature, solar radiation, rainwater, wind, or the temperature of the material beneath the snow layer. Mechanical action includes wind and compaction. Over time, bulk snow tends to consolidate—its crystals become truncated from breaking apart or losing mass with sublimation directly from solid to gas and with freeze-thaw, causing them to combine as coarse and granular ice crystals. Colbeck reports that fresh, cold, and man-made snow all interact more directly with the base of a ski and increase friction, indicating the use of harder waxes. Conversely, older, warmer, and denser snows present lower friction, in part due to increased grain size, which better promotes a water film and a smoother surface of the snow crystals for which softer waxes are indicated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4b6npl
|
how does soaking a piece of clothing in milk remove red wine stains?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're extracting the compounds In wine by using density extraction. Milk is more dense than the wine compounds so it ends up pulling up the less dense components. Source: I'm a Biochemistry student",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Potassium metabisulfite... it's in the wine anyway.. and you won't believe your eyes. Repeatedly using will eventually cause color fading in colors other than white. Mix with a little water and away you go.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Drycleaner/Fabricare Specialist here. The industry standard is a Tannin Stain Remover (such as Trik, a product of Stanford Chemical Company) applied to the stain, with steam added to increase the action of spotting agent. In my experience, it is the best option. It doesn't work 100% of the time, but it's more reliable than anything else I know of.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "Section::::Stain remover.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The popular belief that carbonated water is a good remover of clothing stains, particularly those of red wine, is based on hearsay and anecdotal evidence. The dissolved gas in water acts as a temporary surfactant. There is no underlying chemical reason why carbonated water would be superior to plain water in stain removal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "683049",
"title": "Club soda",
"section": "Section::::As stain remover.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The popular belief that carbonated water is a good remover of clothing stains, particularly those of red wine, is based on hearsay and anecdotal evidence. The dissolved gas in water acts as a temporary surfactant. There is no underlying chemical reason why carbonated water would be superior to plain water in stain removal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "194113",
"title": "Collodion process",
"section": "Section::::Collodion emulsion preparation example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "To wash, the emulsion is poured into a dish and the solvents are evaporated until the collodion becomes gelatinous. It is then washed with water, followed by a washing in alcohol. After washing, it is redissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol and is then ready for use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904269",
"title": "Red wine",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Fining and stabilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Red wines sometimes undergo fining, which is designed to clarify the wine and sometimes to correct faults such as excess tannin. Fining agents include egg white and gelatin. Some red wines, particularly those designed for early drinking, are cold stabilized so as to prevent the precipitation of unsightly tartrate crystals in the bottle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263286",
"title": "Dishwashing liquid",
"section": "Section::::Informal uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "BULLET::::- A solution of dishwashing liquid and water may be used to remove coffee, tea, olive oil, soda and fruit juice stains from fabrics. One dishwashing liquid brand has been used to remove stains from white or lightly-colored cloth napkins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373172",
"title": "Winemaking",
"section": "Section::::Crushing and primary (alcoholic) fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "Most white wines are processed without destemming or crushing and are transferred from picking bins directly to the press. This is to avoid any extraction of tannin from either the skins or grapeseeds, as well as maintaining proper juice flow through a matrix of grape clusters rather than loose berries. In some circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for a short period of skin contact, usually for three to 24 hours. This serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins (the tannin being extracted to encourage protein precipitation without excessive Bentonite addition) as well as potassium ions, which participate in bitartrate precipitation (cream of tartar). It also results in an increase in the pH of the juice which may be desirable for overly acidic grapes. This was a practice more common in the 1970s than today, though still practiced by some Sauvignon blanc and Chardonnay producers in California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "657067",
"title": "Powdered milk",
"section": "Section::::History and manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Alternatively, the milk can be dried by drum drying. Milk is applied as a thin film to the surface of a heated drum, and the dried milk solids are then scraped off. However, powdered milk made this way tends to have a cooked flavour, due to caramelization caused by greater heat exposure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e9el2
|
Monday Mysteries | Ancient Ruins
|
[
{
"answer": "Ok, what stuff on Ancient Aliens really is a mystery?\n\nI'm not asking about the alien stuff, just if a ruin that they've talked about really is a complete mystery and we don't know why or how it's there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since it was the first thing that popped into my head, and then you went ahead and mentioned it, what *is* the deal with the Antikythera mechanism? I understand that it's relatively explainable for the technology of its time, and that [recent research](_URL_0_) suggests it most likely has some kind of astronomical function. \n\nMy question is about the context in which it was found. Do we have evidence of any kind of mechanical devices anywhere as complex as this device? Do we know why it was found on this one shipwreck, what it might have been used for?\n\nI've also heard it described as a primitive analog computer. Do we have any evidence that the ancient Greeks understand the theory behind how it worked? Or does it exist in some kind of vacuum?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also...who *were* the Huns, really? Last I heard, the idea that they were the descendents of the Xiongu is out of fashion. Do modern scholars have any idea where they came from?\n\nIf not - if the word \"Huns\" just described a loose collection of tribes from north of the Black Sea - then what's up with the Hunnic Empire? Was it dominated by any one culture or ethnic group? Why did it seem to vanish so completely after Atilla's death?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem is that, at least as it is often stated, the designation of an archaeological remain as \"mysterious\" is entirely exogenous and thus archaeologically incoherent, a revelation not of the structure but of our own basic ignorance as to the culture. Many people describe Stonehenge as \"mysterious\" but to the builders it was not mysterious at all--imagine someone who, say, doesn't know about McDonalds remarking on these mysterious structures, seemingly containing their own distinct iconography and widely spread through zones that are neither geographically or culturally contiguous. Mysteeeerriioouus. In fact, the description of certain remains as \"mysterious\" is rather problematic, and contributes to the exoticisizing discourse around, eg, the \"unknowable and inscrutable oriental\".\n\nBuzzkill aside, the Eumachia structure at the southern end of the western side of the Pompeii forum has not, as of yet, had its function positively identified by archaeologists. It seems to have had some connection with the wool industry, but it is a bit atypical for a collegia office and is not in a particularly logical position to be a \"sheep processing unit\".\n\nEDIT: Not that there *are* not structures that we can, to a certain extent, deem \"mysterious\". But it is often used to shift the onus of ignorance onto the culture that produced it. It would be like, for example, me saying that the Spanish language is \"mysterious\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've been curious about the Japanese Yonagani Monument, which appears to be some sort Japanese Atlantis that some believe to be part of the mythical lost continent of Mu. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've long been fascinated by [brochs](_URL_0_), an odd sort of dry-stone circular building found mainly on the coast of Scotland but also in one or two places well inland. They have two walls, separated by corridors or voids, and taper inwards above ground. The doors are low so that one has to stoop to hands and knees to get in to most of them. Some of them still intact enough to have internal above-ground corridors which can be walked through. There are no external windows (there are slits on the inner walls), and although it's difficult to be sure, it seems that it would have been difficult to get on top of them from the inside to defend the buildings.\n\nThere still seems to be little known about them: the best estimate is that they were built from 1C BCE to 1C CE. They are often built with a view of the sea (not always), but they might have been built more to be seen *from* the sea as prestige objects - but since they might have been as common as every couple of miles, prestige would not have been that great.\n\nI'd be interested in anything anyone can add to this brief summary. For instance, why did they seem to have no provision for defence once the door was closed? Why were they sometimes built close together (Dun Telve and Dun Troddan are 500m apart)? Why were they sometimes built out of sight of the sea (these two again)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [Longyou Grottoes](_URL_1_). Its 24 massive caves that have been excavated by hand. It was discovered in 1992 in China.\n\nCan anyone share more info on the Longyou Grottoes? (why did they make it?, who made it?). I can't find much information on it. Except for [this](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One particularly bizarre (to our eyes) archaeological feature are the mosaics found in Olmec cities like *La Venta*. [Here's an example](_URL_0_). These large patterns are made from serpentine (a kind of green stone considered to be a precious mineral by Mesoamericans). The weird thing about them is that they were buried immediately after construction. To us, this seems incredibly bizarre given how valuable serpentine was to Mesoamerican cultures. It would be like paving a large plaza in silver and then immediately covering it with cement. \n\nThese days archaeologists often say these mosaics are \"ritual features.\" Which is a fancy way of saying that we have no idea what they were for. Most likely, they weren't meant to be seen by mortals. It was probably enough that the Olmec priests *knew* the mosaic was there so that they could invoke it in some kind of religious ritual. But what exactly this ritual was and why it needed a massive hidden mosaic face made of pure serpentine is completely unknown to us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am quite fascinated by the Göbekli Tepe temple and what it signifies for early humans.\n\nWhat's the significance of such a structure and how does it fit into what we understand about our ancestors?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5983897",
"title": "Ancient Ruins and Archaeology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Ancient Ruins and Archaeology is a 1964 science book by L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook de Camp, one of their most popular works. It was first published by Doubleday and has been reprinted numerous times by other publishers. Paperback editions since 1972 have generally reverted to the title Citadels of Mystery, which was the de Camps' original working title. Translations into French, German and Portuguese have also appeared. Portions of the work had previously appeared as articles in the magazines \"Astounding Science Fiction\", \"Fate\", \"Frontiers\", \"Natural History Magazine\", \"Other Worlds Science Stories\", \"Science Fiction Quarterly\", and \"Travel\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2123881",
"title": "Oriab",
"section": "Section::::Locations.:Lake of Yath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The ruins of an ancient city, whose name and history long forgotten, lie on the shores of Yath opposite from Baharna. These ruins are shunned, most likely because of the nocturnal bloodsucking creatures, known as wamps, that dwell there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5983897",
"title": "Ancient Ruins and Archaeology",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1135,
"text": "Orville Prescott, writing for the same paper, states \"[a] livelier introduction to these ruins and mysteries could not be found.\" \"The de Camps as a team write with the same breezy zest that has added flavor to Mr. de Camp's many earlier books. / All 12 chapters in \"Ancient Ruins and Archaeology\" are informative and entertaining. And many of them are unusual because of the scornful relish with which the de Camps demolish the absurd theories, fantastic fantasies and crackpot prophecies of cultists and hoaxers.\" He finds them \"expert in condensing archaeological, anthropological and historical facts. And they have the good sense to admit frequently that much of what we would like to know is still unknown.\" He questions the relevance of the chapters debunking the legends of Atlantis and King Arthur but feels the book's chief trouble is that \"[s]o much has been written recently about the pyramids, Troy and Mycenae that anyone attracted by this book has probably read other capable accounts of them.\" He concludes nonetheless that \"[a]nyone who has never read about these matters should find [the book] briskly entertaining.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2073056",
"title": "Sulmona",
"section": "Section::::Main sights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The remains of the ancient city are of little interest as ruins, but indicate the existence of a considerable town; among them are the vestiges of an amphitheatre, a theatre, and thermae, all of them located outside the gates of the modern city. About 3km from the city, at the foot of Monte Morrone, are some ruins of reticulated masonry, traditionally believed to be Ovid's villa. Today, they are more properly identified as the sanctuary of \"Hercules Curinus\". Nearby is the \"Badia Morronese\", a large (c. 119 × 140 m) religious complex located near Pope Celestine V's hermitage. It was founded by Celestine as a chapel in 1241, and was enlarged and later made into a convent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1049461",
"title": "Province of L'Aquila",
"section": "Section::::Main sights.:Sulmona.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "The remains of the ancient city are of little interest as ruins, but indicate the existence of a considerable town; among them are the vestiges of an amphitheatre, a theatre, and thermae, all of them located outside the gates of the modern city. About 3 km from the city, at the foot of Monte Morrone, are some ruins of reticulated masonry, traditionally believed to be Ovid's villa. Today, they are more properly identified as the sanctuary of \"Hercules Curinus\". Nearby is the \"Badia Morronese\", a large (c. 119 × 140 m) religious complex located near Pope Celestine V's hermitage. It was founded by Celestine as a chapel in 1241, and was enlarged and later made into a convent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19324024",
"title": "Irkay",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "In the North of the town, at the cliff of the mountain, lie many mysterious caves which have been deserted for hundreds of years. It is believed that deep within the caves are ancient artifacts, like pottery and old ruins dating back to the Romans and the Phoenicians. No-one has ever explored these caves because of their remote location; however the ruins are believed to exist, because over 7000 years ago ancient civilizations inhabited the Levant area (including Lebanon) so that discovery wouldn’t be a surprise. About ten years ago, people from the town were doing excavation work to build a house, when they found a cave, with two old jars inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5983897",
"title": "Ancient Ruins and Archaeology",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The work is a guide to a dozen of the more famous ruins from civilizations of ancient times throughout the world, the speculations surrounding their fates, and modern fantasy literature inspired by them. The surveyed sites include Tartessos, the Pyramids of Giza, Stonehenge, Troy, Ma'rib, Zimbabwe, Tintagel, Angkor, the Mayan city of Tikal, the Inca city of Machu Picchu, Nan Matol, and the Moai of Rapa Nui.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5llx01
|
how are my headphones playing a "ghost station"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pirate radio yyarrr! This is actually normal and happens with low quality speakers. Essentially the wire in your headphones are not shielded well so they are acting as an antenna. They are able to pick up a certain AM frequency because of this. I actually was able to once get legitimate pirate music (literally yo-ho ho and a bottle of rum type music) once from some old crappy speakers I had would wake me up at night.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a couple of my own theories.\n\n1) the audio from another input on the TV is leaking onto the audio jack channel.\n\n2) the cable is acting as an antenna and picking up a radio station (but what is the receiver?)\n\n3) I'm acting as an antenna and picking up a radio station (how would my headphones pick that up, and where's the receiver?)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A nearby AM radio station is being picked up and rectified by the TV. \n\nA simple AM receiver can be made with a junction of two dissimilar metals or a metal needle point on a crystal. I suspect the electronics in the TV are performing the rectification and the headphone cable is the antenna. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Somewhere in the headphone circuit there's a cheap half-bridge rectifier. The headphone extension is also unshielded, allowing it to act as an antenna. The AM radio signal is its own power.\n\nIf the guilty circuit had used a **_FULL BRIDGE RECTIFIER_** ^^cough ^^cough ^^sorry or if the cord was properly shielded, you wouldn't pick up the station.\n\nRadio Shack used to sell (and may still sell) ferrite donuts called Chokes to snap over cables to eat parasitised RF signals.\n\n-------------\n\n^(**_FULL BRIDGE RECTIFIER_** ༠ཽ.༠ཽ)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a related question to this that I've been trying to figure out for a while. While I'm driving in my car, in a suburb of Philadelphia, PA, and listening to a local sports talk radio (97.5 the fanatic) on my car radio. Every so often, the station will fade out, and a station from Birmingham Alabama will come in clear. I can't figure out how that could be happening. Any ideas? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6677402",
"title": "St. James Theatre, Wellington",
"section": "Section::::Paranormal happenings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Another ghost is that of Stan Andrews. He is often heard wheezing around the backstage corridors at night, checking on his ushers. Also, a boy's choir is said to haunt the auditorium. The choir played their last song at the St. James during World War II before sailing off on tour. Their ship was never seen again and workers at the theatre often hear their music in the stands. However, when they investigate the sound, it moves to a separate part of the seats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30523766",
"title": "Dongala Mutha",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "When asked, the receptionist tells them the source of the sound from the neighboring room is a ghost. The manager says it is not a ghost, but a thief. Frightened at their gestures, Sudheer and Rani try to get out of the resort, but the manager, receptionist, and servant (Brahmaji) hold them captive and keep Rani in room 9 - the same room as the one with the ghost. However, Sudheer and Rani manage to escape from them but are trapped in the same building. The three men at the resort are actually kidnappers working for a don Munna Bhai. They have kidnapped a businessman Narayana Murthy (Brahmanandam) and locked him up in room number 9. To solve the kidnap mystery, cops Shiva (Lakshmi Manchu) and Richard (Sunil) arrive at the resort feigning to convey the message that Munna has been arrested. What ensues now is a game of hide and seek as Sudheer, Rani and Narayana are now on the run. Finally, a cop-on-duty (Prakash Raj) arrives to arrest \"The Mutha\", later revealing himself to be Munna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57174969",
"title": "Kids See Ghosts (album)",
"section": "Section::::Release and promotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1978,
"text": "On June 5, 2018, Cudi's manager Dennis Cummings announced a listening party for \"Kids See Ghosts\" in Los Angeles via Twitter, which was to be conducted a day prior to release. The live stream of the album's listening party was intended to take place through the WAV app at 11 pm EST, but after a series of unexplained delays and much fan frustration, the live stream did not start until 1:50 am EST on June 8. It was unknown whether the live stream being delayed was because of a technical issue or Kids See Ghosts showing up late. The listening party was held by a bonfire at a secret location in Southern California, with Kids See Ghosts showcasing their merchandise at the party. Attendees of the listening party included the Kardashian-Jenner clan, Quentin Miller of American hip hop duo WDNG Crshrs, American rapper and singer Desiigner, and Trinidadian-American rapper Trinidad James. No music videos were released for \"Kids See Ghosts\" or \"Ye\". Kids See Ghosts made their live debut at the 2018 Camp Flog Gnaw Carnival, performing for 45 minutes inside a rectangular glass box that was floating above the stage. The duo delivered a full performance of \"Kids See Ghosts\", performing the tracks in the order they were released on the album, and also performed a number of past collaborations, including \"Welcome to Heartbreak\" and \"Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1\". West forgot several lyrics from his verses on \"Reborn\" and \"Cudi Montage\". Kids See Ghosts performed live together at the 2019 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, with the duo beginning their performance with the album's opener \"Feel the Love\". They also delivered performances of \"Reborn\", \"Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)\", \"Ghost Town\" and \"Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1\" at the festival. On April 12, Canadian-Australian musician Nicole Millar performed an altered cover version of \"Reborn\" with an entourage of instrumentalists and back up singers as part of triple j's weekly segment Like a Version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19493469",
"title": "Sony Ericsson K770",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "On the right-hand side of the phone there are three keys - two for controlling volume (when in audio mode), skipping through tracks in the Media Player and zooming in and out when in camera mode after the photograph has been taken. The included handsfree headset is also required to listen to the radio since it functions as the antenna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2126867",
"title": "Scott Mills (radio show)",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ghostbusters—Scott invites listeners who have been \"ghosted\" to get in touch, and share their experience. Scott or Chris will then attempt to contact the \"ghost\" (person who ghosted the listener) and obtain an explanation for their sudden disappearance. Often, ghosts are unwilling to appear on-air although some offer explanations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1551152",
"title": "Somebody's Watching Me",
"section": "Section::::Music video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The music video to \"Somebody's Watching Me\" (which uses the radio edit instead of the album version) underscores the song's paranoid tone with a haunted house-inspired theme, including imagery of floating heads, ravens, graveyards, and shower scenes referencing \"Psycho\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "In the professional audio sector, headphones are used in live situations by disc jockeys with a DJ mixer, and sound engineers for monitoring signal sources. In radio studios, DJs use a pair of headphones when talking to the microphone while the speakers are turned off to eliminate acoustic feedback while monitoring their own voice. In studio recordings, musicians and singers use headphones to play or sing along to a backing track or band. In military applications, audio signals of many varieties are monitored using headphones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5r4z1i
|
when using my smartphone camera why is video darker than photos for a given light level?
|
[
{
"answer": "Exposure time. \n\nWhen you take a still-shot, the camera can pause to take in a large amount of light - after all, nobody is moving around much (hopefully) and there's no rush to get another shot in within the next few ms.\n\nWhen you're taking a video, however, the camera has at most 30 ms to take in light for each frame. So if the light level is low, it can't wait longer for more light, and it has to export what it's gotten so far and start taking in light for the next frame.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Camera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The camera on the iPhone 5 reportedly shows purple haze when the light source is just out of frame, although Consumer Reports said it \"is no more prone to purple hazing on photos shot into a bright light source than its predecessor or than several Android phones with fine cameras...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22319717",
"title": "Samsung T919 Behold",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "There is a flash on the Behold's camera but it is only useful when taking photos at a closer range (around three feet). As for the video application, users were dissatisfied with the quality of the footage taken because the highest quality of the videos could only be 320 X 240. Users felt that there were very few options for the video application and that the sound the videos produced were very low and users had to listen very closely to hear the sound. Mostly, this 5.0 pixel camera phone works just as well as a normal camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31055925",
"title": "Nintendo 3DS system software",
"section": "Section::::Home Menu.:Nintendo 3DS Camera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "There are various options and filters available when taking photos or recording video. In addition to the \"Normal\" mode, there is a \"Low-Light\" option, which is useful when taking photos and recording video in dark lighting conditions. Other options include manual controls such as the color type (normal, black and white, sepia, negative or solarize), sharpness, contrast and brightness. Real-time photo filters are also available including \"Sparkle\", which adds moving stars to the photo, \"Dream\", which adds a dream-like bright light to the photo, \"Pinhole\", which lightens the center of the screen and darkens the edges and \"Mystery\", which adds a random finish to the photo. There is also a special mode called \"Merge\", which takes a photo of the user facing the inner camera and merges the photo from someone facing the outer cameras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1788623",
"title": "Active shutter 3D system",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "BULLET::::- LC shutter glasses are shutting out light half of the time; moreover, they are slightly dark even when letting light through, because they are polarized. This gives an effect similar to watching TV with sunglasses on, which causes a darker picture to be perceived by the viewer. However, this effect can produce a higher perceived display contrast when paired with LCDs because of the reduction in backlight bleed. Since the glasses also darken the background, contrast is enhanced when using a brighter image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23784234",
"title": "Privacy-enhanced computer display",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "With the rapid growth of handheld phones with integrated digital cameras (and fast shutters) the phone's camera video will often reveal alternating frames of the public and secret images. This effectively breaks the privacy capability of the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46953",
"title": "Chroma key",
"section": "Section::::Tolerances.:Exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Another challenge for bluescreen or greenscreen is proper camera exposure. Underexposing or overexposing a colored backdrop can lead to poor saturation levels. In the case of video cameras, underexposed images can contain high amounts of noise, as well. The background must be bright enough to allow the camera to create a bright and saturated image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6352814",
"title": "Nokia 6111",
"section": "Section::::Camera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The one megapixel camera offers a resolution of 1152x864 pixels, video (QCIF). The night mode on the camera allows you to still take photos in dim light. There is an attached flash with the camera but mainly consists of a light that turns on while the photo is being taken offering help only for targets that are close. There is a small reflective surface next to the lens that acts as a mirror when taking self-photos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
alrkr2
|
what happens to the human body that makes it feel like cold isn't cold?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your body can't actually sense temperature. It feels heat being absorbed or lost. So when you are losing heat your body tells you that your surroundings are cold. The more heat you lose the more you perceive your surroundings as being cold. Also, the greater the temperature differential between two things, the faster heat flows from one to the other. \n\nYou are asking about how you can feel cold in a cold temperature but then ok in that same temperature later (when you have adjusted). \n\nThis is the same thing as getting into a cold swimming pool: freezing at first but fine after you've been in it for a while. Your body adjusts by constricting blood flow in the extremities, so your skin is colder than your insides. When your skin was hotter there was a greater heat loss and you perceived it to be colder. When your skin was colder there was a smaller heat loss and your body tells you that means your surroundings are warmer (when it's really that your skin is colder).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19725090",
"title": "Cold",
"section": "Section::::Physiological effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Cold has numerous physiological and pathological effects on the human body, as well as on other organisms. Cold environments may promote certain psychological traits, as well as having direct effects on the ability to move. Shivering is one of the first physiological responses to cold. Extreme cold temperatures may lead to frostbite, sepsis, and hypothermia, which in turn may result in death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8331759",
"title": "Human body temperature",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Hypothermia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In hypothermia, body temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In humans, this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body's core temperature drops by below normal temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The common cold, also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose. The throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected. Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. These may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally those with other health problems may develop pneumonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146879",
"title": "Hypothermia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Paradoxical undressing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8284364",
"title": "Colitose",
"section": "Section::::Biosynthesis.:GDP-4-keto-6-deoxymannose-3-dehydratase (ColD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "ColD is a PLP-dependent enzyme responsible for the removal of the C-3' hydroxyl group during the biosynthesis of GDP-colitose. It is a product of the \"Wbdk\" or \"ColD\" genes in \"Escherichia coli\" O55 or \"Salmonella enterica\", respectively, and is commonly referred to as ColD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197710",
"title": "Pure Land Buddhism",
"section": "Section::::Going to the Pure Land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "The last part of the body to become cold is the top of the head (posterior fontanelle). In Buddhist teaching, souls who enter the Pure Land leave the body through the fontanelle at the top of the skull. Hence, this part of the body stays warmer longer than the rest of the body. The \"Verses on the Structure of the Eight Consciousnesses\" (), reads: \"to birth in saints the last body temperature in top of head, to deva in eyes, to human in heart, to hungry ghosts in belly, to animals in knee cap, to the hells-realm in sole of feet.\" See also: \"phowa\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51796195",
"title": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans",
"section": "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Cold.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The human body has two methods of thermogenesis, which produces heat to raise the core body temperature. The first is shivering, which occurs in an unclothed person when the ambient air temperature is under 25 °C (77 °F). It is limited by the amount of glycogen available in the body. The second is non-shivering, which occurs in brown adipose tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3v2qxo
|
music equalization (as it pertains to mixing)- what's the deal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Boosting = making a certain range of sound frequencies louder\n\nCutting = making a certain range of sound frequencies quieter\n\nI'll post sample pictures in a bit.\n\nEDIT: Here is an [example](_URL_0_). \n\nSo for me, I make hip-hop beats. When I'm making beats from sampling + chopping, I always cut the low / bass frequencies off of my samples for two reasons\n\n1. I use other samples for bass, in which I boost the low / bass frequencies and cut out every other frequency\n2. Like you said, without EQing while having multiple sources of sounds, it will sound cluttered. In my experience, when two or three of your sound sources have low frequencies which are too loud, it gives a crappy sound. \n\nWhen I use synth leads, I commonly cut / lower some of the higher frequencies to make it blend better. But I pretty much cut the bass out of every track / synth / sample except for one track, which I used exclusively for bass.\n\nOf course, with EQing, just experiment what works best for you. That's how I've learned and developed my own methods of blending different samples and basses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31571727",
"title": "Equalization (audio)",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1302,
"text": "Equalization is used in a reciprocal manner in certain communication channels and recording technologies. The original music is passed through a particular filter to alter its frequency balance, followed by the channel or recording process. At the end of the channel or when the recording is played, a complementary filter is inserted which precisely compensates for the original filter and recovers the original waveform. For instance, FM broadcast uses a pre-emphasis filter to boost the high frequencies before transmission, and every receiver includes a matching de-emphasis filter to restore it. The white noise that is introduced by the radio is then also de-emphasized at the higher frequencies (where it is most noticeable) along with the pre-emphasized program, making the noise less audible. Tape recorders used the same trick to reduce \"tape hiss\" while maintaining fidelity. On the other hand, in the production of vinyl records, a filter is used to reduce the amplitude of low frequencies which otherwise produce large amplitudes on the tracks of a record. Then the groove can take up less physical space, fitting more music on the record. The preamp attached to the phono cartridge has a complementary filter boosting those low frequencies following the standard RIAA equalization curve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31571727",
"title": "Equalization (audio)",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Equalization is commonly used to increase the 'depth' of a mix, creating the impression that some sounds in a mono or stereo mix are farther or closer than others, relatively. Equalization is also commonly used to give tracks with similar frequency components complementary spectral contours, known as mirrored equalization. Select components of parts which would otherwise compete, such as bass guitar and kick drum, are boosted in one part and cut in the other, and vice versa, so that they both stand out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46435987",
"title": "Mixed music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Mixed music is music combining acoustic instruments and fixed-media electronics (e.g \"concrete\" sounds, sound-file playback etc) or more generally, music which combines acoustic-instrumental and electronic sounds sources (to the exclusion of electrically amplified instruments, such as the electric guitar and electronic instruments such as the theremin, electronic organs & keyboards, etc); mixed music is therefore a subcategory of electronic music. While this term could be applied to many genres, the term \"mixed music\" generally refers to contemporary classical music repertoire and is therefore distinct from live electronic music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31571727",
"title": "Equalization (audio)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In sound recording and reproduction, equalization is the process commonly used to alter the frequency response of an audio system using linear filters. Most hi-fi equipment uses relatively simple filters to make bass and treble adjustments. Graphic and parametric equalizers have much more flexibility in tailoring the frequency content of an audio signal. Since equalizers \"adjust the amplitude of audio signals at particular frequencies,\" they are, \"in other words, frequency-specific volume knobs.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46182",
"title": "White noise",
"section": "Section::::Practical applications.:Acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "To set up the equalization for a concert or other performance in a venue, a short burst of white or pink noise is sent through the PA system and monitored from various points in the venue so that the engineer can tell if the acoustics of the building naturally boost or cut any frequencies. The engineer can then adjust the overall equalization to ensure a balanced mix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31571727",
"title": "Equalization (audio)",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In sound recording, equalization is used to improve an instrument's sound or make certain instruments and sounds more prominent. For example, a recording engineer may use an equalizer to make some high-pitches in a vocal part louder while making low-pitches in a drum part quieter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49926925",
"title": "Music alignment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Music can be described and represented in many different ways including sheet music, symbolic representations, and audio recordings. For each of these representations, there may exist different versions that correspond to the same musical work. The general goal of music alignment (sometimes also referred to as music synchronization) is to automatically link the various data streams, thus interrelating the multiple information sets related to a given musical work. More precisely, music alignment is taken to mean a procedure which, for a given position in one representation of a piece of music, determines the corresponding position within another representation. In the figure on the right, such an alignment is visualized by the red bidirectional arrows. Such synchronization results form the basis for novel interfaces that allow users to access, search, and browse musical content in a convenient way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4h7k91
|
A balloon filled with helium goes in the opposite direction of earth's gravity. Not only does it overcome the force, but it also travels up. What would happen to a balloon in deep space? Would the helium stay put or would the balloon split and the helium go in all directions?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is not fighting gravity. It is just lighter than the air around it. The air is pushing it up, much like air bubbles rise in water.\n\nSpace is a vacuum, so it depends on it's initial course. If the helium escaped Earth's atmosphere it would not keep 'rising'. Earth's gravity would still pull it.\n\nBut in a zero G vacuum it would travel (or be stationary) until something else acted upon it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In space it would probably burst. It would never reach space if released on earth because it would rise to a point where the air pressure means that the air density is the same density as the helium so it would reach a maximum altitude and then remain there until the helium leaks out and the balloon would descend",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24704485",
"title": "Balloon boy hoax",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Helium balloon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Fully inflated, a balloon of this size would contain just over of helium. Helium's lift capacity at sea level and 0 °C is 1.113 kg/m (0.07 lbs/ft) and decreases at higher altitudes and at higher temperatures. The volume of helium in the balloon has been estimated as being able to lift a total load, including the balloon material and the structure beneath it, of at sea level and at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154877",
"title": "Weather balloon",
"section": "Section::::Materials and equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "The balloon is usually filled with hydrogen due to lower cost, though helium can also be used. The ascent rate can be controlled by the amount of gas with which the balloon is filled. Weather balloons may reach altitudes of 40 km (25 miles) or more, limited by diminishing pressures causing the balloon to expand to such a degree (typically by a 100:1 factor) that it disintegrates. In this instance the instrument package is usually lost. Above that altitude sounding rockets are used, and for even higher altitudes satellites are used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476384",
"title": "Mass versus weight",
"section": "Section::::Buoyancy and weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "A common helium-filled toy balloon is something familiar to many. When such a balloon is fully filled with helium, it has buoyancy—a force that opposes gravity. When a toy balloon becomes partially deflated, it often becomes neutrally buoyant and can float about the house a meter or two off the floor. In such a state, there are moments when the balloon is neither rising nor falling and—in the sense that a scale placed under it has no force applied to it—is, in a sense perfectly weightless (actually as noted below, weight has merely been redistributed along the Earth's surface so it cannot be measured). Though the rubber comprising the balloon has a mass of only a few grams, which might be almost unnoticeable, the rubber still retains all its mass when inflated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2086569",
"title": "Superpressure balloon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Since the volume of the balloon is more constrained, so is the volume of air displaced by it. In accordance with the Principle of Archimedes, the upwards force on the balloon is equal to the weight of the displaced ambient gas. But the weight of the atmospheric gas is reduced as the balloon rises, because its density diminishes with increasing altitude. So the force pushing the balloon upwards diminishes with altitude and at some particular altitude, the upwards force will equal the weight of the balloon. As a result, the balloon will be stable in a finite equilibrium altitude range for long periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1247551",
"title": "Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility",
"section": "Section::::CSBF Ballooning.:Balloon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The balloons are zero pressure difference balloons, and are vented at the bottom. They are only partially inflated when launched, and as they rise up, the lower atmospheric pressure causes them to fully inflate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2795314",
"title": "Airborne wind turbine",
"section": "Section::::Aerostat variety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Balloons can be incorporated to keep systems up without wind, but balloons leak slowly and have to be resupplied with lifting gas, possibly patched as well. Very large, sun-heated balloons may solve the helium or hydrogen leakage problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32443360",
"title": "Unpowered flight",
"section": "Section::::Lighter than air.:Balloons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "A balloon is a bag filled with a gas with a lower density than the surrounding air to provide buoyancy. The gas may be hot air, hydrogen or helium. The use of buoyant gases is unknown in the natural world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3n0fjs
|
What did a Civil War "supply line" actually look like?
|
[
{
"answer": "So let me first explain a little bit as to what a supply line would have looked like. It would have been a massive wagon train, stretching out across the road filled with laboring beasts, sweating workers, and stench of feces and a great unwashed mass. Jostling underneath wagon covers would be every conceivable item needed for war, from ammunition and food to water, boots, hats, coats, blankets, haversacks, bayonets, swords, guns, picks, shovels, wooden planks, *replacement parts for other wagons* and literally every implement soldiers needed to stay effective in the field. Even soldiers themselves, destined for the frontline armies, used these routes to move from supply areas in the rear to the armies up front. But, like the armies of the time, these wagon trains were pinpricks in a vast arena. And they werent the only way armies transported goods. \n\nSo whats a supply line? Its best to think of them as major highways for moving men and materiel from depots in the rear to the armies up front. These supplies were usually transported in one of three different vehicles: trains, boats, or by foot power (either a beast pulling a cart, or a man carrying goods, and himself!). The Civil War was the first major conflict fought which was aided by the use of steampowered locamotives. In the realm of tactics and operations, these trains allowed armies to quickly shuttle forces across the vast American theater. They also allowed armies to reinforce and resupply quickly as supplies moved away from rear area depots to the railheads, which were the closest railway point to the front line, adjusting for the conditions of other transport mechanisms. \n\nRailways also are the easiest supply line to understand. You have a thin ribbon of steel across which the lifeblood of armies transit. Where the railways were well developed, like in the East, transit was quick, efficient, and voluminous. But in less developed areas, or where the rail line decayed through overuse, volume quickly outstripped capacity, and prevented the free transit of supplies. Imagine what a damaged bridge, a wrecked train, or a separate rail might do to a busy rail schedule. Now imagine that same scenario in an area which was poorly developed, where that accident could block a critical passageway, and could entail rerouting traffic many hundreds of miles to reach the same destination.\n\nRoad and river traffic was more secure and less prone to accident, sabotage, and blockage. But thats not to say that there werent chokepoints and vulnerabilities across all forms of supply traffic. Each individual supply column was hard to find without the effective use of spies, scouts, and intelligence organs. Cutting a supply line rarely entailed the actual physical destruction of supply convoys and depots (though that did happen, especially in the case of raider warfare). Rather, armies would attempt to lay themselves across the enemy's supply lines, garrisoning key junctions and preventing the free flow of materiel. This would have one of three effects. If the enemy army kept on attacking, it would do so using only what goods it had with it. In that situation, most armies would simply shrivel up and die. Instead, the enemy army could pull back, attempt to outmaneuver their attacker, and reunite with supply lines. This is a dangerous move, however, because the enemy already controls some of the best routes back to base. Finally, the enemy could turn and attack, attempt to dislodge the blockage and reunite with supplies. No matter what strategy a general picked, he would have to do so with only what was available at that moment. Further, the general doing the cutting would be the one calling the shots. He controlled vital points on the map and narrowed down the possible responses greatly. \n\nOutside of the major campaigns and set piece engagements, Raiders also plagued Union supply lines. As the Union army moved into the Confederacy, they moved away from their bases. In many cases, this led to a long and perilous supply chain which had multiple vulnerabilities. Confederate raiders, usually cavalry, would circle around the Union armies (again, pinpricks in a much larger theater) and move up the supply line. There they did as much damage as they could. Rivers were the hardest to plug up, but sunken ships and steaks could block river travel. Felled trees, burnt bridges, and roving gangs all plagued back area roads. Railways were the easiest to destroy, however, because men could easily pull apart miles worth of track, and even the removal of one rail could stop an entire train until it was repaired. All the raider's had to do was ensure that enough damage was done that could not be easily or quickly repaired. To counter this threat, the Union expended vast amounts of manpower to secure their supply lines. Between half an armies paper strength or more could be devoted just to securing the supply lines or rear areas. These forces were used in a variety of ways. Some marched with convoys to repel raiders, while others patrolled road and rail hoping to catch saboteurs in the act. In other places, they occupied garrisons to provide refuge for traveling wagons and convoys. But in every place, raider still had success. Further, rear area work could be dangerous. Confederate raiders were especially nasty, and regularly picked off isolated Union patrols.\n\nLogistics and supply are one of the unsung elements of modern war. When we think of great military victories we rarely remember the supply clerks and logisticians who enabled that victory. Even armies which lived off the land still consumed some supplies. Men and ammunition were always in high demand. So the armies and commanders of the Civil War constantly considered where there army would get its next meal, and where it would get its next bullet. The supply side of the war was just as revolutionary, and just as important, as the major engagements.\n\nSources:\n\nRussell Weigley, *A Great Civil War*\n\nGordon Rhea, *The Battles for Spotsylvania Courthouse and the Road to Yellow Tavern*\n\nMartin van Creveld, *Supplying War*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "840127",
"title": "Junius Spencer Morgan",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "During the American Civil War, the firm was a seller of United States war bonds in England. With the assistance of his son, J. P. Morgan, who used the cables system to telegraph the outcomes of battles prior to their general knowledge in England, Junius was able to buy low and sell high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30064308",
"title": "Charlotte and South Carolina Railroad",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "The line served as a vital railroad connection during the American Civil War of 1861–1865, and was damaged in the waning days of the conflict by General William T. Sherman's troops as they ravaged South Carolina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18629538",
"title": "Crémaillère",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "During the 17th to 19th centuries the term was widely applied to lines of entrenchment that are usually formed in a saw-tooth pattern, known as indented lines, particularly during sieges. These lines are usually employed on banks of rivers, or on ground which is more elevated than, or which commands, that of the enemy. The defense of these lines is sometimes strengthened by double redans, and flat bastions constructed at intervals, along their front. During the American Civil War, the Confederate States Army used such defenses in Centerville, Virginia in 1862, while the Union Army used them in from 1883 to 1865 at Fort C. F. Smith in Alexandria County (now Arlington County), Virginia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1193200",
"title": "Louisville and Nashville Railroad",
"section": "Section::::Lebanon Branch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "At first, the line was used during the Civil War hauling supplies, and troops. Later, the Greensburg Branch was built switching off the Lebanon Branch on the outskirts of Lebanon, making its way through Campbellsville, Kentucky, and on to the end of the line in Greensburg, Kentucky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37422080",
"title": "Southbury Loop",
"section": "Section::::History.:London and North Eastern Railway (1923-1947).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The line was used for diversionary purposes on a number of occasions, especially during the Second World War, when enemy action made the main line unusable or when the main line was flooded by the River Lea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61420383",
"title": "Bartlett-Hayward Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:Civil War Munitions & Locomotives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "When the American Civil War broke out, the company provided round shrapnel for the Union Army. However, the company downplayed its participation in supplying one side over the other, owing to the delicate position of Baltimore between North and South (a tension which had recently exploded in the Baltimore riot of 1861), as well as the company's commercial entanglements with Southern governments, such as for the construction of the South Carolina State House, which Hayward & Bartlett had secured contract for in 1848, and would resume the construction of after the war's conclusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53727418",
"title": "National Line",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "The company was founded in 1863, with the intention of serving the southern United States when it appeared that the Confederacy would win the Civil War and secede, as the Confederate states had a substantial cotton trade with Britain. After the Union victory, National quickly changed course and focused on carrying lower-class passengers and cargo on the traditional Atlantic route to New York City, initially from Liverpool and later from London as well. The line was successful for a time, paying a ₤120,000 dividend in 1869 and expanding its fleet to twelve ships by 1871. By the late 1800s, however, business had declined, and it discontinued its regular New York service in 1892. National was later purchased by the Atlantic Transport Line and operated freight services only in the later part of its life until it was liquidated in 1914.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c0kln
|
how do fossils of an action or event get made?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's not a \"stone\" type of [fossil](_URL_3_) but insects trapped in amber which is a [fossil resin ](_URL_2_).\n\nThe insects got trapped in the [resin](_URL_0_) from a tree and that kept them intact over the ages when it turned into amber.\n\n[_URL_4_ article on the find](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's fossilized sap. It's basically tree blood, and it flows pretty quickly, and in some cases is almost like water. The insects drown in the stuff while fighting, and the sap hardens over the years.\n\nThis might be morbid for a 5 year old, but it would be like having a bunch of concrete dumped on you. The concrete would preserve exactly how you were as it all fell on you, and you would die trapped in the concrete. \n\nSame thing happened here. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1343789",
"title": "Dinosaur Cove",
"section": "Section::::Geological time-line.:History of discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Over geological time since, the rock was pushed so deep that heat and pressure hardened it much, before it came again to the surface. As a result, a common way to look for fossils in it was to break each lump with a sledgehammer, and after each blow to examine all new broken surfaces for cross-sections of bone. Any pieces that showed bone were sent to the laboratory to extract the bone by careful preparation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23231424",
"title": "Transfer technique",
"section": "Section::::Lacquers and epoxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "As soon as the slab bearing the fossil is worked free from the rock, it is submerged in water to stop it from cracking. This involves packing it in plastic and sometimes wet newspaper. While in the wet state, it is cleaned up and all preparation needed for the transfer conducted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33687402",
"title": "Fossil Fighters: Champions",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Fossils must be cleaned before they are able to be revived. The player uses either a hammer or a chisel, each with different strengths and weaknesses, in a cleaning minigame using the DS touchscreen to remove the surrounding rock.The minigame has a ninety-second time limit as well as a meter to show how much the fossil is damaged. Two new types of fossil rock are added from the previous game. Giant fossil rocks contain all four fossils for a particular vivosaur in one complete skeleton. The other are odd fossil rocks which have two sides, allowing the player to flip between them while cleaning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54042051",
"title": "Borealopelta",
"section": "Section::::Discovery and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "As the major piece of rock containing the fossil was being lifted out, it broke under its own weight into several pieces. Museum staff salvaged the specimen by wrapping and stabilizing the pieces in plaster, after which they were able to successfully transport them to the Royal Tyrell Museum. There, technician Mark Mitchell spent five years removing the adhering rock and preparing the fossil for study, which was sponsored by the National Geographic Society. The species \"B. markmitchelli\" was named for him in recognition of his skilled work. The specimen was put on public exhibit on May 12, 2017, as part of the Royal Tyrrell Museum's \"Grounds for Discovery\" exhibition, along with other specimens discovered via industrial activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6205602",
"title": "Dynomite!",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Fossil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "A piece of a dinosaur fossil is surrounded by eggs, and you must shoot matching eggs to break the piece free and add it to a collection of completed fossils. There are 15 fossils, each having three fragments, for a total of 45 levels in this mode. Like Endless Puzzle, if the eggs and fossil piece reach the bottom of the screen, Mama Bronto will crush the screen and the game is over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "861503",
"title": "Fossil collecting",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Collecting techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Fossils tend to be very fragile and are generally not extracted entirely from the surrounding rock (the matrix) in the field. Cloth, cotton, small boxes and aluminum foil are frequently used to protect fossils being transported. Occasionally, large fragile specimens may need to be protected and supported using a jacket of plaster before their removal from the rock. If a fossil is to be left in situ, a cast may be produced, using plaster of paris or latex. Whilst not preserving every detail, such a cast is inexpensive, easier to transport, causes less damage to the environment, and leaves the fossil in place for others to enjoy. Fossilized tracks are frequently documented with casts. Subtle fossils which are preserved solely as impressions in sandy layers, such as the Ediacaran fossils, are also usually documented by means of a cast, which shows detail more clearly than the rock itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45033103",
"title": "Gardening, Not Architecture",
"section": "Section::::History.:\"Fossils Film\" (2015-2016).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Part Three of \"Fossils\" is entitled \"And What Remains.\" It is the most traditional narrative of the three parts of the film, and tells the story about a couple who slowly drift apart as they become absorbed into each of their life's passions, one being a botanist and the other being a painter. This part consists of the last three songs on the \"Fossils\" album: \"Let it be Gone,\" the title song \"Fossils,\" and \"Didn't Know Love.\" Wildman loosely based \"And What Remains\" on her own relationship, she being the artist and her partner a scientist. She also had the pleasure of working with worms for the first time on the set of the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53rfsc
|
After we get a cut, I read that our blood vessels have to grow back at the site of the wound. Do the blood vessels always grow back in the same pattern as before, or can they grow back in a different way?
|
[
{
"answer": "The vessels will initially be found along the most efficient pathway to distribute the blood, so there isn't a need for creating more than necessary\n\nIf the cut has damaged the area around it so much so that scar tissue doesn't allow for this path to be remade again, then a slight change in design can occur.\nIt isn't that we are predisposed with the positioning of every tiny vessel, it is just that they take the most efficient direction which will be mostly the same even after a cut.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to /u/glaciated 's post, a cut damages more than just blood vessels, so it is very likely that the other tissues surrounding a blood vessel will grow back at a slightly different rate and formation pattern than they did during their last growth. Even a small cut will likely disrupt thousands of skin, blood, and muscles cells, which basically guarantees that the regrowth will not be identical to how it was earlier. The difference could be as small as a blood vessel shifting a fraction of a millimeter, or it could mean that a vessel changes angles slightly or begins to curve etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you cut your finger your body tries to fill the wound with a mixture of totally random capillaries and collagen-rich fibrous tissue. Later, most of the capillaries will die back and the wound will contract and turn white. [Vastly more on this here](_URL_0_) starting with the angiogenesis section.\n\nYou can grow larger vessels too. A developing fetus or [a tumor](_URL_2_) will demand huge amounts of oxygen, and your body will attempt to deliver it. Sometimes [angiogenesis just goes berserk](_URL_1_) for little to no reason and starts trying to grow out of your body in a weird little red mass.\n\nGenerally speaking, your body merely tries to roughly glue you back together in the hopes that you will survive long enough to reproduce. Precision repairs are not a skill mammals have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "555225",
"title": "Scalp",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Because the walls of the blood vessels are firmly attached to the fibrous tissue of the superficial fascial layer, cut ends of vessels here do not readily retract; even a small scalp wound may bleed profusely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2050638",
"title": "Basic fibroblast growth factor",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "It has been hypothesized that, during both wound healing of normal tissues and tumor development, the action of heparan sulfate-degrading enzymes activates bFGF, thus mediating the formation of new blood vessels, a process known as angiogenesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26267102",
"title": "Endoscopic vessel harvesting",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Each method involves carefully cutting and sealing off smaller blood vessels that branch off the main vessel conduit prior to removal from the body. This practice does not harm the remaining blood vessel network, which heals and maintains sufficient blood flow to the extremities, allowing the patient to return to normal function without noticeable effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239217",
"title": "Healing",
"section": "Section::::Wound healing.:Maturation phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "During the maturation phase of wound healing, unnecessary vessels formed in granulation tissue are removed by apoptosis, and type III collagen is largely replaced by type I. Collagen which was originally disorganized is cross-linked and aligned along tension lines. This phase can last a year or longer. Ultimately a scar made of collagen, containing a small number of fibroblasts is left.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1023019",
"title": "Hypertrophic scar",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "When a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "839943",
"title": "Bone fracture",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "The natural process of healing a fracture starts when the injured bone and surrounding tissues bleed, forming a fracture hematoma. The blood coagulates to form a blood clot situated between the broken fragments. Within a few days, blood vessels grow into the jelly-like matrix of the blood clot. The new blood vessels bring phagocytes to the area, which gradually removes the non-viable material. The blood vessels also bring fibroblasts in the walls of the vessels and these multiply and produce collagen fibres. In this way, the blood clot is replaced by a matrix of collagen. Collagen's rubbery consistency allows bone fragments to move only a small amount unless severe or persistent force is applied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2536716",
"title": "Dental extraction",
"section": "Section::::Post-extraction healing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "The chance of further bleeding reduces as healing progresses, and is unlikely after 24 hours. If bleeding occurs beyond 8 –12 hours, it is referred as post-extraction bleeding. The blood clot is covered by epithelial cells which proliferate from the gingival mucosa of socket margins, taking about 10 days to fully cover the defect. In the clot, neutrophils and macrophages are involved as an inflammatory response takes place. The proliferative and synthesizing phase next occurs, characterized by proliferation of osteogenic cells from the adjacent bone marrow in the alveolar bone. Bone formation starts after about 10 days from when the tooth was extracted. After 10–12 weeks, the outline of the socket is no longer apparent on an X-ray image. Bone remodeling as the alveolus adapts to the edentulous state occurs in the longer term as the alveolar process slowly resorbs. In maxillary posterior teeth, the degree of pneumatization of the maxillary sinus may also increase as the antral floor remodels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5djz7r
|
why does metal heat up so much when crushed under a hydraulic press?
|
[
{
"answer": "How do I add a flair on mobile?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Almost every metal is made up of crystals - ordered arrangements of atoms. Some metals are made of very small crystals, some are made of large crystals, and some very special metal parts can be made of a single crystal. These crystals aren't perfect - they have little atom-sized holes in them, and atoms stuck where they aren't supposed to be.\n\nWhen you permanently change the shape of a piece of metal, the way it actually changes shape at an atomic level is that the holes and the misplaced atoms are forced to move around. A huge number of these holes and misplaced atoms moving around makes up the change in shape you see. But just like almost everything else, when you move these holes around, they are opposed by friction. Most of the work you put into changing the shape of the metal doesn't actually change its shape - instead, it's used to move against friction, and is wasted. That work gets converted into heat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If we look at a basic equation for work (Where work is measured in energy, a good proxy for temperature change) \n\nWork(Energy) = Force X Distance\n \n\nMetal has three properties that results in high energy when deformed: \n*High strength (Require a lot of force to deform) \n*High ductility (Can take a lot of deformation before breaking) \n*Work hardening (Metals become stronger when deformed) \n \n\nHigh strength and work hardening means it requires a high, and increasing, force when metal is deformed. \nHigh ductility means the metal can be deformed over a long distance before breaking. \nIf we enter this (High force and long distance) in the equation the result is very high energy, which is given off as a very high temperature increase.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53601",
"title": "Casting (metalworking)",
"section": "Section::::Non-expendable mold casting.:Centrifugal casting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to centrifugal force the liquid metal is thrown out towards the periphery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2111048",
"title": "Earthquake engineering",
"section": "Section::::Seismic vibration control.:Hysteretic dampers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Metallic yielding dampers, as the name implies, yield in order to absorb the earthquake's energy. This type of damper absorbs a large amount of energy however they must be replaced after an earthquake and may prevent the building from settling back to its original position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15285777",
"title": "Rebar spacer",
"section": "Section::::Plastic versus concrete spacers and bar supports.:Plastic spacers and bar supports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "If steam curing is applied to the concrete, the heat in the curing process causes the plastic to expand while the concrete is relatively fresh and weak. After reaching the maximum curing temperature and volume expansion of the plastic, the temperature is held at this level until the concrete reaches the desired strength. After curing, the subsequent lower temperatures cause the plastic to contract, and a gap remains at the interface between the plastic and concrete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45266571",
"title": "Laboratory safety",
"section": "Section::::Safety hazards.:Glassware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rapid heating (or cooling) may cause uneven thermal expansion putting too much mechanical stress on the surface and cause it to fracture. Fracturing is a concern when people new to laboratory become impatient and heat glassware, especially the larger pieces, too fast. Heating of glassware should be slowed using an insulating material, such as metal foil or wool, or specialized equipment such as heated baths, heating mantles or laboratory grade hot plates to avoid fracturing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4883560",
"title": "Investment casting",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Counter-gravity casting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "This technique is more metal efficient than traditional pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to 50% metal yield compared to 60 to 95% for counter-gravity pouring. There is also less turbulence, so the gating system can be simplified since it does not have to control turbulence. The metal is drawn from below the top of the pool, so the metal is free from dross and slag (which are lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool). The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every intricacy of the mold. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12235954",
"title": "Cold working",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Unlike hot working, cold working causes the crystal grains and inclusions to distort following the flow of the metal; which may cause work hardening and anisotropic material properties. Work hardening makes the metal harder, stiffer, and stronger, but less plastic, and may cause cracks of the piece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10533840",
"title": "Entrainment defect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "When liquid metal is subjected to high pressure, as during die casting, liquid metal may be forced through the oxide film. This phenomenon is able to partially bond the two facing oxide surfaces, thus reducing the severity of the defect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yf964
|
french politics and law
|
[
{
"answer": "Please be more specific? Political parties or how politics work? All the laws would be challenging... do you have something in mind?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5843419",
"title": "France",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "French law is divided into two principal areas: private law and public law. Private law includes, in particular, civil law and criminal law. Public law includes, in particular, administrative law and constitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal \"ex post facto\" laws are prohibited). While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court: ordinary courts (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by the Court of Cassation and administrative courts are headed by the Council of State.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33841029",
"title": "Politics of France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The politics of France take place with the framework of a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the French Fifth Republic. The nation declares itself to be an \"indivisible, secular, democratic, and social Republic\". The constitution provides for a separation of powers and proclaims France's \"attachment to the Rights of Man and the principles of national sovereignty as defined by the Declaration of 1789.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33841029",
"title": "Politics of France",
"section": "Section::::Judicial branch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "French law provides for a separate judicial branch with an independent judiciary which does not answer to or is directly controlled by the other two branches of government. France has a civil law legal system, the basis of which is codified law; however, case law plays a significant role in the determination of the courts. The most distinctive feature of the French judicial system is that it is divided into judicial and administrative streams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "925538",
"title": "Elections in France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "France is a representative democracy. Public officials in the legislative and executive branches are either elected by the citizens (directly or indirectly) or appointed by elected officials. Referendums may also be called to consult the French citizenry directly on a particular question, especially one which concerns amendment to the Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1009776",
"title": "French Parliament",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The French Parliament, as a legislative body, should not be confused with the various parlements of the Ancien Régime in France, which were courts of justice and tribunals with certain political functions varying from province to province and as to whether the local law was written and Roman, or customary common law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3245546",
"title": "Law of France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "In academic terms, French law can be divided into two main categories: private law (\"droit privé\") and public law (\"droit public\"). This differs from the traditional common law concepts in which the main distinction is between criminal law and civil law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60475303",
"title": "Criminal justice system of France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "France’s criminal legal system derived from Roman law is typically characterized by the European continent. It is not only a feudal system in the Middle Age, but also a representative of the civil law system. France is committed to the judicial system which was gradually established after the Revolution of French in the late 18th century. It is a significant system to safeguard bourgeois dictatorship and capitalist ownership. From beginning of the 19th century to nowadays, Napoleon codified a series of significant rules and established the common court system, administrative court system as well as independent judicial system which formed a unified modern judicial system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
284m05
|
who started 'high-5s' and are they universal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, I don't know if they are universal, but here in Brazil we high-5. \nBut we are a somewhat standard western culture (though we are third world) and our culture (specially television and movies) is very Americanized. So this is not a very representative sample.\n\nEdit: Just to clarify, we don't say \"high 5!\" in english. But if you are celebrating something positive, like some achievement, and you put your open hand up in the air, I think any Brazilian will understand what you mean and high-5 you. Maybe a \"high 10\" is more common, with two hands. Brazilian athletes do this all the time for example. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Check out this Radio Lab podcast](_URL_0_), where they ask and attempt to answer this very question. Unfortunately, I can't find a transcript, but they refer to an ESPN article called [History of the high five](_URL_1_) which might also be interesting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People in France, at least where I am in Brittany, are very reluctant to give high fives... It makes me sad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In India it is not popular except in the urban settings. So it is not universal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Tanzania, people will say \"nipe tano\", which translates directly to \"give me five\", but then they fist bump. High fiving as we know it isn't really practiced there. So not universal, apparently.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "High fives aren't so common in Asia, but the concept isn't foreign to Asians either. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does anyone else say \"Up top!\" when they throw their hand up for a high five?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"...some Seppo bullshit, introduced by the West Indies...\"\n\n - *The Twelfth Man*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Mexico high-fives are common. This gesture is called \"chócalas\" wich translates as \"strike 'em up\" (the hand palms).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We English people find high fives acutely embarassing. On the whole we are much too restrained. We often find it hard to ask people's first names so by the end of an evening of talking to someone we might be able to squeeze out \"oh dear, I appear not to have caught your name\" when we know perfectly well names have been ignored all evening by both parties. \n\nApparently we are terrified of putting the other person in an awkward situation so you can imagine how traumatising it would be to put our hand up and the other person didn't. We would worry they were disabled or something so would rather not go there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pro tip: if you both point your finger tips at each other as the hands move toward each other, you usually end up with a perfect high five",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Japan= High Touch",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TIL freedom is not universal :(",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Japan, it's a ハイタッチ (High Touch).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My girlfriend grew up in Ethiopia, and we went to visit her family last year. (They live in Texas now, we didn't go to Ethiopia.) She hadn't seen a few of her brothers/sisters or her mom in a few years. For me, when greeting family we hug. For them, they high five extremely energetically. It's the weirdest thing, but it's what they do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I prefer to believe it was started by the University of Louisville men's basketball team.\n\nAs a Louisville fan, this is the natural truth.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This is a popular opinion on the subject, one that's often proposed as \"the\" explanation](_URL_0_); a professional baseball player in the 70's who was eventually shunned for his homosexuality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are common in germany as well. And they are called just the same as in America. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's funny how 90% of these answers are different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "High 5s are understood throughout Europe but they are seen as a foreign thing (from the Anglo-saxon culture).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pretty sure everyone is atleast aware of high fives due to our movies and tv shows. I've yet to travel to a country that didn't have US movies and TV shows on 24/7. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i'm from germany and not sure if i have seen a high five in real live. I allways thought that was a hollywood thing. But i can remember a couple of fistbumps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am slowly enjoying series/season 3 of *Sherlock* and last night watching the 2nd episode I see John Watson get left hanging from an awkward attempt to high-five someone. I had this same thought of wondering just how universal it has become. It seems like a very American gesture. \n\nAnd boy does it seem sometimes like reddit is following me around and putting up posts that are eerily aware of what I do and think.... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Glenn Burke most probably. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it can be traced back to the Romans, they wanted to impress the celts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm 55 and have been a student of pop culture all my life, so let's just say I've been watching TV since the 60's.\n\nFor my whole life I've seen the standard low five (which NOBODY says) as the standard hand out at waist level which is then then slapped. Gimme some skin, or gimme five goes way back to the jazz era.\n\nnow the HIGH five. I didn't become aware of anyone doing it until the Summer Olympics sometime in 80's. I saw an eastern european volleyball team do it after every point to congratulate each other.\n\n**So based on that rather unscientific sampling, I'd say High Fives were first introduce to North American culture sometime in 80's and it had its origins in European sports teams.**\n\n\nI'll happily take corrections on that, but that's when i first became aware of it.\n\nNote: a pet peeve of mine is someone who actually SAYS \"high five\" when giving high fives. \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was the Nazis, actually, they turned the salute into the first high five, though it was called the \"Heil five\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One time my roommate and I were meeting one of our friends new foreign roommate. She was from Sweden I believe. She agreed with my roommate on something so my roommate raised her hand for a high five. The foreign girl just stared in confusion so my roommate picked up her hand and forced a high five. My roommate then said, \"In America we high five.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here in Ireland it is seen as a very American thing to do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These guys did..... _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Radiolab did a great story on this topic a few months ago, but unfortunately I can't find it. Instead here is an ESPN piece that covers basically the same information (I think the radiolab piece may have come from this ESPN piece): _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reminds me of when I was 15 or so, and tutoring some elementary school kids who were mostly immigrants from Latin America. I said \"Hey! Dame cinco!\" when he did a good job at a math problem and held out my hand to my little buddy for a high-five. The kid had probably immigrated to the US within the last month or so, and didn't speak any English. His eyes widened and he backed away from my outstretched hand. \"No lo tengo! No tengo dinero! No lo tengo!\" \n\nI was horrified that in my quest to do a good deed with tutoring, I inadvertently made a 7-year old think I was going to rob him. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jesus did, simultaneously with the 3 days rule. Backstory:\nJesus waited THREE days to come back to life. It was perfect! If he had only waited ONE day, a lot of people wouldn't have even heard he died. They'd be all, \"Hey Jesus, what up?\" and Jesus would probably be like, \"What up? I DIED yesterday!\" and they'd be all, \"Uhh, you look pretty alive to me, dude...\" and then Jesus would have to explain how he was resurrected, and how it was a miracle, and the dude'd be like \"Uhh okay, whatever you say, bro...\" And he's not gonna come back on a SATURDAY. Everybody's busy, doing chores, workin' the loom, trimmin' the beard, NO. He waited the perfect number of days, THREE. Plus it's SUNDAY, so everyone's in church already, and they're all in there like \"Oh no, Jesus is DEAD\", and then BAM! He bursts in the back door, runnin' up the aisle, everyone's totally psyched, and FYI, that's when he invented the high five. That's why we wait three days to call a woman, because that's how long Jesus wants us to wait.... True story",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, it's USian only, and probably of ethnic origin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually a guy was trying to reach the top shelf in a bro shop when suddenly his hand bumped into another guy's hand who was trying to do the same. Just during that awkward moment they came up with the term 'High-5' to avoid further embarrassment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think it is universal. I only saw it in American movies and when I came to USA. I lived in 3 other countries and didn't see it there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The creation of the High Five is created too Dusty Baker and Glenn Burke, after Baker Hit a home run in the LA Dodgers last regular season game in 1977 which sent them to the play offs. Burke who was on deck threw his hand up in the air and as Baker passed by him him hit his hand again Burke's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And who's the asshole that started \"TOO SLOW!\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "relevant: _URL_0_\n\nI can't believe this was on wikipedia",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would wager my guess on Black Americans. If it's cool, their rich culture probably spurned it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was actually invented by Goebbels, who awkwardly slapped Hitlers hand when he had it raised up and said \"Heil fumpf?\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "people have been fiving since probly the 40s/50s era of jazz and the Beats in the US. i think white people just appropriated it and went with the high 5 because we cant make anything look cool (awkward high 5s happen all the time, whereas its impossible to botch a low 5). the high 5 must have been widespread by the 80s considering how many movies involve a jumping high 5 freezeframe. \n\nin the US, the 5 is used for celebration, while the fistbump is for greeting or saying goodbye",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had someone come in for an interview recently. The interview went well and I went to shake his hand and he went for a high five. It was awkward, but I stuck to my handshake. Hired him anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pro tip: if you watch the elbow of the arm you are high-fiving, your chances to miss are drastically lowered.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HOLY SHIT!!\n\n\nJust asked the grandparents.\n\nGrandma: \"I didn't high five until you were born, that was black.\"\n\n\nGrandpa: \"I dont remember hi fives existing when I was a kid.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm in the U.S Army and during a training expedition a fellow German Special Forces soldier refused and took offense to the gesture, stating it was gang related. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In New Zealand the High Five is considered an american gesture and consequently quite frowned upon. Truth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The modern gesture known as the \"high-five\" was concocted in a rudimentary format by Leonardo da Vinci by the name of the (please excuse my rusty Italian here) \"hand palm slap\", but no records exist of him ever actually performing it, so most modern historians assume he only theorized it. The first real evidence we have of such a gesture is from one Sir Mathew Davies of Lincolnshire, who was studying physics when he received a successful result from his most recent experiment and threw up his hand in joyous shock, accidentally striking his colleague with it. The (unnamed) colleague assumed this was some sort of quirk Sir Davies had and returned it so as not to offend his superior. When Davies realized he was on to something here, he wrote to his patron the Lord George High-Five, Earl of High and Baron of Five, who registered the gesture under his own name with the Crown Cultural office, and the rest is history.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not universal, although I think it may be widespread. Especially through American movies/cinema. The country I'm from doesn't have highfives, more like handshakes/hand holding. When I visited last year I was given weird looks when I tried to give someone a high five.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember Vin Scully telling the story once, I believe the first high five occurred after a Dusty Baker home run for the LA Dodgers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > [There are many origin stories of the high five, but the two most documented candidates are Dusty Baker and Glenn Burke of the Los Angeles Dodgers professional baseball team on October 2, 1977, and Wiley Brown and Derek Smith of the Louisville Cardinals men's college basketball team during the 1978–1979 season.](_URL_0_)\n\n---\n\n > The use of the phrase as a noun has been part of the Oxford English Dictionary since 1980 and as a verb since 1981.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe this helps answer a part of your question...\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the UK we don't high 5. You'd look like a dick. We use a firm handshake like a gentleman. I know live in the US and continue to use handshakes. I look like a dick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was told a baseball player from the 50's started it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People who were too slow for down low.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5016226",
"title": "High 5 Tickets to the Arts",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "High 5 was founded in 1993, as a collaboration between staff of the American Symphony Orchestra (Eugene Carr and Kathleen Drohan), the New York Times (Jeanne Shanley and Sharon Yakata), and Ticketmaster (Marla Hoicowitz and Connie Fitzgerald). In 1995, High 5 appointed its first full-time executive director, Ada Ciniglio, and was incorporated as a non-profit organization. In the late 1990s, it founded the Take 5 program, in which an adult can take five teenagers to a performance, the adult's ticket being free. In 2006, High 5 sold its 105,000 tickets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234593",
"title": "Fives",
"section": "Section::::Players.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Fives is a small sport played by groups and enthusiasts numbering perhaps 4,000 active adult players in the United Kingdom and there are a number of Old Boys' and university clubs which tend to be concentrated around the South East. There are of course many other clubs around the country including Midlands clubs such as bedford, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Rugby, Repton and Shrewsbury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8504118",
"title": "Neighborhoods in Columbus, Ohio",
"section": "Section::::High Five.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 263,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 263,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "High Five is a collaborative effort to create a national identity for Columbus, Ohio, by linking the five most distinct districts along five miles of historic High Street including the University District, the Arena District, The Short North, Downtown, and German Village. The High Five includes over 150 restaurants, 200 shops, 40 art galleries and 50 event venues, and extends north to Arcadia Street and south to Thurman Avenue. It is one of the only locations in the nation in which such a distinct variety of neighborhoods can be found in such a close vicinity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1097333",
"title": "High five",
"section": "Section::::Origin.:Glenn Burke and Dusty Baker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "This story regarding the origin of the high five can be found in the written news as early as September 1982 and is featured in the ESPN \"30 for 30\" film \"The High Five\" directed by Michael Jacobs. After retiring from baseball, Burke, who was one of the first openly gay professional athletes, used the high five with other gay residents of the Castro district of San Francisco, where for many it became a symbol of gay pride and identification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1097333",
"title": "High five",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "There are many origin stories of the high five, but the two most documented candidates are Dusty Baker and Glenn Burke of the Los Angeles Dodgers professional baseball team on October 2, 1977, and Wiley Brown and Derek Smith of the Louisville Cardinals men's college basketball team during the 1978–1979 season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208665",
"title": "Five (band)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Five (stylised as 5ive) are a British boy band from London consisting of members Sean Conlon, Ritchie Neville, and Scott Robinson. They were formed in 1997 by the same team that managed the Spice Girls before they launched their career. The group were mostly known as a five-piece, consisting of Robinson, Neville, Conlon, Abz Love and Jason \"J\" Brown. Five enjoyed remarkable success worldwide, particularly in their native United Kingdom, as well as most of the rest of Europe and Asia. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1641421",
"title": "Highlights for Children",
"section": "Section::::\"Highlights High Five Magazine for Preschoolers\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Highlights High Five is a younger children's counterpart to \"Highlights\", first published with the January 2007 issue. This children's magazine is for preschoolers ages two through six. The goal of High Five is to help children develop and to give parent and child a fun and meaningful activity to do together each month. Every issue is 40 pages and includes poems and stories, crafts, easy recipes, games, puzzles and other activities that encourage children to be lifelong learners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16hsr7
|
To what extent did resistance groups in WWII fight each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "This applies specifically to the danish resistance groups, since i really don't know that much about other countries' groups. \n\nIn Denmark, there were to my knowledge no actual fights between groups. All the groups were dependent on supplies from England, and the communist groups received much fewer supplies than the non-communist groups. The danish army(in charge of the drops) decided early on to limit supplies going to communist groups, in order to make sure that there would be no major changes to the power balance, when the war ended. The result was that communist groups had to carry out raids on Germans in order to get the needed supplies, and that kind of offensive actions against an army was much more dangerous than the sabotage actions that the resistance primarily carried out. \n\nEdit: There weren't any fights, but there were a lot of heated arguments on this policy, especially after the war. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am familiar in detail only with Yugoslav resistance groups. The two main resistance groups, Chetniks and communist partisans waged a civil war parallel with the war against occupying and quisling forces. Far from just occasional skirmishes this civil war in many ways determined the strategy of both, to the extent that Chetniks mostly turned collaborators as early as 1942 and almost completely by 1943 and stopped really being the resistance group. Partisans, while not turning to collaboration considered Chetniks their main rival for post-war power and acted accordingly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Western Europe: in general there was no actual fighting between resistance groups.\n\nPoland, Yugoslavia, Greece, Eastern Europe in general: Sometimes armed fighting between Communist and non-communist resistance groups, for example ELAS and EDES in Greece or Armia Ludowa and Armia Krajowa in Poland. \n\nIn China, there was a civil war raging before the Japanese invaded between the Communists and the Nationalists and this continued partly during the war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gwardia Ludowa (from 1944 Armia Ludowa - commies, Soviet collaborants) in Poland fought Armia Krajowa (the good ones) with every means. In 1943 Marek Spychalski from GL reported 50 people from AK to Gestapo. Since 1944 Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (rightists) started reporting communists on Gestapo too. \n\nBut communists killed themselves too. First leader of GL, Bolesław Mołojec, was accused of killing Marcel Nowotko (he was the first leader of PPR, Soviet satellite party) and killed by Jan Krasicki, by a direct order from Małgorzata Fornalska, partner of later president of Communist Poland, Bolesław Bierut.\n\nOnce GL reported on Gestapo an illegal printing press in Warsaw. Afterwards they realised that it was their own press...\n\nDirectly after the war polish non-communist resistance groups were persecuted. Most members were imprisoned, a lot of them killed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2544872",
"title": "Resistance during World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Resistance movements during World War II occurred in every occupied country by a variety of means, ranging from non-cooperation to propaganda to hiding crashed pilots and even to outright warfare and the recapturing of towns. In many countries, resistance movements were sometimes also referred to as The Underground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15007549",
"title": "List of networks and movements of the French Resistance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "It is customary to distinguish the various organisations of the French Resistance between movements and networks. A resistance group or network was an organization created for a specific military purpose (intelligence, sabotage, helping prisoners of war escape and preventing shot-down pilots from falling into the hands of the Germans). In contrast, the main goal of a resistance movement was to educate and organize the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40739317",
"title": "Luxembourg Resistance",
"section": "Section::::Organisation.:Multiple \"Resistances\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "\"The Resistance\" never existed as a unified entity, instead resistance was constituted into several separate Resistance organisations. The war did not unify the country any more than it had been previously, although more people became conscious of their national identity, and several collective victories, such as the strike of 1942 and the failed referendum of 1941 proved that cooperation was possible. The Resistance was above all a regional phenomenon: each organisation had its geographical base, and none operated across the whole country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2544872",
"title": "Resistance during World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "There were also resistance movements fighting against the Allied invaders. In Italian East Africa, after the Italian forces were defeated during the East African Campaign, some Italians participated in a guerrilla war against the British (1941–1943). The German Nazi resistance movement (\"Werwolf\") never amounted to much. The \"Forest Brothers\" of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania included many fighters who operated against the Soviet occupation of the Baltic States into the 1960s. During or after the war, similar anti-Soviet resistance rose up in places like Romania, Poland, Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Chechnya. While the Japanese were famous for \"fighting to the last man\", Japanese holdouts tended to be individually motivated and there is little indication that there was any organized Japanese resistance after the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40573334",
"title": "German occupation of Belgium during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "The resistance was never a single group; numerous groups evolved divided by political affiliation, geography or specialisation. The danger of infiltration posed by German informants meant that some groups were extremely small and localised, and although nationwide groups did exist, they were split along political and ideological lines. They ranged from the far left, such as the Communist or Socialist , to the far-right, such as the monarchist and the , which had been created by members of the pre-war Fascist movement. Some, such as , had no obvious political affiliation, but specialised in particular types of resistance activity and recruited only from very specific demographics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "806299",
"title": "Latvian independence movement",
"section": "Section::::Guerrilla warfare (1945–1960).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "After World War II thousands of resistance fighters (including former members of the pre-World War II Aizsargi and 19th Latvian Waffen SS division) participated in unsuccessful guerrilla warfare against the Soviet regime. Most of the armed resistance was suppressed by 1952.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456526",
"title": "Francs-tireurs",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Two major Résistance groups adopted the name during the German occupation of France during the Second World War. The first to be established was the \"Franc-Tireur\" group founded in Lyon in 1940. The second was the (FTP, Partisan irregular riflemen), which were established as the military branch of the French Communist Party (PCF). They only became active in the resistance after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kdyen
|
What differences, if any, were there between Soviet and Western (American, British, French) tactics in countering Blitzkrieg tactics in WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up. Was Blitzkrieg even a real German doctrine in WW2?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2856495",
"title": "Deep operation",
"section": "Section::::Intended outcomes; differences with other methodologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 1291,
"text": "During the 1930s, the resurgence of the German military in the era of the \"Third Reich\" saw German innovations in the tactical arena. The methodology used by the Germans in the Second World War was named \"\"Blitzkrieg\"\". There is a common misconception that \"Blitzkrieg\", which is not accepted as a coherent military doctrine, was similar to Soviet deep operations. The only similarities of the two doctrines were an emphasis on mobile warfare and offensive posture. While the two similarities differentiate the doctrines from French and British doctrine at the time, the two were considerably different. While \"Blitzkrieg\" emphasized the importance of a single strike on a \"Schwerpunkt\" (focal point) as a means of rapidly defeating an enemy, Deep Battle emphasized the need for multiple breakthrough points and reserves to exploit the breach quickly. The difference in doctrine can be explained by the strategic circumstances for the USSR and Germany at the time. Germany had a smaller population but a better trained army whereas the Soviet Union had a larger population but a more poorly trained army. As a result, the \"Blitzkrieg\" emphasized narrow front attacks where quality could be decisive, while Deep Battle emphasized wider front attacks where quantity could be used effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91515",
"title": "Military strategy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "Perhaps the most controversial aspect of strategy in World War I was the difference among the British between the \"Western\" viewpoint (held by Field Marshal Haig) and the \"Eastern\"; the former being that all effort should be directed against the German Army, the latter that more useful work could be done by attacking Germany's allies. The term \"Knocking away the props\" was used, perhaps as an unfortunate consequence of the fact that all of Germany's allies lay south of (i.e. 'beneath') her on the map. Apologists and defenders of the Western viewpoint make the valid point that Germany's allies were more than once rescued from disaster or rendered capable of holding their own or making substantial gains by the provision of German troops, arms or military advisers, whereas those allies did not at any time provide a similar function for Germany. That is, it was Germany which was the prop, and her allies (particularly Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary) did not suffer significant reverses until Germany's ability to come to their aid was grossly impaired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "812799",
"title": "Glossary of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::B.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "BULLET::::- Blitzkrieg – lightning war; quick army invasions aided by tanks and airplanes. A form of attack generally associated with the German armed forces during the Second World War. \"Blitzkrieg\" tactics were particularly effective in the early German campaigns against Poland, France, and the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2435684",
"title": "Pakfront",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The Pakfront was a defensive military tactic developed by the German forces on the Eastern Front during the Second World War. It was named after the phonetic pronunciation of the acronym nomenclature for German towed anti-tank guns, PaK (\"PanzerabwehrKanone\", \"tank defense cannon\"). The Soviets soon copied the tactic, and used it to great effect at the Battle of Kursk in July 1943.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2435684",
"title": "Pakfront",
"section": "Section::::Soviet tactic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "The tactic was found to be extremely effective, and soon the Soviets had copied it, often using multiple \"pakfront\"s in co-operation with minefields, anti-tank ditches, and other obstacles to channel the enemy armour into their fields of fire. The size and efficiency of such defenses directly proportional to the amount of time granted with one report commenting it not uncommon of the Red Army to lay 30,000 mines in a sector within two or three days. Since the 1930s Soviet doctrine had been to employ large numbers of anti-tank guns in areas but the German tactic enabled them to better exploit their numbers as well as Russian expertise in camouflage. A German tank commander commenting that minefields and pakfronts could not be detected until the trap was sprung. Mines protecting pakfronts were particularly effective due to German lack of specialized mine clearing vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29073044",
"title": "Tanks in the German Army",
"section": "Section::::Combat history.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "In the early battles of Second World War, German forces had gained notoriety for the rapid and successful invasions of Poland, the Netherlands, Belgium and France, and the Soviet Union, in 1939–41. Although the early-war Panzer II, III, and IV were clearly inferior to some of their French and Soviet counterparts, this blitzkrieg (‘lightning warfare’) was made possible by several factors: the German military experience in World War I, their excellent training, integrated communications, coordinated use of airpower, and, perhaps most famously, by the combined-arms employment of integrated infantry and armoured forces, the panzer divisions of the Germany Army and Waffen-SS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1435237",
"title": "Central Industrial Region (Poland)",
"section": "Section::::Achievements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "German encirclement and annihilation tactics in the Second World War, with their rapid advances by extremely well equipped infantry (better than even their British and French counterparts) and fast motorized forces (heavy losses suffered by Panzer divisions were one of the reasons, the Germans created, what became known after World War II was over, as blitzkrieg tactics) and long range air attacks, ensured that the COP region apparently failed to provide a secure haven for Polish industry. The idea of the safe triangle came from the thinking of the Polish military strategists during World War I and the Polish—Russian War in 1919-1920. This idea was upgraded during the late 1930s and many of the factories crucial to the war effort got distributed across the country. Moreover, the PZL.37 Łoś, a medium bomber, factory was successfully moved and reassembled in the easternmost Poland that fell to the Soviet advance after September 17, 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ztju7
|
why do turtles grow as large as their tanks?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not totally true. Turtles will grow as big as their genetics and nutrition and other factors let them. Turtles actually have their growth stunted in an unhealthy way by being in an environment too small, not due to the physical environment alone, but also by the nutrients available in said environment. The physical environment will cause stress that will contribute to lack of growth.\n\nSource: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37751",
"title": "Turtle",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and morphology.:Shell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The shape of the shell gives helpful clues about how a turtle lives. Most tortoises have a large, dome-shaped shell that makes it difficult for predators to crush the shell between their jaws. One of the few exceptions is the African pancake tortoise, which has a flat, flexible shell that allows it to hide in rock crevices. Most aquatic turtles have flat, streamlined shells, which aid in swimming and diving. American snapping turtles and musk turtles have small, cross-shaped plastrons that give them more efficient leg movement for walking along the bottom of ponds and streams. Another exception is the Belawan Turtle (Cirebon, West Java), which has sunken-back soft-shell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17843917",
"title": "Turtle shell",
"section": "Section::::Carapace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "The evolution of the turtle's shell is unique because of how the carapace represents transformed vertebrae and ribs. While other tetrapods have their scapula, or shoulder blades, found outside of the ribcage, the scapula for turtles is found inside the ribcage. The shells of other tetrapods, such as armadillos, are not linked directly to the vertebral column or rib cage allowing the ribs to move freely with the surrounding intercostal muscle. However, analysis of the transitional fossil, \"Eunotosaurus africanus\" shows that early ancestors of turtles lost that intercostal muscle usually found between the ribs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18457910",
"title": "Mollusc shell",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "In those shelled molluscs that have indeterminate growth, the shell grows steadily over the lifetime of the mollusc by the addition of calcium carbonate to the leading edge or opening. Thus the shell gradually becomes longer and wider, in an increasing spiral shape, to better accommodate the growing animal inside. The shell thickens as it grows, so that it stays proportionately strong for its size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5549825",
"title": "Sternotherus odoratus",
"section": "Section::::In captivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1441,
"text": "Due to its small size, the common musk turtle generally makes a better choice for a pet turtle than other commonly available species, such as the red-eared slider (\"Trachemys scripta elegans\"). Throughout its range, wild-caught specimens are commonly available, but the species is also frequently captive-bred specifically for the pet trade. (In the United States, USDA regulations ban the sale of turtles under four inches long as pets. This technically excludes most musk turtles, as most specimens found are smaller than 4 inches.) It readily accepts a diet of commercially available turtle pellets, algae wafers, and various insects, such as crickets, snails, mealworms, bloodworms, earthworms. A varied diet is essential to a captive turtle's health and it is important to note that it should not be fed with turtle pellets only. A captive turtle being fed a high protein diet may develop vitamin A and E deficiencies. Supplemental calcium in the form of commercial powders or a cuttle bone is also a must. Aquatic plants (water lettuce, duckweed, etc.) can also be provided, as some musk turtles prefer more vegetables in their diet than others. Though less sensitive to limited access to UV lighting, common musk turtles require ultraviolet (UVA and UVB) lighting as most other turtle species do for proper captive care. As a bottom dweller, the common musk turtle is rarely seen basking, but a basking area should still be provided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "674",
"title": "Anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Vertebrate anatomy.:Reptile anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37751",
"title": "Turtle",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and morphology.:Limbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Amphibious turtles normally have limbs similar to those of tortoises, except that the feet are webbed and often have long claws. These turtles swim using all four feet in a way similar to the dog paddle, with the feet on the left and right side of the body alternately providing thrust. Large turtles tend to swim less than smaller ones, and the very big species, such as alligator snapping turtles, hardly swim at all, preferring to walk along the bottom of the river or lake. As well as webbed feet, turtles have very long claws, used to help them clamber onto riverbanks and floating logs upon which they bask. Male turtles tend to have particularly long claws, and these appear to be used to stimulate the female while mating. While most turtles have webbed feet, some, such as the pig-nosed turtle, have true flippers, with the digits being fused into paddles and the claws being relatively small. These species swim in the same way as sea turtles do (see below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9900363",
"title": "Acanthoceras (ammonite)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Their shells had ornate ribs whose function is unknown, although some scientists have speculated that these ribs helped strengthen the animals' shells to allow them to live at greater depths where the water pressure is higher. An adult had a shell diameter of approximately .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5qo7s0
|
how can countries be banned from the u.s. based solely on their religious majority?
|
[
{
"answer": " > How is this possible with rights guaranteed by the first amendment? \n\nRights laid out in the US constitution only apply to US citizens, or people on US soil. If you're a foreign national in another country, the US doesn't have to give you any rights; that's the job of the country you're currently in.\n\n > Does the majority of America agree with this sentiment?\n\nProbably not the majority, but a sizable segment of the population. The 9/11 attacks, followed by the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, further followed by ISIS/ISIL have solidified in the minds of lots of people that \"Muslims are terrorists\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are five criteria that are considered for immigration purposes according to US Immigration Service rules. 1. Religion. 2. Race. 3. Political Opinion. 4. National Origin. 5. PSG (Particular Social Group). So using anyone of these criteria a person or group can be given special preference for admittance or denial of entry. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All countries have the right to limit who can enter their country at any time for any reason. \n\nThe US constitution only applies to US citizens and people on US soil. Until you get past the immigration stations at the airport it does not apply to you unless you are already a US citizen. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's some bad information in here.\n\nFirst, not all rights guaranteed in the United States Constitution are limited to citizens. Where the Constitution specifically states \"citizens,\" the rights are restricted to those naturally born or naturalized. Where the Constitution states \"persons\" or \"people,\" those rights can be invoked by any persons regardless of nationality that are subject to US laws.\n\nSecondly, Congress has the ability to include or exclude any foreign nationals based on any reason through something known as the Plenary Powers doctrine. The use of this power is cannot be reviewed by any court, including the Supreme Court. The use of this has already been tested in the Chinese Exlusion Act way back when. Congress thought there were too many Chinese Nationals in the country and they wouldn't let anymore in. Supreme Court upheld it under Plenary Powers. They could change the immigration code tomorrow to state \"no foreign national with two legs can enter the country\" and it would be totally legal under the Plenary Powers doctrine.\n\nIn reference to your question, with the President and the executive order, through control of the State Department, the President could exclude any foreign nationals as a matter of process by directing all Consular Officials to deny for entry applications of foreign nationals from specific countries. Consular Official decisions cannot be reviewed by a court. Without approval of a Consular Official, you can't even get on a transport of any kind that comes to the US. It doesn't matter if you're coming to work, live, or visit. If you somehow make it past this rung, you can still get held up by DHS Border Patrol Agency when you actually get to the US.\n\nHow this applies to LPRs is more tricky. LPRs are foreign nationals, but they have already have been through the process granting them visas. Usually, to revoke those has to go through an Immigration Judge, and those decisions can be reviewed. I'm not in that field so I can't specifically speak to that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Immigrants can be barred from the US for any reason. This has always been the case and entire ethnicities have been excluded for most of US history. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ban is not solely banning all muslims, rather it is specific countries. Syria and Lybia are main targets for the ban as ISIS and ISIL have become dominate powers in those countries and whom specifically advocate for the destruction of The USA and promotes acts of terrorism in the USA. The concern is that ISIS or ISIL could sneak agents into the USA by posing as refugees. Prior to the ban, refugees were allowed to enter the USA as refugees without being vetted. Essentially we had no idea who these people were and if they had any ties to terrorist groups. The ban is intended to stop the influx of refugees from those countries until we can come up with a vetting process to make sure they have no ties to ISIS or ISIL.\n\nIt's not a happy situation, but it is pragmatic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19792942",
"title": "Americans",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Religion in the United States has a high adherence level compared to other developed countries, as well as a diversity in beliefs. The First Amendment to the country's Constitution prevents the Federal government from making any \"law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof\". The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted this as preventing the government from having any authority in religion. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unusual among developed countries, although similar to the other nations of the Americas. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including both later imports spanning the country's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those founded within the country; these have led the United States to become the most religiously diverse country in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46006",
"title": "Freedom of religion",
"section": "Section::::History.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "The United States formally considers religious freedom in its foreign relations. The International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 established the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom which investigates the records of over 200 other nations with respect to religious freedom, and makes recommendations to submit nations with egregious records to ongoing scrutiny and possible economic sanctions. Many human rights organizations have urged the United States to be still more vigorous in imposing sanctions on countries that do not permit or tolerate religious freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6171222",
"title": "American Indian Religious Freedom Act",
"section": "Section::::Original text.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Whereas the United States has traditionally rejected the concept of a government denying individuals the right to practice their religion, and as a result, has benefited from a rich variety of religious heritages in this country;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60258380",
"title": "Freedom of religion in North America by country",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The status of religious freedom in North America varies from country to country. States can differ based on whether or not they guarantee equal treatment under law for followers of different religions, whether they establish a state religion (and the legal implications that this has for both practitioners and non-practitioners), the extent to which religious organizations operating within the country are policed, and the extent to which religious law is used as a basis for the country's legal code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16147907",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Status of religious freedom.:Restrictions on religious freedom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "There were no reports that the practice of any faith was prohibited; however, the Government does not officially recognize all religious groups. Some religious groups, while allowed to meet and practice their faith, faced societal and official discrimination. In addition, not all Christian denominations have applied for or been accorded legal recognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60258301",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Europe by country",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Virtually every country in Europe legally establishes the freedom of religion for people living in the country, and most also have anti-discrimination laws that specifically highlight religious freedom. However, enforcement of these laws is not always consistent, and several countries routinely fail to implement these laws at a local level. A few countries in Europe continue to have state religions, particularly those with constitutional monarchies. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60258380",
"title": "Freedom of religion in North America by country",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "Every country in North America includes provisions for the freedom of religion or freedom of conscience in its constitution. Several countries also have formally outlawed discrimination on religious grounds, and according to US State Department reports many countries in the region have no outstanding issues regarding breaches of religious freedom due to government intervention or societal pressure. Seven countries have blasphemy laws which have been part of their legal codes since the British colonial era, but which are not currently enforced. Rastafarians face discrimination and obstacles to religious practice in many countries in the region, often due in part to countries outlawing cannabis, which is used in Rastafarian religious rituals. Roman Catholicism is the state religion of a few countries in North America, and a couple more provide preferential treatment to the Catholic Church despite not officially establishing it as a state religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26d4cy
|
Would a planet-sized ball of liquid water in space have a solid core of "hot ice" the same way Earth's inner core is solid?
|
[
{
"answer": "At high pressures water will form a solid at any temperature. Wikipedia has a rather detailed phase diagram for water:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nOf course the specifics will vary; it'd be very unlikely for a planet to form exclusively from water, so getting a water-only core becomes difficult.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some recent reviews of water moons in our solar system suggest a layer cake of ice and water levels as there are various sorts of Ice that water can form and various levels of salinity: \n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47887874",
"title": "Solid nitrogen",
"section": "Section::::Bulk properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "Solid nitrogen has several properties relevant to its formation of rocks in the outer Solar System. Even at the low temperatures of solid nitrogen it is fairly volatile and can sublime to form an atmosphere, or condense back into nitrogen frost. At 58 K the ultimate compressive strength is 0.24 MPa. Strength increases as temperature lowers becoming 0.54 MPa at 40.6 K. Elastic modulus varies from 161 to 225 MPa over the same range. Compared to other materials, solid nitrogen loses cohesion at low pressures and flows in the form of glaciers when amassed. Yet its density is higher than that of water ice, so the forces of buoyancy will naturally transport blocks of water ice towards the surface. This effect has been most clearly observed on Pluto (by the \"New Horizons\" space probe in 2015), where water ice makes up a major part of the surface layers as icebergs on top of nitrogen ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48260813",
"title": "K2-18b",
"section": "Section::::Physical Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The planet may have a rocky surface and an atmosphere providing similar insulation to Earth's, according to a study published in mid-2017. However, the same study also states that the planet could be primarily water-based with a thick ice surface; as of yet, its exact structure is unknown. K2-18b is within the habitable zone of its star and could have oceans of liquid water on its surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59327171",
"title": "Asteroidal water",
"section": "Section::::Hydrology and morphology.:By meteorite classification.:Achondrite meteorites.:Micrometeorites and dust particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The smallest solid objects can have water. At Earth, falling particles returned by high-altitude planes and balloons show water contents. In the outer Solar System, atmospheres show water spectra where water should have been depleted. The atmospheres of giant planets and Titan are replenished by infall from an external source. Micrometeorites and interplanetary dust particles contain , some CO, and possibly CO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30078913",
"title": "Superionic water",
"section": "Section::::Existence in ice giants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "It is theorized that the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune hold a layer of superionic water. But there are also studies that suggest that other elements present inside the interiors of these planets, particularly carbon, may prevent the formation of superionic water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11322595",
"title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water",
"section": "Section::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Models of radioactive decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Models of heat retention and heating via radioactive decay in smaller icy Solar System bodies suggest that Rhea, Titania, Oberon, Triton, Pluto, Eris, Sedna, and Orcus may have oceans underneath solid icy crusts approximately 100 km thick. Of particular interest in these cases is the fact that the models indicate that the liquid layers are in direct contact with the rocky core, which allows efficient mixing of minerals and salts into the water. This is in contrast with the oceans that may be inside larger icy satellites like Ganymede, Callisto, or Titan, where layers of high-pressure phases of ice are thought to underlie the liquid water layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::Planetary habitability in the Solar System.:Other bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Models of heat retention and heating via radioactive decay in smaller icy Solar System bodies suggest that Rhea, Titania, Oberon, Triton, Pluto, Eris, Sedna, and Orcus may have oceans underneath solid icy crusts approximately 100 km thick. Of particular interest in these cases is the fact that the models indicate that the liquid layers are in direct contact with the rocky core, which allows efficient mixing of minerals and salts into the water. This is in contrast with the oceans that may be inside larger icy satellites like Ganymede, Callisto, or Titan, where layers of high-pressure phases of ice are thought to underlie the liquid water layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26903",
"title": "Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Structure and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "The objects of the inner Solar System are composed mostly of rock, the collective name for compounds with high melting points, such as silicates, iron or nickel, that remained solid under almost all conditions in the protoplanetary nebula. Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases, the astronomical term for materials with extremely low melting points and high vapour pressure, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon, which were always in the gaseous phase in the nebula. Ices, like water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide, have melting points up to a few hundred kelvins. They can be found as ices, liquids, or gases in various places in the Solar System, whereas in the nebula they were either in the solid or gaseous phase. Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets, as well as most of Uranus and Neptune (the so-called \"ice giants\") and the numerous small objects that lie beyond Neptune's orbit. Together, gases and ices are referred to as \"volatiles\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qz64h
|
why has stop snitchin' remained so popular in low-income us populations?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because every one gets out if jail... And then they come back... And then ^^^ that guy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People in low income situation usually have short term goals as opposed to long term goals. And in many low income areas criminal populations hold more power then government. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A combination of : Fear, a sense of honor ( both legitimate and romanticized, if not altogether misplaced ) and a sense of community that is somewhat self-reliant and sees justice as a private issue - and the police as a greater threat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a black man who has poor relatives but grew up well off: many minorities historically distrusted the police and passed on such attitudes to they're kids. \n\nIf the police were shaking down local car thieves or arsonist I'd imagine most people would turn on them. Drug dealers seem to be a fact of life that many have been involved in either themselves or through family. I known far more dealers of all economic backgrounds than say murderers or thieves so I'd be less inclined to rat one out just because of civic duty. \n\nSome New immigrants come from countries where police are less effective or just thugs with badges. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In many neighborhoods police are not noble protectors of the community but instead thugs of the state that arrest ones family, racially profile, and victimize and hurt with absolute impunity. This is something to keep in mind in your work. Many communities feel under siege and working with the police is in some aspects no different than being a collaborator with a foreign occupying army.\n\nWhy would these people turn in people, who they likely grew up with, know personally, and all face the same a similar poor socioeconomic status, to some thug sent from the state that put into place the very policies that placed them historically in such a position?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because in those neighborhoods, snitching will get you killed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "873834",
"title": "Reform school",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Both in the United Kingdom and United States, they came out of social concerns about cities, poverty, immigration, and vagrancy following industrialization, as well as from a shift in society's attitude from retribution, punishing the miscreant to reforming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11494260",
"title": "Jenny McCarthy",
"section": "Section::::Activism.:Autism activism and views on vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Jenny, as outbreaks of measles, mumps and whooping cough continue to appear in the U.S.—most the result of parents refusing to vaccinate their children because of the scare stories passed around by anti-vaxxers like you—it's just too late to play cute with the things you've said. You are either floridly, loudly, uninformedly antivaccine or you are the most grievously misunderstood celebrity of the modern era. Science almost always prefers the simple answer, because that's the one that's usually correct. Your quote trail is far too long—and you have been far too wrong—for the truth not to be obvious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30986098",
"title": "Aggressive panhandling",
"section": "Section::::Aggressive panhandling in US law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "In 1991 and 1992, federal courts overturned New York and California state laws that made aggressive panhandling illegal. It was observed that \"Groups and individuals all over the United States engage in highly public fundraising for all sorts of causes and charities.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10237077",
"title": "Quanell X",
"section": "Section::::Community activist.:After 2010.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "On August 1, 2011, Quanell X pleaded with the residents of inner city neighborhoods to stop the \"No Snitching\" policy that institutes a bias of those who provide information to police after a series of crimes and murders have plagued the Third Ward area in recent weeks. He said, \"The no-snitch policy does not work when you have having our elders and our women and our children live like hostages.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1744510",
"title": "American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee",
"section": "Section::::History and activities.:1980s and 1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "In 1996 the US Congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, which increased the regulation of fund raising that might benefit alleged terrorists and made it easier to bar or deport those with suspected terrorist affiliations. It also passed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act allowing deportation of immigrants for minor offenses, even those committed decades ago, and even if individuals had American spouses and/or children. It also allowed secret classified evidence and denial of bond for those under threat of deportation. ADC began campaigns to contest these laws and even dilute or overturn them through legal action. One lawsuit by Arabs claiming they were targeted for deportation because of affiliations with an unpopular political group, in violation of their First and Fifth Amendment, reached the Supreme Court, in \"Reno v. American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee\" . While the ruling cast doubt on the role of secret evidence, many observers interpreted it as restricting First Amendment rights of all non-citizens, including legal immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37009866",
"title": "Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Fact-checkers note that, on a large scale or in the long run, there is no reason to believe that DACA recipients have a major deleterious effect on American workers' employment chances; to the contrary, some economists say that DACA benefits the overall U.S. economy. Economists have warned that ending DACA could adversely affect the U.S. economy, and that \"most economists see immigration generally as an \"economic boon\".\" Almost all economists reject Jeff Sessions' claim that DACA \"denied jobs to hundreds of thousands of Americans by allowing those same jobs to go to illegal aliens.\" Sessions' claim is rooted in what economists call the \"lump of labor fallacy\" (i.e., the idea that there is a limit to amount of work force available in any economy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3603703",
"title": "Auction sniping",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Online services claim that their use decreases the failure rate of the snipe, because they have more reliable servers and a faster Internet connection with a less variation in latency, allowing the bid to more reliably be placed close to the deadline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qivbe
|
Are Southern Chinese really Han Chinese?
|
[
{
"answer": "Now firstly it must be made clear: \"Southern Chinese\" is not a single homogenous group. There are several major ethnic group that usually called Southern Chinese. These are:\n\n- Hokkien/Fujuanese: people from Fujian. This province is the most mountainous province in eastern China. During early Han period this period are mstly out of government controls and still un-Sinicized\n- Cantonese/Yue Chinese/Guangzhou people: people native from Guangdong, the province near Hongkong and Macau and to the south of Fujian. This province is less mountainous and rather easily accessible via a river route from Hunan. Even since Qin dynasty this place is already have a Chinese garrison\n- Hakka: these people are recent migrant from northern China. There are good record of their migration southward and these people are undoubtedly Han\n- other non-Han ethnic group sometimes also called \"Southern Chinese\", especially the Zhuang, who are linguistically closer to the Thais, and various Hmong/Miao people who are likely indigenous in the place\n\nJudging from its history, the Yue/Cantonese are likely have Han descent, as it is already an important commandery since the first dynasty of China, most likely, the men from these garrisons married local women, who were as you said were of various tribes like the Baiyue.\n\nThe question whether people living to the south of Yellow river valley really Chinese is not new. In fact during the Warring States period, the State of Chu, which located in central Yangtze basin, is considered at least partially barbarian. And songs of Chu, along with its other cultural practices, were considered \"exotic\" by the other six warring states.\n\nIt should be noted however, that there are well-recorded migrations of Chinese from Yellow river basin whenever northern steppes nomads invaded. The migrations happened during An Lushan rebellion during Tang Dynasty, he was half-Turkic half-Sogdian. Many Chinese also fled the invasion of Jurchens invasions of Song Dynasty which later followed by the Mongols under Kubilai Khan. So saying that that Southern Chinese are less Chinese is rather inacurate based on these record of migrations.\n\nIn fact, there is this theory that it was Northern Chinese who are *less* Chinese, since North China Plains was historically invaded multiple time by barbarians from the north.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As /u/reddriper excellently pointed out, \"Southern Chinese\" is not a homogenous group, and I will add that \"Northern Chinese\" is not a homogenous group, either. This idea of \"original Chinese blood\" or \"different Chinese races\" is completely outdated. A glance through Chinese history will show that migration and mixing of populations was far from uncommon. Of course there are genetic differences and even distinctive physical characteristics between different regions -- but you'd expect that over any geography of comparable size and terrain, and China is huge. If anything, it's a miracle in a way that there has been as much political and cultural unity over such a large span of land for millennia. The North/South \"divide\" is perhaps accentuated really as a consequence of cultural and political history more than anything. The South had been quite stable politically compared to the North, where there were large scale northern invasions over a millennium and which caused repeated waves of some migration from north to south.\n\nSo yes, Southern Chinese populations may have more genetic material from populations in Southeast Asia. Northern Chinese more genetic material from populations in the North, and the West and Southwest with populations they were in contact with in their respective regions. To deny that would be crazy, but to go the other end and claim or imply that there is no significant shared ancestry would be even crazier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "152827",
"title": "Han Chinese",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The Han Chinese people are bound together with a common genetic stock and a shared history inhabiting an ancient ancestral territory for over four thousand years, deeply rooted with many different cultural traditions and customs. The Huaxia tribes in northern China experienced a continuous expansion into southern China over the past two millennia. Huaxia culture spread southward from its heartland in the Yellow River Basin, absorbing various non-Chinese ethnic groups that became sinicised over the centuries at various points in China's history. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19359",
"title": "Mandarin Chinese",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution and dialects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Most Han Chinese living in northern and southwestern China are native speakers of a dialect of Mandarin. The North China Plain provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese varieties, with great internal diversity, particularly in Fujian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152827",
"title": "Han Chinese",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "The prehistory of the Han Chinese is closely intertwined with both archaeology, biology, historical textual records and mythology. The ethnic stock to which the Han Chinese originally trace their ancestry from were confederations of late neolithic and early bronze-age agricultural tribes known as the Huaxia that lived along the Guanzhong and Yellow River basins in Northern China. In addition, numerous ethnic groups were assimilated and absorbed by the Han Chinese at various points in China's history. Like many modern ethnic groups, the ethnogenesis of Han Chinese was a long and lengthy process that involved the expansion of the Chinese dynasties and their assimilation of various non-Chinese ethnic groups that became sinicised over the centuries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153223",
"title": "Chinese nationalism",
"section": "Section::::Ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1372,
"text": "In the late 19th century, Chinese nationalism identified the Han dynasty with Chinese and argued for the overthrow of the Manchus who were considered outside the realm of the Chinese nation, i.e. \"foreign barbarians\". This view was notably articulated by the famous philologist Zhang Binglin, who also introduced the racial concept of \"Hanzu\" 'Han lineage, race': \"Although divided by dialects, those who consider themselves Han Chinese have a sense of belonging to a group which shares more or less the same culture, a history and a vague sense of belonging to the 'yellow race'. They may also believe that they were all descendants of the Yellow Emperor, a mythic figure in the high antiquity of China.\". His ideas on the putative common origin for all speakers of a Sinitic language would later become the corner-stone of the prevailing Chinese nationalist ideology today, as illustrated by the Wikipedia entry Han Chinese. Sun Yat-sen once declared: \"In order to restore our national independence, we must first restore the Chinese nation. In order to restore the Chinese nation, we must drive the barbarian Manchus back to the Changbai Mountains. In order to get rid of the barbarians, we must first overthrow the present tyrannical, dictatorial, ugly, and corrupt Qing government. Fellow countrymen, a revolution is the only means to overthrow the Qing government!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55063",
"title": "China proper",
"section": "Section::::Extent.:Ethnic perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "However, Han Chinese areas in the present day do not correspond well to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing Dynasty. Much of southwestern China, such as areas in the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, and Guizhou, was part of successive Han Chinese dynasties, including the Ming Dynasty and the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing Dynasty. However, these areas were and continue to be populated by various non-Han Chinese minority groups, such as the Zhuang, the Miao people, and the Bouyei. Conversely, today Han Chinese form the majority in most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, many areas in Xinjiang and scattered parts of Tibet, not least due to the expansion of Han Chinese settlement encouraged by the late Qing dynasty, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152827",
"title": "Han Chinese",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "The Han Chinese people trace a common ancestry to the Huaxia (), a name for the initial confederation of agricultural tribes living along the Yellow River. The term \"Huaxia\" represents the collective neolithic confederation of agricultural tribes Hua and Xia who settled along the Central Plains around the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River in northern China. The two tribes were the ancestors of the modern Han Chinese people that gave birth to Chinese civilization. In addition, the Huaxia (literally \"the civilized Xia people\") was distinctively used to represent the Huaxia as a civilized ethnic group in contrast to what was perceived of different ethnic groups as barbaric peoples around them. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152827",
"title": "Han Chinese",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.:Mainland China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The vast majority of Han Chinese – over 1.2 billion– live in areas under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China (PRC), where they constitute about 92% of its population. Han Chinese in China have been a politically, culturally, and economically dominant majority vis-à-vis the non-Han minorities throughout most of China's recorded history. Han Chinese are almost the majority in every Chinese province, municipality, and autonomous region except for the autonomous regions of Xinjiang (38% or 40% in 2010) and Tibet Autonomous Region (8% in 2014), where Uighurs and Tibetans are the majority, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9a5cie
|
what is insomnia and why can't our brains shut off when we're excessively tired
|
[
{
"answer": "Insomnia can be caused by many things, but one of the most common causes of insomnia is a non-functioning ability to produce the chemical that makes us begin to fall asleep.\n\nOur brain (neurotypically) naturally makes all of the chemicals we need on a given day to function. One of them, melatonin, is produced in low light conditions when the body is laying down or comfortable, and it triggers the sleepiness that lulls us to sleep. For whatever reason (and there are many), some people's brains don't make enough of this chemical naturally to fall asleep easily.\n\nSome causes of malfunctioning melatonin production include PTSD, rewiring what your brain expects \"low lighting\" conditions to look like by watching bright screens in the dark, as a symptom of other disorders like anxiety and depression, as a symptom of taking medications, from not getting enough exercise, and so on.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "29603632",
"title": "Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia",
"section": "Section::::Components of CBT-I.:Cognitive therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- Insomnia cannot be blamed for all the deficits the patient is experiencing in his daytime life (not all problems will go away once the patient is able to sleep), this is important to know, because it takes some of the unrealistic expectations off sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45413769",
"title": "Safety behaviors (anxiety)",
"section": "Section::::Associated conditions.:Insomnia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "People with insomnia tend to excessively worry about getting enough sleep and the consequences of not getting enough sleep. These people use safety behaviors in an attempt to reduce their excessive anxiety. However, the use of safety behaviors serves to increase anxiety and reduce the chances that the affected person will disconfirm these anxiety-provoking thoughts. A common safety behavior used by affected people is attempting to control the anxiety-provoking thoughts by distracting themselves with other thoughts. The affected person may also cancel appointments and decide not to work because the person believes that he or she will not function properly. The affected person may take naps to compensate for the lack of sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "50798",
"title": "Insomnia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder in which people have trouble sleeping. They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep as long as desired. Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability, and a depressed mood. It may result in an increased risk of motor vehicle collisions, as well as problems focusing and learning. Insomnia can be short term, lasting for days or weeks, or long term, lasting more than a month \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27834",
"title": "Sleep",
"section": "Section::::Disorders.:Insomnia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Insomnia is a general term for difficulty falling asleep and/or staying asleep. Insomnia is the most common sleep problem, with many adults reporting occasional insomnia, and 10–15% reporting a chronic condition. Insomnia can have many different causes, including psychological stress, a poor sleep environment, an inconsistent sleep schedule, or excessive mental or physical stimulation in the hours before bedtime. Insomnia is often treated through behavioral changes like keeping a regular sleep schedule, avoiding stimulating or stressful activities before bedtime, and cutting down on stimulants such as caffeine. The sleep environment may be improved by installing heavy drapes to shut out all sunlight, and keeping computers, televisions and work materials out of the sleeping area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18835541",
"title": "Narcolepsy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Many people with narcolepsy also suffer from insomnia for extended periods of time. The excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy often become severe enough to cause serious problems in a person's social, personal, and professional life. Normally, when an individual is awake, brain waves show a regular rhythm. When a person first falls asleep, the brain waves become slower and less regular, which is called non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. After about an hour and a half of NREM sleep, the brain waves begin to show a more active pattern again, called REM sleep (rapid eye movement sleep), when most remembered dreaming occurs. Associated with the EEG-observed waves during REM sleep, muscle atonia is present called REM atonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2287240",
"title": "Rebound effect",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Sedative hypnotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Rebound insomnia is insomnia that occurs following discontinuation of sedative substances taken to relieve primary insomnia. Regular use of these substances can cause a person to become dependent on its effects in order to fall asleep. Therefore, when a person has stopped taking the medication and is 'rebounding' from its effects, he or she may experience insomnia as a symptom of withdrawal. Occasionally, this insomnia may be worse than the insomnia the drug was intended to treat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50798",
"title": "Insomnia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Subjectivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Some cases of insomnia are not really insomnia in the traditional sense, because people experiencing sleep state misperception often sleep for a normal amount of time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
12v2oa
|
To what extent did the Axis power coordinate their actions/strategy in WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was little to no military cooperation between Berlin and Tokyo, but some cooperation between Berlin and Rome, as well as the other German allies. However, Hitler did declare war on the US in 1941 following Pearl Harbor, and not the reverse.\n\nThe Hungarian, Romanian, Finnish and Italian armies participated quite a bit on the Eastern Front. In addition, Italy's participation in North Africa is well documented, as was the German defense of Italy against the US and British forces in later in the war.\n\nThe effects of a Japanese declaration of war on the USSR rather than the US in 1941 wander deeply into /r/historicalwhatif territory, but are interesting to ponder. Japan was already deeply embroiled in China and Burma at that time, so any consideration of war with the Soviets would have needed to include settling these conflicts first.",
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"answer": " > How much did they coordinate and plan together? Was simply being in the war and diverting resources from the Allied war effort enough?\n\nWell the German-Italian cooperation through the war, which was characterised mostly by Germany bailing Italy out of trouble and diverting precious resources from more important theaters, is quite well known and well documented.\n\nThe German-Japanese relationship during the war was obviously quite limited simply because of the geographical factors which made direct communication and military cooperation pretty difficult. Before Operation Barbarossa started Germany and the Soviet Union were technically allies which enabled Germany to send a small naval vessel east along the northern coast of Russia all the way to the Pacific, but it was withdrawn soon after. The best example of direct German-Japanese contact was through the German U-boots, some of which managed to make their way to Batavia in Japanese occupied Dutch East India (Indonesia). But those were all minor incidents of course with no real effect on the war. \n\nA more interesting story are the plans the German and Japanese leadership had for the Soviet Union after the war. IIRC the Japanese were prepared to join the war against the Soviet Union once Moscow had fallen. Now Hitler's plans for the Soviet Union changed quite a few times: At one points he wanted all Soviet territory west of a line going from Arkhangelsk to Astrakhan while leaving the rest for the Soviet government, while later in the war there were talks of basically dividing the whole of Eurasia between the Axis powers.\nThe Soviet Union would be divided between Germany and Japan, with the border starting at the most western part of Mongolia and then going north along the Yenisey river, China would go to Japan while Germany would have gotten Central Asia, and finally Japan would have gotten India and Germany Iran and possibly also Pakistan.\n\n\n\n > Yesterday it was mentioned that the Russian-Japanese anti-aggression pact may have saved Russia from defeat in 1941. It seems odd that Japan would agree to leave Russia alone at the same time that Russia was being invaded by Germany. Did the Germans try to do anything about that?\n\nWell there were several reasons why Japan didn't intervene in German-Soviet war.\n\n1) **Manchurian Incidents**\n\nJapan has always been quite poor in natural resources and this was the primary reason why they decided to take control of Manchuria in north China. Manchuria had most of the resources Japan needed to keep it's industries running without having to rely on imports from potentially hostile nations.\n\nAnyway Manchuria borders eastern Siberia and throughout the 30s the Japanese Kwantung Army stationed in Manchuria and the Soviet forces in the far east engaged in a series of border skirmishes that cost both sides relatively high casualties, but which never escalated into full-scale war. Most of these skirmishes ended in Soviet favour primarily because of their heavier equipment and larger tanks which the Japanese had a hard time dealing with. The Japanese never really took serious steps to mend this deficiency, not because they were too conservative or incompetent, but because lighter armed infantry formations were much more efficient in the territories the Imperial Japanese Army fought in. The very hilly low-infrastructure areas of south and central China, the jungles of Indochina, Burma, Indonesia and the Pacific Islands were, contrary to the large open fields of eastern Europe and north Africa where the Wehrmacht's Panzers had free reign, not suited to armoured forces.\n\nThe last of these border skirmishes took place in early 1939 IIRC and the Japanese army leadership came to the conclusion that fighting the Soviet Far Eastern army could very well become a disastrous experience for the Imperial Army. Thus they decided to secure their northern border with a non-aggression pact. The Soviet-Japanese non-aggression pact, just like the Molotov-Ribbentorp fact, was also very much in Stalin's interest as, even though the Soviet armies had performed quite well against the Japanese, he was quite worried of Hitler's Germany and thus needed time to build up the armed forces of the Soviet Union.\n\nSo, the Japanese knew their forces were inferior to the Soviet ones which greatly decreased their desire for a war in Siberia.\n\n2) **The Chinese Campaign**\n\nAfter 1937 the Japanese also found themselves embroiled in a war in China which required considerable amounts of troops, supplies etc. The leadership of the Japanese Army expected a relatively swift victory but soon found themselves bugged down in the war with no prospect of a fast victory. Now they obviously still controlled huge amounts of territory, including most of northern China and the entire coast line, which also required considerable resources to be kept under control.\n\nSo yea, while they still maintained a somewhat considerable force in Manchuria the Chinese front swallowed a lot of the resources available.\n\n3) **Divided Leadership**\n\nThe Japanese government was not centralised in the same way Nazi Germany for instance was, and there were several factions fighting for power. The navy and army were fierce rivals for the resources available and the leadership of both organisations had their own plans and ideas for how to win the war. The invasion of China, for instance, was not a decision made by the Japanese government, but rather by local army leadership in Manchuria who had great interests in a war with China. So once the Marco Polo Bridge Incident had occurred and the Japanese Army leaders had started sending forces into China, there was little the actual government could do about it.\n\nAnywho after the failure of Japanese army to secure a quick victory over China, the navy faction's plan for achieving Japanese hegemony over East Asia through an attack on the European colonies to the south gained popularity. The Japanese war in China meant the European powers and the US refused to sell oil and fuel to Japan, which forced the Japanese to attack south to gain the resources they needed. The swift occupations of the Dutch East India and the other European colonies meant Japan was bogged even more down, and had yet another war to fight and allocate resources to, which made an intervention against the Soviet Union even more unlikely.\n\n\nNow as to weather Hitler tried to get Japan to join the war against the Soviet Union. Yes, he did. One of the primary reasons why Hitler declared war on the United States after Pearl Harbour was he wanted the Japanese to join his war, which never happened.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50146801",
"title": "Zero Hour (1944 film)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "During the Second World War, the Axis powers employed joint or combined operations to launch invasions in Europe and Asia. In Norway, Nazi Germany launched an amphibious invasion while the island of Crete was overwhelmed by an airborne invasion. Japan also had been successful in its Japanese imperialist wars in Asia. In all instances, the invading forces were able to strike quickly using small lightweight weaponry and use the elements of surprise and combined forces to achieve victory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "173475",
"title": "Axis & Allies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "\"Axis & Allies\" is not a strict historical wargame, due to its streamlining for ease of play and balancing so that both sides have a chance to win. For instance, the economic model is simplistic, with each territory producing a number of Industrial Production Certificates (IPCs) for the purchase of new units. Moreover, the game is supposed to start in the spring of 1942, but Japan is immediately in position to attack Hawaii again, while Germany is pressed well into the Soviet Union with an initially superior force. If the game were truer to history, the Axis empires would be at their climax in 1942, about to be pushed back by the Allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32927",
"title": "World War II",
"section": "Section::::Course of the war.:Western Europe (1940–41).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy and Germany as the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary would make major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43507",
"title": "Axis powers",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The Axis powers' primary goal was territorial expansion at the expense of their neighbors. In ideological terms, the Axis described their goals as breaking the hegemony of the plutocratic Western powers and defending civilization from communism. The Axis championed a number of variants of fascism, militarism, and autarky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2014810",
"title": "List of expansion operations and planning of the Axis powers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Planning for global territorial expansion of the Axis powers; Germany, Italy and Japan, progressed before and during the Second World War. This included some special strike plans against the Allied nations (with similar intentions to the James Doolittle raid special Allied Strike). The Kingdom of Romania, a \"de facto\" major member of the Axis with a contribution on par with Italy's, is also included. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2295738",
"title": "Axis & Allies (2004 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The turn-based WWII mode in \"Axis & Allies\" was chiefly inspired by the \"Axis & Allies\" board game series. Although different in how it is played, the mode was said by lead designer Brian Wood to \"capture the importance of the economic factors (which are often left out of WWII games), as well as to encompass the global aspect of the board game.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10051524",
"title": "Operation Cascade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In 1942, the British forces in the Mediterranean and Middle East were very weak. To deter the Axis from attacking, a deception operation was planned. This operation was started by 'A' force under command of Colonel Dudley Clarke in 1941, and in 1942 eventually evolved into \"Operation Cascade\". The goal of the operation was to create a false order of battle in order to keep the Axis guessing as to the strength of the Allies in the region, by use of bogus troop formations, radio traffic and double agents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ym1zx
|
What set the precedent for the "campy" style of early superhero pop culture? As opposed to the gritty/realistic style we see today.
|
[
{
"answer": "can you clarify the timelines you are thinking about? The really campy stuff doesn't start until the 60s after the pushback from the book \"seduction of the innocent,\" (where criticism of superhero books was included along with other violent comic books) sparking a moral panic and the comics code. As a result of the code we see for example the classic campy Adam West Batman of the \"silver age\" (which was significantly less dark than some of the early \"golden age\" Batmen\") before the gritty turn in the \"bronze age\".\n\nMy hunch is your mental model starts in the silver age which would be a mistake since the campy superheros were a reaction to earlier comics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13482953",
"title": "Superhero fiction",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prototypes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1245,
"text": "Antecedents of the superhero archetype include such folkloric heroes as Robin Hood, who adventured in distinctive clothing, Penny dreadfuls, shilling shockers, dime novels, radio programs, and other popular fiction of the late 19th and early 20th centuries featured mysterious, swashbuckling heroes with distinct costumes, unusual abilities and altruistic missions. The character of Spring Heeled Jack, who first emerged as an urban legend of the early 19th century, was re-conceived as a masked and costumed adventurer during the 1890s. The 1903 play \"The Scarlet Pimpernel\" and its spinoffs further popularized the idea of a masked avenger and the superhero trope of a secret identity; such characters as the Green Hornet and the Scarecrow of Romney Marsh, would follow. Likewise, the science-fiction heroes John Carter of Mars,Buck Rogers, and Flash Gordon, with their futuristic weapons and gadgets; Tarzan, with his high degree of athleticism and strength, and his ability to communicate with animals; Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian and the biologically modified Hugo Danner of the novel \"Gladiator,\" were heroes with unusual abilities who fought sometimes larger-than-life foes. The word \"superhero\" itself dates to at least 1917.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2016311",
"title": "Legends of the Superheroes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Legends of the Superheroes is an umbrella title for two 60-minute live-action television specials produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions that aired on NBC on January 18 and 25, 1979. The series was loosely based on Hanna-Barbera's \"Super Friends\" animated series, then airing on Saturday mornings on ABC; but served as a reunion of sorts for the 1960s' \"Batman\" TV series, as it brings back together three of its stars reprising their respective roles. The specials were produced like standard variety shows of the time: on videotape and with a laugh track.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22419973",
"title": "'76 (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Peck also notes a love the comics of the era. He notes that his favorite superheroes of the period were Black Panther, Iron Fist, and Power Man, all of whom, he notes, were products of that era. Despite that, \"Cool\" \"doesn't have much in common with any of those books, and it has zero superheroes in it. It's closer to Taxi Driver by way of Elmore Leonard.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1275470",
"title": "Superhero film",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Original superhero characters emerged in other, more comedy oriented films such as the French political satire film \"Mr. Freedom\" (1969) and the American B movies \"Rat Pfink a Boo Boo\" (1966) and \"The Wild World of Batwoman\" (1966).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16902911",
"title": "Confessions of a Superhero",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Confessions of a Superhero is a 2007 documentary film directed by Matthew Ogens about costumed superheroes on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The film focuses in particular on Christopher Dennis, Jennifer Wenger, Joseph McQueen, and Maxwell Allen, who dress as Superman, Wonder Woman, The Hulk, and Batman, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177831",
"title": "Saturday-morning cartoon",
"section": "Section::::History.:1960s–1980s.:1960s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "The mid-1960s brought a boom in superhero cartoon series, some adapted from comic books, (\"Superman\", \"Aquaman\", \"Spider-Man\", \"The Fantastic Four\"), and others original (\"Space Ghost\", \"The Herculoids\", \"Birdman and the Galaxy Trio\", etc.) Also included were parodies of the superhero genre (\"Underdog\", \"The Super Six\", and \"George of the Jungle\", among others.) Another development was the popular music-based cartoon, featuring both real-life groups (\"The Beatles\", \"The Jackson 5ive\", and \"The Osmonds\") as well as anonymous studio musicians (\"The Archies\", \"Josie and the Pussycats\"). Live-action series continued to some extent with Sid and Marty Krofft's \"H.R. Pufnstuf\" and \"Sigmund and the Sea Monsters\", Hanna-Barbera's \"The Banana Splits\", Stan Burns and Mike Marmer's \"Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp\", ABC's \"Curiosity Shop\" (produced by Chuck Jones), Don Kirshner's widely popular \"The Monkees\", and the British-made slapstick comedy \"Here Come the Double Deckers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4526446",
"title": "Philippine comics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Originally inspired by American comic strips and comic books left behind by American GIs, the medium steadily diverged, and by the 1950s, drew more inspiration from other forms of Filipino literature such as \"komedya\", as well as Philippine mythology. Many komiks were evidently inspired by specific American comics, such as \"Kulafu\" and \"Og\" (Tarzan), \"Darna\" (Captain Marvel and Wonder Woman), and \"D. I. Trece\" (Dick Tracy). The predominance of superheroes has continued into the modern day. However, other characters such as Dyesebel draw more from traditional folklore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2blqsb
|
Was there ever a time and place, before alcohol regulation, where it was acceptable for children to get drunk regularly?
|
[
{
"answer": "You seem fairly familiar with the common practice of giving smaller children beer before potable water was widely available, and the idea of \"drinking water\" would have seem foreign to adults and children alike. \n\nThere is another practice that might interest you, which involves giving a baby a small amount of brandy or whiskey to stop it from crying and make the infant sleep more soundly in the night. The alcohol was often dabbed on the baby's lip, put into their milk or on the tip of their bottle. This is a folk medicine practice that has been common in many cultures that continues, in some places, to today.\n\nWhat your question seems to be getting at, however, is the stigmatization of alcohol and the connection between \"getting drunk\" and adulthood. There would obviously be a different answer to your question for every single chronological and geographic framework that might interest you. However, in general, it might be interesting to consider the types of terms you are using and the distinctions you are drawing. \n\nFor example, has \"alcohol\" always been a universal category? In our culture, we are able to easily define what constitutes an alcoholic beverage, but this is not a historically universal definition. For example, in some cultures, there might be fermented substances that were given to children and adults as part of religious or spiritual rituals that had the effect of \"getting them drunk\", but that did not have the same connotations as being an \"alcoholic\" or \"adult\" beverage. \n\nAnother term to consider is the idea of \"getting drunk.\" You say you are interested in situations where it was \"OK to provide alcohol to children for the purpose of getting them drunk.\" Yet you rule out situations where children were given weaker beers. Consider the effect of even a weak beer on a child. You are right in saying that water was not a commonly consumed substance because of potability, but there are examples of children being given beer (or babies being given brandy) to make them go to sleep earlier, while adults would drink caffeinated beverages like tea, coffee, or hot chocolate. The effect on the children is essentially getting them drunk, and the intention of the adults would have been to make them drowsier so they would behave better and go to bed earlier. \n\nTL;DR: The historical conceptions of what constitutes \"alcoholic beverages\", what the \"symptoms\" of drunkennness are, and why a person would want to be drunk or want their child to be drunk, are all shifting definitions that would be very specific to a certain social, cultural, and historical context. \n\nA cursory glance of the scholarship on the history of alcohol and alcohol culture shows that much of the research tends to be localized to a specific country or region, so it might be in your best interest to decide if there's a specific area of time period that interests you so you can focus your reading.\n\nSome sources that stuck out to me:\n\nIain Gately, *Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol,* New York: Gotham, 2008.\n\nEric Burns, *The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol,* Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004. \n\n*Altering American Consciousness: A History of Alcohol and Drug Use in the United States, 1800-2000,* ed. Sarah W. Tracy and Caroline Jean Acker, 2004. \n\nThomas Brennan, \"Towards the Cultural History of Alcohol in France,\"\n*Journal of Social History*, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 71-92\n\nRobin Room, \"Alcohol, the individual and society: what\nhistory teaches us,\" *Addiction*, Volume 92, Issue 3 Supplement 1. \n\nTheresa D. O'Nell and Christina M. Mitchell, \"Alcohol abuse among American Indian adolescents: The role of culture in pathological drinking,\" *Social Science & Medicine*, Volume 42, Issue 4, February 1996, Pages 565–578\n\nAkyeampong E. Drink, Power, and Cultural Change: A Social History of Alcohol in Ghana, c. 1800 to Recent Times. 1996.\n\nDavid G. Mandelbaum, \"Alcohol and Culture,\" *Current Anthropology*, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Jun., 1965). (This source is a little dated, but it appears to apply a macrohistorical, anthropological lens you might be interested in.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39114898",
"title": "Drinking culture of Korea",
"section": "Section::::History of South Korean drinking culture.:Korean New Year.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Alcohol consumption was also used to medicate both adults and children during illnesses. Because alcohol was held in such high regard, Korean ancestors took great pains to pass down drinking customs from generation to generation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11280044",
"title": "Alcohol laws in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Drinking age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Because of moral panic involving alcohol abuse among minors (a 16-year-old boy died after having consumed 45 shots of tequila in a bar in early 2007), some people demanded that the drinking age be raised. Most politicians, however, spoke against that notion, pointing out instead that such abuse was already forbidden according to current laws, which simply needed to be enforced. In Germany and the rest of Europe, alcohol consumption by adolescents is traditional and generally accepted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8959462",
"title": "Committee of Fifty (1893)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "After many sub-committee investigations, the committee concluded that occasional and regular moderate drinking did not cause health problems, that drinking did not inevitably lead to drunkenness as temperance activists contended, and that alcohol education should be based on a recognition that \"intoxication is not the wine's fault, but the man's\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24809120",
"title": "Alcohol in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Influences.:Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Children’s first reference for alcohol can be traced to their parents habits. 62% of underage Australians said they got access to their alcohol from friends or others, while 44% said their own parents purchased their alcohol. Nearly one in ten managed to purchase alcohol themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14868355",
"title": "Substance abuse prevention",
"section": "Section::::Plans on preventing substance abuse.:Family based prevention programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Smit, Verdurmen, Monshouwer, and Smil conducted research analysis to measure the effectiveness of family interventions about teen and adolescence drug and alcohol use. According to their data alcohol and drug use is very common in Western societies. For example, 18% of the young adults between the ages of 12-14 year old in US have indulged in binge drinking. According to quantities in 2006, 73% of 16-year-old US students were reported having used alcohol; In Northern Europe this is 90%. Since early use of alcohol and other substances may cause serious health, immediate solutions to these problem are required .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360180",
"title": "Systembolaget",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "In 1766 the Swedish king, Adolf Frederick, decided, after several unsuccessful attempts at regulating alcohol consumption, to abolish all restrictions. This led to virtually every household making and selling alcohol. At the beginning of the 1800s, the Swedish people were drinking a lot of alcohol, from 175,000 distillers (most of them for household-production only), using tremendous amounts of grain and potatoes that otherwise would have been consumed as food, and it was later said that most men in Sweden abused alcohol. Women rarely drank alcohol, since it was considered inappropriate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3187173",
"title": "Health effects of wine",
"section": "Section::::History of wine in medicine.:Risks of consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Throughout the mid to early 20th century, health advocates pointed to the risk of alcohol consumption and the role it played in a variety of ailments such as blood disorders, high blood pressure, cancer, infertility, liver damage, muscle atrophy, psoriasis, skin infections, strokes, and long-term brain damage. Studies showed a connection between alcohol consumption among pregnant mothers and an increased risk of mental retardation and physical abnormalities in what became known as fetal alcohol syndrome, prompting the use of warning labels on alcohol-containing products in several countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ersnn
|
Can bacteria survive in a freezing enviroment?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Psychrophiles](_URL_0_) thrive at very low temperatures. Such as wiki states, temps as low as -20C. They're part of extremophiles which cover all 'extreme' environments from high heat, to acidity, and metals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More of an addendum since this direct question was already answered.\n\nIf you help them along by adding something to prevent the formation of ice crystals, such as 5% [DMSO](_URL_0_), then you can freeze them and have them survive. Of course, other comments point out that bacteria can survive without this, but if you add DMSO you can freeze many more kinds of bacteria, animal cells, fungus, probably others and have them revive fairly well on thawing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "198824",
"title": "Freezing",
"section": "Section::::Freezing of living organisms.:Bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Three species of bacteria, \"Carnobacterium pleistocenium\", as well as \"Chryseobacterium greenlandensis\" and \"Herminiimonas glaciei\", have reportedly been revived after surviving for thousands of years frozen in ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219284",
"title": "Cryobiology",
"section": "Section::::Cryopreservation in nature.:Bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Three species of bacteria, \"Carnobacterium pleistocenium\", \"Chryseobacterium greenlandensis\", and \"Herminiimonas glaciei\", have reportedly been revived after surviving for thousands of years frozen in ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35602207",
"title": "Parvilucifera",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "P. infectans and P.sinerae have been able to survive extreme conditions due to the resilience of sporangium in the host cells which can protect the zoospores, alongside the protection of the host cyst. The Parvilucifera sporangium has been found to be able to survive cold temperatures for many months (Lepelletier et al. 2013).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19349845",
"title": "Cryopreservation",
"section": "Section::::Preservation of microbiology cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Bacteria and fungi can be kept short-term (months to about a year, depending) refrigerated, however, cell division and metabolism is not completely arrested and thus is not an optimal option for long-term storage (years) or to preserve cultures genetically or phenotypically, as cell divisions can lead to mutations or sub-culturing can cause phenotypic changes. A preferred option, species-dependent, is cryopreservation. Nematode worms are the only multicellular eukaryotes that have been shown to survive cryopreservation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18446530",
"title": "Microplasma",
"section": "Section::::Plasma medicine.:Wound care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Microplasma that is sustained near room temperature can destroy bacteria, viruses, and fungi deposited on the surfaces of surgical instruments and medical devices. Researchers discovered that bacteria cannot survive in the harsh environment created by microplasmas. They consist of chemically reactive species such as hydroxyl (OH) and atomic oxygen (O) that can kill harmful bacteria through oxidation. Oxidation of the lipids and proteins that compose a cell’s membrane can lead to the breakdown of the membrane and deactivate the bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31028310",
"title": "Interplanetary contamination",
"section": "Section::::Evidence for possible habitats outside Earth.:Mars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Other studies have suggested the potential for life to survive using deliquescing salts. These, similarly to the lichens, use the humidity of the atmosphere. If the mixture of salts is right, the organisms may obtain liquid water at times of high atmospheric humidity, with salts capture enough to be capable of supporting life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42112",
"title": "Yersinia",
"section": "Section::::Microbial physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "An interesting feature peculiar to some of the \"Yersinia\" bacteria is the ability to not only survive, but also to actively proliferate at temperatures as low as 1–4 °C (e.g., on cut salads and other food products in a refrigerator). \"Yersinia\" bacteria are relatively quickly inactivated by oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate solutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
116i1c
|
Does hair growth add weight?
|
[
{
"answer": "You would get heavier as you consumed food. Hair, in this analogy, can be seen like sweat. The only difference is that it's an excretion you retain, instead of one that evaporates. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2494084",
"title": "Hair care",
"section": "Section::::Treatment of damage.:Hair care and nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Scalp hair grows, on average, at a rate of about 1.25 centimeters per month, and shampoos or vitamins have not been shown to noticeably change this rate. Hair growth rate also depends upon what phase in the cycle of hair growth one is actually in; there are three phases. The speed of hair growth varies based upon genetics, gender, age, hormones, and may be reduced by nutrient deficiency (i.e., anorexia, anemia, zinc deficiency) and hormonal fluctuations (i.e., menopause, polycystic ovaries, thyroid disease).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Body hair, or androgenic hair, is the terminal hair that develops on the human body during and after puberty. It is differentiated from the head hair and less visible vellus hair, which is much finer and lighter in color. The growth of androgenic hair is related to the level of androgens (often referred to as male hormones) and the density of androgen receptors in the dermal papillae. Both must reach a threshold for the proliferation of hair follicle cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5165199",
"title": "Pattern hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Hormones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Transgenic studies have shown that growth and dormancy of hair follicles are related to the activity of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) at the dermal papillae, which is affected by DHT. Androgens are important in male sexual development around birth and at puberty. They regulate sebaceous glands, apocrine hair growth, and libido. With increasing age, androgens stimulate hair growth on the face, but can suppress it at the temples and scalp vertex, a condition that has been referred to as the 'androgen paradox'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Hair follicles are to varying degrees sensitive to androgen, primarily testosterone and its derivatives, particularly dihydrotestosterone, with different areas on the body having different sensitivity. As androgen levels increase, the rate of hair growth and the weight of the hairs increase. Genetic factors determine both individual levels of androgen and the hair follicle's sensitivity to androgen, as well as other characteristics such as hair colour, type of hair and hair retention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2494084",
"title": "Hair care",
"section": "Section::::Treatment of damage.:Hair care and nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Genetics and health are factors in healthy hair. Proper nutrition is important for hair health. The living part of hair is under the scalp skin where the hair root is housed in the hair follicle. The entire follicle and root are fed by a supply of arteries, and blood carries nutrients to the follicle/root. Any time an individual has any kind of health concern from stress, trauma, medications of various sorts, chronic medical conditions or medical conditions that come and then wane, heavy metals in waters and food, smoking etc. these and more can affect the hair, its growth, and its appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Androgenic hair follows the same growth pattern as the hair that grows on the scalp, but with a shorter anagen phase and longer telogen phase. While the anagen phase for the hair on one's head lasts for years, the androgenic hair growth phase for body hair lasts a few months. The telogen phase for body hair lasts close to a year. This shortened growing period and extended dormant period explains why the hair on the head tends to be much longer than other hair found on the body. Differences in length seen in comparing the hair on the back of the hand and pubic hair, for example, can be explained by varied growth cycles in those two regions. The same goes for differences in body hair length seen in different people, especially when comparing men and women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25109420",
"title": "NCAA banned substances",
"section": "Section::::Peptide hormones and analogues.:Human growth hormone (hGH).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Human growth hormone is a naturally occurring hormone that is responsible for general body growth in both men and women. hGH helps the body protein while breaking down fat deposits. Too much hGH results in increased muscle mass. (Santella 45)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ay8rdy
|
how come that in every mayor city there are hundreds of pigeons but you never see any dead ones?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two words: Turkey buzzards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "229962",
"title": "Feral pigeon",
"section": "Section::::Population control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Feral pigeons often only have small populations within cities. For example, the breeding population of feral pigeons in Sheffield, England, has been estimated at only 12,130 individuals. Despite this, feral pigeons usually reach their highest densities in the central portions of cities, so they are frequently encountered by people, which may lead to conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170323",
"title": "Bird feeding",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "In some cities or parts of cities (e.g. Trafalgar Square in London) feeding pigeons is forbidden, either because they compete with vulnerable native species, or because they abound and cause pollution and/or noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985866",
"title": "Environmental impact of wind power",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Impact on wildlife.:Birds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Large numbers of bird deaths are also attributed to collisions with buildings. An estimated 1 to 9 million birds are killed every year by tall buildings in Toronto, Ontario, Canada alone, according to the wildlife conservation organization Fatal Light Awareness Program. Other studies have stated that 57 million are killed by cars, and some 365 to 988 million are killed by collisions with buildings and plate glass in the United States alone. Promotional event lightbeams as well as ceilometers used at airport weather offices can be particularly deadly for birds, as birds become caught in their lightbeams and suffer exhaustion and collisions with other birds. In the worst recorded ceilometer lightbeam kill-off during one night in 1954, approximately 50,000 birds from 53 different species died at the Warner Robins Air Force Base in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1810142",
"title": "Getafe",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Flora and Fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "A significant population of small birds live within the city proper, including sparrows and pigeons. Larger birds, rabbits, foxes, wild boars, and weasels can be found in the more easterly parts of the municipality. The world's largest population of the common kestrel can be found in the Perales del Río neighborhood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42967",
"title": "Ornithology",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Large flocks of pigeons and starlings in cities are often considered as a nuisance, and techniques to reduce their populations or their impacts are constantly innovated. Birds are also of medical importance, and their role as carriers of human diseases such as Japanese encephalitis, West Nile virus, and influenza H5N1 have been widely recognised. Bird strikes and the damage they cause in aviation are of particularly great importance, due to the fatal consequences and the level of economic losses caused. The airline industry incurs worldwide damages of an estimated US$1.2 billion each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229962",
"title": "Feral pigeon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "Feral pigeons (\"Columba livia domestica\"), also called city doves, city pigeons, or street pigeons, are pigeons that are derived from the domestic pigeons that have returned to the wild. The domestic pigeon was originally bred from the wild rock dove, which naturally inhabits sea-cliffs and mountains. Rock (i.e., \"wild\"), domestic, and feral pigeons are all the same species and will readily interbreed. Feral pigeons find the ledges of buildings to be a substitute for sea cliffs, have become adapted to urban life, and are abundant in towns and cities throughout much of the world. Due to their abilities to create large amounts of excrement and to carry disease, combined with crop and property damage, pigeons are largely considered a nuisance and an invasive species, with steps being taken in many municipalities to lower their numbers or completely eradicate them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229962",
"title": "Feral pigeon",
"section": "Section::::Population control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "There is ample reason for the concerns of pigeons damaging property, due to their size and proximity to people and their dwellings. Pigeons often cause significant pollution with their droppings, though there is little evidence of them driving out other bird species. Pigeons are labeled an invasive species in North America by the USDA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g0fzf
|
will you explain to me the chi-square model when applied to genetics?
|
[
{
"answer": "The chi square model is a way for people who study genes to understand probability. If two traits are inherited by a child (like blue eyes and a small nose), what are the chances they were inherited together randomly, out of all the options it could have been? The other option is that these genes are linked, meaning that they usually transfer together to the child, as in, blue eyes and a small nose will generally appear together. Research in this field is helpful for learning about genetic disorders, and what may cause them, or what the full consequences of it are. \nAs for the model itself, it takes data obtained from a child generation (to see how many have this pair, and how many would have mixed inheritance), and with a mathematical equation establish how likely the outcome you are studying is due to chance. In biology, usually, a variable \"p\" from this model establishes probability, and if it is greater than .05, the outcome was likely due to chance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chi squared is just a statistical test used to compare expected versus actual outcomes. In terms of genetics, we expect Mendelian outcomes (eg you cross heterozygous for a gene, you should get 1:2:1 homozygous:heterozygous:null). So using chi squared we can statistically compare these outcomes with their actual.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "113424",
"title": "Chi-squared distribution",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The chi-square distribution is used primarily in hypothesis testing, and to a lesser extent for confidence intervals for population variance when the underlying distribution is normal. Unlike more widely known distributions such as the normal distribution and the exponential distribution, the chi-square distribution is not as often applied in the direct modeling of natural phenomena. It arises in the following hypothesis tests, among others:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113424",
"title": "Chi-squared distribution",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "An additional reason that the chi-square distribution is widely used is that it is a member of the class of likelihood ratio tests (LRT). LRT's have several desirable properties; in particular, LRT's commonly provide the highest power to reject the null hypothesis (Neyman–Pearson lemma). However, the normal and chi-square approximations are only valid asymptotically. For this reason, it is preferable to use the t distribution rather than the normal approximation or the chi-square approximation for a small sample size. Similarly, in analyses of contingency tables, the chi-square approximation will be poor for a small sample size, and it is preferable to use Fisher's exact test. Ramsey shows that the exact binomial test is always more powerful than the normal approximation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113424",
"title": "Chi-squared distribution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The chi-square distribution is used in the common chi-square tests for goodness of fit of an observed distribution to a theoretical one, the independence of two criteria of classification of qualitative data, and in confidence interval estimation for a population standard deviation of a normal distribution from a sample standard deviation. Many other statistical tests also use this distribution, such as Friedman's analysis of variance by ranks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113424",
"title": "Chi-squared distribution",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Entropy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The chi-square distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variate \"X\" for which formula_40 and formula_41 are fixed. Since the chi-square is in the family of gamma distributions, this can be derived by substituting appropriate values in the Expectation of the log moment of gamma. For derivation from more basic principles, see the derivation in moment-generating function of the sufficient statistic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113424",
"title": "Chi-squared distribution",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence and applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The chi-square distribution has numerous applications in inferential statistics, for instance in chi-square tests and in estimating variances. It enters the problem of estimating the mean of a normally distributed population and the problem of estimating the slope of a regression line via its role in Student's t-distribution. It enters all analysis of variance problems via its role in the F-distribution, which is the distribution of the ratio of two independent chi-squared random variables, each divided by their respective degrees of freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113424",
"title": "Chi-squared distribution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "In probability theory and statistics, the chi-square distribution (also chi-squared or ) with degrees of freedom is the distribution of a sum of the squares of independent standard normal random variables. The chi-square distribution is a special case of the gamma distribution and is one of the most widely used probability distributions in inferential statistics, notably in hypothesis testing or in construction of confidence intervals. When it is being distinguished from the more general noncentral chi-square distribution, this distribution is sometimes called the central chi-square distribution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33920294",
"title": "Psychotherapy and social action model",
"section": "Section::::The model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The square model derives from the sociological theory of the four paradigms for the analysis of social theory. Outside the frame of the model, the dichotomy of individual versus social approaches to personal well-being is represented. The two bottom cells of the square delineate the changing of individuals to conform to social convention while the two top cells of the square represent the changing of social structures as opposed to the individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3emnnf
|
Why didn't Einstein get a Nobel prize for Relativity? Was the paper on the photoelectric effect really more important?
|
[
{
"answer": "The first thing to remember about [Einstein's Nobel Prize](_URL_1_) is that it was given for \"his service to Theoretical Physics, and especially for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\" So it was not strictly given to him for the photoelectric effect. But to understand why that theory was highlighted above others, it is important to consider the timeline. \n\n[Einstein published the photoelectric effect in 1905.](_URL_3_) along with several other papers, including Relativity and Brownian motion. At the time there was great interest in Black Body radiation, various spectra from excited atoms and many other phenomenon that we would now consider quantum mechanics. But at the time the complete framework was not known and these things were very mysterious. We know see the photoelectric effect as mathematically simple compared to relativity, but for many years after 1905, very little actual progress was made in what would later become quantum theory. \n\n[Rutherford scattering was not discovered until 1911](_URL_5_) and the [Bohr model of the atom](_URL_0_) was not published until 1913, and we know it was not a complete theory of the structure of the atom. That's six to eight years of little progress, where the only known thing about quantum physics was Einstein's work. Throughout all of the quantum revolution, Einstein's work served as a 'north star' for other developments. It would take until 1926 for [Schrodinger's equation](_URL_2_) to be published, which is five years after Einstein's prize was awarded. So yes, Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect was very important and opened up many avenues of inquiry that ultimately gave us the quantum revolution of the 1920s and beyond. At the time, it was considered extremely important. While Relativity was also important, it didnt have any serious applications until the splitting of the atom in [1938](_URL_4_).\n\nEdit: I am not a professional historian, but I do have a PhD in physics.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2038941",
"title": "Annus Mirabilis papers",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Through these papers, Einstein tackles some of the era's most important physics questions and problems. In 1900, Lord Kelvin, in a lecture titled \"Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light\", suggested that physics had no satisfactory explanations for the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment and for black body radiation. As introduced, special relativity provided an account for the results of the Michelson–Morley experiments. Einstein's theories for the photoelectric effect extended the quantum theory which Max Planck had developed in his successful explanation of black-body radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1528075",
"title": "Nobel Prize controversies",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Albert Einstein's 1921 Nobel Prize Award mainly recognized his 1905 discovery of the mechanism of the photoelectric effect and \"for his services to Theoretical Physics\". The Nobel committee passed on several nominations for his many other seminal contributions, although these led to prizes for others who later applied more advanced technology to experimentally verify his work, most notably the 2017 prize awarded to the heads of LIGO. Many predictions of Einstein's theories have been verified as technology advances. Recent examples include the bending of light in a gravitational field, gravitational waves (detected by LIGO), gravitational lensing and black holes. It wasn't until 1993 that the first evidence for the existence of gravitational radiation came via the Nobel Prize-winning measurements of the Hulse–Taylor binary system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6646221",
"title": "Alternatives to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Early theories, 1686 to 1916.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Einstein's two part publication in 1912 (and before in 1908) is really only important for historical reasons. By then he knew of the gravitational redshift and the deflection of light. He had realized that Lorentz transformations are not generally applicable, but retained them. The theory states that the speed of light is constant in free space but varies in the presence of matter. The theory was only expected to hold when the source of the gravitational field is stationary. It includes the principle of least action:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31726328",
"title": "Einstein's awards and honors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "During the year of 1922, Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, \"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning \"his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48740",
"title": "Henri Poincaré",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Work on relativity.:Poincaré and Einstein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1226,
"text": "Einstein's first paper on relativity was published three months after Poincaré's short paper, but before Poincaré's longer version. Einstein relied on the principle of relativity to derive the Lorentz transformations and used a similar clock synchronisation procedure (Einstein synchronisation) to the one that Poincaré (1900) had described, but Einstein's paper was remarkable in that it contained no references at all. Poincaré never acknowledged Einstein's work on special relativity. However, Einstein expressed sympathy with Poincaré's outlook obliquely in a letter to Hans Vaihinger on 3 May 1919, when Einstein considered Vaihinger's general outlook to be close to his own and Poincaré's to be close to Vaihinger's. In public, Einstein acknowledged Poincaré posthumously in the text of a lecture in 1921 called \"Geometrie und Erfahrung\" in connection with non-Euclidean geometry, but not in connection with special relativity. A few years before his death, Einstein commented on Poincaré as being one of the pioneers of relativity, saying \"Lorentz had already recognised that the transformation named after him is essential for the analysis of Maxwell's equations, and Poincaré deepened this insight still further ...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7766589",
"title": "Carl Wilhelm Oseen",
"section": "Section::::Nobel committee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "It was Oseen who nominated Albert Einstein for the Nobel Prize in 1921, for Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect (rather than the more controversial theory of general relativity). Einstein was finally awarded the prize for 1921 when Oseen repeated the nomination in 1922.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1528075",
"title": "Nobel Prize controversies",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 1137,
"text": "The committee also failed to recognize the other contributions of his Annus Mirabilis papers on Brownian motion and special relativity. Often these nominations for Special Relativity were for both Hendrik Lorentz and Einstein. Henri Poincaré was also nominated at least once for his work, including on Lorentz's relativity theory. However, Kaufmann's then-experimental results (incorrectly) cast doubt on Special Relativity. These doubts were not resolved until 1915. By this time, Einstein had progressed to his general theory of relativity, including his theory of gravitation. Empirical support—in this case the predicted spectral shift of sunlight—was in question for many decades. The only piece of original evidence was the consistency with the known perihelion precession of the planet Mercury. Some additional support was gained at the end of 1919, when the predicted deflection of starlight near the sun was confirmed by Arthur Eddington's Solar Eclipse Expedition, though here again the actual results were somewhat ambiguous. Conclusive proof of the gravitational light deflection prediction was not achieved until the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ed54n
|
why are real number data types such as float and double called "floating-point"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Floating point data types stand in contrast to fixed point data types\n\nA floating point number has a value, and an exponent for scaling\n\nA fixed point number has a value, the scaling exponent is set by the system and is the same for all fixed point numbers you're using at a time\n\nFloating point numbers carrying their own exponent gives a much larger dynamic range. You can have one representing a very large value and another representing a very small value with no loss of precision",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say you have 8 \"spaces\" to store a number. There's a few different ways you can store numbers in it:\n\n1. Unsigned Integers. ######## lets you store numbers from 0-99999999 but no negatives or decimals\n2. Signed Integers. ±####### lets you store from -9999999 to +9999999, a smaller number than option 1 but covers positive and negative.\n3. Fixed Point Decimal ±XXX.YYYY only gives you -999.9999 to +999.9999. You could split it other ways, the point is that the data type is fixed when it's defined & can't be changed during runtime.\n4. Floating Point Decimal ±X.YYYY \\10^±Z lets you represent both positive & negative numbers from 0.0000000000001 to 9999900000. You can say that the decimal \"floats\" depending on the size of your Z (mantissa)\n\nFloating point is the most common format for storing real numbers, giving a reasonable compromise between speed, accuracy & range. \"Arbitrary precision\" numbers that let you have any level of accuracy you want are also popular but they're generally supported by by libraries rather than CPU instructions so they're significantly slower.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It refers to the way the data is represented.\n\nBasically the \"point\" is not in a fixed place, hence it is \"floating\".\n\nImagine you have a calculator display with a 10 digit display. If the decimal point was fixed in place after the last two digits, it would be fine for some numbers (e.g. 1234.56), but it wouldn't be able to display very small numbers like 0.00124. That would just appear as 0.00\n\nSo you let the decimal point appear at any place. You're still limited to 10 digits of accuracy, but they can be 10 digits representing small or large amounts.\n\nIf you want to dig deeper into how it works, floating point numbers actually use something similar to scientific notation, but in binary. That allows it to represent very big numbers too, but not necessarily perfectly accurately because there may not be enough digits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "456820",
"title": "C syntax",
"section": "Section::::Data structures.:Primitive data types.:Floating point types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The floating-point form is used to represent numbers with a fractional component. They do not, however, represent most rational numbers exactly; they are instead a close approximation. There are three types of real values, denoted by their specifiers: single precision (float), double precision (double), and double extended precision (long double). Each of these may represent values in a different form, often one of the IEEE floating-point formats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56263",
"title": "Dyadic rational",
"section": "Section::::In computing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "As a data type used by computers, floating-point numbers are often defined as integers multiplied by positive or negative powers of two, and thus all numbers that can be represented for instance by binary IEEE floating-point datatypes are dyadic rationals. The same is true for the majority of fixed-point datatypes, which also uses powers of two implicitly in the majority of cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53937",
"title": "Real data type",
"section": "Section::::Floating-point numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "A floating-point data type is a compromise between the flexibility of a general rational number data type and the speed of fixed-point arithmetic. It uses some of the bits in the data type to specify a power of two for the denominator. See IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333491",
"title": "Primitive data type",
"section": "Section::::Specific primitive data types.:Floating-point numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "A floating-point number represents a limited-precision rational number that may have a fractional part. These numbers are stored internally in a format equivalent to scientific notation, typically in binary but sometimes in decimal. Because floating-point numbers have limited precision, only a subset of real or rational numbers are exactly representable; other numbers can be represented only approximately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32975934",
"title": "Fixed float",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "In computing, fixed float describes a method of representing real numbers in a way that number and decimal point value is stored at different location or bytes in a memory allocated to variable unlike floating point. In a typical 4 byte (on little endian platform) fixed float number lower(lsb) 2 bytes are used to store the decimal part of the number just like integer value. While upper 2 bytes are used to store the part of number before the decimal point. Floating point numbers are, in general, represented approximately to a fixed number of significant digits and scaled using an exponent. The base for the scaling is normally 2, 10 or 16. The typical number that can be represented exactly is of the form:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93817",
"title": "Data type",
"section": "Section::::Classes of data types.:Primitive data types.:Numeric types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "BULLET::::- Floating point data types, usually represent values as high-precision fractional values (rational numbers, mathematically), but are sometimes misleadingly called reals (evocative of mathematical real numbers). They usually have predefined limits on both their maximum values and their precision. Typically stored internally in the form (where and are integers), but displayed in familiar decimal form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11376",
"title": "Floating-point arithmetic",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Floating-point numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "A floating-point number is a rational number, because it can be represented as one integer divided by another; for example is (145/100)×1000 or /100. The base determines the fractions that can be represented; for instance, 1/5 cannot be represented exactly as a floating-point number using a binary base, but 1/5 can be represented exactly using a decimal base (, or ). However, 1/3 cannot be represented exactly by either binary (0.010101...) or decimal (0.333...), but in base 3, it is trivial (0.1 or 1×3) . The occasions on which infinite expansions occur depend on the base and its prime factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7qpsm8
|
why is it so difficult to figure out how life actually started?
|
[
{
"answer": "nobody was there to witness it and tell us what the conditions were. that kinda puts a hamper on things. the conditions of Earth 3.8billion years ago is very much different than it is now. and we don't even know if life was \"seeded\" or if it grew naturally out of the conditions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Over time, the crust of the earth gets recycled. It gets pressed down into the mantle and eroded away, only to be replaced by cooling lava.\n\nIn the past 4 billion years or so, almost all of the original crust is gone, only small portions in Canada, Australia, and Africa remain intact. That means most of the history of early life has been erased.\n\nWhat's more, early life was single-celled creatures with soft body parts. Fossilization of bone and chitin is rare enough, fossilization of sort parts is **extremely** rare.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Life is fucking WEIRD.\n\nWe know about chemistry and how it works in non living things. We know how it works in living things. The trick is getting the non living things to act like living things. \n\nIf we want, we can make a cell membrane. That's just fat that happened to be arranged in a certain way. It won't be perfect but it'll do. We can shine light on it, give it energy. We can provide it with plenty of water. We can even provide it with sugar! Even though that probably didn't exist yet.. But to somehow get from the building blocks to what is essentially a machine is the missing link.\n\nEven if we somehow figure out a way to create life without the help of any already living thing, we most likely still won't know how this ever happened without the guiding hand of a human. \n\nIt had to have been an incredibly lucky coincidence of having all the perfect conditions out in the open while it was literally Hell on Earth. To form a theory around how that happened might sound crazier than some of today's conspiracy theories about a flat Earth being a frisbee for the dog of God who's eternally hiding behind our hollow Sun powered by said dog on a treadmill who keeps running after us from the inside.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because every living thing turn into petroleum. And even if it's not living (for example of bones) they are hard to test.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51761578",
"title": "Sara Imari Walker",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Information flow in biological systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "One of the major challenges in studying the origin of life has been the inability to clearly define what life is. In her investigations, Walker has used the flow of information in systems as a means to distinguish life from non-life. She used the Boolean network model, information theory, and other models to discern feasible universal traits for life. It was shown that in biological systems the components are subordinate to the whole, in what is called top-down causation. Furthermore, a logistical model of Walker \"et al.\" suggested that major evolutionary transitions, such as the origin of life, could be characterized by a reverse of information flow in a system from bottom-up to top-down. They also determined that living systems have a separation of data from machinery, and non-trivial replication. Walker has shown theoretically how the occurrence of these biotic traits in an abiotic system present a possible framework for the origin of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6885735",
"title": "Bootstrapping (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Some biologists, including Graham Cairns-Smith, believe that the origin of life itself may have been a bootstrap process as one or more systems of biological information storage formed the foundation for successor systems that ultimately supplanted them culminating in the emergence of our current DNA-based system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20347",
"title": "Meaning of life",
"section": "Section::::Scientific inquiry and perspectives.:Origin and nature of biological life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge. Physically, one may say that life \"feeds on negative entropy\" which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment. Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21830",
"title": "Nature",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The origin of life on Earth is not well understood, but it is known to have occurred at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial Earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. These life forms possessed the basic traits of self-replication and inheritable traits. Once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever-more diverse life forms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1265269",
"title": "Xenobiology",
"section": "Section::::Aims of xenobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "BULLET::::- Xenobiology has the potential to reveal fundamental knowledge about biology and the origin of life. In order to better understand the origin of life, it is necessary to know why life evolved seemingly via an early RNA world to the DNA-RNA-protein system and its nearly universal genetic code. Was it an evolutionary \"accident\" or were there constraints that ruled out other types of chemistries? By testing alternative biochemical \"primordial soups\", it is expected to better understand the principles that gave rise to life as we know it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10609470",
"title": "What Is Your Dangerous Idea?",
"section": "Section::::Ideas.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The origin of life was discussed by two authors, Robert Shapiro and George Dyson. Robert Shapiro believes that the origin of life will be found in the next five years, and George Dyson believes that we do not need to understand the origin of life to make progress in molecular biology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072857",
"title": "Biosignature",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Atmospheric disequilibrium.:Agnostic biosignatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Because the only form of known life is that on Earth, the search for biosignatures is heavily influenced by the products that life produces on Earth. However, life that is different than life on Earth may still produce biosignatures that are detectable by humans, even though nothing is known about their specific biology. This form of biosignature is called an \"agnostic biosignature\" because it is independent of the form of life that produces it. It is widely agreed that all life–no matter how different it is from life on Earth–needs a source of energy to thrive. This must involve some sort of chemical disequilibrium, which can be exploited for metabolism. Geological processes are independent of life, and if scientists are able to constrain the geology well enough on another planet, then they know what the particular geologic equilibrium for that planet should be. A deviation from geological equilibrium can be interpreted as both an atmospheric disequilibrium and agnostic biosignature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2i62c8
|
Why does the ticking of my clock mess with the display on my TV?
|
[
{
"answer": "Battery powered clock? Usually those use a pulsed electromagnet to advance the gearing once per second. They create a small \"EMP\" electromagnetic pulse. Tune an AM radio between stations, and it may pick up the one-second pulse as a click sound.\n\nBut this shouldn't affect your TV unless it has a poorly shielded (bad) video cable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8592582",
"title": "BBC One 'Virtual Globe' ident",
"section": "Section::::Components of Look.:Regular Idents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "A clock accompanied the look, which used GNAT (Generator of Network Analogue Time), resulting in the clock mimicked the movement of an analogue clock by moving the minute hand every second, rather than every 15 seconds as was found on previous station clocks. The counters on the clocks alternated between dots and dashes pointing towards the centre, a smoky static background and included the BBC logo at the bottom of the screen, although no on screen reference to the channel being BBC1. The clock was originally large to fit the screen best, however the size contrast between the clock and the globe resulted in difficulty at closedown, as the two do not fade easily. This issue was resolved in November 1991, when the clock was shrunk down to the same as the globe, easing fading between. The background was also altered to a ripple effect, yet retaining the smoky feel, though Scotland continued to use the old clock until 1997.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105823",
"title": "Degaussing",
"section": "Section::::Monitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Many televisions and monitors automatically degauss their picture tube when switched on, before an image is displayed. The high current surge that takes place during this automatic degauss is the cause of an audible \"thunk\" or loud hum, which can be heard (and felt) when televisions and CRT computer monitors are switched on. Visually, this causes the image to shake dramatically for a short period of time. A degauss option is also usually available for manual selection in the operations menu in such appliances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2648712",
"title": "Eye strain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "A CRT computer monitor with a low refresh rate (<70Hz) or a CRT television can cause similar problems because the image has a visible flicker. Aging CRTs also often go slightly out of focus, and this can cause eye strain. LCDs do not go out of focus but are also susceptible to flicker if the backlight for the LCD uses PWM for dimming. This causes the backlight to turn on and off for shorter intervals as the display becomes dimmer, creating noticeable flickering which causes eye fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68769",
"title": "24 (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "A major concept used in the series was the idea of a running clock. This initially came from Joel Surnow, who wanted the audience to always know what time it was in the show's fictional timeline. This was done by an on-screen digital clock that appears before and after commercial breaks, and a smaller clock also appears at other points in the narrative. The time shown is the in-universe time of the story. When the running clock is shown full screen, an alternating pulsating beeping noise (like the kind seen on a time bomb) for each second can usually be heard. On rare occasions, a silent clock is used. This usually follows the death of a major character or an otherwise dramatic event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40367",
"title": "Analog-to-digital converter",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.:Jitter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Clock jitter is caused by phase noise. The resolution of ADCs with a digitization bandwidth between 1 MHz and 1 GHz is limited by jitter. For lower bandwidth conversions such as when sampling audio signals at 44.1 kHz, clock jitter has a less significant impact on performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56090758",
"title": "Broadcast clock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "A broadcast clock or format clock is a template that displays a radio or television's hourly format in a graphical representation of a clock. Broadcast programming, especially radio, often follows an hourly pattern where certain segments such as news and commercials are repeated every hour at specific times. A broadcast clock displays these segments graphically which assist broadcasters in scheduling, thereby avoiding dead air and preventing random program selections by on-air staff.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5849619",
"title": "Palm m100 series",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "There was a hinged flip screen cover with a small window over the screen through which the system clock can be viewed for a few seconds when the \"scroll up\" button is depressed through a hole in the cover, when the unit is not in use. There was an unnoticeable buzz that you could hear if you turned on the backlight and placed the Palm next to your ear. This was due to the power regulator sending lots of power to the screen to power the backlight. Therefore, this caused the battery to drain faster than normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
262iiu
|
creative commons
|
[
{
"answer": "Whenever a person creates a work like a photo, drawing, song, poem, etc., they own the copyright to it. That means that, aside from fair use, they have the exclusive right to distribute, sell, or otherwise use it. Creative Commons is basically a way for creators to allow others to use that work, usually with certain stipulations. Some common ones is that they cannot be used for financial gain, credit must be given to the original creator, or that the new work must also be shared with a Creative Commons license.\n\nFair use has a couple specifics meanings, where copyrighted work may be reproduced without the owner's permission. For example, small parts of the work can be used for educational or critical purposes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Whenver you create something, you are automatically granted copyright over that work. That means that you have control over how it is distributed and used. That being said, there are limits to your control- if someone is using your work for non-commercial purposes, educational purposes, they're only using a tiny piece of the work, and/or they are critiquing the work, they can argue that their use is \"fair use\", a vaguely defined term that means that it's not actually infringing on your control. Fair use isn't really strictly defined- even if you think something is fair use, the copyright holder can still sue you and then it's up to the judge and jury to determine if it's actually fair use.\n\nCreative Commons is an organization founded by Lawrence Lessig (who did an [ama](_URL_0_) a couple weeks ago). They publish a series of licenses. For content creators who wish to share their work with the world (without charging), the copyright licenses released by Creative Commons are probably the best way to do so because they've taken the time to work out the legalese so they'll hold up in court, and because they're known, so more people are willing to use them. They all have simple descriptions, such as the [\"attribution share-alike\"](_URL_1_) license, abbreviated CC-BY-SA, which means that anyone can use the work for anything as long as they credit the original author and agree to share their own work under a similar license. In general, using a Creative Commons licensed image is allowed although you do need to make sure that your own remixes meet the license requirements. Since you're remixing the images, you can't use any images that carry the \"No-derivatives\" (ND) clause. This is a class project, so you can use images with the \"Non commercial\" (NC) clause, and so on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " When you create a picture/song/video/etc you are immediately granted copyright which means you control the use of it.\n\nAnd when you want to decide how other people will use it (even if you're saying they can't use it) you'd write down the rules in a contract. A licence is just a contract. A copyright licence is just a contract that talks about copyright.\n\nTraditionally most people used 'All Rights Reserved' licence which means that no one else can use it.\n\nCreative Commons is more like 'Some Rights Reserved'.\n\nCreative Commons is a name for a group of licences that say that others can use it for some things (not all) without having to ask permission.\n\nGetting back to 'Fair Use'... that's not a licence, it's about the limitations of copyright. An easy way of thinking about this is imagine if someone wrote a book that was offensive and so a journalist wanted to quote from that book to write an article. The book author owns the copyright, so can they stop people quoting it? Well no they can't because of Fair Use which limits copyright.\n\nFair Use gives everyone rights over any copyright work, but only for specific uses that are considered 'Fair'. The list of things that are considered 'Fair' is defined by the government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938758",
"title": "Open-source model",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Ideologically-related movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Creative Commons is an organization that “develops, supports, and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and innovation.” It encourages the use of protected properties online for research, education, and creative purposes in pursuit of a universal access. Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of “all rights reserved” properties. The Creative Commons license offers a slightly more lenient alternative to “all rights reserved” copyrights for those who do not wish to exclude the use of their material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156547",
"title": "Remix",
"section": "Section::::Copyright implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The Creative Commons is a non-profit organization that allows the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools and explicitly aims for enabling a Remix culture. They created a website that allows artists to share their work with other users, giving them the ability to share, use, or build upon their work, under the Creative Commons license. The artist can limit the copyright to specific users for specific purposes, while protecting the users and the artist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1501245",
"title": "Science Commons",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Creative Commons launched the Science Commons project in early 2005. The project sought to achieve for science what Creative Commons had achieved for the world of culture, art and educational material: to ease unnecessary legal and technical barriers to sharing, to promote innovation, and to provide easy, high quality tools that let individuals and organizations specify the terms under which they wished to share their material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52272",
"title": "Creative Commons",
"section": "Section::::Purpose and goal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Creative Commons attempts to counter what Lawrence Lessig, founder of Creative Commons, considers to be a dominant and increasingly restrictive permission culture. Lessig describes this as \"a culture in which creators get to create only with the permission of the powerful, or of creators from the past.\" Lessig maintains that modern culture is dominated by traditional content distributors in order to maintain and strengthen their monopolies on cultural products such as popular music and popular cinema, and that Creative Commons can provide alternatives to these restrictions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36724181",
"title": "Digital commons (economics)",
"section": "Section::::Modern examples.:Creative Commons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization that provides many free copyright licenses with which contributors to the digital commons can license their work. Creative Commons is focused on the expansion of flexible copyright. For example, popular image sharing sites like Flickr and Pixabay, provide access to hundreds of millions of Creative Commons licensed images, freely available within the digital commons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7287977",
"title": "Public domain music",
"section": "Section::::Sources/projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "The Creative Commons is a nonprofit organization created for the purpose of housing the public domain. The Commons allows copyright owners to dedicate their works to the public domain either immediately or, with the \"Founders' Copyright\" (originally created in the first copyright law in 1790), can obtain an exclusive license for 14 or 28 years (if renewed) of copyright protection in exchange for selling their work to the Commons for one dollar after that protection has expired. Copyright owners can fill out an online application at https://creativecommons.org/ in order to apply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52272",
"title": "Creative Commons",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "Creative Commons (CC) is an American non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright-licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public. These licenses allow creators to communicate which rights they reserve and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, explains the specifics of each Creative Commons license. Creative Commons licenses do not replace copyright but are based upon it. They replace individual negotiations for specific rights between copyright owner (licensor) and licensee, which are necessary under an \"all rights reserved\" copyright management, with a \"some rights reserved\" management employing standardized licenses for re-use cases where no commercial compensation is sought by the copyright owner. The result is an agile, low-overhead and low-cost copyright-management regime, benefiting both copyright owners and licensees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8kt1xu
|
why is it that we can't see gases in their pure form, yet we can see the shadows of gases on a sunny day?
|
[
{
"answer": "Plenty of gases have color in their pure form.\n\nWe can see shadows on hot days because air expands and then moves. And light changes a few properties when switching between mediums, so that movement of air and change in density is what makes the light wavy (gives interference patterns).\n\nBut the gases in air do not reflect in the visible range. Which to be honest is kinda the point of us evolving this specific visible range to see in (so air wouldn’t get in out way).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The gasses diffract light differently than air does. Light passing through them get shifted around as the pass through the area that is not air. It even happens with steams of air with big enough temperature differences. Giving rise to shadows of hot air piped out into a cold atmosphere. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3917132",
"title": "Shadowgraph",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "In principle, we cannot directly see a difference in temperature, a different gas, or a shock wave in the transparent air. However, all these disturbances refract light rays, so they can cast shadows. The plume of hot air rising from a fire, for example, can be seen by way of its shadow cast upon a nearby surface by the uniform sunlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152262",
"title": "Will-o'-the-wisp",
"section": "Section::::Natural explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "A related hypothesis involves the natural chemiluminescence of phosphine. In 2008, the Italian chemists Luigi Garlaschelli and Paolo Boschetti attempted to recreate Mills' experiments. They successfully created a faint cool light by mixing phosphine with air and nitrogen. Though the glow was still greenish in color, Garlaschelli and Boschetti noted that under low-light conditions, the human eye cannot easily distinguish between colors. Furthermore, by adjusting the concentrations of the gases and the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.), it was possible to eliminate the smoke and smell, or at least render it to undetectable levels. Garlaschelli and Boschetti also agreed with Mills that cold flames may also be a plausible explanation for other instances of ignis fatuus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312430",
"title": "Background (astronomy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "There are several sources which contribute to the brightness of the (night) sky. Some of these are instrumental, or due to the presence of the atmosphere (like the airglow), in the case of ground-based instruments. Even if we able to minimize the effect of instrumental and atmospherical components (e.g. using a spacecraft), there are still several astrophysical components contributing to the sky background: these could be sets of point sources like faint asteroids, Galactic stars and far away galaxies, as well as diffuse sources like dust in the Solar System, in the Milky Way, and in the intergalactic space. The actual importance of a specific component depends mostly of the wavelength of the measurement. The uncertainty (or noise) of the measurements caused by the astrophysical components of the sky background is called confusion noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "580076",
"title": "Skyglow",
"section": "Section::::Dependence on light source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Different light sources produce differing amounts of visual sky glow. The dominant effect arises from the Purkinje shift, and not as commonly claimed from Rayleigh scattering of short wavelengths (see ). When observing the night sky, even from moderately light polluted areas, the eye becomes nearly or completely dark-adapted or scotopic. The scotopic eye is much more sensitive to blue and green light, and much less sensitive to yellow and red light, than the light-adapted or\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18279",
"title": "Light pollution",
"section": "Section::::Reduction.:Adjusting types of light sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Because of the increased sensitivity of the human eye to blue and green wavelengths when viewing low-luminances (the Purkinje effect) in the night sky, different sources produce dramatically different amounts of visible skyglow from the same amount of light sent into the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5355609",
"title": "Ashen light",
"section": "Section::::Hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The Keck telescope on Hawaii reported seeing a subtle green glow and suggested it could be produced as ultraviolet light from the Sun splits molecules of carbon dioxide (), known to be common in Venus' atmosphere, into carbon monoxide () and oxygen (). However, the green light emitted as oxygen recombines to form is thought too faint to explain the effect, and it is too faint to have been observed with amateur telescopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763",
"title": "Exoplanet",
"section": "Section::::General features.:Color and brightness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "There is more thermal emission than reflection at some near-infrared wavelengths for massive and/or young gas giants. So, although optical brightness is fully phase-dependent, this is not always the case in the near infrared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c8eda
|
What were the relative advantages and disadvantages of varying melee weapons during the middle ages?
|
[
{
"answer": "Since a historian hasn't responded to your question, I hope I can post these video links from a TV show that looked at \"alternative\" weapons such as a flail, mace, falchion, etc. :\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe host discusses some of the advantages and disadvantages of these weapons. Hope this post is OK, I can edit or delete if necessary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16612805",
"title": "Infantry in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::The nature of infantry combat.:The role of archery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Later in the Middle Ages, massed archery techniques were developed. English and Welsh longbowmen in particular were famed for the volume and accuracy of their shooting, to which cavalry and poorly armoured infantry were particularly vulnerable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26870841",
"title": "History of infantry",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "For most of the Middle Ages, warfare and society were dominated by the cavalry (horse-mounted soldiers), composed of individual knights. Knights were generally drawn from the aristocracy, while the infantry levies were raised from commoners. This situation slowed the advance of infantry tactics and weapon technologies; those that were developed by the end of the Middle Ages included the use of long spears or halberds to counter the long reach of knights' lances, and the increased use of ranged weaponry to counter the cavalry's advantages of momentum, speed, height, and reach. However, from 1350 onwards the knights themselves usually dismounted for battle, becoming super-heavy infantry themselves, as a countermeasure to development of massed archery tactics which would bring their horses down. This led to development of combined arms tactics of archery and dismounted knights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6816",
"title": "Cavalry",
"section": "Section::::History.:European Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the Battle of the Dyle (891) and the Battle of Bremule (1119), but after the 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handed swords and poleaxes. In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15624768",
"title": "Melee (game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Advanced Melee was tied more closely to In the Labyrinth, and featured more combat options, such as called shots, additional weapons, and greater detail in general. Also, IQ (introduced in Wizard) becomes important for allowing a figure to use combat relevant talents, such as Fencing, Two Weapons Combat, and so forth, making figures more varied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435800",
"title": "Tournament (medieval)",
"section": "Section::::During the High Middle Ages.:Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "It is a vexed issue as to what extent specialized arms and armour were used in mêlée tournaments. A further question that might be raised is to what extent the military equipment of knights and their horses in the 12th and 13th centuries was devised to meet the perils and demands of tournaments, rather than warfare. It is, however, clear from the sources that the weapons used in tournaments were initially the same as those used in war. It is not by any means certain that swords were blunted for most of the history of the tournament. This must have changed by the mid 13th century, at least in jousting encounters. There is a passing reference to a special spear for use in jousting in the \"Prose Lancelot\" (c. 1220). In the 1252 jousting at Walden, the lances used had \"sokets\", curved ring-like punches instead of points. The \"Statute of Arms\" of Edward I of England of 1292 says that blunted knives and swords should be used in tournaments, which rather hints that their use had not been general until then.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2909541",
"title": "Infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "Battles of the Middle Ages were often smaller than those involving the Roman and Grecian armies of Antiquity. Armies (much like the states of the period) were more decentralized. There was little systematic organisation of supplies and equipment. Leaders were often incompetent; their positions of authority often based on birth, not ability. Most soldiers were much more loyal to their feudal lord than their state, and insubordination within armies was common. However, the biggest difference between previous wars and those of the Middle Ages was the use of heavy cavalry, particularly knights. Knights could often easily overrun infantry armed with swords, axes, and clubs. Infantry typically outnumbered knights somewhere between five and ten to one. They supported the knights and defended any loot the formation had. Infantry armed with spears could counter the threat posed by enemy cavalry. At other times pits, caltraps, wagons or sharpened wooden stakes would be used as protection from charging cavalry, while archers brought down the enemy horsemen with arrows; the English used stakes to defend against French knights at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3001244",
"title": "Military history of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Battle tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "The tactics of the Middle Ages varied greatly. A large amount of tactics were still based on roman ideas. Such as the use of training, regimentation, and the phalanx. Medieval commanders may have been educated or read in Vegetius’ \"De Re Militari\" which would’ve provided the bases for battle tactics. In historiography, Charles Oman believes that cavalry entirely dominated the battlefield of the Middle Ages, but others contend that the infantry continued to play the most vital role even through the early modern age. One example of tactics and strategy is the use of secrecy in Henry II in 1004 against Bohemians, which gave Henry the element of surprise so that he was successful in his campaign. Another strategy, employed primarily by knights, was to ravage the countryside and force people to submit when they run out of supplies. The vast majority of these tactics were learned from roman times in surviving works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3g0aan
|
what does the 3-2-l mean in some automatic transmissions in cars, what are their purpose?
|
[
{
"answer": "3rd gear, 2nd gear, Lowest gear. Automatic switches gears automatically of course, but doesn't always give you the power you may want, so those options allow you to manually downshift and give your car more power. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Drive allows your car to use all of its gears when it wants to. If you select one of the lower gears, it can only advance to that gear. Say you put it in 2 from a dead stop. It will start in first gear, and then when it picks up speed it will shift into second and stay there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1598326",
"title": "Suzuki Vitara",
"section": "Section::::Third generation (2005–present).:Current availability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "There are currently four different engines available, the 1.6 L \"M16A\" I4 (petrol), 1.9 L \"F9Q\" I4 (diesel), 2.0 L \"J20A\" I4 (petrol) and 2.4 L \"J24B\" l4 (petrol). The transmission choices are a 5-Speed Manual or a 4-Speed Automatic Transmission (depending on engine and market). Some markets do not offer the 5-Speed Manual, and only offer a 4-Speed Automatic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51790604",
"title": "Automatic manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"D\" is the drive gear. It is equivalent of D in a full automatic transmission. The gearbox in an AMT car is a manual gearbox, instead of one with a torque converter as in a traditional automatic transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "770609",
"title": "Toyota Starlet",
"section": "Section::::Second generation (P60; 1978–1984).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Vehicles fitted with a 2K engine received a smaller differential (X code, ) than vehicles fitted with a 4K engine (U code, ). Differential ratios depend on the trim model and market for each car, with 3.909:1 being common for vehicles with a 2K engine, 4.3:1 for European van models, 3.727 for Japanese van models, 3.417:1 for vehicles fitted with an automatic transmission, 3.583:1 for general applications with a 4K engine, and other ratios existing for various Japanese market vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802817",
"title": "Ford Escape",
"section": "Section::::First generation (2001–2007).:Ford.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The 3.0 L V6 has been modified to reduce fuel consumption by over 10%, while the 2.3 L 4-cylinder has improved midrange torque and an electronic throttle, as well as a slight increase in power to . Both engines had been certified to meet Euro III emission regulations. A four-speed automatic carried over and was the sole transmission choice. Two different four-speed automatic transmissions were used, CD4E for 3.0 L V6 and GF4AX-EL for 2.3 L 4-cylinder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81636",
"title": "Unimog",
"section": "Section::::Technical description.:Gearbox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Traditionally, the Unimog has a splitter gearbox. Over the years, three different \"base gearbox\" designs were used, all following the same principle, and having four gears and two ranges (called \"groups\") and an additional direction gear. Those designs were \"UG-1/xx\", \"UG-2/xx\", and \"UG-3/xx\". UG is an abbreviation for \"Unimog-Getriebe (Unimog-Gearbox)\", the number after the slash resembles the input torque in kp·m (=9.80665 N·m). Until 1955, the Unimog \"base gearbox\" UG-1 was a constant-mesh countershaft gearbox, it was then upgraded with synchroniser rings to a synchromesh gearbox. However, the synchromesh-version was only used for the 404-series, and the constant-mesh version remained the standard gearbox for the 411-series. In 1957, the synchromesh-version became an option for the 411-series, before it became the standard gearbox for all Unimogs in 1959. The following gearbox versions UG-2 and UG-3 were made as synchromesh versions only.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21888587",
"title": "Volkswagen Polo Mk5",
"section": "Section::::Volkswagen Vento, Volkswagen Polo Sedan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "In the mechanical section, we find the two engines unchanged. This is the four-cylinder 1.6L MPI gasoline with 105 Hp and 112 Lb-ft of torque and the four-cylinder CFNA 7GV/77 kW, 1.5L TDI to diesel with 105 Hp and 184 Lb-ft of torque. The big difference is that now both are available with manual and automatic transmissions. In the previous model we only found the gasoline with the five-speed manual gearbox and the six-speed automatic Tiptronic while the diesel was only available with the five manual. Now comes a dual-clutch automatic DSG with seven \"automatic\" relationships in the diesel engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334940",
"title": "Automatic transmission",
"section": "Section::::Automatic transmission modes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1096,
"text": "Some automatics, particularly those fitted to larger capacity or high torque engines, either when \"2\" is manually selected, or by engaging a winter mode, will start off in second gear instead of first, and then not shift into a higher gear until returned to \"D.\" Also note that as with most American automatic transmissions, selecting \"2\" using the selection lever will not tell the transmission to be in only 2nd gear; rather, it will simply limit the transmission to 2nd gear after prolonging the duration of 1st gear through higher speeds than normal operation. The 2000–2002 Lincoln LS V8 (the five-speed automatic \"without\" manumatic capabilities, as opposed to the optional sport package w/ manu-matic 5-speed) started in 2nd gear during most starts both in winter and other seasons by selecting the \"D5\" transmission selection notch in the shiftgate (for fuel savings), whereas \"D4\" would always start in 1st gear. This is done to reduce torque multiplication when proceeding forward from a standstill in conditions where traction was limited — on snow- or ice-covered roads, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ytwpw
|
why do my eyes become hard to keep open when i'm tired? is it the brain trying reduce stimuli and rest?
|
[
{
"answer": "Eyes are controlled by ciliary muscles. As do all muscles, when you are tired you muscles start to become harder to use. E.G, when you lift weights, the longer duration you lift for, the more fatigued you get. Same principle. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1627267",
"title": "Cyclospasm",
"section": "Section::::Reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Primary reasons is eye fatigue as a result of excessive pressure on the eyes because of reading, watching TV, computer, poor lighting, etc. Some other reasons are poor posture, poor diet, lack of sleep, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2648712",
"title": "Eye strain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "When concentrating on a visually intense task, such as continuously focusing on a book or computer monitor, the ciliary muscle tightens. This can cause the eyes to get irritated and uncomfortable. Giving the eyes a chance to focus on a distant object at least once an hour usually alleviates the problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "340429",
"title": "Rheum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "When the individual is awake, blinking of the eyelid causes rheum to be washed away with tears via the nasolacrimal duct. The absence of this action during sleep, however, results in a small amount of dry rheum accumulating in corners of the eye, most notably in children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894873",
"title": "Eye movement",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Saccades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The eyes are never completely at rest. They make fast random jittering movements even when we are fixated on one point. The reason for this random movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. Therefore, the random eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image more clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "794008",
"title": "Dry eye syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Dry eyes can be exacerbated by smoky environments, dust and air conditioning and by our natural tendency to reduce our blink rate when concentrating. Purposefully blinking, especially during computer use and resting tired eyes are basic steps that can be taken to minimise discomfort. Rubbing one's eyes can irritate them further, so should be avoided. Conditions such as blepharitis can often co-exist and paying particular attention to cleaning the eyelids morning and night with mild soaps and warm compresses can improve both conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18597893",
"title": "Sleep deprivation",
"section": "Section::::Physiological effects.:On the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "A noted 2002 University of California animal study indicated that non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM) is necessary for turning off neurotransmitters and allowing their receptors to \"rest\" and regain sensitivity which allows monoamines (norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine) to be effective at naturally produced levels. This leads to improved regulation of mood and increased learning ability. The study also found that rapid eye movement sleep (REM) deprivation may alleviate clinical depression because it mimics selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). This is because the natural decrease in monoamines during REM is not allowed to occur, which causes the concentration of neurotransmitters in the brain, that are depleted in clinically depressed persons, to increase. Sleep outside of the REM phase may allow enzymes to repair brain cell damage caused by free radicals. High metabolic activity while awake damages the enzymes themselves preventing efficient repair. This study observed the first evidence of brain damage in rats as a direct result of sleep deprivation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38650559",
"title": "Mariko Aoki phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::Pathological condition and observations.:Posture and gaze related hypotheses.:Gaze and autonomic nerves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "Conversely, it can be considered that if the eye-opening muscles are in a continually relaxed state, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system is reduced and parasympathetic dominance is attained. Matsuo raises the example of meditation, in which loosening the eyelids can result in a relaxation effect.[『文藝春秋』1998年12月17日号、p95] It is known that peristalsis of the digestive tract involves inhibitory action by the sympathetic nervous system and stimulatory action by the parasympathetic nervous system. Matsuo believes that because a person reading a book while standing in a bookstore will tend to have a downcast gaze, the operation of a mechanism similar to the foregoing may serve as one cause of motility being stimulated.[『週刊朝日』2003年4月18日号、p37] According to Matsuo, by maintaining such a posture for 30 minutes or longer, it is possible to recreate this symptom not only in bookstores but also in libraries, video rental stores, and supermarkets.[『文藝春秋』1998年12月17日号、p95]\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8dykbf
|
Josip Broz Tito spoke Kyrgyz?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tito did spend some time in what is now Kyrgyzstan during the Russian Civil War. From 1918 to 1920 he was hiding out in a village near Osh, the main city in the south of Kyrgyzstan, and eventually married an ethnic Russian from there.\n\nHowever it should be noted that the region is, and was, mainly full of ethnic Uzbeks, who obviously don't speak Kyrgyz but rather Uzbek (and unlike Kazakh, I do believe Uzbek and Kyrgyz are quite different). Then there is the matter that I don't know how much interaction Tito would have had with locals, meaning ethnic Kyrgyz: they would have largely been nomadic herders at the time, largely illiterate, while the ethnic Russians (which wouldn't be many) would be more urban and literate. The Kyrgyz, like other Central Asian groups, were also rather indifferent to Bolshevism/Communism as a whole, so it further seems unlikely someone who was leaning towards that ideology would have worked close enough with the locals to learn their language. a 1953 biography by fellow Yugoslav Communist official Vladimir Dedijer also notes Tito spoke \"Serbo-Croatian ... Russian, Czech, Slovenian ... German (with a Viennese accent) ... understands and reads French and Italian ... [and] also speaks Kirghiz,\" so he very well could have. But based on my own understanding of Central Asia and Kyrgyzstan, I would question his skills in Kyrgyz, if they did exist at all, though it would not be impossible of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16554637",
"title": "Timeline of World War II (1941)",
"section": "Section::::May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "BULLET::::- 13: Yugoslav Army Colonel Draža Mihailović summons up the \"Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland\" which mostly consists of Serbs, but also includes Slovenes, Bosnians, and Croats. Mihailović treks from Bosnia into central Serbia, Ravna Gora, and issues an uprising call promising a struggle against the occupiers and the restoration of the Yugoslavian Monarchy. At this point, Josip Broz Tito and the Yugoslav Partisans are aligned with the Soviet Union which is still friendly with Germany.: The bulk of the German \"Flyer Command Iraq\" (\"Fliegerführer Irak\") arrives in Mosul to support the Iraqi government of Rashid Ali.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16567",
"title": "Josip Broz Tito",
"section": "Section::::Family and personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "As regards knowledge of languages, Tito replied that he spoke Serbo-Croatian, German, Russian, and some English. Broz's official biographer and then fellow Central Committee-member Vladimir Dedijer stated in 1953 that he spoke \"Serbo-Croatian ... Russian, Czech, Slovenian ... German (with a Viennese accent) ... understands and reads French and Italian ... [and] also speaks Kirghiz.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172136",
"title": "Podgorica",
"section": "Section::::History.:Socialist Yugoslavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "On July 12, 1946, Josip Broz Tito made one of his early visits to Podgorica from the \"Radovče\" hotel, where he spoke to a crowd. It was the first of fifteen total visits made by Tito to the city after World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "861240",
"title": "HNK Hajduk Split",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "With its proficiency and its \"unique Dalmatian spirit\", the club reportedly impressed Tito, who frequently attended matches. After the war, he invited Hajduk to move to the Yugoslav capital Belgrade and become the official Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) team, but the club refused, wanting to continue to play in their hometown of Split. One of their biggest future rivals, FK Partizan, were founded instead. However, Hajduk continued to enjoy the reputation of \"Tito's favorite\" long after the war, and it was because of the friendly relationship with the resistance, it became one of the few Yugoslav football clubs (and the only prominent one) not to be disbanded after the war by the communist government (as was the case with a number of other clubs, especially prominent ones such as BSK, Građanski, Jugoslavija, Concordia, HAŠK and Slavija).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16567",
"title": "Josip Broz Tito",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Josip Broz (, ; 7 May 1892 – 4 May 1980), commonly known as Tito (; , ), was a Yugoslav communist revolutionary and statesman, serving in various roles from 1943 until his death in 1980. During World War II, he was the leader of the Partisans, often regarded as the most effective resistance movement in occupied Europe. While his presidency has been criticized as authoritarian and concerns about the repression of political opponents have been raised, most Yugoslavs considered him popular and a benevolent dictator. During his rule, Tito sucessfully created a cult of personality around himself, which described him as a communist war hero and liberator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60917577",
"title": "Assassination of Ivan Stambolić",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with Slobodan Milošević.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1031,
"text": "Yugoslav communist revolutionary Josip Broz Tito was the president of Yugoslavia from the 14th January 1953 till his death on the 4th May 1980. He was an extremely strong leader who many thought responsible for holding the ethnically diverse nations of Yugoslavia together for his 27-year term as president. Kosovo, an area populated by mostly Serbians with a minority Kosovar Albanians was getting more and more contentious since the death of Tito. The years from 1980-1986 involved Kosovo Albanian riots, the desecration of Serbian Orthodox architecture and graveyards. In reaction to this Stambolić sent Milošević to try and quell the ever-growing unrest in Tito’s absence. This was probably the first sign of a rift in their ideologies. No matter what, the Serbs were going to seek to stay in the region. He delivered the Speech of Milošević at Kosovo Polje. It was in stark contrast to Stambolić' sentiments he wish to convey, an attempt to bring the region together. The perspective was fiercely nationalist, ending it with:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10040664",
"title": "Allied leaders of World War II",
"section": "Section::::Kingdom of Yugoslavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 241,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 241,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "BULLET::::- Josip Broz Tito was a leader of Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement, which was the largest in Europe. Communist by political orientation, Tito was nevertheless able to gather nationwide support for anti-fascist cause, and to persuade Allied governments that only his forces were mounting credible resistance to Axis powers in Yugoslavia. By the end of war, occupied Yugoslavia had drawn attention of no less than 20 German divisions alone, prompting several major operations in the 1942–1944 period, which were futile. Finally, with help from advancing Soviet forces, the Partisans liberated Yugoslavia, reaching at the final days of operations a respectable size of 800,000 soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33prru
|
if volcano eruptions are from pressure buildup, why not just drill and relieve the pressure?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's a monumentally risky endeavor for so little reward. You could get seriously burned, possibly trigger a real volcanic eruption, and release toxic gases into the atmosphere. Furthermore, as long as the core is hot, volcanos will still erupt, and the nuclear fission of the uranium in the core will *keep* it hot for a long time to come.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the pressure is still very high and there is still a lot of material under pressure, no matter how it gets released... You may be able to direct the volcano and somewhat slow down the release of pressure and material, but you are basically going to create a volcanic eruption out of the hole you drilled. There may be reasons that this is better than letting the volcano erupt on its own, but it is not the same as preventing an eruption entirely. \n\nAlso it would be very dangerous for the people doing the operation",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Any hole drilled by man is like a tiny pin prick on geologic scales ... we typically drill down only on the order of miles ... geological stuff happen at many tens and hundreds of miles deep .... it would be the equivalent of trying to drain an absess on giant using a mosquito.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only one person has referenced the impossibility of this task. The earth is mighty, and mans influence is small.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the scale of the Earth a volcano *is* the pressure relief.\n\nImagine you have a burn on your leg that has fluid build up, you go to the hospital and they might but in a small needle and drain the fluid.\n\n*THAT* is the volcano.\n\nNow imagine they took another needle, 100x smaller and tried to drain it, it would be almost pointless.\n\nNow imagine your burn blister, for whatever reason, has pressurised fluid inside it. If the pressure was great enough, enough a miniscule hole in it would cause it to fail and burst open anyways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3051956",
"title": "Explosive eruption",
"section": "Section::::Stages of an explosive eruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The sudden release of pressure causes the gases in the magma to suddenly froth and create volcanic ash and pumice, which is then ejected through the volcanic vent to create the signature eruption column commonly associated with explosive eruptions. The size and duration of the column depends on the volume of magma being released and how much pressure the magma was under.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3051956",
"title": "Explosive eruption",
"section": "Section::::Stages of an explosive eruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "An explosive eruption always begins with some form of blockage in the crater of a volcano that prevents the release of gases trapped in highly viscous andesitic or rhyolitic magma. The high viscosity of these forms of magma prevents the release of trapped gases. The pressure of the flowing magma builds until eventually the blockage is blasted out in an explosive eruption. The pressure from the magma and gases are released through the weakest point in the cone, usually the crater. However, in the case of the eruption of Mount St. Helens, pressure was released on the side of the volcano, rather than the crater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162404",
"title": "Stratovolcano",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "There, the relatively low pressure allows water and other volatiles (mainly CO, SO, Cl, and HO) dissolved in the magma to escape from solution, as occurs when a bottle of carbonated water is opened, releasing CO. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the plug (solidified blockage) of the volcanic vent is broken, leading to a sudden explosive eruption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32544339",
"title": "Hydraulic fracturing",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:Mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently becomes suppressed by pressure due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation. This suppression process is particularly significant in \"tensile\" (Mode 1) fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure. Fracturing occurs when effective stress is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock. The minimum principal stress becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile strength of the material. Fractures formed in this way are generally oriented in a plane perpendicular to the minimum principal stress, and for this reason, hydraulic fractures in well bores can be used to determine the orientation of stresses. In natural examples, such as dikes or vein-filled fractures, the orientations can be used to infer past states of stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379647",
"title": "Yellowstone Caldera",
"section": "Section::::Volcanism at Yellowstone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great cove of magma located below the caldera's surface. The magma in this cove contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31428107",
"title": "Oil well control",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts and terminology.:Formation pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "As discussed above, once the fluids are trapped within the formation and not allow to escape there is a pressure build-up leading to abnormally high formation pressures. This will generally require a mud weight of greater than 9.0 ppg to control. Excess pressure, called \"overpressure\" or \"geopressure\", can cause a well to blow out or become uncontrollable during drilling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5501953",
"title": "Prediction of volcanic activity",
"section": "Section::::Seismic waves (seismicity).:Hydrology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "BULLET::::- Borehole and well hydrologic and hydraulic measurements are increasingly used to monitor changes in a volcanoes subsurface gas pressure and thermal regime. Increased gas pressure will make water levels rise and suddenly drop right before an eruption, and thermal focusing (increased local heat flow) can reduce or dry out aquifers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gcjo2
|
why is it that the federal reserve can print money but america has limited inflation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the Feds are not printing enough to cause major inflation... they're not just printing carelessly, which is what you seem to believe. They have a target inflation rate, and print according to that target.\n\nThey only print \"a lot\", because the US economy and demand for the US dollar is that large.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Several reasons actually. The currency(not money) that is being printed/typed into the system has not, for the most part entered the system yet. It is given to large banks (particularly the ones that are a part of or have pull with the FED) and then put into the stock market. This is done by the FED to provide collateral for the banks in exchange for them making loans that would not otherwise be made because of a high rate of default. \n\nThis money has not entered the system except for being used to buy up stocks... and you'll notice the stock market has been seeing a huge run in spite of everything else. Inflation is confined for now to skyrocketing stock prices. \n\nNow when the loans-that-should-not-have-been-made eventually default, then the collateral will have to be used... then the currency comes back into the system everyone else uses. Now since the banks have the currency first, they get to spend it when it still has its current uninflated buying power. As the currency supply increases in the population however its buying power will decrease. People like you and me get to spend it when it buys the least. \n\nAnother reason the FED can get away with printing so much currency is the US dollars status as the world reserve currency and its use as the worlds main petrocurrency. The US government can spread the inflation across 7 billion people instead of 300 million. It's a plan that will work up until the point where the US dollar loses it's reserve currency status, or when OPEC decides it will allow people to buy oil using other currencies or commodities. If the rest of the world suddenly decides that they don't need the dollar, then all those dollars will come flooding back to the one place where it's illegal to use anything else... the US. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6120654",
"title": "Tax protester conspiracy arguments",
"section": "Section::::Arguments about money.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Some protesters have argued that Federal Reserve notes (better known as dollar bills) are not actually money, because the Constitution only permits the government to \"coin\" money, and requires that such money be exchangeable for gold or silver; therefore, printed bills are instead symbols for use in bartering, and being paid in dollars is not the receipt of taxable income. This argument was brought before a court in \"Wilson v. United States\". The court responded:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164391",
"title": "Monetary policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Money creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "BULLET::::9. The U.S. Treasury sells this newly printed money to the Federal Reserve for the cost of printing. This is about 6 cents per bill for any denomination. Aside from printing costs, the Federal Reserve must pledge collateral (typically government securities such as Treasury bonds) to put new money, which does not replace old notes, into circulation. This printed cash can then be distributed to banks, as needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36154471",
"title": "Federal Reserve Deposits",
"section": "Section::::Conflation with popular economic terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "BULLET::::- Printing Presses A frequent expression of political writers is to equate an expanding monetary base to the government ramping up the printing presses to print more dollars. An inaccurate expression as most new assets are purchased with fabricated Federal Reserve Deposits and not Federal Reserve Notes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15634653",
"title": "The Case Against the Fed",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Rothbard argues that the claim that the Federal Reserve is designed to fight inflation is sophistry, that price inflation is caused only by an increase in the money supply, and that since only banks increase the money supply, then banks, including the Federal Reserve, are the only source of inflation. He writes:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73161",
"title": "Seigniorage",
"section": "Section::::Seigniorage as a tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "This is a reason offered in support of free banking, a gold or silver standard, or (at a minimum) the reduction of political control of central banks, which could then ensure currency stability by controlling monetary expansion (limiting inflation). Hard-money advocates argue that central banks have failed to attain a stable currency. Since the US Federal Reserve was formed in 1913, the US dollar has fallen to barely one-twentieth of its former value due to the bank's inflationary policies. Economists counter that deflation is difficult to control once it sets in, and its effects are more damaging than modest, consistent inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1978363",
"title": "History of the United States dollar",
"section": "Section::::Fiat standard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Today, like the currency of most nations, the dollar is fiat money, unbacked by any physical asset. A holder of a federal reserve note has no right to demand an asset such as gold or silver from the government in exchange for a note. Consequently, some proponents of the intrinsic theory of value believe that the near-zero marginal cost of production of the current fiat dollar detracts from its attractiveness as a medium of exchange and store of value because a fiat currency without a marginal cost of production is easier to debase via overproduction and the subsequent inflation of the money supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180846",
"title": "Federal Reserve Note",
"section": "Section::::Production and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Federal Reserve Notes are printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP), a bureau of the Department of the Treasury. When Federal Reserve Banks require additional notes for circulation, they must post collateral in the form of direct federal obligations, private bank obligations, or assets purchased through open market operations. If the notes are newly printed, they also pay the BEP for the cost of printing (about 4¢ per note). This differs from the issue of coins, which are purchased for their face value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vvtzk
|
How did the titles of "Roman Emperor" and "King of the Franks", both held by Charlemagne, become separated?
|
[
{
"answer": "So [this excellent post](_URL_0_) a week ago by /u/idjet explains the circumstances of the passing on of Charlemagne's imperial title, as well as whether he intended to do so or not.\n\nHowever, whatever the details were, after the division of the empire after the death of Charlemagne's surviving son Louis the Pious, the title was passed to Louis' son Lothair because in the triparte split of the empire, Lothair possessed the core Frankish lands in middle francia as well as Italy and Rome. And since it was understood that in order to be emperor, one needed to be in possession of Rome, Lothair was thus designated the emperor. \n\nThis continued on after his death with his son Louis II, who was emperor even though he possessed no part of the former frankish homelands, and only retained the title King of Italy. Though the empire, the imperial title, and the frankish royal title would be reunited again under Charles the Bald and Charles the Fat, after the latter's deposition, you would see a similar situation as to what happened with Charlemagne. The various component kingdoms of the Carolingian Empire would be divied up (although this time the inheritors would not necessarily be Carolingians), and it only took someone in possession of the title of King of Italy to be crowned emperor (although not all kings of italy would be crowned emperor). And they would only be crowned because there was a need for legitimation or other political concerns, local entirely to Italy, as opposed to the rest of the former Carolingian Empire. \n\nWhich is how, the titles of \"King of the Franks\" and its successor titles, King of the West Franks (West Francia), Middle Franks/Francia (Lotharingia/Lorraine) and East Franks/Francia came to be split from the imperial title. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50853",
"title": "Holy Roman Emperor",
"section": "Section::::Title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "For this reason, Charlemagne, the King of the Franks and King of Italy, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (\"Imperator Romanorum\") by Pope Leo III, as the successor of Constantine VI as Roman Emperor under the concept of \"translatio imperii\". The Eastern Empire eventually relented to recognizing Charlemagne and his successors as emperors, but as \"Frankish\" and \"German emperors\", at no point referring to them as Roman, a label they reserved for themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303481",
"title": "Francia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Carolingian empire, 751–840.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1200,
"text": "On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as \"Emperor of the Romans\" in Rome in a ceremony presented as a surprise (Charlemagne did not wish to be indebted to the bishop of Rome), a further papal move in the series of symbolic gestures that had been defining the mutual roles of papal \"auctoritas\" and imperial \"potestas.\" Though Charlemagne preferred the title \"Emperor, king of the Franks and Lombards\", the ceremony formally acknowledged the ruler of the Franks as the Roman Emperor, triggering disputes with the Byzantine Empire, which had maintained the title since the division of the Roman Empire into East and West. The pope's right to proclaim successors was based on the Donation of Constantine, a forged Roman imperial decree. After an initial protest at the usurpation, the Byzantine Emperor Michael I Rhangabes acknowledged in 812 Charlemagne as co-emperor, according to some. According to others, Michael I reopened negotiations with the Franks in 812 and recognized Charlemagne as \"basileus\" (emperor), but not as emperor of the Romans. The coronation gave permanent legitimacy to Carolingian primacy among the Franks. The Ottonians later resurrected this connection in 962.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23324680",
"title": "History of the Catholic Church in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Catholicism as the official religion of the Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "Charlemagne, crowned Roman Emperor in 800 AD, is sometimes considered as a forerunner of the Holy Roman Empire. Most historians today reject this view, arguing that the Holy Roman Empire had different antecedents and a different constitution, and the Holy Roman Emperor had a different status and role than Charlemagne and his successors. After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, the Imperial crown was initially disputed among the Carolingian rulers of Western Francia (France) and Eastern Francia (Germany), with first the western king (Charles the Bald) and then the eastern (Charles the Fat) attaining the prize. However, after the death of Charles the Fat in 888, the empire broke asunder, never to be restored. According to Regino of Prüm, each part of the realm elected a \"kinglet\" from its own \"bowels\". After the death of Charles the Fat, those who were crowned Emperors by the Pope controlled only territories in Italy. The last of such Emperors was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25605367",
"title": "Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor",
"section": "Section::::Expansion into Italy.:Disputed Italian throne.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Upon the death of Emperor Charles the Fat in 888, the empire of Charlemagne was divided into several territories: East Francia, West Francia, the kingdoms of Lower and Upper Burgundy, and the Kingdom of Italy, with each of the realms being ruled by its own king. Though the pope in Rome continued to invest the kings of Italy as \"emperors\" to rule Charlemagne's empire, these \"Italian emperors\" never exercised any authority north of the Alps. When Berengar I of Italy was assassinated in 924, the last nominal heir to Charlemagne was dead and the imperial title was left unclaimed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5314",
"title": "Charlemagne",
"section": "Section::::Imperium.:Coronation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Charlemagne's coronation as Emperor, though intended to represent the continuation of the unbroken line of Emperors from Augustus to Constantine VI, had the effect of setting up two separate (and often opposing) Empires and two separate claims to imperial authority. For centuries to come, the Emperors of both West and East would make competing claims of sovereignty over the whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5314",
"title": "Charlemagne",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Charlemagne (; ) or Charles the Great (2 April 742 – 28 January 814), numbered Charles I, was king of the Franks from 768, king of the Lombards from 774, and emperor of the Romans from 800. During the Early Middle Ages, he united the majority of western and central Europe. He was the first recognised emperor to rule from western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state that Charlemagne founded is called the Carolingian Empire. He was later canonized by Antipope Paschal III.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13277",
"title": "Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the earlier ancient Western Roman Empire in 476. The title continued in the Carolingian family until 888 and from 896 to 899, after which it was contested by the rulers of Italy in a series of civil wars until the death of the last Italian claimant, Berengar I, in 924. The title was revived again in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne and beginning a continuous existence of the empire for over eight centuries. Some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, describing a gradual assumption of the imperial title and role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5piml3
|
why acceleration is constant in a vacuum, and an airplane would fall at the same velocity as a tennis ball?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because in a vacuum a moving object has no resistance acting on it. Clarify the second part of the question please.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The force of gravity acting on an object is proportional to its mass. Mass times gravity = weight.\n\nAcceleration is force divided by mass. For example, if I push on a small rock, it accelerates away from me pretty quickly while if I push on a boulder, it takes a long time to start moving with any speed. (Ignoring friction, of course; pretend both of them are on frictionless rails.)\n\nNote that weight is just a kind of force.\n\nSo if\n\n weight = gravity * mass\n\nand\n\n acceleration down = weight ÷ mass\n\nthen\n\n acceleration down = gravity * mass ÷ mass\n\nand the mass cancels out leaving\n\n acceleration down = gravity\n\nAll of this assumes there's no friction of course, and air resistance is a kind of friction. In a vacuum, all objects fall at the same rate and their mass doesn't enter into it.\n\nHere's a great video: [Brian Cox visits the world's biggest vacuum chamber](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "200115",
"title": "Trajectory",
"section": "Section::::Catching balls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "If a projectile, such as a baseball or cricket ball, travels in a parabolic path, with negligible air resistance, and if a player is positioned so as to catch it as it descends, he sees its angle of elevation increasing continuously throughout its flight. The tangent of the angle of elevation is proportional to the time since the ball was sent into the air, usually by being struck with a bat. Even when the ball is really descending, near the end of its flight, its angle of elevation seen by the player continues to increase. The player therefore sees it as if it were ascending vertically at constant speed. Finding the place from which the ball appears to rise steadily helps the player to position himself correctly to make the catch. If he is too close to the batsman who has hit the ball, it will appear to rise at an accelerating rate. If he is too far from the batsman, it will appear to slow rapidly, and then to descend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53002210",
"title": "Bouncing ball",
"section": "Section::::Forces during flight and effect on motion.:Gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Further refinements to the motion of the ball can be made by taking into account air resistance (and related effects such as drag and wind), the Magnus effect, and buoyancy. Because lighter balls accelerate more readily, their motion tends to be affected more by such forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44390226",
"title": "915 line",
"section": "Section::::Customization.:Lofts.:Effects of Incorrect Loft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "If that angle is to high or too low, then you won't be maximizing your ball flight. Loft also affects the spin of the golf ball coming off the face, which has major impacts on the flight of the ball. There are three main types of spin that can be put on the ball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43953213",
"title": "Steady flight",
"section": "Section::::Force balance and the steady flight equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The constant angular velocity in the body frame leads to a balance of moments, as well. Most notably, the pitching moment being zero puts a constraint on the longitudinal motion of the aircraft that can be used to determine the elevator control input.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15885044",
"title": "Supermaneuverability",
"section": "Section::::Aerodynamic maneuverability vs supermaneuverability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The speed at which an aircraft is capable of its maximum aerodynamic maneuverability is known as the corner airspeed; at any greater speed the control surfaces cannot operate at maximum effect due to either airframe stresses or induced instability from turbulent airflow over the control surface. At lower speeds the redirection of air over control surfaces, and thus the force applied to maneuver the aircraft, is reduced below the airframe's maximum capacity and thus the aircraft will not turn at its maximum rate. It is therefore desirable in aerobatic maneuvering to maintain corner velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53002210",
"title": "Bouncing ball",
"section": "Section::::Forces during flight and effect on motion.:Gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "where \"m\" is the mass of the ball, and \"g\" is the gravitational acceleration, which on Earth varies between and . Because the other forces are usually small, the motion is often idealized as being only under the influence of gravity. If only the force of gravity acts on the ball, the mechanical energy will be conserved during its flight. In this idealized case, the equations of motion are given by\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53002210",
"title": "Bouncing ball",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Spin and angle of impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "BULLET::::2. If the ball is moving much more rapidly than it was spinning, translational friction will dominate. The ball's angular velocity will be increased after impact, but its horizontal velocity will be decreased. The ball will not exceed its original height and will keep spinning in the same direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
foa5pe
|
what is social engineering?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a manipulative technique used to get informatiom from people, and the negative context comes from scammers using it to get things such as passwords",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you use \"social skills\" (convincing, lying, etc) to make people do something.\n\nFor example when you send and email to someone telling them that you are the administrator of the system and that you need for them to send you their passwords. Haha",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Social structures can be 'hacked' just like physical and digital structures can - and it's often easier to approach an intrusion problem from this standpoint.\n\nActually hacking into the DMV database is a relatively difficult task. However, pretending to be an IT consultant and tricking those with passwords to the database into revealing them is comparatively easy. That no-tech-skills-required approach is 'social engineering'.\n\nAs for being a science, no. It's no more a science than selling used cars is a science. It's mostly just being able to interact with people effectively.\n\nIn terms of a negative context, social engineering is fundamentally about tricking people into doing what you want them to do. While it often involves a degree of research - you need to know who the gatekeepers are before you can trick them into opening the gate - it's little different than any other con game.\n\nFrom the standpoint of the hacker community, it's also often considered a 'lesser' form of hacking. Hacking is, in some ways, a competitive intellectual activity. It's not just enough to intrude into a privileged system but you have to do it in a clever or skilled way. Hacking a shipping database to have the next delivery to your local supermarket directed to your doorstep is cool. Throwing a brick through their window at night and carrying off that delivery is not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Essentially manipulating others to do something they may not want to do knowing all the information.\n\n\nIts most commonly used in the context of hacking because actual hacking of finding technical exploits is hard these days and its often easier to fool a human than a computer. For instance I can send you a message pretending to be reddit admin asking you to disclose your username and password due to an issue with the reddit database.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Social engineering is altering human behavior through indirect means...usually behaviors the humans are resistant to change on their own. Imposing a high tax on cigarettes can be seen as social engineering to stop people from smoking. It is often seen as negative because the government is deciding what is good or bad and imposing that decision on its citizens.\n\nAlternately, social engineering is used to describe infiltrating a computer system using trickery rather than technical vulnerabilities. Pretending to be from the IRS and demanding someone's bank account information is an example of this kind of social engineering.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll try my hand because I don't feel like you have received the broad answer you are looking for.\n\nSocial engineering is simply applying the social science of human behavior to achieve a desired outcome. Much like a structural engineer applies materials science to achieve a certain outcome. The engineering part is the application of the science part. So, if sociology is considered a science, then social engineering is the application.\n\nIs it manipulative? Sure, but technically so is every other form of engineering. They just don't involve people. So there is absolutely an ethical component to social engineering.\n\nIt has a negative context because the most visible examples involve breaking into stuff by tricking people. We all know that tricking someone into giving us a password is unethical, so even when done for good reason, no one really likes it.\n\nIt could be positive though. What if I used my knowledge of human behavior to manipulate people into following Dr.'s recommendations during a pandemic?\n\nTL;DR: Social engineering is the practical application of social sciences.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Social Engineering can be thought of as manipulating our accepted social norms for nefarious goals. \n\nOne example: We are taught to respect \"authority figures\", so when someone contacts us claiming to be an authority figure (the police, IRS, FBI, your IT Security team, etc..) our first inclination is to believe whatever they are telling us. \n\nAnother example is those \"tell us about yourself\" type of quizzes you always see on facebook. What was your first pet's name? Where did you go to high school? What is your favorite food? etc.. Which also tend to be the same types of questions that you would answer for security questions to your bank accounts.\n\nThe vast majority of identity theft and IT breaches is the result of some form of social engineering.\n\nWhat makes social engineering particularly insidious is that it takes countless forms and is always changing, which means we have to always be diligently aware and suspicious of every interaction, which becomes exhausting to the point where you will eventually let your guard down. And taking your guard down even one time is all they need.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heres a good example: there are people who look up numbers of elderly persons e.g. in the phonebook just by names that imply they are maybe elderly persons. Then they give them a call and try to convince them they are their grandchildren or someting like that and they need help. Tell them ridiculous stories and force them to send money to suspicious bank accounts.\n\nUnfortunately this works too often.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wouldn't call it a science. If you're trying to gain access to something, or some place, you can save yourself a lot of time by just successfully manipulating someone. That's why it doesn't have a great connotation. It's really effective but you have to be dishonest in the process. Like if you just need to get through a locked door, maybe you can pick the lock. Maybe you can't but, if you're really slick, one good phone call might get you through.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I want you to do something. I cant make you. I create an awards system to change your behavior. Works for some, not for you. I punish those around you for your behavior. Your friends / family will convince you to change or cut you out of they life to stop the punishment. Not wanting to be alone you change your behavior. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThat is how China does it anyways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You know that scene in now you see me? Where they ask for his mom's maiden name and street where he grew up?\n\nAnd then he found out they got that info to reset his email password to access it?\n\nThat's basically it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "730244",
"title": "Social engineering (political science)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Social engineering is a discipline in social science that refers to efforts to influence particular attitudes and social behaviors on a large scale, whether by governments, media or private groups in order to produce desired characteristics in a target population. Social engineering can also be understood philosophically as a deterministic phenomenon where the intentions and goals of the architects of the new social construct are realized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "730244",
"title": "Social engineering (political science)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Social engineering can be carried out by any organization, without regard to scale, or sponsorship in the public or private sector. Some of the most comprehensive, and most pervasive campaigns of social engineering are those initiated by powerful central governments with the systems of authority to widely affect the individuals and cultures within their purview.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "411590",
"title": "Science and technology studies",
"section": "Section::::Important concepts.:STS social construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Social constructions are human created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "730243",
"title": "Social engineering (security)",
"section": "Section::::Techniques and terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "One example of social engineering is an individual who walks into a building and posts an official-looking announcement to the company bulletin that says the number for the help desk has changed. So, when employees call for help the individual asks them for their passwords and IDs thereby gaining the ability to access the company's private information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10053554",
"title": "Organizational engineering",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Overall, organizational engineering gives a way to understand, measure, predict and guide human behavior for both individuals and groups. Its objective is to produce visible, positive results of significant consequence and magnitude. It is able to consistently accomplish this objective in any situation that meets the mutual dependency criteria characteristic of goal directed organizations. This has been demonstrated in domestic and international contexts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "730244",
"title": "Social engineering (political science)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Caution in social engineering methods includes consideration of the inherent incompleteness of their body of information and how it affects their utilization of tools at hand. Analysis of social engineering goals and their desirability—which includes the desires of the community which they desire to engineer—answer the question of the ethics of disclosure. Social engineering without consent is a violation of the culture, and constitutes an assault tantamount to a rape, or seizing by force of that culture raptio. Consent, full disclosure and involvement, presents additional difficulties which help to avoid marginalization and feelings of violation within the culture. Long-term attempts at social engineering in the Middle East may be considered to have extreme backlash, as a result of being non inclusive of the cultural values, body of reliable information, or utilization of effective tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4613541",
"title": "The Social Construction of Reality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Berger and Luckmann introduced the term \"social construction\" into the social sciences and were strongly influenced by the work of Alfred Schütz. Their central concept is that people and groups interacting in a social system create, over time, concepts or mental representations of each other's actions, and that these concepts eventually become habituated into reciprocal roles played by the actors in relation to each other. When these roles are made available to other members of society to enter into and play out, the reciprocal interactions are said to be institutionalized. In the process, meaning is embedded in society. Knowledge and people's conceptions (and beliefs) of what reality is become embedded in the institutional fabric of society. Reality is therefore said to be socially constructed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36u9b7
|
how do celebrities tweet and reply to other celebrities on twitter considering there are thousands of people tweeting them as well?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are services and software you can use with twitter to let you know when a certain user tweets you or posts a tweet, chances are most celebrities don't even see their fans tweets unless a pr person alerts them to one they should reply to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most/many celebrities hire someone, or a couple of someones, to run their official twitter accounts just like they might for any other PR position. So there might be a bit of planning between them in certain cases.\n\nParticularly funny or otherwise notable tweets will probably get mentioned more than a few times by their thousands of followers.\n\nIdk if it's true, but I've read that verified users' tweets are sorted separately from non-verified users when looking at notifications.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36007133",
"title": "Use of Twitter by public figures",
"section": "Section::::Celebrity entertainers, models and sportspeople.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The most popular United Kingdom celebrities on Twitter come from television with people like Stephen Fry and Jonathan Ross being amongst the most popular British celebrities on the site. Fry's success on Twitter is credited with being the same person on Twitter that he is off Twitter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28119506",
"title": "Twitter usage",
"section": "Section::::In entertainment news reporting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 1045,
"text": "Twitter is also used by many celebrities and others in the entertainment industry (news magazines, journalists, entertainment news shows, etc...) as a way to personally connect with fans, promote projects, and break news. Celebrity tweets are often subjects of headline news and sometimes used by the mainstream media and several news outlets as a primary source for confirming information pertaining to a particular story about a celebrity. CNN Breaking News, E! Online, Perez Hilton, and People Magazine are a few entertainment news outlets that have millions of Twitter followers. In June 2010, 24-year-old actress Amanda Bynes shocked the entertainment industry by announcing her retirement via Twitter. She tweeted \"I don't love acting anymore so I've stopped doing it.\" However, a month later, Bynes announced to her followers that she had \"unretired.\" Various news sources reported on this story, breaking the news directly from the actress's Twitter page. During the 83rd Academy Awards there were 1,269,970 tweets related to the event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36007133",
"title": "Use of Twitter by public figures",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The use of Twitter by celebrities and politicians has become an important factor both for Twitter itself and for the celebrity users. As with many other social networking WWW sites, the postings and pictures by celebrity users attracts people to the site, which increases opportunity for advertising. To this end, Twitter has provided two facilities to its high-profile users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47201557",
"title": "Flitto",
"section": "Section::::Other Services.:Discovery (SNS/Contents).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Twitter-certified celebrities can also log into Flitto through their Twitter accounts and leave a voice message that will be translated into 18 different languages. Celebrities use Flitto to communicate with their fans, and users can share their favorite celebrities's voice messages to their other social media accounts. Various K-pop stars such as members of Super Junior including Henry and Siwon, Teen Top, Block B, G.NA, etc. use Flitto as a platform to leave messages for global fans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5796",
"title": "Celebrity",
"section": "Section::::Internet celebrities.:Social networking and video hosting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Most high-profile celebrities participate in social networking and photo or video hosting platforms such as YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat. Social networking sites allow celebrities to communicate directly with their fans, removing the middle-man known as traditional media. Social media humanizes celebrities in a way that arouses public fascination as evident by the success of magazines such as \"Us Weekly\" and \"People Weekly\". Celebrity blogging have also spawned stars such as Perez Hilton who is well known for not only blogging, but also outing celebrities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "524332",
"title": "Kevin Pollak",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Podcasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Who Tweeted\", in which a host (typically Samm Levine) reads tweets from the Twitter accounts of three female celebrities (the list of actresses varies, but typically includes Demi Moore (or, more recently, Justin Bieber), Tyra Banks, and Paris Hilton) and Pollak and his guest compete against each other game-show-style to guess who authored each tweet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28119506",
"title": "Twitter usage",
"section": "Section::::In television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Twitter is used by TV operators and broadcasters to try to encourage viewers to get involved. This can take the form of on-screen hashtags, having celebrities tweet while a show airs, or contests around a TV show. Notable examples include Comedy Central using Twitter hashtags during the Comedy Awards and BBC QuestionTime encouraging political debate. the During the 2011 Oscars, there were over 10,000 tweets per minute- with the event racking up 1.8 million tweets overall. During the 2011 Super Bowl, tweets peaked at 4,000 per second. In the UK, daily television shows also receive attention on Twitter, although the levels of activity is lower than a major TV event like the Oscars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1riwc2
|
How did the wives of roman soldiers learn of their husbands deaths?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alrighty, 'cause I just noticed this thread, I'm going to go ahead and do a writeup on this. I'm going to try to address all of the questions already asked in the body, so bear with me (barring the question that's outside the purview of my specialty). \n\nFirst, I'm going to confirm a simple fact. Roman soldiers were not allowed to get married. That changed depending on rank, but the rank and file were not legally allowed to get married - so there weren't any wives at home that had to get that painful letter (for the standard legionaries). However, men are men, and people are people- and the vast majority of the time a legion was just garrisoned in a province. People in that situation, naturally, develop relationships, and those relationships were tactfully ignored by the officers, who totally understood the situation these men were in. They weren't allowed to get married, but they WERE in love - the great rock and hard place argument :) The thing about being in the Legion (I'm assuming we're talking about the Principate here - that would be ca. 0-300ish CE) was that once you were in, it was a 25 year commitment. While you got great benefits, those 25 years could be hard on a man - especially when that man wanted a family. So, the natural solution? \"Civil unions.\" \n\nThose civil unions were essentially the same as marriage, just without any of the legal entitlements that they would otherwise have- so pretty much, it was marriage. Just without the government recognition. Confusing, eh? :)\n\nOne big issue with this was that many of the women that the Romans took to wife were natives of the area they were garrisoned in, or even former slaves (The soldier would buy them and promptly free them). Those families would, of course, also go on to have children - and those children called themselves \"*in castris*\" - or \"born in the camp.\" They generally went on to join the military, just like their parents, and there's a tombstone outside the fortress of *Legio II Augusta* that commemorates a woman, her soldier son, and her husband. The monument itself was erected by her daughter. \n\nHowever...the unfortunate bit is that there are always those damn legalities. We have evidence of seven cases that deemed children born during their father's terms of service to be \"illegitimate.\" Didn't matter if they were citizens or anything - if they were in the legions or *auxilia*, that child had no claim to be the heir of their father, his will, etc. Same with the wives - except the wives *also* couldn't get their dowries back (Legal wives could). \n\nNow, on to the husband dying! It's hard to say exactly how they were informed - however, if they were one of these quasi-wives, it would have fallen to the man's tent group (*contubernium*) - who would have known about the quasi-marriage - to let the woman know. The wives either lived right outside the fort in the *canabae*, or even in the room with the rest of the *contubernium*. A quick note here - privacy wasn't such a huge deal until recently, most especially regarding situations with large families (All in one room) or in these cases (8 men in one crowded room - it would have been relatively common for at least one to have a woman in there with him). \n\nI do want to stress though (regarding another question in this thread) that the legionaries still maintained strong family ties with both their quasi-wives and their \"illegitimate\" children. The vast majority of tombstones near military encampments are commemorations by the wife or \"unrelated heirs\" (coughchildrencough). We have multiple declarations by these soldiers declaring these children to be their heirs, the children are explicitly mentioned in the wills, and provided for them. As for notifying family (such as parents, siblings, etc), I have no source on that one - I can only speculate that the *contubernum* would send a letter to them as well.\n\n---\n\nFinally, onto one last question that was addressed - \"Could officers and commanders be married?\" The answer to that is **yes....ish.** The senatorial and equestrian officers were certainly allowed to be married. Legionary centurions were also exempt, however, we have no sources regarding the auxiliary centurions or the decurions - we can *assume* that they would also be exempt, but it's no guarantee. Their wives and children would also have accompanied them, but they (The senators and equestrians, at least - the centurions could and did) were forbidden from marrying *local* women. The senatorial and equestrian officers also spent far less time in the military - it was generally just a step in their career. \n\nNow, finally, on to what happened when a soldier died! One of the (many) deductions from the soldier's pay was a contribution to a \"burial fund\" that was organized per century. It wasn't much - it would only cover the costs for a basic funeral - but it was something. I'll go ahead and just quote straight from Goldsworthy for the next bit:\n\n > A funeral procession, carrying the corpse on a couch, would leave the fort or camp, for like many contemporary societies the Romans insisted that burial take place outside the settlement. Once outside, and often on a site running alongside the main road leading to the fort, the corpse would be laid on the couch on top of a funeral pyre, There it would be burnt and, once consumed by the flames the ash of both corpse and pyre gathered into a funerary urn, made sometimes of marble or metal, but most often of glass or pottery, which was then buried. Around the grave site the mourners took part in a funeral banquet.\n\n > [...] The chief mourners were a man's comrades and, as the practice of taking an unofficial wife became widespread, his family. It is doubtful that the burial club paid for more than the most rudimentary of markers for the grave, but many soldiers set aside money to pay for expensive stone monuments. Many tombstones state that they were erected by a man's heirs in accordance with his will. \n\nI sincerely hope that helps :) If you have any more questions, please don't hesitate to ask them!\n\n**Sources:**\n\n-Goldsworthy, Adrian - *The Complete Roman Army*\n\n-Scheidel, Walter - [*Marriage, families, and survival in the Roman imperial army: demographic aspects*](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49441811",
"title": "Ancient Celtic women",
"section": "Section::::Women in Celtic society.:Legal position.:Marriage law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Caesar provides an example of the subordinate position of women: according to him, men had the power of life and death over their wives, as they did over their children, in a similar manner to the Roman pater familias. If the head of a high ranking family died, his relatives would gather and interrogate the wives as well as the slaves, when the death seemed suspicious. Should they consider their suspicions to be correct, they would burn the wives, after torturing them in every possible way. However, he also describes the financial role of the wives as remarkably self-sufficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11661602",
"title": "List of Roman women",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The list below includes Roman women who were notable for their family connections, or their sons or husbands, or their own actions. In the earlier periods, women came to the attention of (later) historians either as poisoners of their husbands (a very few cases), or as wives, daughters, and mothers of great men such as Scipio Africanus. In later periods, women exercised or tried to exercise political power either through their husbands (as did Fulvia and Livia Drusilla) or political intrigues (as did Clodia and Servilia), or directly (as did Agrippina the younger and later Roman empresses).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2224425",
"title": "Battle of Aquae Sextiae",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "By the conditions of the surrender three hundred of their married women were to be handed over to the Romans. When the Teuton matrons heard of this stipulation they first begged the consul that they might be set apart to minister in the temples of Ceres and Venus; and then when they failed to obtain their request and were removed by the lictors, they slew their little children and next morning were all found dead in each other's arms having strangled themselves in the night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7628768",
"title": "Liberators' civil war",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Many other young Roman aristocrats lost their lives in the battle or committed suicide afterwards, including the son of the great orator Hortensius, Marcus Porcius Cato (the son of Cato the Younger), and Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus (the father of Livia, who became Octavian’s wife). Porcia, Brutus’ wife, is traditionally said to have killed herself by swallowing a red-hot coal when she received news of her husband's defeat, although the reliability of this anecdote is questionable, and there is evidence which suggests that Porcia died over a year before Brutus. Some of the nobles who were able to escape negotiated their surrender to Antony and entered his service (among them Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus and Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus). Apparently, the nobles did not want to deal with the young and merciless Octavian. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39880",
"title": "Battle of the Teutoburg Forest",
"section": "Section::::Battles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Roman casualties have been estimated at 15,000–20,000 dead, and many of the officers were said to have taken their own lives by falling on their swords in the approved manner. Tacitus wrote that many officers were sacrificed by the Germanic forces as part of their indigenous religious ceremonies, cooked in pots and their bones used for rituals. Others were ransomed, and some common soldiers appear to have been enslaved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309187",
"title": "Women in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Daily life.:Women and the military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "Classical texts have little to say about women and the Roman army. Emperor Augustus (reigned 27 BC–AD 14) disallowed marriage by ordinary soldiers, a ban that lasted nearly two centuries. However it has been suggested that wives and children of centurions lived with them at border and provincial forts. Shoes in women's and children's sizes were found at Vindolanda (site of a Roman fort on Hadrian's wall in northern England), along with bronze plaques, awarded to provincial soldiers whose 25 years of service earned them Roman citizenship, that mention their wives and children. Likewise, in Germany, further evidence of this practice was discovered in the form of brooches and shoes. Trajan's Column depicts six women amongst the soldiers who are attendants holding sacrificial offerings at a military religious ceremony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5139910",
"title": "Homosexuality in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Male–male sex.:Same-sex relations in the military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The Roman soldier, like any free and respectable Roman male of status, was expected to show self-discipline in matters of sex. Augustus (reigned 27 BC – 14 AD) even prohibited soldiers from marrying, a ban that remained in force for the Imperial army for nearly two centuries. Other forms of sexual gratification available to soldiers were prostitutes of any gender, male slaves, war rape, and same-sex relations. The \"Bellum Hispaniense\", about Caesar's civil war on the front in Roman Spain, mentions an officer who has a male concubine (\"concubinus\") on campaign. Sex among fellow soldiers, however, violated the Roman decorum against intercourse with another freeborn male. A soldier maintained his masculinity by not allowing his body to be used for sexual purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2haeyj
|
Would it ever be possible to create a mirror that reflects 100% of the light it's exposed to?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, but not in the traditional sense. \n\nMirrors are normally made of a polished metal surface covered by glass. This kinds of mirrors are theoretically unable to achieve perfect reflection. \n\nIt is possible to achieve perfect reflection using total internal reflection, and it has been done before. It wouldn't work like your traditional mirror because firstly, it only works for certain wavelengths of light and certain angles. Secondly, TIR only works when light travels from media with a higher refractive index to a lower one. This means that a flat mirror will not work. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045193",
"title": "Perfect mirror",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Almost any dielectric material can act as a perfect mirror through total internal reflection. This effect only occurs at shallow angles, however, and only for light inside the material. The effect happens when light goes from a medium with a higher index of refraction to one with a lower value (like air).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521267",
"title": "Reflection (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Reflection of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "A mirror provides the most common model for specular light reflection, and typically consists of a glass sheet with a metallic coating where the significant reflection occurs. Reflection is enhanced in metals by suppression of wave propagation beyond their skin depths. Reflection also occurs at the surface of transparent media, such as water or glass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20545",
"title": "Mirror",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Technology.:Instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "For scientific optical work, dielectric mirrors are often used. These are glass (or sometimes other material) substrates on which one or more layers of dielectric material are deposited, to form an optical coating. By careful choice of the type and thickness of the dielectric layers, the range of wavelengths and amount of light reflected from the mirror can be specified. The best mirrors of this type can reflect 99.999% of the light (in a narrow range of wavelengths) which is incident on the mirror. Such mirrors are often used in lasers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20545",
"title": "Mirror",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "A mirror is an object that reflects light in such a way that, for incident light in some range of wavelengths, the reflected light preserves many or most of the detailed physical characteristics of the original light, called specular reflection. This is different from other light-reflecting objects that do not preserve much of the original wave signal other than color and diffuse reflected light, such as flat-white paint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045193",
"title": "Perfect mirror",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Dielectric mirrors are glass or other substrates on which one or more layers of dielectric material are deposited, to form an optical coating. A very complex dielectric mirror can reflect up to 99.999% of the light incident upon it, for a narrow range of wavelengths and angles. A simpler mirror may reflect 99.9% of the light, but may cover a broader range of wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28350333",
"title": "Picture framing glass",
"section": "Section::::Glass Surface Treatments and Coatings.:Anti-Reflective Coatings.:Multi-Layer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The lowest reflection can be achieved with multi-layer anti-reflective coatings, which can be applied by either magnetron sputtering, evaporation or sol-gel process (or other processes, which can control the uniformity of deposition on nanometer-scale), and can reduce the light reflection to lower than 0.25% per side (0.5% total).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045193",
"title": "Perfect mirror",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "A new type of dielectric \"perfect mirror\" was developed in 1998 by researchers at MIT. These unusual mirrors are very efficient reflectors over a broad range of angles and wavelengths, and are insensitive to polarization. A version of the perfect mirror that was developed at MIT for military use is used by OmniGuide in laser surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xad8d
|
why are there airpockets in underwater caves that are clearly under sealevel?
|
[
{
"answer": "Plants in the sea create oxygen. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The caves may have a hidden opening or cracks somewhere to allow air in. If not the air pockets may come from methane or carbon dioxide from degradation of organic matter on the sea floor or some kind of natural gas pocket. It's unlikely that any air pockets in an underwater cave would be breathable since sunlight would be needed for plants or algae to make oxygen. \n\nAnother theory could be that the cave was above sea level at some point and the rising ocean could have caused air to be trapped in the cave.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because it is visited by scuba divers, whose exhalations become trapped and accumulate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "fish farts. \n\nBut seriously, most caves have an atmosphere not suitable for human respiration as they are mostly methane bubbling up from decomposing matter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39194607",
"title": "Rebreather diving",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with open circuit.:Advantages.:Other advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::- This lack of bubbles allows wreck divers to enter enclosed areas on sunken ships without slowly filling them with air, which can accelerate rusting, and is also an advantage in cave diving if there is loose material on the ceiling which can be dislodged by bubbles, reducing visibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9521439",
"title": "Vortex Spring",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The cave has been a controversial aspect of the spring. During the early 1990s, 13 divers died while exploring it. The state of Florida threatened to ban diving near cave entrances as a result of frequent cave diving accidents, but local divers responded by developing a special cave diving certification that became the standard requirement for sections of underwater caves known to be particularly hazardous. Vortex Spring complied with this by erecting a locked underwater gate at the entrance to the dangerous section of the cave. Only those who have valid cave diving certificates are permitted to enter, requiring a staff member to unlock the gate, and typically accompany them during the dive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4972349",
"title": "Lookout Mountain Caverns",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Barr's 1961 discussion of the cave says that the cave was intersected by a railway tunnel, and thus the cave accumulated soot that led to its closing to tourists. He says that \"exploring of the cave is unpleasant because of the necessity of wading, crawling, climbing, and becoming covered with soot, which coats all the upward-facing surfaces.\" He says the soot extends well over a mile into the cave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291811",
"title": "Cave diving",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Despite these risks, water-filled caves attract scuba divers, cavers, and speleologists due to their often unexplored nature, and present divers with a technical diving challenge. Underwater caves have a wide range of physical features, and can contain fauna not found elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "758777",
"title": "Wind Cave National Park",
"section": "Section::::History.:Source of the cave's name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "The cave passages in the park are said to \"breathe\" as air continually moves into or out of them, equalizing the atmospheric pressure of the cave and the outside air. When the air pressure is higher outside the cave than inside it, air flows into the cave, raising the cave's pressure to match the outside pressure. When the air pressure inside the cave is higher than outside it, air flows out of the cave, lowering the air pressure within the cave. A large cave such as Wind Cave with only a few small openings will \"breathe\" more obviously than a small cave with many large openings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39040531",
"title": "Long Churn Cave",
"section": "Section::::Exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The cave is commonly used as an introduction to caving for novice and inexperienced cavers, although in wet weather water levels can rise to a dangerous extent. In 2007, a man and woman both drowned in the same incident, and in 2008 two separate groups were trapped in the cave during storms, although no lives were lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294387",
"title": "Airlock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "An airlock may also be used underwater to allow passage between an air environment in a pressure vessel and the water environment outside, in which case the airlock can contain air or water. This is called a floodable airlock or an underwater airlock, and is used to prevent water from entering a submersible vessel or an underwater habitat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21yml4
|
How are the causes of airplane crashes identified?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, from the \"something broke in the air\" perspective; fractures that occured in the past look a lot different than fresh ones, and fractures from impact look a lot different than fractures [from other causes.](_URL_1_)\n\nImagine a crack in a steel part, for example. If the crack slowly propagates until the part snaps, you'll have a fracture that is half old and rusty, half fresh and clean. The rusty half will probably be all ratty as well, while the final fracture will be relatively straight and clean. \n\nAlso, some types of damage look very unique. For example, you might see some [fretting](_URL_0_) at the location of a fracture. That fretting would be highly suspect as the cause of the failure. If failure of that component led to a loss of control that matches the final moments of flight then you can be pretty sure that's the cause of the accident. Note, the picture is from a shaft in a helicopter that was removed prior to breaking. This particular failure mode is apparently quite common for this part. \n\nThere's a zillion things like that, and it would take a whole book (for example, [\"why things break\"](_URL_2_)) to explain all of them, but the long and short is that damage from an impact does not look like damage that occured before impact. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38889212",
"title": "2013 Berlin helicopter crash",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "A first report by the Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accidents Investigation was published in May 2013. It listed the known facts of the accident without identifying a cause. The cause of the accident was still unclear .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164536",
"title": "Aviation accidents and incidents",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "United States civil aviation incidents are investigated by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). NTSB officials piece together evidence from the crash site to determine likely cause, or causes. The NTSB also investigates overseas incidents involving US-registered aircraft, in collaboration with local investigative authorities, especially when there is significant loss of American lives, or when the involved aircraft is American built.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10849758",
"title": "Chain of events (accident analysis)",
"section": "Section::::Aviation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In aviation accidents and incidents, these contributing actions typically stem from human factor-related mistakes and pilot error, rather than mechanical failure. A study conducted by Boeing found that 55% of airline accidents between 1959 and 2005 were caused by such human related factors, while only 17% of accidents were caused by mechanical issues with the aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49846549",
"title": "Flydubai Flight 981",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "On the day of the crash, an investigative commission was established by the Interstate Aviation Committee (IAC) to determine the circumstances and causes of the crash. The investigation is led by Russian air accident investigators, and includes representatives of the aviation authorities of the United Arab Emirates (the state of the aircraft's registration and operator), the United States (where the aircraft's designer and manufacturer is headquartered) and France (where the aircraft's engines were designed). The U.S. team consists of air accident investigators from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), experts from Boeing and representatives of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1154033",
"title": "SilkAir Flight 185",
"section": "Section::::Investigation and final report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "The examination of all of the factual evidence is consistent with the conclusions that: 1) no airplane-related mechanical malfunctions or failures caused or contributed to the accident, and 2) the accident can be explained by intentional pilot action. Specifically, a) the accident airplane’s flight profile is consistent with sustained manual nose-down flight control inputs; b) the evidence suggests that the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) was intentionally disconnected; c) recovery of the airplane was possible but not attempted; and d) it is more likely that the nose-down flight control inputs were made by the captain than by the first officer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58278418",
"title": "Aeroflot Flight 1668",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Investigations were unable to determine the exact cause of the accident but it was theorized that a part of the aircraft detached and damaged the tail or that an aircraft flight control system failed. Another theory was that the flight was brought down by a surface-to-air missile, but no evidence supporting this ever surfaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077137",
"title": "9/11 conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Flight 93.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "One of the popular conspiracy theories surrounding this event is that Flight 93 was actually shot down by a U.S. fighter jet. David Ray Griffin and Alex Jones say that large parts of the plane including the main body of the engine landed miles away from the main wreckage site, too far away for an ordinary plane crash. Jones says that planes usually leave a small debris field when they crash, and that this is not compatible with reports of wreckage found farther away from the main crash site. One person claimed that the main body of the engine was found miles away from the main wreckage site with damage comparable to that which a heat-seeking missile would do to an airliner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
241eky
|
To what extent was Stalin responsible for the Korean war?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to Halberstam's \"The Coldest Winter\" page 49\n\n\"Stalin was playing a delicate game, flashing a half-green, half-amber light on the invasion.\"\n\nHalberstam later states that Stalin gave Kim permission, but kept his involvement to a minimum and told Kim to rely on China for any material support. There's later an assertion on page 345 that Stalin had promised air cover to Chinese troops, but reneged on his promise. \n\nThis sounds like the mainstream theory, I'm unaware of any alternate theories.\n\nEDIT: Spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12243680",
"title": "Aftermath of the Korean War",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "Despite the expenses and regardless of who paid them, it must also be said that the Korean War provided approximately thirty thousand Soviet military personnel valuable experience in waging local wars. The conflict also allowed the Soviets the opportunity to test several new forms of armament, in particular the MiG-15 combat aircraft. Furthermore, numerous models of American military equipment were captured, which made it possible for Soviet engineers and scientists to reverse engineer American technology, and use what they learned for the development of new forms of their own armaments. According to declassified Soviet documents released after the fall of the USSR, Stalin himself may have been the main obstacle for peace in Korea specifically because of the intelligence gathered on the American war machine, and the testing of new Soviet military equipment during the conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16772",
"title": "Korean War",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Prelude to war (1950).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. PLA forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while US forces remained stationed in South Korea. By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: PLA forces under Mao Zedong had secured final victory in China, US forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets detonated their first nuclear bomb, breaking the US atomic monopoly. As the US had not directly intervened to stop the communist victory in China, Stalin calculated that they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with their embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15641",
"title": "Joseph Stalin",
"section": "Section::::Post-war era.:Cold War policy: 1947–1950.:Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "At the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the United States divided up the Korean Peninsula, formerly a Japanese colonial possession, along the 38th parallel, setting up a communist government in the north and a pro-Western government in the south. North Korean leader Kim Il-sung visited Stalin in March 1949 and again in March 1950; he wanted to invade the south and although Stalin was initially reluctant to provide support, he eventually agreed by May 1950. The North Korean Army launched the Korean War by invading the south in June 1950, making swift gains and capturing Seoul. Both Stalin and Mao believed that a swift victory would ensue. The U.S. went to the UN Security Council—which the Soviets were boycotting over its refusal to recognise Mao's government—and secured military support for the South Koreans. U.S. led forces pushed the North Koreans back. Stalin wanted to avoid direct Soviet conflict with the U.S., convincing the Chinese to aid the North.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21263",
"title": "Korean People's Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Conflicts and events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Before the outbreak of the Korean War, Joseph Stalin equipped the KPA with modern tanks, trucks, artillery, and small arms (at the time, the South Korean Army had nothing remotely comparable either in numbers of troops or equipment). During the opening phases of the Korean War in 1950, the KPA quickly drove South Korean forces south and captured Seoul, only to lose 70,000 of their 100,000-strong army in the autumn after U.S. amphibious landings at the Battle of Incheon and a subsequent drive to the Yalu River. On 4 November, China openly staged a military intervention. On 7 December, Kim Il-sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China. The KPA subsequently played a secondary minor role to Chinese forces in the remainder of the conflict. By the time of the Armistice in 1953, the KPA had sustained 290,000 casualties and lost 90,000 men as POWs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76796",
"title": "History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)",
"section": "Section::::1953–1957.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "The Korean War had been enormously costly to China, especially coming on the heels of the civil war, and it delayed postwar reconstruction. As a result, Mao Zedong declared that the nation would \"lean to the east\", meaning that the Soviet Union and the communist bloc would be its principal allies. Three months after the PRC was established in October 1949, Mao and his delegation traveled to Moscow. They were not received warmly by Stalin, who doubted if they really were Marxists and not simply a group of Chinese nationalists. He had also recognized Chiang Kai-Shek's government, and furthermore distrusted any communist movement that was not under his direct control. After a meeting with Mao, the Soviet leader remarked \"What sort of a man is Mao? He seems to have some idea of revolution involving the peasants, but not the workers.\" Eventually, a frustrated Mao was ready to go home, but Zhou Enlai refused to leave without a formal agreement. Thus, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Friendship was signed and the Chinese at last departed in February 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849180",
"title": "Single Integrated Operational Plan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early targeting after the Second World War.:Truman.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1303,
"text": "Stalin did consider the possibility of war in Asia, as opposed to Europe. In January 1950, he approved Kim Il Sung's proposal to conquer South Korea in what became the Korean War that summer, believing that victory there would discredit NATO. The gambit backfired, however; despite their initial optimism the Communists were unable to defeat the US-led forces in Korea, and the war greatly increased Western military spending, for the first time making NATO a significant threat against the Soviets in Europe. By late 1950, the USSR notified its Eastern European satellites to prepare for war by the end of 1952, a date matching Western estimates. In early 1951, based on an alleged NATO plan to launch a European war that year from Western proxy Yugoslavia during the Informbiro period as a response to its defeat in Korea, he ordered a massive increase in Eastern European forces that hurt the weaker Communist economies. Based on the Korean precedent, the Soviets apparently expected that the West would not use atomic weapons in a European war. During Stalin's lifetime, Soviet doctrine foresaw the next war as a more destructive version of World War II similarly decided by giant armies supported by massive home fronts, a type of conflict which benefited from the Soviet Union's innate strengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1452225",
"title": "Foreign relations of the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "The Kremlin controlled the socialist states that it established in the parts of Eastern Europe its army occupied in 1945. After eliminating capitalism and its advocates, it linked them to the USSR in terms of economics through COMECON and later the military through the Warsaw Pact. In 1948, relations with Yugoslavia disintegrated over mutual distrust between Stalin and Tito. A similar split happened with Albania in 1955. Like Yugoslavia and Albania, China was never controlled by the Soviet Army. The Kremlin wavered between the two factions fighting the Chinese Civil War, but ultimately supported the winner, Mao Zedong. Stalin and Mao both supported North Korea in its invasion of South Korea 1950. But the United States and the United Nations mobilized the counterforce in the Korean War (1950–53). Moscow provided air support but no ground troops; China sent in its large army that eventually stalemated the war. By 1960, disagreements between Beijing and Moscow had escalated out of control, and the two nations became bitter enemies in the contest for control of worldwide communist activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
scfgo
|
What would happen if we allowed exotic animals to go extinct?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most of the megafauna do have a significant impact on their environment. Lions and tigers are significant predators, and if we removed them, we would see the increase of the larger herbivores. In the United States, we removed wolves and mountain lions, and now deer go through natural boom/bust cycles. Though it is uncertain if the bison herds seen by those expanding westward were actually at sustainable levels, large herbivores in savanna and plains generally help regeneration of the prairie by eating saplings so trees did not colonize, as well as minimizing fire disturbance by reducing biomass before it dried and burned.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > What would happen if we didn’t protect exotic animals and have laws on hunting and conservation?\n\nIts not just exotic animals that we protect, every country protects animals and their ecosystems within their borders. Also, the USA does not regulate how foreign countries manage their resources, ecosystems or endangered species. There is [CITES](_URL_0_) which is an international organization that regulates the transport of endangered plant and animal products across borders. Despite this many millions of plants and animals are being illegally transported for the pet-trade, food, or medicinal products. There is also the [IUCN](_URL_2_) which helps conduct studies and creates reports on animals. It is the governing body that decides if animals should be classified as endangered on a global scale. \n\nOnce and animal or plant is listed governments who signed the treaty must put in steps to save or mitigate the effects that are causing the species decline. Not only does this create jobs, (scientists, policy makers, enforcers) but it often preserves the local ecological system. Because animals need habitats, saving them often means that some chunk of land also needs to be preserved. This can be good and bad for people.\n\n**The Good**\n\nWe are part of this world, and this world provides many services for us. The Earth cleans our water, it filters our air, provides us food on scales we cannot begin to imagine. Some have tried to put values on these services and often it amounts to hundreds of billions of dollars in saved expenditures. Often by preserving local ecosystems the surrounding land becomes more fertile, the water cleaner and so on. This is especially important in countries where they may not be able to afford equivalent technologies on larger scales. Also, animals can bring in ecotoursim and promote cultural identity. These are all positive thinsg that can create jobs and bring money to improvrished regions. \n\n**The bad**\nIn certain regions resources are very scarce and people fight over them. Parks where they exist sometimes hurt the people because they no longer have access to things they need like fuel and food. Education is key here - teaching people how to live sustainably in the forests using their local customs and traditions. Its important that conservation just doesn't come from governments in a\"top down\" fashion, but also in a \"bottom up\" - where communities and individual people understand the importance of conservation and see how it can improve their lives. \n\n > Is there still a natural eco-balance that animals like elephants, tigers, and others are helping maintain? \n\nYes, each animal and plant has its place in the ecosystem. They all contribute to the eco-balance but in different ways. That being said plants and animals to naturally go extinct. Sometimes if you remove just one [keystone species](_URL_3_) the whole ecosystem goes to the shitter. Example: sea otters in the pacific northwest. [Foundation species](_URL_1_) build an ecosystem up from the bottom, like plants, they provide the basics - food for herbivores, which in turn support carnivores. Removing these species - such as cutting down a forest, destroys that habitat for every other species within it. Thus different species have different effects. If we managed to kill bees we would be pretty fucked - no more fruit, mosts woods, and fibers etc. We would have to live on wind-pollinated plants like the grains. \n\n > Do all animals play a role in keeping the earth safe and habitable or would the extinction of some species not have any serious consequences?\n\nOf course loosing a few species is ok, this is natural. Extinction is natural. One day we too will go extinct. However its the *current rate* of extinction that is alarming. When so many species are threatened, ecosystems weakened by hunting, logging, burning, overfishing, wars, pollution, and other destructive human habits - the survival of some of our human communities is at stake. So while having the amur leopard go extinct in china may not seem like a big deal it represents a systematic abuse of the natural world on our part. It destroys our quality of life and hurts us. We could permit a few species to go extinct, in fact many have already (like the dodo, or the passenger pigeon) yet we are all still here. But these extinction events weaken ecosystems, the next extinction event does the same until the ecosystem supports almost nothing and is only a vestige of what it once was. \n\nTL;DR every animal is important, because each animal has its role to play. Either in its ecosystem or saving that ecosystem, or in improving our quality of life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11269704",
"title": "Tropidophis",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Despite their relatively small size and secretive nature, some species may be susceptible to extirpation, mainly due to habitat alteration and introduced feral animals. The Navassa Island dwarf boa, \"T. bucculentus\", has not been seen for 100 years and is believed to be extinct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33430036",
"title": "Zinave National Park",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "A 2010 report said that the PNZ had been neglected until recently, and most of its large wildlife had been destroyed by illegal hunting. Species that are locally extinct or close to extinct include black rhinoceros, Cape buffalo, cheetah, reedbuck, eland, elephant, giraffe, Lichtenstein's hartebeest, roan antelope, sable antelope, spotted hyena, wildebeest and Selous' zebra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1834416",
"title": "Javan green magpie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Once common, the species has declined drastically as a result of habitat loss and illegal capture for the wild animal trade. The size of the remaining wild population is unknown, but perhaps only around 50 individuals, while others speculate that the lack of recent sightings might mean that it already is extinct in the wild. In an attempt of saving the species, a captive breeding program based on confiscate individuals has been initiated by the Cikananga Wildlife Center in Java (since 2011) and a few European EAZA zoos (since 2015). It has successfully bred at both the Javan and European facilities, and as of 2018 this captive population had reached about 50 individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45086",
"title": "Biodiversity",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Protection and restoration techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 203,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 203,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Removal of exotic species will allow the species that they have negatively impacted to recover their ecological niches. Exotic species that have become pests can be identified taxonomically (e.g., with Digital Automated Identification SYstem (DAISY), using the barcode of life). Removal is practical only given large groups of individuals due to the economic cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7014636",
"title": "World Association of Zoos and Aquariums",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Extinct in the wild - surviving in human care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "According to the current IUCN Red List (2008), 37 animal species are extinct in the wild. Zoo-bred animals of several species listed by IUCN as extinct in the wild did survive in zoos and have been reintroduced to parts of their former range in recent years (\"Partula\" species, Père David's deer and the scimitar-horned oryx).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1193070",
"title": "List of recently extinct mammals",
"section": "Section::::Extinct in the wild.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A species that is extinct in the wild is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as only known by living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range due to massive habitat loss. A species is declared extinct in the wild after thorough surveys have inspected its historic range and failed to find evidence of a surviving individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7851193",
"title": "List of government animal eradication programs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Historically, there have been cases where the extermination of animal species has been politically endorsed because the animals have been considered harmful. In some cases the animals have been hunted because the animals present a danger to human lives, at other times they have been hunted because they are harmful to human interests such as livestock farming. More recently, eradication efforts have focused on invasive vertebrates as they are the leading cause of extinction of native species, particularly on islands. This article refers to animals in a more limited sense; it does not include humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5of6vd
|
how does cold air reach body temp in your lungs so fast?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are small sacs in your lungs that bring the incoming air in close contact with your circulatory system. This quickly brings the air close to body temperature , as well as enabling the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a full explanation but your nose and the way air flows through it plays a large part in this. When you inhale that cold air runs in through your nose and through it's various structures. There are \"folds\" further inside that the air runs through on the way in. As the air swirls through them it picks up both warmth and humidity. The hairs in your nose filter out pollen, dust, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lots and lots of surface area. You're not warming up a .5 L balloon of air each breath, your warming up millions of separate microscopic balloons of air (alveolar sacs), each with its own personal warmer completely surrounding it (capillaries). Also the layer of insulation between the body temp blood and outside temp air is literally a couple cells thick, so heat transfer is minimally impeded.\n\nEdit: forgot to mention the ever splitting airway that comes into contact with more and more of the air as it splits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think about it this way, a pod of grapes together have WAY more surface area than a watermelon. \n\nJust to add on to /u/huskerpower_53 and talk a bit more about what /u/CausticRemains said, the air is coming into contact with a lot of surface area on its way to your lungs. It goes through your nose, but your nose has folds called conchae which increase the surface area. Then they go through your trachea (windpipe) which also has minute perfections and finally the air keeps getting split until it reaches tiny balloons that are the size of peas. This adds a significant amount of surface area which increases the amount of air touching warm, body-temperature skin. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6003086",
"title": "Apparent temperature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 10 °C (50 °F). As airflow increases over the skin, more heat will be removed. Standard models and conditions are used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35166137",
"title": "Heat and moisture exchanger",
"section": "Section::::In laryngectomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In the lungs a temperature of 37 °C and 100% relative humidity (RH) is the ideal condition for the ciliary activity. If the conditions are too warm or cold, the cilia beat slower and at some point not at all. During normal nasal inspiration, air of 22 °C and 40% RH is conditioned into air of 32 °C and 99% RH at the level of the trachea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4902127",
"title": "Convective instability",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "If the adiabatic lapse rate is \"lower\" than the ambient lapse rate, an air mass displaced upward cools \"less\" rapidly than the air in which it is moving. Hence, such an air mass becomes \"warmer\" relative to the atmosphere. As warmer air is less dense, such an air mass would tend to continue to rise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9529253",
"title": "Regenerative heat exchanger",
"section": "Section::::Types of regenerators.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "We use our nose and throat as a regenerative heat exchanger when we breathe. The cooler air coming in is warmed, so that it reaches the lungs as warm air. On the way back out, this warmed air deposits much of its heat back onto the sides of the nasal passages, so that these passages are then ready to warm the next batch of air coming in. Some animals, including humans, have curled sheets of bone inside the nose called nasal turbinates to increase the surface area for heat exchange.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7455643",
"title": "Thermal comfort",
"section": "Section::::Influencing factors.:Air speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "In HVAC, air speed is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to direction. According to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55, it is the average speed of the air to which the body is exposed, with respect to location and time. The temporal average is the same as the air temperature, while the spatial average is based on the assumption that the body is exposed to a uniform air speed, according to the SET thermo-physiological model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54912",
"title": "Dew point",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to human comfort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "As the air surrounding one's body is warmed by body heat, it will rise and be replaced with other air. If air is moved away from one's body with a natural breeze or a fan, sweat will evaporate faster, making perspiration more effective at cooling the body. The more unevaporated perspiration, the greater the discomfort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38257191",
"title": "Surgical humidification",
"section": "Section::::Respiratory humidification during surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1246,
"text": "Respiratory humidification during surgery helps maintain body temperature and normal function of the respiratory mucosa. In the same way that some animals pant to lose excess body heat, heat is lost through the lungs during mechanical or assisted ventilation. Heated humidification of respiratory gases during surgery has been demonstrated to reduce the fall in core body temperature, especially in surgeries lasting longer than one hour. The lungs can be insufflated with respiratory gases that are heated to near body temperature and humidified to 90 to 100% relative humidity(RH). Normally, air in the lungs is at core body temperature and at close to 100% RH. Especially when cold dry gases (such as anhydrous compressed gas from oxygen tanks) are used, it cool and can dry the airway. The body then utilizes energy to evaporate sufficient water from the lungs to maintain lung gas temperature and humidity. It is generally estimated that 10 percent of the loss of body heat during surgery is from the respiratory tract. Especially in open surgery (rather than endoscopic / robotic surgery), respiratory humidification can be used in concert with forced air warming blankets or gowns, warmed IV, and irrigation fluids to prevent hypothermia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8cyjvx
|
If I have a system of mirrors that makes 300 million meters could I see the speed of light?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes you can. This is used to determine the speed of light experimentally (There is an easy demonstration using fast rotating mirrors, look at how Fizeau and Foucault measured it in in the 19th century).\n\nYou can also do an easy experiment if you have access to an oscilloscope. An electromagnetic signal moves at the speed of light. In a standard 50 Ohm coaxial cable this is about 60% the speed of light in vacuum. So if you send an em pulse from e.g. a pulse generator to two channels of the oscilloscope, one via a short cable, the other via a cable 10 m longer, you will see a time difference of the signals of t = s/c = 5x10-8 s = 50 ns, which is easily observable. Make the cable twice as long, the time difference doubles as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Apollo astronauts left a retroreflector on the moon which you can do just this with - if you have a powerful laser and a sensitive detector. The moon is about 384 million meters away, so it takes a little over 2.5 seconds for the light to get back to you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is extremely challenging to make a setup that long that can keep the light focused and keep losses low enough, but it should be possible - if you spend a lot of money on it. If we ignore the practical details: Sure.\n\nUsing devices that can measure smaller time differences makes it much easier. The best detectors are sensitive to a few millimeters of flight distance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17939",
"title": "Light",
"section": "Section::::Speed of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313,000,000 m/s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878327",
"title": "Engineering notation",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Another example: when the speed of light (exactly by the definition of the meter and second) is expressed as 3.00 × 10 m/s or 3.00 × 10 km/s then it is clear that it is between 299 500 km/s and 300 500 km/s, but when using 300 × 10 m/s, or 300 × 10 km/s, 300 000 km/s, or the unusual but short 300 Mm/s, this is not clear. A possibility is using 0.300 Gm/s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39606746",
"title": "Central Laser Facility",
"section": "Section::::Notable studies.:The Light Clock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Einstein proposed as part of his theory of special relativity that light reflected from a mirror moving close to the speed of light will have higher peak power than the incident light because of temporal compression. Using a dense relativistic electron mirror created from a high-intensity laser pulse and nanometre-scale foil, the frequency of the laser pulse was shown to shift coherently from infrared to the ultraviolet. The results elucidate the reflection process of laser-generated electron mirrors and suggest future research in relativistic mirrors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Time of flight techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Nowadays, using oscilloscopes with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror. This method is less precise (with errors of the order of 1%) than other modern techniques, but it is sometimes used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40581191",
"title": "Infinity mirror",
"section": "Section::::Explanation of effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "For example, in a two-centimeter-thick infinity mirror, with the light sources halfway between, light from the source initially travels one centimeter. The first reflection travels one centimeter to the rear mirror and then two centimeters to, and through the front mirror, a total of three centimeters. The second reflection travels two centimeters from front mirror to back mirror, and again two centimeters from the back mirror to, and through the front mirror, totaling four centimeters, plus the first reflection (three centimeters) making the second reflection seven centimeters away from the front mirror. Each successive reflection adds four more centimeters to the total (the third reflection appears 11 centimeters deep, fourth 15 centimeters deep, and so on).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2493619",
"title": "Data mile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The speed of light is 983571056 ft/s, or about one foot per nanosecond. If it were exactly one foot per nanosecond, and a target was one data mile away, then the radar return from that target would arrive 12 microseconds after the transmission. (Recall that radar was developed during World War II in America and England, while both were using English units. It was convenient for them to relate 1 data mile to 12 microseconds, whereas the modern tendency would be to approximate the speed of light as 3e8 m/s.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "712727",
"title": "Heliograph",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "The range of a heliograph depends on the opacity of the air and the effective collecting area of the mirrors. Heliograph mirrors ranged from 1.5 inches to 12 inches or more. Stations at higher altitudes benefit from thinner, clearer air, and are required in any event for great ranges, to clear the curvature of the earth. A good approximation for ranges of 20-50 miles is that the flash of a circular mirror is visible to the naked eye for 10 miles for each inch of mirror diameter, and farther with a telescope. The world record distance was established by a detachment of U.S. signal sergeants by the inter-operation of stations on Mount Ellen, Utah, and Mount Uncompahgre, Colorado, 183 miles (295 km) apart on September 17, 1894, with Signal Corps heliographs carrying mirrors only 8 inches square.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fgifs
|
have humans created a new species? (via selection)
|
[
{
"answer": "The most obvious examples of new species created through selective breeding are all the various domesticated plants that are a result of polyploidy (errors causing the daughter organism to have more copies of each chromosome than normal.) Those are two numerous to list, and include a wide variety of common foods.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Using the biological species concept (which I assume, based on your question, is your framework), we have only created one to my knowledge: [Drosophila synthetica.](_URL_0_)\n\nIf you use the morphological or phylogenetic species concepts, we have created buttloads. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46459712",
"title": "Rate of evolution",
"section": "Section::::In domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Humans have created a wide range of new species, and varieties within those species, of both domesticated animals and plants. Other human activity also impacts evolution. This has been achieved in a very short geological period of time, spanning only a few tens of thousands of years, and sometimes less. Maize, \"Zea mays\", for instance, is estimated to have been created in what is now known as Mexico in only a few thousand years, starting between about 7 000 and 12 000 years ago, from still uncertain origins. In the light of this extraordinarily rapid rate of evolution, through (prehistoric) artificial selection, George C. Williams and others, have remarked that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9499590",
"title": "Postnaturalism",
"section": "Section::::Domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "It is thought human beings have been experimenting with selectively breeding organisms for around 10,000 years; over thousands of years humans have influenced many taxonomic groups, with bioengineering representing new forms of genetic information transfer, creation, and inheritance, coupled to climate change, scientists and policy makers are prioritising “ecosystem services” essential to humans, such as pollination, the replenishment of fish stocks, and a phenomenon being researched in the Great Barrier Reef being the terminal decline of coral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46459712",
"title": "Rate of evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evolvability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Therefore, while a species or group might benefit from being able to adapt to a new environment by accumulating a wide range of genetic variation, this is to the detriment of the \"individuals\" who have to carry these mutations until a small, unpredictable minority of them ultimately contributes to such an adaptation. Thus, the \"capability\" to evolve is close to the discredited concept of group selection, since it would be selectively disadvantageous to the individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3202072",
"title": "Man After Man",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "As a result of the extinction of \"Homo sapiens\", these humans can no longer be genetically tweaked and altered in labs and instead they begin to evolve through natural selection and other natural evolutionary processes, resulting in many new and diverse forms over the course of several millions of years. These new species range from the memory people (\"Homo mensproavadorum\") that through their genes can recall memories of previous generations, symbiotic humans (symbionts) consisting of a symbiont carrier (\"Baiulus moderatorum\") providing movement and protection against the cold and a hunter symbiont (\"Moderator baiuli\"), colonial and hive-building humans with a single reproductive parent (socials, \"Alvearanthropus desertus\"), parasitic humans (\"Nananthropus parasitus\") attaching themselves with sharp teeth and claws to the flesh of their hosts (\"Penarius pinguis\"), goblin-like fishing humans (fish-eaters, \"Piscator longidigitus\"), ant-eating humans (ant-men, \"Formifossor angustus\") and saber-toothed predatory humans (spiketooths, \"Acudens ferox\"). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "394815",
"title": "Introduced species",
"section": "Section::::Nature of introductions.:Intentional introductions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for establishment in the wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in the wild. In these cases it is clear that the introduction is directly facilitated by human desires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30744522",
"title": "Applications of evolution",
"section": "Section::::Artificial selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "A major technological application of evolution is artificial selection, which is the intentional selection of certain traits in a population of organisms. Humans have used artificial selection for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals. More recently, such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering, with selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA in molecular biology. It is also possible to use repeated rounds of mutation and selection to evolve proteins with particular properties, such as modified enzymes or new antibodies, in a process called directed evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1740264",
"title": "Mutationism",
"section": "Section::::Later mutationist theories.:Willis's macromutations, 1923.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "In 1923, the botanist John Christopher Willis proposed that species were formed by large mutations, not gradual evolution by natural selection, and that evolution was driven by orthogenesis, which he called \"differentiation\", rather than by natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hif9j
|
why do some foods contain insect parts?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you have an open vat of tomatoes, say at the ketchup making plant, bugs are going to get into it. Then you take all those tomatoes and put them in a machine that pulverizes them. The machine doesn't differentiate between bugs and tomatoes, it just makes juice out of whatever is in the storage container. \n\nThen that gets heated up (or treated with acid/caustic solutions) to kill anything that could be harmful to people, bottled, and sold.\n\nThere isn't some magic force-field that keeps bugs out of the food you eat pre-processing, and most mass produced foods will not bother to remove them since they pose no health risk. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28478598",
"title": "Insects as food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Insects as food or edible insects are insect species used for human consumption, e.g., whole or as an ingredient in processed food products such as burger patties, pasta, or snacks. The cultural and biological process of eating insects (by humans as well as animals) is described as entomophagy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366462",
"title": "Insect",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to humans.:As food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In some cultures, insects, especially deep-fried cicadas, are considered to be delicacies, whereas in other places they form part of the normal diet. Insects have a high protein content for their mass, and some authors suggest their potential as a major source of protein in human nutrition. In most first-world countries, however, entomophagy (the eating of insects), is taboo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366462",
"title": "Insect",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to humans.:As food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects are inadvertently present in many foods, especially grains. Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit their quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49253722",
"title": "Cricket flour",
"section": "Section::::Sustainability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Insects are more edible. To date, one study has examined the water footprint, taking into account the entire production system, of commercially produced insects. This data showed insects are considered to be 80‐100% edible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28478598",
"title": "Insects as food",
"section": "Section::::Farming, production, and processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Edible insects are raised as livestock in specialized insect farms. In North American as well as European countries such as the Netherlands or Belgium, insects are produced under strict food law and hygiene standard for human consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55677142",
"title": "Insect based pet food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Insect-based pet food is pet food consisting of, or containing insects digestible by pets such as dogs or cats. A limited, but growing number of products are available on the market, including cat food, dog food, and pet treats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1739069",
"title": "Entomophagy",
"section": "Section::::Eating insects in human cultures.:Cultural taboo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The anthropologist Marvin Harris has suggested that the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources which require more work to obtain, such as poultry or cattle, though there are cultures which feature both animal husbandry and entomophagy. Examples can be found in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe where strong cattle-raising traditions co-exist with entomophagy of insects like the mopane worm. In addition, people in cultures where entomophagy is common are not indiscriminate in their choice of insects, as Thai consumers of insects perceive edible insects not consumed within their culture in a similar way as Western consumers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mm6jr
|
why are serif fonts "easier to read in long paragraphs of text?"
|
[
{
"answer": "There's actually no conclusive study on this that shows that serif fonts are genuinely easier to read than san serif fonts. \n\nThe idea is that the extra markings make a letter more immediately distinguishable from another letter. By having more angles on a letter, there is sharper contrast to one another and to the white background that offers a more visually interesting stimulus than the rounded letters. \n\n[Studies show that people overwhelmingly prefer them subjectively, and that comprehension increases in serif fonts](_URL_0_). But there's no data to support they're actually \"easier on the eyes\" in any form. \n\nIf they are, it's a slight variation that you can think of in terms of something being easier to read for the eyes when it's in sharp forcus than when it's slightly blurry. The extra angular stimulus may produce a similar effect to additional \"focus.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "64100",
"title": "Serif",
"section": "Section::::Readability and legibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Serifed fonts are widely used for body text because they are considered easier to read than sans-serif fonts in print. However, scientific study on this topic has been inconclusive. Colin Wheildon, who conducted scientific studies from 1982 to 1990, found that sans serif fonts created various difficulties for readers that impaired their comprehension. According to Kathleen Tinkel, studies suggest that \"most sans serif typefaces may be slightly less legible than most serif faces, but ... the difference can be offset by careful setting\". Other studies have found no significant difference in readability for serif or sans serif.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64105",
"title": "Typeface",
"section": "Section::::Typeface anatomy.:Serifs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Typefaces with serifs are often considered easier to read in long passages than those without. Studies on the matter are ambiguous, suggesting that most of this effect is due to the greater familiarity of serif typefaces. As a general rule, printed works such as newspapers and books almost always use serif typefaces, at least for the text body. Web sites do not have to specify a font and can simply respect the browser settings of the user. But of those web sites that do specify a font, most use modern sans serif fonts, because it is commonly believed that, in contrast to the case for printed material, sans serif fonts are easier than serif fonts to read on the low-resolution computer screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7597203",
"title": "Haettenschweiler",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "A 2010 Princeton University study involving presenting students with text in a font slightly more difficult to read found that they consistently retained more information from material displayed in so-called disfluent or ugly fonts (Monotype Corsiva, Haettenschweiler, Comic Sans Italicized were used) than in a simple, more readable font such as Arial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "657286",
"title": "Comic Sans",
"section": "Section::::Reception and use in popular culture.:Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "A 2010 Princeton University study involving presenting students with text in a font slightly more difficult to read found that they consistently retained more information from material displayed in so-called disfluent or ugly fonts (Monotype Corsiva, Haettenschweiler, Comic Sans Italicized were used) than in a simple, more readable font such as Helvetica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167941",
"title": "Plain language",
"section": "Section::::Guidelines and tips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Writing in plain language also takes into account the presentation of the text. It is important to choose a font that is easy to read, and set it to an adequate size. Sentences written in capital letters are harder to read because the letters are less distinguishable from one another. Simple design elements like leaving white spaces, using bullets, and choosing contrasting colours encourages a user to read the text and makes it easier to read.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27031910",
"title": "Sentence spacing in language and style guides",
"section": "Section::::Professional style guides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Moira Anderson Allen suggests that publishers are more interested in readable fonts as opposed to maintaining a monospaced font standard. All of these works illustrate single sentence spacing in their manuscript examples, regardless of font type.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504357",
"title": "User-centered design",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Legibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Text should be easy to read: Through analysis of the rhetorical situation, the designer should be able to determine a useful font style. Ornamental fonts and text in all capital letters are hard to read, but italics and bolding can be helpful when used correctly. Large or small body text is also hard to read. (Screen size of 10-12 pixel sans serif and 12-16 pixel serif is recommended.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5877e1
|
can sound waves create other sound waves? what would those sound like?
|
[
{
"answer": "Absolutely! Sounds waves are just a vibration, and cause other objects to vibrate as well. Primary waves create what are called overtones and harmonics as they interact with the air and surrounding surfaces.\n\nIf you go to a piano and play one of the lower notes loudly and hold the key down, you will hear other, higher strings vibrating, highlighting the overtones of the primary wave. It's a cool effect!\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6101054",
"title": "Acoustic levitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Sometimes sound waves at ultrasonic frequencies can be used to levitate objects, thus creating no sound heard by the human ear, such as was demonstrated at Otsuka Lab, while others use audible frequencies. There are various ways of emitting the sound wave, from creating a wave underneath the object and reflecting it back to its source, to using a (transparent) tank to create a large acoustic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631336",
"title": "Atmospheric diffraction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sound wave diffraction is the bending of sound waves, as the sound travels around edges of geometric objects. This produces the effect of being able to hear even when the source is blocked by a solid object. The sound waves bend appreciably around the solid object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5786179",
"title": "Acoustic wave",
"section": "Section::::Wave properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Acoustic waves are longitudinal waves that exhibit phenomena like diffraction, reflection and interference. Sound waves however don't have any polarization since they oscillate along the same direction as they move.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6765164",
"title": "Gabor atom",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1045,
"text": "In 1946, Dennis Gabor suggested the idea of using a granular system to produce sound. In his work, Gabor discussed the problems with Fourier analysis. Although he found the mathematics to be correct, it did not reflect the behaviour of sound in the world, because sounds, such as the sound of a siren, have variable frequencies over time. Another problem was the underlying supposition, as we use sine waves analysis, that the signal under concern has infinite duration even though sounds in real life have limited duration – see time–frequency analysis. Gabor applied ideas from quantum physics to sound, allowing an analogy between sound and quanta. He proposed a mathematical method to reduce Fourier analysis into cells. His research aimed at the information transmission through communication channels. Gabor saw in his atoms a possibility to transmit the same information but using less data. Instead of transmitting the signal itself it would be possible to transmit only the coefficients which represent the same signal using his atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1926450",
"title": "Tin can telephone",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Sound waves are created as the air vibrates in response to a person's speech or other sounds. A second person's ear collects these sound waves and converts them into nerve impulses which their brain interprets as sound. In normal speech these waves travel through the air, but with a tin can telephone the waves are transmitted through an additional medium of cups and string.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5968131",
"title": "Waveshaper",
"section": "Section::::Problems associated with waveshapers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "The sound produced by digital waveshapers tends to be harsh and unattractive, because of problems with aliasing. Waveshaping is a non-linear operation, so it's hard to generalize about the effect of a waveshaping function on an input signal. The mathematics of non-linear operations on audio signals is difficult, and not well understood. The effect will be amplitude-dependent, among other things. But generally, waveshapers—particularly those with sharp corners (e.g., some derivatives are discontinuous) -- tend to introduce large numbers of high frequency harmonics. If these introduced harmonics exceed the nyquist limit, then they will be heard as harsh inharmonic content with a distinctly metallic sound in the output signal. Supersampling can somewhat but not completely alleviate this problem, depending on how fast the introduced harmonics fall off. Supersampling involves the following procedure:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34556315",
"title": "Whispering-gallery wave",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Rayleigh developed wave theories for St Paul’s in 1910 and 1914. Fitting sound waves inside a cavity involves the physics of resonance based on wave interference; the sound can exist only at certain pitches as in the case of organ pipes. The sound forms patterns called modes, as shown in the diagram.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6wix89
|
What warcrimes did the Dutch commit in the Indonesian Independence war in 1945-1949
|
[
{
"answer": "The Dutch historiography and research into war crimes conducted by the Dutch army during the Indonesian independance war is not very well researched. This because it was 'actively forgotten' by the Dutch governement in that no serious research was conducted , people involved were encouraged to remain silent about it and the image of The Netherlands as tolerant and 'clean' colonists was protected. \n\nAt first the intervention was seen not as a war, but as an action against internal terrorists. The term 'politionele actie' was used, for a very long time, to avoid speaking about the Dutch intervention as being a war. Veterans were asked in loyalty to the Dutch Queen to 'keep all secrets inside the Dutch army'. And any appeal for political introspection and claims for reparations were subdued. A striking example is liberal politician and member of the Foreign affairs committe of the Tweede Kamer claiming as late as 2007 that: 'The Dutch military personel have generally behaved with utmost decency... No excuses shall be made' he even likened the proposed reparations to 'The Dutch paying reparations to the king of Spain for cuelties conducted during the Dutch independance war' (this is a comparison of striking sarcastic nature).\n\n\nMost current research is centred around the Rawagede-debate. Rawagede was a massacre of over 430 indonesian males on 9 december 1947. The photos of this masascre were published in the NRC Handelsblad in the '90s and sparked the historical research into Dutch atrocities. Dutch historian C. Lorentz says that this might far from be an isolated case as 'Rawagede might be the tip of an iceberg'. Aside from Rawagede, though, not much of this history has been researched yet.\n\nI am not involved in said research, as my thesis is on pre-war Dutch-Indonesian history, so I can't really comment on the role of the MarBrig or your great grandfathers regiment. I can give you some pointers to start looking. The books *Generaal Spoor: triomf en tragiek van een legercommandant* by Jaap de Moor and *De brandende kampongs van Generaal Spoor* by Remy Limpach are a good starting point. You can find them at the Amsterdam NIOD, the Dutch research institute for War and Genocide studies. The NIOD also employs most researchers that are currently working on the case of Dutch atrocities in Indonesia and has a huge archive. If you ask around there might be people who can point you in the right direction of finding more about the history of your great grandfather. The NIOD has a library that is open to the public and contains most books that will be relevant to your case.\n\nI hope that helps you on your way. Good luck!\n\n\nSources:\n\n* Lorenz, C. (2015). 'De Nederlandse koloniale herinnering en de universele mensenrechten'. *Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis*, 128(1), 109-130.\n\n* Eickhoff, M. (2015). 'Weggestreept verleden: Nederlandse historici en het Rawagededebat'. *Groniek*, 45(194).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14643",
"title": "History of Indonesia",
"section": "Section::::The emergence of Indonesia.:Japanese occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. In May 1940, early in World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July redirected exports for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year. That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14643",
"title": "History of Indonesia",
"section": "Section::::The emergence of Indonesia.:Indonesian National Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 1487,
"text": "Dutch efforts to re-establish complete control met resistance. At the end of World War II, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the Bersiap period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) and firearms attacked returning Allied troops. 3,500 Europeans were killed and 20,000 were missing, meaning there were more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now Jakarta), so the city of Yogyakarta in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance persisted, led on Java by commander Nasution. On 27 December 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the UN, the Netherlands officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty under the federal structure of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI). On 17 August 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, the last of the federal states were dissolved and Sukarno proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12984922",
"title": "Operation Product",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Despite the government of the State of East Indonesia expressing support for the Dutch action, international pressure led to a ceasefire in January 1948 followed by a formal armistice. As a consequence, what was previously considered to be an internal Dutch affair now took on an international dimension. The Renville Agreement, as the armistice was called, stipulated the withdrawal of Indonesian forces from Dutch-occupied territory and the establishment of a ceasefire boundary known as the Van Mook Line. After some time, however, the Indonesian military, secretly, returned and began guerrilla operations against the Dutch. This led, eventually, to the second major Dutch offensive, called Operatie Kraai.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66906",
"title": "Indonesian National Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The four-year struggle involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces (and, for a while, the forces of the World War II Allies) were able to control the major towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra but could not control the countryside. By 1949, international pressure on the Netherlands and the partial military stalemate became such that it recognised Indonesian independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7020815",
"title": "Roem–van Roijen Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "On 19 December 1948, the Dutch made a final effort to gain control of the areas of their former colony of Indonesia, which had declared independence in 1945, that were still under the control of republican forces, by launching a \"police action\" known as Operation Kraai. Despite the military success of this operation, in which Dutch forces overcame Indonesian fighters and recaptured the whole of Java, including the Indonesian republican capital, Yogyakarta, there was worldwide condemnation, including from the United Nations. On 31 December, the Dutch agreed to a ceasefire requested by the UN. The United States subsequently put pressure on the Dutch to negotiate with the Indonesian side, including issuing a threat to withhold post-war financial aid. The Dutch agreed In January 1949 the United Nations Security Council called for the release of the Indonesian leaders captured during the police action and for the Dutch to transfer sovereignty to Indonesia by 1 July 1950. In the face of this pressure the Dutch conceded defeat, and insisted on preliminary discussions with the Indonesian republican government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637072",
"title": "Netherlands in World War II",
"section": "Section::::After the war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The end of the war also meant the final loss of the Dutch East Indies. Following the surrender of the Japanese in the Dutch East Indies, Indonesian nationalists fought a four-year war of independence against Dutch and initially British Commonwealth forces, eventually leading to the Dutch recognition of the independence of Indonesia. Many Dutch and Indonesians emigrated or returned to the Netherlands at this time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26709147",
"title": "Moluccans",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1174,
"text": "After the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies during World War II, the Netherlands wanted to restore the old colonial situation. The indigenous Indonesians were against it. However, led by rebels and Sukarno, a struggle for independence broke out between 1945 and 1949. The reconstituted Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) was commissioned by the Dutch government to maintain order and to disarm the rebels. Moluccan professional soldiers formed an important part of this army. The Moluccan community was thus regarded by the Dutch as allies and vice versa. The government of the Netherlands had promised them that they would get their own free state in return for assisting the Netherlands. After international efforts could not support the Netherlands to maintain its colony, the Dutch government could no longer keep its promise to the Moluccans for a free state. The Moluccans, who were seen by the Indonesians as collaborators, had to go to the Netherlands. Moluccans who served in the command of KNIL would reside temporarily in the Netherlands. The Moluccans were then housed in camps in the Netherlands, including the former Westerbork transit camp.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6b0ie4
|
how does the bar exam work and who governs it?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the United States, each individual state has its own bar exam, and it is generally administered under the authority of the state's highest court. For example, the Illinois bar exam is administered by the Illinois Board of Admissions to the Bar (IBAB), and IBAB is seven lawyers appointed by the Illinois Supreme Court. New York has the New York State Board of Law Examiners, which is five lawyers appointed by the New York Court of Appeals (New York's highest court).\n\nPassing the bar exam is generally a requirement for becoming licensed to practice law in that state, but there are other requirements, too, such as graduating from law school, and passing an extra-detailed background check, which may be called a \"character and fitness\" evaluation.\n\nState laws vary, so most states have a unique set of questions for at least part of their exams. However, there is also a \"Uniform Bar Exam\", which some states use part or all of. Bar exams can take an entire day, or even multiple days.\n\nIf you pass the state's bar exam, and your application shows you meet all of the other requirements, you can be sworn in as an attorney and practice law.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bar exam is governed by the person with the least teeth in the bar. It's preferable he have a powdered wig. (to cover the syphilis scars, obviously)\n\nHow it works is thus: if someone wants to pass the exam, they must order the jeager bomb plus a round for the mates. If they can finish without sicking up on the bar floor, the governor (that is, the person with the least teeth), approves their admittance, and they may order as they desire; however, if they sick up, the governor oversees that they mop up, and they are then only allowed to order low-proof beers from then on.\n\nThere are rules on how often they can try to take the bar (known as \"sitting for the bar\"), among other things - but at this point we're just getting into semantics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "168902",
"title": "Attorneys in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Training and accreditation.:Bar examinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "The bar examination in most U.S. states and territories is at least two days long (a few states have three-day exams). It consists of essay questions, usually testing knowledge of the state's own law (usually subjects such as wills, trusts and community property, which always vary from one state to another). Some jurisdictions choose to use the Multistate Essay Examination (MEE), drafted by the NCBE since 1988, for this purpose. Others may draft their own questions with this goal in mind, while some states both draft their own questions and use the MEE. Some jurisdictions administer complicated questions that specifically test knowledge of that state's law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2491035",
"title": "Lawyers in Poland",
"section": "Section::::Admission to practice law.:Bar training (\"aplikacja\").\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Bar training for advocates and attorneys at law lasts for three years and consists of theoretical and practical classes. Each trainee () has his/her individual tutor, who must be a practitioner from the respective bar. Bar examination is a written exam which lasts 4 days and consists of preparing various documents and briefs in following areas: criminal law, civil or family law, commercial law, administrative law, ethics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22972856",
"title": "Bar review",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "A bar review is a series of classes that most law school graduates in the United States attend prior to taking a bar examination, in order to prepare for that exam. A typical bar review course will last for several weeks, beginning a few weeks after law school graduation and running until a few weeks before the next administration of the bar examination. \"A full service bar review course prepares a student for both portions of a state's bar examination: multistate and state law. A supplemental bar review course prepares a student for only one portion of a state's bar examination\". Classes may be held in person, online, or with prerecorded material delivered to the student.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219509",
"title": "Law school in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Accreditation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "To sit for the bar exam, the vast majority of state bar associations requires that an applicant's law school be accredited by the American Bar Association. The ABA has promulgated detailed requirements covering every aspect of a law school, down to the precise contents of the law library and the minimum number of minutes of instruction required to receive a law degree. , there are 205 ABA-accredited law schools that award the J.D., divided between 200 with full accreditation and 5 with provisional accreditation. The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School in Charlottesville, Virginia, a school operated by the United States Army that conducts a post-J.D. program for military attorneys, is also ABA-accredited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "624905",
"title": "Bar examination",
"section": "Section::::Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Administering bar exams is the responsibility of the bar association in the particular state or territory concerned. Those interested in pursuing a career at the bar must first be admitted as lawyers in the Supreme Court of their home state or territory. This generally requires the completion of legal studies which can take up to 8 years depending on the mode of study, the particular degree being completed and the law school. After completing a law degree, law graduates are then usually required to complete a period of Practical Legal Training (PLT).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235222",
"title": "Admission to the bar in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Character and fitness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "When applying to take a state's bar examination, applicants are required to complete extensive questionnaires seeking the disclosure of significant personal, financial and professional information. For example, in Virginia, each applicant must complete a 24-page questionnaire and may appear before a committee for an interview if the committee initially rejects their application. The same is true in the State of Maryland, and in many other jurisdictions, where the state's supreme court has the ultimate authority to determine whether an applicant will be admitted to the bar. In completing the bar application, and at all stages of this process, honesty is paramount. An applicant who fails to disclose material facts, no matter how embarrassing or problematic, will greatly jeopardize the applicant’s chance of practicing law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3187162",
"title": "Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state)",
"section": "Section::::Bar admissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "The Office of Bar Admissions is an administrative arm of the Supreme Court that is responsible for implementing the rules for admission. That Office assists two separate boards appointed by the Supreme Court. The Board to Determine Fitness of Bar Applicants handles \"character and fitness\" issues, inquiring into a candidate's \"honesty, trustworthiness, diligence, [and] reliability\" to determine fitness to practice law. The Board of Bar Examiners administers and grades the state's bar examination each February and July. Subject to educational and other criteria, the boards will certify for admission candidates who meet the character and fitness requirements and pass both the bar examination and the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination. Candidates may then obtain admission to the Bar by appearing in superior court, and then separately seek admission to the Court of Appeals and the Supreme Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2x5aps
|
Is it possible to estimate the cost of constructing one of the great pyramids (adjusting for inflation)? If so, how expensive of a project was it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ancient Egypt didn't have a monetary system until 2000 years after the pyramid's construction so it is probably better to use work hours and the cost of employing workers as a comparison, especially because the value of today's money is heavily warped compared to a barter system.\n\n--------------------------------\n**How many people worked on the Great Pyramid?**\n\nExcavation of the pyramid town south of the Sphinx have revealed galleries that could house about 4000 workers. At the start of the construction however it is likely that several more thousand workers were hired to clear the perimeter of sand and smooth the bedrock, and complete the first few layers of the pyramid.\n\nTo provide for those workers a brigade of tailors, bakers, sandal- and wig makers, butchers, and many other people that transported or provided goods and helped logistically.\n\nWorkers were well cared for, and received benefits such as:\n\nMedial care, tax exemptions, cloths and housing, food for their families, usually 1 day off per week (5 day weeks), beer (which was a very common drink with low alcohol content), beef (cows had to be imported from other parts of the country), wigs, makeup, all kinds of fruit and vegetables and of course bread, amongst other things.\n\nAll in all most of the time about 6000-8000 people worked directly or indirectly on the monument's construction.\n\n--------------------------------\n**How long did it take?**\n\nThe Great Pyramid was not the only thing being constructed by those workers. A mortuary temple and a valley temple with a harbor had to be built with a causeway of several hundred meters connecting them. In addition 3 Queen's Pyramids, a satellite pyramid, 12 mastabas that were later joined and expanded to 8 twin-mastabas and giant perimeter walls had to be built as well.\n\nThe majority of stones was local limestone that came from the east side of the plateau, only a few hundred meters away from the pyramid. Under 1% was hardstone such as basalt and granite that was imported from upper Egypt and the rest, the white limestone was imported from Tura in the north-east. \n\nIn total about 2.5 million m³ of local limestone had to be quarried and transported. In contrast to popular believe the vast majority of those stones were not neatly cut, square blocks but stones of all sizes and shapes. We know this because Vyse blasted a hole into the south side of the pyramid. \n\nTo cut (mostly stone tools were used) and transport 1m³ of the local stone approximately 40-80 work hours had to be spent depending on the stone and location (2 people quarrying for a day, 2 trips á 1 hour with a 10 man team to transport).\n\nIncluding the other stones it would have taken 150,000,000-200,000,000 work hours to complete the pyramid and the adjacent buildings.\n\nWe don't know how many people only worked seasonally and how many all year, so completing the pyramid would have taken between 10 and 20 years with an average of 5000 workers (assuming 10 hour days, 150 or 300 days of work a year).\n\n----------------------------------\n**How much did it cost compared to today?**\n\nOnly a few percent of the workers had to be highly skilled (architects, stonemasons, foremen, etc.) but most workers were well cared for (even by today's standards).\n\nSince it was a royal project the Pharaoh didn't have to pay for land and most resources but they still have a value. To translate that value to modern money is difficult however since goods like grain can not be stored and easily exchanged as money on a bank account can.\n\nBut to put a price on it: Assuming 5% of the workers were highly paid: 50$/h and the rest moderately well: 20$/h it would cost around **5 billion dollars** to pay for ~200 million construction work hours and the people providing for them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12224",
"title": "Great Pyramid of Giza",
"section": "Section::::Materials.:Construction theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1-to-1 scale. He writes that \"such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means\". He also argues for a 14-year time-span for its construction. A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4421551",
"title": "Kurt Mendelssohn",
"section": "Section::::The Pyramid Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Building of the Great Pyramids must have required a large workforce. Considering the state of perfection these pyramids show, a decisive amount of this workforce must have been highly trained professionals. Furthermore, due to the geometrical constraints, the higher a pyramid grows, the fewer people are able to work on it. If the pyramids were built independently of each other and at distinct times, it would have been necessary to assemble and train the workforce for each building and lay them off as the work continued. According to Mendelssohn, as soon as a pyramid had reached about half its final size, work started on the successor to alleviate this problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3245297",
"title": "Egyptian pyramid construction techniques",
"section": "Section::::Great Pyramid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1182,
"text": "A construction management study carried out by the firm Daniel, Mann, Johnson, & Mendenhall in association with Mark Lehner, and other Egyptologists, estimates that the total project required an average workforce of 14,567 people and a peak workforce of 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis to suggest the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years. Their study estimates the number of blocks used in construction was between 2 and 2.8 million (an average of 2.4 million), but settles on a reduced finished total of 2 million after subtracting the estimated volume of the hollow spaces of the chambers and galleries. Most sources agree on this number of blocks somewhere above 2.3 million. Their calculations suggest the workforce could have sustained a rate of 180 blocks per hour (3 blocks/minute) with ten-hour work days for putting each individual block in place. They derived these estimates from modern third-world construction projects that did not use modern machinery, but conclude it is still unknown exactly how the Great Pyramid was built. As Dr. Craig Smith of the team points out:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9232",
"title": "Eiffel Tower",
"section": "Section::::Replicas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "In 2011, the TV show \"Pricing the Priceless\" on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full-size replica of the tower would cost approximately US$480 million to build. This would be more than ten times the cost of the original (nearly 8 million in 1890 Francs; ~US$40 million in 2018 dollars).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "112441",
"title": "Bedford, Indiana",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Bedford received $500,000 in grants from the federal government to build a ten-story replica of the Great Pyramid of Giza out of local limestone; however, the work was never completed, despite a further $125,000 being allocated to finish it. An 800-foot limestone replica of the Great Wall of China was also built. Construction took place in 1981 and cost $200,000. Construction on the main pyramid ceased in 1982.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45677224",
"title": "Metropolitan Sepulchre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The pyramid would have been faced with granite blocks, and had flights of stairs on every side, leading to an obelisk and astronomical observatory at the pyramid's peak. The project would have cost around £7 million. It was never built, and the need for it was supplanted by the creation of a ring of \"garden cemeteries\" around London.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12527374",
"title": "History of construction",
"section": "Section::::Iron Age construction.:Ancient Egypt.:Achievements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bvvh1
|
if i rinse out a dish right after using it and there's nothing on it, is it fully clean or do i still need to use soap?
|
[
{
"answer": "Clean is a state of mind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Come on, man. Soap.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263286",
"title": "Dishwashing liquid",
"section": "Section::::Primary uses.:Hand dishwashing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Hand dishwashing detergents utilize surfactants to play the primary role in cleaning. The reduced surface tension of dishwashing water, and increasing solubility of modern surfactant mixtures, allows the water to run off the dishes in a dish rack very quickly. However, most people also rinse the dishes with pure water to make sure to get rid of any soap residue that could affect the taste of the food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "Section::::Design elements.:Cleanliness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Because of their association with hand washing and hygiene, soap dishes themselves are often the focus of cleanliness. To aid in cleanup, some self-draining soap dishes are designed to allow soapy residue to collect in a compartment below the raised bar of soap. Other such soap dishes funnel the soapy reside directly to the adjacent sink or bathtub, necessitating strategic placement of the soap dish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "A soap dish is a shallow, open container or platform where a bar of soap may be placed to dry after use. Soap dishes are usually located in or near a sink, shower, or bathtub. Most soap dishes are made from waterproof materials such as plastic, ceramic, metal, or glass, though some are made from bamboo. A china saucer or sponge may serve as a soap dish. A soap dish accommodates bar soap, whereas a soap dispenser accommodates liquid soap or foam soap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651576",
"title": "Dishwashing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Dishwashing or dish washing, also known as washing up, is the process of cleaning cooking utensils, dishes, cutlery and other items to prevent foodborne illness. This is either achieved by hand in a sink using dishwashing detergent or by using a dishwasher and may take place in a kitchen, utility room, scullery or elsewhere. In Britain to do the washing up also includes to dry and put away. There are cultural divisions over rinsing and drying after washing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263286",
"title": "Dishwashing liquid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Dishwashing liquid (BrE: washing-up liquid), known as dishwashing soap, dish detergent and dish soap, is a detergent used to assist in dishwashing. It is usually a highly-foaming mixture of surfactants with low skin irritation, and is primarily used for hand washing of glasses, plates, cutlery, and cooking utensils in a sink or bowl. In addition to its primary use, dishwashing liquid also has various informal applications, such as for creating bubbles, clothes washing and cleaning oil-affected birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23902228",
"title": "Soap dish",
"section": "Section::::Design elements.:Placement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Most soap dishes are standalone accessories whose placement is at the user's discretion, though some are a built-in feature of a sink, shower, or bathtub. Standalone soap dishes may be entirely portable or may include options for semi-permanent or permanent installation on a horizontal or vertical surface. Locating a soap dish outside the perimeter of a faucet's or showerhead's stream helps the soap to avoid excess erosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263286",
"title": "Dishwashing liquid",
"section": "Section::::Primary uses.:Hand dishwashing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Hand dishwashing is generally performed in the absence of a dishwashing machine, when large \"hard-to-clean\" items are present, or through preference. Some dishwashing liquids can harm household silver, fine glassware, anything with gold leaf, disposable plastics, and any objects made of brass, bronze, cast iron, pewter, tin, or wood, especially when combined with hot water and the action of a dishwasher. When dishwashing liquid is used on such objects it is intended that they be washed by hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yul55
|
What is the cost of the extinction of individual species?
|
[
{
"answer": "Answering that question requires two other questions be answered: \"How important is the niche this organism is in?\" and \"How well can other animals fill in that niche?\" Many species are more critical to the survival of an ecosystem than others. For instance, in the Southern US gopher tortoises are suffering huge losses, and as a result many other small ground-dwelling animals are also suffering, because gopher tortoise burrows were used by a variety of them for shelter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No expert just an observation:\n\nLets take a look at the Puma. It once dominated North America. Humans come and kill most of them on the grounds that they're dangerous to humans and our livestock. Wolves could also be included in this as both have been hunted to near extinction.\n\nNow every fall deer hunters go out into to the woods to 'thin out' the deer population and they say its more humane than letting the deer starve over winter.\n\ntl;dr something has to fill the niche in ecosystem",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1765998",
"title": "Wildlife conservation",
"section": "Section::::Species conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "It's estimated that, because of human activities, current species extinction rates are about 1000 times greater than the background extinction rate (the 'normal' extinction rate that occurs without additional influence) . According to the IUCN, out of all species assessed, over 27,000 are at risk of extinction and should be under conservation. Of these, 25% are mammals, 14% are birds, and 40% are amphibians. However, because not all species have been assessed, these numbers could be even higher. A 2019 UN report assessing global biodiversity extrapolated IUCN data to all species and estimated that 1 million species worldwide could face extinction. Yet, because resources are limited, sometimes it's not possible to give all species that need conservation due consideration. Deciding which species to conserve is a function of how close to extinction a species is, whether the species is crucial to the ecosystem it resides in, and how much we care about it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1466225",
"title": "Allee effect",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Human induced.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "Classic economic theory predicts that human exploitation of a population is unlikely to result in species extinction because the escalating costs to find the last few individuals will exceed the fixed price one achieves by selling the individuals on the market. However, when rare species are more desirable than common species, prices for rare species can exceed high harvest costs. This phenomenon can create an \"anthropogenic\" Allee effect where rare species go extinct but common species are sustainably harvested. The anthropogenic Allee effect has become a standard approach for conceptualizing the threat of economic markets on endangered species. However, the original theory was posited using a one dimensional analysis of a two dimensional model. It turns out that a two dimensional analysis yields an Allee curve in human exploiter and biological population space and that this curve separating species destined to extinction vs persistence can be complicated. Even very high population sizes can potentially pass through the originally proposed Allee thresholds on predestined paths to extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3345164",
"title": "Pteropus",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Conservation status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Over half of the species are threatened today with extinction, and in particular in the Pacific, a number of species have died out as a result of hunting, deforestation, and predation by invasive species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20110668",
"title": "Endangered species",
"section": "Section::::Endangered species in the United States.:Endangered Species Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "Currently, 1,556 known species in the world have been identified as near extinction or endangered and are under protection by government law. This approximation, however, does not take into consideration the number of species threatened with endangerment that are not included under the protection of such laws as the Endangered Species Act. According to NatureServe's global conservation status, approximately thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are considered imperiled. Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen percent of the United States' known animals, fungi and plants are near extinction. This total is substantially more than the number of species protected in the United States under the Endangered Species Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45086",
"title": "Biodiversity",
"section": "Section::::The Holocene extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 196,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 196,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Rates of decline in biodiversity in this sixth mass extinction match or exceed rates of loss in the five previous mass extinction events in the fossil record. Loss of biodiversity results in the loss of natural capital that supplies ecosystem goods and services. From the perspective of the method known as Natural Economy the economic value of 17 ecosystem services for Earth's biosphere (calculated in 1997) has an estimated value of US$33 trillion (3.3x10) per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31026536",
"title": "Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals",
"section": "Section::::Extinction or extirpation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "According to Stuart L. Pimm and his coauthors, human actions have raised species extinction or extirpation rates to three orders of magnitude above their natural, background rates. Pimm says that \"[Scientists] predict that 400 to 500 of the worlds 8500 landbird species will go extinct by 2100 with a warming estimate of 2.8 degrees Celsius. A further 2150 species will be at risk of extinction\" (Pimm 2009).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28302783",
"title": "Not evaluated",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "By 2015 the IUCN had assessed and allocated conservation statuses to over 76,000 species worldwide. From these it had categorised some 24,000 species as globally threatened at one conservation level or another. However, despite estimates varying widely as to the number of species existing on Earth (ranging from 3 million up to 30 million), this means the IUCN's 'not evaluated' (NE) category is by far the largest of all nine extinction risk categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ariqqp
|
how likely is it that earth is the only planet with living beings, and that humans are the only species that have the intelligence to speak, create, develop etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "We have no good way to calculate those odds. However there are strong indications that the universe is infinite in extent so even if the development of life is vanishingly unlikely it is basically certain that it has happened somewhere else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably very unlikely. Based entirely on the “ i sure hope this isn’t it” mentality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mathematically it is virtually impossible that we are the only planet with life. It is also extremely unlikely for us to be the only planet with intelligent life, even if only 1 in a billion planets with life develop to the state of intelligence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No science behind this just a lot of weed:\n\nRealistically chances are low we are the ONLY living intelligent beings out there. It's very possible they haven't figured out how to make it to us the same way we haven't worked out making it to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We don't really have great way to actually put a number to it, but the general consensus among scientists is that it's essentially a certainty that there *is* other intelligent life out there. Based on our current knowledge of exoplanets, it's estimated there as many as *40 billion* Earth-like planets in our galaxy alone, and at absolutely minimum, 176 billion galaxies in the observable universe (although actually estimates put the number at an astounding 2 trillion). There's nothing special about life on Earth as far as we can tell, so the odds of it not happening somewhere else in the trillions upon trillions of other worlds out there is just mind-bogglingly infinitesimal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is highly unlikely that we are the only intelligent sentient species in the universe. However given the size of the universe, it is highly improbable that we will run into another intelligent sentient species. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many animals on our planet can mimic. Universally the void is so large and the speed mass can travel is very small. Even the constant speed of light (The fastest we could possibly send a signal) is well beyond our lives. We just live too short and travel so slow to be interacting with other life. Robots (Whom I'd consider life) will very well be patient enough to contact other civilizations and more likely other robots from those civilizations in stead. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "odds are we just so happen to be out in the boonies of our star cluster almost like being an undiscovered tribe in the middle of the rainforest ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11579",
"title": "Fermi paradox",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:Intelligent alien species lack advanced technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "It may be that while alien species with intelligence exist, they are primitive or have not reached the level of technological advancement necessary to communicate. Along with non-intelligent life, such civilizations would be also very difficult for us to detect, short of a visit by a probe, a trip that would take hundreds of thousands of years with current technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11579",
"title": "Fermi paradox",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:No other intelligent species have arisen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "It is possible that even if complex life is common, intelligence (and consequently civilizations) is not. While there are remote sensing techniques that could perhaps detect life-bearing planets without relying on the signs of technology, none of them has any ability to tell if any detected life is intelligent. This is sometimes referred to as the \"algae vs. alumnae\" problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "908185",
"title": "List of races and species in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Races.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1077,
"text": "Humans are bipedal creatures from Earth, and the third most intelligent species on that planet, surpassed only by mice and dolphins. Originally thought to have evolved from proto-apes, humans may in fact be descendants of Golgafrinchan telephone sanitizers, account executives, and marketing analysts who were tricked out of leaving their home planet to arrive on the planet ca. two million BC. These Golgafrinchans apparently displaced the indigenous cavemen as the organic components in the computer designed by Deep Thought, since a distorted vestige of the Ultimate Question remained (or developed) in the brains of the descendants of the Golgafrinchans—the new human colonizers of the planet, whose very presence slowly killed off the original, primitive version of mankind. Marvin said he could see the Ultimate Question printed in Arthur's brainwaves. Many of the Golgafrinchans died out during their first winter on prehistoric Earth, but several others built rafts and set out for more temperate climes. As Arthur mused, \"History says they must have survived . . . .\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11579",
"title": "Fermi paradox",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:They are too alien.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Another possibility is that human theoreticians have underestimated how much alien life might differ from that on Earth. Aliens may be psychologically unwilling to attempt to communicate with human beings. Perhaps human mathematics is parochial to Earth and not shared by other life, though others argue this can only apply to abstract math since the math associated with physics must be similar (in results, if not in methods).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1298894",
"title": "Time in Advance",
"section": "Section::::Contents.:\"Firewater\".:Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "The Earth is visited by large, enigmatic alien spheres, who take up residence in colonies on several prairies and deserts across the world. They make visits to cities, factories and other areas of human activity, seemingly to merely float and observe. All attempts at communication are unsuccessful and despite the best efforts of mankind, no one is able to decipher their intentions. Some, however, have come in to close encounter with the aliens, and emerged dramatically altered beings. These people, called humanity-prime, and dubbed 'primeys', are highly intelligent, can bend matter to their will, but are also, by human standards, quite, quite mad. Algernon Hebster is a highly successful businessman, owing mostly to his dealings with primeys, who supply him with the knowledge for advanced technologies which he puts to use in commerce. The problem is that primeys are so dangerous that dealing with them is highly illegal and every attempt is made to confine them to the reservations around their perceived alien masters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::General.:Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "A study published in 2017 suggests that due to how complexity evolved in species on Earth, the level of predictability for alien evolution elsewhere would make them look similar to life on our planet. One of the study authors, Sam Levin, notes \"Like humans, we predict that they are made-up of a hierarchy of entities, which all cooperate to produce an alien. At each level of the organism there will be mechanisms in place to eliminate conflict, maintain cooperation, and keep the organism functioning. We can even offer some examples of what these mechanisms will be.\" There is also research in assessing the capacity of life for developing intelligence. It has been suggested that this capacity arises with the number of potential niches a planet contains, and that the complexity of life itself is reflected in the information density of planetary environments, which in turn can be computed from its niches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11579",
"title": "Fermi paradox",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:Intelligent alien species lack advanced technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "To skeptics, the fact that in the history of life on the Earth only one species has developed a civilization to the point of being capable of spaceflight and radio technology lends more credence to the idea that technologically advanced civilizations are rare in the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7vd9qs
|
what is mthfr gene mutation?
|
[
{
"answer": "The MTHFR gene has the instructions for the body to build an enzyme with a really long name. An enzyme is a protein that helps the body perform chemical reactions. This particular enzyme helps make methionine, one of the building blocks of proteins, and helps the body to use vitamin B9 (also known as folic acid). \n\nA genetic mutation is when the gene's instructions are different from that of the regular version of the gene. In other words, the instructions are misspelled. Mutated genes often cause the body to make less effective versions of the corresponding protein. In MTHFR's case, this means that the body produces enzymes that aren't great at making methionine and utilizing vitamin B9.\n\nThere are multiple medical problems that can result from MTHFR mutations, including increased risk of blood clots and birth defects of the nervous system. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334933",
"title": "Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.:C677T SNP (AlaVal).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The MTHFR nucleotide at position 677 in the gene has two possibilities: C (cytosine) or T (thymine). C at position 677 (leading to an alanine at amino acid 222) is the normal allele. The 677T allele (leading to a valine substitution at amino acid 222) encodes a thermolabile enzyme with reduced activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334933",
"title": "Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.:A1298C SNP (GluAla).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "At nucleotide 1298 of the MTHFR, there are two possibilities: A or C. 1298A (leading to a Glu at amino acid 429) is the most common while 1298C (leading to an Ala substitution at amino acid 429) is less common. 1298AA is the \"normal\" homozygous, 1298AC the heterozygous, and 1298CC the homozygous for the \"variant\". In studies of human recombinant MTHFR, the protein encoded by 1298C cannot be distinguished from 1298A in terms of activity, thermolability, FAD release, or the protective effect of 5-methyl-THF. The C mutation does not appear to affect the MTHFR protein. It does not result in thermolabile MTHFR and does not appear to affect homocysteine levels. It does, however, affect the conversion of MTHF to BH4 (tetrahydrobiopterin), an important cofactor in the production of neurotransmitters, and the synthesis of nitric oxide\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54209465",
"title": "Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "There are two common variants of MTHFR deficiency. In the more significant of the two, the individual is homologous for the 677T polymorphism. This variant in particular is the most common genetic cause of hyperhomocysteinemia. The resulting enzyme is thermolabile and in homozygotes, enzymatic activity is depressed to 35% of its usual level. The second variant is a milder one, caused by a homologous 1298C polymorphism. This leads to 68% of the control values of enzyme activity, and it normally does not lead to low serum folate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334933",
"title": "Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.:Severe MTHFR deficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Severe MTHFR deficiency is rare (about 50 cases worldwide) and caused by mutations resulting in 0–20% residual enzyme activity. Patients exhibit developmental delay, motor and gait dysfunction, seizures, and neurological impairment and have extremely high levels of homocysteine in their plasma and urine as well as low to normal plasma methionine levels. This deficiency and mutations in \"MTHFR\" have also been linked to recessive spastic paraparesis with complex I deficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54209465",
"title": "Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Whether MTHFR deficiency has any effect at all on all-cause mortality is unclear. One Dutch study showed that the MTHFR mutation was more prevalent in younger individuals (36% relative to 30%), and found that elderly men with MTHFR had an elevated mortality rate, attributable to cancer. Among women, however, no difference in life expectancy was seen. More recently, however, a meta-analysis has shown that overall cancer rates are barely increased with an odds ratio of 1.07, which suggests that an impact on mortality from cancer is small or zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14075596",
"title": "Hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "HNF-4α is a nuclear transcription factor that binds DNA as a homodimer. The encoded protein controls the expression of several genes, including hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 alpha, a transcription factor which regulates the expression of several hepatic genes. This gene plays a role in development of the , , and . Alternative splicing of this gene results in multiple transcript variants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9974763",
"title": "Aldolase B",
"section": "Section::::Pathology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "HFI is recessively inherited autosomal disorder. Approximately 30 mutations that cause HFI have been identified, and these combined mutations result in a HFI frequency of 1 in every 20,000 births. Mutant alleles are a result of a number different types of mutations including base pair substitutions and small deletions. The most common mutation is A149P, which is a guanine to cytosine transversion in exon 5, resulting in the replacement of alanine at position 149 with proline. This specific mutant allele is estimated to account for 53% of HFI alleles. Other mutations resulting in HFI are less frequent and often correlated with ancestral origins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24ajlu
|
the handicap hypothesis/principal in sexual selection
|
[
{
"answer": "Rich person wants to convince a potential mate that he/she is worth mating with. Rich person has so much money that they can afford to spend much of it on frivolous material goods that may actually decrease their ability to survive (dangerously fast car). This signals to a potential mate that they are exceptionally worth mating with.\n\nThe rich person is handicapping themselves (increased potential to die), but doing so in order to increase sexual desirability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880880",
"title": "Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1200,
"text": "Several mid-level evolutionary theories inform evolutionary psychology. The R/K selection theory proposes that some species prosper by having many offspring while others follow the strategy of having fewer offspring but investing much more in each one. Humans follow the second strategy. Parental investment theory explains how parents invest more or less in individual offspring based on how successful those offspring are likely to be, and thus how much they might improve the parents' inclusive fitness. According to the Trivers–Willard hypothesis, parents in good conditions tend to invest more in sons (who are best able to take advantage of good conditions), while parents in poor conditions tend to invest more in daughters (who are best able to have successful offspring even in poor conditions). According to life history theory, animals evolve life histories to match their environments, determining details such as age at first reproduction and number of offspring. Dual inheritance theory posits that genes and human culture have interacted, with genes affecting the development of culture and culture, in turn, affecting human evolution on a genetic level (see also the Baldwin effect).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9703",
"title": "Evolutionary psychology",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical foundations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1202,
"text": "Several mid-level evolutionary theories inform evolutionary psychology. The r/K selection theory proposes that some species prosper by having many offspring, while others follow the strategy of having fewer offspring but investing much more in each one. Humans follow the second strategy. Parental investment theory explains how parents invest more or less in individual offspring based on how successful those offspring are likely to be, and thus how much they might improve the parents' inclusive fitness. According to the Trivers–Willard hypothesis, parents in good conditions tend to invest more in sons (who are best able to take advantage of good conditions), while parents in poor conditions tend to invest more in daughters (who are best able to have successful offspring even in poor conditions). According to life history theory, animals evolve life histories to match their environments, determining details such as age at first reproduction and number of offspring. Dual inheritance theory posits that genes and human culture have interacted, with genes affecting the development of culture, and culture, in turn, affecting human evolution on a genetic level (see also the Baldwin effect).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1749496",
"title": "Parental investment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Parental investment theory, a term coined by Robert Trivers in 1972, predicts that the sex that invests more in its offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the less-investing sex will have intra-sexual competition for access to mates. This theory has been influential in explaining sex differences in sexual selection and mate preferences, throughout the animal kingdom and in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46692161",
"title": "Fecundity selection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Fecundity selection, also known as fertility selection, is the fitness advantage resulting from the preference of traits that increase the number of offspring (i.e. fecundity). Charles Darwin formulated the theory of fecundity selection between 1871 and 1874 to explain the widespread evolution of female-biased sexual size dimorphism (SSD), where females were larger than males. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59168504",
"title": "Developmental bias",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "In evolutionary biology, developmental bias refers to the production against or towards certain ontogenetic trajectories which ultimately influence the direction and outcome of evolutionary change by affecting the rates, magnitudes, directions and limits of trait evolution. Historically, the term was synonymized with developmental constraint, however, the latter has been more recently interpreted as referring solely to the negative role of development in evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19323362",
"title": "Age disparity in sexual relationships",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary perspective.:Evolutionary approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "The evolutionary approach, based on the theories of Charles Darwin, attempts to explain age disparity in sexual relationships in terms of natural selection and sexual selection. Within sexual selection Darwin identified a further two mechanisms which are important factors in the evolution of sex differences (sexual dimorphism): intrasexual selection (involve competition with those of the same sex over access to mates) and intersexual choice (discriminative choice of mating partners). An overarching evolutionary theory which can provide an explanation for the above mechanisms and strategies adopted by individuals which leads to age disparity in relationships is called Life History theory, which also includes Parental Investment Theory. Life History theory posits that individuals have to divide energy and resources between activities (as energy and resources devoted to one task cannot be used for another task) and this is shaped by natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26148127",
"title": "Monogyny",
"section": "Section::::Costs and benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "From a male standpoint, evolutionary theory suggests that the focus of mating is to enhance paternity in order to produce viable offspring. Therefore, sexual selection theory would suggest that a male should attempt to mate with several females. This means that if a male wants to ensure that he will be paternally successful, he should mate with more than one female. When the sex ratio is male biased, however, male monogamy (monogyny) would arise as a means of increasing paternity and producing offspring; in other words, if the setting contains a sex ratio of all male to one female, then monogyny would arise as a means to produce offspring. This model predicts that a male-biased sex ratio is required for monogyny to evolve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8kjboe
|
the significance of platonic solids, what makes them different from the other shapes?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are polygons (3D shapes made up of flat surfaces joined together) for which:\n\n* the faces are identical in shape and size\n\n* the faces are regular polygons (so all their angles equal and all their sides are equal)\n\n* the same number of faces meet at each vertex (corner) of the polygon\n\n* the polygon is convex (it doesn't have any indentations)\n\nThey are interesting because there are only five such polygons:\n\n1. Tetrahedron made up of four equilateral triangles\n\n2. Cube made up of six squares\n\n3. Octahedron made up of eight equilateral triangles\n\n4. Dodecahedron made up of twelve regular pentagons\n\n5. Icosahedron made up of twenty equilateral triangles",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45514081",
"title": "Rebecca Kamen",
"section": "Section::::Artworks.:\"The Platonic Solids\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "\"The Platonic Solids\" was inspired by Plato's conception of the five classical elements: earth, air, fire, water, and ether. In Plato's work \"Timaeus\" (ca. 350 BCE), the five forms of matter are related to elemental solids and shapes (the cube, the octahedron, the tetrahedron, the icosahedron, and the dodecahedron). In Kamen's work these regular polyhedra, created from fiberglass rods and sheets of mylar, are held against the larger plane of the wall, demonstrating \"tension and compression\". The work appeared in 2011 as part of the exhibit \"Elemental Matters: Artists Imagine Chemistry\", at the Chemical Heritage Foundation, Philadelphia, PA. It was accompanied by a sound component by bio-musician Susan Alexjander, \"Elements in Descending Order of Creation from Collapsing Stars\". The exhibit also included Kamen's sculpture \"Hydrogen, Helium, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulfur\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11870817",
"title": "Octacube (sculpture)",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.:Regular shapes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The Platonic solids are three-dimensional shapes with special, high, symmetry. They are the next step up in dimension from the two-dimensional regular polygons (squares, equilateral triangles, etc.). The five Platonic solids are the tetrahedron (4 faces), cube (6 faces), octahedron (8 faces), dodecahedron (12 faces), and icosahedron (20 faces). They have been known since the time of the Ancient Greeks and valued for their aesthetic appeal and philosophical, even mystical, import. (See also the \"Timaeus\", a dialogue of Plato.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208157",
"title": "3",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Three of the five Platonic solids have triangular faces – the tetrahedron, the octahedron, and the icosahedron. Also, three of the five Platonic solids have vertices where three faces meet – the tetrahedron, the hexahedron (cube), and the dodecahedron. Furthermore, only three different types of polygons comprise the faces of the five Platonic solids – the triangle, the square, and the pentagon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1847",
"title": "Archimedean solid",
"section": "Section::::Construction of Archimedean solids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1223,
"text": "The different Archimedean and Platonic solids can be related to each other using a handful of general constructions. Starting with a Platonic solid, truncation involves cutting away of corners. To preserve symmetry, the cut is in a plane perpendicular to the line joining a corner to the center of the polyhedron and is the same for all corners. Depending on how much is truncated (see table below), different Platonic and Archimedean (and other) solids can be created. If the truncation is exactly deep enough such that each pair of faces from adjacent vertices shares exactly one point, it is known as a rectification. An expansion, or cantellation, involves moving each face away from the center (by the same distance so as to preserve the symmetry of the Platonic solid) and taking the convex hull. Expansion with twisting also involves rotating the faces, thus splitting each rectangle corresponding to an edge into two triangles by one of the diagonals of the rectangle. The last construction we use here is truncation of both corners and edges. Ignoring scaling, expansion can also be viewed the rectification of the rectification. Likewise, the cantitruncation can be viewed as the truncation of the rectification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24513",
"title": "Platonic realism",
"section": "Section::::Universals.:Forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Platonic form can be illustrated by contrasting a material triangle with an ideal triangle. The Platonic form is the ideal triangle — a figure with perfectly drawn lines whose angles add to 180 degrees. Any form of triangle that we experience will be an imperfect representation of the ideal triangle. Regardless of how precise your measuring and drawing tools you will never be able to recreate this perfect shape. Even drawn to the point where our senses cannot perceive a defect, in its essence the shape will still be imperfect; forever unable to match the ideal triangle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756554",
"title": "Atomism",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Greek atomism.:Geometry and atoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "One part of that creation were the four simple bodies of fire, air, water, and earth. But Plato did not consider these corpuscles to be the most basic level of reality, for in his view they were made up of an unchanging level of reality, which was mathematical. These simple bodies were geometric solids, the faces of which were, in turn, made up of triangles. The square faces of the cube were each made up of four isosceles right-angled triangles and the triangular faces of the tetrahedron, octahedron, and icosahedron were each made up of six right-angled triangles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15428",
"title": "Idealism",
"section": "Section::::Classical idealism.:Platonism and neoplatonism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Plato's theory of forms or \"ideas\" describes ideal forms (for example the platonic solids in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as universals existing independently of any particular instance. Arne Grøn calls this doctrine \"the classic example of a metaphysical idealism as a \"transcendent\" idealism\", while Simone Klein calls Plato \"the earliest representative of metaphysical objective idealism\". Nevertheless, Plato holds that matter is real, though transitory and imperfect, and is perceived by our body and its senses and given existence by the eternal ideas that are perceived directly by our rational soul. Plato was therefore a metaphysical and epistemological dualist, an outlook that modern idealism has striven to avoid: Plato's thought cannot therefore be counted as idealist in the modern sense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b6alcn
|
Why do depictions of American Indians never show men with facial hair?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may be interested in the older post:\n\n * [Native Americans generally didn't have beards. Do we know what they thought of the bearded and mustachioed Europeans and their decedents?](_URL_0_)\n\nMany groups plucked facial hair, with wooden or shell or even bronze implements. Others apparently singed hair off. In some groups, certain types of people did not remove hair—people in mourning among the Yurok, or possibly the old among the Aztecs, to give two examples.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14204342",
"title": "Chief Zee",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Some consider Williams' portrayal of American Indians to have been offensive. His use of a stylized headdress was often referenced as the reason for offense, as the headdress is a sacred, central cultural item for many tribes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "Section::::Across populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "H. Harris, publishing in the \"British Journal of Dermatology\" in 1947, wrote American Indians have the least body hair, Chinese and black people have little body hair, white people have more body hair than blacks and Ainu have the most body hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40348966",
"title": "Le Grand Village Sauvage, Missouri",
"section": "Section::::Architecture and Community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The Shawnee and Delaware were attentive to dress, and the women wore their hair tied close to their heads and covered with skin. They were more careful of their children, more than associated with other Indians. They also cut the cartilages of their ears so as to lengthen them as much as possible, and suspended silver trinkets in the form of stars from their ears. On their necks they wore crosses, and on their heads they wore bands and crowns covered with spangles. They used great quantities of vermilion and black, with which they painted their bodies on festive days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224101",
"title": "Moustache",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "A traditional Indian belief is that a man's facial hair is a sign of his virility. This caused a problem during the time of British Raj in the 19th Century and, as a result, Indian moustaches had a profound effect on British facial hair. The British Army, who were clean shaven until that time, had difficulty maintaining authority among the Indian soldiers, who saw their officers' lack of a moustache, beard and sideburns as a lack of manliness. Eventually British officers began to cultivate moustaches and other facial hair to gain the respect of their troops. The trend of sporting a moustache spread quickly through the army and then back home amongst the general British civilian population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44727979",
"title": "Indian princess",
"section": "Section::::Media representation.:Common Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1222,
"text": "Indian Princesses are considered to be the idealized Indian woman. These women are commonly depicted with lighter skin and follow other European Beauty standards. Coward claims that Indian women who then follow this standard and show signs of a charming feminine beauty will become the woman that men lust after. Their characterization isolates them from typical Native American women and portrays them as an extension of their white counterparts. This emphasizes the “otherness” of Native American women who are considered to be squaw figures if they don't adopt these beauty regimes. The decision for Native American women to become an Indian Princess or squaw depends on their relationship with men. Squaws generally share the same vices given to Native American men, such as \"drunkenness, stupidity, thievery, venality of every kind\". The Indian Princess acts as a symbol of the success of these colonizers. The “otherness” of Native Americans is combatted when she acts as a medium between these two cultures. Scholars agree that Indian Princesses in media are portrayed as submissive, idealized supporting figures to the white hero. This sentiment is clearly evident in characters such as Pocahontas and Tiger Lily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48419213",
"title": "Cleveland Indians name and logo controversy",
"section": "Section::::Origin and significance of the name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "This point of view echos the position of the National Congress of American Indians, the oldest and largest organization representing enrolled tribal citizens in the United States: \"Often citing a long held myth by non-Native people that 'Indian' mascots 'honor Native people,' American sports businesses such as the NFL’s Washington 'Redskins' and Kansas City 'Chiefs', MLB’s Cleveland 'Indians' and Atlanta 'Braves', and the NHL’s Chicago Black Hawks, continue to profit from harmful stereotypes originated during a time when white superiority and segregation were common place.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3399844",
"title": "Cigar store Indian",
"section": "Section::::Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "People within the Native American community often view such likenesses as offensive for several reasons. Some objections are because they are used to promote tobacco use as recreational instead of ceremonial. Other objections are that they perpetuate a \"noble savage\" or \"Indian princess\" caricature or inauthentic stereotypes of Native people, implying that modern individuals \"are still living in tepees, that we still wear war bonnets and beads.\" drawing parallels to the African-American lawn jockey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jdfti
|
why drugs companies give half the people placebo's and half the people the actual drug when testing
|
[
{
"answer": "Lets say you give 10 people a new drug and 5 of them get better/improve, you might think that 50% of the people who take the drug get better. \n\nIf instead, you give 10 people the drug and 10 people a placebo and 5 people from each group get better, than you know that the drug isn't (neccessarily) causing the improvement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes people get better for other reasons than taking a drug. For instance because of their own immune systems, or because of the placebo effect. \n\nYou can assume that if you have two random groups of the same size, about the same amount of people are going to get better on their own, leaving the rest ill. Now if you give one group the drug and the other a fake drug, the actual effect of the drug will be the amount of people who got better in the \"real drug\" group minus the people in the \"fake drug\" group. \n\nIf you don't have the control group (which get fake drugs), it's possible than anyone that got better, did so for other reasons than the drug that was given to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be able to say that a drug actually causes a certain effect, you have to prove that the effect will not just occur on its own. So you give one group the drug and one group a fake. Neither group knows which group they are in, so they can't effect their own results based on their own knowledge. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say you have a headache. You could do nothing, take a pill, rub a racoon's belly, and eventually, your headache will probably go away.\n\nHow do you know if what you did fixed it?\n\nThe whole purpose of drug testing is to measure how much better than nothing the drug is.\n\nThe purpose of the placebo is to make sure neither the testers nor the patients now whether they got the drug. Knowing can alter the results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say you have a cold, and I want to know if my new drug will make you better.\n\nI give you the drug, and three days later you're better.\n\nYay, it worked!\n\nBut maybe you would have gotten better in three days if I hadn't given you the drug.\n\nSo i give some people the drug, and some people a sugar pill, and I tell everyone what I'm giving them.\n\nThree days later, the ones I give the drug to are fine, but it takes five days for the ones I gave the sugar pill to to get better.\n\nYay, it worked!\n\nBut maybe being told you are being given real medicine may have some bearing on how quickly you get better, even if the medicine really does nothing. This is actually true, and is called the placebo effect.\n\nSo I give everyone their pills, but I don't tell anyone what I'm giving them. This is called a single-blind trial, because the people getting the pills don't know what they are getting, so the placebo effect is ruled out.\n\nThere is a problem with this though, which is that I know what I'm giving them, so maybe I smile more when I give the real drug, and tend to ignore the people I give the sugar pills to. Who knows?\n\nSo I have someone else give out the drugs, and they have no idea which are the drugs and which are the sugar pills.\n\nIf the drug performs much better than the sugar pills, there is not much reason to assume that it was anything other than the drug that caused the patients to get better more quickly.\n\nThis is called a double-blind trial, because both the people being given the pills and those giving out the pills are \"blind\" to what is in them.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lets say you give 10 people a new drug and 5 of them get better/improve, you might think that 50% of the people who take the drug get better. \n\nIf instead, you give 10 people the drug and 10 people a placebo and 5 people from each group get better, than you know that the drug isn't (neccessarily) causing the improvement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes people get better for other reasons than taking a drug. For instance because of their own immune systems, or because of the placebo effect. \n\nYou can assume that if you have two random groups of the same size, about the same amount of people are going to get better on their own, leaving the rest ill. Now if you give one group the drug and the other a fake drug, the actual effect of the drug will be the amount of people who got better in the \"real drug\" group minus the people in the \"fake drug\" group. \n\nIf you don't have the control group (which get fake drugs), it's possible than anyone that got better, did so for other reasons than the drug that was given to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be able to say that a drug actually causes a certain effect, you have to prove that the effect will not just occur on its own. So you give one group the drug and one group a fake. Neither group knows which group they are in, so they can't effect their own results based on their own knowledge. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say you have a headache. You could do nothing, take a pill, rub a racoon's belly, and eventually, your headache will probably go away.\n\nHow do you know if what you did fixed it?\n\nThe whole purpose of drug testing is to measure how much better than nothing the drug is.\n\nThe purpose of the placebo is to make sure neither the testers nor the patients now whether they got the drug. Knowing can alter the results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's say you have a cold, and I want to know if my new drug will make you better.\n\nI give you the drug, and three days later you're better.\n\nYay, it worked!\n\nBut maybe you would have gotten better in three days if I hadn't given you the drug.\n\nSo i give some people the drug, and some people a sugar pill, and I tell everyone what I'm giving them.\n\nThree days later, the ones I give the drug to are fine, but it takes five days for the ones I gave the sugar pill to to get better.\n\nYay, it worked!\n\nBut maybe being told you are being given real medicine may have some bearing on how quickly you get better, even if the medicine really does nothing. This is actually true, and is called the placebo effect.\n\nSo I give everyone their pills, but I don't tell anyone what I'm giving them. This is called a single-blind trial, because the people getting the pills don't know what they are getting, so the placebo effect is ruled out.\n\nThere is a problem with this though, which is that I know what I'm giving them, so maybe I smile more when I give the real drug, and tend to ignore the people I give the sugar pills to. Who knows?\n\nSo I have someone else give out the drugs, and they have no idea which are the drugs and which are the sugar pills.\n\nIf the drug performs much better than the sugar pills, there is not much reason to assume that it was anything other than the drug that caused the patients to get better more quickly.\n\nThis is called a double-blind trial, because both the people being given the pills and those giving out the pills are \"blind\" to what is in them.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53918629",
"title": "Evolutionary models of human drug use",
"section": "Section::::Sexual selection hypothesis.:Costly Signaling.:Advertising biological quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Researchers suggest that because variation in drug use susceptibility is in part due to genetic factors, drug consumption could potentially be a costly and honest signal of biological quality. The hypothesis being that humans engage in substance use despite health costs in part to evidence that they can afford to do so. To test the effects substance use had on indicators of mating success researchers tested the effect an individual's fluctuating asymmetry had on the propensity/likelihood to use drugs and found no significant results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "137986",
"title": "Harm reduction",
"section": "Section::::Drugs.:Psychedelics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Drugs such as MDMA (commonly sold by the slang names \"ecstasy\" and \"molly\") are often adulterated. One harm reduction approach is drug checking, where people intending to use drugs can have their substances tested for content and purity so that they can then make more informed decisions about safer consumption. European organisations have offered drug checking services since 1992 and these services now operate in over twenty countries. As an example, the nonprofit organization DanceSafe offers on-site testing of the contents of pills and powders at various electronic music events around the US. They also sell kits for users to test the contents of drugs themselves. PillReports.com invites ecstasy users to send samples of drugs for laboratory testing and publishes the results online.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49569",
"title": "Bayes' theorem",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Drug testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Even if an individual tests positive, it is more likely that they do not use the drug than that they do. This is because the number of non-users is large compared to the number of users. The number of false positives outweighs the number of true positives. For example, if 1000 individuals are tested, there are expected to be 995 non-users and 5 users. From the 995 non-users, 0.01 × 995 ≃ 10 false positives are expected. From the 5 users, 0.99 × 5 ≈ 5 true positives are expected. Out of 15 positive results, only 5 are genuine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60367555",
"title": "Opioid epidemic",
"section": "Section::::Outside North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Approximately 80 percent of the global pharmaceutical opioid supply is consumed in the United States. It has also become a serious problem outside the U.S., mostly among young adults. The concern not only relates to the drugs themselves, but to the fact that in many countries doctors are less trained about drug addiction, both about its causes or treatment. According to an epidemiologist at Columbia University: \"Once pharmaceuticals start targeting other countries and make people feel like opioids are safe, we might see a spike [in opioid abuse]. It worked here. Why wouldn't it work elsewhere?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1274833",
"title": "Adverse drug reaction",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "In the U.S., females had a higher rate of ADEs involving opiates and narcotics than males in 2011, while male patients had a higher rate of anticoagulant ADEs. Nearly 8 in 1,000 adults aged 65 years or older experienced one of the four most common ADEs (steroids, antibiotics, opiates/narcotics, and anticoagulants) during hospitalization. A study showed that 48% of patients had an adverse drug reaction to at least one drug, and pharmacist involvement helps to pick up adverse drug reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57266384",
"title": "Drug checking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Drug checking or pill testing, as it is known in the Southern Hemisphere, is a way to reduce the harm from drug consumption by allowing users to find out the content and purity of substances that they intend to consume. This empowers users to make safer choices: to avoid more dangerous substances, to use smaller quantities, and to avoid dangerous combinations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56103154",
"title": "Discrimination against drug addicts",
"section": "Section::::Motivational patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Drugs (especially opioids and stimulants) can change the motivational patterns of a person and lead to desocialization and degradation of personality. Acquisition of the drugs some times involves black market activities and leads to criminal social circle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
375ujs
|
the science behind the charlie charlie pencil game
|
[
{
"answer": "The kid off camera to the right is blowing slightly, moving the pencil. Try it yourself, it takes very little wind to move the pencil. You can tell because they never show anybody in frame when the pencil is moving.\n\nThis is really no different than the telekinesis trick James Hydrick used to make pencils move back in the eighties.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gravity pushes down on the crossed pencils, zeroing out the normal force pushing from below. There is also a very slight amount of friction between the pencils, just waiting to be overcome, breaking the tenuous equilibrium between the three forces. Any variable vector force (I.e. Wind blowing, someone breathing, the pencils naturally shifting, air pressure changes, etc) will break that equilibrium, forcing the pencil on top to rotate and/or fall.\n\nAs a science teacher I am so sick of this stupid game that could easily be explained by the exact forces my distracted students are SUPPOSED to be learning about.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46826545",
"title": "Charlie Charlie challenge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The Charlie Charlie challenge is a modern incarnation of the Spanish paper-and-pencil game called \"Juego de la Lapicera\" (Pencil Game). Like a Magic 8-Ball, the game is played by teenagers using held or balanced pencils to produce answers to questions they ask. Teenage girls have played \"Juego de la Lapicera\" for generations in Spain and Hispanic America, asking which boys in their class like them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46826545",
"title": "Charlie Charlie challenge",
"section": "Section::::Game.:Two pencils.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The two pencil game involves crossing two pens or pencils to create a grid (with sectors labelled \"yes\" and \"no\") and then asking questions to a \"supernatural entity\" named \"Charlie.\" The upper pencil is then expected to rotate to indicate the answer to such questions. The first question everyone asks by speaking into the pencils is \"can we play?\" or \"are you here?\" or \"are you there?\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26433137",
"title": "Pie in the Sky (game engine)",
"section": "Section::::Games.:Windows Developers.:Pencil Whipped.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "\"Pencil Whipped\", released in 2001, might be the most well known of the \"Pie in the Sky\" games and one of the only ones to utilize a later version of the engine. The game won developer Lonnie Flickinger (aka Chiselbrain Software) a chance at the $15,000 Seumas McNally Grand Prize and awards for technical excellence, game design, visual art, and audio. Based on a strange dream Flickinger had, the game became known for its unique black and white pencil drawn world and for its wider novelty value, being described by Wired.com as \"like being trapped inside a very disturbed child's drawing.\" In 2006 work was done towards a sequel on using The Game Creators tools, and more recently work has been done on an iPhone remake called \"Escape From Big Ass Castle,\" which was originally released in 2012 for ios6 on the iPhone, but has been taken off of the market to be redone for the io7.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1161711",
"title": "Timbiriche",
"section": "Section::::History.:Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Timbiriche (known in the United States as Dots and Boxes), is a Paper-and-pencil game of mathematical structure. The objective of the game is to complete squares using points, and thus claim as many of these as possible on paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9836695",
"title": "Owzthat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Owzthat is a dice based cricket simulation. In its non-commercial form it is often called Pencil Cricket as in pre-war Britain 6 sided pencils, shaved back to bare wood with the numbers and words written on them, were used. Today this game is supplied by a variety of manufacturers, including William Lindop Ltd. The name is derived from a verbal cricket appeal regarding whether a batsman is out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "937744",
"title": "Kingdom of Loathing",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "According to Nite, the game's writing style owes itself to a humorous email exchange between himself and Johnson that began when the two separated after high school. These emails \"helped us develop the shared comedic voice that \"KoL\"'s written in\". The game's developers cite text-based games such as Zork and Legend of the Red Dragon as creative influences, and Nite has compared the game to the Choose Your Own Adventure series of children's books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10651153",
"title": "Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1398,
"text": "Scott noted that it was easier to reach correct puzzle solutions, with clues being given out \"at a very reasonable rate\". He saw this as the game's largest improvement upon previous \"Ace Attorney\" titles, which he said relied on trial and error; he had considered this the weakest point in the series, and something that needed to be changed. On the other hand, Walker said that the player often can figure out what a contradiction is going to be before the game lets them prove it, and the player might come up with legitimate ideas that the game does not accept. He also wished that the life bar could be filled up in court. Cole criticized how relevant evidence sometimes is not accepted, and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a certain order, but appreciated the game's larger focus on courtroom sessions over investigations. Thomas and the reviewers at \"Famitsu\" criticized the lack of new gameplay features, although the former thought that fans of the series would be fine with it. Scott acknowledged that the gameplay only is what is expected from the series, but did not find a problem with it due to the focus on narrative over gameplay. Moriarty said that while \"Trials and Tribulations\" is a good game in its own right, he wished that Capcom would make some changes to the gameplay or presentation, to avoid the series becoming \"overdone, played-out, and tired\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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