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5gh40n
|
How much CO2 does the internet produce now?
|
[
{
"answer": "As the internet is the result of the interconnection of billions of devices, each operating independently, in many different environments, each parameterised in its own way, a good portion of them being mobile and under variable workloads, I doubt it's in any way feasible to find an accurate result.\n\nYou could estimate a lot of it, but you'll have to settle for a lot of accuracy. Unless of course you want to convince everyone to provide telemetry on their devices and are willing to combine the results to give everyone an accurate picture. :-) It would be a grand experiment that would get you more than a handful of citations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We might be able to get a *very* rough estimate: [as of 2012, Cisco believes there are 8.7 billion devices on the internet;](_URL_1_) let's round that to 10 billion, just in case.\n\nI'm going to assume that those devices \"average\" to about the energy of a typical desktop setup, as there are way too many devices in way too many ranges to calculate.\n\n[Most desktops use 65-250 watts depending on computer, plus 20-40 watts for an LCD monitor](_URL_0_)\n\nSo if we assume an even 300 watts times 10 billion, that's, well, 3 trillion watts worth of computing power. Keep in mind that I could be off by an order of magnitude either way at this point.\n\nLet's assume that the \"average\" computer is on and connected to a power production facility for 10 hours per day. That's probably a high-end estimate, but it accounts for both the 24/7 web and web service servers that need to stay up all the time, and the phones that charge for 4-5 hours every 2-3 days at low wattage.\n\nSo 3 trillion x 10 hours = 30 trillion watt-hours per day, times 365 is on the order of 1.095 quadrillion watt-hours per year.\n\nCoal produces about 2 pounds of CO2 per kilowatt-hour, so we have around 2 trillion pounds of CO2 produced if the energy is provided entirely by coal, and that's at the high end of the spectrum.\n\nAgain, keeping in mind that this could be off by a factor of 10 or 100 in either direction, since I'm estimating a *lot* in the calculations; I didn't take into account how much of the world is powered by less-pollution-heavy methods of power generation, or even places powered by solar, wind, or nuclear power that gives negligble/no CO2 emissions, so I expect that my estimate is on the high side, assuming I wasn't drastically off when estimating the overall power usage of \"the internet\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14539",
"title": "Internet",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Energy use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "In 2011, researchers estimated the energy used by the Internet to be between 170 and 307 GW, less than two percent of the energy used by humanity. This estimate included the energy needed to build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet traffic. According to a study published in 2018, nearly 4% of global CO emission could be attributed to global data transfer and the necessary infrastructure. The study also said that online video streaming alone accounted for 60% of this data transfer and therefore contributed to over 300 million tons of CO emission per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092923",
"title": "Google",
"section": "Section::::Corporate affairs.:Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Google disclosed in September 2011 that it \"continuously uses enough electricity to power 200,000 homes\", almost 260 million watts or about a quarter of the output of a nuclear power plant. Total carbon emissions for 2010 were just under 1.5 million metric tons, mostly due to fossil fuels that provide electricity for the data centers. Google said that 25 percent of its energy was supplied by renewable fuels in 2010. An average search uses only 0.3 watt-hours of electricity, so all global searches are only 12.5 million watts or 5% of the total electricity consumption by Google.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14034429",
"title": "Electricity sector in Peru",
"section": "Section::::Electricity and the environment.:Greenhouse gas emissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "OLADE (Latin American Energy Association) estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 3.32 million tons of CO, which corresponds to 13% of total emissions from the energy sector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14279300",
"title": "Electricity sector in El Salvador",
"section": "Section::::Electricity and the environment.:Greenhouse gas emissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "OLADE (Latin American Energy Association) estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 1.57 million tons of CO, which corresponds to 25% of total emissions from the energy sector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13536905",
"title": "Electricity sector in Chile",
"section": "Section::::Electricity and the environment.:Greenhouse gas emissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "OLADE (\"Organización Latinoamericana de Energía\") estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 13.82 million tons of CO, which represents 25% of total emissions for the energy sector. It is estimated that, by 2030, emissions from electricity generation will account for the largest share of emissions from the energy sector, 39% (some 74 million tons) of the total.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11373849",
"title": "Global Carbon Project",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "For the most recent Global Carbon Budget released in December 2018, the GCP projects fossil CO emissions in 2018 to rise by 2.7% (range 1.8% to 3.7%) to a record 37.1 billion tonnes (Gt) CO, as policy and market forces are currently insufficient to overcome growth in fossil energy use. Atmospheric CO concentration is set to increase by 2.3 ppm [range 2.0 to 2.6 ppm] to reach 407 ppm on average in 2018, 45% above pre-industrial levels. Increases in global use of natural gas and oil are the primary causes of rising atmospheric CO concentrations today. Global coal use will likely increase in 2018 but still remain below its historical peak in 2013. Over the past decade, coal has been displaced by natural-gas-fired, wind, and solar power in some countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13423640",
"title": "Electricity sector in Argentina",
"section": "Section::::Electricity and the Environment.:Greenhouse gas emissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "In 2011, according to the International Energy Agency, the actual CO emissions from electricity generation were 67.32 million metric tons, a share of 36.7% of the countries' total CO emissions from fuel combustion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bf19e
|
Why is coffee turbid when cooled down but clear when freshly made?
|
[
{
"answer": "What is coffee, exactly? A Solution? Suspension? \n\nTurns out, hot black coffee is a solution, meaning that the coffee itself is dissolved in the hot water.\n\nPerhaps you remember that solubility increases with heat (generally speaking). So when the water is hot, it will take in all the coffee it can while brewing. When it cools, the solubility decreases and the coffee precipitates out to become a suspension, and then cause that turbidity you are talking about.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19619306",
"title": "List of coffee drinks",
"section": "Section::::Infused.:Cold brew.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Because the ground coffee beans in cold-brewed coffee never come into contact with heated water, the process of leaching flavor from the beans produces a chemical profile different from conventional brewing methods. Coffee beans contain a number of constituent parts that are more soluble at higher temperatures, such as caffeine, oils and fatty acids. Brewing at a lower temperature results in lower acidity and lower caffeine content when brewed in equal volume. It is around 65 to 70 percent less acidic than hot drip coffee or espresso, per part. Although less caffeine is extracted with the cold brew method, a higher coffee-to-water ratio is often used, between 2 and 2 1/2 times. This may compensate for this difference in solubility, resulting in a brew with equal, if not more, caffeine (although this is unlikely).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002536",
"title": "Freeze-drying",
"section": "Section::::Applications of freeze drying.:Freeze drying of food.:Coffee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Coffee contains flavor and aroma qualities that are created due to the Maillard reaction during roasting and can be preserved with freeze-drying. Compared to other drying methods like room temperature drying, hot-air drying, and solar drying, Robusta coffee beans that were freeze-dried contained higher amounts of essential amino acids like leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine. Also, few non-essential amino acids that significantly contributed to taste were preserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22734446",
"title": "Frappé coffee",
"section": "Section::::Frothy top.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "The spray-dried instant coffee contains nearly no oil, just tiny particles (coffee solids), some molecules responsible for flavour and taste, and caffeine. When dissolved, spray-dried coffee forms a simpler and more stable colloid relative to traditionally brewed coffee. This enables creation of the characteristic thick frothy layer at the top of the coffee. This layer appears similar to crema, the foam found in espresso, but is much thicker and the composition is different. It can be characterised mainly as a three phase colloid where tiny bubbles are held together by the coffee solids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8084965",
"title": "Coffee wastewater",
"section": "Section::::Processing.:Fully washed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "This process is mainly used when processing \"Coffea arabica\". After de-pulping, the beans are collected in fermentation tanks where bacterial removal of the mucilage takes place over 12 to 36 hours. The fermentation phase is important in the development of the flavour of the coffee, which is partially due to the microbiological processes that take place. The emergence of yeasts and moulds in acidic water can lead to off-flavors like \"sour coffee\" and \"onion-flavour\". However, wet processing is believed to yield higher quality coffee than the other processes since small amounts of off-flavors give the coffee its particular taste and \"body\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300805",
"title": "Coffee percolator",
"section": "Section::::Brewing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "As the brew continually seeps through the grounds, the overall temperature of the liquid approaches boiling point, at which stage the \"perking\" action (the characteristic spurting sound the pot makes) stops, and the coffee is ready for drinking. In a manual percolator it is important to remove or reduce the heat at this point. Brewed coffee left on high heat for too long will acquire a bitter taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46726509",
"title": "Maragogipe Coffee",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Maragogipe coffee's flavor varies depending on the soil where it grows. Poor soils produce a coffee with diminished flavors. That is why it is often referred to as a coffee with \"not much flavor\", but the flavor can be enhanced by allowing these coffee beans to dry with its natural sugars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393929",
"title": "Coffee production",
"section": "Section::::Processing.:Wet process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "The fermentation process has to be carefully monitored to ensure that the coffee doesn't acquire undesirable, sour flavors. For most coffees, mucilage removal through fermentation takes between 24 and 36 hours, depending on the temperature, thickness of the mucilage layer, and concentration of the enzymes. The end of the fermentation is assessed by feel, as the parchment surrounding the beans loses its slimy texture and acquires a rougher \"pebbly\" feel. When the fermentation is complete, the coffee is thoroughly washed with clean water in tanks or in special washing machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
r3j8e
|
Is it possible to get high from second-hand cannabis smoke?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is actually one of the things we studied in forensic toxicology - the case of [Ross Rebagliati](_URL_0_), a Canadian snowboarder whose Olympic gold medal was in jeopardy after testing positive for marijuana. His defense was that he did not partake in smoking, but was in the vicinity as others smoked.\n\nThe conclusion in our class is that passive inhalation is usually not enough to give significant blood THC concentrations - one study reporting blood THC levels of 1 - 6 ng/mL right after exposure (to give context: with normal inhalation, blood THC rises to above 100 ng/mL in the minutes immediately after, and settles to about 30 ng/mL in about 20 minutes, in a typical user). And even obtaining that level required _extreme exposure_ - high concentration of smoke and limited volume (\"hot-boxing\"). Subjects complained of such severe eye irritation that they requested sealed goggles.\n\nSo my toxicology professor is adamant passive inhalation does next to nothing, physiologically.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "740746",
"title": "Adult neurogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting.:Effects of cannabinoids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Recent studies indicate that a natural cannabinoid of cannabis, cannabidiol (CBD), increases adult neurogenesis while having no effect on learning. THC however impaired learning and had no effect on neurogenesis. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38310",
"title": "Cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Recreational use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia, and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. However, cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20565421",
"title": "Cannabis in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "A 25-year longitudinal study of \"1000 Christchurch born young people between the ages of 15–25\" concluded that \"regular or heavy cannabis use was associated with an increased risk of using other illicit drugs, abusing or becoming dependent upon other illicit drugs, and using a wider variety of other illicit drugs\". The lead author of the study, David Fergusson, stated:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1654457",
"title": "Neuralgia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Marijuana: The American Medical Association stated in \"Report 3 of the Council on Science and Public Health (I-09)\" that \"...Results of short term controlled trials indicate that smoked cannabis reduces neuropathic pain...\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175440",
"title": "Medical cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "When cannabis is inhaled to relieve pain, blood levels of cannabinoids rise faster than when oral products are used, peaking within three minutes and attaining an analgesic effect in seven minutes. A 2014 review found limited and weak evidence that smoked cannabis was effective for chronic non-cancer pain. A 2015 meta-analysis found that inhaled medical cannabis was effective in reducing neuropathic pain in the short term for one in five to six patients. Another 2015 review found limited evidence that medical cannabis was effective for neuropathic pain when combined with traditional analgesics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7361062",
"title": "Boston University School of Public Health",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- Substance Use studies, including showing that patients who use marijuana have lower odds of achieving abstinence from other drugs and alcohol, that recreational drug use on weekends often turns into more frequent use, and that benzodiazepines increase the risk of opioid overdose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4223023",
"title": "Lacing (drugs)",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for lacing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "It is possible that drug users may accidentally purchase a product without knowing that it has been laced with a more potent drug, but psychiatrist Dr Bill MacEwan believes that drug dealers in British Columbia are intentionally lacing cannabis with methamphetamine to make it more addictive. He had some psychiatric patients that claimed they only smoked pot but their drug tests were positive for methamphetamine use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7uz507
|
just how much less nutritious is food that has been frozen such as frozen fruits/meals
|
[
{
"answer": "Calories should stay exactly the same. Mineral content will also be exactly the same. Some vitamins can be changed by various environmental factors including temperature. Vitamin C, for example, is degraded by exposure to oxygen. Freezing can actually help protect against oxidizing since liquid water more efficiently transports oxygen than frozen water. I honestly don't know chemistry details on most of the other vitamins, so hopefully someone else can weigh in there.\n\nFreezing will primarily change the texture of food. This happens mostly because cell walls and other microstructures in the food get destroyed by the expansion and crystallization of water when it freezes. This is why thawed frozen fruits are almost always more mushy than fresh fruits. This destruction will make the food degrade *very* fast after the food is thawed. This is why most frozen foods are meant to be eaten directly after defrost and often instruct you to avoid refreezing them.\n\nWith frozen meals, the makers know that freezing will change textures to be less palatable. This is often alleviated by making meals that are heavily dependent on sauces which usually means adding considerable salt and simple sugars. Carb-heavy foods like potatoes are also more likely to reheat deliciously than most meats, fruits, and some veggies. This can make frozen meals tough to fit with some diet goals.",
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{
"answer": "frozen food, if frozen very close to the time they were picked, actually have more nutritional value than \"fresh\" ones in the produce section or in cans",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "None at all. Freezing does not reduce nutritional value, though it can alter textures of foods to make it less appealing. In fact most fruits and vegetables are frozen quickly after harvesting which makes them more nutritious that food that has been allowed to get old and is close to spoiling. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Frozen fruits and vegetables often contain more nutrients because it is possible to let them reach full ripeness before harvest. Fully ripened they would never be able to survive transport without rotting completely, and a disturbingly large amount of our food is shipped in from other countries. Ever had a tomato in January? It most likely came from Mexico or somewhere south of the equator. These are then chemically ripened after shipping with ethelyne gas or chemicals like calcium carbide. Nom nom. If you are truly interested in getting the best nutrition/flavor from your food buy your produce from local farms and eat what is in season for your area.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "caloric nutrient value tends to not change at all with any food if frozen over any time frame.\nthe ash nutrient(micronutrients) value tends to not change at all with any food if frozen over any time frame.\nthe vitamin nutrient value may change drastically if frozen over any time but doesn't have to depending on the form and type of vitamin as well as freezing process involved.\n\ncaloric nutrient would be the raw energy content you get to burn,\nash nutrient would be metals, salts, all kind of stuff you kinda need everywhere in low concentrations for all kinds of reasons,\nvitamin nutrient value would be advanced building blocks we mostly have lost the capability to produce ourselves over the time frame in which evolution happens and are now required to consume from an external source like meat and plants. They are usually required for very elaborate mechanisms and we would die without, however such death through vitamin starvation can take months to decades.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I was an Analytical Nutrition Technician for several years. (For details see: _URL_0_)\n\nI never, at any point, observed a trend of lower nutrition in frozen food products. Nor am I aware of any documentation about this for Macro Nutrients (Sugars, Fats, Salt, Fibre, Protein).\n\nI did not test for Vitamins, and it may be that there are some vitamins that will be damaged by freezing. However, as vitamins also degrade over time and may be less damaged by freezing and then not degrading that waiting around to be shipped to you.\n\nSugars in plants also convert to starch after harvest, so frozen food may have a high sugar content.\n\n\nProcessed foods, frozen ready meals ect. will have a much different nutrition profile than a fresh meal, but that's not due to the freezing process, but rather, the stuff they make the meal with being different. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A lot of answers in here. What they don't address is that frozen MEALS are often bad for you... \n\nBecause they're packed with salt and sugar and all sorts of non-nutritious crizzap.\n\nFrozen food that's just, like... food. Veggies, meat, fruit, whatever... That's great! But 'frozen meals' and 'frozen snacks' are often bad for you.. \n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Frozen is fine, it loses nothing from the process, and if you thaw it out and eat it raw still or use it in say, a smoothie, it’s just as good. Obviously if you cook it, like steaming frozen broccoli, you’ll lose as many nutrients as you would from doing that to a fresh vegetable. Meow, canned goods on the other hand, lose a fair amount of nutrients, as also often are packed with preservatives that sap the benefits.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I've noticed that frozen bags of broccoli have almost no vitamin A. Why is that? I know fresh broccoli vitamin A levels are through the roof. Are frozen vegetables not as healthy? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A good ELI5 rule of thumb is that the less processing any food goes through the less nutritional value it loses. So if you walk out to your organic garden and pick a cherry tomato and eat it you will get an amazing burst of flavor and the full nutritional value the tomato has to offer. After fresh, frozen fruits and veggies are probably best, then canned. But canned foods are \"shelf stable\" and can be eaten months, even years later without having to use electricity to keep them that way. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "292032",
"title": "Food storage",
"section": "Section::::Domestic food storage.:Food storage safety.:Freezers and thawing food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Food frozen at 0 °F and below is preserved indefinitely. However, the quality of the food will deteriorate if it is frozen over a lengthy period. The United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service publishes a chart showing the suggested freezer storage time for common foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Preservatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7083018",
"title": "Incan engineers",
"section": "Section::::Freeze-drying.:What to freeze dry and why?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "A very common and well known freeze dried item was the potato or when it was frozen, Chuño. All food grown or killed by the Inca could be freeze dried. Freeze drying is still very popular today. One of the biggest benefits for freeze drying is that it takes out all of the water and moisture but leaves all of the nutritious value. The water in meats and vegetables is what gives them a lot of their weight. This is what made it very popular for transportation purposes and storage because dried meats lasted twice as long as non freeze dried foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13655249",
"title": "Frozen vegetables",
"section": "Section::::Health benefits and risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "A 1997 study performed by the University of Illinois, 2007 study performed by University of California - Davis and a 2003 Austrian study support that canned or frozen produce has no substantial nutritional difference not attributable to the presence of added salt, syrup or other flavouring, and in fact suggest that canned or frozen produce is nutritionally superior because of the very rapid deterioration of nutrients in fresh produce. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38481267",
"title": "National Centre for Cold-chain Development",
"section": "Section::::Organisation.:Tasks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "Globally, about 60% of fresh foods are transported in the cold chain helping restrict loss in value and extending reach to distant markets. In India, While almost 12% of fruits and vegetables have access to storage capacity, less than 5% of such goods continue transport in the cold-chain with most of the fresh produce being subject to harsh climatic conditions. This results in the gross loss of perishable food items. Similar lack of cold-chain in the pharmaceutical sector witnesses increased risk and loss of medical products. Lack of appropriate integrated infrastructure in this sector also increases risk to frozen foods shipments. Despite being a large food producer globally, this disallows the supply chain to support India's aspirations to better serve its domestic population and increase its share in global food trade. NCCD is intended to address all segments and the developmental aspects of cold-chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Frozen food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20mf6y
|
why do people and animals get comfortable? what is comfort?
|
[
{
"answer": "Comfort is a lack of hardship, danger or stress. From an evolutionary point of view, avoiding dangerous situations is obviously beneficial to survival, so an animal that experienced negative emotions (discomfort) during these situations is going to try & avoid being in them. Feeling happy in a safe area means an animal would be more likely to stay in that safe area. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everything alive in nature tends to die horribly because of stuff (cold, predators, lack of food...). Comfort is the knowledge of not being at an immediate risk for your life; if you are referring to the physical sensation, that is exactly that kind of reaction, centred about not being cold and hungry in a particular moment.\n\nThe rest is just something that doesn't disturb our skin too much: smooth and soft things make us comfortable because there is less contrast between them and our skin, that has to stress itself less to adapt to their surface. That's also why cats, that having fur have a different \"surface\", find something like cardboard boxes more comfortable than we do (Solid Snake is an exception).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People and animals are complex creatures which can be viewed individually as complex systems incorporating feedback. Comfort is simply a more stable state than discomfort.\n\nThe brain receive sensory stimuli and responds by activating muscles. It is continuously processing and reacting in ways both instinctively and learned. Reflexes cause withdrawal from painful stimuli, hunger induces hunting behaviors, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Try being in a state of constant fear that things are against you, won't work out and will end up killing you will fuck with your nerves. Meditation and trust are the opposite of that. The less that you are an emotional battlefield, the further you go. Look to people with too much stress in their life",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38973977",
"title": "Comfort behaviour in animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Comfort behaviours are performed from an early age and change little during development. Several comfort behaviours are associated with the beginning of a rest period (e.g. grooming), whereas others are associated with the end of a rest period (e.g. stretching), possibly to prepare the body for escape or hunting. Others, (e.g. dust bathing) will be performed only when the appropriate internal and external stimuli are present (see also sham dustbathing). Animals generally perform comfort behaviours only when they are not engaged in essential activities (e.g. feeding, drinking, hunting, escape); these behaviours are therefore sometimes categorised as \"luxury activities\". However, animals can be highly motivated to perform some comfort behaviours (e.g. dust bathing in hens), and conditions that thwart these behaviours (e.g. battery cages) are considered to have a negative influence on animal welfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38973977",
"title": "Comfort behaviour in animals",
"section": "Section::::Purpose of Comfort Behaviours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "There are many adaptive and functional purposes for comfort behaviours among a diverse group of animals. One function of comfort behaviours is hygiene, particularly in the form of ectoparasite removal. The animal removes the ectoparasites through the scratching or brushing of their own bodies, or the grooming of others. Through licking and brushing, animals such as the red squirrel clean wounds and remove dirt and debris from their bodies, also aiding in hygiene. Other physical purposes for comfort behaviours includes reduction in heart rates as seen in horses, and thermoregulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3310208",
"title": "Grief therapy dog",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "In contrast to service dogs who assist disabled people with physical tasks, comfort dogs are not trained in skilled tasks, but serve as constant companions with a keen sense for someone feeling down. They can provide a way for people who are distressed to find sanctuary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25079",
"title": "Pet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Pets provide their owners (or \"guardians\") both physical and emotional benefits. Walking a dog can provide both the human and the dog with exercise, fresh air, and social interaction. Pets can give companionship to people who are living alone or elderly adults who do not have adequate social interaction with other people. There is a medically approved class of therapy animals, mostly dogs or cats, that are brought to visit confined humans, such as children in hospitals or elders in nursing homes. Pet therapy utilizes trained animals and handlers to achieve specific physical, social, cognitive or emotional goals with patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1580593",
"title": "Norfolk Terrier",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "As companions, they love people and children and do make good pets. Their activity level is generally reflective of the pace of their environment. This breed should not be kept or live outside since they thrive on human contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6443348",
"title": "Animal-assisted therapy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1276,
"text": "Animals roles in society have commonly been companionship and work and research has found animals can have an overall positive effect on health and improve mood and quality of life. The positive effect has been linked to the human-animal bond. In a variety of settings, such as prisons, nursing homes, and mental institutions, animals are used to assist people with different disabilities or disorders. In modern times animals are seen as \"agents of socialization\" and as providers of \"social support and relaxation\". The earliest reported use of AAT for the mentally ill took place in the late 18th century at the York Retreat in England, led by William Tuke. Patients at this facility were allowed to wander the grounds which contained a population of small domestic animals. These were believed to be effective tools for socialization. In 1860, the Bethlem Hospital in England followed the same trend and added animals to the ward, greatly influencing the morale of the patients living there. However, in other pieces of literature it states that AAT was used as early as 1792 at the Quaker Society of Friends York Retreat in England. Velde, Cipriani & Fisher also state \"Florence Nightingale appreciated the benefits of pets in the treatment of individuals with illness.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31660921",
"title": "Comfort",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "Comfort (or being \"comfortable\") is a sense of physical or psychological ease, often characterized as a lack of hardship. Persons who are lacking in comfort are uncomfortable, or experiencing discomfort. A degree of psychological comfort can be achieved by recreating experiences that are associated with pleasant memories, such as engaging in familiar activities, maintaining the presence of familiar objects, and consumption of comfort foods. Comfort is a particular concern in health care, as providing comfort to the sick and injured is one goal of healthcare, and can facilitate recovery. Persons who are surrounded with things that provide psychological comfort may be described as being \"in their comfort zone\". Because of the personal nature of positive associations, psychological comfort is highly subjective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
55h3s9
|
what is so special about go pro type cameras that can't be done with just any video camera.
|
[
{
"answer": "GoPro's are small, compact, rugged, and designed to mount on a fast moving object without flying off and getting destroyed. They also have good quality video and lots of storage capacity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "GoPro cameras are designed to be small and fit into protective cases and mounts. They are designed to handle shock and movement without problems.\n\nThey are not the only cameras that can do this, but if you are looking for some way to record yourself riding a dirt bike down a rocky trail then GoPro will have everything you need and it will all work together.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The real issue here is just how durable the damned things are. You can take them sky diving, base jumping, diving, rock climbing.. they can fall down the side of a mountain and record the whole thing. Then you can retrieve it and it'll work just fine.\n\nTry that with your standard DSLR and you'll see it get shattered within the first bounce. Hell, sometimes they'll break just from making the relatively short drop from chest height to the floor.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are a small, light, durable, relatively inexpensive camera that comes with a protective waterproof casing. The casing has a stand that can easily be mounted on a variety of surfaces.\n\nThe result is a camera that can be used in harsh environments without breaking, and is cheap enough that if it does break it won't bankrupt you to replace.\n\nThere are a number of camera that can do this, but GoPro was the first to combine these features in an easy to use product.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the other responses, GoPros have very wide angle lenses, which is useful when you don't know where the action will happen (sports) or you don't know where the camera will be pointed (such as cameras mounted on peoples's bodies).\n\nAlso, they have high FPS recording modes which capture fast action better, but I think that high FPS recording is much more common now than when GoPros came out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52797",
"title": "Digital camera",
"section": "Section::::Types of digital cameras.:Action cameras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "GoPro and other brands offer action cameras which are rugged, small and can be easily attached to helmet, arm, bicycle, etc. Most have wide angle and fixed focus, and can take still pictures and video, typically with sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47491108",
"title": "Pro-Vision",
"section": "Section::::Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Pro-Vision initially began as a manufacturer of cameras and recording systems that could be used in vehicles. Dashcams and backup cameras could be installed in commercial vehicles, school buses, and police cars to prevent accidents and limit liability. These devices continue to be manufactured by Pro-Vision. In recent years, their trademarked \"Bodycam\" has become one of their notable products. These devices can be clipped on to an officer's uniform (generally in the shoulder or chest area) where it can capture and record video of any incident with the public. The cameras have a 150-degree field of vision, are IP68 waterproof, and have night vision technology. The cameras shoot in 1296p HD at 30 frames per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33109",
"title": "Wearable computer",
"section": "Section::::History.:2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "GoPro released their first product, the GoPro HERO 35mm, which began a successful franchise of wearable cameras. The cameras can be worn atop the head or around the wrist and are shock and waterproof. GoPro cameras are used by many athletes and extreme sports enthusiasts, a trend that became very apparent during the early 2010s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3784078",
"title": "FireWire camera",
"section": "Section::::Special cameras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "In comparison to photo or video cameras, these special cameras are very simple. However, it makes no sense to use them in an isolated manner. They are, as other sensors, only components of a bigger system (please cf. System integration).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1181109",
"title": "Digital single-lens reflex camera",
"section": "Section::::DSLRs compared with other digital cameras.:Performance differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Simple point-and-shoot cameras rely almost exclusively on their built-in automation and machine intelligence for capturing images under a variety of situations and offer no manual control over their functions, a trait which makes them unsuitable for use by professionals, enthusiasts and proficient consumers (also known as \"prosumers\"). Bridge cameras provide some degree of manual control over the camera's shooting modes, and some even have hot shoes and the option to attach lens accessories such as filters and secondary converters. DSLRs typically provide the photographer with full control over all the important parameters of photography and have the option to attach additional accessories using the hot shoe. including hot shoe-mounted flash units, battery grips for additional power and hand positions, external light meters, and remote controls. DSLRs typically also have fully automatic shooting modes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2317480",
"title": "Tripod (photography)",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "There are several types of tripods. The least expensive, generally made of aluminum tubing and costing less than US$50, is used primarily for consumer still and video cameras; these generally come with an attached head and rubber feet. The head is very basic, and often not entirely suitable for smooth panning of a camcorder. A common feature, mostly designed for still cameras, allows the head to flip sideways 90 degrees to allow the camera to take pictures in portrait format rather than landscape. Often included is a small pin on the front of the mounting screw that is used to stabilize camcorders. This is not found on the more expensive photographic tripods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309457",
"title": "Barcode reader",
"section": "Section::::Types of barcode scanners.:Technology.:Camera-based readers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Video camera readers use small video cameras with the same CCD technology as in a CCD barcode reader except that instead of having a single row of sensors, a video camera has hundreds of rows of sensors arranged in a two dimensional array so that they can generate an image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2a3raz
|
Are there better job opportunities for historians depending on which history they study? Which fields have more demand?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't grab a link right now, but the American Historical Association publishes a report once in a while evaluating the field. Their last was in 2013 and it showed that you do have slightly better odds with an Asian History focus, but if I remember correctly you still have less than a 50% of finding work in academia. Outside of academia, there aren't really any ways to track job success accurately. But in American non-academia there probably isn't great demand for an Asian historian.\n\nSo basically its a huge risk no matter what you choose and you can't really \"plan\" a history career anymore. It sort of depends on who you know and your timing, which no one can predict.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here are some links of value, OP: \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13575",
"title": "Historian",
"section": "Section::::Education and profession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants. The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse, with many relegated to part-time \"adjunct\" teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8494037",
"title": "Leon Fink",
"section": "Section::::Research focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Fink's third book, 1998's \"Progressive Intellectuals and the Dilemmas of Democratic Commitment,\" drew attention in the field of history for its focus on the tension which arises when educated historians study relatively uneducated workers. Using biographies of some of the top labor historians and intellectuals in the field of labor studies, Fink illustrated the problems which can arise when historians try to learn from workers at the same time that they attempt to advise them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46044",
"title": "Political economy",
"section": "Section::::Current approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530103",
"title": "Higher education in Portugal",
"section": "Section::::Employability and underemployment.:Employability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Low employability is found among teaching, humanities and some social sciences fields of study, like history, geography, linguistics, philosophy, sociology; or to a lesser degree among the exact sciences and natural sciences, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology or geology, when these courses are oriented towards a teaching career instead of a more technical or scientific research career.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222291",
"title": "Social history",
"section": "Section::::Subfields.:History of education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, \"The Race between Education and Technology\" (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9083795",
"title": "History of education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, \"The Race between Education and Technology\" (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7213860",
"title": "English local history",
"section": "Section::::Researching local history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Local history research, like that of family history, is accessible to people without prior historical training or experience. This is because the very nature of local history is such that starting points are always available locally. An intelligent lay researcher can learn the necessary skills as they research. Archivists and societies can provide advice, encouragement, and information; formal courses of study are also widely available. Many local historians are non-specialists whose enthusiasm for history and have applied this to their area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yr2xr
|
why do some pills come in bottles, and some in blister packs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Prescriptions that are dispensed in the US have to meet child safety standards. If you're buying it OTC it isn't being dispensed and thus doesn't have to meet the standards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One surprising reason for blister packs: suicide prevention.\n\nFor example, in 1998 the UK switched all paracetamol (aka acetaminophen, aka Tylenol) to blister packaging to make it harder to overdose— you can't just dump out a handful, you have to individually punch out the pills. They also limited the number of pills in a pack. I think this applies to both over-the-counter and Rx, not 100% sure on that. Anyway, suicide-by-Tylenol went down something like 30%.\n\nETA, some links: [1](_URL_0_), [2](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Marketing and stability(whether the product will last until the expiration date.) extensive testing is performed to make sure the medication will last. In my experience blister packs are the most likely to last the longest. If a customer wants a 50-100ct they will probably want it in a bottle and we will have test the product to make sure it will last 2-3 years at the advertised strength on the label. If it completes testing then we can sell it in a bottle. We may have to add desiccants such as cotton to the bottle to prevent moisture buildup.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22037708",
"title": "Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Blister packs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "80% of pills in the world are packed with blister packaging, which is the most convenient type for several reasons. Blister packs have two main components, the “lid” and the “blister” (cavity). Lid is mainly manufactured with aluminum (Al) and paper. The Cavity consists of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polyester (PET) or aluminum (Al). If users employ proper disposal methods, all these materials can be recycled and the harmful effects to the environment can be minimized. However, a problem arises with the improper disposal either by burning or disposing as normal household waste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30163215",
"title": "Tableting",
"section": "Section::::Packaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Blister packs are a common form of packaging. They are safe and easy to use and the user can see the contents without opening the pack. Many pharmaceutical companies use a standard size of blister pack. This saves the cost of different tools and changing the production machinery between products. Sometimes the pack may be perforated so that individual tablets can be detached. This means that the expiry date and the drug's name must be printed on each part of the package. The blister pack itself must remain absolutely flat as it travels through the packaging processes, especially when it is inserted into a carton. Extra ribs are added to the blister pack to improve its stiffness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30766508",
"title": "Ethinylestradiol/drospirenone/levomefolic acid",
"section": "Section::::Dosage and administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Each box, as supplied by the manufacturer, contains 3 blister packs of 28 tablets packaged in individual boxes. Each blister pack of 28 tablets contains 24 pink active pills containing drospirenone 3 mg, ethinylestradiol 20 mcg, and levomefolate calcium 0.451 mg and four light orange inactive pills containing of levomefolate calcium 0.451 mg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3511605",
"title": "Blister pack",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Unit dose packaging of pharmaceuticals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1352,
"text": "Blister packs are commonly used as unit-dose packaging for pharmaceutical tablets, capsules or lozenges. Blister packs can provide barrier protection for shelf life requirements, and a degree of tamper resistance. In the US, blister packs are mainly used for packing physician samples of drug products or for over-the-counter (OTC) products in the pharmacy. In other parts of the world, blister packs are the main packaging type since pharmacy dispensing and re-packaging are not common. A series of blister cavities is sometimes called a blister card or blister strip as well as blister pack. The difference between a strip pack and blister pack is that a strip pack does not have thermo-formed or cold formed cavities; the strip pack is formed around the tablet at a time when it is dropped to the sealing area between sealing moulds. In some parts of the world the pharmaceutical blister pack is known as a push-through pack (PTP), an accurate description of two key properties (i) the lidding foil is brittle, making it possible to press the product out while breaking the lidding foil and (ii) a semi-rigid formed cavity being sufficiently collapsible to be able to dispense the tablet or capsule by means of pressing it out with the thumb. Breaking the lidding foil with a fingernail for the appropriate tablet will make the pressing out easier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22782543",
"title": "Pill (textile)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "In general longer fibers pill less than short ones because there are fewer ends of fibers, and because it is harder for the longer fibers to work themselves out of the cloth. Fabrics with a large number of loose fibers have a higher tendency to pill. Also, knitted fabrics tend to pill more than woven fabrics, because of the greater distance between yarn crossings in knitted fabrics than in woven ones. For the same reason, a tightly knitted object will pill less than a loosely knitted one. When a fabric is made of a blend of fibers where one fibre is significantly stronger than the other, pills tend to form as the weaker fibre wears and breaks, and the stronger fibre holds the pills onto the cloth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22782543",
"title": "Pill (textile)",
"section": "Section::::Result.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Pills do not interfere with the functionality of the textile, unless a spot with a lot of pills turns into a hole in the fabric. This is because both pills and holes are caused by the fabric wearing—a pill is fibre that was in the cloth. After the pill forms the fabric is thinner there, increasing the likelihood that a hole will form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26077481",
"title": "Drug packaging",
"section": "Section::::Package forms.:Blister packs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Blister packs are pre-formed plastic/paper/foil packaging used for formed solid drugs. The primary component of a blister pack is a cavity or pocket made from a thermoformed plastic. This usually has a backing of paperboard or a lidding seal of aluminum foil or plastic film. Blister packs are useful for protecting drugs against external factors, such as humidity and contamination for extended periods of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
w4tjs
|
Everest is currently the highest mountain on Earth (elevation above sea level). But mountain chains are growing/eroding all the time -- so when in the distant future Everest become second tallest, and what mountain will surpass it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Everest, and the Himalayan range is still growing, and will likely do so for many millions of years due to the Indian Sub-Continent pushing into Asia. This collision also created the Karakoram range (of K-2 fame), among others. \n\nWhich particular peak among the area will be the tallest in the future is hard to say due to factors like earthquakes and erosion that are hard to predict. There are other factors like depressing the crust that I won't really get into, but may play a factor. Some people think it unlikely that a peak could be too much higher than Everest is currently. \n\nConsidering that (if memory serves) the highest 100 peaks in the world are in this area, and are still growing, you can bet one of those existing peaks would be your best bet for surpassing Everest. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48085382",
"title": "South Summit (Mount Everest)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The South Summit of Mount Everest in the Himalayas is the second-highest peak on Earth, and is a subsidiary peak to the primary peak of Mount Everest. Although its elevation above sea level of is higher than the second-highest mountain on Earth, K2 (whose summit is above sea level), it is only considered a separate peak and not a separate mountain as its prominence is only 11 meters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "751489",
"title": "Summit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "The highest summit in the world is Everest with height of 8844.43 m above sea level (29,029 ft). The first official ascent was made by Tenzing Norgay and Sir Edmund Hillary. They reached the mountain's peak in 1953.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19219339",
"title": "World altitude record (mountaineering)",
"section": "Section::::1950s and ascent of Everest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Mount Everest was climbed the following year. On 26 May, three days before the successful attempt, Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans reached the South Summit before turning back due to malfunctioning oxygen apparatus. Their height of 8,760 m (28,750 ft) represented a new, short lived, altitude record, and can be seen as a summit record if this is taken to include minor tops as well as genuine mountains. Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay finally reached the 8,848 m (29,029 ft) true summit on 29 May 1953, marking the final chapter in the history of the mountaineering altitude record. While the exact height of Everest's summit is subject to minor variation due to the level of snow cover and the gradual upthrust of the Himalaya, significant changes to the world altitude record are now impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39981799",
"title": "M. Magendran",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level. Its summit was first achieved in 1953 after numerous failed attempts that began in 1921. The first person to finally set foot on its summit was New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary, who was accompanied by Tenzing Norgay of India. Both M. Magendran and N. Mohanadas were conferred Datukships by the Penang state government in 2010 for their Himalayan achievement. Both men were also conferred the Federal 'Datukships' title by the King of Malaysia in Jun 2011 \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8791701",
"title": "Amne Machin",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "However, the massif remained unclimbed until 1960. The Amne Machin mountains had been overflown by a few American pilots who overestimated the elevation to 30,000 feet (9,100 m). A 1930 article of the National Geographic estimated the peak elevation to 28,000 feet [8,500 m] according to the report of Joseph Rock, an American botanist and explorer who, despite death threats from the Golog Tibetans, had ventured to within 80 km of the mountain. For a while, the mountains were considered as a possible place for a peak higher than Mount Everest. While Rock only downgraded his estimate publicly in 1956 to \"not much more than 21,000 feet\", he did give a detailed description of the peaks: By 1980 Anyi Machen had been resurveyed at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42179",
"title": "Mount Everest",
"section": "Section::::Surveys.:Comparisons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The summit of Everest is the point at which earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the \"tallest mountains on earth\". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains above sea level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4758294",
"title": "Andrew Scott Waugh",
"section": "Section::::Surveyor General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The height of Mount Everest was calculated to be exactly high, but was publicly declared to be in order to avoid the impression that an exact height of was nothing more than a rounded estimate. Waugh is therefore wittily credited with being \"\"the first person to put two feet on top of Mount Everest\"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
79pj93
|
Do dogs have an awareness of seasonal weather change?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why would you think that they might not. They live long enough to experience many seasons. Their breeding cycle is tied to the seasons, they can feel both hot and cold, they know what snow is (whether they like it or not), et. al. \n\nNot to mention that the modern domesticated dog will certainly see us responding to seasonal changes through what we wear, eat, etc. In summer, they will camp out near the air conditioner, and near the heater in winter. You could certainly say that they are just responding to immediate stimuli, but they are smarter than that. I've had dogs that will drag their beds to different spots in the house to take advantage of heating/cooling. That involves some forward thinking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23803009",
"title": "Opportunistic breeder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Since changes in season can coincide with favorable changes in environment, the distinction between seasonal breeder and opportunistic can be muddled. In equatorial climes, the change in seasons is not always perceptible and thus, changes in day length not remarkable. Thus, the tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus) previously categorized as a seasonal breeder is now suspected to be an opportunistic breeder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7366581",
"title": "Gunnison's prairie dog",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "All prairie dogs, including the Gunnison's prairie dog are diurnal. This means they exert the most activity in the early morning and late afternoon. During warm weather, the highest activity levels occur at about 9 a.m., and from 2 p.m. to about an hour before the sun sets. When the temperature starts to cool, they become more active during the day. When it snows or rains, the prairie dogs will stay underground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455907",
"title": "Astraphobia",
"section": "Section::::Dogs and cats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Dogs may exhibit severe anxiety during thunderstorms; between 15 and 30 percent may be affected. Research confirms high levels of cortisol - a hormone associated with stress - affects dogs during and after thunderstorms. Remedies include behavioral therapies such as counter conditioning and desensitization, anti-anxiety medications, and Dog Appeasing Pheromone, a synthetic analogue of a hormone secreted by nursing canine mothers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27375580",
"title": "Serge Daan",
"section": "Section::::Academic career.:Research.:Annual timing of reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Apart from daily alternations in the environment, there are substantial seasonal variations that animals must adapt to across the year. Working with Drent, Daan showed that one strategy used to deal with seasonal changes is to adjust the number and even sex of offspring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682782",
"title": "Dog days",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Even after astrology and its influence on health and agriculture waned in importance, the \"dog days\" continues to be vaguely applied to the hottest days of the summer, with its attendant effects on nature and society. In North America, it became proverbial among farmers that a dry growing season through the dog days was preferable to the trouble of a wet one:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41726017",
"title": "Canine cognitive dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Clinical signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Dogs with canine cognitive dysfunction may exhibit many symptoms associated with senile behavior and dementia. Dogs will often find themselves confused in familiar places of the home, spending long periods of time in one area of the home, not responding to calls or commands, and experiencing abnormal sleeping patterns. Although some of these symptoms may be attributed to old age itself, when they are exhibited together, there is a higher likelihood of CCD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11304576",
"title": "Vädersolstavlan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1092,
"text": "Sun dogs were apparently well known during the Middle Ages, as they are mentioned in the \"Old Farmer's Almanac\" (\"Bondepraktikan\") which states that the phenomenon forecasts strong winds, and also rain if the sun dogs are more pale than red. According to the passage in the \"Vasa Chronicle\", however, both Petri and the master of the mint Anders Hansson were sincerely troubled by the appearance of these sun dogs. Petri interpreted the signs over Stockholm as a warning from God and had the \"Vädersolstavlan\" painting produced and hung in front of his congregation. Notwithstanding this devotion, he was far from certain on how to interpret these signs and in a sermon delivered in late summer 1535, he explained there are two kinds of omens: one produced by the Devil to allure mankind away from God, and another produced by God to attract mankind away from the Devil — one being hopelessly difficult to tell from the other. He therefore saw it as his duty to warn both his congregation, mostly composed of German burghers united by their conspiracy against the king, and the king himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2eguit
|
what is the philosophy behind a ddos attack on gaming servers?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a cry for attention, similar to what a baby does when they poop their diapers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I owned a lot of Minecraft servers over the past couple years, many of them with hundreds of players online at a time. \n\nMost of the players who threatened/attempted to DDOS our server/s didn't have a reason other than being immature kids who think they're the shit because they can put the server IP in a program they didn't even write and lag/crash it. \n\nThey seem not to realize that it's illegal and if I had pursued legal action and logged all the packets coming in from their IPs that they didn't even bother to hide with a VPN or anything, they could potentially be in a lot of trouble. \n\nIn short, they really have nothing to gain, they're just stupid kids who have nothing better to do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41863312",
"title": "Hit-and-run DDoS",
"section": "Section::::Method of attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "A DDoS attack is characterized by an explicit attempt by attackers to prevent legitimate users of a service from using that service. A hit-and-run DDoS is accomplished by using high volume network or application attacks in short bursts. The attacks only last long enough to bring down the server hosting the service, normally 20 to 60 minutes. The attack is then repeated every 12 to 24 hours over a period of days or weeks, causing issues for the company hosting the service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "863095",
"title": "Internet security",
"section": "Section::::Threats.:Denial-of-service attacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Another way of understanding DDoS is seeing it as attacks in cloud computing environment that are growing due to the essential characteristics of cloud computing. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted efforts to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all, temporarily or indefinitely. According to businesses who participated in an international business security survey, 25% of respondents experienced a DoS attack in 2007 and 16.8% experienced one in 2010. DoS attacks often use bots (or a botnet) to carry out the attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44819167",
"title": "Lizard Squad",
"section": "Section::::Distributed denial-of-service attacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when numerous systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. Such an attack is often the result of multiple systems (for example a botnet) flooding the targeted system with traffic. When a server is overloaded with connections, new connections can no longer be accepted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39776",
"title": "Denial-of-service attack",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Application layer attacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1091,
"text": "An application layer DDoS attack (sometimes referred to as layer 7 DDoS attack) is a form of DDoS attack where attackers target application-layer processes. The attack over-exercises specific functions or features of a website with the intention to disable those functions or features. This application-layer attack is different from an entire network attack, and is often used against financial institutions to distract IT and security personnel from security breaches. In 2013, application-layer DDoS attacks represented 20% of all DDoS attacks. According to research by Akamai Technologies, there have been \"51 percent more application layer attacks\" from Q4 2013 to Q4 2014 and \"16 percent more\" from Q3 2014 over Q4 2014. In November 2017; Junade Ali, a Computer Scientist at Cloudflare noted that whilst network-level attacks continue to be of high capacity, they are occurring less frequently. Ali further notes that although network-level attacks are becoming less frequent, data from Cloudflare demonstrates that application-layer attacks are still showing no sign of slowing down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35283922",
"title": "DDoS mitigation",
"section": "Section::::Methods of attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "DDoS attacks are executed against websites and networks of selected victims. A number of vendors are offering \"DDoS resistant\" hosting services, mostly based on techniques similar to content delivery networks. Distribution avoids single point of congestion and prevents the DDoS attack from concentrating on a single target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39776",
"title": "Denial-of-service attack",
"section": "Section::::Attack techniques.:Distributed DoS attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when multiple systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. Such an attack is often the result of multiple compromised systems (for example, a botnet) flooding the targeted system with traffic. A botnet is a network of zombie computers programmed to receive commands without the owners' knowledge. When a server is overloaded with connections, new connections can no longer be accepted. The major advantages to an attacker of using a distributed denial-of-service attack are that multiple machines can generate more attack traffic than one machine, multiple attack machines are harder to turn off than one attack machine, and that the behavior of each attack machine can be stealthier, making it harder to track and shut down. These attacker advantages cause challenges for defense mechanisms. For example, merely purchasing more incoming bandwidth than the current volume of the attack might not help, because the attacker might be able to simply add more attack machines. This, after all, will end up completely crashing a website for periods of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3369375",
"title": "Cyberwarfare",
"section": "Section::::Types of threat.:Sabotage.:Denial-of-service attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Perpetrators of DoS attacks typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root nameservers. DoS attacks may not be limited to computer-based methods, as strategic physical attacks against infrastructure can be just as devastating. For example, cutting undersea communication cables may severely cripple some regions and countries with regards to their information warfare ability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16boo4
|
Is there a limit to the number of immunity genes bacteria can carry?
|
[
{
"answer": "Now theoretically, there must be a physical limit to the quantity of DNA that can be present in a typically sized bacterial cell (or any cell, for that matter). However, realistically it's probably never ever going to occur, due to the huge, vast quantities of DNA that can fit in one cell. The ameboid Polychaos dubium has the largest known genome of any organism (670 gigabases, that's 670,000,000,000 bases). Your average bacteria has a genome of 1mb to 10mb (megabase), and even though an amoeba cell is much bigger than your average bacterium, it can't account for such a discrepancy.\n\n(Interestingly, there's absolutely no correlation between genome size and organism complexity - we only have about 3.2 gigabases in our genome.)\n\nAnd even if you could overload a cell with DNA, the chance of it occurring in evolution is just as low - without a selection pressure genes are lost by neutral evolution and a number of other mechanisms. Unless we keep using ever bigger cocktails of antibiotics, and never retire old antibiotics even though they don't work anymore, then bacteria will not maintain every single resistance gene.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the absence of an antibiotic, a resistance gene actually gives that particular bacterium a *disadvantage* -- at the very least, it's extra genetic material that must be copied for each replication, and some mechanisms of resistance actually harm the overall function of the bug (ex. much slower ribosomal function, but gain resistance to macrolide antibiotics).\n\nIt's more of a game of cat and mouse. Instead of carrying around a library of resistance genes, pathogens exist in populations where only a subset are resistant to antibiotics. The few resistant organisms grow out when a particular antibiotic is used, forcing the use of a different antibiotic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35629150",
"title": "Bacterial genome",
"section": "Section::::Theories of bacterial genome evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Given that over 80% of almost all of the fully sequenced bacterial genomes consist of intact ORFs, and that gene length is nearly constant at ~1 kb per gene, it is inferred that small genomes have few metabolic capabilities. While free-living bacteria, such as \"E. coli\", \"Salmonella\" species, or \"Bacillus\" species, usually have 1500 to 6000 proteins encoded in their DNA, obligately pathogenic bacteria often have as few as 500 to 1000 such proteins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "496312",
"title": "Nuclease",
"section": "Section::::Site recognition.:Sequence specific nuclease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "There are more than 900 restriction enzymes, some sequence specific and some not, have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria since the initial discovery of \"Hind\"II. These restriction enzymes generally have names that reflect their origin—The first letter of the name comes from the genus and the second two letters come from the species of the prokaryotic cell from which they were isolated. For example, \"Eco\"RI comes from Escherichia coli RY13 bacteria, while HindII comes from Haemophilus influenzae strain Rd. Numbers following the nuclease names indicate the order in which the enzymes were isolated from single strains of bacteria: \"Eco\"RI, \"Eco\"RII.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35629150",
"title": "Bacterial genome",
"section": "Section::::Horizontal gene transfer.:Mechanisms of lateral transfer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "New genes may be introduced into bacteria by a bacteriophage that has replicated within a donor through generalized transduction or specialized transduction. The amount of DNA that can be transmitted in one event is constrained by the size of the phage capsid (although the upper limit is about 100 kilobases). While phages are numerous in the environment, the range of microorganisms that can be transduced depends on receptor recognition by the bacteriophage. Transduction does not require both donor and recipient cells to be present simultaneously in time nor space. Phage-encoded proteins both mediate the transfer of DNA into the recipient cytoplasm and assist integration of DNA into the chromosome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10893579",
"title": "Clavibacter michiganensis",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Recently, two strains of this bacteria - subsp. \"sepidonicum\" and subsp. \"michiganensis\" - have had their genomes sequenced and annotated. There is still much to discover about this pathogen-host interaction but now that the genome has been sequenced, the rate of discoveries will likely increase. One of the main goals pertaining to research of these bacterial genomes is to develop resistant varieties. Unfortunately, no resistant varieties have yet been found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9028799",
"title": "Bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Bacteria genomes usually encode a few hundred to a few thousand genes. The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA and although several different types of introns do exist in bacteria, these are much rarer than in eukaryotes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1914",
"title": "Antimicrobial resistance",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms and organisms.:Bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 1846,
"text": "Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics; for example, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics due to the presence of β-lactamase. Antibiotic resistance can also be acquired as a result of either genetic mutation or horizontal gene transfer. Although mutations are rare, with spontaneous mutations in the pathogen genome occurring at a rate of about 1 in 10 to 1 in 10 per chromosomal replication, the fact that bacteria reproduce at a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. Given that lifespans and production of new generations can be on a timescale of mere hours, a new (de novo) mutation in a parent cell can quickly become an inherited mutation of widespread prevalence, resulting in the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. However, chromosomal mutations also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but will also slow protein synthesis. manifesting, in slower growth rate. Moreover, some adaptive mutations can propagate not only through inheritance but also through horizontal gene transfer. The most common mechanism of horizontal gene transfer is the transferring of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria of the same or different species via conjugation. However, bacteria can also acquire resistance through transformation, as in \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" uptaking of naked fragments of extracellular DNA that contain antibiotic resistance genes to streptomycin, through transduction, as in the bacteriophage-mediated transfer of tetracycline resistance genes between strains of \"S. pyogenes\", or through gene transfer agents, which are particles produced by the host cell that resemble bacteriophage structures and are capable of transferring DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35629150",
"title": "Bacterial genome",
"section": "Section::::Theories of bacterial genome evolution.:Deletional bias.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Obligatory parasites and symbionts have the smallest genome sizes due to prolonged effects of deletional bias. Parasites which have evolved to occupy specific niches are not exposed to much selective pressure. As such, genetic drift dominates the evolution of niche-specific bacteria. Extended exposure to deletional bias ensures the removal of most superfluous sequences. Symbionts occur in drastically lower numbers and undergo the most severe bottlenecks of any bacterial type. There is almost no opportunity for gene transfer for endosymbiotic bacteria, and thus genome compaction can be extreme. One of the smallest bacterial genomes ever to be sequenced is that of the endosymbiont \"Carsonella rudii\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
evlrcl
|
what has the large hadron collider discovered exactly?
|
[
{
"answer": "First off : sorry for my approximate English, I am not native. \n\nSo I'll try to make this as 5years old friendly as possible. You probably know that everything around you is made of matter, which is made of atoms. Basically little lego bricks that together form your Millenium falcon. \n\nOne of the many things they try to discover (it recently stopped for some upgrading) is what are those Lego bricks made off. Small constituants of the Lego bricks. One of the most famous discoveries was the hygg's boson. \n\nI don't know much about the subject but if I recall correctly they discovered so far that there are 13 smaller bricks that intervienne in the making of matter. \n\nWhat's incredible is that some of them seem to \"exists\" for very limited periods of time. They have thousands of very sophisticated cameras taking photos of what happens when they collide theses particules. It's like taking photos of your Millenium falcon when you smash it very quickly with a Groot replica made of Legos too.\n\nBy taking photos of the bricks that flew everywhere, you basically have an idea of what was used to make your construction in the first place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many things. Too many to list and explain individually (many are very technical and incapable of being eli5'd), but the biggest thing, and in many ways the thing the LHC was built to discover, was is the [Higgs boson](_URL_0_). At the time of the construction of the LHC, the Higgs boson was a theorized and predicted yet undiscovered elementary particle that was a big missing piece in quantum physics. The confirmed discovery of the Higgs boson was hugely significant and answered a ton of questions in particle physics while also creating new questions for us to answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The lhc is used in many different experiments, all trying to explain how particles interact at high energies.\n\nThe most important discovery is the Brout-Englert-Higgs particle an field. The particle was theorised decades ago as a solution to why the bosons for the weak nuclear force have mass. According to the symmetries that should apply to all force-bosons they can't have a mass. The theory explained how the symmetry can be broken at \"low\" energies. It also splits the electro-weak force in a electric force and a weak force. It also gives mass to the elementary fermions (do note that most of the mass of a proton/neutron/all matter is not from the individual elementary particles but from their interactions)\n\nDiscovering the higgs particle was nescecary to vallidate quantum field theory.\n\n\nTheir are many other experiments done at LHC, a lot of them trying to prove string theory and/or suppersymetry wich could solve some of the last problems we have with field theory and gravity.\n\nOne of the problems at LHC is the amount of data that needs to processed. For every usefull interaction there are billions of useless interactions. For them to find something new they need to have a good theory to test so they know what events they should look. This makes it really hard to test all possible theories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok here we go! Just my way of explaining but ....They discovered how things that have mass actually get that feeling of having mass from an invisible field. You know how magnets work over a distance even though we don’t see anything really “touching”. Well, the same should be true for anything with stuff, such as your phone or stuffed animal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Slightly meta here, but are there explanations here that are not just about the Higgs Boson? There are plenty of other discoveries, but leaving it as just \"Too many to list and explain\" is not helping us understand much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone explain what they discovered that's not the Higgs Boson particle?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Atoms are like bouncy balls, they much prefer to repel eachother and bounce off than hit eachother hard enough to smash themselves to pieces. You basically have to get two bouncys to directly hit head on at insane speeds to see inside them. When you do get a bouncy ball to smash itself into pieces all the little bits go flying into the walls and by looking at all the little pieces that hit the wall we can see what bouncy balls are made of. Turns out they are made of more smaller bouncy balls which like to recombine into a stable bouncy ball and not stay as little bouncy bits",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some good answers here w.r.t discoveries made. One thing to remember is that the LHC was built to run experiments. So more than discovering something (like the Hubble finding a new galaxy/star) the LCH allows physicist to check their theories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides what's already been mentioned, also think of all the equipment that was developed to even build the LHC.\n\nMany of these developments are making their way into industries. The detectors for example. They are now used in x-ray scanners that produce colored images. Medical imaging and non-destructive testing:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Different types of little things which make up or interact with the things which make up the things that allows us to be made in to things",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The original purpose for the LHC was to discover the Higgs. The Higgs boson is an incredibly important particle to our understanding of particle physics, and without it, the standard model of particle physics has some pretty severe problems. The discovery of the Higgs at the LHC was a huge discovery and the most publicized.\n\nAnother pretty interesting discovery is that of the pentaquark. Basically, our understanding of the strong nuclear force told us that this type of particle should exist and the LHC has confirmed the existence of (multiple) pentaquarks. \n\nIt also contributes to our understanding of whether or not certain symmetries in our universe are violated. For example, according to the standard model, there are three particles (the electron, muon, and tau lepton) which should basically be identical in every way except their mass. This means that in certain processes, all three should be produced in equal amounts. However, the LHC has been noticing a tendency for some to be preferred over others (it isn't statistically significant yet, but there definitely appears to be a trend). This would be an important indication of new physics. \n\nThe LHC also has the capability of discovering dark matter, depending on the behavior of dark matter. \n\nSo in short, the LHC has been an incredibly important too in both confirming and pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the natural world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Harry Cliff did a really interesting, informative and accessible talk on the LHC at the Royal Institution. It has sort of a dummies guide to particle physics. _URL_0_ I highly recommend it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really an answer, but I got to tour the Atlas Detector last summer and I brought my big B & W film camera (shoots 6x7cm negatives). [Here's a print](_URL_0_), it was cool to be standing in front of one of the most advanced, modern things on earth and shoot it with a 1970's camera. Such an awesome day!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Physicists at the LHC have had the privilege of being able to explore the properties of nature at higher energies than ever before, and they did indeed find something profound: *nothing new*. \n\nIt's perhaps the one thing that no one predicted 30 years ago when the LHC was first conceived. The collisions have so far conjured up no particles at all beyond those catalogued in the standard model of particle physics. \n\nNo particles that could comprise dark matter, no siblings or cousins of the Higgs boson, no sign of extra dimensions, no leptoquarks - and above all, none of the [desperately sought supersymmetry particles](_URL_1_) that would round out equations and satisfy \"naturalness\", a deep principle about how the laws of nature ought to work. \n\nThe lack of new physics keeps deepening the crisis that started in 2012 during the LHC’s first run, when it became clear that its 8-TeV collisions would not generate any new physics beyond the Standard Model. (The Higgs boson was the Standard Model’s final puzzle piece, rather than an extension of it.) \n\nA white-knight particle could still show up as statistics accrue over a longer time scale, subtle surprises in the behavior of the known particles could indirectly hint at new physics. But theorists are increasingly bracing themselves for their “nightmare scenario,” in which the LHC offers no path at all toward a more complete theory of nature. \n\nQuanta Magazine has been following and writing on this crisis that more and more physicists are realizing they're facing: \n\n[A Fight for the Soul of Science](_URL_0_) \n[What No New Particles Means for Physics](_URL_2_) (recommend this one)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the medical field, they use smaller versions of particle accelerators to create 'markers' for identifying certain cancerous cells that can later be targeted for treatments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dammit! Why am I always late to posts that I can actually answer?!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " \n\n## What are the main achievements of the LHC so far?\n\n* **10 September 2008**: LHC first beam (see [press release](_URL_8_)) \n \n* **23 November 2009**: LHC first collisions (see [press release](_URL_0_)) \n \n* **30 November 2009**: world record with beam energy of 1.18 TeV (see [press release](_URL_17_)) \n \n* **16 December 2009**: world record with collisions at 2.36 TeV and significant quantities of data recorded (see [press release](_URL_7_)) \n \n* **March 2010**: first beams at 3.5 TeV (19 March) and first high energy collisions at 7 TeV (30 March) (see [press release](_URL_12_)) \n \n* **8 November 2010**: LHC first lead-ion beams (see [press release](_URL_9_)) \n \n* **22 April 2011**: LHC sets new world record beam intensity (see [press release](_URL_2_)) \n \n* **5 April 2012**: First collisions at 8 TeV (see [press release](_URL_1_)) \n \n* **4 July 2012:** Announcement of the discovery of a Higgs-like particle at CERN (see [press release](_URL_11_))***For more information about the Higgs boson:*** \n[*The Higgs boson*](_URL_6_) \n[*CERN and the Higgs boson*](_URL_13_) \n[*The Basics of the Higgs boson*](_URL_10_) \n[*How standard is the Higgs boson discovered in 2012?*](_URL_15_) \n[*Higgs update 4 July*](_URL_14_) \n \n* **28 September 2012**: [Tweet](_URL_5_) from CERN: \"*The LHC has reached its target for 2012 by delivering 15 fb-1 (around a million billion collisions) to ATLAS and CMS* \" \n \n* **14 February 2013**: At 7.24 a.m, the last beams for physics were absorbed into the LHC, marking the end of Run 1 and the beginning of the Long Shutdown 1 (see [press release](_URL_4_)) \n \n* **8 October 2013**: Physics Nobel prize to François Englert and Peter Higgs *“for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider*” (see [press release](_URL_3_))\n\nSee [LHC Milestones](_URL_16_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm certain it has made discoveries. But the biggest thing it has done is confirm hypotheses predicted by advanced quantum mechanics. Thus, it has pushed the validity of quantum mechanics further. A very big deal, really",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the thing the LHC was build to discover is the [Higgs boson](_URL_0_). At the time of the construction of the LHC, the scientists imagined the Higgs boson to exist, but never saw it and could not be certain it existed.\nThe LHC was able to prove the Higgs boson exist and helped answered a ton of questions in for scientists while also creating new questions for us to answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2772736",
"title": "Intersecting Storage Rings",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "The ISR (standing for \"Intersecting Storage Rings\") was a particle accelerator at CERN. It was the world's first hadron collider, and ran from 1971 to 1984, with a maximum center of mass energy of 62 GeV. From its initial startup, the collider itself had the capability to produce particles like the J/ψ and the upsilon, as well as observable jet structure; however, the particle detector experiments were not configured to observe events with large momentum transverse to the beamline, leaving these discoveries to be made at other experiments in the mid-1970s. Nevertheless, the construction of the ISR involved many advances in accelerator physics, including the first use of stochastic cooling, and it held the record for luminosity at a hadron collider until surpassed by the Tevatron in 2004.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "596405",
"title": "Collider",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "In 1966, work began on the Intersecting Storage Rings at CERN, and in 1971, this collider was operational. The ISR was a pair of storage rings that accumulated particles injected by the CERN Proton Synchrotron. This was the first hadron collider, as all of the earlier efforts had worked with electrons or with electrons and positrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45038605",
"title": "LHeC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The Large Hadron Electron Collider (LHeC) is an accelerator study for a possible upgrade of the existing LHC storage ring - the currently highest energy proton accelerator operating at CERN in Geneva. By adding to the proton accelerator ring a new electron accelerator, the LHeC would enable the investigation of electron-proton and electron-ion collisions at unprecedented high energies and rate, much higher than had been possible at the electron-proton collider HERA at DESY at Hamburg, which terminated its operation in 2007. The LHeC has therefore a unique program of research, as on the substructure of the proton and nuclei or the physics of the newly discovered Higgs boson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::History.:Experimental search.:Search before 4 July 2012.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "The Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland, was designed specifically to be able to either confirm or exclude the existence of the Higgs boson. Built in a 27 km tunnel under the ground near Geneva originally inhabited by LEP, it was designed to collide two beams of protons, initially at energies of per beam (7 TeV total), or almost 3.6 times that of the Tevatron, and upgradeable to (14 TeV total) in future. Theory suggested if the Higgs boson existed, collisions at these energy levels should be able to reveal it. As one of the most complicated scientific instruments ever built, its operational readiness was delayed for 14 months by a magnet quench event nine days after its inaugural tests, caused by a faulty electrical connection that damaged over 50 superconducting magnets and contaminated the vacuum system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849375",
"title": "Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC ) is the first and one of only two operating heavy-ion colliders, and the only spin-polarized proton collider ever built. Located at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in Upton, New York, and used by an international team of researchers, it is the only operating particle collider in the US. By using RHIC to collide ions traveling at relativistic speeds, physicists study the primordial form of matter that existed in the universe shortly after the Big Bang. By colliding spin-polarized protons, the spin structure of the proton is explored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1285524",
"title": "LHCb experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "The LHCb (Large Hadron Collider beauty) experiment is one of seven particle physics detector experiments collecting data at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. LHCb is a specialized b-physics experiment, designed primarily to measure the parameters of CP violation in the interactions of b-hadrons (heavy particles containing a bottom quark). Such studies can help to explain the matter-antimatter asymmetry of the Universe. The detector is also able to perform measurements of production cross sections, exotic hadron spectroscopy, charm physics and electroweak physics in the forward region. The LHCb collaboration, who built, operate and analyse data from the experiment, is composed of approximately 1260 people from 74 scientific institutes, representing 16 countries. As of 2017, the spokesperson for the collaboration is Giovanni Passaleva. The experiment is located at point 8 on the LHC tunnel close to Ferney-Voltaire, France just over the border from Geneva. The (small) MoEDAL experiment shares the same cavern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23259",
"title": "Particle physics",
"section": "Section::::Experimental laboratories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "BULLET::::- CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (Franco-Swiss border, near Geneva). Its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the world's most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions. Earlier facilities include the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP), which was stopped on 2 November 2000 and then dismantled to give way for LHC; and the Super Proton Synchrotron, which is being reused as a pre-accelerator for the LHC and for fixed-target experiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qtf5b
|
how come it's always night on moon and you can see the space as it is?
|
[
{
"answer": "The colour of the sky is caused by sunlight light bouncing around within the atmosphere. At night, on earth, there's no sunlight so it appears black.\n\nOn the moon there's no atmosphere, so whether or not there's any sunlight, it still appears black.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Earth has an atmosphere of mostly nitrogen and oxygen gas and this air scatters blue light. Likewise, Mars' atmosphere scatters different wavelengths of light because of the gases it contains, giving it a different hue. \n\nThe moon has basically [no atmosphere,](_URL_0_) so there's no gas to scatter any light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the Earth didn't have an atmosphere, we too would have a black sky at daytime (also we wouldn't be able to breath, so that would be bad :P). The air scatters some if the light from the sun, making it seem to glow blue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the moon has night and day just like us. light is whereever the sun shines. and the moon rotates just like the earth. now the moon doesn't have any atmosphere like the earth does so they don't have any reflections of light. The earth's atmosphere sort of breaks up the waves of color in a similar fashion as a prism. But blue being the shortest wavelength is actually the easiest color to see in the sky. The moon doesn't have any of that in the sky it's basically moon surface and space. so you see only the darkness of space as you look out from the moon",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "997476",
"title": "Night sky",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The term night sky, usually associated with astronomy from Earth, refers to the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195193",
"title": "Sky",
"section": "Section::::During the night.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The term night sky refers to the sky as seen at night. The term is usually associated with skygazing and astronomy, with reference to views of celestial bodies such as stars, the Moon, and planets that become visible on a clear night after the Sun has set. Natural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night can be easily observed. Were the sky (in the absence of moon and city lights) absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "518306",
"title": "Kigo",
"section": "Section::::Seasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "It may be less obvious why the \"moon\" (\"tsuki\") is an autumn kigo, since it is visible year round. In autumn the days become shorter and the nights longer, yet they are still warm enough to stay outside, so one is more likely to notice the moon. Often, the night sky will be free of clouds in autumn, with the moon visible. The full moon can help farmers work after the sun goes down to harvest their crops (a \"harvest moon\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5473867",
"title": "Near side of the Moon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The Moon is directly illuminated by the Sun, and the cyclically varying viewing conditions cause the lunar phases. Sometimes the dark portion of the Moon is faintly visible due to earthshine, which is indirect sunlight reflected from the surface of Earth and onto the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11432",
"title": "Full moon",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Full moon is generally a suboptimal time for astronomical observation of the Moon because shadows vanish. It is a poor time for other observations because the bright sunlight reflected by the Moon, amplified by the opposition surge, then outshines many stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36839199",
"title": "Wide-Eye",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Guests/Mentioned.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Moon - A real, faceless, silent moon which appears every night of the year in Natterjack Forest. The moon is not always seen in the sky, but its only role is to brighten up the darkness in the forest between Dusk and Dawn every day of the year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "997476",
"title": "Night sky",
"section": "Section::::Visual presentation.:The Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Earth's Moon is a grey disc in the sky with cratering visible to the naked eye. It spans, depending on its exact location, 29-33 arcminutes - which is about the size of a thumbnail at arm's length, and is readily identified. Over 27.3 days, the moon goes through a full cycle of lunar phases. People can generally identify phases within a few days by looking at the moon. Unlike stars and most planets, the light reflected from the moon is bright enough to be seen during the day. (Venus can sometimes be seen even after sunrise.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tid9j
|
Oil and natural gas come from decomposing ancient life. But how did these substances get so far beneath the surface of the Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "They get buried. Sediments get deposited on top of them, from processes such as sand dunes, rivers, volcanic eruptions, ocean deposits, and such.\n\nOnce you pile a bunch of sediments over a landscape, the landscape sinks from the weight, which often allows for more sediments to be piled on top. Nearby continents (or volcanoes or mountain ranges) are often long-term supplies of material that can be eroded/erupted and layered on offshore ocean floors or on top of surrounding landscapes. \n\nSedimentary layers can be many kilometers thick if left to accumulate over long enough time spans, so any organic material that is deposited within those layers has a chance of being buried deep enough to form oil or natural gas deposits (although the vast majority of oil and natural gas deposits come from marine deposits, and so are at least initially buried by marine sediments).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48146",
"title": "Fossil fuel",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as a result of anaerobic decomposition. Over geological time this organic matter, mixed with mud, became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high levels of heat and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen which is found in oil shales, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. Despite these heat driven transformations (which may increase the energy density compared to typical organic matter), the embedded energy is still photosynthetic in origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40839046",
"title": "Reservoir fluids",
"section": "Section::::Hydrocarbon liquids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Hydrocarbon liquids such as Crude oil found in oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the left-over of once-living creatures. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2536075",
"title": "Oil depletion",
"section": "Section::::Resource availability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "The World's natural oil supply is fixed because petroleum is naturally formed far too slowly to be replaced at the rate at which it is being extracted. Over many millions of years, plankton, bacteria, and other plant and animal matter became buried in sediments on the ocean floor. When conditions were right – a lack of oxygen for decomposition, and sufficient depth and temperature of burial – these organic remains were converted into petroleum compounds, while the sediment accompanying them was converted into sandstone, siltstone, and other porous sedimentary rock. When capped by impermeable rocks such as shale, salt, or igneous intrusions, they formed the petroleum reservoirs which are exploited today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18955999",
"title": "Desert",
"section": "Section::::Human relations.:Natural resource extraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Oil and gas form on the bottom of shallow seas when micro-organisms decompose under anoxic conditions and later become covered with sediment. Many deserts were at one time the sites of shallow seas and others have had underlying hydrocarbon deposits transported to them by the movement of tectonic plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646478",
"title": "Abiogenic petroleum origin",
"section": "Section::::Overview hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Some abiogenic hypotheses have proposed that oil and gas did not originate from fossil deposits, but have instead originated from deep carbon deposits, present since the formation of the Earth. Additionally, it has been suggested that hydrocarbons may have arrived on Earth from solid bodies such as comets and asteroids from the late formation of the Solar System, carrying hydrocarbons with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2016067",
"title": "Petrochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "It may be possible to make petroleum from any kind of organic matter under suitable conditions. The concentration of organic matter is not very high in the original deposits, but petroleum and natural gas evolved in places that favored retention, such as sealed-off porous sandstones. Petroleum, produced over millions of years by natural changes in organic materials, accumulates beneath the earth's surface in extremely large quantities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2910801",
"title": "Petroleum reservoir",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Crude oil is found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the remains of once-living things. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8g9uxs
|
Do fingerprints change as you age? For instance if your fingerprinted at 5 years old will it have any similarity to your fingerprints at 20?
|
[
{
"answer": "The pattern won't change. You can get a scar that would show up on newer prints that wouldn't show up on older prints. It shouldn't affect identification of a print.\n\nYou can still ID the prints by matching loops, whirls, and arches.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "84777",
"title": "Fingerprint",
"section": "Section::::Absence or mutilation of fingerprints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Since the elasticity of skin decreases with age, many senior citizens have fingerprints that are difficult to capture. The ridges get thicker; the height between the top of the ridge and the bottom of the furrow gets narrow, so there is less prominence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40854066",
"title": "Epigenetic clock",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The strong effects of age on DNA methylation levels have been known since the late 1960s. A vast literature describes sets of CpGs whose DNA methylation levels correlate with age, e.g. The first robust demonstration that DNA methylation levels in saliva could generate accurate age predictors was published by a UCLA team including Steve Horvath in 2011 (Bocklandt et al 2011). The labs of Trey Ideker and Kang Zhang at the University of California, San Diego published the Hannum epigenetic clock (Hannum 2013), which consisted of 71 markers that accurately estimate age based on blood methylation levels. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "749745",
"title": "Aging brain",
"section": "Section::::Structural changes.:DNA damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "At least 25 studies have demonstrated that DNA damage accumulates with age in the mammalian brain. This DNA damage includes the oxidized nucleoside 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), single- and double-strand breaks, DNA-protein crosslinks and malondialdehyde adducts (reviewed in Bernstein et al.). Increasing DNA damage with age has been reported in the brains of the mouse, rat, gerbil, rabbit, dog, and human. Young 4-day-old rats have about 3,000 single-strand breaks and 156 double-strand breaks per neuron, whereas in rats older than 2 years the level of damage increases to about 7,400 single-strand breaks and 600 double-strand breaks per neuron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "749745",
"title": "Aging brain",
"section": "Section::::Structural changes.:DNA damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Lu et al. studied the transcriptional profiles of the human frontal cortex of individuals ranging from 26 to 106 years of age. This led to the identification of a set of genes whose expression was altered after age 40. They further found that the promoter sequences of these particular genes accumulated oxidative DNA damage, including 8-OHdG, with age (see DNA damage theory of aging). They concluded that DNA damage may reduce the expression of selectively vulnerable genes involved in learning, memory and neuronal survival, initiating a pattern of brain aging that starts early in life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137227",
"title": "DNA methylation",
"section": "Section::::In mammals.:In aging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "In a study that analyzed the complete DNA methylomes of CD4 T cells in a newborn, a 26 years old individual and a 103 years old individual was observed that the loss of methylation is proportional to age. Hypomethylated CpGs observed in the centenarian DNAs compared with the neonates covered all genomic compartments (promoters, intergenic, intronic and exonic regions). However, some genes become hypermethylated with age, including genes for the estrogen receptor, p16, and insulin-like growth factor 2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41111089",
"title": "Epigenetic regulation of neurogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Epigenetic regulation in the brain.:Epigenetic misregulation and neurological disorders.:Alzheimer's disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "DNA methylation's age relation has been further investigated in the promoter regions of several Alzheimer's related genes in the brains of postmortem late-onset Alzheimer's disease patients. The older patients seem to have more abnormal epigenetic machinery than the younger patients, despite the fact that both had died from Alzheimer's. Though this in of itself is not conclusive evidence of anything, it has led to an age-related epigenetic drift theory where abnormalities in epigenetic machinery and exposure to certain environmental factors which occur earlier in life lead to aberrant DNA methylation patterns far later, contributing to sporadic Alzheimer's Disease predisposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38585689",
"title": "Thai identity card",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "In 2011, the government led by Abhisit Vejjajiva proposed that the minimum age for identification card should be reduced from 15 to 7 years, in order to reduce the use of birth certificate and other evidences for children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3d7nhh
|
why is it safe to put some chemicals like hydrogen peroxide on open wounds, but not to ingest them?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not just about getting into your blood, it also has to do with the way it's broken down in your body, and what it comes in contact with along the way. That said, most things that would be poisonous to rub on a wound are also poisonous to ingest.\n\nHydrogen peroxide at the concentrations you'd use on a cut is actually pretty harmless if ingested, too. It'll jack up your stomach, but that's about it. At the end of the day, though, the dose makes the poison (repeat that about a thousand times a day and maybe you'll ward off the crazy people like Vani Hari). If you ingest enough hydrogen peroxide, yeah, it'll still kill you. But it would be a *lot* more than you'd be exposed to just pouring on a cut. And if the concentration were high enough, it would kill you to drink it pretty quick, but at those concentrations it'll burn the shit out of your skin, too.\n\nAnother example would be, say, urushiol, which is the chemical on poison ivy that makes you itch. If it gets on your skin, you itch, it sucks, probably won't kill you unless something weird happens. But if you swallow it, it's exceedingly dangerous, but not because it gets in your blood. It hits your esophagus and causes it to itch and burn (just like your arm), and swell. Which can lead to suffocating! Or if you *burn* poison ivy (which you should never never never do) the urushiol gets into your **lungs**...and then the itching and swelling, and super bad things happen to your very delicate lungs.\n\nThen there's snake venom: will kill the shit out of you if you get it [in your blood](_URL_0_), but it's actually mostly harmless to ingest. Mind, if your esophagus is cut, the venom can enter your blood stream that way, but if it gets into your stomach, your acid breaks it down so it can't actually hurt you.\n\nThere are some chemicals (that I can't think of at the moment) that affect your stomach acid chemistry, which can kill you. There are even some that kill you WITH your stomach acid by destroying your stomach lining so your own acid hurts your stomach.\n\nSo that's the long version. The short version is: everything is made of chemicals, different chemicals interact differently. Some things are only poisonous in large amounts that you won't get from a cut, or only kill you when interacting with your stomach.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was under the impression that hydrogen peroxide is no longer recommended for open wounds because it delays the healing process.\n\nRegardless, ingestion and topical use are different. Getting into the blood stream from a cut on the surface is much more difficult than going through your stomach and intestines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4873558",
"title": "Amosan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "A recent double-blind crossover study suggests that hydrogen peroxide, which is released during the use of this product, may prevent or retard colonization and multiplication of anaerobic bacteria, such as those that inhabit oral wounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39714111",
"title": "Bocasan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "A 1979 double-blind crossover study suggests that hydrogen peroxide, which is released during the use of this product, may prevent or retard colonization and multiplication of anaerobic bacteria, such as those that inhabit oral wounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14403",
"title": "Hydrogen peroxide",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Disinfectant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Historically hydrogen peroxide was used for disinfecting wounds, partly because of its low cost and prompt availability compared to other antiseptics. It is now thought to inhibit healing and to induce scarring because it destroys newly formed skin cells. Only a very low concentration of HO can induce healing, and only if not repeatedly applied. Surgical use can lead to gas embolism formation. Despite this, it is still used for wound treatment in many countries but is also prevalent as a major first aid antiseptic in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5910",
"title": "Cyanide",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The most hazardous compound is hydrogen cyanide, which is a gas and kills by inhalation. For this reason, an air respirator supplied by an external oxygen source must be worn when working with hydrogen cyanide. Hydrogen cyanide is produced by adding acid to a solution containing a cyanide salt. Alkaline solutions of cyanide are safer to use because they do not evolve hydrogen cyanide gas. Hydrogen cyanide may be produced in the combustion of polyurethanes; for this reason, polyurethanes are not recommended for use in domestic and aircraft furniture. Oral ingestion of a small quantity of solid cyanide or a cyanide solution as little as 200 mg, or exposure to airborne cyanide of 270 ppm, is sufficient to cause death within minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14403",
"title": "Hydrogen peroxide",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Hydrogen peroxide, either in pure or diluted form, can pose several risks, the main one being that it forms explosive mixtures upon contact with organic compounds. Highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide itself is unstable and can cause a boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) of the remaining liquid. Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is thus highly dangerous. It is also corrosive, especially when concentrated, but even domestic-strength solutions can cause irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes and skin. Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (10 times the volume of a 3% solution), leading to internal bloating. Inhaling over 10% can cause severe pulmonary irritation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1145905",
"title": "Tooth whitening",
"section": "Section::::Risks.:Irritation of mucous membranes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Hydrogen peroxide is an irritant and cytotoxic. Hydrogen peroxide with concentrations of 10% or higher can cause tissue damage, be corrosive to mucous membranes and cause burning sensation to the skin. Chemical burns can commonly occur whilst bleaching, irritation and discolouration of the mucous membranes may occur if a high concentration of oxidising agent comes in to contact with unprotected tissue. Poorly fitting bleaching trays are amongst the most common reasons to cause chemical burns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "313295",
"title": "Cauterization",
"section": "Section::::Chemical cautery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Many chemical reactions can destroy tissue, and some are used routinely in medicine , most commonly to remove small skin lesions such as warts or necrotized tissue , or for hemostasis . Because chemicals can leach into areas not intended for cauterization, laser and electrical methods are preferable where practical . Some cauterizing agents are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ogozs
|
how is seo used to generate high website traffic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically makes your website show up better in search engines. Let's say you search for Socks on Google, the websites with better SEO are going to be showing higher up over websites with worst SEO",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "SEO is a complex topic, so bare with me.\n\n* Who is your audience, professors and business or students too lazy to write their own stuff? You need to address that on your site because there may be legal issues you need to deal with that affect your Google ranking. Google isn't likely to put you at the top if your audience is students.\n\n* 50% of your visits are wasted visits, people with just enough interest to visit but not enough to stay more than a few seconds because they ran across your site in the process of some higher priority activity. Thus, the Pareto Principle applies, where 20% of your visitors generate 80% of your repeat traffic. So focus on who that audience is.\n\n* The first visit is likely going to be short and visited again a bit longer if their original impression was good. Keep in mind that the most important statements you make must appear at the top within the window of a horizontal laptop screen.\n\n* SEO is all about getting Google to crawl (scan) your site regularly for changes in content, new pages, edits, updates. The more it crawls your site the better you grow in search. \n\n* Being number one in search is not what it is all about. My stats showed I got more visits being number 112 than being number 1. However, being number 112 got me a lot of visits which contain some low quality visitors, while I got a smaller volume of higher-quality visitors being number 1 who will be repeat visitors. So listed as \"map of Stanley's finding Dr. Livingstone expedition\" got me positioned at 112 and lots of visitors, but \"interactive map of Stanley's finding Dr. Livingstone expedition\" got me number 1 and a hand full of high quality visitors.\n\n* SEO involves having high-quality links to your site from articles, associations, government, universities and social media. And you need links within your site to them. So place links in comments you make on other sites, create Facebook, Google+ and Pinterest pages that link to your site.\n\n* SEO is a changing environment, thus your site must be able to be seen on laptops as well on smart phones. One is not necessarily compatible with the other. One works well with a side bar directory, the other doesn't. \n\n* You need to establish both a Google Analytics account and a WebMaster Tools account. Use the WebMaster Tools account to submit your site map to Google and submit individual URLs as well.\n\n* Category directories and subdirectories will help with your page count and make it easier for Google to understand the content.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "665789",
"title": "Web traffic",
"section": "Section::::Control.:From search engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Search engine optimization (SEO), is the ongoing practice of optimizing a website to help improve its rankings in the search engines. Several internal and external factors are involved which can help improve a site's listing within the search engines. The higher a site ranks within the search engines for a particular keyword, the more traffic they will receive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187946",
"title": "Search engine optimization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 509,
"text": "As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work, the computer programmed algorithms which dictate search engine behavior, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines, and which search engines are preferred by their targeted audience. SEO is performed because a website will receive more visitors from a search engine the higher the website ranks in the search engine results page (SERP). These visitors can then be converted into customers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22481269",
"title": "Inbound marketing",
"section": "Section::::Strategies.:Search engine optimization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Search engine optimization (SEO) is the practice of utilizing search engine best practices to improve the visibility of a website or a webpage by ranking higher in the search engine results (\"SERPS\") for keywords relevant to that particular website or webpage. There are several ways to improve a website or webpage's visibility:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555671",
"title": "Online advertising",
"section": "Section::::Delivery methods.:Search engine marketing (SEM).:Search engine optimization (SEO).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Search engine optimization, or SEO, attempts to improve a website's organic search rankings in SERPs by increasing the website content's relevance to search terms. Search engines regularly update their algorithms to penalize poor quality sites that try to game their rankings, making optimization a moving target for advertisers. Many vendors offer SEO services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47928442",
"title": "Lead validation",
"section": "Section::::Methods of Generating Leads Online.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "BULLET::::- SEO. SEO, search engine optimization, strives to make a company's online content as visible as possible on Google, Bing and other search engines in organic results for search queries relevant to its products and services. Because Google withholds organic keyword data from webmasters, accurate conversion analysis has become more important than ever in the structuring of SEO campaign tracking, since it has far more meaning than ranking data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1520204",
"title": "Google Scholar",
"section": "Section::::Search engine optimization for Google Scholar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Search engine optimization (SEO) for traditional web search engines such as Google has been popular for many years. For several years, SEO has also been applied to academic search engines such as Google Scholar. SEO for academic articles is also called \"academic search engine optimization\" (ASEO) and defined as \"the creation, publication, and modification of scholarly literature in a way that makes it easier for academic search engines to both crawl it and index it\". ASEO has been adopted by organizations such as Elsevier, OpenScience, Mendeley, and SAGE Publishing to optimize their articles' rankings in Google Scholar. ASEO has negatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187946",
"title": "Search engine optimization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "SEO refers to the improvement of \"unpaid\" results (known as \"natural\" or \"organic\" results), and excludes direct traffic/visitors and the purchase of paid placement. Primarily SEO pertains to search engine. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c2m65
|
what is i and how does i^2 = -1?
|
[
{
"answer": " > How can anything be the square root of -1?\n\nExactly. *i* is a mathematical representation of this concept. This is all just logical mathematics. *i* is for imaginary, and we are imagining some type of value that can be the square root of a negative integer.\n\nSo we say that the square root of -1 is this imaginary value we call *i*, because some math equations need *something* in order to be a placeholder for this concept. Therefore i^2 = -1. It's all rather arbitrary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is i^2 = -1? Because that is exactly how we define i!\n\nYour second question is more interesting. When your start working with squares, it isn't long before you realize that the square of any number is always a positive number. The question that follows is, then what happens when you take the square root of a negative number?\n\nWell nothing happens, the square root of a negative number just doesn't exist. Then some old random greek dude said, imagine, there is some number i whose square is -1..\n\nNow suddenly we have a way to express the square root of every negative number! square root of -25 is 5i . It turns out that the ability to express the square roots of negative numbers has very useful applications in engineering so we adopted i and kept it.\n\nBut it still remains that i has no clear significance when counting. for instance if I had i apples, what does it even mean?! For a long time, it was considered quite pointless and hence the name imaginary numbers as opposed to the other *real* numbers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[A Visual, Intuitive Guide to Imaginary Numbers](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22770",
"title": "1",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "1 (one, also called unit, unity, and (multiplicative) identity) is a number, and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. It represents a single entity, the unit of counting or measurement. For example, a line segment of \"unit length\" is a line segment of length 1. It is also the first of the infinite sequence of natural numbers, followed by 2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239699",
"title": "Quater-imaginary base",
"section": "Section::::Addition and subtraction.:Example: Addition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "In the first example we start by adding the two 1s in the first column (the \"ones' column\"), giving 2. Then we add the two 3s in the second column (the \"2\"i\"s column\"), giving 6; 6 is greater than 3, so we subtract 4 (giving 2 as the result in the second column) and carry −1 into the fourth column. Adding the 0s in the third column gives 0; and finally adding the two 1s and the carried −1 in the fourth column gives 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3912709",
"title": "Multiple (mathematics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "In some texts, \"\"a\" is a submultiple of \"b\"\" has the meaning of \"\"b\" being an integer multiple of \"a\"\". This terminology is also used with units of measurement (for example by the BIPM and NIST), where a \"submultiple\" of a main unit is a unit, named by prefixing the main unit, defined as the quotient of the main unit by an integer, mostly a power of 10. For example, a millimetre is the 1000-fold submultiple of a metre. As another example, one inch may be considered as a 12-fold submultiple of a foot, or a 36-fold submultiple of a yard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "840758",
"title": "Ext functor",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "For each integer \"i\", Ext(\"A\", \"B\") is the cohomology of this complex at position \"i\". It is zero for \"i\" negative. For example, Ext(\"A\", \"B\") is the kernel of the map Hom(\"A\", \"I\") → Hom(\"A\", \"I\"), which is isomorphic to Hom(\"A\", \"B\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48662",
"title": "Computer number format",
"section": "Section::::Representing fractions in binary.:Floating-point numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "which means \"1.1030402 times 1 followed by 5 zeroes\". We have a certain numeric value (1.1030402) known as a \"significand\", multiplied by a power of 10 (E5, meaning 10 or 100,000), known as an \"exponent\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264210",
"title": "Zero of a function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "In mathematics, a zero, also sometimes called a root, of a real-, complex- or generally vector-valued function formula_1 is a member formula_2 of the domain of formula_1 such that formula_4 \"vanishes\" at formula_2; that is, formula_2 is a solution of the equation formula_7.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17464252",
"title": "Input hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Input hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "If \"i\" represents previously acquired linguistic competence and extra-linguistic knowledge, the hypothesis claims that we move from \"i\" to \"i+1\" by understanding input that contains \"i+1\". Extra-linguistic knowledge includes our knowledge of the world and of the situation, that is, the context. The \"+1\" represents 'the next increment' of new knowledge or language structure that will be within the learner's capacity to acquire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tm013
|
What is the latest advancement/update that has been made on a 'Unified Field Theory' in physics? ie. The 'Exceptionally Simple Theory of Everything'?
|
[
{
"answer": "It didn't really pan out; there are certain irreconcilable differences between it and the standard model that it tries to extend. Ultimately this theory made very little noise in the high energy physics community but a disproportionately large noise among science journalists, who jumped on the story without concern for the underlying science.\n\nIn terms of \"theories of everything\" developed by single people, the most notable one in recent years is called Horava-Lifschitz gravity, which has made a big splash in the physics community but no journalist has ever written about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "932217",
"title": "Classical unified field theories",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Since the 19th century, some physicists, notably Albert Einstein, have attempted to develop a single theoretical framework that can account for all the fundamental forces of nature – a unified field theory. Classical unified field theories are attempts to create a unified field theory based on classical physics. In particular, unification of gravitation and electromagnetism was actively pursued by several physicists and mathematicians in the years between the two World Wars. This work spurred the purely mathematical development of differential geometry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "681582",
"title": "Effective field theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In physics, an effective field theory is a type of approximation, or effective theory, for an underlying physical theory, such as a quantum field theory or a statistical mechanics model. An effective field theory includes the appropriate degrees of freedom to describe physical phenomena occurring at a chosen length scale or energy scale, while ignoring substructure and degrees of freedom at shorter distances (or, equivalently, at higher energies). Intuitively, one averages over the behavior of the underlying theory at shorter length scales to derive what is hoped to be a simplified model at longer length scales. Effective field theories typically work best when there is a large separation between length scale of interest and the length scale of the underlying dynamics. Effective field theories have found use in particle physics, statistical mechanics, condensed matter physics, general relativity, and hydrodynamics. They simplify calculations, and allow treatment of dissipation and radiation effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2914954",
"title": "Effective theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 391,
"text": "Thus, an effective field theory is a theory which describes phenomena in solid-state physics, notably the BCS theory of superconduction, which treats vibrations of the solid-state lattice as a \"field\" (i.e. without claiming that there is \"really\" a field), with its own field quanta, called phonons. Such \"effective particles\" derived from effective fields are also known as quasiparticles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5389955",
"title": "Favaloro University",
"section": "Section::::Scientific and technical development.:Application of field theory methods to other branches of physics and other sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Due to its relation with the most intimate aspects of matter, field theory is the closest branch of theoretical physics to the frontiers of knowledge. Formalisms and other powerful mathematical methods have been developed, in order to solve its problems. The project consists on the application of such formalisms to other branches of physics and, eventually, to other sciences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "932217",
"title": "Classical unified field theories",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The early attempts at creating a unified field theory began with the Riemannian geometry of general relativity, and attempted to incorporate electromagnetic fields into a more general geometry, since ordinary Riemannian geometry seemed incapable of expressing the properties of the electromagnetic field. Einstein was not alone in his attempts to unify electromagnetism and gravity; a large number of mathematicians and physicists, including Hermann Weyl, Arthur Eddington, and Theodor Kaluza also attempted to develop approaches that could unify these interactions. These scientists pursued several avenues of generalization, including extending the foundations of geometry and adding an extra spatial dimension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "776713",
"title": "Unified field theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Classically, however, a duality of the fields is combined into a single physical field. For over a century, unified field theory remains an open line of research and the term was coined by Albert Einstein, who attempted to unify his general theory of relativity with electromagnetism. The \"Theory of Everything\" and Grand Unified Theory are closely related to unified field theory, but differ by not requiring the basis of nature to be fields, and often by attempting to explain physical constants of nature. Earlier attempts based on classical physics are described in the article on classical unified field theories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "681582",
"title": "Effective field theory",
"section": "Section::::The renormalization group.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1290,
"text": "Presently, effective field theories are discussed in the context of the renormalization group (RG) where the process of \"integrating out\" short distance degrees of freedom is made systematic. Although this method is not sufficiently concrete to allow the actual construction of effective field theories, the gross understanding of their usefulness becomes clear through an RG analysis. This method also lends credence to the main technique of constructing effective field theories, through the analysis of symmetries. If there is a single mass scale M in the \"microscopic\" theory, then the effective field theory can be seen as an expansion in 1/M. The construction of an effective field theory accurate to some power of 1/M requires a new set of free parameters at each order of the expansion in 1/M. This technique is useful for scattering or other processes where the maximum momentum scale k satisfies the condition k/M≪1. Since effective field theories are not valid at small length scales, they need not be renormalizable. Indeed, the ever expanding number of parameters at each order in 1/M required for an effective field theory means that they are generally not renormalizable in the same sense as quantum electrodynamics which requires only the renormalization of two parameters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
2zsvdf
|
why do girls generally find it harder to achieve an orgasm despite having way more nerve ending than men in their privates?
|
[
{
"answer": "Female orgasms aren't necessary for reproduction. The man has to ejaculate sperm through an orgasm. The women doesn't have to ejaculate anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is hard to say exactly. They are still doing research into this. What we can say though, that when it comes to women having orgasms, there is a significant different between women of different orientations that we do not see in men. (heterosexual women 61.6%, lesbian women 74.7%, bisexual women 58.0%)\n\nThis seems to indicate to me that while there is probably a biological reason as well (even the higher orgasm rate among women is lower than the lowest orgasm rate among men - 74,7% vs 77,6% for bisexual men), there is probably also a very huge social component. Honestly, it may just come down to there being a lot of ignorance about female sexual pleasure. It is not something we pay attention to in sex-ed. In a lot of places, the clitoris is not even mentioned in diagrams. And when that is the main source of a woman's sexual pleasure, well... yeah. It seems to me that when it comes to heterosexual couples, there is either less of a focus on the sex acts that make it most likely for a woman to orgasm, there is less experience in performing these sex acts, or women feel less comfortable with asking for what they actually want which may be a result of certain sexual attitudes where women who are too vocal about what they want from sex are labelled as sluts.\n\nThough as for the biological reasons why women may orgasm less, you have to keep in mind that women are far more likely to be on drugs that diminish sexual libido / pleasure namely anti-depressants (which women are two and a half times more likely to be on compared to men) and hormonal birth control. Those may also play a role in all of this.\n\n\n[Source for the orgasm rates] (_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "It would be like guys trying to orgasm with their dick glued to their balls, and not touching the upper part of the shaft. They'd be limited to prostate stimulation and the tips of their dicks. How many dudes would be able to get off then? A lot but not all, and with greater difficulty. Super rough analogy though, and doesn't explain the extra nerve endings in the clitoris.\n\nIf men didn't have orgasms easily, they would not be able to reproduce. If women don't, babies will still happen. But then again, why did men (or women, or any species for that matter) evolve orgasm in the first place? I don't know what's going on with evolutionary biology these days, so I wouldn't know exactly how it fits into this. \n\n",
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{
"answer": "The simple answer is that (generally) in men, action A (repetative in and out penetration) will lead to orgasm; in women, action B (clitoral stimulation) will lead to orgasm. If a male and a female complete action A, the mechanism for orgasm is (again, generally) only fulfilled for the male. Similarly, if a male and female complete action B, the mechanism for orgasm will only be completed for the female. \n\nTL;DR: men and women have different O buttons. Which one you push affects the outcome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When my SO and I had sex for the first time she experienced the first orgasm she ever had. She had been with a few other guys before me. I am not anything special in bed and I'm average size. When we discussed it she said the guys she had been with before had both smaller and larger size than myself with similar technique and duration. The only difference was that she felt that she loved me and had not had the same feelings for the other guys. My conclusion is that at least for my SO, her emotions and thought processes dictated or at least influenced her ability to orgasm. It may not be that case for everyone but I do believe that what is going on in a woman's mind can effect orgasm or ability to orgasm. Men are not as influenced as women by this although it can happen for some or at certain times. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Three main reasons:\n\n- problems with physical arousal (physiological response - lack of blood flow to genitals, lack of lubrication, poor nerve response etc. all of which can be scientifically tested in labs)\n- problems with psychological arousal (sociological impacts, shame, trauma, embarrassment, etc. all of which is subjective but quantifiable through incidence analysis)\n- problems with sexual pain (pelvic floor contractions, too small or tight vagina, physical deformity, etc. all of which is scientifically definable via examination.)\n\nThese are the three main reasons that women have a hard time cumming. Then there's the huge, obvious answer that vaginal penetration doesn't directly stimulate the clitoris, which is invariably a woman's O button. You don't push the button properly, you don't get the O. Simple.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Social conditioning and perpetual embarrassment centered around \"You shouldn't be allowed to enjoy that.\"\n\nUnder proper stimulation, I doubt there is any vagina that will not pulsate under the proper sustained stimulation just as there are few penises that won't ejaculate under proper stimulation.\n\nAiming for just one part, may largely play a role here, imagine trying to make yourself ejaculate just from testicle or nipple play. Like, it CAN be done, but you're pushing the stone up the hill by doing it the hard way...the best contact is penis fully submerged, clitoral rub against the male frontal hip wall, essentially replicating what the Sybian does...it hits all points at once, BUT you had both best be a little grow out or completely bare or it's a prickly sandpaper of death!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well I noticed something. \n\nWank it while not touching your head. See how long you last.\n\nWhile your having sex you're only rubbing her shaft. I never seem to have an issue finishing my girlfriend off when she's also touching her clit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Female here, I use to work as a sexual health worker for a youth walk-in clinic. \nThe short answer is most young girls are told that pleasuring them selves and having sex in general it's only thing that BAD girls do. \nFrom the time that a boy has a penis he plays with him self there is scientific evidence showing a male in the womb touching him self. \nAs we get older it does not get better most men don't spending much time making a girl cum, it's mostly all about getting to the penetration. \nAnd trust me 87% most woman will never cum that way! \nIt's hard for a girl to relax its best to talk to your partner, do not use your girls privet parts like a video game controller. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if it has been said or not but one theory I have seen is that evolutionarily speaking it is beneficial for the male to orgasm first. If the female were to orgasm first before the male than that would be the end of sex without fertilization. Versus the male orgasming and that be the end with fertilization. Just a theory I saw. ",
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{
"answer": "In the book \"Sex at Dawn,\" by Ryan and Jetha, the authors claim that humans evolved in small polyamorous nomadic communities. They see longer orgasm times for women and the ability to have repeated orgasms as partial evidence that women are designed to have sex with more than one man in a session. They also see the fact that women are inclined to make noises (\"female copulatory vocalizations\") as evidence that everyone in the tribe is supposed to be \"in on it\" when the woman is having sex. \nRyan and Jetha's story about why this behavior would have been selected for is that when it was not understood that only one man could be the father of a baby, it was both possible and in the best interest of the child for there to be lots of men who regarded themselves as fathers of all the children in their small nomadic tribe. In nomadic groups, all resources are expected to be shared and there is no ability for people to hoard private property and that extended to sexual partners.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From my understanding one possible place to look at could be that quantity =/= quality, or in this case quantity of nerves =/= more orgasms. Maybe there is a diffrence between sensory neurons in that area that we haven't noticed yet, although I would say that most scientist have already thought of that.\n\nThere is also the fact that a penis \"has more to work with\" than a clit, but I'm not qualified to be the judge on that. You might find research on this if you are really interested.\n\nThere is also unfair social aspects (from which both genders suffer from, keep in mind) such as \"men jerk off because men are gross, but girls don't because girls are clean and neat.\" which makes it harder for women to understand what works for them. This is probably the larger aspect, as women do face a lot more flak for exposing their sexuality than men do. \n\nFor example, I had a discussion with a friend of mine and this subject came up, so I was trying to see her opinion on masturbation. long story short: she basically said sex/masturbation is gross and its \"just like men\" to do these things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of young women don't even know what a clit is. I didn't find out until I was eighteen. I finally achieved my first orgasm at 19ish. I didn't understand that I had to think of something that turned me on in order to orgasm. It took a good year of focussed masturbation to get to that point. And hell, I didn't even grow up in a conservative community.\n\nAs an adult I've noticed that most women are really embarrassed about talking about masturbation and orgasm. Guys joke about it like it's nothing, but trying to get women to talk about it is almost impossible. \n\nI will say that in my sex life I'm mostly disinterested in achieving orgasm. It's nice but not a must. I derive most of my pleasure through doing stuff to my partner, especially teasing/pain, haha. If I wanted an orgasm I'd just masturbate. I don't know if this is a common view, though. For me it's like... once I come the fun is over. I don't get multiple orgasms... I come like a guy, haha, once and it's done and I want to roll over and sleep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For most women, the amygdala (fear center of the brain) has to be turned off before we can achieve orgasm, although some women will achieve one by just pure stimulation, usually around 45 minutes when done improperly but the buildup happens anyway. \n\nEdit :grammar ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fingering - meh, ok\n\n\nLicking - aight cool\n\n\nFinger + lick = you're getting somewhere \n\n\nVibrator - holy fuck yes. Multiple orgasms achieved, no joke. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "you're so close, but yet still so far off.\n\nYes, it's about nerve endings, but more importantly the location of those nerve endings. for females, its in the external genitalia. males typically focus their attention on female internal genitalia. there's the rub.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I spend a decent amount of time during sex thinking about how I look to him. I think it's called \"spectating\" and it's fairly common. Do I look fat when I do that? Am I doing enough? Is he having a good time? It makes it pretty hard to focus on how things feel when I'm constantly thinking about how my boobs and stomach look.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ask a woman. Ask a married woman in her late thirties. You will know all you could ever want to know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Female orgasms are not a biological imperative. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I find, through my various sexual exploits, that although physical stimulation is considered the most apt at telling us what feels good. It is not always what causes orgasm. For women I believe the experience is less about who has more nerve endings where but what lies inside their head as this physical stimulation happens. I stand firm in my belief that the most powerful sex organ is not the clitoris or the head but rather our brains.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know for me it is almost all psychological. If I'm upset about something that happened with my partner it takes a lot longer than normal because I can't get over it in my head until I'm ready. Its weird but true.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Women are way more emotional. I stopped counting after bedding about 30 women by the time I was 30, so I have a fair amount of experience. I rarely did any one night stands and had very good communication with most of the women.\n\nAnyway, long story short, some women are very orgasmic at the drop of a hat. They are usually very sexual and have a lot of partners. Other women have a hard time having an orgasm. Most of the women I've been with who didn't come very often didn't really masturbate too much. First they need to be comfortable with their own bodies, then they need to feel \"safe\" with you. Basically they are \"in their heads\" preventing themselves from being too comfortable and actually releasing. With one of my early girlfriends from the goth/industrial clubs, it was literally like she was holding her breath and \"letting it out\" when she came.\n\nConfident women are more likely to come. Seriously abused women are much less likely to come, but they are more likely to fake it. Those kind of girls seem to think that sex is some kind of performance, and they are doing it \"for you\" because they don't have enough self-respect to realize that they are just as deserving of feeling good as you are.\n\nAnd VERY few women I have ever been with will come the first time just from intercourse. I will usually spend up to about 45 minutes massaging them/going down on them before intercourse. [which for me only lasts about 20 minutes usually]. \n\nThe bottom line/TLDR is that if you make them feel comfortable and safe [which has way more to do with how you treat them and how they feel emotionally] they are much easier to get off. If they don't feel safe, their emotions get in the way of their enjoyment.\n\nFor further research, I recommend looking for videos on the \"hour long orgasm\". I have never had a girl break up with me after learning that method.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because most men don't know what the hell they're doing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Medical aspects.:Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Research has shown that as in women, the emotional centers of a man's brain also become deactivated during orgasm but to a lesser extent than in women. Brain scans of both sexes have shown that the pleasure centers of a man's brain show more intense activity than in women during orgasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14290366",
"title": "Lesbian sexual practices",
"section": "Section::::Research and views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "With regard to the ease or difficulty of achieving orgasm, Hite's research (while subject to methodological limitations) showed that most women need clitoral (exterior) stimulation for orgasm, which can be \"easy and strong, given the right stimulation\" and that the need for clitoral stimulation in addition to knowing one's own body is the reason that most women reach orgasm more easily by masturbation. Replicating Kinsey's findings, studies by scholars such as Peplau, Fingerhut and Beals (2004) and Diamond (2006) indicate that lesbians have orgasms more often and more easily in sexual interactions than heterosexual women do.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224070",
"title": "Missionary position",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Basic position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "During sexual intercourse, most women experience involuntary vaginal contractions. The contraction causes the pelvic muscles to tighten around the penis, which increases the level of her partner's arousal and sexual frenzy and results in the man increasing the pace and force of thrusts as he approaches orgasm, which in turn further increases the woman's vaginal contraction. After a man has achieved orgasm, he will normally collapse onto the woman and will normally not be capable of further thrusting. Some men try to control their orgasm until their female partner also orgasms, but this is not always achieved. At times, a woman can achieve orgasm after the man has ceased thrusting by contracting her vaginal muscles and with pelvic movements, or the couple may change to another position that enables the woman to continue thrusting until she has reached orgasm, such as a woman on top position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8390103",
"title": "Refractory period (sex)",
"section": "Section::::Factors and theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The female sexual response is more varied than that of men, and women are capable of attaining additional or multiple orgasms through further sexual stimulation. However, there are many women who experience clitoral hypersensitivity after orgasm, which can effectively create a refractory period. These women may be capable of further orgasms, but the pain involved in getting there makes the prospect undesirable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Achieving orgasm.:Females.:Other factors and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Regular difficulty reaching orgasm after ample sexual stimulation, known as anorgasmia, is significantly more common in women than in men (see below). In addition to sexual dysfunction being a cause for women's inability to reach orgasm, or the amount of time for sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm being variable and longer in women than in men, other factors include a lack of communication between sexual partners about what is needed for the woman to reach orgasm, feelings of sexual inadequacy in either partner, a focus on only penetration (vaginal or otherwise), and men generalizing women's trigger for orgasm based on their own sexual experiences with other women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Achieving orgasm.:Anal and prostate stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "In both sexes, pleasure can be derived from the nerve endings around the anus and the anus itself, such as during anal sex. It is possible for men to achieve orgasms through prostate stimulation alone. The prostate is the male homologue (variation) to the Skene's glands (which are believed to be connected to the female G-spot), and can be sexually stimulated through anal sex, perineum massage or via a vibrator. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, described by some men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The practice of pegging (consisting of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo) stimulates the prostate. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20014929",
"title": "Human female sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Physiological.:Orgasm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: \"Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm.\" Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
f0zitw
|
how can millionaire/billionaires have more influence on a presidential candidate than other donors that donate the same amount, if the maximum contribution is $2,800?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are limits, but they can contribute to multiple different groups (candidates, PACs, parties) with different limits. And they can host fundraisers which can generate large amount of donations. Or use their corporations to also donate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the $2,800 limit only applies to donations directly to the candidate's campaign. They can donate *unlimited* amounts of money to super PACS that support the candidates. So, for example, Bill Gates can only give $2,800 directly to candidate X, but he can give $280 million to a super PAC that can spend as much money as it wants to benefit candidate X.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38609013",
"title": "Institute for Nonprofit News",
"section": "Section::::Editorial collaborations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "\"Big Political Donors Give Far and Wide, Influence Out-of-State Races and Issues\" is an analysis of contributions by wealthy individuals in seven states shows that their giving is greater than any one cause or race reveals—with millions flowing into state, federal and even local campaigns, parties and committees far and wide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29154551",
"title": "2010 California Proposition 27",
"section": "Section::::Supporters.:Donors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Many of the donors are also big-money donors to the Democratic Party. Others, including Haim Saban, Fred Eychaner, George Soros, Edith Wasserman, Louise Gund, Jack C. Bendheim, Kathryn Hall, and George M. Marcus also contributed between $25,000 up to $25 million to the William J. Clinton Foundation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42015113",
"title": "Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Review period in the United States Congress.:Public debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "An intense public debate in the United States took place during the congressional review period. \"Some of the wealthiest and most powerful donors in American politics, those for and against the accord\", became involved in the public debate, although \"mega-donors\" opposing the agreement contributed substantially more money than those supporting it. From 2010 to early August 2015 the foundations of Sheldon Adelson, Paul Singer, and Haim Saban contributed a total of $13 million (at least $7.5 million, at least $2.6 million, and at least $2.9 million, respectively) to advocacy groups opposing an agreement with Iran. On the other side, three groups lobbying in support of the agreement received at least $803,000 from the Ploughshares Fund, at least $425,000 from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, and at least $68,500 from George Soros and his foundation. Other philanthropists and donors supporting an agreement include S. Daniel Abraham, Tim Gill, Norman Lear, Margery Tabankin, and Arnold Hiatt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166873",
"title": "Campaign finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Impact of finance on the results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1149,
"text": "A 2016 experimental study in the \"American Journal of Political Science\" found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign. A 2011 study found that \"even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts.\" A 2016 study in the \"Journal of Politics\" found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is \"evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy.\" Research by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195777",
"title": "Political action committee",
"section": "Section::::Categorization.:Super PACs.:2012 presidential election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "In the 2012 election campaign, most of the money given to super PACs came from wealthy individuals, not corporations. According to data from the Center for Responsive Politics, the top 100 individual super PAC donors in 2011–2012 made up just 3.7% of contributors, but accounted for more than 80% of the total money raised, while less than 0.5% of the money given to \"the most active Super PACs\" was donated by publicly traded corporations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31383333",
"title": "Federal political financing in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Debate over the subsidies.:Composition of participation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "According to McMaster University political scientist Henry Jacek, political contributions tend to come from the wealthy, and not the poor. It is also clear from other jurisdictions in the world that political donors typically are people that have more disposable income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50022412",
"title": "Hillary Victory Fund",
"section": "Section::::Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "The Hillary Victory Fund let the Clinton 2016 presidential campaign ask big donors for over $350,000 apiece per calendar year, or $700,000 from married couples. American presidential campaigns have a history of working to reach the legal maximum donations from single donors. In 2008, Barack Obama's presidential campaign sought $30,000 in donations from big donors, which was the legal limit for donations to the campaign and related fundraising committees. In 2014, the Supreme Court case McCutcheon v. FEC built on the Citizens United decision by ruling that limitations to an individual's total political donations were unconstitutional. These unregulated contributions to political party committees is known as \"soft money\", and had led to corruption cases in both parties from malfeasance in the 1980s and 90s before Congress barred its use in 2002. The 2014 Congressional omnibus budget bill also raised political party donation limits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5f0pz1
|
what is a tupperware party? is it just women comparing their food containers? is it an euphemism for something nsfw?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Is it just women comparing their food containers?\n\nNo, it's people *buying* food containers. [In-home demonstrations](_URL_0_) are the main avenue for selling Tupperware-brand containers in most countries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is there a reason why you didn't just trust the google results?\n\nTupperware parties were a reason for women to get together, drink wine, eat appetizers, and gossip in the living room. You got some shopping for the house or the holidays done and the hostess of the party got a discount on her purchases depending on how much Tupperware was sold during the party. The representative doing the selling got a good commission and could recruit others to sell or throw their own parties, increasing their cut. The same still applies to stamping parties, makeup parties, natural cleaning product parties, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a marketing technique.\n\nTupperware distributors throw parties for their friends and acquaintances, to demonstrate and sell the latest and greatest Tupperware products.\n\nNot all of them are women.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "462934",
"title": "Tupperware",
"section": "Section::::Company history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Tupperware developed a direct marketing strategy to sell products known as the Tupperware party. The Tupperware party allowed women of the 1950s to work and enjoy the benefits of earning an income without completely taking away the independence granted to women during the Second World War, when women first began entering the labor market, all the while keeping their focus in the domestic domain. The \"party plan\" model builds on characteristics generally developed by being a housewife (e.g., party planning, hosting a party, sociable relations with friends and neighbors) and created an alternative choice for women who either needed or wanted to work. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462934",
"title": "Tupperware",
"section": "Section::::Tupperware parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Tupperware is still sold mostly through a party plan, with rewards for hosts and hostesses. A Tupperware party is run by a Tupperware \"consultant\" for a host or hostess who invites friends and neighbors into his or her home to see the product line. Tupperware hosts and hostesses are rewarded with free products based on the level of sales made at their party. Parties also take place in workplaces, schools, and other community groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462934",
"title": "Tupperware",
"section": "Section::::Gender aspects and cultural impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "Feminist views vary regarding the Tupperware format of sales through parties, and the social and economic role of women portrayed by the Tupperware model. Opposing views state that the intended gendered product and selling campaign further domesticates women, and keeps their predominant focus on homemaking. The positive feminist views consider that Tupperware provided work for women who were pregnant or otherwise not guaranteed their position at work due to the unequal gender laws in the workplace. The company promoted the betterment of women and the endless opportunities Tupperware offered to women; whereas, the negative view includes the restriction of women to the domestic sphere and limiting the real separation between running the household and a career. The emergence of Tupperware in the American market created a new kind of opportunity to an entirely underrepresented labor demographic; women, and especially suburban housewives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462934",
"title": "Tupperware",
"section": "Section::::Company history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Tupperware spread to Europe in 1960 when Mila Pond hosted a Tupperware party in Weybridge, England and subsequently around the world. At the time, a strict dress code was required for Tupperware ladies, with skirts and stockings (tights) worn at all times, and white gloves often accompanying the outfit. A technique called \"carrot calling\" helped promote the parties: representatives would travel door to door in a neighborhood and ask housewives to \"run an experiment\" in which carrots would be placed in a Tupperware container and compared with \"anything that you would ordinarily leave them in\"; it would often result in the scheduling of a Tupperware party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462934",
"title": "Tupperware",
"section": "Section::::Tupperware parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "In recent years, Tupperware in North America has moved to a new business model which includes more emphasis on direct marketing channels and eliminated its dependency on authorized distributorships. This transition included selling through Target stores in the U.S., and Superstores in Canada, with disappointing results. Tupperware states this hurt direct sales. In countries with a strong focus on marketing through parties (such as Germany, Australia, and New Zealand), Tupperware's market share and profitability continue to decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462934",
"title": "Tupperware",
"section": "Section::::Tupperware parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "In most countries, Tupperware's sales force is organized in a tiered structure with consultants at the bottom, managers and star managers over them, and next various levels of directors, with Legacy Executive Directors at the top level. In recent years, Tupperware has done away with distributorships in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462934",
"title": "Tupperware",
"section": "Section::::Tupperware parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "In order for the company to stay in touch with its sales force, early on Tupperware published the monthly magazine \"Tupperware Sparks\". The magazine was full of snapshots of sales women across the country posing with awards and recognitions for high sales. In order to avoid spending money on advertising, Tupperware created events that attracted free publicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
40zozr
|
when moving something back and forth quickly, why can the object be seen in every position at once?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your eyes refresh at a pretty constant rate and when your brain processes each image it keeps some of the information from the previous image or images that it saw. So if something is moving fast enough then your brain will retain some information of where it was before, creating the illusion that its in more than one place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6060077",
"title": "Flash lag illusion",
"section": "Section::::Latency difference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "A second proposed explanation is that the visual system processes moving objects more quickly than flashed objects. This latency-difference hypothesis asserts that by the time the flashed object is processed, the moving object has already moved to a new position. The latency-difference proposal tacitly rests on the assumption that awareness (what the subject reports) is an on-line phenomenon, coming about as soon as a stimulus reaches its \"perceptual end-point\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1135199",
"title": "Stroboscopic effect",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The same effect occurs if the object is viewed at 59 flashes per second, except that each flash illuminates it a little later in its rotational cycle and so, the object will seem to be rotating forwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34535",
"title": "Zeno's paradoxes",
"section": "Section::::Paradoxes of motion.:Arrow paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "It cannot move to where it is not, because no time elapses for it to move there; it cannot move to where it is, because it is already there. In other words, at every instant of time there is no motion occurring. If everything is motionless at every instant, and time is entirely composed of instants, then motion is impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60087753",
"title": "Fröhlich effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "A proposed explanation for this effect is that the visual system is predictive, accounting for neural delays by extrapolating the trajectory of a moving stimulus into the future. In other words, when light from a moving object hits the retina, a certain amount of time is required before the object is perceived. In that time, the object has moved to a new location in the world. The motion extrapolation hypothesis asserts that the visual system will take care of such delays by extrapolating the position of moving objects forward in time. As such it is related to the flash lag illusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6069126",
"title": "Time perception",
"section": "Section::::Types of temporal illusions.:Flash-lag effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "The first proposed explanation, called the 'motion extrapolation' hypothesis, is that the visual system extrapolates the position of moving objects but not flashing objects when accounting for neural delays (i.e., the lag time between the retinal image and the observer's perception of the flashing object). The second proposed explanation by David Eagleman and Sejnowski, called the 'latency difference' hypothesis, is that the visual system processes moving objects at a faster rate than flashed objects. In the attempt to disprove the first hypothesis, David Eagleman conducted an experiment in which the moving ring suddenly reverses direction to spin in the other way as the flashed object briefly appears. If the first hypothesis were correct, we would expect that, immediately following reversal, the moving object would be observed as lagging behind the flashed object. However, the experiment revealed the opposite — immediately following reversal, the flashed object was observed as lagging behind the moving object. This experimental result supports of the 'latency difference' hypothesis. A recent study tries to reconcile these different approaches by approaching perception as an inference mechanism aiming at describing what is happening at the present time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574544",
"title": "Circular motion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Since the object's velocity vector is constantly changing direction, the moving object is undergoing acceleration by a centripetal force in the direction of the center of rotation. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton's laws of motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393135",
"title": "Illusory motion",
"section": "Section::::Motion aftereffect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Motion aftereffect occurs when one views moving stimuli for an extended period of time and then focus on a stationary object. The object will appear to move in the opposite direction of the moving stimuli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rut9h
|
Accuracy of 'Romance of The Three Kingdoms'
|
[
{
"answer": "Note that the Romance of the Three Kingdom is different from simply Three Kingdoms. Luo's portrayal of the time period and accuracy of important events are right on the spot - it's other aspects of the novel that deserves the attention.\n\nEasily the first thing you would spot is the author's bias in favour of Shu Han. I have mainly criticized the novel based on his favouritism, and not of historical accuracy, but there are things that are contested. For example, Guanyu's weapon the guandao wasn't invented during his time. In more accurate texts, Guanyu is described to have kill his opponents by 'piercing', which is a word attributed to halberds or spears. Halberds are more common among generals during the Late Han-Three Kingdoms. He also made up a significant amount of fictional characters that doesn't have any historical backgrounds. The obvious one is Diao Chan. Some of the personalities attributed to certain figures were completely skewered for Luo's own purposes. Such one would be Zhang Fei. In fact, the historical Zhang Fei came from a prestigious background. He was well educated and a brilliant thinker and is also an artist. He authored a piece of art depicting a peach garden which inspired Luo to come up with 'the oath of the brotherhood in the Peach Garden' although in reality the brotherhood was only shared between Guanyu and Zhang Fei. Luo was however correct about Zhang Fei's ill-temper. Many other more problems but I don't think this is what you're mainly asking for.\n\nI fail to recognize any inaccuracy in terms of time and significant events.\n\nSpeaking of Water Margins, the first 36 characters were indeed inspired by people who may have existed, bu the following 72 are completely made up and never existed. Water Margin has no background context to support its story other than general facts, such as Song fighting against other rebellious states and that the government was highly corrupted. The novel was in fact authored by two persons - Shi Nai An and his student, well again, Luo Guanzhong. Shi wrote up to the amnesty of the bandits, and from then Luo wrote the rest.\n\nI understand that these are huge influences of the Chinese culture, but its portrayal are far from accurate. Let's not get into the Wuxia genre or Monkey King.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm sure you're aware of the adage regarding ROTK, in that it's 2/3 history, 1/3 fiction. As a segue, I notice that the Chinese seem to love that formulation because that's how they characterize Mao, as 2/3 good, 1/3 bad.\n\nThat said, there are definitely a ton of small anachronisms in Luo's version with what's known of the history at the time. I remember raising an eyebrow when I saw a mention of a character who was a \"failed examination\" candidate. The examination system, which was so prevalent in Ming times, got its start in the Tang Dynasty (though restricted to the aristocratic families) and really took off as we know it in the Song Dynasty.\n\nBut with that said, I don't know think that Romance (or even Records) of the Three Kingdoms is \"that\" accurate if you want to take a deeper historiographical look, rather than taking even Chen Shou (author of Records) at face value. The events as recorded in the chronicle likely happened, but its the meaning (always the meaning) of those events as interpreted by Chen Shou and later historians that is subject to scrutiny.\n\nIf you want the best history we have so far on the subject, check out this article written by noted post-Han scholar Rafe de Crispigny, which is luckily available for free on the internet.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis was originally written for what was supposed to be the Cambridge History of China vol 2., covering the post-han pre-sui years, but for some odd reason, that book has still not been released.\n\nIt's a bit more thorough, and leaves as many blanks as it fills, but it'll give you a better grasp of what historians, as opposed to romanticists (of which you have to be careful of with regards to mainland Chinese scholarship) actually think of this era.\n\nHis section dissecting \"what really happened\" at Red Cliffs is fascinating, and worth the price of the read alone. If you want the tl;dr version, basically Cao Cao was defeated at Red Cliffs in what might have been a far smaller skirmish. Over time, the contemporary chroniclers played it up in order to suit their politics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33231218",
"title": "List of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The following is a list of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. The story has been adapted in numerous forms, including films, television series, manga and video games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "259901",
"title": "Liu Bei",
"section": "Section::::In \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is a 14th-century historical novel which romanticises the historical figures and events before and during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Written by Luo Guanzhong more than 1,000 years after the Three Kingdoms period, the novel incorporates many popular folklore and opera scripts into the character of Liu Bei, portraying him as a compassionate and righteous leader, endowed with charismatic potency (called \"de\" 德 in Chinese) who builds his state on the basis of Confucian values. This is in line with the historical background of the times during which the novel was written. Furthermore, the novel emphasises that Liu Bei was related, however distantly, to the imperial family of the Han dynasty, thus favouring another argument for the legitimacy of Liu Bei's reign. In the novel, he wields a pair of double edged swords called \"shuang gu jian\" (雙股劍).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157837",
"title": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Expansion of the history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is traditionally attributed to Luo Guanzhong, a playwright who lived sometime between 1315 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period) known for compiling historical plays in styles which were prevalent during the Yuan period. It was first printed in 1522 as \"Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi\" (三國志通俗演義/三国志通俗演义) in an edition which bore a perhaps spurious preface date 1494. The text may well have circulated before either date in handwritten manuscripts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157837",
"title": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 169 AD and ending with the reunification of the land in 280.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157837",
"title": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature; it has a total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia, and its literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on English literature. It is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157837",
"title": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "Section::::Translations.:English translations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" has been translated into English by numerous scholars. The first known translation was performed in 1907 by John G. Steele and consisted of a single chapter excerpt that was distributed in China to students learning English at Presbyterian missionary schools. Z. Q. Parker published a 1925 translation containing four episodes from the novel including the events of the Battle of Red Cliffs, while Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published excerpts in 1981, including chapters 43–50. A complete and faithful translation of the novel was published in two volumes in 1925 by Charles Henry Brewitt-Taylor, a long time official of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service. The translation was well written, but lacked any supplementary materials such as maps or character lists that would aid Western readers; a 1959 reprint was published that included maps and an introduction by Roy Andrew Miller to assist foreign readers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157837",
"title": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "One of the greatest achievements of \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is the extreme complexity of its stories and characters. The novel contains numerous subplots. The following consists of a summary of the central plot and some well-known highlights in the novel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ar8pg1
|
why does liquid cough medicine work better than the pill form with the same ingredients? once they start doing their thing shouldn't they, well, do the same thing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Speed is one aspect, when you swallow pills you're waiting for your stomach to break them down then for them to be absorbed and start working. \n\nLiquids are able to be absorbed faster and also they will coat the throat on the way down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cough medication are usually in syrup form. When you take them, the syrup may have some local soothing effect on the throat, hence relieves the cough. The medication you mention also acts centrally, which basically means it tells the brain to stop coughing. On the other hand, if it is in pill form, it only acts centrally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Placebo probably plays a large part. When I have a cold, I always have (generic) Lemsip drinks, rather than the pharmaceutically identical capsules, because it makes me *feel better*.\n\nPlacebo is a very real thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7521201",
"title": "Compounding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "This may be done for medically necessary reasons, such as to change the form of the medication from a solid pill to a liquid, to avoid a non-essential ingredient that the patient is allergic to, or to obtain the exact dose(s) needed or deemed best of particular active pharmaceutical ingredient(s). It may also be done for more optional reasons, such as adding flavors to a medication or otherwise altering taste or texture. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8598906",
"title": "Pharmaceutical formulation",
"section": "Section::::Parenteral formulations.:Liquid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "As with solid formulations, liquid formulations combine the drug product with a variety of compounds to ensure a stable active medication following storage. These include solubilizers, stabilizers, buffers, tonicity modifiers, bulking agents, viscosity enhancers/reducers, surfactants, chelating agents, and adjuvants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6447865",
"title": "Drug injection",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origin and early use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1221,
"text": "A wide variety of drugs are injected. Among the most popular in many countries are morphine, heroin, cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. Prescription drugs—including tablets, capsules, and even liquids and suppositories—are also occasionally injected. This applies particularly to prescription opioids, since some opioid addicts already inject heroin. Injecting preparations which were not intended for this purpose is particularly dangerous because of the presence of excipients (fillers), which can cause blood clots. Injecting codeine into the bloodstream directly is dangerous because it causes a rapid histamine release, which can lead to potentially fatal anaphylaxis and pulmonary edema. Dihydrocodeine, hydrocodone, nicocodeine, and other codeine-based products carry similar risks. Codeine may instead be injected by the intramuscular or subcutaneous route. The effect will not be instant, but the dangerous and unpleasant massive histamine release from the intravenous injection of codeine is avoided. To minimize the amount of undissolved material in fluids prepared for injection, a filter of cotton or synthetic fiber is typically used, such as a cotton-swab tip or a small piece of cigarette filter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23876971",
"title": "Formulation",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "In pharmacy, a formulation is a mixture or a structure such as a capsule, tablet, or an emulsion, prepared according to a specific procedure (called a “formula”). Formulations are a very important aspect of creating medicines, since they are essential to ensuring that the active part of the drug is delivered to the correct part of the body, in the right concentration, and at the right rate (not too fast and not too slowly). A good example is a drug delivery system that exploits supersaturation. They also need to have an acceptable taste (in the case of pills, tablets or syrups), last long enough in storage still to be safe and effective when used, and be sufficiently stable both physically and chemically to be transported from where they are manufactured to the eventual consumer. Competently designed formulations for particular applications are safer, more effective, and more economical than any of their components used singly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2910903",
"title": "Enteric coating",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "By preventing the drug from dissolving into the stomach, enteric coating may protect gastric mucosa from the irritating effects of the medication itself. When the drug reaches the neutral or alkaline environment of the intestine, its active ingredients can then dissolve and become available for absorption into the bloodstream. Drugs that have an irritant effect on the stomach, such as aspirin or potassium chloride, can be coated with a substance that will dissolve only in the small intestine. However, it has been shown that enteric coated aspirin may lead to incomplete inhibition of platelets. Likewise, certain groups of proton pump inhibitors (esomeprazole, omeprazole, pantoprazole and all grouped azoles) are acid-activated. For such types of drugs, enteric coating added to the formulation tends to avoid activation in the mouth and esophagus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "457424",
"title": "Elixir",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "An elixir is a clear, sweet-flavored liquid used for medical purposes, to be taken orally and intended to cure one's illness. When used as a pharmaceutical preparation, an elixir contains at least one active ingredient designed to be taken orally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334816",
"title": "Route of administration",
"section": "Section::::Choice of routes.:Oral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time-release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended. The oral route is limited to formulations containing small molecules only while biopharmaceuticals (usually proteins) would be digested in the stomach and thereby become ineffective. Biopharmaceuticals have to be given by injection or infusion. However, recent research (2018) found an organic ionic liquid suitable for oral insulin delivery (a biopharmaceutical) into the blood stream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
94x89c
|
if water is a incompressible fluid why does pressure increase when going under water? wouldn’t the pressure stay the same since the density of the water doesn’t change?
|
[
{
"answer": "Maybe not an answer, but as you go deeper, the weight of the water above you is exerting the increased pressure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, water *is* compressible. Just not very easily. For most purposes, we can think of it as being incompressible. So let's do that. \n \nThings work the opposite of what you are thinking. If the water was compressible, it would absorb the force (caused by its weight). That force would literally be used to overcome the repulsive forces between molecules. \n \nBut instead, that force doesn't get absorbed by the water molecules, and is instead passed on to everything in the water in the form of pressure. \n \nThink of it like this. You and a buddy are holding opposite ends of a long sponge. Your buddy pushes on the sponge. Do you feel much force? No, because the sponge just gets compressed instead. \n \nNow imagine that instead you and your buddy are holding opposite ends of a baseball bat. He pushes. Do you feel it? Yes, because the bat doesn't compress much. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bricks aren't compressible either. But it's a lot harder to carry a stack of 20 bricks than it is to carry a single brick.\n\nPressure is just a force over an area. Since the area (you) remains the same, increasing the force will increase the pressure. Since weight is a force, the more weight pressing against you, the more pressure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's imagine you lay down on the ground. I put a bucket on your chest and start filling it with water. You will feel the weight of the water pushing down on your chest. That force/pressure of the water pushing down on you has nothing to do with the compressibility of the water and everything to do with its weight.\n\nIt's the same thing if you go diving, but the force is just spread out all the way across your body because you're completely surrounded by the water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If water is a incompressible fluid why does pressure increase when going under water? \n\n* The pressure comes from the weight of the water.\n\n* The weight comes from the mass of the water being effected by gravity.\n\n* The farther down you go the more water is above you pressing down. The more water, the more mass, and the more mass the more weight, and the more weight the more pressure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993825",
"title": "Liquid",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical properties.:Volume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "On the other hand, liquids have little compressibility. Water, for example, will compress by only 46.4 parts per million for every unit increase in atmospheric pressure (bar). At around 4000 bar (400 megapascals or 58,000 psi) of pressure at room temperature water experiences only an 11% decrease in volume. Incompressibility makes liquids suitable for transmitting hydraulic power, because a change in pressure at one point in a liquid is transmitted undiminished to every other part of the liquid and very little energy is lost in the form of compression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2684087",
"title": "Momentum diffusion",
"section": "Section::::Diffusion due to pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "When pressure is applied on an incompressible fluid the velocity of the fluid will change. The fluid accelerates or deccelerates depending on the relative direction of pressure with respect to the flow direction. This is because applying pressure on the fluid has caused momentum diffusion in that direction. Understanding the exact nature of diffusion is a key aspect towards understanding momentum diffusion due to pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18779111",
"title": "Faucet aerator",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Perceived water pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The perception of water pressure is actually the speed of the water as it hits a surface, (the hands, in the case of hand washing). When an aerator is added to the faucet (or fluid stream), there is a region of high pressure created behind the aerator. Because of the higher pressure behind the aerator and the low pressure in front of it (outside the faucet), due to Bernoulli's Principle there is an increase in velocity of the fluid flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22468364",
"title": "Volume (thermodynamics)",
"section": "Section::::Gas volume.:Humidity exclusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "In contrast to other gas components, water content in air, or humidity, to a higher degree depends on vaporization and condensation from or into water, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure to a gas saturated with water, all components will initially decrease in volume approximately according to the ideal gas law. However, some of the water will condense until returning to almost the same humidity as before, giving the resulting total volume deviating from what the ideal gas law predicted. Conversely, decreasing temperature would also make some water condense, again making the final volume deviating from predicted by the ideal gas law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29177467",
"title": "Ultra-high-purity steam for oxidation and annealing",
"section": "Section::::The role of UHP steam in oxidation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "When water vapor pressure is increased, the oxide growth rate is increased. According to the model of Deal and Grove[4], the growth rate of the oxide layer is directly related to the effective diffusion coefficient of the water molecules into the oxide layer and the equilibrium concentration in the immediate area. When a carrier gas is used to deliver water vapor, the carrier gas molecules generate a partial pressure. This partial pressure lowers the partial pressure of water vapor and slows the diffusion of water into the oxide film. The result is lower driving force and slower growth rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113469",
"title": "Joule–Thomson effect",
"section": "Section::::Physical mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "For liquids, and for supercritical fluids under high pressure, formula_8 increases as pressure increases. This is due to molecules being forced together, so that the volume can barely decrease due to higher pressure. Under such conditions, the Joule–Thomson coefficient is negative, as seen in the figure above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "898732",
"title": "Tensiometer (surface tension)",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Bubble pressure tensiometer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Due to internal attractive forces of a liquid, air bubbles within the liquids are compressed. The resulting pressure (bubble pressure) rises at a decreasing bubble radius. The bubble pressure method makes use of this bubble pressure which is higher than in the surrounding environment (water). A gas stream is pumped into a capillary that is immersed in a fluid. The resulting bubble at the end of the capillary tip continually becomes bigger in surface; thereby, the bubble radius is decreasing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e8gu1k
|
. where is vegetable oil made of? i think it’s made from vegetables because of the name. but what vegetable?
|
[
{
"answer": "Seeds like canola, sunflower, peanut, sesame, even corn and coconut . When plants store oils it's typically in the seeds, which is supposed to be fuel for the growing seedling. \n\nIf you take peanuts and crush them you can separate the oil pretty easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Canola oil made by pressing the oil out of rapeseed, corn oil is made by pressing the oil of dried corn, soybean oil is made by pressing the oil out of dry soybeans.\n\nVegetable oil is usually one of those three, or a mix of them, usually just whatever is cheaper the day they make it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your traditional super market \"Vegetable Oil\" is generally made from soybeans, meaning the vegetable oil you get in the store is actually soybean oil.\n\nThere are other \"vegetable oils\" but they usually go by their more specific name, like Olive oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, and so on. The generic one you get called \"Vegetable oil\" is soybean oil",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The manufacturers use the name \"vegetable oil\" as a catch-all because it can refer to most of the cheap and neutral sources of oil - most often soybean, but also things like rapeseed or corn, depending on the brand. They're grouped together like that because they have a high smoke point and a fairly neutral flavor, making them great for frying and baking. There are other very neutral oils - like coconut oil, avocado oil, and plenty of others, but those are often sold separately at a higher price point due to other uses.\n\nA lot of the other oils we use - think olive oil, peanut oil, sesame oil, etc - have somewhat stronger flavors or lower smoke points, making them more useful for flavoring a dish, making a dressing to drizzle over food, or sometimes sautéing, but less desirable than plain, neutral vegetable oil.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6939989",
"title": "Vegetable oil (disambiguation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Vegetable oil is a liquid derived from plants. These are triglyceride-based, and includes cooking oils like sunflower oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils for industrial purposes, including as biofuels. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5544998",
"title": "Types of plant oils",
"section": "Section::::Vegetable fats and oils.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "Vegetable fats and oils are what are most commonly called vegetable oils. These are triglyceride-based, and include cooking oils like canola oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils used for industrial purposes. Pressed vegetable oils are extracted from the plant containing the oil (usually the seed), using one of two types of oil press. The most common is the \"screw press\", which consists of a large-diameter metal screw inside a metal housing. Oil seeds are fed into the housing, where the screws mash the seeds, and create pressure which forces the oil out through small holes in the side of the press. The remaining solids, called \"seed cake\", are either discarded or used for other purposes. Oil presses can be either manual or powered. The second type of oil press is the \"ram press\", where a piston is driven into a cylinder, crushing the seeds and forcing out the oil. Ram presses are generally more efficient than screw presses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192331",
"title": "Vegetable oil",
"section": "Section::::Uses of triglyceride vegetable oil.:Pet food additive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines vegetable oil, in this context, as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2215760",
"title": "Baby oil",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.:Products based on vegetable oils.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Vegetable oils are produced by plants with the highest concentration being present in seeds and fruits. About 95% of each vegetable oil is primarily composed of triglycerides. Coconut oil and palm oil contain mainly saturated fatty acids, while other oils largely contain unsaturated fatty acids, for example oleic acid and linoleic acid. Accompanying substances in vegetable oils are, inter alia, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, squalene, carotenoids, vitamen E, polyphenols and triterpene alcohols. To avoid rancidity, preservatives or antiocidants are added to baby oils based on vegetable oils. On cosmetic products, these oils are listed according to the International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI), e.g.:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192331",
"title": "Vegetable oil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are fats extracted from seeds, or less often, from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are \"mixtures\" of triglycerides. Soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are example of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable \"oil\" may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible; non-edible oils derived mainly from petroleum are termed mineral oils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4755911",
"title": "List of vegetable oils",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care./onlyinclude\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216102",
"title": "Genetically modified food",
"section": "Section::::Derivative products.:Vegetable oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "Most vegetable oil used in the US is produced from GM crops canola, corn, cotton and soybeans. Vegetable oil is sold directly to consumers as cooking oil, shortening and margarine and is used in prepared foods. There is a vanishingly small amount of protein or DNA from the original crop in vegetable oil. Vegetable oil is made of triglycerides extracted from plants or seeds and then refined and may be further processed via hydrogenation to turn liquid oils into solids. The refining process removes all, or nearly all non-triglyceride ingredients. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) offer an alternative to conventional fats and oils. The length of a fatty acid influences its fat absorption during the digestive process. Fatty acids in the middle position on the glycerol molecules appear to be absorbed more easily and influence metabolism more than fatty acids on the end positions. Unlike ordinary fats, MCTs are metabolized like carbohydrates. They have exceptional oxidative stability, and prevent foods from turning rancid readily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ahk7zz
|
why did early color tv programming look so artificial like the color was added in later?
|
[
{
"answer": "Film ages, and with age, fades. I see it when I look at old still pictures of family from those days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe that program was originally taped in monochrome, so the color must have been added for this documentary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not certain but I think it's due to the limitations of the technology of the era. \n\nHave you heard of Technicolor? basically they filmed a scene with 3 separate filters (Red, Green and Blue) and later combined the 3 reels to produce the colourised film. The quality of the final product depend a lot on the skills of the tech who made em. Check out this link on YT ([_URL_0_](_URL_1_))\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIMO, I like the less realistic colour of the older movies. Maybe it's cause I grew up with those, I dunno.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Technology changes. Early colour recordings where made with a different technology. The US TV System NTSC is jockingly known as a short for \"Not The Same Color\". PAL and SECAM works with a different technology and produced different results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42995689",
"title": "Colorplexer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1363,
"text": "Color television as introduced in North America in 1954 is best described as being 'colored' television. The system used the existing black and white signal but with the addition of a component intended only for television receivers designed to show color. By careful application this 'colored' signal was ignored by ordinary TV sets and had negligible effect on the appearance of the black and white image. This meant that color programs were viewable on the many existing black and white receivers which fulfilled a requirement for 'compatibility' desired by the television industry. Once the so called 'composite' video signal containing the color component had been generated it could be handled just as if it were a black and white signal, eliminating the need to replace much of the existing TV infrastructure. Colorplexer was the RCA name for the equipment that created this 'composite' color signal from three separate images each created in the primary colors, Red, Green and Blue supplied by a color video camera. This process was by the standards of the day quite complex and demanded accurate control of all the various parameters involved if an acceptable color image was to be achieved. The simplification afforded by this 'head end' approach became evident and contributed to the gradual acceptance of color programming over the following decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21747724",
"title": "Geer tube",
"section": "Section::::History.:Color television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most experimental systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Each frame encoded one color of the picture, and the wheel spun in sync with the signal so the correct gel was in front of the screen when that colored frame was being displayed. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172533",
"title": "Shadow mask",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Color television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was not until the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most experimental systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Each frame encoded one color of the picture, and the wheel spun in sync with the signal so the correct gel was in front of the screen when that colored frame was being displayed. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. (This is conceptually similar to a DLP based projection display where a single DLP device is used for all three color channels.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "317917",
"title": "D-1 (Sony)",
"section": "Section::::Relation to other tapes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "While early color television experiments were kept in the component domain of RGB, most color television broadcasting and post production was compromised in the 1960s and 1970s to simplify infrastructure and transmission by combining the color and luminance (composite). However, once the color and luminance information was combined, it could never truly be uncombined as cleanly as originated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31469509",
"title": "Triniscope",
"section": "Section::::History.:Color television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21686501",
"title": "Chromatron",
"section": "Section::::History.:Color television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the US Federal Communications Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173449",
"title": "Trinitron",
"section": "Section::::History.:Color television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Color television had been studied, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the United States Federal Communication Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ef695
|
how touch lamps work.
|
[
{
"answer": "Have you ever touched the wire leading to an amplifier and heard the speaker make a loud buzz? That is because you pick up lots of electric noise from around you, and when you touch the plug, that noise is amplified and sent to the speakers.\n\nTouch lamps do the same thing! They have an input connected to the case of the lamp and amplify it. If it is loud enough, then the circuitry turns the lamp on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It detects changes in capacitance, just like the touch screen on most cellphones.\n\nCapacitance is a fancy way of saying that since you and the lamp both contain electrons which can flow around free inside you but which don't transfer to the lamp, touching the lamp changes the amount of electrons that the lamp could hold. Since the lamp is connected to a source of electrons changes in capacitance cause electrons to flow in or out of the lamp when you touch it which triggers the electronic switch.\n\nAnything that has some capacitance can change the equation and trigger the switch again which is why you can turn on the lights by poking your cat if your cat is touching the lamp.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5314910",
"title": "Touch-sensitive lamp",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "A touch-sensitive lamp is one that is activated by human touch rather than a flip, pushbutton, or other mechanical switch. These lamps are popular as desk and nightstand lamps. They act on the principle of body capacitance. Touch-sensitive lamp switches may be dimmable, allowing the brightness of the lamp to be adjusted by multiple touches. Most stop at level 3, which is for the brightest use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8342908",
"title": "TouchLight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "TouchLight is an imaging touch screen and 3D display for gesture-based interaction. It was developed by Microsoft Research employee Andrew D. Wilson and made known to the public in late 2005. The technology was licensed to Eon Reality in July 2006. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40626104",
"title": "Diffus Design",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Light.Touch.Matters is a cooperation between product designers, material scientists and the industry. Light.Touch.Matters is to create smart materials that can sense touch and movement and respond with light. The base technologies for the Light.Touch.Matters. project are piezo plastics and flexible OLEDs. The consortium consist of 17 partners from 9 EU countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8859863",
"title": "Multi-touch",
"section": "Section::::Implementations.:Optical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Optical touch technology functions when a finger or an object touches the surface, causing the light to scatter, the reflection is caught with sensors or cameras that send the data to software which dictates response to the touch, depending on the type of reflection measured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12030680",
"title": "Text entry interface",
"section": "Section::::Light pen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "A light pen is a computer input device used in conjunction with a computer's CRT display. It is used to select a displayed menu item. A light pen can also allow users draw on the screen with great positional accuracy. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU. The first light pen was created around 1952 as part of the Whirlwind project at MIT. Because the user was required to hold his/her arm in front of the screen for long periods of time, the light pen fell out of use as a general purpose input device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9800311",
"title": "Shader lamps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Shader lamps is a computer graphic technique used to change the appearance of physical objects. The still or moving objects are illuminated, using one or more video projectors, by static or animated texture or video stream. The method was invented at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill by Ramesh Raskar, Greg Welch, Kok-lim Low and Deepak Bandyopadhyay in 1999 as a follow on to Spatial Augmented Reality also invented at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1998 by Ramesh Raskar, Greg Welch and Henry Fuchs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5624327",
"title": "Electric eye",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "An electric eye is a photodetector used for detecting obstruction of a light beam. An example is the door safety system used on garage door openers that use a light transmitter and receiver at the bottom of the door to prevent closing if there is any obstruction in the way that breaks the light beam. The device does not provide an image; only presence of light is detectable. Visible light may be used, but infrared radiation conceals the operation of the device and typically is used in modern systems. Originally, systems used lamps powered by direct current or the power line alternating current frequency, but modern photodetector systems use an infrared light-emitting diode modulated at a few kilohertz, which allows the detector to reject stray light and improves the range, sensitivity and security of the device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9szfwq
|
Was it legal for a husband in medieval England to kill his wife and/or children? What social consequences, if any, would a man face for committing such an act?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cold-blooded murder was always illegal and carried with it legal punishment, from the earliest surviving medieval law code we have through the entirety of the medieval era. A person would be acquitted if the murder was found to be done in self-defence. One could also be found innocent on grounds of insanity and usually if the murder was ruled to have been committed by accident or through negligence. The legal concept of manslaughter developed quite a bit over the course of the medieval era, so as far as that goes, it really depends on what point in the Middle Ages you are considering.\n\nThe medieval period in England spanned around 1,000 years, and as one could expect, law codes and the legal system as a whole underwent significant changes and development over ten centuries. The consequences for being found guilty of murder were quite different in the early 7th century law code of King Æthelberht from those attendant to the laws which were in place when Henry Tudor (Henry VII) ascended the throne in the late 15th century.\n\nIn Æthelberht’s law code, a person would be fined a substantial amount of money, either 50 or 100 shillings, if found guilty of murder. Keep in mind, most day labourers were paid in what amounted to pennies per week. The law code uses the term ‘man’ (\"If a man slay another…\"), but ‘man’ is gender-neutral in Old English (see citation below of Anne Curzan’s book).\n\nUp to the 13th century, a man accused of murder could face trial by jury or trial by ordeal, the latter of which could very well kill him in the process. After the 13th century in England, trials were conducted by a jury of twelve men. Women were not permitted to be jurors. Depending on the jury’s sympathy, a man convicted of murder could face the death penalty. If a woman were to murder her husband, however, she would be tried not for ‘simple murder’ (as would a man accused of murdering his wife) but for ‘petty treason’ after the enactment of the Treason Act of 1351.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n & #x200B;\n\nCurzan, Anne (2003). *Gender Shifts in the History of English*. Cambridge University Press.\n\nOliver, Lisi. *The Laws of Æthelberht: A student edition*, Louisiana State University, at [_URL_1_](_URL_0_)\n\nBriggs, John (1996), *Crime and Punishment in England: An introductory history*, London: Palgrave Macmillan.\n\nBlackstone, William; Christian, Edward; Chitty, Joseph; Hovenden, John Eykyn; Ryland, Archer (1832). *Commentaries on the Laws of England*, vol. 2, (18th London ed.), New York: Collins and Hannay.\n\nGreen, Thomas A. (1976). *The Jury and the English Law of Homicide, 1200-1600*. University of Michigan Law School.\n\nGreen, Thomas A. (1972). *Societal Concepts of Criminal Liability for Homicide in Medieval England*. University of Michigan Law School.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEdit: grammar",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "174143",
"title": "Crime of passion",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Killing due to adultery traditionally fell under the provocation defense. In 1707, English Lord Chief Justice John Holt described the act of a man having sexual relations with another man's wife as \"the highest invasion of property\" and claimed, in regard to the aggrieved husband, that \"a man cannot receive a higher provocation\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58809",
"title": "Adultery",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and legal constructs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Adultery involving a married woman and a man other than her husband was considered a very serious crime. In 1707, English Lord Chief Justice John Holt stated that a man having sexual relations with another man's wife was \"the highest invasion of property\" and claimed, in regard to the aggrieved husband, that \"a man cannot receive a higher provocation\" (in a case of murder or manslaughter).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20590712",
"title": "Women in Anglo-Saxon society",
"section": "Section::::Marriage and divorce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1493,
"text": "In Anglo-Saxon England, there were many laws related to marriage. Some historians profess that the law that neither widow, nor maiden was forced to marry a man that she disliked as being a sign of equality; however, Aethelberht's law contradicts this in as much as a man is legally allowed to steal another man's wife as long as he pays him reparation. Once married, a woman was to situate herself as the object of her husband's subjectivity, she was to become the object of his protection and the property, although she still remained the owner of her property. The Church saw that married women had no authority and were to stand under the lordship of men. Therefore, under the church they were not able to teach, witness, take an oath, nor be a judge. In marriage, a male often developed his sphere of influence through his wife. Although women were seen as such under the church, there were laws that protected them in the public sphere when married. Divorce was rare, and the only documented ones were in times of adultery. A woman that commits adultery by sleeping with a man that was not her husband while he was still alive was subject to give what she owned to her husband. Æthelraed's 1008 code states that widows shall remain unmarried for 12 months after the death of her husband, at which point they have the freedom to choose. This was likely the case to allow for the widows have time to think and not make any rash decisions which may have led to relationships or commitments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56538",
"title": "Rule of thumb",
"section": "Section::::Folk etymology.:Supposed origin in English common law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "English jurist William Blackstone wrote in the late 1700s in his \"Commentaries on the Laws of England\" that by an \"old law\", a husband had formerly been justified in using \"moderate correction\" against his wife, but was barred from inflicting serious violence. According to Blackstone, by the late 1600s this custom was in doubt, and a woman was by then allowed \"security of the peace\" against an abusive husband (Blackstone did not mention either thumbs or sticks). Citing Blackstone, the twentieth-century legal scholar William L. Prosser wrote that there was \"probably no truth to the legend\" that a husband was allowed to beat his wife \"with a stick no thicker than his thumb\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145439",
"title": "Women's rights",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern History.:Europe.:16th and 17th century Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1075,
"text": "According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. In the 16th century, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a patriarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3634424",
"title": "Violence against women",
"section": "Section::::Forms of violence.:Marital rape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "In England and Wales, marital rape was made illegal in 1991. The views of Sir Matthew Hale, a 17th-century jurist, published in \"The History of the Pleas of the Crown\" (1736), stated that a husband cannot be guilty of the rape of his wife because the wife \"hath given up herself in this kind to her husband, which she cannot retract\"; in England and Wales this would remain law for more than 250 years, until it was abolished by the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords, in the case of \"R v R\" in 1991. In the Netherlands marital rape was also made illegal in 1991. One of the last Western countries to criminalize marital rape was Germany, in 1997.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3768697",
"title": "Murder in English law",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Actus reus.:Life in being.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "As such in the above case where a husband stabbed his pregnant wife, causing premature birth, and the baby died due to that premature birth, in English law no murder took place. \"Until she had been born alive and acquired a separate existence she could not be the victim of homicide\". The requirements for murder under English law, involving transfer of malice to a foetus, and then (notionally) from a foetus to the born child with legal personality, who died as a child at a later time despite never having suffered harm as a child (with legal personality), nor even as a foetus having suffered any fatal wound (the injury sustained as a fetus was not a contributory cause), nor having malice deliberately directed at it, was described as legally \"too far\" to support a murder charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ez63f
|
Water that doesn't affect your thirst
|
[
{
"answer": "That's exactly what the IV fluid is. If there is not enough salt, the water will go into your red blood cells via osmosis and cause them to swell, and eventually explode. If there is too much salt, the fluid will absorb all the water from your red blood cells and cause you to be more dehydrated. This is why drinking saltwater is not a good idea. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2429234",
"title": "Fluid balance",
"section": "Section::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Input.:Regulation of input.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Input of water is regulated mainly through ingested fluids, which, in turn, depends on thirst. An insufficiency of water results in an increased osmolarity in the extracellular fluid. This is sensed by osmoreceptors in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, which trigger thirst. Thirst can to some degree be voluntarily resisted, as during fluid restriction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509632",
"title": "Thirst",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Thirst is the craving for potable fluids, resulting in the basic instinct of animals to drink. It is an essential mechanism involved in fluid balance. It arises from a lack of fluids or an increase in the concentration of certain osmolites, such as salt. If the water volume of the body falls below a certain threshold or the osmolite concentration becomes too high, the brain signals thirst.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13980",
"title": "Homeostasis",
"section": "Section::::Controls of variables.:Fluid balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Urinary water loss, when the body water homeostat is intact, is a \"compensatory\" water loss, \"correcting\" any water excess in the body. However, since the kidneys cannot generate water, the thirst reflex is the all-important second effector mechanism of the body water homeostat, \"correcting\" any water deficit in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13655207",
"title": "Water stop (sports)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Compared to dehydration, hyponatremia is a relatively recently recognized danger, and there are different opinions about how much water to drink at each water stop. Some texts say that thirst is not a reliable indicator of the need in water, while other say that obligatory drinking at every opportunity without real need increases the danger of hyponatremia. \"If you hear sloshing in your stomach... you can by-pass that water stop\". (Jeff Galloway)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490269",
"title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
"section": "Section::::Hydropathy.:Remedial properties of water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 2309,
"text": "According to Kellogg, water provides remedial properties partly because of vital resistance and partly because of its physical properties. For Kellogg, the medical uses of water begin with its function as a refrigerant, a way to lower body heat by way of dissipating its production as well as by conduction. \"There is not a drug in the whole materia medica that will diminish the temperature of the body so readily and so efficiently as water.\" Water can also serve as a sedative. While other substances serve as sedatives by exerting their poisonous influences on the heart and nerves, water is a gentler and more efficient sedative without any of the negative side-effects seen in these other substances. Kellogg states that a cold bath can often reduce one's pulse by 20 to 40 beats per minute quickly, in a matter of a few minutes. Additionally, water can function as a tonic, increasing both the speed of circulation and the overall temperature of the body. A hot bath accelerates one's pulse from 70 to 150 beats per minute in 15 minutes. Water is also useful as an anodyne since it can lower nervous sensibility and reduce pain when applied in the form of hot fomentation. Kellogg argues that this procedure will often give one relief where every other drug has failed to do so. He also believed that no other treatment could function as well as an antispasmodic, reducing infantile convulsions and cramps, as water. Water can be an effective astringent as, when applied cold, it can arrest hemorrhages. Moreover, it can be very effective in producing bowel movements. Whereas purgatives would introduce \"violent and unpleasant symptoms\", water would not. Although it would not have much competition as an emetic at the time, Kellogg believed no other substance could induce vomiting as well as water did. Returning to one of Kellogg's most admired qualities of water, it can function as a \"most perfect eliminative\". Water can dissolve waste and foreign matter from the blood. These many uses of water led Kellogg to belief that \"the aim of the faithful physician should be to accomplish for his patient the greatest amount of good at the least expence of vitality; and it is an indisputable fact that in a large number of cases water is just the agent with which this desirable end can be obtained.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1140141",
"title": "Water intoxication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Water intoxication, also known as water poisoning, hyperhydration, overhydration, or water toxemia is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain functions that results when the normal balance of electrolytes in the body is pushed outside safe limits by excessive water intake. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41565521",
"title": "Exercise-associated hyponatremia",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:The Role of Thirst.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "In a published statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, researchers concluded that drinking in accordance with the sensation of thirst is sufficient for preventing both dehydration and hyponatremia. This advice is contradicted by the American College of Sports Medicine, which has previously recommended athletes drink \"as much as tolerable. In October of 2015, ACSM President W. Larry Kenney stated that “[T]he clear and important health message should be that thirst alone is not the best indicator of dehydration or the body’s fluid needs.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fydrs
|
Do hot ( > 36.6) drinking water provide calories to organism?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you drink water at a temperature approximate to your body's then you will not have to spend energy in thermal regulation to compensate for the drop you would have when drinking cooler water, but it's almost negligible. That's about it. In nutritional terms, water is void of any calories.\n\nDisregard Marsupial Mole and ihaveatoms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7522",
"title": "Calorimetry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxygen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52636",
"title": "Boiling",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:For making water potable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures, it is achieved in less time and at lower temperatures, in more time. The heat sensitivity of micro-organisms varies, at , Giardia species (causes Giardiasis) can take ten minutes for complete inactivation, most intestine affecting microbes and \"E. coli\" (gastroenteritis) take less than a minute; at boiling point, \"Vibrio cholerae\" (cholera) takes ten seconds and hepatitis A virus (causes the symptom of jaundice), one minute. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms; the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at but are not water-borne or intestine affecting. Thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48230",
"title": "Polychlorinated biphenyl",
"section": "Section::::Biochemical metabolism.:Temperature dependent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "Temperature plays a key role in the ecology, physiology and metabolism of aquatic species. The rate of PCB metabolism was temperature dependent in yellow perch (\"Perca flavescens\"). In fall and winter, only 11 out of 72 introduced PCB congeners were excreted and had halflives of more than 1,000 days. During spring and summer when the average daily water temperature was above 20 °C, persistent PCBs had halflives of 67 days. The main excretion processes were fecal egestion, growth dilution and loss across respiratory surfaces. The excretion rate of PCBs matched with the perch's natural bioenergetics, where most of their consumption, respiration and growth rates occur during the late spring and summer. Since the perch is performing more functions in the warmer months, it naturally has a faster metabolism and has less PCB accumulation. However, multiple cold-water periods mixed with toxic PCBs with coplanar chlorine molecules can be detrimental to perch health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::Scientific use.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Any living organism relies on an external source of energy – radiant energy from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals – to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (CHO) and stearin (CHO) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "542410",
"title": "Thermus aquaticus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Thermus aquaticus is a species of bacteria that can tolerate high temperatures, one of several thermophilic bacteria that belong to the Deinococcus–Thermus group. It is the source of the heat-resistant enzyme \"Taq\" DNA polymerase, one of the most important enzymes in molecular biology because of its use in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) DNA amplification technique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4961223",
"title": "Golden spiny mouse",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "\"A. russatus\" is also very good at conserving the little water it gets from its diet of insects and plants. It does this by producing extremely concentrated urine with urea content up to 4800 mM and chloride concentration up to 1500 mM. This means that it could survive drinking sea water, which is very rare in mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8770937",
"title": "Pasteurella multocida",
"section": "Section::::Current research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "Other research is being done on the effects of protein, pH, temperature, sodium chloride (NaCl), and sucrose on \"P. multocida\" development and survival in water. The research seems to show the bacteria survive better in 18 °C water compared to 2 °C water. The addition of 0.5% NaCl also aided bacterial survival, while the sucrose and pH levels had minor effects, as well. Research has also been done on the response of \"P. multocida\" to the host environment. These tests use DNA microarrays and proteomics techniques. \"P. multocida\"-directed mutants have been tested for their ability to produce disease. Findings seem to indicate the bacteria occupy host niches that force them to change their gene expression for energy metabolism, uptake of iron, amino acids, and other nutrients. \"In vitro\" experiments show the responses of the bacteria to low iron and different iron sources, such as transferrin and hemoglobin. \"P. multocida\" genes that are upregulated in times of infection are usually involved in nutrient uptake and metabolism. This shows true virulence genes may only be expressed during the early stages of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
buvxjo
|
why are 144hz monitors more popular than 120hz?
|
[
{
"answer": "Good marketing. 144hz monitors introduce a hiccup when playing 30 and 60 FPS locked video or games if you don't modify the monitor settings every time. 120 is divisible by both, making it a smoother and more versatile experience with fewer adjustments. If all you do is play CSGO at minimum graphics settings in hopes you'll one day be pro, maybe 144hz is worth it, but for 99.999% of people, 120hz will provide a better experience",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a mix of display connection limitations and marketing.\n\nBefore displayport and higher versions of HDMI, the display cable that could transfer the most data was Dual Link DVI. The initial 120 Hz refresh monitors were at 1080p resolution. 120 Hz made sense because it was double 60 Hz, the standard monitor refresh rate and divisible by 24, the movie frame rate.\n\nMonitor manufacturers wanted to distinguish their monitors so they pushed the limits of Dual Link DVI. It turns out 144 Hz at 1080p was close to the maximum supported data rate for the cable. So monitors came out with 144 Hz refresh rate and 144 > 120. The number kinda got stuck as the new threshold so most high refresh monitors set that as the standard.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Films are shot at 24 frames per second. You want to upscale in multiples of that. 120hz = 5x 144hz=6x. As to why is 144 more popular, higher frame rate = more good and the cost is usually comparable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "515770",
"title": "Refresh rate",
"section": "Section::::Computer displays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "On smaller CRT monitors (up to about ), few people notice any discomfort between 60–72 Hz. On larger CRT monitors ( or larger), most people experience mild discomfort unless the refresh is set to 72 Hz or higher. A rate of 100 Hz is comfortable at almost any size. However, this does not apply to LCD monitors. The closest equivalent to a refresh rate on an LCD monitor is its frame rate, which is often locked at 60 fps. But this is rarely a problem, because the only part of an LCD monitor that could produce CRT-like flicker—its backlight — typically operates at around a minimum of 200 Hz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515770",
"title": "Refresh rate",
"section": "Section::::Displaying movie content on a TV.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "While common multisync CRT computer monitors have been capable of running at even multiples of 24 Hz since the early 1990s, recent \"120 Hz\" LCDs have been produced for the purpose of having smoother, more fluid motion, depending upon the source material, and any subsequent processing done to the signal. In the case of material shot on video, improvements in smoothness just from having a higher refresh rate may be barely noticeable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "965409",
"title": "HD-MAC",
"section": "Section::::Project's afterlife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Although the fact is now mainly of historical interest, most larger-tube CRT PC monitors had a maximum horizontal scan rate of 70 kHz or higher, which means they could have handled 2048x1152 at 60 Hz progressive if set to use a custom resolution (with slimmer vertical blanking margins than HD-MAC/Eu95 itself for those rated for less than 75 kHz). Monitors able to support the lower refresh rate, including smaller models incapable of 70 kHz but good for at least 58 kHz (preferably 62.5 kHz) and able to support the lower vertical refresh rate could instead be set to run 50 Hz progressive, or even 100 Hz interlace to avert the flicker that would otherwise cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2572370",
"title": "Flicker-free",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The term is primarily used for CRTs, especially televisions in 50 Hz countries (PAL or SECAM) and computer monitors from the 1990s and early 2000s – the 50 Hz rate of PAL/SECAM video (compared with 60 Hz NTSC video) and the relatively large computer monitors and close viewing distances of 1990s/2000s computer monitors (hence making more of the screen in the viewer's peripheral vision) make flicker most noticeable on these devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6014",
"title": "Cathode-ray tube",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Flicker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "At low refresh rates (60 Hz and below), the periodic scanning of the display may produce a flicker that some people perceive more easily than others, especially when viewed with peripheral vision. Flicker is commonly associated with CRT as most televisions run at 50 Hz (PAL) or 60 Hz (NTSC), although there are some 100 Hz PAL televisions that are flicker-free. Typically only low-end monitors run at such low frequencies, with most computer monitors supporting at least 75 Hz and high-end monitors capable of 100 Hz or more to eliminate any perception of flicker. Though the 100 Hz PAL was often achieved using interleaved scanning, dividing the circuit and scan into two beams of 50 Hz. Non-computer CRTs or CRT for sonar or radar may have long persistence phosphor and are thus flicker free. If the persistence is too long on a video display, moving images will be blurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46286567",
"title": "5K resolution",
"section": "Section::::History.:First monitor with 5K resolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "On September 5, 2014, Dell unveiled the first monitor with a 5K resolution, the UltraSharp UP2715K. This monitor featured a 27-inch 51202880 display, giving it a pixel density of around 218 ppi. The monitor only supported DisplayPort version 1.2, which is limited to 51202880 at 30 Hz. To work around this, the UP2715K implemented a system by which the bandwidth of two DisplayPort connections could be combined to achieve 60 Hz, using a picture-by-picture mode to virtually treat the display as two smaller 25602880 monitors side-by-side and driving each half with a separate DisplayPort connection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2855698",
"title": "Tangerine Microtan 65",
"section": "Section::::Main Board.:Display.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The 32×16 characters was the reason that the 6502 was clocked at 750 kHz. To get the circuitry to work at a (nearly) standard video rate meant that the pixel clock had to be 6 MHz. When the Microtan 65 was designed only a 1 MHz 6502 was available, and so 750 kHz was used (6 MHz divided by 8).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fvhe1
|
How did New Horizons get to Pluto?
|
[
{
"answer": "It had a gravity assist at Jupiter; see [this](_URL_0_).\n\nYou can see the trajectory [here](_URL_1_).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::\"New Horizons\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "After an intense political battle, a revised mission to Pluto called \"New Horizons\" was granted funding from the US government in 2003. \"New Horizons\" was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. The mission leader, S. Alan Stern, confirmed that some of the ashes of Clyde Tombaugh, who died in 1997, had been placed aboard the spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49017725",
"title": "AJ-60A",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "On January 19, 2006 the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto was launched directly into a solar-escape trajectory at from Cape Canaveral using an Atlas V version with 5 of the these SRBs and Star 48B thirdstage . \"New Horizons\" passed the Moon's orbit in just nine hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44469",
"title": "Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Observation and exploration.:Exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "\"New Horizons\" made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015, after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments. The scientific goals of \"New Horizons\" were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition, and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. On October 25, 2016, at 05:48 pm ET, the last bit of data (of a total of 50 billion bits of data; or 6.25 gigabytes) was received from \"New Horizons\" from its close encounter with Pluto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::\"New Horizons\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "\"New Horizons\" had its closest approach to Pluto on 14 July 2015—after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. \"New Horizons\" used a remote sensing package that includes imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments, to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. \"New Horizons\" also photographed the surfaces of Pluto and Charon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8427933",
"title": "List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Propulsion stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "On January 19, 2006 the \"New Horizons\" spacecraft to Pluto was launched directly into a solar-escape trajectory at from Cape Canaveral using an Atlas V version with 5 of the AJ-60A SRBs and the Common Core Booster, Centaur upper stage, and Star 48B third stage. \"New Horizons\" passed the Moon's orbit in just nine hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8985161",
"title": "Star 48",
"section": "Section::::Star 48B.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "\"New Horizons\" Star 48B was calculated to arrive at planet Jupiter 6 hours before \"New Horizons\", and on Oct 15, 2015 would pass through Pluto's orbit at a distance of 213 million kilometers (over 1 AU) distant from Pluto. This was nearly four months after the \"New Horizons\" probe did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390905",
"title": "New Horizons",
"section": "Section::::Mission profile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "\"New Horizons\" was originally planned as a voyage to the only unexplored planet in the SolarSystem. When the spacecraft was launched, Pluto was still classified as a planet, later to be reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Some members of the \"New Horizons\" team, including Alan Stern, disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet. Pluto's satellites Nix and Hydra also have a connection with the spacecraft: the first letters of their names (N and H) are the initials of \"New Horizons\". The moons' discoverers chose these names for this reason, plus Nix and Hydra's relationship to the mythological Pluto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ak9709
|
It's 1925 and money is no object for me, I want to travel between America and Europe what are my options?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're pretty much limited to traveling by ship. Daring individuals have starting making transatlantic flights, but you're still three years away from the first east-west non-stop transatlantic crossing, and also three years away from the first regular transatlantic travel by commercial airships, which will enjoy a brief period of popularity before being replaced by commercial airliners. Ironically, the airship that would make the first commercial passenger flight, the Graf Zeppelin, would also be the one to arguably spell the end of luxury airship travel when it comes crashing to earth in a fireball in 1937. You won't really be able to take a cross-Atlantic trip on an aircraft (A seaplane) until around 1937, when Imperial Airways will start making regular scheduled flights. Having said this, if you are just spectacularly wealthy, you might be able to simply purchase one of the new flying boats, have it fitted with extra fuel tanks, and just about make it from the west coast of Canada to the closest parts of Ireland.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nYour only realistic way of getting to Europe from America, or vice versa, is sea travel. You're in luck, however, because you're still in the heyday of luxury cruises! The crossing will take you a few days, maybe a week, but you'll be crossing in style, with your own state room and attendants, or if you want to slum it for some reason, you can buy a ticket on the lower decks and just wait to get there. The Titanic went down horribly in 1912, but that's in the distant past now, so you don't really need to worry about that, and the War to End all Wars ended in 1918, so you don't need to worry about the fate of the poor Lusitania, who was torpedoed off Ireland in 1915. All in all, you're relatively safe, relatively certain to make it to your destination, and you'll be doing so in style.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nI don't know much about passports at the time so someone else will have to answer that, but I hope this helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950825",
"title": "Americanization",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1375,
"text": "During the 15 years from 1950 to 1965, American investments in Europe soared by 800% to $13.9 billion, and in the European Economic Community rose 10 times to $6.25 billion. Europe's share of American investments increased from 15% to 28%. The investments were of very high visibility and generated much talk of Americanization. Even so, American investments in Europe represented only 50% of the total European investment and American-owned companies in the European Economic Community employ only 2 or 3% of the total labor force. The basic reason for the U.S. investments is no longer lower production costs, faster economic growth, or higher profits in Europe, but the desire to maintain a competitive position based largely on American technological superiority. Opposition to U.S. investments, originally confined to France, later spread to other European countries. Public opinion began to resent American advertising and business methods, personnel policies, and the use of the English language by American companies. Criticism was also directed toward the international currency system which was blamed for inflationary tendencies as a result of the dominant position of the U.S. dollars. However, by the 1970s European investments in the U.S. increased even more rapidly than vice versa, and Geir Lundestad finds there was less talk of the Americans buying Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49790455",
"title": "Committee of European Economic Co-operation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "On 5 June 1947, George C. Marshall, at the time Secretary of State of the United States of America, gave an address at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he proposed a plan to aid European recovery after the events of World War II, in the form of financial and economic assistance from the United States. This assistance, however, was dependent on the co-operation of the European nations who would be the recipients of this aid. The countries involved would need to agree on their requirements, as well as to their own contributions to European recovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1886171",
"title": "Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe",
"section": "Section::::Editions.:U.S. edition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In the US edition's introduction it states that it is possible to survive a trip in Europe on less than twenty-five US dollars per week. The US edition also included such information as US dollar to other currency exchange rates (current as of January 1972), weight and measurement conversion charts, and brief lists of phrases and numbers for French, German, Spanish and Italian. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39130059",
"title": "September 1950",
"section": "Section::::September 19, 1950 (Tuesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- The European Payments Union was created, for the benefit of fifteen Western European nations, to stabilize their currencies. The United States contributed $350,000,000 to the endowment fund.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12417359",
"title": "William Smith Culbertson",
"section": "Section::::Reciprocity, A National Policy for Foreign Trade, 1937.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "In 1937, Culbertson published a book supporting the Hull reciprocal trade policy. According to a review by George H. E. Smith, Culbertson's thesis is that \"[The United States has] become a world state... Our overseas expansion will go on whether we like it or not... Our production, our finance, and our trade then must operate on a world stage. If they are confined within our political frontiers by a narrow nationalism, no amount of governmental regulation and of governmental generosity will bring about real prosperity... I have become convinced that we cannot possibly pay out nationally except through a tremendous revival in foreign trade, both imports and exports, which in turn will stimulate and enlarge domestic trade and enterprise.\" The book continues by discussing the evolution of tariffs and the mechanisms through which they are made, and concludes with suggestions for a permanent foreign trade policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9236952",
"title": "Iver C. Olsen",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "BULLET::::- New York Times; March 16, 1931, Monday; Washington, March 15, 1931. Despite expansion of British loans to Latin America in 1930, American loans to all foreign nations last year exceeded those of Great Britain by more than $300,000,000, according to a survey by Iver C. Olsen of the Department of Commerce which was made public today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6807462",
"title": "Gano Dunn",
"section": "Section::::Refugee ship \"Principe di Undine\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Gano Dunn, the President of J. G. White Engineering since 1913, was in Italy at the outbreak of World War I. Americans stranded in Europe had fled from Austria, France, Spain, Switzerland and Serbia to Italy, trying to book passage back to the United States. With banks refusing to cash personal checks, Americans were short on funds. In Italy, a bank moratorium had been declared, with banks paying only \"limited and small amounts daily\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kqxoe
|
why does my girlfriend's clit become super-sensitive after she has an orgasm?
|
[
{
"answer": "This was unjustly downvoted. Maybe you should try /r/askscience?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is a five year old asking this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever noticed how hyper sensitive your penis gets after orgasm? Same thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This bothers me too, I've read everywhere that women unlike men can experience multiple orgasm and their arousal doesn't drastically fall post-climax; But it doesn't seem to be quite right, indeed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was unjustly downvoted. Maybe you should try /r/askscience?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is a five year old asking this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever noticed how hyper sensitive your penis gets after orgasm? Same thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This bothers me too, I've read everywhere that women unlike men can experience multiple orgasm and their arousal doesn't drastically fall post-climax; But it doesn't seem to be quite right, indeed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Medical aspects.:Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "While stroking the clitoris, the parts of the female brain responsible for processing fear, anxiety and behavioral control start to diminish in activity. This reaches a peak at orgasm when the female brain's emotion centers are effectively closed down to produce an almost trance-like state. Holstege is quoted as saying, at the 2005 meeting of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Development: \"At the moment of orgasm, women do not have any emotional feelings.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2118528",
"title": "Chloe (actress)",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "She says she lost her virginity aged 11 with her 15-year-old boyfriend. In first grade, an accident damaged her clitoris. She has stated it is \"always hard but I don't feel anything\". However, she is still able to orgasm through stimulation of her g-spot, which often involves inserting large, wide objects into her vagina, and she has stated \"the deeper the better\". She appeared in a controversial double-fisting scene with fellow porn actress Alisha Klass in Seymore Butts' video \"Tampa Tushy Fest 1\". The film won the \"Best All-Girl Sex Scene – Video\" award at the 2000 AVN Awards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6884",
"title": "Clitoris",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Sexual activity.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The clitoris has an abundance of nerve endings, and is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure. When sexually stimulated, it may incite female sexual arousal. Sexual stimulation, including arousal, may result from mental stimulation, foreplay with a sexual partner, or masturbation, and may lead to orgasm. The most effective sexual stimulation of the organ is usually manually or orally (cunnilingus), which is often referred to as direct clitoral stimulation; in cases involving sexual penetration, these activities may also be referred to as additional or assisted clitoral stimulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Achieving orgasm.:Females.:Orgasmic factors and variabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Sex educator Rebecca Chalker states that only one part of the clitoris, the urethral sponge, is in contact with the penis, fingers, or a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18649265",
"title": "Anterior fornix erogenous zone",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Orgasm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The orgasms that result from stimulation of the AFE zone are thought to be distinct from the orgasms that result from stimulation of the clitoris, but some women who have experienced them say that they are similar in sensation to orgasms achieved by G-spot stimulation, while others say that they are more \"intense\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2460",
"title": "Anal sex",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene's glands. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22669899",
"title": "Cunnilingus",
"section": "Section::::Practice.:General practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "General statistics indicate that 70-80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. Shere Hite's research on human female sexuality reports that, for most women, orgasm is easily achieved by cunnilingus because of the direct clitoral stimulation (including stimulation to other external parts of the vulva that are physically related to the clitoris) that may be involved during the act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9k86gd
|
What kind of swimming techniques would people in the 17th and 18th century use?
|
[
{
"answer": "European and Euro-American sources from the 16th-19th centuries, which here include travel accounts and treatises on how to swim, unanimously agree on several points: (a) they swim badly (b) the people of basically every other culture they encounter swim better (c) there is apparently no reason for the white people to go, *Huh, maybe we could learn a thing.*\n\nGeorge Catlin, who traveled the Upper Plains in the 1830s, distinguished Euro-American swimming style, at least of trained swimmers, from that of the Mandan (Numakaki or Nueta):\n\n > The mode of swimming amongst the Mandans, as well as amongst most \nof the other tribes, is quite different from that practiced in those parts of the \ncivilized world. The Indian, instead of parting his hands simultaneously under the chin, and making the stroke outward, in a horizontal direction...throws his body alternately upon the left and the right side, raising one arm entirely above the water and reaching as far forward as he can, to dip it...whilst \nthis arm is making a half circle [underwater], the opposite arm is describing a similar arch in the air over his head, to be dipped in the water as far as he can reach before him, with the hand turned under, forming a sort of bucket, to act most effectively as it passes in its turn underneath him. \n\n > *[Letters and Notes on the Manner, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians](_URL_1_)*\n\nCatlin contrasts the European style of swimming, a rudimentary breaststroke, with what is a decent approximation of modern freestyle (forward crawl). At least, with respect to the arms. The form of kicking is not often described in travel accounts and letters, which is interesting.\n\nA similar distinction is noted by Portuguese and other European slavers and visitors to West Africa. French slave trade agent Jean Barbot in the 17th century described swimmers of the Gold Coast:\n\n > The Blacks of Mina [Elmina] out-do all others at the coast in dexterity of swimming, throwing one [arm] after another forward, as if they were paddling, and not extending their arms equally, and striking with them both together, as Europeans do.\n\n > *[Description of the North and South Coasts of Guinea, 1732](_URL_2_)*\n\nOnce again, the contrast is made between essentially freestyle and essentially breaststroke (unless the French are doing fly, which...no). Barbot does observe that African nations from further inland are not so practiced at swimming, preferring not to swim (for pleasure or for food and travel) in their rivers. This inclusion is actually kind of a change of pace for Euro-American accounts. With respect to the people of Elmina, he further notes a couple of different manners of swimming besides a single stroke variety to propel themselves forward:\n\n > ...playing on the surges of the sea, about the shore, some on pieces of timber, others on bundles of rushes, made fast under their stomachs, the better to learn how to swim; others ducking under the water, and continuing there for a considerable time\n\nBarbot associates these rafts with learning how to swim, although the description makes it seem like they are also a prop or toy used by experienced swimmers. The idea of lightweight wood as a beginner's tool *might* reflect European practice. For his *Early British Swimming*, Nicholas Orme turned up a wild reference in a London chronicle from the 1420s:\n\n > Diverse persons of low estate of the city of London, assembling one day on the wharf...wished and desired they had the person of my lord [the bishop] of Winchester, saying they would have thrown him into the Thames to have taught him to swim without wings.\n\n > *[Chronicles of London](_URL_3_)*\n\nOrme takes this as a reference to water-wings, better known today as \"floaties\" (the inflatable things you see kids wearing around their upper arms). Even though, as he points out, there isn't another known reference to \"water-wings\" as the name for a swimming tool until the 20th century, his conclusion about a device of some sort seems more plausible to me than this being a metaphorical reference akin to flying without wings or some such.\n\nBut not all Europeans made the same connection, or rather, some were confronted with evidence so strongly to the contrary that they couldn't plausibly believe instruction the only use worth mentioning. Charles Warren Stoddard, adding a bit of LGBTQ diversity to the Dead White Dudes' Club of this answer, described Native Hawai'ian swimming--or rather, surfing--in 1874:\n\n > Kahele, having been offered a surf-board that...was itself as light as cork and as smooth as glass...seized his sea-sled, and dived with it under the first roller which was then about to break above his head, not three feet from him. *[does the same with more waves]* ...Again Kahele dived and reappeared on the other side of the watery hill...turned suddenly, and, mounting the towering monster, he lay at full length on his fragile raft, \nusing his arms as a bird its pinions...As it rose he \nclimbed to the top of it, and there, in the midst of foam seething like champagne...He leaped to his feet and swam in the air.\n\n > *[Summer Cruising in the South Seas](_URL_0_) - I hope you'll check out this whole passage*\n\nLater on, he mentions swimming that seems more like *swimming* as such, but doesn't provide any descriptive details.\n\nOur white explorers almost unanimously emphasize two further points that intersect with debates in modern scholarship (mostly on different subject matter) over pre/early modern Euro-American swimming. First, they stress that *everyone* swims, even children (\"These islanders are amphibious. The little bronze babies float like corks before they can \nwalk half the length of a bamboo-mat,\" writes Stoddard). Second, they stress that \"everyone\" includes (!!!) women.\n\nThe first point, about the extent of swimming ability among white men, has several points to the contrary: a lot of people (including, by the way, Stoddard) explicitly say they can't swim; in the later 19th century, there's a whole panic among naval officers and commentators about the lack of swimming ability even among midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy; swimming treatises are not only prescriptive but aimed first exclusively and second mostly at the noble/upper classes.\n\nWhat seems more likely, from other accounts of sailors and sailing, is that there wasn't much *formal* swimming instruction, as in the strokes or freediving technique, and no training in swimming endurance. However, sailors at least would be able to tread water and other things to keep from drowning if they went overboard in port or some such.\n\nThe question of women swimming has a couple of points against the possibilit as well: (a) they are hardly ever mentioned (b) there's often a distinction made between \"bathing\" and \"swimming,\" in which men swim while women bathe, *or* religious leaders are like \"women can be in the water only to bathe\", (c) in early medieval-16th century sources, there is a strong association of swimming and military practice, and (d) most people swam naked.\n\nIn medieval sources, at least, there are a few references to women bathing while wearing some sort of smock, and Orme observes that men in Norse sagas (who are very often strong swimmers--see Beowulf) sometimes strip down to their undergarment but no further to swim. In general, however, swimming for recreation follows along with seafarers realizing their ship is about to capsize--the first thing they do is strip.\n\nThere don't seem to be that many references to what people wore to swim in the Euro-American travel accounts. The exception in the ones I looked at for this answer is again Stoddard, who is writing after the invention of swimsuits in the west:\n\n > One after another, they came out of the sea like so many mermen and mermaids. They were refreshingly innocent of etiquette--at least, of our translation of it...With uncommon slowness, the mermaids donned more \nor less of their apparel, a few preferring to carry their robes over their arms; for the air was delicious, and ropes of seaweed are accounted full dress in that delectable latitude.\n\nThe reference to mermen and mermaids isn't unique; it probably reflects the ease and skill with which the Euro-Americans see people from other cultures swimming, in comparison to their own. This is not a unanimously positive thing. As I mentioned at the beginning, none of these accounts feature the author saying, \"Hey, maybe teach me?\" Kevin Dawson, who has published some version of the major article on early modern swimming about eight different times, observes that a lot of white authors in the 17th-mid 19th century make a strong connection between swimming ability and animal/natural traits: \n\n > Man cannot swim with the same faculty as many of the inferior animals, which seem to be led by instinct to use the proper action for their preservation, while rational creatures, being aware of their danger, grow fearful or impatient, and begin to struggle.\n\n > -*introduction, 1840 edition of Benjamin Franklin's letter/treatise on swimming*\n\n(Note that Franklin, for his part, advised everyone learn to swim). Dawson thinks that probably Europeans applied this dichotomy to the people of color they encountered. That, though, presents a really interesting contrast to what we see in medieval sources, which is a strong connection between swimming and knightly prowess. It would be fascinating to trace whether, when, how, and to what extent that shift actually occurred.\n\nI know this has ranged further afield than the original 17th-18th century time frame. However, I hope the general similarities in accounts over the time span help justify that extension--as well as, quite frankly, how awesome these sources are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24942694",
"title": "History of swimming",
"section": "Section::::Early modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Since swimming was done in a state of undress, it became less popular as society became more conservative in the early Modern period. Leonardo da Vinci made early sketches of lifebelts. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss–German professor of languages, wrote the earliest known complete book about swimming, \"Colymbetes, sive de arte natandi dialogus et festivus et iucundus lectu\" (\"The Swimmer, or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming and Joyful and Pleasant to Read\"). His purpose was to reduce the dangers of drowning. The book contained a good methodical approach to learning breaststroke, and mentioned swimming aids such as air filled cow bladders, reed bundles, and cork belts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47831094",
"title": "History of swimwear",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "In classical antiquity and in most cultures, swimming was either in the nude or the swimmer would merely strip to their underwear. In the Renaissance, swimming was strongly discouraged, and into the 18th century swimming was regarded as of doubtful morality, and had to be justified on health grounds. In the Victorian era swimwear was of a style of outer clothing of the time, which were cumbersome and even dangerous in the water, especially in the case of dress-style swimwear for women. Since the early 20th century, swimming came to be regarded as a legitimate leisure activity or pastime and clothing made specifically for swimming became the norm. Since then, swimwear has become increasingly more scanty and form-fitting, despite the objections of conservative elements in the community and moral campaigners, and the use of hi-tech materials has become more common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22425760",
"title": "Swimming (sport)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the earliest evidence dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10,000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC, with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss–German professor of languages, wrote the earliest known complete book about swimming, \"Colymbetes, sive de arte natandi dialogus et festivus et iucundus lectu\" (\"The Swimmer, or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming and Joyful and Pleasant to Read\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270993",
"title": "Bathing machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The bathing machine was a device, popular from the 18th century until the early 20th century, to allow people to change out of their usual clothes, change into swimwear, and wade in the ocean at beaches. Bathing machines were roofed and walled wooden carts rolled into the sea. Some had solid wooden walls, others canvas walls over a wooden frame, and commonly walls at the sides and curtained doors at each end. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24942694",
"title": "History of swimming",
"section": "Section::::Early modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "In 1696, the French author Melchisédech Thévenot wrote \"The Art of Swimming\", describing a breaststroke very similar to the modern breaststroke. This book was translated into English and became the standard reference of swimming for many years to come. In 1793, GutsMuths from Schnepfenthal, Germany, wrote \"Gymnastik für die Jugend\" (\"Exercise for youth\"), including a significant portion about swimming. In 1794, Kanonikus Oronzio de Bernardi of Italy wrote a two volume book about swimming, including floating practice as a prerequisite for swimming studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24942694",
"title": "History of swimming",
"section": "Section::::Early modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "In 1587, Everard Digby also wrote a swimming book, claiming that humans could swim better than fish. Digby was a Senior Fellow at St. John's College, Cambridge and was interested in the scientific method. His short treatise, \"De arte natandi\", was written in Latin and contained over 40 woodcut illustrations depicting various methods of swimming, including the breaststroke, backstroke and crawl. Digby regarded the breaststroke as the most useful form of swimming. In 1603, Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan declared that schoolchildren should swim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26839693",
"title": "Bathing dress",
"section": "Section::::Uses and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "As the 19th century progressed, women's \"bathing\" or swimming activities became increasingly popular. The use of the bathing machine provided greater privacy to bathers and reduced the need for complete modesty. Athletic activities such as swimming and bicycling became more socially acceptable, resulting in a need for a better range of motion and a reduction in the weight of the garment when wet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2i84ud
|
Does light experience time when traveling in a material?
|
[
{
"answer": "Light doesn't *experience* anything. I don't mean that in a pedantic sense of it's not conscious. I mean that an observational frame *at c* makes no sense at all. \n\nHowever, when you have a material, that material has an electromagnetic field *already* between all the various charged particles (electrons and nuclei). And given all those particles and how they can move and how they're bound, what we can often do is take *all* of that, and come up with an \"effective\" electromagnetic field for the material. It's not the \"true\" EM field of particles in free space, but it allows us to take account of all the material properties.\n\nSo in this *effective* EM field, energy is carried around not in photons but in other \"quasi-particles.\" Since our EM field isn't \"true\" the particles it has aren't \"true\" (as in fundamental particles that make up all kinds of matter) either; they're just particles specific to the EM field in this specific material. \n\nAnd *those* quasi-particles can have mass, and usually *do* pass through the material at speeds lower than c. This is the \"speed of light in material.\" It's not really \"light\" like the kind of light that propagates through a vacuum. It's a cousin, a relative to light, that is specific to that material.\n\nSo yes, for these quasi-particles you can construct frames of rest for them in which an observer experiences time and distance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3850488",
"title": "Slow light",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "A human perceives the intensity of the sinusoidal disturbance as the brightness of the light and the frequency as the color. If a light is turned on or off at a specific time or otherwise modulated, then the amplitude of the sinusoidal disturbance is also time-dependent. The time-varying amplitude does not propagate at the phase velocity but rather at the group velocity. The group velocity depends not only on the refractive index of the material, but also the way in which the refractive index changes with frequency (i.e. the derivative of refractive index with respect to frequency).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9396111",
"title": "Preservation (library and archival science)",
"section": "Section::::Practices.:Storage environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Exposure to light also has a significant effect on materials. It is not only the light visible to humans that can cause damage, but also ultraviolet light and infrared radiation. Measured in lux or the amount of lumens/m, the generally accepted level of illumination with sensitive materials is limited to 50 lux per day. Materials receiving more lux than recommended can be placed in dark storage periodically to prolong the original appearance of the object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43553104",
"title": "J. G. Fox",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity and the extinction theorem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1246,
"text": "The second postulate of Einstein's theory of special relativity states that the speed of light is invariant, regardless of the velocity of the source from which the light emanates. The extinction theorem (essentially) states that light passing through a transparent medium is simultaneously extinguished and re-emitted by the medium itself. This implies that information about the velocity of light from a moving source might be lost if the light passes through enough intervening transparent material before being measured. All measurements previous to the 1960s intending to verify the constancy of the speed of light from moving sources (primarily using moving mirrors, or extraterrestrial sources) were made only after the light had passed through such stationary material — that material being that of a glass lens, the terrestrial atmosphere, or even the incomplete vacuum of deep space. In 1961, Fox decided that there might not yet be any conclusive evidence for the second postulate: \"This is a surprising situation in which to find ourselves half a century after the inception of special relativity.\" Regardless, he remained fully confident in special relativity, noting that this created only a \"small gap\" in the experimental record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Consequences derived from the Lorentz transformation.:Causality and prohibition of motion faster than light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "In Fig. 4‑3, the time interval between the events A (the \"cause\") and B (the \"effect\") is 'time-like'; i.e., there is a frame of reference in which events A and B occur at the \"same location in space\", separated only by occurring at different times. If A precedes B in that frame, then A precedes B in all frames accessible by a Lorentz transformation. It is possible for matter (or information) to travel (below light speed) from the location of A, starting at the time of A, to the location of B, arriving at the time of B, so there can be a causal relationship (with A the cause and B the effect).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521267",
"title": "Reflection (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Reflection of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "When light reflects off of a material with higher refractive index than the medium in which is traveling, it undergoes a 180° phase shift. In contrast, when light reflects off of a material with lower refractive index the reflected light is in phase with the incident light. This is an important principle in the field of thin-film optics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2315180",
"title": "De Sitter double star experiment",
"section": "Section::::The effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25880",
"title": "Refractive index",
"section": "Section::::Relations to other quantities.:Refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "When light enters a material with higher refractive index, the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal of the surface. The higher the refractive index, the closer to the normal direction the light will travel. When passing into a medium with lower refractive index, the light will instead be refracted away from the normal, towards the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zj2wx
|
How true the factoid you frequently hear that the atoms in your body are entirely replaced (albeit gradually) about every 5 ~ 7 years.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not really atoms, but cells as a whole. Cells can grow old and die off (called \"senescence\") and are replaced by new cells. So over a period of time (5-7 years as you say) you could say that all the cells currently existing in your body will have died off and been replaced by new ones. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60944280",
"title": "Scanning helium microscopy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Metastable atoms are atoms that have been excited out of the ground state, but remain in an excited state for a significant period of time. Microscopy using metastable atoms has been shown to be possible, where the metastable atoms release stored internal energy into the surface, releasing electrons that provide information on the electronic structure\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162797",
"title": "Individuation",
"section": "Section::::Gilbert Simondon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "In \"L'individuation psychique et collective\", Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause. Thus, the individual atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44216842",
"title": "Magnetic resonance (quantum mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::A special case to show applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "A special case occurs where a system oscillates between two unstable levels that have the same life time formula_52 . If atoms are excited at a constant, say n/time, to the first state, some decay and the rest have a probability formula_53 to transition to the second state, so in the time interval between t and (t+dt) the number of atoms that jump to the second state from the first is formula_54, so at time t the number of atoms in the second state is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5342529",
"title": "Monarch (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Nathaniel Adam.:Captain Atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "During the time period of the 2006 \"One Year Later\" storylines, Atom is revealed to be contained by the modern day Atomic Knights inside a secret S.H.A.D.E. facility in Blüdhaven, and used to administer radiation treatments to metahumans. Later in 2008's \"Countdown\", it was revealed that the changes that were to befall Captain Atom in this period were due to the actions of Solomon, one of the newly-born Monitors who attacks Captain Atom almost as soon as he arrives back to New Earth from the Wildstorm Universe and damages his alien metal shell, causing him to leak dangerous amounts of radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2239833",
"title": "Astro Boy (character)",
"section": "Section::::Appearances.:2003 series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "Atom re-appears as the protagonist in the 2003 series; a robot with the ability to think and reason ('Kokoro', or Japanese for 'heart and soul'). Atom was created by Doctor Tenma as a ‘replacement’ for Tobio, his deceased son. Tenma, overcome with grief, decided to make an identical robot copy, which he will raise just like his own. Tenma, however, during the project lost the trust of his fellow scientists, who had thought that he has been overcome with grief and longing for his son and as a result went insane. Tenma, who was indeed displaying signs of insanity at that point, finished his project and named the robot after his son. Unfortunately, things got out of hand as soon as Astro was led into the basement full of broken robots (including Robita) and the robot Tobio (doing the same thing the original Tobio has done) asks for Tenma to fix it. After Tenma refuses, the robot Tobio rebels against him (the same thing the original Tobio has done) and as a result, Tenma shuts him down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18695732",
"title": "Molecular scale electronics",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "In single-molecule electronics, the bulk material is replaced by single molecules. Instead of forming structures by removing or applying material after a pattern scaffold, the atoms are put together in a chemistry lab. In this way, billions of billions of copies are made simultaneously (typically more than 10 molecules are made at once) while the composition of molecules are controlled down to the last atom. The molecules used have properties that resemble traditional electronic components such as a wire, transistor or rectifier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19727160",
"title": "XYZ file format",
"section": "Section::::Animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Note that the xyz standard does not require that the number or chemical nature of atoms should be the same at subsequent snapshots, which allows for atoms disappearing from or coming into the field of view during the animation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7r2jnt
|
Why is the waste produced in a thorium fuel cycle need storage for only 300 years instead of thousands of years for uranium fuel cycle, even though U233 from Th232 had mostly similar fission products as U235?
|
[
{
"answer": "This argument is mainly about transuranic isotopes. These are waste products which through neutron capture become heavier. They do not fission at all. To go from U238 to P239 all you need is one capture. To go from U233 to P239, you need a series of captures and there will be plenty of opportunity for fission instead of capture and less transuranic elements will be bred from Thorium.\n\nThe fission products are indeed very similar in composition. One notable exception with liquid fuel reactors is that xenon will not be transmuted in the reactor core (as a gas it will bubble out). In that case you get a lot more Cs135 which has a half life of 2.3Ma. But mostly the fission products are essentially the same.\n\nFission products are either very short lived and those are not a problem, or they are medium lived (10-100years half life) and those are a problem, or they are long lived and those are not that much of a problem (they have low radioactivity).\n\nP239 has a half life of 20000 years and that means it is pretty radioactive and also pretty long lived. Also when P239 decays, it will go through a long chain of maybe a dozen decays before it becomes stable, whereas fission products usually become stable after a single decay.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1429401",
"title": "Integral fast reactor",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency and fuel cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Another important benefit of removing the long half-life transuranics from the waste cycle is that the remaining waste becomes a much shorter-term hazard. After the actinides (reprocessed uranium, plutonium, and minor actinides) are recycled, the remaining radioactive waste isotopes are fission products, with half-life of 90 years (Sm-151) or less or 211,100 years (Tc-99) and more; plus any activation products from the non-fuel reactor components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37257",
"title": "Radioactive waste",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:High-level waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The radioactive waste from spent fuel rods consist primarily of cesium-137 and strontium-90, but it may also include plutonium, which can be considered a transuranic waste. The half-lives of these radioactive elements can differ quite extremely. Some elements, such as cesium-137 and strontium-90 have half-lives of approximately 30 years. Meanwhile, plutonium has a half-life of that can stretch to as long as 24,000 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3153666",
"title": "Nuclear Waste Policy Act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "During the first 40 years that nuclear waste was being created in the United States, no legislation was enacted to manage its disposal. Nuclear waste, some of which remains radioactive with a half-life of more than one million years, was kept in various types of temporary storage. Of particular concern during nuclear waste disposal are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and I-129 (half-life 17 million years), which dominate spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np-237 (half-life two million years) and Pu-239 (half-life 24,000 years).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45275296",
"title": "Thorcon",
"section": "Section::::Waste product.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Every 8 years 160 tons of spent fuel travel to the recycling facility, consisting of about 75% thorium, with 95% of the balance uranium. Without separation (other than removing the salt), the total fuel waste stream averages about 2 m per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228058",
"title": "Breeder reactor",
"section": "Section::::Fuel efficiency and types of nuclear waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "After \"spent nuclear fuel\" is removed from a light water reactor, it undergoes a complex decay profile as each nuclide decays at a different rate. Due to a physical oddity referenced below, there is a large gap in the decay half-lives of fission products compared to transuranic isotopes. If the transuranics are left in the spent fuel, after 1,000 to 100,000 years, the slow decay of these transuranics would generate most of the radioactivity in that spent fuel. Thus, removing the transuranics from the waste eliminates much of the long-term radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22153",
"title": "Nuclear power",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle of nuclear fuel.:Nuclear waste.:High-level radioactive waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "While in the US, spent fuel is presently in its entirety, federally classified as a nuclear waste and is treated similarly, in other countries it is largely reprocessed to produce a partially recycled fuel, known as mixed oxide fuel or MOX. For spent fuel that does not undergo reprocessing, the most concerning isotopes are the medium-lived transuranic elements, which are led by reactor grade plutonium (half-life 24,000 years).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11563568",
"title": "Reactor-grade plutonium",
"section": "Section::::Reuse in reactors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Reprocessing, which mainly takes the form of recycling reactor-grade plutonium back into the same or a more advanced fleet of reactors, was planned in the US in the 1960s. At that time the uranium market was anticipated to become crowded and supplies tight so together with recycling fuel, the more efficient fast breeder reactors were thereby seen as immediately needed to efficiently use the limited known uranium supplies. This became less urgent as time passed, with both reduced demand forecasts and increased uranium ore discoveries, for these economic reasons, fresh fuel and the reliance on solely fresh fuel remained cheaper in commercial terms than recycled. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6amj48
|
Why was Bill Clinton's approval rating so low in the first few months of his presidency?
|
[
{
"answer": "As you said, at this point of his presidency a few months in, in early May of 1993, Clinton was at a 45% approval rating. Clinton's lowest approval rating then actually slipped to 37% - a low-point mark I believe he reached in early June of 1993.\n\nThe reasons for these low ratings early on were largely tied to what many deemed to be Clinton's poor handling and implementation of his domestic agenda out of the gate. His initial attempts at implementing his early economic policies after taking office were quickly called out very effectively (largely by the Republicans of course) as being something that would raise taxes for the bulk of Americans, and that was deemed very troublesome by many of the population, as Clinton initially failed to counter those claims very efficiently or effectively. \n\nClinton's support of the \"Brady Bill\" (aka the *\"Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act\"*) early on into his presidency when it was initially introduced by Chuck Schumer in February of 1993 also hurt Clinton's numbers badly amongst 2nd Amendment advocates in the next few months. \n\nThe whole \"gays in the military\" and the plan for the *\"Don't ask, don't tell\"* Clinton/Democrat policy also is deemed to have hurt his polling numbers early on amongst a considerable number of the electorate (both Dems and Republicans). He also took some early flak for his health care reform ideas (championed in large part by the then First Lady Hillary Clinton), and his early plans and support for NAFTA (the *North American Free Trade Agreement*) brought him a lot of heat from both sides of the aisle (and from Ross Perot supporters as well).\n\nOf course, there was also the crazy *\"HairGate\"* scandal in early May of 1993, where Bill Clinton infamously received an hour-long haircut aboard Air Force One while it was parked on the tarmac at LA International Airport, where the delay caused by him getting his haircut was said to have forced the closure of two runways at the airport for security reasons for about an hour (said to have resulted in huge delays for many passengers on other flights inbound and outbound from the airport). That did not play well in the media at all, and was made by many in the press to initially have Clinton look like an entitled ass who cared little for the average traveller, even with some press calling it *\"the most expensive haircut in history\"*. It was later revealed a couple months or so later that no flights were actually affected by Clinton's desire to get a trim that day aboard Air Force One on the tarmac at LAX, but the initial damage had been done and that hurt his May (and June) 1993 polling numbers as well. \n\nBasically, it was a host of all those things that affected domestic policies that served to drop his early poll numbers quite low. As we know though, Clinton later rebounded quite well, and even survived the Monica Lewinsky affair and impeachment proceedings to emerge to be recognized as quite a popular President after his two terms in office were complete in 2001. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Im surprised no one has mentioned the three-candidate nature of the election. Clinton only won the election with 43.01% to start with. Bush had 37.45% and Ross Perot 18.91%. Clinton never really had a majority to start with. Others have commented on why he slipped but I think it's important to remember he never started over 50% really in the first place. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5042706",
"title": "Al Gore",
"section": "Section::::Second presidential run (2000).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1396,
"text": "While Bill Clinton's job-approval ratings were around 60%, an April 1999 study by the Pew Research Center for the People found that respondents suffered from \"Clinton fatigue\" where they were \"tired of all the problems associated with the Clinton administration\" including the Lewinsky scandal and impeachment. Texas Governor and likely Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush was leading Gore 54% to 41% in polls during that time. Gore's advisers believed that the \"Lewinsky scandal and Bill's past womanizing...alienated independent voters—especially the soccer moms, who stood for traditional values\". Consequently, Gore's presidential campaign \"veered too far in differentiating himself from Bill and his record and had difficulty taking advantage of the Clinton administration's legitimate successes\". In addition, Hillary's candidacy for the open Senate seat in New York exacerbated the \"three-way tensions evident in the White House since 1993\", as \"not only was Hillary unavailable as a campaigner, she was poaching top Democratic fund-raisers and donors who would normally concentrate on the vice president\". In one instance \"Hillary insisted on being invited [to a Los Angeles fundraiser for the vice president]—over the objections of the event's organizers\", where the First Lady \"shocked the vice president's supporters by soliciting donations for herself in front of Tipper\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3356",
"title": "Bill Clinton",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point. According to a CBS News/\"New York Times\" poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61%, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years. Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19065034",
"title": "Convention bounce",
"section": "Section::::History of convention bounces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "Bill Clinton benefited from one of the largest bumps in history after the Democratic National Convention in 1992, climbing by as many as 30 points in the polls, however this was assisted by Independent Ross Perot, who at the time was polling at 20%, withdrawing from the race during the Democratic convention. Then-President George H.W. Bush's convention bounce was weak by comparison, some party leaders blaming former primary challenger Pat Buchanan's fiery and divisive speech, which aired in primetime due to a scheduling delay. Four years later, Bob Dole got a big bounce after the Republican convention, but quickly fizzled. However, Al Gore's 2000 bounce endured for weeks. Prior to the Democratic convention, Gore was behind Texas Gov. George W. Bush by as many as 16 points, but was in a statistical tie with the Republican the weekend after his acceptance speech. To the bafflement of political pundits, Democratic candidate John Kerry did not get a convention bounce in 2004, despite the unpopularity of incumbent George W. Bush.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21411172",
"title": "Public image of Bill Clinton",
"section": "Section::::Public approval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Clinton's job approval rating ranged from 36% in mid-1993 to 64% in late 1993 and early 1994. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point at 73% approval. He finished with a Gallup poll approval rating of 65%, higher than that of every other departing president measured since Harry Truman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361745",
"title": "Presidency of Bill Clinton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Clinton left office with high approval ratings, though his preferred successor, Vice President Al Gore, was narrowly defeated by Texas Governor George W. Bush in the 2000 presidential election. Since the end of Clinton's presidency, historians and political scientists have tended to rank Clinton as an average to above average president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472948",
"title": "History of the United States (1991–2008)",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:The Clinton administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Following the success of the First Gulf War, George H. W. Bush enjoyed very high approval ratings as president. However, economic recession and a reneged campaign pledge dogged Bush, sinking his formerly high approval ratings from the high 80s to the lower 40s and upper 30s. In the wake of Bush's political problems, Bill Clinton won the 1992 contest with 43% of the vote in a three-way race against Bush's 38%. Independent candidate Ross Perot tapped the discontent of the electorate with both parties, drawing roughly evenly from both candidates to receive a record 19% of the popular vote, but no electoral votes. Perot's result qualified his Reform Party to receive Federal Election Commission matching funds for campaign contributions in the 1996 election, thus laying the groundwork for another three-way race during the 1996 presidential election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3356",
"title": "Bill Clinton",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
foh605
|
Why don't mosquitoes die of malaria?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would be detrimental for the plasmodium parasite to kill off the mosquitoes. It requires them for its reproduction.\n\nSo, the answer to your question would be that the parasite has evolved to avoid harming the mosquitoes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Malaria is a red blood consuming parasite, mosquitoes don't die from it because their blood is different from ours. Mosquito have only hemolymphic fluid and does not possess any red blood cells. As you know, malaria require a host red blood cells to reproduce and to feed themselves. Thus, malaria are dormant inside mosquitos...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20423",
"title": "Malaria",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases it can cause yellow skin, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24979563",
"title": "Evolutionary baggage",
"section": "Section::::Sickle-cell and malaria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Malaria, a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals, is a potentially deadly disease that causes fever, fatigue, nausea, muscular pain, coughing, and, in extreme cases, coma and death. Malaria is caused by parasitic protozoans transferred through mosquito saliva into a person’s circulatory system, where they travel to the liver to mature. Though eliminated in the U.S., there were an estimated 219 million documented cases of malaria in 2010 according to the World Health Organization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35696179",
"title": "Affordable Medicines Facility-malaria",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. \"Plasmodium falciparum\" is the species of the malaria parasite that causes the vast majority of severe disease and death. In 2010, there were about 216 million cases of malaria globally, and about 655,000 deaths – mostly among children in Africa. Yet, malaria is preventable and treatable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34335892",
"title": "Climate change in Africa",
"section": "Section::::African Highlands.:Shifts in Malaria Transmission Due to Climate Change.:\"Exposures\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Exposure to malaria will become a greater risk to humans as the number of female \"Anopheles\" mosquitos infected with either the \"Plasmodium falciparum\" or \"Plasmodium vivax\" parasite increases. The mosquito will transmit the parasite to the human host through a bite, resulting in infection. Then, when an uninfected mosquito bites the now infected human host, the parasite will be transmitted to the mosquitoes which will then become an exposure to other uninfected human hosts. Individuals who are constantly exposed to the Malaria parasite due to multiple bites by mosquitoes that carry the parasite are at greater risk of dying. Infected humans can also transmit the disease to uninfected or healthy humans via contaminated blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21054623",
"title": "Mosquito-borne disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. They can transmit disease without being affected themselves. Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year resulting in over one million deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2191408",
"title": "Plasmodium malariae",
"section": "Section::::Role in disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "\"P. malariae\" can infect several species of mosquito and can cause malaria in humans. \"P. malariae\" can be maintained at very low infection rates among a sparse and mobile population because unlike the other \"Plasmodium\" parasites, it can remain in a human host for an extended period of time and still remain infectious to mosquitoes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21054623",
"title": "Mosquito-borne disease",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Protozoa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The female mosquito of the genus \"Anopheles\" carries the malaria parasite. Four different species of protozoa cause malaria: \"Plasmodium falciparum\", \"Plasmodium malariae\", \"Plasmodium\" ovale and \"Plasmodium\" vivax (see \"Plasmodium\"). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with an estimated 207 million cases and more than half a million deaths in 2012, according to the World Malaria Report 2013 published by WHO. The death toll increased to one million as of 2018 according to the American Mosquito Control Association.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25l5ka
|
why is food (and other things) preserved when it is frozen?
|
[
{
"answer": "What makes food go bad is bacteria. Bacteria cant live in the cold very easily and even if they do they slow way way down. Thus freezing prevents the bacteria from spoiling the food and the food stays good for longer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27945098",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Great Depression and World War II (1929–1945).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 337,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 337,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Frozen food is food preserved by the process of freezing. Freezing food is a common method of food preservation which slows both food decay and, by turning water to ice, makes it unavailable for most bacterial growth and slows down most chemical reactions. Clarence Birdseye offered his quick-frozen foods to the public. Birdseye got the idea during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use freezing to preserve foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Preservatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Frozen food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382619",
"title": "TV dinner",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "The food undergoes a process of cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen. After the food is placed on the conveyor belt, it is sprayed with liquid nitrogen that boils on contact with the freezing food. This method of flash-freezing fresh foods is used to retain natural quality of the food. When the food is chilled through cryogenic freezing, small ice crystals are formed throughout the food that, in theory, can preserve the food indefinitely if stored safely. Cryogenic freezing is widely used as it is a method for rapid freezing, requires almost no dehydration, excludes oxygen thus decreasing oxidative spoilage, and causes less damage to individual freezing pieces. Due to the fact that the cost of operating cryogenic freezing is high, it is commonly used for high value food products such as TV dinners, which is a $4.5 billion industry a year that is continuing to grow with the constant introduction of new technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31309377",
"title": "Food spoilage",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Other than drying, other methods include salting, curing, canning, refrigeration, freezing, preservatives, irradiation, and high hydrostatic pressure: Refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most items, it does not indefinitely expand it. Freezing can preserve food even longer, though even freezing has limitations. Canning of food can preserve food for a particularly long period of time, whether done at home or commercially. Canned food is vacuum packed in order to keep oxygen, which is needed by bacteria in aerobic spoilage, out of the can. Canning does have limitations, and does not preserve the food indefinitely. Lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents spoilage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yh4p6
|
Questions regarding Moses & Pharoah and the timeline
|
[
{
"answer": "Check out our [FAQ](_URL_0_). Lots of threads there already.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9102160",
"title": "Midrash Petirat Aharon",
"section": "Section::::Themes in the midrash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The presiding interest of the midrash is not ultimately the eulogization of Aaron, but is rather the psychological analysis of Moses's inner struggle upon being commanded to inform Aaron of his impending demise. In service of this theme, the midrash touches on various aspects of Moses's tense relationship with God and with the Children of Israel, and interweaves this psychological tension with other aggadic elements to create a more powerful drama\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9102160",
"title": "Midrash Petirat Aharon",
"section": "Section::::Outline of the story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The midrash begins with the death of Miriam, sister of Moses, upon which occurrence expired the well that the Israelites through Miriam's merit had grown accustomed to rely on for water. Moses and Aaron mourn their sister's death, but the people grow impatient with Moses (significantly, not with Aharon) for his extended crying, and complain to him of the lack of water. Moses pleads for the privacy to mourn his sister in peace, and reminds the people that they have other officials and elders to whom they can appeal, but the people are implacable and threaten to stone Moses immediately if he does not produce water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477239",
"title": "Burning bush",
"section": "Section::::Biblical narrative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The text portrays Yahweh as telling Moses that he is sending him to the Pharaoh in order to bring the Israelites out of Egypt, an action that Yahweh is described as having decided upon as a result of noticing that the Israelites were being oppressed by the Egyptians. Yahweh tells Moses to tell the \"elders\" of the Israelites that Yahweh would lead them into the land of the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Hivites, and Jebusites, a region generally referred to as a whole by the term \"Canaan\"; this is described as being a land of \"milk and honey\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2075548",
"title": "Assumption of Moses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The Assumption of Moses (otherwise called the Testament of Moses) is a 1st century Jewish apocryphal pseudepigraphical work. It purports to contain secret prophecies Moses revealed to Joshua before passing leadership of the Israelites to him. It contains apocalyptic themes, but is characterized as a \"testament\", meaning it has the final speech of a dying person, Moses. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2539671",
"title": "Ten Commandments",
"section": "Section::::Critical historical analysis.:Early theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Julius Wellhausen's influential hypothesis regarding the formation of the Pentateuch suggests that Exodus 20-23 and 34 \"might be regarded as the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of Israel.\" Deuteronomy 5 then reflects King Josiah's attempt to link the document produced by his court to the older Mosaic tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8705545",
"title": "Kingdom of David",
"section": "Section::::By the Rivers of Babylon.:Moses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The documentary recounts Moses's encounter with the flaming bush and his involvement with the freeing of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage. the Exodus is where the great epic of Israel starts. According to William G. Dever, archeologist, the desert can only support a few thousand nomads, not the purported 3-million that legend tells us accompanied Moses. Furthermore, only 1 or 2 sites mentioned in Exodus have been identified. For the scribes to write an accurate historical account of what occurred 700 years earlier was improbable. What was probable was bringing to text the eternal lessons that the story of Moses taught.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3137245",
"title": "Nehemiah",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Nehemiah is the central figure of the Book of Nehemiah, which describes his work in rebuilding Jerusalem during the Second Temple period. He was governor of Persian Judea under Artaxerxes I of Persia (c. 5th century BC). The name is pronounced or in English. It is in Hebrew , \"Nehemya\", \"Yahweh comforts\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
y595a
|
realism, modernism and postmodernism in literature.
|
[
{
"answer": "All three are defined by an underlying philosophy (sort of, nowhere near as coherent as that sounds, really), a set of writers associated with them (and how they influence each other), a set of typical themes, a set of typical techniques, and a time period in which they were prevalent.\n\nSo it's not exactly very strictly defined. Asking 'What is modernism in literature?' is not like asking 'what is an antelope', but more like asking 'what is rock'n roll?' or 'what is classic cartoon?'\n\nI'll take a stab at giving a rough impression of each.\n\nRealism has the goal to describe the world as it really is. In practice, this can mean a focus on subjects that used to be 'beneath' literature or considered boring. The life of the working class, everday life, etc. The A-Team is low on realism, the Wire is high on realism.\n\nModernism goes, hold on, what do you mean 'what the world really is'? What with Darwin and Freud and Einstein, we are no longer so sure we can pin that down. You can pretend to describe the world all neat and precise and logical, but that's not how your life actually looks like.\n\nModernist stories tend to be disjointed, disgressive, open to interpretation, and often go against the establishment (political, religious, whatever you got). They often deal with the experiences of the late 19th and early 20th Century that freaked everybody out.\n\nBlackadder Goes Forth would sort of be an example.\n\nPostmodernism goes, let's not just ask what does reality mean, but also what does asking mean, and being mean, and meaning mean, man? Let's no longer try to figure out what 'reality' is, but just admit that nobody knows and point out that anybody who claims to know is full of it.\n\nModernism is all very well in its way, but it still is all about stories who come to some kind of resolution and make some kind of point and life doesn't actually work like that at all.\n\nSo you get stories who fall apart on you while reading them, that seem to aim towards an ending then take a sharp turn left and then explode into a big pile of confetti. (The deliberate refusal to hold to fixed definitions or make sense at all often makes post-modernism seem much more complex than it really is)\n\nPostmodernist technique tend to be about playing around with the elements of the narrative, not taking it seriously in order to point out that there is nothing there in the first place, to be taken seriously or not. You get stories within stories, characters talking to the author, sudden genre shifts, self-contradictions, narrators who are not merely unrealiable, but just plain trolling etc.\n\nTV example: Monty Python's Flying Circus.\n\nTL;DR:\n\nRealism -- > That's a good story. It has some interesting things to say about real life.\n\nModernism -- > That's a good story. It has some interesting questions about so-called real life.\n\nPostmodernism -- > That's a very clever somewhat story-like text, but WTF?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "An English professor once explained realism as \"the events that take place between lunch and dinner.\" meaning that it's a story in which not much is accomplished, but rather the story has been told because it happened and it could be. \n\nModernism expands on this idea by finding significance in the mundane or by finding the mundane in the extraordinary. Joyce's \"Ulysses\" is a great example of the first. It's the story of a single day from the life of Leopold Bloom, but during his day we learn so much about him, his circumstances, and the world around him through his routine. We're not explicitly told about Bloom so much as we are left to make inferences based on the things that encapsulate his day. Hemingway is a great example of the latter; many of his stories are set to extraordinary backdrops of war but are focused more on the telling of a personal story that could be told outside of that backdrop. They use something as impersonal as war to speak about the personal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Going by my fuzzy memories of college lit. classes, this is what I recall:\n\nRealism - was a reaction to Romanticism, and focused on writing about events like they could've actually happened. Mark Twain is a great example of a Realist. His philosophy and writing are pretty much Realism in a nutshell. He was one of the writers whom incorporated \"local color\" into his prose, like writing out dialogue to reflect regional accents and slang, for example. Realism is focused on positing what might actually happen to the characters, given their circumstances. It's about the ironies and tragedies of life, and the surprising comedy therein. Naturalism and Fatalism are Realism's dark cousins, often portraying characters as unable to act against nature or their circumstances, and resigned to their (usually unfortunate) fates.\n\nModernism originated after the First World War. It borrows from Realism by setting many stories in realistic circumstances, but as chowderkirk pointed out, the stories are introspective and often personal. *The Old Man and the Sea*, for example is about the struggle of an old fisherman to hook a marlin. It makes an unlucky fisherman's attempt at catching a fish a Biblical struggle. Modernism was about taking something epic (World War I) and bringing it down the level of one or two people, and how they were affected by such a huge event; or likewise, how a small event can become huge for a few people.\n\nPostmodernism went one step further and questioned the very nature of perspective and thought itself. It's found in examples of narratives where the narrator is unreliable, or the writing stream of consciousness, and the very idea of perception is itself questioned. It can be very thought provoking (What is real? What is unreal?) at best to the solipsistic at worst. It's when Modernism went meta, and looked within and without. Some of this was brought on by things like the Great Depression, World War II and the Cold War. *The Waste Land* by TS Eliot is the standard-bearer in postmodern poetry. It's a daunting, at times vexing, piece of poetry that's nearly impossible to understand from the author's point of view. I recall in college it came with a lot of endnotes so you could tell what Eliot was talking about.\n\nImagine Modernism as subreddits. Realism is r/TrueReddit, trying to cut through the bullshit of Reddit and get to the good stuff. Modernism is r/TrueTrueReddit and r/TheoryofReddit, trying to cut through the bullshit of r/TrueReddit and Reddit and ponder Reddit itself. Postmodernism is r/Meta, r/MetaTrueReddit and beyond, questioning the very fabric of time, space and Reddit as we know it.\n\nAlso it's very important to note that although these styles started during generally agreed-upon points in time, they never really ended. They're also highly influential upon contemporary writing across all genres.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378948",
"title": "Postmodernist film",
"section": "Section::::Overview of postmodernism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "Postmodernism is a complex paradigm of different philosophies and artistic styles. The movement emerged as a reaction to high modernism. Modernism is a paradigm of thought and viewing the world characterized in specific ways that postmodernism reacted against. Modernism was interested in master and meta narratives of history of a teleological nature. Proponents of modernism suggested that sociopolitical and cultural progress was inevitable and important for society and art. Ideas of cultural unity (i.e. the narrative of the West or something similar) and the hierarchies of values of class that go along with such a conception of the world is another marker of modernism. In particular, modernism insisted upon a divide between \"low\" forms of art and \"high\" forms of art (creating more value judgments and hierarchies). This dichotomy is particularly focused on the divide between official culture and popular culture. Lastly but, by no means comprehensively, there was a faith in the \"real\" and the future and knowledge and the competence of expertise that pervades modernism. At heart, it contained a confidence about the world and humankind's place in it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26781",
"title": "Social science",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.:Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- Postmodernism refers to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "722993",
"title": "Postmodern literature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Postmodern literature is literature characterized by reliance on narrative techniques such as fragmentation, paradox, and the unreliable narrator; and is often (though not exclusively) defined as a style or a trend which emerged in the post–World War II era. Postmodern works are seen as a response against dogmatic following of Enlightenment thinking and Modernist approaches to literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50488409",
"title": "Twentieth-century English literature",
"section": "Section::::1940 to 2000.:Post-modern literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "The term Postmodern literature is used to describe certain tendencies in post-World War II literature. It is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc.) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. Among postmodern writers are the Americans Henry Miller, William S. Burroughs, Joseph Heller, Kurt Vonnegut, Hunter S. Thompson, Truman Capote and Thomas Pynchon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973384",
"title": "English literature",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Post–modernism (1940–2000).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Postmodern literature is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc.) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. Among postmodern writers are the Americans Henry Miller, William S. Burroughs, Joseph Heller, Kurt Vonnegut, Hunter S. Thompson, Truman Capote and Thomas Pynchon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19547",
"title": "Modernism",
"section": "Section::::Differences between modernism and postmodernism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Modernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on sociopolitical theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "722993",
"title": "Postmodern literature",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Comparisons with modernist literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1594,
"text": "Both modern and postmodern literature represent a break from 19th century realism. In character development, both modern and postmodern literature explore subjectivism, turning from external reality to examine inner states of consciousness, in many cases drawing on modernist examples in the \"stream of consciousness\" styles of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, or explorative poems like \"The Waste Land\" by T. S. Eliot. In addition, both modern and postmodern literature explore fragmentariness in narrative- and character-construction. \"The Waste Land\" is often cited as a means of distinguishing modern and postmodern literature. The poem is fragmentary and employs pastiche like much postmodern literature, but the speaker in \"The Waste Land\" says, \"these fragments I have shored against my ruins\". Modernist literature sees fragmentation and extreme subjectivity as an existential crisis, or Freudian internal conflict, a problem that must be solved, and the artist is often cited as the one to solve it. Postmodernists, however, often demonstrate that this chaos is insurmountable; the artist is impotent, and the only recourse against \"ruin\" is to play within the chaos. Playfulness is present in many modernist works (Joyce's \"Finnegans Wake\" or Woolf's \"\", for example) and they may seem very similar to postmodern works, but with postmodernism playfulness becomes central and the actual achievement of order and meaning becomes unlikely. Gertrude Stein's playful experiment with metafiction and genre in \"The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas\" (1933) has been interpreted as postmodern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8wdq47
|
How are each of the lobes in the brain differentiated on a biological level?
|
[
{
"answer": "How are they differentiated? Well it's not simple. It's kinda like trying to decide where certain neighbourhoods in city begin and end. There are some areas that we are certain about, others where it gets a bit blurry. Let me explain.\n\nTo start with, the different areas of the brain were decided by looking down a microscope and seeing if the cells looked a little different. This was done most famously by a guy called Korbinian Brodmann in 1909. It's definitely the case that different areas of the brain look slightly different down the microscope, like [this](_URL_1_). But it's not very exact, though the so called \"Brodmann areas\" are still widely used, especially in humans. But since 1909, we've learnt a lot, and we generally do things differently now.\n\nA simple question might be: Where is the primary visual cortex? It was decided that the primary visual cortex is where the visual inputs go to in the cortex. Any area that gets a lot of inputs from the eye is the primary visual cortex, and any area that doesn't, is NOT the primary visual cortex. So you can stick a dye into the pathway from the eye, and have a look. And if you do that, you get an image like [this](_URL_0_) (this is a mouse brain, but the concept still holds in humans) and where the brain is glowing yellow/green is primary visual cortex. You can do similar things for all the other primary sensory regions. But things start to get a little more complex outside of those regions. The question is not where the region is, but what defines that region? That is to say, what properties must a region have in order to be classified as region X? So a debate that I'm aware of is \"Do mice even HAVE a prefrontal cortex?\". And this debate exists because we don't have a great definition of the prefrontal cortex. If someone could say \"well the prefrontal cortex is an area that has projections from this other region, and contains cells that look like this\" then it would be easy to figure out if mice have an area that meets those conditions, and where it is. However, if that exact definition doesn't exist, then people have trouble deciding what counts.\n\n\\ > Certain areas have different functions, but how does that map to their individual clusters of neurons?\n\nSo I've said that most areas of the cortex are defined by what projections they received, and to a less extent what the neurons look like. But what does that mean functionally? By and large, this is still an unknown. Most areas of the cortex appear to do roughly the same thing. There are a few areas that are plainly very different (e.g. the periform cortex), but by and large the rest (especially primary sensory cortex) looks pretty similar when you look at it closely. These areas all have 6 layers, where the input from the senses goes mainly to layer 4. Layer 4 projects to layers 2 and 3, and layers 2 and 3 project down to layers 5 and 6. Layer 6 projects back to the sensory input, and layer 5 projects off to other regions. There are also similar inhibitory cells, that appear to be linked up in the same way. However, because we don't really know what the cortex does, or how it does it, we can't really answer whether there are important differences between cortical regions. There certainly ARE differences (layer 4 is quite different in different regions) but what that means in terms of how the cortex functions is not know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2566333",
"title": "Lobes of the brain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The lobes of the brain were originally a purely anatomical classification, but have been shown also to be related to different brain functions. The cerebrum, the largest portion of the human brain, is divided into lobes, but so is the cerebellum. If not specified, the expression \"lobes of the brain\" refers to the cerebrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "469220",
"title": "Frontal lobe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "The frontal lobe is the largest of the four major lobes of the brain in mammals, and is located at the front of each hemisphere (in front of the parietal lobe and the temporal lobe). It is separated from the parietal lobe by a groove between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deeper groove called the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure). The most anterior rounded part of the frontal lobe (though not well-defined) is known as the frontal pole, one of the three poles of the cerebrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3344294",
"title": "Frontal lobe epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Due to the difference in brain processing and function as well as various surface anatomy landmarks, the frontal lobes have traditionally been divided into two major areas known as the precentral cortex and prefrontal cortex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50397",
"title": "Cerebellum",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Gross anatomy.:Subdivisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Based on the surface appearance, three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum: the anterior lobe (above the primary fissure), the posterior lobe (below the primary fissure), and the flocculonodular lobe (below the posterior fissure). These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal (in humans, top to bottom). In terms of function, however, there is a more important distinction along the medial-to-lateral dimension. Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe, which has distinct connections and functions, the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the spinocerebellum and a larger lateral sector called the cerebrocerebellum. A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the cerebellar vermis. (\"Vermis\" is Latin for \"worm\".)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "469220",
"title": "Frontal lobe",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The frontal lobe is the largest lobe of the brain and makes up about a third of the surface area of each hemisphere. On the lateral surface of each hemisphere, the central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The lateral sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472212",
"title": "Occipital lobe",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The two occipital lobes are the smallest of four paired lobes in the human brain. Located in the rearmost portion of the skull, the occipital lobes are part of the posterior cerebrum. The lobes of the brain are named from the overlying bone and the occipital bone overlies the occipital lobes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25400076",
"title": "Anatomy of the cerebellum",
"section": "Section::::Gross anatomy.:Gross anatomical divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "On gross inspection, three lobes can be distinguished in the cerebellum: the flocculonodular lobe, the anterior lobe (rostral to the \"primary fissure\"), and the posterior lobe (dorsal to the \"primary fissure\"). The latter two can be further divided in a midline cerebellar vermis and lateral cerebellar hemispheres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e06i3b
|
percentage of rain meaning
|
[
{
"answer": "Ugh, it's kind of a mess. \n\nSo, a 20% chance of rain can mean there's a 20% chance that you will get rained on at some point that day. \n\nBut sometimes it can be used to mean things like 20% of the day will be raining. \n\nOr that 20% of the land within an area will be rained on. This is the interpretation that the National Weather Service goes with -- if it rains at all, it will rain on 20% of the area. \n\nWhich can be confusing because it might not rain anywhere. Or it might rain constantly on that 20% of land area. It can also mean that forcasters are 100% sure that it's going to rain on you and 100% sure that it's not going to rain on me, but the percentage they come up with will depend on how large the area they're covering is and what they predict will happen in those places too. \n\nAnd none of it indicates how much rain you'll get. \n\nAn 80% chance of rain could mean that it rains for 5 minutes over 80% chance of the area *or* that 80% of the day will be lightly misting *or* that there's an 80% chance it could rain at any point during the day *or* that there's an 80% chance that it could rain anywhere on the map *or* that 80% of land will see torrential downpours and flash flooding.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1725889",
"title": "Rain, Lucerne",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Rain has a population () of 2,214, of which 5.1% are foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 30.9%. Most of the population () speaks German (96.5%), with Albanian being second most common ( 0.7%) and Portuguese being third ( 0.5%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19009110",
"title": "Rain",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Gauges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour, or in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour. The \"length\", or more accurately, \"depth\" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour. One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19009110",
"title": "Rain",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Acidity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1149,
"text": "The phrase \"acid rain\" was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852. The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0–5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8–4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0. Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (HSO) and nitric acid (HNO). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where HS is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95786",
"title": "Rain gauge",
"section": "Section::::History.:National coverage and modern gauges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Most modern rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimetres in height collected on each square meter during a certain period, equivalent to litres per square metre. Previously rain was recorded as inches or points, where one point is equal to 0.254 mm or 0.01 of an inch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7986449",
"title": "Basic precipitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The principal cause of basic rain is emissions from factories and waste deposits. Mineral dust containing large amounts of alkaline compounds such as calcium carbonate can also increase the pH of precipitation and contribute to basic rain. Basic rain can be viewed as opposite to acid rain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "110572",
"title": "Kahului, Hawaii",
"section": "Section::::Geography and climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Normal annual rainfall is spread over an average 95 days, but observed annual rainfall has ranged from in 1908 and 1998 to in 1989. The wettest month on record is January 1980 with , while the most rain to occur in a single calendar day is on December 21, 1955. The most recent month without measurable (≥) rain is October 2013 with trace amounts, and the last without any rain is June 1957. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990309",
"title": "Rain (Madonna song)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1141,
"text": "\"Rain\" is a pop ballad with influence from trip hop and new-age music. Styled in adult contemporary format, the song is more \"friendly\" in its sound than the other singles released from \"Erotica\". According to the sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing, the song is written in the key note of E major. The song's tempo is set in a moderate pace, but not too fast and has a metronome of 92 beats per minute. \"Rain\" begins with Madonna singing \"I feel it, it's coming\", and followed by the chord progression of E–A–B in the chorus and later A–B–E in the verse. A dark sounding C minor string and an echoing hi-hat accompanies Madonna's vocals, which are sung in her lowest register. The song's arrangement captures turbulent elements associated with rain (such as thunder), orchestral stabs that invokes crisp lightning bolts, and a surging bridge segue driven by what sounds like electric guitar snarls. A key change happens towards the end from B major to C major, followed by two spoken parts and a harmony alongside it. The coda has a different melody included with it, and the song ends in a group chorus without the harmonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f5s93b
|
what exactly happens to a dissolved/bankrupt company's debts?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a sometimes lengthy court process, those the company owed money to can fight to recover some of the debt from whatever assets the company has left. Any debt that remains unpaid after that will remain forever unpaid and written off",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a former business owner who was owed tens of thousands by customers, I can confirm that when a company goes bankrupt, first the taxman, bankers and lawyers get paid. There usually isnt anything left after that so the remaining businesses get a couple of letters in the mail from the courts which, roughly translated, mean \"You have been fucked hard in the ass with no lube. Have a nice day\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, the court forces all their assets to be sold, absolutely anything that has value goes. Then the court uses it to pay off debts (in a specific order). When the money runs out the court the court tells everyone left that they are not getting paid, tough luck, this is a risk of loaning money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The company's assets are liquidated and applied to its debt. Any remaining debt is discharged and the creditors take a loss.\n\nThere are some situations, usually involving misconduct, where the \"corporate veil\" can be lifted and owners of the company become personally responsible for the debt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18453408",
"title": "Insolvency law of Switzerland",
"section": "Section::::Security measures.:Challenge of unfair preferences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Creditors who hold a certificate of unpaid debts against the debtor, or creditors in a bankruptcy, may file suit against third parties who have benefited from unfair preferences or fraudulent transfers by the debtor prior to a seizure of assets or a bankruptcy. If the challenge succeeds, the third party must return the assets formerly belonging to the debtor to the DBO or the BO, as the case may be, and the debtor may also be liable for criminal prosecution for bankruptcy fraud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5747779",
"title": "Unsecured creditor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "In the event of the bankruptcy of the debtor, the unsecured creditors usually obtain a \"pari passu\" distribution out of the assets of the insolvent company on a liquidation in accordance with the size of their debt after the secured creditors have enforced their security and the preferential creditors have exhausted their claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4695",
"title": "Bankruptcy",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1225,
"text": "The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals. Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority. Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled. Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled. The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63474",
"title": "Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code",
"section": "Section::::For businesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "When a troubled business is unable to pay its creditors, it may file (or be forced by its creditors to file) for bankruptcy in a federal court under Chapter 7. A Chapter 7 filing means that the business ceases operations unless those operations are continued by the Chapter 7 Trustee. A Chapter 7 trustee is appointed almost immediately, with broad powers to examine the business's financial affairs. The Trustee generally liquidates the assets and distributes the proceeds to the creditors. This may or may not mean that all employees will lose their jobs. When a large company enters Chapter 7 bankruptcy, entire divisions of the company may be sold intact to other companies during the liquidation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2429844",
"title": "Debtor in possession",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "A debtor in possession in United States bankruptcy law is a person or corporation who has filed a bankruptcy petition, but remains in possession of property upon which a creditor has a lien or similar security interest. A corporation which continues to operate its business under Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings is a debtor in possession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2807058",
"title": "DAK Industries",
"section": "Section::::Microsoft dispute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The dispute was based on principles of bankruptcy law. A company in bankruptcy generally does not pay its debts while courts determine which creditors should get paid. But if that applied to all debts, no one would extend further credit to the company and it would be less able to administer the bankruptcy and ensure fair payment to its existing creditors. Therefore, bankruptcy law gives priority to new debts, incurred after filing of the bankruptcy, as part of administering the bankruptcy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31844268",
"title": "Bankruptcy Law in the Republic of Ireland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The essence of bankruptcy is that the debtor's assets are transferred to an official who administers and realises them for the benefit of all creditors. The purpose is to release the bankrupt from an unsustainable debt burden and to distribute his assets amongst all creditors equally (although certain types of creditor enjoy priorities). The bankrupt person is subject to restrictions and disabilities on trading and on obtaining credit while a bankrupt but leaves the process with their debts forgiven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ysbbm
|
a new pacific island has just formed from a volcano. presuming it's in international waters, who 'owns' it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is whomever claims and can successfully defend it. \n\nNo one inherently \"owns\" any piece of property, so whomever wanted it would have to defend their claim either legally (get it recognized by other nations) and/or militarily (repel all invaders). Usually, the island will be part of a chain, so the most likely owner would be the nation that has claim to the rest of the island chain, but if it was truly in the middle of nowhere and still desirable, various nations would probably race to put a research station on it to lay a claim (I got here first) and from there, it would be legal wrangling and/or a small scale military conflict to retain/gain possession. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5489",
"title": "Chile",
"section": "Section::::Geography, climate, and environment.:Topography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. Of these, we highlight the archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island, which is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8554340",
"title": "Solander Islands",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The islands are remnants of an isolated extinct Pleistocene volcano with andesite rocks, one to two million years old. They lie on a bank with depths less than , but are separated from the continental shelf around Foveaux Strait by a narrow trough with depths in excess of (at least ). Therefore, the islands are included in the New Zealand Outlying Islands, despite their proximity to the mainland. The Solander Islands are the only New Zealand volcanic land features related to the subduction of the Australian Plate beneath the Pacific Plate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5793405",
"title": "Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument is a group of unorganized, mostly unincorporated United States Pacific Island territories managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States Department of Commerce. These remote refuges are \"the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction\". They protect many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16285610",
"title": "Outline of the Pitcairn Islands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, commonly known as the Pitcairn Islands or just Pitcairn, are a group of four volcanic islands in the South Pacific Ocean. The islands are a British overseas territory (formerly a British colony), the last remaining in the Pacific. Only Pitcairn Island, the second largest island, is inhabited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529589",
"title": "Revillagigedo Islands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The Revillagigedo Islands (, ) or Revillagigedo Archipelago are a group of four volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean, known for their unique ecosystem. They lie approximately southwest of Cabo San Lucas, the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula, and west of Manzanillo. They are located around . Technically part of the Mexican state of Colima, the islands are under Mexican federal jurisdiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23450",
"title": "Pitcairn Islands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, are a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four islands—Pitcairn proper, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno—are scattered across several hundred miles of ocean and have a combined land area of about . Henderson Island accounts for 86% of the land area, but only Pitcairn Island is inhabited. The nearest places are Mangareva (of French Polynesia) to the west and Easter Island to the east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5793405",
"title": "Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1478,
"text": "The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was proclaimed a national monument on January 6, 2009, by U.S. President George W. Bush and follows his June 6, 2006, creation of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It was expanded on September 25, 2014 by U.S. President Barack Obama. The monument covers , spanning areas to the far south and west of Hawaii: Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll, Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, and Wake Island. At Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef the terrestrial areas, reefs, and waters out to (radius) are part of the National Wildlife Refuge System. For Kingman Reef and Palmyra Atoll and Howland Island and Baker Island, fishery-related activities seaward from the refuge boundaries out to the NMM boundary (about square across) are managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. For Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, and Wake Island fishery-related activities seaward from the refuge boundaries out to the NMM boundary (U.S. EEZ waters) are managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The land areas at Wake and Johnston Atolls remain under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Air Force, but the waters from 0 to are protected as units of the National Wildlife Refuge System. The entire monument is closed to commercial fishing and other resource extraction activities, such as deep sea mining.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bb4c25
|
During the California gold rush, was selling shovels really a better way to make money than searching for gold?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is we really don't know. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nOutside of word of mouth and the strikes that were notable enough to make news, we don't have a good idea of how much gold was really found as the lack of law enforcement and the hardships in filing a claim meant that miners were tight lipped about the locations and size of any strikes they might have made. There are estimates based on assayers records when they purchased gold, but that is limited as gold in itself was a currency and not always exchanged for cash or credit. We don't have any accurate numbers on how many people made a fortune, or even just made enough to come out ahead outside of journals and newspaper articles. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe second real problem in this question is that there wasn't just one California Gold Rush, there were multiple ones. By the standards of Gold rushes just few years later, Sutter's Mill (the first one,) is positively puny. In the first gold rushes most people definitely made money off mining. But a lot learned quickly that good money was made selling goods and services to miners and less than two years later merchants were setting up shops near major gold strikes within days of one being reported. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nAdditionally, there are stories of farmers taking herds of cattle and sheep, wagons of wheat and even eggs from Oregon's Willamette Valley to the California gold fields and making lots of money that way. Later on timber was another big export, creating the Pacific Northwest's early Timber Industry. Lots of coastal towns exported fish and dairy products to the gold fields. Some people even made money off building wagons and ships to transport all these goods. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nWithin a pretty short amount of time an industry sprung up around reselling claims. People would search one out, pan or mine them long enough to confirm it was a good place and then sell the claim to another miner or mining company. This is still an actual business methodology here in the United States BTW as the demand for gold in electronics keeps increasing. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe other places to make real money in those days was in prostitution and taverns. Stories abound of both arriving before merchants were even able to setup shop near gold strikes. I even have family stories of an ancestor who made his \"fortune\" just sweeping up the town's two taverns early in the morning and then panning the dust for gold. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nAnother place that people made money directly or indirectly off of mining in those days was selling land. People would make a land claim, hold and then sell it as little as a month later. Or they would sub-divide it to sell pieces to newcomers, or even incorporate a town on a portion of it. Many of these towns disappeared quickly, leaving only a place name, but the larger portion of cities in California and Oregon were built directly or indirectly off of gold mining. Early investors in successful town sites made money buying and selling town lots. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nTo answer your question more directly, I think the real answer is the best way to make money is by identifying a niche and filling it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58296",
"title": "California Gold Rush",
"section": "Section::::Development of gold-recovery techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, early forty-niners were able to retrieve loose gold flakes and nuggets with their hands, or simply \"pan\" for gold in rivers and streams. Panning cannot take place on a large scale, and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining, using \"cradles\" and \"rockers\" or \"long-toms\" to process larger volumes of gravel. Miners would also engage in \"coyoteing\", a method that involved digging a shaft deep into placer deposits along a stream. Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13020935",
"title": "Gold dredge",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "By the mid to late 1850s the easily accessible placer gold in California was gone, but much gold remained. The challenge of retrieving the gold took a professional mining approach to make it pay: giant machines and giant companies. Massive floating dredges scooped up millions of tons of river gravels, as steam and electrical power became available in the early 1900s. The last giant gold dredge in California was the Natomas Number 6 dredge operating in Folsom, California that ceased operations on 12 Feb 1962 as cost of operation began exceeding the value of the gold recovered. Many of these large dredges still exist today in state-sponsored heritage areas (Sumpter Valley Gold Dredge, this dredge was also an important part of the popular book series Skeleton Creek Written by Patrick Carmen in 2009, or tourist attractions (Dredge No. 4 National Historic Site of Canada).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8248786",
"title": "Gold in California",
"section": "Section::::Gold recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams, a form of placer mining. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining \"cradles\" and \"rockers\" or \"long-toms\" to process larger volumes of gravel. Miners would also engage in \"coyoteing\". This method involved digging a shaft deep into placer deposits along a stream. Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6771748",
"title": "History of California",
"section": "Section::::History of California through 1899.:American period.:Gold Rush effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "In the early years of the California Gold Rush, placer mining methods were used, from panning to \"cradles\" and \"rockers\" or \"long-toms\", to diverting the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then digging for gold in the gravel down to the rocky river bottom. This placer gold had been freed by the slow disintegration, over geological time, that freed the gold from its ore. This free gold was typically found in the cracks in the rocks found at the bottom of the gravel found in rivers or creeks, as the gold typically worked down through the gravel or collected in stream bends or bottom cracks. Some 12-million ounces (370 t) of gold were removed in the first five years of the Gold Rush. This gold greatly increased the available money in the United States, which was on the gold standard at that time—the more gold you had, the more you could buy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8454650",
"title": "Granite, Colorado",
"section": "Section::::Geology and mining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "Unlike the early days of the California Gold Rush, very few large nuggets were ever found in the Colorado diggings. A gold pan was adequate for finding \"pay dirt\", but to produce more than a small amount of gold, sluice boxes were built to separate the gold dust from the gravel. They were built on site from the material that was at hand and placed in the river current. The old sluice boxes were lined with raised obstructions that were placed in a vertical position to the flow of the current and when the gold-laden gravel was shoveled into the upper end of the sluice, the flow of water carried the material down the length of the box. The gravel was carried down the entire length of the sluice and then discharged, but the heavier flakes of gold settled and became trapped. Signs of placer mining up and down along the Arkansas river near Granite and the surrounding areas are in evidence by the many heaps of glacially rounded granite boulders, rocks that were once buried in the glacial gravel deposits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50413",
"title": "Sierra Nevada (U.S.)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gold rush.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "353849",
"title": "Hydraulic mining",
"section": "Section::::History.:California Gold Rush.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Early placer miners in California discovered that the more gravel they could process, the more gold they were likely to find. Instead of working with pans, sluice boxes, long toms, and rockers, miners collaborated to find ways to process larger quantities of gravel more rapidly. Hydraulic mining became the largest-scale, and most devastating, form of placer mining. Water was redirected into an ever-narrowing channel, through a large canvas hose, and out through a giant iron nozzle, called a \"monitor\". The extremely high pressure stream was used to wash entire hillsides through enormous sluices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rgyd9
|
what would actually happen if someone paid off people's student loans via hacking?
|
[
{
"answer": "because they're not hacking, they're doing a denial of service attack.\n\nThey dont get inside and get to find out information and change things.\n\nThey're just attempting to make so many connections at once the server can't handle it.\n\nIt's the difference between infiltrating a building like a spy (hacking), and forming a picket line (DDOS, taking a service down)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51708172",
"title": "Yahoo! data breaches",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Late 2014 breach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Such information, especially security questions and answers, could help hackers break into victims' other online accounts. Computer security experts cautioned that the incident could have far-reaching consequences involving privacy, potentially including finance and banking as well as personal information of people's lives, including information pulled from any other accounts that can be hacked with the gained account data. Experts also noted that there may be millions of people, as users of Flickr, Sky and BT who do not realize that they have a Yahoo! account as a result of past acquisitions and agreements made with Yahoo!. or Yahoo users who stopped using their accounts years earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46526",
"title": "Advance-fee scam",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Victims can be enticed to borrow or embezzle money to pay the advance fees, believing that they will shortly be paid a much larger sum and be able to refund what they misappropriated. Crimes committed by victims include credit-card fraud, check kiting, and embezzlement. San Diego-based businessman James Adler lost over $5 million in a Nigeria-based advance-fee scam. While a court affirmed that various Nigerian government officials (including a governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria) were directly or indirectly involved, and that Nigerian government officials could be sued in U.S. courts under the \"commercial activity\" exception to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, Adler was unable to get his money back due to the doctrine of unclean hands because he had knowingly entered into a contract that was illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25700697",
"title": "Ashley Madison",
"section": "Section::::Data breach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Some users reported receiving extortion emails requesting 1.05 in bitcoins (approximately $225 at the time) to prevent the information from being shared with the user's significant other. Clinical psychologists argued that dealing with an affair in a particularly public way increases the hurt for spouses and children. On August 24 the Toronto Police Department spoke of \"two unconfirmed reports of suicides\" associated with the leak of customer profiles along with extortion attempts, offering a $500,000 reward for information leading to the arrest of the hackers. At least one suicide previously linked to Ashley Madison has since been reported as being due to \"stress entirely related to issues at work that had no connection to the data leak\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52684943",
"title": "N26 (bank)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "In March 2019, German media reported that customers who had their account credentials stolen found it difficult to contact the bank and resolve the situation. Customer advocates reported that there was a growing number of complaints from phishing victims who were unable to access their accounts and found it difficult to contact the bank. In a widely reported case N26 took more than two weeks to restore access for a customer who had €80,000 stolen from their account. The reports raised the question if the rapid growth of the bank had left it ill equipped to deal with the increasing number of support cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46526",
"title": "Advance-fee scam",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The essential fact in all advance-fee fraud operations is the promised money transfer to the victim never happens, because the money does not exist. The perpetrators rely on the fact that, by the time the victim realizes this (often only after being confronted by a third party who has noticed the transactions or conversation and recognized the scam), the victim may have sent thousands of dollars of their own money, and sometimes thousands more that has been borrowed or stolen, to the scammer via an untraceable and/or irreversible means such as wire transfer. The scammer disappears, and the victim is left on the hook for the money sent to the scammer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46526",
"title": "Advance-fee scam",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Once the victim's confidence has been gained, the scammer then introduces a delay or monetary hurdle that prevents the deal from occurring as planned, such as \"To transmit the money, we need to bribe a bank official. Could you help us with a loan?\" or \"For you to be a party to the transaction, you must have holdings at a Nigerian bank of $100,000 or more\" or similar. This is the money being stolen from the victim; the victim willingly transfers the money, usually through some irreversible channel such as a wire transfer, and the scammer receives and pockets it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25129031",
"title": "Zeus (malware)",
"section": "Section::::FBI crackdown.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The hackers then used this information to take over the victims’ bank accounts and make unauthorized transfers of thousands of dollars at a time, often routing the funds to other accounts controlled by a network of money mules, paid a commission. Many of the U.S. money mules were recruited from overseas. They created bank accounts using fake documents and false names. Once the money was in the accounts, the mules would either wire it back to their bosses in Eastern Europe, or withdraw it in cash and smuggle it out of the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bdt3m8
|
Just watched lindybeiges video about fire arrows, I have a small question
|
[
{
"answer": "I actually wrote a little bit about fire arrows just a few days ago [here](_URL_0_). Like literally every historian I maintain that fire arrows are not meant for battlefield use. They are, as stated the, absolute last resort for a besieging force to set something on fire if you have nothing else available. \n\nSo what about a pitch ditches? \n\nNo. I have never ever heard of a pitch ditch used defensively. Why? Well... why would you ever do that? It would be *immediately* apparent to any attacker who could just throw a torch in it, wait for it to burn out and then step over it. Also you'd have to know almost exactly when an attack is going to come or whatever flammable substance you fill it with is just going to soak into the ground and even if you somehow managed to magically get tons and tons of flammable substance, undetected, into a trench just before an enemy attack and set it ablaze at just the right moment... then what? You'll burn at best a few dozen men at the cost of enormous quantities of flammable substance. A much more effective use of it would be to pour it from the walls already ablaze whenever someone tries to climb said walls or knock very forcefully on your gates.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18561489",
"title": "Arrowslit",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "When an embrasure linked to more than one arrowslit (in the case of Dover Castle, defenders from three embrasures can shoot through the same arrowslit) it is called a \"multiple arrowslit\". Some arrowslits, such as those at Corfe Castle, had lockers nearby to store spare arrows and bolts; these were usually located on the right hand side of the slit for ease of access and to allow a rapid rate of fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10596308",
"title": "List of magical weapons",
"section": "Section::::In folklore.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dyrnwyn – Sword of Rhydderch Hael in Welsh legend; When drawn, it blazed with fire; if drawn by a worthy man, the fire would help him in his cause, but its fire would burn the man who drew it for an unworthy purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1060546",
"title": "Early thermal weapons",
"section": "Section::::Types of weapons.:Flaming arrows, bolts, spears and rockets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Flaming arrows required the shooter to get quite close to their desired target and most will have extinguished themselves before reaching the target. In response, another form of fire arrow was developed which consisted of curved metal bars connecting a tip and hollow end for the shaft. The resulting cage was filled with hot coals or other solid object which could be fired from a much stronger bow or ballista without fear of extinguishing and would be used to ignite straw or thatch roofs from a safer distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9599972",
"title": "List of Kirby characters",
"section": "Section::::Enemies.:Flamer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Flamer is a spinning, circular, fire-shooting enemy that grants the Fire ability when inhaled. It tends to attach to surfaces and roll around on them. It first appeared in \"Kirby's Adventure\", and has appeared in multiple games since then.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426975",
"title": "Battle of the Hornburg",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations.:In Ralph Bakshi's animated film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "BULLET::::- Directly after this sequence, the \"blasting-fire\" is used to breach the wall. It is turned into magical projectiles resembling comets coming from Isengard (Aragorn, seeing them, calls out \"Fire of Isengard!\"). While Tolkien does not give detailed descriptions, \"blasting fire\" is clearly different in the book (as Orcs are said to have \"brought\" it).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18561489",
"title": "Arrowslit",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "In its simplest form, an arrowslit was a narrow vertical opening; however, the different weapons used by defenders sometimes dictated the form of arrowslits. For example, openings for longbowmen were usually tall and high to allow the user to shoot standing up and make use of the bow, while those for crossbowmen were usually lower down as it was easier for the user to shoot whilst kneeling to support the weight of the weapon. It was common for arrowslits to widen to a triangle at the bottom, called a fishtail, to allow defenders a clearer view of the base of the wall. Immediately behind the slit there was a recess called an embrasure; this allowed a defender to get close to the slit without being too cramped. The width of the slit dictated the field of fire, but the field of vision could be enhanced by the addition of horizontal openings; they allowed defenders to view the target before it entered range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18561489",
"title": "Arrowslit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "The invention of the arrowslit is attributed to Archimedes during the siege of Syracuse in 214–212 BC (although archaeologic evidence supports their existence in Egyptian Middle Kingdom forts around 1860 BC). Slits \"of the height of a man and about a palm's width on the outside\" allowed defenders to shoot bows and scorpions (an ancient siege engine) from within the city walls. Although used in late Greek and Roman defences, arrowslits were not present in early Norman castles. They are only reintroduced to military architecture towards the end of the 12th century, with the castles of Dover and Framlingham in England, and Richard the Lionheart's Château Gaillard in France. In these early examples, arrowslits were positioned to protect sections of the castle wall, rather than all sides of the castle. In the 13th century, it became common for arrowslits to be placed all around a castle's defences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o7unj
|
How does communicating through radio waves in space between 2 bodies moving at constant relative velocity away from each other stil influence the perception of paradoxical slowness of time of the other under special relativity?
|
[
{
"answer": " > parties moving relatively to each other agrees to send out a signal in radio wave to the other person at 12.00 a.m.\n\nThere is your problem right there... if they have synchronized clocks, then they started in the same reference frame, and it is only through acceleration that one's clock would start moving more slowly than the others. In that way, the moving body will send their pulse after the ones that stayed at rest, and no paradox occurs.\n\nIf they do not start out in the same reference frame, how would they agree on what 12am is?\n\nThe answer resolving the paradox will depend on what method you pick to \"synchronize\" their clocks. Every strategy you come up with will have different parts of relativity that prevent this paradox from coming up, because there is no such thing as a simultaneous action in relativity.\n\nFor instance, lets say you have two light switches, both exactly 50m away from a switch. If you flip the switch, then you'll see them turn on at exactly the same moment, apparently simultaneous.\n\nHowever to someone moving very quickly, they will see one of the lights turn on before the other. This is not some trick of perception, in their equally valid reference frame, it really did turn on earlier.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "570922",
"title": "Action at a distance",
"section": "Section::::Gravity.:Einstein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "According to Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, \"instantaneous action at a distance\" violates the relativistic upper limit on speed of propagation of information. If one of the interacting objects were to suddenly be displaced from its position, the other object would feel its influence instantaneously, meaning information had been transmitted faster than the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31296",
"title": "Tachyon",
"section": "Section::::Tachyons in relativity theory.:Causality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1434,
"text": "If one of the two events represents the sending of a signal from one location and the second event represents the reception of the same signal at another location, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures that all reference frames agree that the transmission-event happened before the reception-event. However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving faster than light, there would always be some frames in which the signal was received before it was sent so that the signal could be said to have moved backward in time. Because one of the two fundamental postulates of special relativity says that the laws of physics should work the same way in every inertial frame, if it is possible for signals to move backward in time in any one frame, it must be possible in all frames. This means that if observer A sends a signal to observer B which moves faster than light in A's frame but backwards in time in B's frame, and then B sends a reply which moves faster than light in B's frame but backwards in time in A's frame, it could work out that A receives the reply before sending the original signal, challenging causality in \"every\" frame and opening the door to severe logical paradoxes. Mathematical details can be found in the tachyonic antitelephone article, and an illustration of such a scenario using spacetime diagrams can be found in \"Baker, R. (2003)\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427118",
"title": "Principle of locality",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "In Einstein's theory, two observable objects are localised, each within its own distinct spacetime region (\"frame\"), which regions are separated from each other in space, and effects pass from one object to the other at the speed of light or slower. This is a key property of spacetime flowing from the special theory of relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Physical definition.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 1183,
"text": "Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different time separations between events, and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Subatomic particles exist for a well known average fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but when travelling close to the speed of light they are measured to travel farther and exist for much longer than when at rest. According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to \"slow down\" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or \"warped\") by high-speed motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3555532",
"title": "Kappa effect",
"section": "Section::::Theories based in velocity expectation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Physically, traversed space and elapsed time are linked by velocity. Accordingly, several theories regarding the brain's expectations about stimulus velocity have been put forward to account for the kappa effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Faster-than-light communication is, according to relativity, equivalent to time travel. What we measure as the speed of light in a vacuum (or near vacuum) is actually the fundamental physical constant \"c\". This means that all inertial observers, regardless of their relative velocity, will always measure zero-mass particles such as photons traveling at \"c\" in a vacuum. This result means that measurements of time and velocity in different frames are no longer related simply by constant shifts, but are instead related by Poincaré transformations. These transformations have important implications:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2336109",
"title": "Frame fields in general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Nonspinning and inertial frames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "This says that as we move along the worldline of each observer, their spatial triad is parallel-transported. Nonspinning inertial frames hold a special place in general relativity, because they are as close as we can get in a curved Lorentzian manifold to the Lorentz frames used in special relativity (these are special nonspinning inertial frames in the Minkowski vacuum).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4t1c7r
|
Was a blade poisoning a thing ?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThis older thread was the closest I could find that might partially answer your question and mostly focuses on whether poison arrows - not blades - were a thing, the consensus seeming to be that they were. ",
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"answer": "I'm going to try and give an answer as serious as possible, but I'm no expert.\n\nYou separate battlefield and assassinations for the use of poisoned blades, but you have to remember that poisons in general have very different objectives in both cases. In the latter poisons were common, but usually left in food or wine, possibly even coated bed cloths. The objective in this case would be to take out a key figure. Poisons were also very commonplace in warfare, as were other forms of biological warfare, but rather than targeting a single individual, they more than often were a tool of psychological warfare. Greek generals encouraged the projection of snakes by catapults (Hannibal had apparently used a similar technique to cause chaos in Eumenes the IInd's ships) because of how fearful men were of their bite. Far more common was the poisoning of wells and food supplies. This has occurred throughout history, possibly dating back to tribal warfare in our pre-civilizational history. The objective wasn't always to kill, but rather than weaken the opponent, to sap them of their strength for the fight to come. Honor wasn't as widespread as it is in our romantic perception of antiquity and medieval warfare. The reason why I'm not yet taking about weapon poisoning is because poison was a huge part of warfare, whereas blade poisoning is the niche.\n\nThe \"poisoned weapon\" trope is a rather common one in literature, one could almost believe that every major villain and their grandmothers coat their blades in some foreign poison originating in a Latin-american backwater. Yet in reality while poisons were fairly commonplace (or as commonplace as they could be), they had a far more local point of origin. In Europe one of the most common poisons was cyanide, and could be extracted from apricots. But cyanide couldn't be coated onto weapons, it would most likely just cause an irritation of the wound which wouldn't be fatal. As a matter of fact most poisons couldn't be applied to weapons, as a penetration of the blood stream was neither guaranteed (slashes are rather ineffective in actuality) or were simply ineffective in such a use. As such when weapons were coated with poison it was most likely venom. Viper venom was most common in Europe, while in Latin America, Curare was a common plant-based poison that led to a slow death by paralyzing the nervous system. Most areas in the world had access to poisons that could enter the bloodstream that were know to them during the Middle-ages.\n\nThis leads to the most important question, which weapon was poisoned ? Honestly, the poisoned dagger shoved in someone's back was rather rare. The most poisoned weapon was always the arrowhead. Arrows (unlike the popular misonception) rarely killed, they just don't pack the punch bullets do, and do little damage beyond simply puncturing holes, possibly in vital organs. They were usually used to incapacitate or stagger. But poisons could finish the job. This wasn't that common in medieval Europe, simply because of the cost (how impossible it would be for a Capetian king to tip every arrow in Viper venom, when he has 20 000 archers, some Genoan crossbowmen, and most of them have quivers with 30~50 arrows or bolts because they can't hit anything in the chaos of warfare) although it did occur to a certain degree in Antiquity. Add to that how slow poisons do kill. Venom can lose it's potency rather quickly, and if your poison takes 30-40 hours to kill someone then it's useless for open warfare (if the arrow can deliver a dose that can cripple someone before he dies, then the arrow would have crippled him in the first case, and the victim will only die once the battle has already ended). In the cases of tribal warfare across the African and American continent though, it was a perfect tool for short skirmishes that mainly left wounded men rather than corpses in it's wake. Scythians used to poison their arrows, but they mainly pushed their reputation as poison-users as a scare-tactic. North-Western Indians also used Viper poison (as far as I can remember) on their arrows during their battles with Alexande, as did Romans in particular cases. But these are more often than not the exception rather than the norm. In truth, unless you were expecting a long attrition war, the tactical advantage given by poisoned arrows on the battlefield was minimal at best.\n\nNow comes the question of poisoned blades in general, since it's the true heart of your question. It simply wasn't used in assassination, if you can't land a strike with a knife that would be fatal to begin with, then it probably wouldn't deliver enough poison to be fatal either (but if you could, then the poison is useless, this is the problem with poisons on weapons). Blades have limited space, and you can't just dip your blade into a sugar frosting of arsenic and allow it to get over all your clothes before you fight, and then scratch someone with it and watch them fall over. The poison loses it's potency rather quickly in open air and allowing it to drip everywhere is more than unsafe. Depending on the origin of the poison, it was usually applied so as to dry on the blade rather than be a liquid ooze that covered it. The Indonesian Kris was actually forged with poison infusions, and was used in semi-open warfare (although today it's mostly traditional, and it didn't have much reach). Swords were often poisoned, as were spears, but this was in primitive warfare, and as war evolved, they were discarded, for more effective weapons that killed instantly. Most poisoned weapon tales are derived from archaeology since by the time written accounts arose, they had already passed out of use. \n\nSo was blade poisoning a thing ? Not really, be it for warfare or assassination, it's just impractical, the doses delivered were too light to have any effect unless you just shoved the full extent of the blade into your opponent (if he isn't already dead that is). Arrows were used, but honestly, a pile of dung to fester an infection was both cheaper and as effective. I'm sure there were minute cases, and it was common in primitive forms of warfare, but it would have become obsolete by the time we reached the Medieval Era in the 400s, let alone the Game of Thronesian 13th century you were probably thinking of.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10228607",
"title": "Strychnine poisoning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Strychnine poisoning can be fatal to humans and other animals and can occur by inhalation, swallowing or absorption through eyes or mouth. It produces some of the most dramatic and painful symptoms of any known toxic reaction, making it quite noticeable and a common choice for assassinations and poison attacks. For this reason, strychnine poisoning is often portrayed in literature and film, such as the murder mysteries written by Agatha Christie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653682",
"title": "Kris",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Blade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In former times, kris blades were said to be infused with poison during their forging, ensuring that any injury was fatal. The process of doing so was kept secret among smiths. Different types of whetstones, acidic juice of citrus fruits and poisonous arsenic bring out the contrast between the dark black iron and the light colored silvery nickel layers which together form \"pamor\", damascene patterns on the blade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251034",
"title": "Chalice",
"section": "Section::::Poisoned chalice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The term \"poisoned chalice\" is applied to a thing or situation which appears to be good when it is received or experienced by someone, but then becomes or is found to be bad. The idea was referred to by Benedict of Nursia in one of his exorcisms, found on the Saint Benedict Medal: \"Vade retro Satana! Nunquam suade mihi vana! Sunt mala quae libas. Ipse venena bibas!\" (Begone Satan! Never tempt me with your vanities! What you offer me is evil. Drink the poison yourself!).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9943901",
"title": "A Poison Tree",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Poisoning appears in many of Blake's poems. The poisoner of \"A Poison Tree\" is similar to Blake's Jehovah, Urizen, Satan, and Newton. Through poisoning an individual, the victim ingests part of the poisoner, as food, through reading, or other actions, as an inversion on the Eucharist. Through ingestion, the poisoned sense of reason of the poisoner is forced onto the poisoned. Thus, the death of the poisoned can be interpreted as a replacement of the poisoned's individuality. The world of the poem is one where dominance is key, and there is no reciprocal interaction between individuals because of a lack of trust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51108",
"title": "Poison",
"section": "Section::::Poisoning.:Acute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Acute poisoning is exposure to a poison on one occasion or during a short period of time. Symptoms develop in close relation to the exposure. Absorption of a poison is necessary for systemic poisoning. Furthermore, many common household medications are not labeled with skull and crossbones, although they can cause severe illness or even death. Poisoning can be caused by excessive consumption of generally safe substances, as in the case of water intoxication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41908825",
"title": "Taxine alkaloids",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity in humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Although poisoning usually occurs when any part of the yew tree is eaten, in at least one case the victim inhaled sawdust from the yew tree. Having been inhaled through the mouth, this material entered the digestive tract and caused the symptoms of poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51108",
"title": "Poison",
"section": "Section::::Poisoning.:Acute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Two common cases of acute natural poisoning are theobromine poisoning of dogs and cats, and mushroom poisoning in humans. Dogs and cats are not natural herbivores, but a chemical defense developed by \"Theobroma cacao\" can be incidentally fatal nevertheless. Many omnivores, including humans, readily consume edible fungi, and thus many fungi have evolved to become decisively inedible, in this case as a direct defense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7b3pkx
|
Did ancient Romans have some kinf of pockets in their clothes? If not, how did they carry small things around?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not as such.\n\nThe garments of the Romans were generally loose fitting and simply sewn, both of which don’t work well with the concept of pockets as we know them. However, the looseness of the garments also meant that it was relatively effective to simply use the folds of these garments to carry small items. Indeed, this method was prevalent enough that such a fold was even given a name—*sinus*. The image here shows it in use by a slinger for slingstones: _URL_0_\n\nApart from this, pouches and sacks were typically used to carry things more securely. The *marsupium* _URL_2_ and *pera* _URL_1_ are relatively well known, but there were many other names and descriptions.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "416041",
"title": "Pocket",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "In European clothing, fitchets, resembling modern day pockets, appeared in the 13th century. Vertical slits were cut in the super tunic, which did not have any side openings, to allow access to purse or keys slung from the girdle of the tunic. According to historian Rebecca Unsworth, it was in the late 15th century that pockets became more noticeable. During the 16th century, pockets increased in popularity and prevalence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "416041",
"title": "Pocket",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "In slightly later European clothing, pockets began by being hung like purses from a belt, which could be concealed beneath a coat or jerkin to discourage pickpocketing and reached through a slit in the outer garment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22509614",
"title": "English medieval clothing",
"section": "Section::::Male dress.:Thirteenth century.:General attire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Fitchets, resembling modern day pockets, also appeared in the 13th century. Vertical slits were cut in the super tunic, which did not have any side openings, to allow access to purse or keys slung from the girdle of the tunic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227629",
"title": "Pickpocketing",
"section": "Section::::Pickpocketing in the 17th and 18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Indeed, at the time, pockets were not yet sewn to clothes, as they are today. This means that pockets were a little purse that people wore close to their body. This was especially true for women, since men's pockets were sewn \"into the linings of their coats\". Women's pockets were worn beneath a piece of clothing, and not \"as opposed to pouches or bags hanging outside their clothes\". These external pockets were still in fashion until the mid 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1009303",
"title": "Girdle",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1379,
"text": "The men among the Greeks and Romans wore the girdle upon the loins, and it served them to confine the tunic, and hold the purse, instead of pockets, which were unknown; girls and women wore it under the bosom. The \"Strophium\", \"Taenia\", or \"Mitra\" occurs in many figures. In the small bronze Pallas of the Villa Albani, and in figures on the Hamilton Vases, are three \"cordons\" with a knot, detached from two ends of the girdle, which is fixed under the bosom. This girdle forms under the breast a knot of ribbon, sometimes in the form of a rose, as occur on the two handsomest daughters of Niobe. Upon the youngest the ends of the girdle pass over the shoulders, and upon the back, as they do upon four Caryatides found at Monte Portio. This part of the dress the ancients called, at least in the time of Isidore, \"Succinctorium\" or \"Bracile\". The girdle was omitted by both sexes in mourning. Often when the tunic was very long, and would otherwise be entangled by the feet, it was drawn over the girdle in such a way as to conceal the latter entirely underneath its folds. It is not uncommon to see two girdles of different widths worn together, one very high up, the other very low down, so as to form between the two in the tunic, a puckered interval; but this fashion was mostly applied to short tunics. The tunic of the Greek males was almost always confined by a girdle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37703810",
"title": "Biblical clothing",
"section": "Section::::Roman men and women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10420424",
"title": "Clothing in the ancient world",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Roman and Italic clothing.:Toga and tunics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tomzj
|
how do they make amputations in movies look real?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on what movie you're talking about. In more recent movies, yes, you can digitally remove a limb from an actor. Typically you would shoot a scene without the actor, then the scene WITH the actor in the same set-up. They wear green tape over the limb and the limb is removed digitally, leaving the image without the actor behind it. This is how it was done in FORREST GUMP.\n\nEarlier movies, more likely you would cast a body double that was an amputee. This was done for TERMINATOR 2 when the T-1000 is frozen by liquid nitrogen and his limbs begin cracking off. You never see Robert Patrick's face clearly in these shots because it is an amputee double. This was also done for the scene in MONTY PYTHON AND THE HOLY GRAIL when the Black Knight is chopped up. The character is wearing a full-bodied costume so it doesn't matter who is inside it - same goes for Darth Vader. It is also possible to hide arms inside costumes or to put an actor in a hole in the ground for close-ups, and use a body double for long shots.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Final Destination 3 in the scene where that guy got crushed by the sign, they shot it in front of a green screen and they put green screen material on half of the actor, as well as hoses that shoot fake blood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know for the beach scene in Saving Private Ryan, it seemed like every amputee in Ireland had been cast. They were all extras though",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12602536",
"title": "Tony Gardner (designer)",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "His work on the 2010 Danny Boyle film \"127 Hours\" received notoriety for the amputation sequences designed, engineered, and built to recreate the actual event in extreme closeup detail. The film's pre-release screenings at several film festivals have resulted in audience members requiring medical assistance. Gardner stresses though that the desired result was accuracy and an immersion in a recreation of the experience so that the audience experiences things through Aron Ralston's eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24300636",
"title": "Makes the Whole World Kin",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations.:2009.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "This version of the film is shot in color and set in modern-day times. Sultanov adapted the screenplay, making the dialogue more fitting to today's speech. Sultanov chose actors with a dramatic, method acting approach to display the truthful effect of rheumatic pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7199437",
"title": "The Penalty (1920 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Chaney refused to use trick camera angles in this film. Instead, he wore an apparatus to simulate amputated legs, which consisted primarily of two wooden buckets and multiple leather straps, was complex and incredibly painful. Chaney's knees sat in the buckets, while his lower legs were tied back. Studio doctors asked that Chaney not wear the device, but he insisted on doing so, so that his costume would be authentic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47668607",
"title": "Jewcan Sam",
"section": "Section::::Reception and controversy.:Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "The following disclaimer was later added to the official video on YouTube: \"\"This video is intended as a comedic parody. All surgery has risks. Plastic surgery should only be considered after extensive consultation with a qualified medical professional. The video is not meant to diagnose, treat or cure any medical condition. It is not intended to imply or guarantee surgical success or outcome. It is also not meant to condone or encourage teen bullying, anti-semitism, scissor throwing by cheerleaders, student-teacher relationships, jumping on Oprah's couch like Tom Cruise, piano playing, underage drinking on your neighbor's balcony, driving a Porsche with a guy wearing a wig and holding a threatening hammer, taping your nose to impress a girl, eating Fruit Loops, performing nasal surgery with circumcision instruments and rabbi present, walking into scissor shaped hedges, cutting peanut butter and jelly sandwiches with a giant steak knife, doing your boyfriend's math homework, or attending art class at 8AM on Monday...\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21980093",
"title": "Stepfather III",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "For the opening scene in which Gene Clifford undergoes plastic surgery, director Guy Magar filmed an actual plastic surgery procedure, with no special effects used during the scene. The film was shot over the course of 25 days in Los Angeles with a budget of $1.8 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216072",
"title": "Home Alone",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The film's stunts also created tension for the crew during shooting. Columbus said, \"Every time the stunt guys did one of those stunts it wasn't funny. We'd watch it, and I would just pray that the guys were alive.\" Stunts were originally prepared with safety harnesses, but because of their visibility on camera, the film's final stunts were performed without them. According to Buzzfeed, an injury had occurred between Pesci and Culkin during one of the rehearsals where \"Harry tries to bite off Kevin's finger.\" Culkin still has the scar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19787914",
"title": "Scream 4",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "The film also extensively used computer-generated imagery for the first time in the franchise. For example, instead of using a \"collapsing knife\", the knife's blade was added during post-production with CGI effects. Anderson's death scene in which he is stabbed in the forehead and walks a few feet while talking before finally falling to his death, was not in the script but was inspired by a \"real-life medical emergency\" Craven had seen in a documentary about a person being stabbed through their head and walked into an emergency room. He thought it was \"extraordinary if somebody was stabbed in the head and still be alive for a while\". Craven also did not tell the studio that he was taking this approach for the death scene, jokingly saying he hoped he would not be fired the next day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2uwj7k
|
why do two nuts on a bolt lock and stop spinning? why don't they just act as one longer nut?
|
[
{
"answer": "pushing them up and down doesn't do anything you have to turn them, by turning one on top of another you actually just push down on the other.\n\nIt's friction, that's the fundamentals of how they work and why even single ones don't just fall off when you tighten them.\n\nIf you think about it, whatever you tighten it against is pushing back that's why they get tight. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because one is being twisted while the other is being pushed against. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the two nuts are twisted against each other, their threads push in opposite directions and create friction with the threads of the bolt. So it *is* like one longer nut: a longer nut with really bad threads that are misaligned enough from one end to the other to create lots of friction against the bolt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20905960",
"title": "Nut (hardware)",
"section": "Section::::Use of two nuts to prevent self-loosening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "Specialized locking nuts exist to prevent this problem, but sometimes it is sufficient to add a second nut. For this technique to be reliable, each nut must be tightened to the correct torque. The inner nut is tightened to about a quarter to a half of the torque of the outer nut. It is then held in place by a wrench while the outer nut is tightened on top using the full torque. This arrangement causes the two nuts to push on each other, creating a tensile stress in the short section of the bolt that lies between them. Even when the main joint is vibrated, the stress between the two nuts remains constant, thus holding the nut threads in constant contact with the bolt threads and preventing self-loosening. When the joint is assembled correctly, the outer nut bears the full tension of the joint. The inner nut functions merely to add a small additional force to the outer nut and does not need to be as strong, so a thin nut (also called a jam nut) can be used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17604025",
"title": "Jam nut",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "A jam nut is often used when a nut needs to be locked in place without clamping against another object. The jam nut essentially acts as the \"other object\", as the two nuts are tightened against each other. They can also be used to secure an item on a fastener without applying force to that object. This is achieved by first tightening one of the nuts onto the item. Then the other nut is screwed down on top of the first nut. The inner nut is then slackened back and tightened against the outer nut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20905960",
"title": "Nut (hardware)",
"section": "Section::::Use of two nuts to prevent self-loosening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "In normal use, a nut-and-bolt joint holds together because the bolt is under a constant tensile stress called the \"preload\". The preload pulls the nut threads against the bolt threads, and the nut face against the bearing surface, with a constant force, so that the nut cannot rotate without overcoming the friction between these surfaces. If the joint is subjected to vibration, however, the preload increases and decreases with each cycle of movement. If the minimum preload during the vibration cycle is not enough to hold the nut firmly in contact with the bolt and the bearing surface, then the nut is likely to become loose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650836",
"title": "Castellated nut",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The bolt has one or two holes drilled through its threaded end. The nut is torqued properly and then, if the slot is not aligned with the hole in the fastener, the nut is rotated forward to the nearest slot. The nut is then secured with a split pin/cotter pin, R-clip or safety wire. It is a positive locking device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244603",
"title": "Spinlock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1029,
"text": "Because they avoid overhead from operating system process rescheduling or context switching, spinlocks are efficient if threads are likely to be blocked for only short periods. For this reason, operating-system kernels often use spinlocks. However, spinlocks become wasteful if held for longer durations, as they may prevent other threads from running and require rescheduling. The longer a thread holds a lock, the greater the risk that the thread will be interrupted by the OS scheduler while holding the lock. If this happens, other threads will be left \"spinning\" (repeatedly trying to acquire the lock), while the thread holding the lock is not making progress towards releasing it. The result is an indefinite postponement until the thread holding the lock can finish and release it. This is especially true on a single-processor system, where each waiting thread of the same priority is likely to waste its quantum (allocated time where a thread can run) spinning until the thread that holds the lock is finally finished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1252144",
"title": "Breechblock",
"section": "Section::::Variants.:Rotating bolt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Rotating bolts can be adapted to automatic or semi-automatic designs and lever or pump actions. In these cases, the bolt is held by a bolt carrier. With the breech locked, an initial rearward movement of the bolt carrier causes the bolt to rotate and unlock. Similarly, when closing the breech, the final forward movement of the carrier causes the bolt to rotate and lock the breech. This action is commonly achieved by a slot cut in the carrier that engages a pin through the bolt perpendicular to the axis of the barrel. It is a type of linear cam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17604025",
"title": "Jam nut",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Jam nuts can be unreliable under significant loads. If the inner nut is torqued more than the outer nut, the outer nut may yield. If the outer nut is torqued more than the inner nut, the inner nut may loosen up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3b0rsp
|
What caused the Middle/Far East to use bowing as a greeting while the Western world chose the handshake?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you give example of the Middle East using bowing as a greeting? I am familiar with the far east using bowing but I haven't experienced anyone from the Middle East doing the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "604026",
"title": "Bowing",
"section": "Section::::In Asia.:In South and Southeast Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Similarly to East Asia, bowing is the traditional form of greeting in many South Asian and Southeast Asian countries. A gesture known as the \"Añjali Mudrā\" is used as a sign of respect and greeting and involves a bow of varying degrees depending on whom one performs it to and hands pressed together generally at chest level. Practised throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia, the gesture is most commonly used in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Indonesia. Gestures across the region are known by different names such as the \"wai\" in Thailand, \"sampeah\" in Cambodia and Laos, \"sembah\" in Indonesia, \"namaste\" in India and Nepal, and in Sri Lanka the gesture is used as a greeting with the word \"Ayubowan\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "560563",
"title": "Greeting",
"section": "Section::::Greeting gestures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings. In Western cultures the handshake is very common, though it has numerous subtle variations in the strength of grip, the vigour of the shake, the dominant position of one hand over the other, and whether or not the left hand is used. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28977",
"title": "Salute",
"section": "Section::::Civilian salutes.:Greetings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings. In Western cultures the handshake is very common, though it has numerous subtle variations in the strength of grip, the vigour of the shake, the dominant position of one hand over the other, and whether or not the left hand is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604026",
"title": "Bowing",
"section": "Section::::In Asia.:In East Asia.:Shaking hands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "When dealing with non-East Asians, many East Asians will shake hands. Since many non-East Asians are familiar with the custom of bowing, this often leads to an awkward combined bow and handshake. Bows may be combined with handshakes or performed before or after shaking hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15849348",
"title": "Scout handshake",
"section": "Section::::Meaning of the left-hand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Various sources have attributed the origin of the handshake, as an ancient sign of bravery and respect, to Lord Baden-Powell's encounter after battle with Prempeh I, or to earlier published works by Ernest Thompson Seton. There exist various versions of the Prempeh story, all centering on African warriors using the left hand to hold their shields and to lower it and shake the left hand of the person was to show they trusted each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364338",
"title": "Respect",
"section": "Section::::China.:Chinese culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Traditionally, there was not much hand-shaking in Chinese culture. However, this gesture is now widely practiced among men, especially when greeting Westerners or other foreigners. Many Westerners may find Chinese handshakes to be too long or too weak, but this is because a weaker handshake is a gesture of humility and respect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165458",
"title": "Handshake",
"section": "Section::::Modern customs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "BULLET::::- In some countries such as Turkey or the Arabic-speaking Middle East, handshakes are not as firm as in the West. Consequently, a grip which is too firm is rude. Hand shaking between men and women is not encouraged in the Arabic world. You should only use your right hand as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6kjup0
|
During beta decay, when a neutrino and a beta ray are created, where does it's mass come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "The binding energy of the daughter nucleus is larger than the binding energy of the parent. The extra energy is released as the masses and kinetic energies of the particles in the final state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6061",
"title": "CNO cycle",
"section": "Section::::Cold CNO cycles.:CNO-I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "The neutrinos emitted in beta decay will have a spectrum of energy ranges, because although momentum is conserved, the momentum can be shared in any way between the positron and neutrino, with either emitted at rest and the other taking away the full energy, or anything in between, so long as all the energy from the Q-value is used. The total momentum received by the electron and the neutrino is not great enough to cause a significant recoil of the much heavier daughter nucleus and hence, its contribution to kinetic energy of the products, for the precision of values given here, can be neglected. Thus the neutrino emitted during the decay of nitrogen-13 can have an energy from zero up to 1.20 MeV, and the neutrino emitted during the decay of oxygen-15 can have an energy from zero up to 1.73 MeV. On average, about 1.7 MeV of the total energy output is taken away by neutrinos for each loop of the cycle, leaving about 25 MeV available for producing luminosity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21485",
"title": "Neutrino",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pauli's proposal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The neutrino was postulated first by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve energy, momentum, and angular momentum (spin). In contrast to Niels Bohr, who proposed a statistical version of the conservation laws to explain the observed continuous energy spectra in beta decay, Pauli hypothesized an undetected particle that he called a \"neutron\", using the same \"-on\" ending employed for naming both the proton and the electron. He considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60575040",
"title": "Decay technique",
"section": "Section::::Carbocation generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "In the decay, an electron and an antineutrino are ejected at great speed from the tritium nucleus, changing one of the neutrons into a proton with the release of 18,600 electronvolts (eV) of energy. The neutrino escapes the system; the electron is generally captured within a short distance, but far enough away from the site of the decay that it can be considered lost from the molecule. Those two particles carry away most of the released energy, but their departure causes the nucleus to recoil, with about 1.6 eV of energy. This recoil energy is larger than the bond strength of the carbon–helium bond (about 1 eV), so this bond breaks. The helium atom almost always leaves as a neutral , leaving behind the carbocation .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4651",
"title": "Beta decay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "In nuclear physics, beta decay (\"β\"-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus. For example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an antineutrino, or conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron (positron emission) with a neutrino, thus changing the nuclide type. Neither the beta particle nor its associated (anti-)neutrino exist within the nucleus prior to beta decay, but are created in the decay process. By this process, unstable atoms obtain a more stable ratio of protons to neutrons. The probability of a nuclide decaying due to beta and other forms of decay is determined by its nuclear binding energy. The binding energies of all existing nuclides form what is called the nuclear band or valley of stability. For either electron or positron emission to be energetically possible, the energy release (see below) or Q value must be positive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37872",
"title": "Beta particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β decay and β decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4651",
"title": "Beta decay",
"section": "Section::::Rare decay modes.:Bound-state β decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "A very small minority of free neutron decays (about four per million) are so-called \"two-body decays\", in which the proton, electron and antineutrino are produced, but the electron fails to gain the 13.6 eV energy necessary to escape the proton, and therefore simply remains bound to it, as a neutral hydrogen atom. In this type of beta decay, in essence all of the neutron decay energy is carried off by the antineutrino.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2860674",
"title": "Q value (nuclear science)",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "where \"m\" is the mass of the neutron, \"m\" is the mass of the proton, \"m\" is the mass of the electron antineutrino, and \"m\" is the mass of the electron; and the \"K\" are the corresponding kinetic energies. The neutron has no initial kinetic energy since it is at rest. In beta decay, a typical \"Q\" is around 1 MeV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y6w4a
|
please explain radiation and exposure to me. i can't grasp the concept of it not being a gas/object/liquid etc.
|
[
{
"answer": "Actually, in this context radiation is the emission of particles, alpha, beta, etc. What that means to you is that some of these really little pieces of atoms \"radiate\" (escape from) from a source, strike your cells, and damage them like miniature canonballs.\n\nThings that small can be described either by their electrical energy content or their kinetic (canonball) content. this leads to confusion about the terminology we use to describe them. In reality, standard english is not sufficient to accurately portray sub-atomic particles. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are 3 main kinds of radiation. The kind most people mean is gamma radiation, which is just a kind of super-intense light that our eyes can't see. Beta radiation is just an electron that's flying through space at a really high speed, and alpha radiation is the center of a helium atom (with no electrons attached) flying through space at a really high speed.\n\nWhen a person gets hit with radiation, it can mess up their bodies. We're designed to deal with a certain amount of radiation, because the sun sends gamma radiation to earth, and lots of the things around us are very slightly radioactive. But if you get a lot of radiation in a short period of time, you can get really sick, and weird things can happen like your hair falling out and lots of throwing up. This can even kill you.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can think of radiation like really small bullets flying around. When the bullets hit you, they cause damage to your tissues. \n\nIn reality, the \"bullets\" are really pieces of atoms: protons, helium nuclei, etc. When they hit your cells, they may break apart some of the molecules in the cell. The cell is often able to repair the damage. However, if you are subject to too much radiation within too short a time, your cells can't keep up with the repairs. In cases like this, cancer can develop, or cells may die.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When we talk about radiation, most of the time, we are talking about three basic things that come out of radiation. Two of them are particles (called **alpha particles** and **beta particles**), and one of them is a beam of light (called a **gamma ray**). \n\nThey are the result of atoms breaking apart or coming together at the nuclear level. Usually, when we think of atoms joining or breaking up, we are thinking of molecules. So an atom of oxygen meets two atoms of hydrogen and makes a chemical bond to form water (H2O). These are called chemical reactions. \n\nRadiation is different, In radiation, you have two atoms of hydrogen that merge together to form an atom of Helium (so H becomes He) or you have Uranium atoms splitting apart to become Thorium (U become Th). In order for this to happen, the atoms themselves have to break apart. These are nuclear reactions.\n\n**When atoms break apart or join together, they produce a bunch of particles, like the ones I mentioned above.** Gamma rays are just a very, very, very high energy type of light. Alpha particles are the nucleus of a Helium atom, (two protons and two neutrons) but without electrons. Beta particles are electrons, but with no nucleus attached. \n\nThis is why they aren't a \"gas\" or other state of matter in the traditional sense. **Because they are just varying amounts of these isolated parts of atoms, or light, they don't take on the forms** (gas, liquid, solid) **of the molecules that we are used to dealing with, since they are operating at the nuclear, not chemical level.**\n\nEach of these behaves differently, but what they all have in common is that they are high energy, and very reactive. That alpha particle wants to grab electrons and become an atom, that electron wants to find a proton or two to join with too become an atom as well. And the gamma ray? well, it has so much energy that most anything it touches will take a beating at the atomic level. \n\nAnd **that's what causes the damage. These things are so energetic that they tear things apart at the atomic level, like the words tiniest cannon ball.** Although the exact mechanism depends on the type radiation and how much you're exposed to, ultimately, that's what radiation exposure is: being torn apart at the atomic level. \n\nAs a final note, understand that it's rare that things that are exposed to radiation become radioactive. This can happen. Gamma rays in particular can sometimes set off chain reactions that turn what would otherwise be a stable atom into a radioactive atom instead. But, **when we talk about an area being irradiated, what we usually mean is that something that is radioactive, like uranium, has been turned into dust and spread around an area.** That area then stays radioactive for as long as the dust is there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Radiation can be a partical (alpha and beta and neutron radiation) or it can be an energy wave (gamma radation). Light is an energy wave. Heat is an energy wave. X-rays are energy waves.\n\nIn nuclear reactors, neutrons impacting uranium produce uranium isotopes, more neutrons (to sustain the reaction), and heat.\n\n\nIn any of these cases, if the radiation is absorbed by living tissue, it will damage it. Enough over a long period of time will result in cancer because it's more than the body can repair on it's own. Or a lot of radiation in a short period of time will severely damage organs and other bodily systems and the body will just shut down.\n\nThe body is always dealing with cells damaged by naturally occuring radiation (from the sun, from certain minerals/rocks such as granite). It's when there is enough damage and the damaged cells don't get properly removed that they can run away and grow (i.e. cancer).\n\nLow energy radiation (like alpha particles) can be easily shielded by something as simple as paper or clothing. However, if you were to ingest something that produce alpha radiation, this would be very bad, because now all the radiation is being directly absorbed by tissue.\n\nGamma and Xray radiation is most easily shielded by lead, hence, the lead aprons you wear when getting Xrays at the dentist or to cover other body parts not getting Xray'd at the hospital.\n\nNeutron radiation is much harder to block. Thick layers of concrete and certain plastics are used for this. You have to physically get in the way at an atomic level. Think of kicking a football through the uprights versus it going through the net behind it. This is also why a concrete structure was haistily thrown up around Chernobyl after the meltdown, to absorb the neutron radiation being thrown off by the exposed reactor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I tell people to think of it like a light bulb. When it's on, you are being hit by the light, when it's off you are not. Just like shining the light on something for a long time doesn't make it give off light of its own, so too do objects that have been exposed to radiation not continue to give off more once the source is removed. \n\nAreas like Chernobyl become radioactive because they are full of tiny radiation sources, ie many particles of radioactive elements scattered throughout the area. \n\nSome great technical definitions here, so I'll stay out of that and hope I'm not too far wrong! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48161271",
"title": "Radiation exposure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Radiation exposure is a measure of the ionization of air due to ionizing radiation from photons; that is, gamma rays and X-rays. It is defined as the electric charge freed by such radiation in a specified volume of air divided by the mass of that air. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13347268",
"title": "Radiobiology",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "The human body cannot sense ionizing radiation except in very high doses, but the effects of ionization can be used to characterize the radiation. Parameters of interest include disintegration rate, particle flux, particle type, beam energy, kerma, dose rate, and radiation dose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "621749",
"title": "Radioactive contamination",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of contamination.:Biological effects.:Internal irradiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Radioactive contamination can be ingested into the human body if it is airborne or is taken in as contamination of food or drink, and will irradiate the body internally. The art and science of assessing internally generated radiation dose is Internal dosimetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333692",
"title": "Radiation protection",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Internal dose uptake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Internal dose, due to the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive substances, can result in stochastic or deterministic effects, depending on the amount of radioactive material ingested and other biokinetic factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13347268",
"title": "Radiobiology",
"section": "Section::::Exposure pathways.:Internal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "When radioactive compounds enter the human body, the effects are different from those resulting from exposure to an external radiation source. Especially in the case of alpha radiation, which normally does not penetrate the skin, the exposure can be much more damaging after ingestion or inhalation. The radiation exposure is normally expressed as a committed dose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202522",
"title": "Ionizing radiation",
"section": "Section::::Radiation exposure.:Occupational exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as effective dose (radiation) while others take the form of radioactive contamination and irradiate the body from within. The latter is known as committed dose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "621749",
"title": "Radioactive contamination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Radioactive contamination, also called radiological contamination, is the deposition of, or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable (from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) definition).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jug95
|
why the nose of the concorde and the tupolev tu-144 angle downwards.
|
[
{
"answer": "Nothing complex here. It folds down for takeoff and landing to give the pilots a clearer view of the ground. Then it comes up into streamlined position for normal flight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31102",
"title": "Tupolev Tu-144",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1363,
"text": "Moving the elevons downward in a delta-wing aircraft increases the lift (force), but also pitches its nose downward. The canards cancel out this nose-downwards moment, thus reducing the landing speed of the production Tu-144s to , still faster than that of Concorde. The NASA study lists final approach speeds during Tu-144LL test flights as . An FAA circular lists Tu-144S approach speed as , as opposed to Concorde's approach speed of , based on the characteristics declared by the manufacturers to Western regulatory bodies. It is open to argument how stable the Tu-144S was at the listed airspeed. In any event, when NASA subcontracted Tupolev bureau in the 1990s to convert one of the remaining Tu-144D to a Tu-144LL standard, the procedure set by Tupolev for landing defined the Tu-144LL \"final approach speed... on the order of 360 km/h depending on fuel weight.\" Brian Calvert, Concorde's technical flight manager and its first commercial pilot in command for several inaugural flights, cites final approach speed of a typical Concorde landing to be . The lower landing speed compared to Tu-144 is due to Concorde's more refined design of the wing profile that provides higher lift at low speeds without degrading supersonic cruise performance – a feature often mentioned in Western publications on Concorde and acknowledged by Tupolev designers as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2169866",
"title": "Droop-nose",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The droop-nose configuration is a distinctive feature of some supersonic aircraft, most notably both Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. When these aircraft were in service, the pilot would lower the nose cone to improve visibility of the runway and taxiways. When in flight, the nose would be raised. Concorde also had a moving visor that would slide into and out of the nose. The Tu-144's visor was part of the nose and did not retract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7045",
"title": "Concorde",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Droop nose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Concorde's drooping nose, developed by Marshall's of Cambridge at Cambridge Airport, enabled the aircraft to switch between being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency without obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, take-off, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the capability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2169866",
"title": "Droop-nose",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "The Concorde droop nose was designed and manufactured under sub contract by Marshall Aerospace in Cambridge, UK, by a team led by Norman Harry OBE. The nose can be drooped to one of two positions - 5 degrees (for taxiing and for take-off), and the fully drooped 12.5 degree position (used during landing, when the nose-high attitude of Concorde requires this lower nose position so the pilots can see the approaching runway). The nose and visor are hydraulically operated, by a small lever on the co-pilot's side of the cockpit. There is also a standby droop system if the main system fails (operated from the cockpit centre console), and as a last resort if both hydraulic systems fail, a lever can be pulled in the cockpit which releases the mechanical latches, allowing the nose to fall under gravity to the 12.5 degree position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7045",
"title": "Concorde",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Flight characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. The normal landing speed was . Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the \"back side\" of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211782",
"title": "North American XB-70 Valkyrie",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Like a number of other delta-wing aircraft designed to cruise at very high speeds, the Valkyrie included a droop-nose that allowed the pilots to view the ground during the nose-high takeoff and landing. Both the Concorde and Tupolev Tu-144 used a design where the entire nose section was angled downward, including outer window panels, exposing interior windows that were more vertically angled. In the B-70 design, only the upper section of the nose moved down into a fixed lower section, and the outer window panels moved with it to become more vertical, at 24 degrees slope. With the nose raised into its high-speed position, the outer windows were almost horizontal. A system that blew air from the engines was used for both defogging and rain removal. The lower forward section included a radar bay, and production machines were to be equipped with a refueling receptacle on the upper surface of the nose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221400",
"title": "Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)",
"section": "Section::::Dynamic stability and control.:Lateral modes.:Lateral and longitudinal stability derivatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Sideslip in the absence of rudder input causes incidence on the fuselage and empennage, thus creating a yawing moment counteracted only by the directional stiffness which would tend to point the aircraft's nose back into the wind in horizontal flight conditions. Under sideslip conditions at a given roll angle formula_112 will tend to point the nose into the sideslip direction even without rudder input, causing a downward spiraling flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p6hzq
|
Is there any link between how young you grow grey hair and how old you live?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am unaware of any link between canities and life span. The development of gray hair has the technical name canities. It is actually not the development of gray hair, but rather the growth of hair lacking any color pigment. These hairs appear white and when intermixed with pigmented hair gives the general appearance of gray hair.\n\nHere's some information on canities from a medical article:\n\n > The onset and progression of graying or canities correlate very closely with chronological aging (but not with photo-aging) and occur in varying degrees in all individuals eventually, regardless of gender or race. The age of onset is genetically controlled and heritable, such that on an average Caucasians begin to gray in their mid-30s; Asians, in their late-30s; and Africans, latest in their mid-40s. Indeed, hair is said to gray prematurely only if graying occurs before the age of 20 years in whites, before 25 years in Asians and before 30 years in Africans. Although not formally tested, a good rule of thumb is that by 50 years, 50% of people have 50% gray hair.\n > \nFrom [Aging of the Hair Follicle Pigmentation System](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "200129",
"title": "Hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Other causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gradual thinning of hair with age is a natural condition known as involutional alopecia. This is caused by an increasing number of hair follicles switching from the growth, or anagen, phase into a resting phase, or telogen phase, so that remaining hairs become shorter and fewer in number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802065",
"title": "Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Long-term management of CAH.:Optimizing growth in CAH.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "The growth problem is even worse in the simple virilizing forms of CAH which are detected when premature pubic hair appears in childhood, because the bone age is often several years advanced at the age of diagnosis. While a boy (or girl) with simple virilizing CAH is taller than peers at that point, he will have far fewer years remaining to grow, and may go from being a very tall 7-year-old to a 62-inch 13-year-old who has completed growth. Even with adrenal suppression, many of these children will have already had central precocious puberty triggered by the prolonged exposure of the hypothalamus to the adrenal androgens and estrogens. If this has begun, it may be advantageous to suppress puberty with a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist such as leuprolide to slow continuing bone maturation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Like much of the hair on the human body, leg, arm, chest, and back hair begin as vellus hair. As people age, the hair in these regions will often begin to grow darker and more abundantly. This will typically happen during or after puberty. Men will often have more abundant, coarser hair on the arms and back, while women tend to have a less drastic change in the hair growth in these areas but do experience a significant change in thickness of hairs. However, some women will grow darker, longer hair in one or more of these regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270445",
"title": "Human hair color",
"section": "Section::::Conditions affecting hair color.:Aging or achromotrichia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Children born with some hair colors may find it gradually darkens as they grow. Many blond, light brown, or red haired infants experience this. This is caused by genes being turned on and off during early childhood and puberty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33948767",
"title": "Biomarkers of aging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Although graying of hair increases with age, hair graying cannot be called a biomarker of ageing. Similarly, skin wrinkles and other common changes seen with aging are not better indicators of future functionality than chronological age. Biogerontologists have continued efforts to find and validate biomarkers of aging, but success thus far has been limited. Levels of CD4 and CD8 memory T cells and naive T cells have been used to give good predictions of the expected lifespan of middle-aged mice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54697284",
"title": "Premature greying of hair",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Premature greying of hair, also known as canities, can have negative effects on appearance, confidence, self-esteem, and social acceptance of the affected individual. Hair is said to have greyed prematurely if it occurs before the age of 20 years in Whites, before 25 years in Asians, and before 30 years in Africans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Signs.:Physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. As a rule of thumb, around age 50, about 50% of Europeans have 50% grey hair. Many men are affected by balding, and women enter menopause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3g8sfh
|
how do tv episodes, albums and scripts get leaked, and why does it seem to happen so often?
|
[
{
"answer": "Writer, publisher, .... Will send them to himself via email. Or friends and family. And from there someone will leak it.\n\nOr grabs a USB stick. Leaves it at caffee. Noasy waiter who knows a studio is nearby grabs it..\n\nOr as a part of marketing. Some speculate the Iphone[whatever number] wasn't leaked- But staged, so it ets publicity for example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of \"leaks\" in the music industry are often staged to create buzz ahead of a release. Some labels will leak to gauge reactions on a release they're not too sure will sell as well as they hope.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "when I lived in nyc i had a couple different roommates throughout my time there that worked in the film/tv industry. every now and then they would toss me a working script of whatever it was they were currently working on, usually to show me how much they fucking hate working on whatever movie it is and why. personally i never even thought of \"leaking\" something but I'm sure it's how some stuff does get leaked.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a LOT of people involved in production work. Many of them are highly technical and have the ability to transfer files. It only takes one person to start a torrent and the production is more-or-less done for.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apart from the staged leaks, it is probably because somebody in the huge chain of workers just doesn't feel invested enough to care, but real leaks are actually VERY demoralizing... I've had leaks that plainly make me want to stop working in said project. \n\nSource: I'm a product designer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was working a in a press office as an intern. My boss was new to the role and not good at communicating even basic information. \n\nI was in charge of managing a database of press packs submitted by clients to promote their films. To clarify - all of this stuff was sent to us with full permission to be published. \n\n I get a call from a group saying they're screening one of the films we're handling and need x, y and z. \nSo I send out x,y and z. \n\nNot a problem right? It's my job to do exactly that, right? \n\nThe next day, all hell breaks loose because someone 'leaked' 'embargoed' information. \n\nEmbargoed means info not to be published until after a certain date - usually there is a big header and footer on all material in the pack saying this. \n\nI was being treated pretty badly in that job so didn't bother owning up, just sat and watched as they all went crazy finding 'the source of the leak'. \n\nNo one bothered to ask me, just as no one had bothered to tell me it was embargoed in the first place. \nThat is how leaks happen. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "332224",
"title": "Canary trap",
"section": "Section::::Embedding information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "BULLET::::- As with the \"Star Trek\" incident, major films or television productions frequently give out scripts to the cast and crew in which one or two lines are different in each individual version. Thus if the entire script is copied and leaked to the public, the producers can track down the specific person who leaked the script. In practice this does not prevent generalized information about the script from being leaked, but it does discourage leaking verbatim copies of the script itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14046347",
"title": "Dealer's Choice (game show)",
"section": "Section::::Episode status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The series' existence has not been confirmed. The possibility remains that most episodes were lost because of the wiping of videotapes. This remained a common practice as late as 1976, long after the invention of the videocassette, especially in syndication companies as opposed to networks; the fact that syndication practice at the time required tapes to be physically distributed to stations would suggest that episodes may have survived, but that they are not centralized in any archive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43275595",
"title": "Into the Dalek",
"section": "Section::::Broadcast and reception.:Pre-broadcast leak.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "As part of the series 8 leaks, both the script and a rough cut of the episode were leaked online from a server in Miami. Despite the fact that the initial online copy of the episode contained a glitch that prevented downloading, a workable version found its way online by the second week of August 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16666873",
"title": "List of That '70s Show home video releases",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The music that featured many popular bands was predominantly removed or replaced with stock music on the DVD releases, in order to avoid paying royalties to the artists involved (unlike the actual run of a series, where studios would only have to pay royalties to the artist for that single episode, and maybe for syndication). Episodes were also often edited to remove content by cutting out lines that were deemed to be inappropriate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18588994",
"title": "Usenet",
"section": "Section::::ISPs, news servers, and newsfeeds.:Binary content.:Binary retention time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Each news server generally allocates a certain amount of storage space for post content in each newsgroup. When this storage has been filled, each time a new post arrives, old posts are deleted to make room for the new content. If the network bandwidth available to a server is high but the storage allocation is small, it is possible for a huge flood of incoming content to overflow the allocation and push out everything that was in the group before it. If the flood is large enough, the beginning of the flood will begin to be deleted even before the last part of the flood has been posted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10109010",
"title": "List of Nebulous episodes",
"section": "Section::::\"Missing\" Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In the sleeve notes of the Series One audiobook, written in 2006, series writer Graham Duff asks for assistance in finding episodes \"currently missing from the BBC archive\". The article is a parody of when television and radio stations such as the BBC used to \"wipe\" episodes of TV and radio programmes, and record over them, especially the loss of many early \"Doctor Who\" and \"Dad's Army\" episodes. In the notes, Duff claims that as a result of wiping, \"many classic \"Nebulous\" episodes were destroyed, along with editions of iconic Radio 4 shows such as \"Gardeners' Question Time\" and \"Money Box Live\".\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3767546",
"title": "The Sandie Shaw Supplement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Most of the shows have since been erased by the BBC, after Shaw asked for them to put the film on videotape. Only two episodes (episodes 2 & 3) have survived, after being returned to the BBC from overseas in the early 1990s. Episode 2 was shown on BBC2 shortly after being recovered. The audio tracks to some episodes have survived and pirate versions can sometimes be found on the internet but are generally hard to find.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3m2xhx
|
Is it possible to create a water molecule by combining 1 hydrogen atom and 2 oxygen atoms through fusion?
|
[
{
"answer": "If I'm understanding your question correctly, the answer is \"no\" because water is defined by its formula of H2O. HOO would be an entirely different, unstable molecule. \n\nIf you're using the term fusion in the nuclear reaction sense, then I don't understand what you're getting at. I suppose that you could, through a series of high energy reactions, break one of the oxygen atoms down into daughter nuclides that includes hydrogen nuclei, and which could be further used to make a full H2O molecule, but that would be highly impractical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24027000",
"title": "Properties of water",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "A single water molecule can participate in a maximum of four hydrogen bonds because it can accept two bonds using the lone pairs on oxygen and donate two hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia and methanol can also form hydrogen bonds. However, they do not show anomalous thermodynamic, kinetic or structural properties like those observed in water because none of them can form four hydrogen bonds: either they cannot donate or accept hydrogen atoms, or there are steric effects in bulky residues. In water, intermolecular tetrahedral structures form due to the four hydrogen bonds, thereby forming an open structure and a three-dimensional bonding network, resulting in the anomalous decrease in density when cooled below 4 °C. This repeated, constantly reorganizing unit defines a three-dimensional network extending throughout the liquid. This view is based upon neutron scattering studies and computer simulations, and it makes sense in the light of the unambiguously tetrahedral arrangement of water molecules in ice structures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3880390",
"title": "Physical coefficient",
"section": "Section::::Stoichiometric coefficient of a chemical compound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "It just so happens that hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are both diatomic molecules, thus we have H and O. To form water, one of the O atoms breaks off from the O molecule and react with the H compound to form HO. But, there is one oxygen atom left. It reacts with another H molecule. Since it took two of each atom to balance the compound, we put the coefficient 2 in front of HO:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26639887",
"title": "Ice rules",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The rules state each oxygen is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, and that the oxygen atom in each water molecule forms two hydrogen bonds with other oxygens, so that there is precisely one hydrogen between each pair of oxygen atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1580280",
"title": "Lunar water",
"section": "Section::::Possible water cycle.:Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The formation of one water molecule requires the presence of two adjacent hydroxyl groups, or a cascade of successive reactions of one oxygen atom with two protons. This could constitute a limiting factor and decreases the probability of water production, if the proton density per surface unit is too low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21724858",
"title": "Electrocatalyst",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "There are multiple ways for many transformations to occur. For example, hydrogen and oxygen can be combined to form water through a free-radical mechanism commonly referred to as combustion. Useful energy can be obtained from the thermal heat of this reaction through an internal combustion engine with an upper efficiency of 60% (for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4) based on the Otto thermodynamic cycle. It is also possible to combine the hydrogen and oxygen through redox mechanism as in the case of a fuel cell. In this process, the reaction is broken into two half-reactions which occur at separate electrodes. In this situation the reactant's energy is directly converted to electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33306",
"title": "Water",
"section": "Section::::Chemical and physical properties.:Electrical conductivity and electrolysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13609",
"title": "Hydrogen bond",
"section": "Section::::Hydrogen bonds in small molecules.:Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them that is to say oxygen-hydrogen bonding; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
59krov
|
is heisenberg uncertainty principle just a theory at the moment or have we observed it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your understanding of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle might not be the issue here. \"Theory\" in scientific terminology refers to a model that works until disproven. \"Theory\" in common English refers to an idea or a thought process.\n\nSo the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is a model that works until it is disproven.\n\nI hope this helped you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're misinterpreting the meaning of his principle. It's not a theory per se, it's a set of inequalities that assert limits to the precision by which pairs of complimentary variables of a particle can be known. This is not to be confused with the observer effect, which states that measuring a system affects it. In fact, Heisenberg's uncertainty explains the observer effect. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is a fundamental property of quantum systems, and thus our physics are founded on it.\n\nSo in that capacity, yes, we observe it all the time when working in quantum systems. In fact, some quantum technologies are based upon it, including aspects of quantum computers, super conductors, quantum optics, and gravitational wave interferometers.\n\nLastly, never say \"just a theory\" again, it trivializes the underpinnings of all science. Newton rolls in his grave and spontaneously combusts in protest. Theories are not hypothesis, they are not educated guesses, they are not unfounded - theories explain facts and their relations, and are thus a higher order of knowledge than facts. Our most fundamental theories are validated by decades and centuries of independent proof. No one questions gravity or germ theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3325140",
"title": "Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory",
"section": "Section::::Quantum theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Hirschman showed, cf. Hirschman uncertainty, that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle can be expressed as a particular lower bound on the sum of the classical distribution entropies of the \"quantum observable\" probability distributions of a quantum mechanical state, the square of the wave-function, in coordinate, and also momentum space, when expressed in Planck units. The resulting inequalities provide a tighter bound on the uncertainty relations of Heisenberg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31883",
"title": "Uncertainty principle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle (also known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, known as complementary variables or canonically conjugate variables such as position \"x\" and momentum \"p\", can be known or, depending on interpretation, to what extent such conjugate properties maintain their approximate meaning, as the mathematical framework of quantum physics does not support the notion of simultaneously well-defined conjugate properties expressed by a single value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123450",
"title": "Philosophy of physics",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of quantum mechanics.:Uncertainty principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "In March 1927, working in Niels Bohr's institute, Werner Heisenberg formulated the principle of uncertainty thereby laying the foundation of what became known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg had been studying the papers of Paul Dirac and Pascual Jordan. He discovered a problem with measurement of basic variables in the equations. His analysis showed that uncertainties, or imprecisions, always turned up if one tried to measure the position and the momentum of a particle at the same time. Heisenberg concluded that these uncertainties or imprecisions in the measurements were not the fault of the experimenter, but fundamental in nature and are inherent mathematical properties of operators in quantum mechanics arising from definitions of these operators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857780",
"title": "Entropic uncertainty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, information theory, and Fourier analysis, the entropic uncertainty or Hirschman uncertainty is defined as the sum of the temporal and spectral Shannon entropies. It turns out that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle can be expressed as a lower bound on the sum of these entropies. This is \"stronger\" than the usual statement of the uncertainty principle in terms of the product of standard deviations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123450",
"title": "Philosophy of physics",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of quantum mechanics.:Uncertainty principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "The term Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics was often used interchangeably with and as a synonym for Heisenberg's uncertainty principle by detractors (such as Einstein and the physicist Alfred Landé) who believed in determinism and saw the common features of the Bohr–Heisenberg theories as a threat. Within the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics the uncertainty principle was taken to mean that on an elementary level, the physical universe does not exist in a deterministic form, but rather as a collection of probabilities, or possible outcomes. For example, the pattern (probability distribution) produced by millions of photons passing through a diffraction slit can be calculated using quantum mechanics, but the exact path of each photon cannot be predicted by any known method. The Copenhagen interpretation holds that it cannot be predicted by any method, not even with theoretically infinitely precise measurements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40469808",
"title": "The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In the book, after briefly discussing various theories, including quantum theory, Heisenberg discusses the basis for the fundamental concepts of quantum theory. Also by this time Heisenberg has stated, \"the interaction between observer and object causes uncontrollable and large changes in the [atomic] system being observed...\". In this work Heisenberg also discusses his uncertainty principle or uncertainty relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31883",
"title": "Uncertainty principle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "Historically, the uncertainty principle has been confused with a related effect in physics, called the observer effect, which notes that measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the systems, that is, without changing something in a system. Heisenberg utilized such an observer effect at the quantum level (see below) as a physical \"explanation\" of quantum uncertainty. It has since become clearer, however, that the uncertainty principle is inherent in the properties of all wave-like systems, and that it arises in quantum mechanics simply due to the matter wave nature of all quantum objects. Thus, \"the uncertainty principle actually states a fundamental property of quantum systems and is not a statement about the observational success of current technology\". It must be emphasized that \"measurement\" does not mean only a process in which a physicist-observer takes part, but rather any interaction between classical and quantum objects regardless of any observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jhtic
|
collective bargaining
|
[
{
"answer": "collective bargaining is the process of a group of employees negotiating employment benefits (pay, health care, vacation/sick time, etc.) as a single group as opposed to each employee negotiating with the employer at the time of hire. \n\nthe only way this is possible is with the creation of a union. if collective bargaining is ever legislated away then the entire usefulness of a union disappears. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Say a company doesn't pay its workers very well. If each person goes and asks for a raise individually, the boss will probably say no, or fire them. If *every employee at once* asks for a raise and says \"we're going to stop working if you don't pay us more\", then they're much more likely to increase everyone's pay (or give more vacation, or whatever they're bargaining on). This is the basic idea of unions and collective bargaining. \n\nIf you take away the ability of workers to have collective bargaining, it takes away the main purpose behind a union.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "collective bargaining is the process of a group of employees negotiating employment benefits (pay, health care, vacation/sick time, etc.) as a single group as opposed to each employee negotiating with the employer at the time of hire. \n\nthe only way this is possible is with the creation of a union. if collective bargaining is ever legislated away then the entire usefulness of a union disappears. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Say a company doesn't pay its workers very well. If each person goes and asks for a raise individually, the boss will probably say no, or fire them. If *every employee at once* asks for a raise and says \"we're going to stop working if you don't pay us more\", then they're much more likely to increase everyone's pay (or give more vacation, or whatever they're bargaining on). This is the basic idea of unions and collective bargaining. \n\nIf you take away the ability of workers to have collective bargaining, it takes away the main purpose behind a union.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "253421",
"title": "Collective bargaining",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong. The collective agreements reached by these negotiations usually set out wage scales, working hours, training, health and safety, overtime, grievance mechanisms, and rights to participate in workplace or company affairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41935601",
"title": "Collective Bargaining (album)",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Collective bargaining is a process of negotiations between employers and a group of employees aimed at reaching agreements that regulate working conditions. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44957143",
"title": "Fair Work Act 2009",
"section": "Section::::Collective bargaining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Collective bargaining regulates the terms under which employers hire employees and the future treatment of future employees. Collective bargaining is a mechanism which allows employees, employers and representation parties to express their objectives with respect to work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35797415",
"title": "South African labour law",
"section": "Section::::Collective labour law.:Collective bargaining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 1600,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1600,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Broadly, then, the collective-bargaining process may be defined as a process whereby employers (or employers’ organisations) bargain with employee representatives (trade unions) about terms and conditions of employment, and about other matters of mutual interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31535647",
"title": "Whistleblower protection in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Reporting.:Unionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 203,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 203,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "A collective bargaining agreement (i.e. a contract) is a set of bylaws that establishes a partnership agreement between two groups of people, where one group is management and the other group is employees. The collective bargaining agreement also provides the same protection for managers, except managers are not entitled to union representation during labor disputes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35797415",
"title": "South African labour law",
"section": "Section::::Collective labour law.:Collective bargaining.:Bargaining agents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 1641,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1641,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Collective bargaining is performed by bargaining agents, namely trade unions and employers’ organisations. The LRA sets requirements for unions and organisations relating to registration. A trade union is defined as an association of employees whose principal purpose is to regulate the relations between employers or employers’ organisations and employees. Only employees may be members of a trade union. Job seekers and ex-employees may not be members of a trade union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12728750",
"title": "Collective agreement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "A collective agreement, collective labour agreement (CLA) or collective bargaining agreement (CBA) is a written contract negotiated through collective bargaining for employees by one or more trade unions with the management of a company (or with an employers' association) that regulates the terms and conditions of employees at work. This includes regulating the wages, benefits, and duties of the employees and the duties and responsibilities of the employer or employers and often includes rules for a dispute resolution process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nvdf0
|
- why doesn't corn break down when you poop, and if it doesn't break down what sort of nutritional value am i getting?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have to chew it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only the skin of the kernel can't be digested. The inside of the kernel can actually be digested and has nutritional value. This is why you are advised to chew: if you don't chew, your digestive track is unable to get to the goods and you'll poop the kernel whole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have to chew it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only the skin of the kernel can't be digested. The inside of the kernel can actually be digested and has nutritional value. This is why you are advised to chew: if you don't chew, your digestive track is unable to get to the goods and you'll poop the kernel whole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42722152",
"title": "Grain drying",
"section": "Section::::Applications of grain drying.:Corn drying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "When drying corn kernels it is important to keep in mind that cracks and fractures in the corn can lead to many problems in both the storage and processing. The major problem that occurs from high temperature drying and then rapid cooling of the grain is stress-cracking. Stress-cracking is when fractures become present in the corn endosperm. Stress-cracked kernels often absorb water too quickly, are more likely to become broken, and are increasingly susceptible to insect and mold damage during dry storage. In order to reduce the amount of grain that is lost due to stress-cracking, medium temperature and slow cooling, or natural air and low temperature drying methods should be employed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13561040",
"title": "Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station",
"section": "Section::::Notable scientific contributions.:Development of hybrid corn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Because corn is a self-fertilizing plant, the prevention of inbreeding when producing hybrid seeds required time-consuming detasseling. In the 1940s and 50's, Jones collaborated with Paul Mangelsdorf of Harvard University to eliminate the need to remove the tassels from plants in seed production through utilizing a sterile plant and male restorer gene, making the production of corn more cost-efficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22291485",
"title": "Corn (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a barley seed, that is like a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. Hard corns are especially problematic for people with insensitive skin due to damaged nerves (e.g., in people with diabetes mellitus). The scientific name for a corn is \"heloma\" (plural \"helomata\"). A hard corn is called a \"heloma durum\", while a soft corn is called a \"heloma molle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249922",
"title": "Callus",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Corns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. The scientific name for a corn is \"heloma\" (plural \"helomata\"). A hard corn is called a \"heloma durum\", while a soft corn is called a \"heloma molle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13953",
"title": "Hominy",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "Previously, consuming untreated corn was thought to cause pellagra (niacin deficiency)—either from the corn itself or some infectious element in untreated corn. However, further advancements showed that it is a correlational, not causal, relationship. In the 1700s and 1800s, areas that depended highly on corn as a diet staple were more likely to have pellagra. This is because humans cannot absorb niacin in untreated corn. The nixtamalization process frees niacin into a state where the intestines can absorb it. This was discovered primarily by exploring why Mexican people who depended on maize did not develop pellagra. One reason was that Mayans treated corn in an alkaline solution to soften it, in the process now called nixtamalization. The earliest known use of nixtamalization was in what is present-day southern Mexico and Guatemala around 1500–1200 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36186797",
"title": "Corn Products Refining Co. v. Commissioner",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Corn Products suffered large losses in the early 1930s, when prices of its main raw material grain corn rose dramatically during droughts in the Midwest's Dust Bowl. As a result, it later engaged futures contracts to protect itself from such prices rises in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16006394",
"title": "Food vs. fuel",
"section": "Section::::National Corn Growers Association.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "BULLET::::- Most of the corn produced in the US is field corn, not sweet corn, and not digestible by humans in its raw form. Most corn is used for livestock feed and not human food, even the portion that is exported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ahalu
|
how can a geothermal system heat my house when it's 10 below zero and the system is 55 degrees?
|
[
{
"answer": "They do have a supplemental heat source: the earth. Even if it's 10 below zero outside, it's not going to be nearly so cold at the depth the geothermal pump runs to. When you get deep enough, the ground is more or less the average annual temperature, moving only a little bit due to the seasons.\n\nThe heat pump won't get your house any warmer than the underground heat source. (In a perfect system, your house would equal that underground temperature exactly.) But it will significantly reduce the cost of your traditional heating that brings the house up to comfortable temperature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reverse refrigeration. Water on the source side enters your heat pump at 10c and leaves at approximately 7c, air enters on the other side of the heat pump at 19c and leaves at 27c. \n\nIn between the water and air is a loop of refrigerant being pumped to transfer the heat. On my phone but the refrigerant changes phases and temperatures while being pushed through a loop that changes siz at specific locations. \n\n\nEdit. Answered much more thoroughly above by /u/DRNate_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just as in summer your air conditioner takes heat from your 74 degree home and forces that heat into 98 degree air, working in reverse it can remove heat from 55 degree water from the earth and force that heat into your 66 degree house. This is the geothermal heat pump, a vapor-compression cycle using the geothermal well or loop as a heat source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answers here are wrong. The temperature a heat pump can warm a space is not limited to the temperature of the ground (55, in your example) or the outside air in the case of a traditional heat pump.\n\nAs long as the medium you're running through the ground (water, glycol, whatever) is a lower temp than ground itself, you'll transfer heat energy to the system. The compressor and refrigeration components of the system then essentially concentrates the heat you've transferred and uses it to warm your space.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To help with your compressor question, they come in many sizes of course. So one must selected of a certain size. A general rule is you have to pump three pounds per minute per ton of capacity. As it is pumping and compressing gas, we are getting the liquid in the condenser or in then case of geothermal, the coax coil.\n \nNow, capacity of a compressor changes as the density of the gas changes which simply changes with the change in suction pressure. The ground is not constant temperature, but does resist temperature change much more than air. As the loop temperature drops, the capacity of the system will drop. Generally speaking, the cost per BTU will always be cheaper than electric backup heat, but the capacity may be inadequate. \n\nUnder good conditions, the compressor may be producing > 190F hot gas. Oddly, a system low on refrigerant will cause that temperature to get hotter, but recall that I mention refrigerant density. So while hotter, the capacity decreases because the density is less due to being undercharged. The volume and velocity of the hot gas is reduced so the heat quickly is lost enroute to the evaporator.\n\nI am a tech rep for Hydron Module, ClimateMaster and Waterfurnace...among other HVAC things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may think that water boils at 100^(o)C. However, this is only true at sea level. In the mountains, the boiling point lowers. This is because the atmospheric pressure drops as you go up the mountain.\n\nThere are all sorts of refrigerating fluids, for example, freon, that do the same thing. Drop the pressure in a sealed container of liquid freon and it will start to boil. It will absorb heat from the environment to do so. Increase the pressure on a sealed container of freon gas and it will liquefy, releasing heat as it does so.\n\nHeat pumps use these principles to pump heat around. They pump liquid freon into the a series of tubes in the \"cold\" region and the pressure is dropped. This pressure drop causes the freon to boil and absorb heat. The freon gas is then pumped to the \"hot\" region, where it is compressed. This causes the freon gas to liquefy and release the absorbed heat.\n\nI visualize the effect like a sponge. If you squeeze a sponge, put it in some water, and let go, the sponge will expand and absorb water. The sponge can then be carried to another place and squeezed. As it is squeezed, the water is released.\n\nBy choosing the working fluid and operating pressures properly, heat pumps can move heat easily from fairly cold regions to fairly hot regions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6453717",
"title": "Air source heat pumps",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Air at any temperature above absolute zero contains some energy. An air-source heat pump transfers ('pumps') some of this energy as heat from one place to another, for example between the outside and inside of a building. This can provide space heating and/or hot water. A single system can be designed to transfer heat in either direction, to heat or cool the interior of the building in winter and summer respectively. For simplicity, the description below focuses on use for interior heating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3603358",
"title": "Waldsee (camp)",
"section": "Section::::BioHaus (Passive House).:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The building replaces 100% outside air; no air is recirculated through the system. Two underground tubes exchange outside and inside air eight feet beneath the ground, passively warming or cooling the air to match the temperature of the ground (~55°F year round). The house transfers heat between the outgoing air and the incoming air before it reaches the rooms, resulting in a difference of less than 10°F between the incoming fresh air and the desired room temperature, even in the midst of Minnesotan winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68316",
"title": "Heat pump",
"section": "Section::::Performance considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "When there is a high temperature differential (e.g., when an air-source heat pump is used to heat a house with an outside temperature of, say, 0 °C (32 °F)), it takes more work to move the same amount of heat to indoors than on a milder day. Ultimately, due to Carnot efficiency limits, the heat pump's performance will decrease as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases (outside temperature gets colder), reaching a theoretical limit of 1.0 at −273 °C. In practice, a COP of 1.0 will typically be reached at an outdoor temperature around −18 °C (0 °F) for air source heat pumps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68316",
"title": "Heat pump",
"section": "Section::::Heat sources and sinks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The heat drawn from ground-sourced systems is in most cases stored solar heat, and it should not be confused with direct geothermal heating, though the latter will contribute in some small measure to all heat in the ground. True geothermal heat, when used for heating, requires a circulation pump but no heat pump, since for this technology the ground temperature is higher than that of the space that is to be heated, so the technology relies only upon simple heat convection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13788192",
"title": "Green Wood Centre",
"section": "Section::::The buildings.:Woodland College.:Woodland College efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Heat exchangers – The heat exchangers take the heat from outgoing air and preheat the cold fresh incoming air, which is then sent around the building. It is calculated that the heat exchangers will maintain an average temperature of 11 degrees Celsius, which means that only a small use of the heating system is needed to top up the building's requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2855027",
"title": "Degree day",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Heating degree days are typical indicators of household energy consumption for space heating. The air temperature in a building is on average higher than that of the air outside. A temperature of indoors corresponds to an outside temperature of about . If the air temperature outside is below 15.5 °C, then heating is required to maintain a temperature of about 18 °C. If the outside temperature is below the average temperature it is accounted as 1 degree-day. The sum of the degree days over periods such as a month or an entire heating season is used in calculating the amount of heating required for a building. Degree Days are also used to estimate air conditioning usage during the warm season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4432542",
"title": "Renewable heat",
"section": "Section::::Leading renewable heat technologies.:Geothermal heating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The earth absorbs the sun's energy and stores it as heat in the oceans and underground. The ground temperature remains constant at a point of all year round depending on where you live on earth. A geothermal heating system takes advantage of the consistent temperature found below the Earth's surface and uses it to heat and cool buildings. The system is made up of a series of pipes installed underground, connected to pipes in a building. A pump circulates liquid through the circuit. In the winter the fluid in the pipe absorbs the heat of the earth and uses it to heat the building. In the summer the fluid absorbs heat from the building and disposes of it in the earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2795ny
|
what's the difference between a laser cutter and a plasma cutter?
|
[
{
"answer": "Laser cutters use lasers, plasma cutters use plasma. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16066056",
"title": "Digital modeling and fabrication",
"section": "Section::::Machines for fabrication.:Laser cutter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The laser cutter is a machine that uses a laser to cut materials such as chip board, matte board, felt, wood, and acrylic up to 3/8 inch (1 cm) thickness. The laser cutter is often bundled with a driver software which interprets vector drawings produced by any number of CAD software platforms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26811658",
"title": "Thunderbird 2 pod vehicles",
"section": "Section::::Active pod vehicles.:Laser Cutter Vehicle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The Laser Cutter is a small tracked vehicle with a powerful front-mounted laser that can gain precise and rapid entry to secure buildings such as vaults and bunkers. The laser gun has a number of settings from single beams to pulsed energy bursts as well as an onboard timer and a high powered fan to blow away cuttings. The vehicle is seen in action in the episode \"30 Minutes After Noon\" (carried in Pod 5) but can be seen in the Pod in \"Sun Probe\". Numerous models of the vehicle exist including Konami and Bandai models. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1528221",
"title": "Sheet metal",
"section": "Section::::Forming processes.:Laser cutting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "CNC laser involves moving a lens assembly carrying a beam of laser light over the surface of the metal. Oxygen, nitrogen or air is fed through the same nozzle from which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the laser beam, cutting the metal sheet. The quality of the edge can be mirror smooth and a precision of around can be obtained. Cutting speeds on thin sheet can be as high as per minute. Most laser cutting systems use a CO2 based laser source with a wavelength of around 10 µm; some more recent systems use a YAG based laser with a wavelength of around 1 µm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531911",
"title": "Laser cutting",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Laser cutting for metals has the advantages over plasma cutting of being more precise and using less energy when cutting sheet metal; however, most industrial lasers cannot cut through the greater metal thickness that plasma can. Newer laser machines operating at higher power (6000 watts, as contrasted with early laser cutting machines' 1500 watt ratings) are approaching plasma machines in their ability to cut through thick materials, but the capital cost of such machines is much higher than that of plasma cutting machines capable of cutting thick materials like steel plate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3100090",
"title": "Chemical laser",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "A chemical laser is a laser that obtains its energy from a chemical reaction. Chemical lasers can reach continuous wave output with power reaching to megawatt levels. They are used in industry for cutting and drilling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531911",
"title": "Laser cutting",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "A \"laser microjet\" is a water-jet guided laser in which a pulsed laser beam is coupled into a low-pressure water jet. This is used to perform laser cutting functions while using the water jet to guide the laser beam, much like an optical fiber, through total internal reflection. The advantages of this are that the water also removes debris and cools the material. Additional advantages over traditional \"dry\" laser cutting are high dicing speeds, parallel kerf, and omnidirectional cutting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49223902",
"title": "Laser beam machining",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Laser welding is advantageous in that it can weld at speeds of up to 100 mm/s as well as the ability to weld dissimilar metals. Laser cladding is used to coat cheap or weak parts with a harder material in order to improve the surface quality. Drilling and cutting with lasers is advantageous in that there is little to no wear on the cutting tool as there is no contact to cause damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61odoo
|
how do microphones/speakers not echo the sound of a crowd
|
[
{
"answer": "To an extent, they do. However, most microphones are more sensitive in the direction that they're pointed.\n\nThere are no microphones that are only pick up sound from one very specific direction - if someone makes a noise from behind the mic, it'll get picked up to some degree, the question is how much it'll get picked up. A typical mic will pick up in front of it very well, but because the capsule (the electronic thing inside that deals with converting sound to electrical signals) faces towards the singer or instrument, that's where the sound will have the greatest influence. Anything coming from behind will be tiny in comparison meaning that the crowd aren't amplified to any significant degree through the speaker system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11447629",
"title": "Radio communication station",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Antennas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "A microphone is used to capture the input of sound waves created by people speaking into the device. The sounds are then turned into electrical energy; this energy then flows along a metal antenna. As the electrons in the electric current move back and forth up the antenna, the current creates an invisible electromagnetic radiation in the form of radio waves. The waves travel at the speed of light, taking the radio program (voices recorded) with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "764380",
"title": "Sound reinforcement system",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Lecture halls and conference rooms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In some conferences, sound engineers have to provide microphones for a large number of people who are speaking, in the case of a panel conference or debate. In some cases, automatic mixers are used to control the levels of the microphones, and turn off the channels for microphones which are not being spoken into, to reduce unwanted background noise and reduce the likelihood of feedback.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44408",
"title": "Microphone array",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "In case the array consists of omnidirectional microphones they accept sound from all directions, so electrical signals of the microphones contain the information about the sounds coming from all directions. Joint processing of these sounds allows selecting the sound signal coming from the given direction. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65886",
"title": "Microphone",
"section": "Section::::Stereo microphone techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Various standard techniques are used with microphones used in sound reinforcement at live performances, or for recording in a studio or on a motion picture set. By suitable arrangement of one or more microphones, desirable features of the sound to be collected can be kept, while rejecting unwanted sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42401451",
"title": "Echo suppression and cancellation",
"section": "Section::::Current uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "In most of these cases, direct sound from the loudspeaker (not the person at the far end, otherwise referred to as the Talker) enters the microphone almost unaltered. The difficulties in cancelling echo stem from the alteration of the original sound by the ambient space. These changes can include certain frequencies being absorbed by soft furnishings, and reflection of different frequencies at varying strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1188012",
"title": "Diaphragm (acoustics)",
"section": "Section::::Microphone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Microphones can be thought of as speakers in reverse. The sound waves strike the thin diaphragm, causing it to vibrate. Microphone diaphragms, unlike speaker diaphragms, tend to be thin and flexible, since they need to absorb as much sound as possible. In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm is placed in front of a plate and is charged. In a dynamic microphone, the diaphragm is glued to a magnetic coil, similar to the one in a dynamic loudspeaker. (In fact, a dynamic speaker can be used as a rudimentary microphone, and vice versa.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65886",
"title": "Microphone",
"section": "Section::::Connectors.:Impedance-matching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Some microphones are designed \"not\" to have their impedance matched by the load they are connected to. Doing so can alter their frequency response and cause distortion, especially at high sound pressure levels. Certain ribbon and dynamic microphones are exceptions, due to the designers' assumption of a certain load impedance being part of the internal electro-acoustical damping circuit of the microphone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vm7m6
|
why do texts only allow 160 bytes per message?
|
[
{
"answer": "SMS was an add-on to the cell networks that existed at the time. 160 characters was all they could fit in given the technical limitations of the networks; and honestly, that was kind of a feat, then.\n\nToday, it persists for backward compatibility; if you need more than that, send an email.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The dirty secret of text messaging (and text fees) is that the message gets stuffed into the spare room of a data packet that was going to be sent anyway. Your phone says \"I'm still here!\" at regular intervals, but when you send a text it says \"I'm still here, *and* I have something to say!\" That message then gets routed to the recipient and is stuffed into the tower's reply: \"I hear you, and somebody has a message for you.\"\n\n160 bytes happens to be how much room is available to stuff a message into those packets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2211441",
"title": "Lempel–Ziv–Storer–Szymanski",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Note: this does not include the 12 bytes of flags indicating whether the next chunk of text is a pointer or a literal. Adding it, the text becomes 106 bytes long, which is still shorter than the original 177 bytes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11794556",
"title": "Amazon Simple Queue Service",
"section": "Section::::Message delivery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Messages can be of any type, and the data contained within is not restricted. Message bodies were initially limited to 8KB in size but was later raised to 64KB on 2010-07-01 and then 256KB on 2013-06-18. For larger messages, the user has a few options to get around this limitation. A large message can be split into multiple segments that are sent separately, or the message data can be stored using Amazon Simple Storage Service (Amazon S3) or Amazon DynamoDB with just a pointer to the data transmitted in the SQS message. Amazon has made an Extended Client Library available for this purpose An extension to the Amazon SQS client that enables sending and receiving messages up to 2GB via Amazon S3. : awslabs/amazon-sqs-java-extended-client-lib.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42152869",
"title": "Nxt",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Arbitrary Messages enable the sending of encrypted or plain text, which can also function to send and store up to 1000 bytes of data permanently, or 42 kilobytes of data for a limited amount of time. As a result, it can be used to build file-sharing services, decentralized applications, and higher-level Nxt services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29285336",
"title": "ISO 15765-2",
"section": "Section::::List of protocol control information field types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "A message of seven bytes or less is sent in a single frame, with the initial byte containing the type (0) and payload length (1-7 bytes). With the 0 in the type field, this can also pass as a simpler protocol with a length-data format and is often misinterpreted as such.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115260",
"title": "Mobile marketing",
"section": "Section::::SMS marketing.:Message Size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "A single SMS message has a maximum size of 1120 bits. This is important because there are two types of character encodings, GSM and Unicode. Latin-based languages like English are GSM based encoding, which are 7 bits per character. This is where text messages typically get their 160 character per SMS limit. Long messages that exceed this limit are concatenated. They are split into smaller messages, which are recombined by the receiving phone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71630",
"title": "Unicity distance",
"section": "Section::::Relation with key size and possible plaintexts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "A tremendous number of possible messages, N, can be generated using even this limited set of characters: N = 26, where L is the length of the message. However, only a smaller set of them is readable plaintext due to the rules of the language, perhaps M of them, where M is likely to be very much smaller than N. Moreover, M has a one-to-one relationship with the number of keys that work, so given K possible keys, only K × (M/N) of them will \"work\". One of these is the correct key, the rest are spurious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32830538",
"title": "Constrained Application Protocol",
"section": "Section::::Message formats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Any bytes after the headers in the packet are considered the message body. The length of the message body is implied by the datagram length. When bound to UDP, the entire message MUST fit within a single datagram. When used with 6LoWPAN as defined in RFC 4944, messages SHOULD fit into a single IEEE 802.15.4 frame to minimize fragmentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ijdmw
|
What were the reasons that people of your time period and region believed one contracted various illnesses and diseases?
|
[
{
"answer": "Before the HIV virus was discovered there were many theories about what could be causing AIDS. Some of these theories continued to circulate after the discovery of the virus, and a few hardcore AIDS denialists still believe in alternate theories. \nDuring the very early years of the epidemic there were more questions than answers. No one was sure if AIDS was caused by an infectious agent, environmental factors, or if there was something about gay male sexual practices that was making gay men sick. In an essay entitled \"We Know Who We Are\" in the *New York Native,* Michael Callen and Richard Berkowitz put forward the theory that AIDS was caused by repeated exposure to common viruses. Both gay men with AIDS, they blamed AIDS on gay male promiscuity. \nThe best way I can describe the multiple theories and the confusion it cause is by letting someone else describe. This is from Larry Kramer's play *The Normal Heart* which tells the story of the the founding of Gay Men's Health Crisis during the early years of the epidemic. \nMickey: \"I can't take any more theories. I've written a column about every single one of them. Repeated infection by virus, new appearance by a dormant virus, single virus, new virus, old virus, multivirus, partial virus, latent virus, mutant virus, retrovirus...And we mustn't forget fucking, sucking, kissing, blood, voodoo, drugs, poppers, needles, Africa, Haiti, Cuba, blacks, amebas, pigs, mosquitos, monkeys...What if it isn't any of them?...What if it's monogamy? Bruce, you and I could actually be worse off because of constant bombardment of the virus from a single source - our own lovers! Maybe guys who go to the baths regularly have built up the best immunity! I don't know what to tell anybody.\" \nNow over thirty years into the epidemic, when the knowledge that HIV causes AIDS is practically universal, it's easy to forget that there was a time when there were all sorts of weird theories. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ohhh, I have a good one. One belief that arose in the last couple of centuries BCE in Judaism(s) is that various conditions - well, mainly *demonic possession* - were caused by the infiltration of the (evil) spirits of deceased giants from primeval times, themselves the [hybrid offspring of angels and humans](_URL_2_). Several texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls support this idea (which [originates in the Book of Enoch](_URL_3_)) - and myself and scholars like Archie Wright (among others) have [argued](_URL_1_) that this is the implied background to some of Jesus' exorcisms in the gospels. \n\nThis later becomes explicit in Christian sources like the [Testament of Solomon](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49005",
"title": "Atlantic slave trade",
"section": "Section::::Diseases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Notable diseases not originally known as present in Americas before 1492 include those such as smallpox, malaria, bubonic plague, typhus, influenza, measles, diphtheria, yellow fever, and whooping cough. During the Atlantic slave trade following the discovery of the New World, diseases such as these possessed the capability of obliterating populations such as the Natives by the masses as short amount of time as a few weeks or months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7299",
"title": "Colonialism",
"section": "Section::::Impact of colonialism and colonisation.:Introduced diseases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 519,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 519,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8430768",
"title": "Globalization and disease",
"section": "Section::::Travel patterns and globalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "In Europe during the age of exploration, diseases such as smallpox, measles and tuberculosis (TB) had already been introduced centuries before through trade with Asia and Africa. People had developed some antibodies to these and other diseases from the Eurasian continent. When the Europeans traveled to new lands, they carried these diseases with them. (Note: Scholars believe TB was already endemic in the Americas.) When such diseases were introduced for the first time to new populations of humans, the effects on the native populations were widespread and deadly. The Columbian Exchange, referring to Christopher Columbus's first contact with the native peoples of the Caribbean, began the trade of animals, and plants, and unwittingly began an exchange of diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12817201",
"title": "AIDS and Its Metaphors",
"section": "Section::::Changes brought on by AIDS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Also, with modern advances in medicine, society had begun to believe that epidemics and incurable illnesses were a thing of the past. The advent of AIDS proved these conclusions to be wrong. The \"plague\" notion was revived, but when it had been previously used to conceptualize punishment of a society, it was adapted to be a punishment visited on an individual or small group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24545319",
"title": "Native American disease and epidemics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "In pre-columbian exchange times, a variety of diseases existed in the Americas. The limited populations and interactions between those populations (as compared to places like Europe), hampered the development of widespread, deadly diseases in the Americas. One notable disease of American origin is syphillis. The American era of limited disease would end with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas. European diseases and epidemics, while still present among Native American populations today, were especially influential in Native American life of the past. Diseases and epidemics can be chronicled from centuries ago when European settlers brought forth diseases that devastated entire tribes. Transitioning into more modern times, similar diseases still plague Native American populations. The current crises in diseases and epidemics are being addressed by many different groups, both governmental and independent, and are done through a multitude of programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1239866",
"title": "Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Depopulation from disease.:Virulence and mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The natives of the Americas were faced with several new diseases at once creating a situation where some who successfully resisted one disease might die from another. Multiple simultaneous infections (e.g., smallpox and typhus at the same time) or in close succession (e.g., smallpox in an individual who was still weak from a recent bout of typhus) are more deadly than just the sum of the individual diseases. In this scenario, death rates can also be elevated by combinations of new and familiar diseases: smallpox in combination with American strains of yaws, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1835064",
"title": "Sociology of health and illness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Health, or lack of health, was once merely attributed to biological or natural conditions. Sociologists have demonstrated that the spread of diseases is heavily influenced by the socioeconomic status of individuals, ethnic traditions or beliefs, and other cultural factors. Where medical research might gather statistics on a disease, a sociological perspective on an illness would provide insight on what external factors caused the demographics who contracted the disease to become ill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4zq6mb
|
when can police get accurate speed readings on a moving vehicle?
|
[
{
"answer": "When they have radar on and it is within a certain degree of head/tail-on. I think it's within 15 degrees, but can't remember the exact number. The further off it is, the less accurate. And when the radar is properly calibrated, which should be done a minimum of twice per shift.\n\nWhen the are following the vehicle and pace it with their car.\n\nWhen they use lidar, which is like radar, but with lasers. I think this follows the same requirements as radar.\n\nWhen they calculate the speed from a known distance and time the vehicle traveled. The most common method is Using solid lines that run across the road at either 1/8 or 1/4 mile intervals.\n\nI'm sure they have other ways, but those are the 4 most common.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30838933",
"title": "LIDAR traffic enforcement",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "When used within a moving vehicle, the device measures the relative speed of the police and target vehicle. Police are required to follow the offending vehicle for 200 metres and have a certified speedometer, largely negating advantages of the device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Police-specific equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "BULLET::::- Speed recognition device: Some police cars are fitted with devices to measure the speed of vehicles being followed, such as ProViDa, usually through a system of following the vehicle between two points a set distance apart. This is separate to any radar gun device which is likely to be handheld, and not attached to the vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27104735",
"title": "Speed limit enforcement",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Pacing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Officers in some jurisdictions may also use pacing, particularly where a more convenient radar speed measuring device is not available—a police vehicle's speed is matched to that of a target vehicle, and the calibrated speedometer of the patrol car used to infer the other vehicle's speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14452251",
"title": "Urban Traffic Management and Control",
"section": "Section::::Examples of UTMC in action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "By monitoring how long it takes a vehicle to pass two ANPR cameras and then dividing the time by the distance between the cameras, an average speed can be measured and used to inform motorists via VMS how long it will take them to reach a destination, or to set diversions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1325302",
"title": "Radar detector",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "One device law enforcement use to measure the expected speed of a moving vehicle is doppler radar, which uses the doppler effect to measure the relative speed of a vehicle. Doppler radar works by beaming a radio wave at a vehicle to then measure the expected change in frequency of the reflected wave (that bounces off the vehicle). Law enforcement often employs doppler radar via hand-held radar guns, from vehicles, or from fixed objects such as traffic signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92529",
"title": "Intelligent transportation system",
"section": "Section::::Intelligent transportation applications.:Automatic road enforcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Speed cameras that identify vehicles traveling over the legal speed limit. Many such devices use radar to detect a vehicle's speed or electromagnetic loops buried in each lane of the road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23565965",
"title": "Control–feedback–abort loop",
"section": "Section::::A description of the control–feedback–abort (CFA) loop.:The abort element.:Sampling and the feedback element.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Going back to our auto. The rate we sample the street signs for information is going to be different from when we look at the speedometer. We may also change our sampling rate when certain outside influences introduce themselves into the feedback mix. If we have a police car behind us, odds are that we will be sampling the speedometer much more often than if a police car was not there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rzhrx
|
At what point did Salt become so devalued, and why?
|
[
{
"answer": "All 4 of these r/AskHistorians posts will answer your question. Hope the mods will consider this an adequate response (I'm not from around here:)!\n\n[Why was salt so scarce and valuable when it is in the ocean everywhere?](_URL_2_) (16 days ago, from /u/bucko9765)\n\n[I'm given to understand that in the pre-modern world salt was a very valuable commodity. If you lived near a coast line what (if anything) was to stop you just making unlimited salt by boiling sea water?](_URL_1_) (8 months ago, from /u/grapp)\n\n[How could a Polish salt miner become rich by getting a handfull of salt each day, while poorer people used salt by the kilo in producing food for the winter?](_URL_3_) (11 months ago, from /u/Toasterlad)\n\n[Salt was once incredibly valuable. But when and how did salt go from an expensive commodity to a common appearance on our every day dinner tables.](_URL_0_) (3 years ago, from /u/Africa_Whale)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5830908",
"title": "Bad Sooden-Allendorf",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "For more than a thousand years, until the late 19th century, salt was extracted from brine at the saltworks by boiling. The brine was brought up from a deposit under the town. The breaking of the salt monopoly in the wake of annexation by Prussia in 1866 led to a fall in price, which in turn led to the industry’s end. The last salt was produced in 1906.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18878",
"title": "Monopoly",
"section": "Section::::Historical monopolies.:Monopolies of resources.:Salt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Vending of common salt (sodium chloride) was historically a natural monopoly. Until recently, a combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for producing salt from the sea, the most plentiful source. Changing sea levels periodically caused salt \"famines\" and communities were forced to depend upon those who controlled the scarce inland mines and salt springs, which were often in hostile areas (e.g. the Sahara desert) requiring well-organised security for transport, storage, and distribution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605200",
"title": "Salt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6,000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt-works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara on camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2111915",
"title": "Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "In the 18th century salt was an essential and valuable commodity. At the time, salt was widely used for the preservation of foods such as meat or fish. The ubiquity of salt use caused the French government to impose the gabelle, a tax on salt consumption. The government mandated that all people over the age of 8 years buy an amount of salt per year at a price that the government had set. The \"Ferme Générale\" was responsible for collecting the \"gabelle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40359001",
"title": "La Saline, Missouri",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In the early 19th century salt was being produced in southern Illinois along the Ohio River, making salt production in La Saline decline. In 1822, some seventeen workers were still using 100-150 kettles to extract salt, but by 1825, all production had ceased. As a village without any economic base and with efforts to make it a district post having failed, La Saline depopulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582151",
"title": "Salt mining",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Before the advent of the modern internal combustion engine and earth-moving equipment, mining salt was one of the most expensive and dangerous of operations, due to rapid dehydration caused by constant contact with the salt (both in the mine passages and scattered in the air as salt dust), among other problems borne of accidental excessive sodium intake. While salt is now plentiful, until the Industrial Revolution it was difficult to come by, and salt mining was often done by slave or prison labor and life expectancy among those sentenced was low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46280196",
"title": "Península Valdés Railway",
"section": "Section::::History.:Closure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Since World War I the salt production (due in part to the development of chillers as a more modern method for the conservation of food) started decreasing so the company's revenues were not as expected. Many inhabitants of Puerto Pirámides left the village because of the depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wnoti
|
if roman numerals are written in order from greatest to least in quantity, such as xii (unless when subtracting like xiv), why is super bowl 48 labeled as xlviii instead of lxviii?
|
[
{
"answer": "XL would be 40. LX would be 60. It's exactly the subtractive principle you mentioned. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "X(-10) L(+50) V(+5) I(+1) I(+1) I(+1)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're *not* written in order from greatest to least.\n \nHowever, *if* a lower-valued symbol appears before a higher-valued symbol, then it is subtracted from it (i.e. it becomes negative).\n\ne.g. XI = 10+1 = 11\nbut IX = (-1)+10 = 9\n\nSo, LXVIII = 50+10+5+1+1+1 = 68\nand XLVIII = (-10)+50+5+1+1+1 = 48",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44849000",
"title": "2015–16 NFL playoffs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "For this year only, the Super Bowl decided not to use a Roman numeral (\"L\") and instead used the standard numerals \"50.\" According to Jaime Weston, the league's vice president of brand and creative, the primary reason was that the league's graphic designers had difficulty designing a suitable, aesthetically pleasing logo with only the Roman numeral \"L\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427707",
"title": "Super Bowl XXXVIII",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "This game set the record for most Roman numerals in a Super Bowl title (seven). This will not be matched until Super Bowl LXXVIII after the 2043 NFL season and Super Bowl LXXXVII after the 2052 season, and not surpassed until Super Bowl LXXXVIII after the 2053 season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25657",
"title": "Roman numerals",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the system.:Precedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The most obvious similarity between the Roman numerals and those older number systems is the use of 10 as the base, instead of 60 (as had been in use in Mesopotamia for a millennium) or 20. That choice, however, seems to have been made through most of Eurasia, including in India and China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "486117",
"title": "Quinary",
"section": "Section::::Biquinary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "A decimal system with 2 and 5 as a sub-bases is called biquinary, and is found in Wolof and Khmer. Roman numerals are a biquinary system. The numbers 1, 5, 10, and 50 are written as I, V, X, and L respectively. Eight is VIII and seventy is LXX.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38464942",
"title": "2015 NFL season",
"section": "Section::::Postseason.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Super Bowl 50 decided the 2015 NFL Champion and was played at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara, California on Sunday, February 7, 2016. Instead of naming it Super Bowl L with Roman numerals like in previous Super Bowls, this game was marketed with the Arabic numeral \"50\". According to Jaime Weston, the league's vice president of brand and creative, the primary reason was that the league's graphic designers had difficulty designing a suitable, aesthetically pleasing logo with only the Roman numeral \"L\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25657",
"title": "Roman numerals",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the system.:Etruscan numerals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: \"𐌠\", \"𐌡\", \"𐌢\", \"𐌣\", and \"𐌟\" for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567667",
"title": "Lexicographical order",
"section": "Section::::Numeral systems and dates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "One of the drawbacks of the Roman numeral system is that it is not always immediately obvious which of two numbers is the smaller. On the other hand, with the positional notation of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, comparing numbers is easy, because the natural order on nonnegative integers is the same as the variant shortlex of the lexicographic order. In fact, with positional notation, a nonnegative integer is represented by a sequence of numerical digits, and an integer is larger than another one if either it has more digits (ignoring leading zeroes) or the number of digits is the same and the first digit which differs is larger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
445g3l
|
It is often said that middle age era male English skeletons are deformed due to excessive archery practice, are examples of such deformities found in warrior cultures as well? (Mongols, Huns, Spartans, etc)
|
[
{
"answer": "To be clear before we start, \"deformed\" isn't exactly how I'd describe *os acromiale*, which is the condition you're describing. Very briefly, what happened to longbowmen (and current competitive archers, etc) was that the growing point (growth plate) on the scapula does not fuse with the bone itself; appearance of that in the left side seems to indicate that arm was taking strains consistent with holding a bow. \n\nThere's an interesting chapter on this in Fury (ed) *[The Social History of English Seamen, 1485-1649](_URL_0_)*, concerning the archaeology of the *Mary Rose*. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This whole thing about the “deformed” skeletons of English longbowmen is a much repeated factoid that comes from a serious misunderstanding of anatomy and work-related remodeling of human skeletons.\n\nThe original work is a paper by Rhodes and Knusel in the *American Journal of Physical Anthropology*, in which they reported their findings on skeletons from a couple of medieval cemeteries in Towton and Fishergate in England. These skeletons belonged to two populations – archers using longbows, and infantry using swords and shields. They simply reported that it was possible to distinguish these two populations from their skeletons alone.\n\nSpecifically, they reported that:\n\n*\"Many of these individuals may have participated to some degree in weapon-related training during the key juvenile development period, when bone is most responsive to phenotypic plasticity, yet there does not appear to be a single signature to indicate such training. This may relate to changes in training or technology through time or simply individual preference in weapons.\"*\n\n*\"The men of the Towton population appear to have been engaged in a habitual activity that preferentially loaded the left humerus when compared with the right. This disparity is strongest in the distal humeral shaft. The loading pattern varies such that it creates significant differences between limbs in diaphyseal shape from the mid-distal to midproximal shaft. These changes may relate to a type of weapon requiring both hands, possibly a longbow.\"*\n\n*“The Fishergate blade-injured men appear to have been engaged in a habitual movement pattern that created right-side dominance in cross-sectional geometric properties. This is carried through all slice parameters and may relate to weapon use, most likely a right-handed, unimanual weapon.\"*\n\nThis relatively innocuous conclusion, that there are skeletal differences between people using a two-handed weapon (“possibly a longbow”) and a one-handed weapon such as a sword, has been repeated often and grown in the telling, so now you hear it as “wow, these English bowmen used such *powerful* bows that their skeletons are deformed!” No, their skeletons are not deformed, it’s just that certain bones have adapted to their task of increased weight bearing, which happens to everyone who does any kind of repetitive physical activity over a period of time.\n\nAnd yes, we find skeletal changes related to occupation in all kinds of warriors, ancient and modern. For example, here’s a paper about archers living 7,000 years ago in Sub-Saharan Africa with similarly remodeled skeletons:\n\n* Dutour, O. (1986), Enthesopathies (lesions of muscular insertions) as indicators of the activities of Neolithic Saharan populations. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 71: 221–224.\n\nAnd here’s the longbowmen paper by Rhodes I mentioned above:\n\n* Rhodes, J. a., & Knüsel, C. J. (2005). Activity-related skeletal change in medieval humeri: Cross-sectional and architectural alterations. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 128: 536–546.\n\nThere are dozens of similar examples from different periods and different times. It would be surprising if this were not the case.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some pacific islanders had massive buildup of their OSS at the base of the skull, due to stone working, and also where the biceps connect. I know the ancient Chamorros of Guam had this regularly, and I believe the Tongans had it as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Spartans did not practice weapon proficiency, so their skeletons do not show any deformities due to repeated forceful motion of a particular kind. Their physical training consisted of generic athletic exercises like running, discus-throwing and the like (and apparently they liked ball games).\n\nFamously, the remains of 13 or 14 Spartans who died during the fighting in Piraeus in 403 BC have been found in a marked grave monument in the Kerameikos at Athens. There is nothing remarkable about [the skeletons](_URL_0_) except the fact that one of them had a spearhead logded between the ribs, and another had several arrowheads stuck in his leg.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16612805",
"title": "Infantry in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::The nature of infantry combat.:The role of archery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Later in the Middle Ages, massed archery techniques were developed. English and Welsh longbowmen in particular were famed for the volume and accuracy of their shooting, to which cavalry and poorly armoured infantry were particularly vulnerable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18432",
"title": "English longbow",
"section": "Section::::Use and performance.:Training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Longbows were very difficult to master because the force required to deliver an arrow through the improving armour of medieval Europe was very high by modern standards. Although the draw weight of a typical English longbow is disputed, it was at least and possibly more than . Considerable practice was required to produce the swift and effective combat shooting required. Skeletons of longbow archers are recognisably affected, with enlarged left arms and often osteophytes on left wrists, left shoulders and right fingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18432",
"title": "English longbow",
"section": "Section::::Use and performance.:Armour penetration.:Contemporary accounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Archery was described by contemporaries as ineffective against plate armour in the Battle of Neville's Cross (1346), the siege of Bergerac (1345), and the Battle of Poitiers (1356); such armour became available to European knights and men at arms of fairly modest means by the middle of the 14th century, though never to all soldiers in any army. Longbowmen were, however, effective at Poitiers, and this success stimulated changes in armour manufacture partly intended to make armoured men less vulnerable to archery. Nevertheless, at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and for some decades thereafter, English longbowmen continued to be an effective battlefield force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25595604",
"title": "Military history",
"section": "Section::::Technological evolution.:Ancient era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "There were also horse archers, who had the ability to shoot on horseback – the Parthians, Scythians, Mongols, and other various steppe people were especially fearsome with this tactic. By the 3rd–4th century AD, heavily armored cavalry became widely adopted by the Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18432",
"title": "English longbow",
"section": "Section::::Use and performance.:Training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "If the people practised archery, it would be that much easier for the king to recruit the proficient longbowmen he needed for his wars. Along with the improving ability of gunfire to penetrate plate armour, it was the long training needed by longbowmen that eventually led to their being replaced by musketeers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346323",
"title": "Bow shape",
"section": "Section::::Straight bows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Longbows as used by English Archers in the Middle Ages at such battles as Crecy and Agincourt were straight limb bows. Usually made of yew, these bows were used to great effect by many archers shooting together in massed volleys. The arrows were long and heavy ('clothyard shafts') with armour piercing 'bodkin' heads. Practice for such long range warfare survives today in a clout shoot, named after a type of shirt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211364",
"title": "Acromion",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Variation.:\"Os acromiale\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "This feature was common in skeletons recovered from the Mary Rose shipwreck: it is thought that in those men, much archery practice from childhood on with the mediaeval war bow (which needs a pull three times as strong as the modern standard Olympic bow) pulled at the acromion so much that it prevented bony fusion of the acromion with the scapula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4biggz
|
what and where is "privilege"?
|
[
{
"answer": "How often are you followed around by sales clerks in a store, because they think you might steal things? As a white girl myself, I never had - but the first time I went shopping in those same stores with a black friend, I could tell that she was being followed around, regarded as untrustworthy. I asked her about it and she just sort of shrugged it off. \"Yeah, that happens a lot\", she said. And other black friends say the same thing. \n\nI had no idea. That's what privilege is - me being treated differently because of how I look and having no idea that is happening. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Privilege is worrying if the \"Girl Power STEM Conference\" is sexist rather than worrying if you're going to be sexually assaulted by drunk village elders.\n\nEverything is relative, and you're sampling from the top 5% of the world's 13-year old girl experiences. How do I know, because your English spelling is correct and you're using reddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Privilege is just the things society gives you that it denies others. While you may not think that your whiteness has given you any advantages, you benefit in a variety of ways. As a white girl, you have certain advantages and disadvantages when it comes to getting a job, getting promoted, or being taken seriously at work. As a white person, you are more likely to get a job. As a girl, you are less likely to be promoted. Society is type casting you into a certain role based on things that you can't control. This doesn't mean that you can't overcome society's expectations, just that the odds are stacked against you and that's not fair. \n\nRecognizing our privileges should not be about feeling guilty for how society gives us a leg up, it's about fighting for the people who aren't getting a good deal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being treated like you're amazing and special for doing something normal is called *patronization* and it is based in sexism. Though you may not mind or it doesn't offend you right now.... give it time. \n\nThe fact that you even have the option to think about STEM is privilege. Predominantly black communities have schools with 1 computer for 2000 kids. Their parents are struggling to feed their family to the point that you would have to get a job at 15 in order for your siblings to survive. College is far out of the question. \n\nAlso, you probably don't get how women are treated like children every day because you *actually are* a child. When you're an adult and people still treat you like a helpless 13 year old you might realize how prevalent it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30170774",
"title": "Social privilege",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "In anthropology, privilege is a special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or group. In sociology, privilege is the perceived rights or advantages that are assumed to be available only to a particular person or group of people. The term is commonly used in the context of social inequality, particularly in regard to age, disability, ethnic or racial category, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, and social class. Two common examples involve having access to a higher education and housing. Under a newer usage of the term, privilege can also be emotional or psychological, regarding comfort and personal self-confidence, or having a sense of belonging or worth in society. It began as an academic concept, but has since been invoked more widely, outside of academia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738084",
"title": "Parliamentary privilege",
"section": "Section::::In Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "\"\"Privilege\" in this context denotes the legal exemption from some duty, burden, attendance or liability to which others are subject. It has long been accepted that in order to perform their functions, legislative bodies require certain privileges relating to the conduct of their business. It has also long been accepted that these privileges must be held absolutely and constitutionally if they are to be effective; the legislative branch of our government must enjoy a certain autonomy which even the Crown and the courts cannot touch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "829338",
"title": "Privilege (law)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "A privilege is a certain entitlement to immunity granted by the state or another authority to a restricted group, either by birth or on a conditional basis. Land-titles and taxi medallions are pronounced examples of transferable privilege. These can be revoked in certain circumstances. In modern democratic states, a \"privilege\" is conditional and granted only after birth. By contrast, a \"right\" is an inherent, irrevocable entitlement held by all citizens or all human beings from the moment of birth. Various examples of old common law privilege still exist, to title deeds, for example. Etymologically, a privilege (\"privilegium\") means a \"private law\", or rule relating to a specific individual or institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28661",
"title": "Defamation",
"section": "Section::::Defenses.:Privilege and malice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Privilege is any circumstance that justifies or excuses a prima facie tort. It can be said that privilege recognizes a defendant's action stemmed from an interest of social importance – and that society wants to protect such interests by not punishing those who pursue them. Privilege can be argued whenever a defendant can show that he acted from a justifiable motive. While some privileges have long been recognized, the court may create a new privilege for particular circumstances – privilege as an affirmative defense is a potentially ever-evolving doctrine. Such newly created or circumstantially recognized privileges are referred to as residual justification privileges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37687296",
"title": "Law of evidence in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Private privilege.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Privilege—note the Latin etymology of the word—refers to a personal right to refuse to give or disclose otherwise admissible evidence. A witness, otherwise compellable, is not obliged to answer certain questions. See \"Ferreira v Levin\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1928055",
"title": "United States v. Reynolds",
"section": "Section::::Discussion and criticism of privilege in \"Reynolds\".:Prosser and Keaton.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1338,
"text": "Privilege is the modern term applied to those considerations which avoid liability where it might otherwise follow. As it is generally used, the term applies to any circumstance used to justify or excuse a prima facie tort, such as an assault, battery or trespass. It signifies that the defendant has acted to further an interest of such social importance that it is entitled to protection, even at the expense of damage to the plaintiff. The defendant is allowed freedom of action because his own interests, or those of the public, require it, and because social policy will best be served by permitting it. The privilege is bounded by current ideas of what will most effectively promote the general welfare. The question of \"privilege\" as a defense arises almost exclusively in connection with intentional torts. Negligence is a matter of risk and probability of harm; and where the likelihood of injury to the plaintiff is relatively slight, the defendant will necessarily be allowed greater latitude than where the harm is intended, or substantially certain to follow. It is the bare value of the respective interests involved and the extent of the harm from which the act is intended to protect the one as compared with that which it is intended to cause to the other which determines the existence or nonexistence of the privilege.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14439975",
"title": "Privilege (evidence)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "In the law of evidence, a privilege is a rule of evidence that allows the holder of the privilege to refuse to disclose information or provide evidence about a certain subject or to bar such evidence from being disclosed or used in a judicial or other proceeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2l0cw4
|
From an evolutionist standpoint, if warmth is necessary for survival, why did humans evolve without fur?
|
[
{
"answer": "We lived in warm places and didn't need fur to live. Losing it made us cool down better when exercising, enabling us to endurance-hunt other animals who cannot exert themselves as much continuously over a long time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because staying cool can be more necessary for survival than staying warm is if you live in a hot place or need to run to hunt and get your food. Both of these were likely the case for very early humans. So the assumption that warmth is good for survival is the issue here, not some unusual case of how evolution works",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of skin color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "With the evolution of hairless skin, abundant sweat glands, and skin rich in melanin, early humans could walk, run, and forage for food for long periods of time under the hot sun without brain damage due to overheating, giving them an evolutionary advantage over other species. By 1.2 million years ago, around the time of \"Homo ergaster\", archaic humans (including the ancestors of \"Homo sapiens\") had exactly the same receptor protein as modern sub-Saharan Africans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Evolution of less body hair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Loss of fur occurred at least 2 million years ago, but possibly as early as 3.3 million years ago judging from the divergence of head and pubic lice, and aided persistence hunting (the ability to catch prey in very long distance chases) in the warm savannas where hominins first evolved. The two main advantages are felt to be bipedal locomotion and greater thermal load dissipation capacity due to better sweating and less hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923690",
"title": "Body hair",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Evolution of less body hair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said humans evolved by \"natural selection\" to be hairless when the trade off of \"having fewer parasites\" became more important than having a \"warming, furry coat\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18841893",
"title": "Nudity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The deliberate and conscious wearing of clothing is a behavioural adaptation, which among all known extant and extinct animals is a uniquely human characteristic arising from functional needs such as protection from the elements. Protection from the elements includes the sun (for depigmented human populations) and cold temperatures after the loss of body hair and the migration of humans to colder regions (around 100,000 years ago) in which they had not evolved and thus lacked the necessary physical adaptations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38079914",
"title": "Dark skin",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "Due to natural selection, people who lived in areas of intense sunlight developed dark skin colouration to protect against ultraviolet (UV) light and to protect their body mainly from folate depletion. Evolutionary pigmentation of the skin was caused by ultraviolet radiation of the sun. As hominids gradually lost their fur between 1.2 million to 4 million years ago, to allow for better cooling through sweating, their naked and lightly pigmented skin was exposed to sunlight. In the tropics, natural selection favoured dark-skinned human populations as high levels of skin pigmentation protected against the harmful effects of sunlight. Indigenous populations’ skin reflectance (the amount of sunlight the skin reflects) and the actual UV radiation in a particular geographic area is highly correlated, which supports this idea. Genetic evidence also supports this notion, demonstrating that around 1.2 million years ago there was a strong evolutionary pressure which acted on the development of dark skin pigmentation in early members of the genus Homo. The effect of sunlight on folic acid levels has been crucial in the development of dark skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4956783",
"title": "Persistence hunting",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Early hominins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "As hominins adapted to bipedalism they would have lost some speed, becoming less able to catch prey with short, fast charges. They would, however, have gained endurance and become better adapted to persistence hunting. Although many mammals sweat, few have evolved to use sweating for effective thermoregulation, humans and horses being notable exceptions. This coupled with relative hairlessness would have given human hunters an additional advantage by keeping their bodies cool in the midday heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174311",
"title": "Benjamin Thompson",
"section": "Section::::Bavarian maturity.:Experiments on heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Thompson next investigated the insulating properties of various materials, including fur, wool and feathers. He correctly appreciated that the insulating properties of these natural materials arise from the fact that they inhibit the convection of air. He then made the somewhat reckless, and incorrect, inference that air and, in fact, all gases, were perfect non-conductors of heat. He further saw this as evidence of the argument from design, contending that divine providence had arranged for fur on animals in such a way as to guarantee their comfort. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ryp1v
|
Is energy always conserved? Are there exceptions ?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might find this blog post interesting:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nOutside of cosmology, energy is conserved in isolated systems. Within cosmology, one runs into an issue of concepts and semantics. Let's say, because of dark energy and a non-zero cosmological constant, \"conventional\" energy is definitely not conserved, and increases in time.\n\nHowever, there is, in some sense, an energy that can be associated with the curvature of the universe itself. If one includes this, then there is still conservation. However, this \"energy of curvature\" is: a) negative, and b) cannot be formulated in terms of a local energy of a local \"thing\" like a field, rather you can only assign a number to the entire universe as a whole.\n\nThus, it doesn't really have many of the properties we would associated with an energy or energy density.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11470059",
"title": "History of energy",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "In 1918 it was proved that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time (see Noether's theorem).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2458485",
"title": "Conserved quantity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Since many laws of physics express some kind of conservation, conserved quantities commonly exist in mathematical models of physical systems. For example, any classical mechanics model will have energy as a conserved quantity so long as the forces involved are conservative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67088",
"title": "Conservation of energy",
"section": "Section::::Noether's theorem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "The conservation of energy is a common feature in many physical theories. From a mathematical point of view it is understood as a consequence of Noether's theorem, developed by Emmy Noether in 1915 and first published in 1918. The theorem states every continuous symmetry of a physical theory has an associated conserved quantity; if the theory's symmetry is time invariance then the conserved quantity is called \"energy\". The energy conservation law is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time; energy conservation is implied by the empirical fact that the laws of physics do not change with time itself. Philosophically this can be stated as \"nothing depends on time per se\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "478933",
"title": "Energy conservation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Energy conservation is the effort made to reduce the consumption of energy by using less of an energy service. This can be achieved either by using energy more efficiently (using less energy for a constant service) or by reducing the amount of service used (for example, by driving less). Energy conservation is a part of the concept of eco-sufficiency. Energy conservation reduces the need for energy services and can result in increased environmental quality, national security, personal financial security and higher savings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67088",
"title": "Conservation of energy",
"section": "Section::::Noether's theorem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "In other words, if the physical system is invariant under the continuous symmetry of time translation then its energy (which is canonical conjugate quantity to time) is conserved. Conversely, systems which are not invariant under shifts in time (an example, systems with time dependent potential energy) do not exhibit conservation of energy – unless we consider them to exchange energy with another, external system so that the theory of the enlarged system becomes time invariant again. Conservation of energy for finite systems is valid in such physical theories as special relativity and quantum theory (including QED) in the flat space-time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67088",
"title": "Conservation of energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be \"conserved\" over time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all the forms of energy that were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the combustion of the dynamite. Classically, conservation of energy was distinct from conservation of mass; however, special relativity showed that mass is related to energy and vice versa by \"E = mc\", and science now takes the view that mass–energy is conserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67088",
"title": "Conservation of energy",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Thus, the rule of \"conservation of energy\" over time in special relativity continues to hold, so long as the reference frame of the observer is unchanged. This applies to the total energy of systems, although different observers disagree as to the energy value. Also conserved, and invariant to all observers, is the invariant mass, which is the minimal system mass and energy that can be seen by any observer, and which is defined by the energy–momentum relation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3j8s2j
|
Is there any g-force felt by those in a space station?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Is there any g-force felt by those in a space station?\n\nNot much, that's why it's called micro-gravity.\n\nYou should be asking:\n\n > Is there any gravitational force in a space station?\n\nYes.\n\nThe acceleration due to Earth's gravity at the ISS is [92%](_URL_0_) as strong as that on the surface\n\n > Is there any ~~g-force~~ acceleration felt by those in a space station?\n\nNot really.\n\n > if there is a g-force caused by ~~rotating~~ orbiting the earth\n\nNo. The astronauts don't *feel* any acceleration because they are in free-fall. As mentioned earlier, this does not mean there is no force applied on them.\n\nWhat the so called g-force (acceleration) does on, let's say a banking airplane, is it applies a force on your body through the seat, which presses your body.\n\nThings in orbit don't have anything to press against to get crushed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2686401",
"title": "Aerospace physiology",
"section": "Section::::g-forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The effects for negative g-force can be more dangerous producing hyperemia and also psychotic episodes. In space, G forces are almost zero, which is called microgravity, meaning that the person is floating in the interior of the vessel. This happens because the gravity acts on the spaceship and in the body equally, both are pulled with the same forces of acceleration and also in the same direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617660",
"title": "G-LOC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "G-force induced loss of consciousness (abbreviated as G-LOC, pronounced 'JEE-lock') is a term generally used in aerospace physiology to describe a loss of consciousness occurring from excessive and sustained g-forces draining blood away from the brain causing cerebral hypoxia. The condition is most likely to affect pilots of high performance fighter and aerobatic aircraft or astronauts but is possible on some extreme amusement park rides. G-LOC incidents have caused fatal accidents in high performance aircraft capable of sustaining high \"g\" for extended periods. High-G training for pilots of high performance aircraft or spacecraft often includes ground training for G-LOC in special centrifuges, with some profiles exposing pilots to 9 \"g\"s for a sustained period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1614102",
"title": "Effect of spaceflight on the human body",
"section": "Section::::Physiological effects.:Ascent and reentry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "During takeoff and reentry space travelers can experience several times normal gravity. An untrained person can usually withstand about 3g, but can blackout at 4 to 6g. G-force in the vertical direction is more difficult to tolerate than a force perpendicular to the spine because blood flows away from the brain and eyes. First the person experiences temporary loss of vision and then at higher g-forces loses consciousness. G-force training and a G-suit which constricts the body to keep more blood in the head can mitigate the effects. Most spacecraft are designed to keep g-forces within comfortable limits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "389836",
"title": "G-force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The g-force experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of all non-gravitational and non-electromagnetic forces acting on an object's freedom to move. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects. Such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "988975",
"title": "U.S. Space & Rocket Center",
"section": "Section::::Exhibits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Various simulators help visitors understand the spaceflight experience. Space Shot lets the rider experience launch-like 4 gs and 2–3 seconds of weightlessness. G-Force Accelerator offers 3 gs of acceleration for an extended period by means of a centrifuge. Several other simulators entertain and educate visitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34892999",
"title": "Astronaut training",
"section": "Section::::Purpose of training.:Launch and landing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Space motion sickness is an event that can occur within minutes of being in changing gravity environments (i.e. from 1g on Earth prior to launch to more than 1g during launch, and then from microgravity in space to hypergravity during re-entry and again to 1g after landing). The symptoms range from drowsiness and headaches, to nausea and vomiting. There are three general categories of space motion sickness:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34095626",
"title": "Neuroscience in space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "Space neuroscience is the scientific study of the central nervous system (CNS) functions during spaceflight. Living systems can integrate the inputs from the senses to navigate in their environment and to coordinate posture, locomotion, and eye movements. Gravity has a fundamental role in controlling these functions. In weightlessness during spaceflight, integrating the sensory inputs and coordinating motor responses is harder to do because gravity is no longer sensed during free-fall. For example, the otolith organs of the vestibular system no longer signal head tilt relative to gravity when standing. However, they can still sense head translation during body motion. Ambiguities and changes in how the gravitational input is processed can lead to potential errors in perception, which affects spatial orientation and mental representation. Dysfunctions of the vestibular system are common during and immediately after spaceflight, such as space motion sickness in orbit and balance disorders after return to Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j8q28
|
How efficient is human power?
|
[
{
"answer": "A 68 kg (150 lb) person walking at 4 km/h (2.5 mph) requires approximately 210 kilocalories (880 kJ) of food energy per hour, or 4.55 km/MJ. One 1 US gallon (~3.7854 liter) of gasoline contains about 114,000 BTU (120 MJ) of energy, so this converts to roughly 360 miles per US gallon (0.65 l/100 km).\n\nA relatively light and slow vehicle with low-friction tires and an efficient chain-driven drivetrain, the bicycle is one of the most efficient forms of transport. A 140 lb (64 kg) cyclist riding at 16 km/h (10 mph) requires about half the energy per unit distance of walking: 43 kcal/mi or 3.1 kWh (11 MJ) per 100 km. This figure depends on the speed and mass of the rider: greater speeds give higher air drag and heavier riders consume more energy per unit distance. This converts to about 732 miles per US gallon (0.321 L/100 km; 879 mpg-imp).\n\n_URL_0_\n\nTL;DR: Biking > Walking > Car",
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{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nNumbers taken from _URL_1_\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Does muscle efficiency change depending on fitness, diet, ect?\n\nI seem to get hot from activity (even just walking) much more quickly than anyone else I know (who are all more fit than me), and this has been the biggest hurdle for me trying to get fit because 65% of the year it's just too hot to do anything. I wonder if maybe the others get less hot because there muscles are capable of utilizing the energy more so it doesn't get expelled as waste heat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up:\n\nHow does our efficiency compare with others in the animal kingdom?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3225400",
"title": "Bicycle gearing",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Human factors can also be significant. Rohloff demonstrates that overall efficiency can be improved in some cases by using a slightly less efficient gear ratio when this leads to greater human efficiency (in converting food to pedal power) because a more effective pedalling speed is being used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25652303",
"title": "Computer architecture",
"section": "Section::::Design goals.:Power efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Power efficiency is another important measurement in modern computers. A higher power efficiency can often be traded for lower speed or higher cost. The typical measurement when referring to power consumption in computer architecture is MIPS/W (millions of instructions per second per watt).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327511",
"title": "Electrical efficiency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The efficiency of an entity (a device, component, or system) in electronics and electrical engineering is defined as useful power output divided by the total electrical power consumed (a fractional expression), typically denoted by the Greek small letter eta (η – ήτα).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723734",
"title": "Muscle",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Energy consumption.:Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1188,
"text": "The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18% to 26%. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour. For example, one manufacturer of rowing equipment calibrates its rowing ergometer to count burned calories as equal to four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour, this amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay. These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15525260",
"title": "Human power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "World records of power performance by humans are of interest to work planners and work-process engineers. The average level of human power that can be maintained over a certain duration of time — say over the extent of one minute, or one hour — is interesting to engineers designing work operations in industry. Human power is occasionally used to generate, and sometimes to store, electrical energy in batteries for use in the wilderness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42058351",
"title": "Green Charge Networks",
"section": "Section::::Power efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The idea of power efficiency builds off the difference between energy (kWh) and power (kW). Energy efficiency focuses on reducing the amount of energy consumed while power efficiency focuses on reducing the rate at which energy is used, also known as peak demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1595817",
"title": "Energy demand management",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "BULLET::::- Energy efficiency: Using less power to perform the same tasks. This involves a permanent reduction of demand by using more efficient load-intensive appliances such as water heaters, refrigerators, or washing machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hu8x6
|
Why were medieval cities in England smaller than ancient Mesopotamian cities?
|
[
{
"answer": "Apples and oranges, my friend. \n\nIf you look back to [Roman London in the 2nd century, the population was about 60,000](_URL_0_). After the fall of the Roman empire, London continued to function as an Anglo-Saxon city but it didn't have the benefit of a major empire controlling and trading from it. It was a relatively busy port, but it was repeatedly attacked by Vikings. By the time of the Norman Conquest, it was much smaller than it once was, but if you look forward about 200 years, the population of London was probably around 80,000 and continued to grow.\n\nIn comparison, you can look at [a city like Uruk](_URL_1_) which grew from a fairly small farming village into the center of government and society for a major civilization over about 800 years. The population grew exponentially as the city grew, because that is where the jobs and food and money were.\n\nThere were times when medieval cities were large and when Sumerian cities were small. If you want to compare both cities at the height of their prominence, Uruk had about 80,000 residents during the \"Uruk Period\" of Sumer when it was the most influential city. London in 1914 (I'm gonna call that the height of London's power, but feel free to dispute it) had about 4.5 million in the official city, but 7.1 in the \"greater London area\". \n\nEdit: added some sources",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26905",
"title": "Siege",
"section": "Section::::Ancient era.:Tactics.:Defensive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "In the European Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls—Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is a well-preserved example—and more important cities had citadels, forts, or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia, similar to those used much later in Vietnam during the Vietnam War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18513322",
"title": "List of towns and cities in England by historical population",
"section": "Section::::Anglo-Saxon England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Urban sites were on the decline from the late Roman period and remained of very minor importance until around the 9th century. The largest cities in later Anglo-Saxon England however were Winchester, London and York, in that order, although London had eclipsed Winchester by the 11th century. Details of population size are however lacking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103443",
"title": "Norwich",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The city is the most complete medieval city in the United Kingdom, including cobbled streets such as Elm Hill, Timber Hill and Tombland, ancient buildings such as St Andrew's Hall, half-timbered houses such as Dragon Hall, The Guildhall and Strangers' Hall, the Art Nouveau of the 1899 Royal Arcade, many medieval lanes and the winding River Wensum that flows through the city centre towards Norwich Castle. The city has two universities, the University of East Anglia and the Norwich University of the Arts, and two cathedrals, Norwich Cathedral and St John the Baptist Cathedral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1906341",
"title": "History of Norfolk",
"section": "Section::::Mediaeval Norfolk.:Mediaeval Norwich.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Between 1297 and 1344 a new defensive wall was constructed on the huge banks that surrounded the city, replacing the earlier palisade and gates. The area enclosed was the largest for any city in England, although inside was a considerable amount of pasture land, which was slowly absorbed as new monastic settlements, houses, markets and industrial sites appeared. By 1400 Norwich had grown to become a major city of perhaps 10,000 inhabitants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29485",
"title": "Skyscraper",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The skylines of many important medieval cities had large numbers of high-rise urban towers, built by the wealthy for defense and status. The residential Towers of 12th century Bologna numbered between 80 and 100 at a time, the tallest of which is the high Asinelli Tower. A Florentine law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings be immediately reduced to less than 26 m. Even medium-sized towns of the era are known to have proliferations of towers, such as the 72 up to 51 m height in San Gimignano.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54538152",
"title": "List of churches in Norwich",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The ancient medieval city of Norwich within the walls at one time had 57 parish churches, the largest collection of urban medieval buildings in any one city north of the Alps. Ten are still in use by the Church of England, while many are in use for other purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Fortifications.:Siege warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "In the Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls – Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is an impressive and well-preserved example – and more important cities had citadels, forts or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. In other cases, such as the Ottoman siege of Shkodra, Venetian engineers had designed and installed cisterns that were fed by rain water channeled by a system of conduits in the walls and buildings. Complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia. Against these would be matched the mining skills of teams of trained sappers, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iz5v9
|
How long have humans been using knots?
|
[
{
"answer": "The knots are definitely prehistoric, the oldest fish net is over 9000 years old. The net was practically modern – instead of nylon, it was made of willow bark – so the earliest knots are probably quite a bit older. Chimpanzees are known to make knots in wild, so a good guess is that humans have been using knots as long as there has been humans.",
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},
{
"answer": "hi! this question would be worth x-posting to our sister sub, /r/AskAnthropology, since there are a few more anthropologists & archaeologists over there",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "153008",
"title": "Knot theory",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Archaeologists have discovered that knot tying dates back to prehistoric times. Besides their uses such as recording information and tying objects together, knots have interested humans for their aesthetics and spiritual symbolism. Knots appear in various forms of Chinese artwork dating from several centuries BC (see Chinese knotting). The endless knot appears in Tibetan Buddhism, while the Borromean rings have made repeated appearances in different cultures, often representing strength in unity. The Celtic monks who created the Book of Kells lavished entire pages with intricate Celtic knotwork.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "698616",
"title": "Chinese knotting",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Archaeological studies indicate that the art of tying knots dates back to prehistoric times. Recent discoveries include 100,000-year-old bone needles used for sewing and bodkins, which were used to untie knots. However, due to the delicate nature of the medium, few examples of prehistoric Chinese knotting exist today. Some of the earliest evidence of knotting have been preserved on bronze vessels of the Warring States period (481–221 BCE), Buddhist carvings of the Northern Dynasties period (317–581) and on silk paintings during the Western Han period (206 BCE–6 CE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17616354",
"title": "History of knot theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Knots have been used for basic purposes such as recording information, fastening and tying objects together, for thousands of years. The early, significant stimulus in knot theory would arrive later with Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and his theory of vortex atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334990",
"title": "Rope",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times. It is likely that the earliest \"ropes\" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fibre, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form the first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. Impressions of cordage found on fired clay provide evidence of string and rope-making technology in Europe dating back 28,000 years. Fossilized fragments of \"probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm diameter\" were found in one of the caves at Lascaux, dating to approximately 15,000 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2127858",
"title": "Korean knots",
"section": "Section::::History of Korean Knots.:Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "In prehistoric times, Korean knots were used solely for practical purposes. They were tied around the waist and used to carry stone-axes, swords, and other tools used for hunting and food. Tools from the Stone Age exhibit holes where thread was looped through and then knotted. Similar evidence is found in relics of the Bronze Age. The knots were strengthened by twisting or weaving multiple strings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2247677",
"title": "Indian rope trick",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The Indian rope trick is a magic trick said to have been performed in and around India during the 19th century. Sometimes described as \"the world’s greatest illusion\", it reputedly involved a magician, a length of rope, and one or more boy assistants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2127858",
"title": "Korean knots",
"section": "Section::::History of Korean Knots.:Three Kingdoms of Korea (4th century - 668 CE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "During the period of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, people began to see aesthetic value in knots and started to use them as decorations on clothes, swords, and more. The Samguk Sagi, the oldest extant record of Korean history, describes knot usage in everyday life during the Silla dynasty, noting rulers enjoyed using knots to adorn horses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
275p6d
|
what would happen if our solar system simply moved to another location?
|
[
{
"answer": "If it remained as far away from the nearest stars, gamma-ray sources, etc. as our current one, there would probably be no detectable difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, the entire solar system is moving at a fairly rapid clip through the galaxy; 7 km/sec, actually. So we move that distance about every 430 million years.\n\nUnless there is something else where point B is (objects like another stellar system, stellar remnant, large planetary body), or it is in a different place in the galaxy (core, arm, void, halo, or outside it entirely), then very little should be different from an every day perspective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2592906",
"title": "Planetary habitability",
"section": "Section::::The galactic neighborhood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Thus, relative isolation is ultimately what a life-bearing system needs. If the Sun were crowded amongst other systems, the chance of being fatally close to dangerous radiation sources would increase significantly. Further, close neighbors might disrupt the stability of various orbiting bodies such as Oort cloud and Kuiper belt objects, which can bring catastrophe if knocked into the inner Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1434249",
"title": "Planetary migration",
"section": "Section::::Resonance capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The migration of planets can lead to planets being captured in resonances and chains of resonances if their orbits converge. The orbits of the planets can converge if the migration of the inner planet is halted at the inner edge of the gas disk, resulting in a systems of tightly orbiting inner planets; or if migration is halted in a convergence zone where the torques driving Type I migration cancel, for example near the ice line, in a chain of more distant planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2333491",
"title": "Nibiru cataclysm",
"section": "Section::::Scientific rejection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Astronomer Mike Brown notes that if this object's orbit were as described, it would only have remained in the Solar System for about a million years before Jupiter expelled it, and, even if such a planet existed, its magnetic field would have no effect on Earth's. Lieder's assertions that the approach of Nibiru would cause the Earth's rotation to stop or its axis to shift violate the laws of physics. In his rebuttal of Immanuel Velikovsky's \"Worlds in Collision\", which made the same claim that the Earth's rotation could be stopped and then restarted, Carl Sagan noted that, \"the energy required to brake the Earth is not enough to melt it, although it would result in a noticeable increase in temperature: The oceans would [be] raised to the boiling point of water ... [Also,] how does the Earth get started up again, rotating at approximately the same rate of spin? The Earth cannot do it by itself, because of the law of the conservation of angular momentum.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "By this time, the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies should be underway. Although this could result in the Solar System being ejected from the newly combined galaxy, it is considered unlikely to have any adverse effect on the Sun or its planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8427933",
"title": "List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "These objects are \"leaving\" the Solar System because their velocity and direction are taking them away from the Sun, and at their distance from the Sun, its gravitational pull is not sufficient to pull these objects back or into orbit. They are not impervious to the gravitational pull of the Sun and are being slowed down, but they have enough velocity to coast into interstellar space, i.e. retaining sufficient escape velocity to leave the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44815546",
"title": "Grand tack hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1171,
"text": "If Jupiter's core formed close to the Sun, its outward migration across the inner Solar System could have pushed material outward in its resonances, leaving the region inside Venus's orbit depleted. In a protoplanetary disk that was evolving via a disk wind, planetary embryos could have migrated outward before merging to form planets, leaving the Solar System without planets inside Mercury's orbit. An early generation of inner planets could have been lost due to catastrophic collisions during an instability, resulting in the debris being ground small enough to be lost due to Poynting-Robertson drag. If planetesimal formation only occurred early, the inner edge of the planetesimal disk might have been located at the silicate condensation line at this time. The formation of planetesimals closer than Mercury's orbit may have required that the magnetic field of the star be aligned with the rotation of the disk, enabling the depletion of the gas so that solid to gas ratios reached values sufficient for streaming instabilities to occur. The formation of super-Earths may require a higher flux of inward drifting pebbles than occurred in the early Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18412841",
"title": "Stability of the Solar System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The Solar System is stable in human terms, and far beyond, given that it is unlikely any of the planets will collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years, and the Earth's orbit will be relatively stable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a30sy4
|
In Ancient Rome how difficult was it communicating with new tribes/kingdoms that spoke different languages? Would it take weeks, months or years to be able to understand each other enough to conduct trade, form alliances or negotiate peace?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can only speak for the Roman Empire - and fortunately (since I answered a similar question last week) I can copy and paste an earlier reply:\n\nIn the eastern provinces, where knowledge of Greek was widespread, Roman generals and their staffs (who, as members of the elite, were usually conversant in Greek) had no problems. In the west, the Romans typically relied on bilingual locals.\n\nDuring his conquest of Gaul, Caesar seems to have had a staff of interpreters (probably from Cisalpine Gaul), whom he supplemented with Romanized local notables:\n\n\"Therefore, before attempting anything in the matter, Caesar ordered Diviciacus to be summoned to his quarters, and, having removed the regular interpreters, conversed with him through the mouth of Gaius Valerius Procillus, a leading man in the Province of Gaul and his own intimate friend, in whom he had the utmost confidence upon all matters.\" (*BG* 1.19)\n\nProcillus (who may have been the son of a Gallic chieftain) is representative of the class of men who tended to spring up on the margins of the Roman Empire. A complex array of sociopolitical motives encouraged local potentates on both sides of the border to learn Latin, or have their sons learn it. Sometimes, the process was actively encouraged by Rome, most famously by the general Agricola in Britain:\n\n\"\\[Agricola\\] likewise provided a liberal education for the sons of the chiefs, and showed such a preference for the natural powers of the Britons over the industry of the Gauls that they who lately disdained the tongue of Rome now coveted its eloquence. \" (Tacitus, *Agricola* 21)\n\n(Tacitus' reference to the \"industry of Gauls\" refers to the schools of Latin rhetoric already widespread in Gaul a century after Caesar's conquest. )\n\nMore generally, however, locals learned Latin on their own initiative, even beyond the Roman border. In the imperial era, the existence of large permanent garrisons on the frontiers created a thriving economic zone that drew in local populations on both sides of the border - and encouraged them to learn Latin, if only to profit from the legions. Extensive recruitment of auxiliaries from beyond the frontiers, likewise, spread a working knowledge of Latin far beyond the border zone.\n\nWhen the Romans expanded into new territory, in short, they usually found locals fluent in their language already there.",
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{
"answer": "If you're interested in first contact historical stories you might enjoy reading the travel diary of Marquette when he traveled through Wisconsin to get to the Mississippi River for the first time. He details several encounters with natives who'd never met a European. I think he had someone from the Illinois tribe who spoke French and then that person was able to talk to someone from a small village who knew a little of their language and communicated to the chief that way. It's a fascinating read, I wish I knew of more stories like that for my own reading but I only know Marquette because he traveled through my area of Wisconsin and it was fascinating to read. [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) is the one I usually use when I clip out interesting quotes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3676364",
"title": "Romanization (cultural)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The entire process was facilitated by the Indo-European origin of most of the languages and by the similarity of the gods of many ancient cultures. They also already had had trade relations and contacts with one another through the seafaring Mediterranean cultures like the Phoenicians and the Greeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "57201756",
"title": "State communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "The state communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire allowed the Assyrian king and his officials to send and receive messages across the empire quickly and reliably. Messages were sent using a relay system (Assyrian: \"kalliu\") which was revolutionary for the early first millennium BCE. Messages were carried by military riders who travelled on mules. At intervals the riders stopped at purpose-built stations, and the messages were passed to other riders with fresh mounts. The stations were positioned at regular intervals along the imperial highway system. Because messages could be transmitted without delay or waiting for riders to rest the system provided unprecedented communication speed, which was not surpassed in the Middle East until the introduction of the telegraph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34450708",
"title": "Roman expansion in Italy",
"section": "Section::::The Samnite wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The years 343 - 290 BC were dominated by a series of conflicts between Rome and the Samnites, a powerful coalition of Oscan-speaking peoples. Rome and the Samnites had concluded a treaty of alliance in 354 BC, but overlapping spheres of interest eventually brought them to war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57201756",
"title": "State communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The system introduced by the Assyrians were adopted by later empires. The existing Assyrian network was considerably expanded by the Persian Empire. The system was also the basis of the nineteenth century Pony Express in the United States. The use of relays of anonymous messengersinstead of a trusted envoy who must travel the entire distancewas a practice that the Assyrians introduced and remains the basis of today's postal systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39995742",
"title": "Languages of the Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "Because communication in ancient society was predominantly oral, it can be difficult to determine the extent to which regional or local languages continued to be spoken or used for other purposes under Roman rule. Some evidence exists in inscriptions, or in references in Greek and Roman texts to other languages and the need for interpreters. For Punic, Coptic, and Aramaic or Syriac, a significant amount of epigraphy or literature survives. The Celtic languages were widespread throughout much of western Europe, and while the orality of Celtic education left scant written records, Celtic epigraphy is limited in quantity but not rare. The Germanic languages of the Empire have left next to no inscriptions or texts, with the exception of Gothic. Multilingualism contributed to the \"cultural triangulation\" by means of which an individual who was neither Greek nor Roman might construct an identity through the processes of Romanization and Hellenization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61245495",
"title": "Proposed Illyrian vocabulary",
"section": "Section::::External influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 1352,
"text": "The Ancient Greek language would have become an important external influence on Illyrian-speakers who occupied lands adjacent to ancient Greek colonies, mainly on the Adriatic coast. The Taulantii and the Bylliones had, according to Strabo, become bilingual. Invading Celts who settled on lands occupied by Illyrians brought the Illyrians into contact with the Celtic languages and some tribes were Celticized especially those in Dalmatia and the Pannoni. Intensive contact may have happened in what is now Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia. Due to this intensive contact, and because of conflicting classical sources, it is unclear whether some ancient tribes were Illyrian or Celtic (ex: Scordisci) or mixed in varying degree. Thracians and Paeonians also occupied lands populated by Illyrians, bringing Illyrians into contact with the Thracian language and Paeonian language. Certainly, no serious linguistic study of Illyrian language could be made without the inclusion of Latin, in addition to ancient Greek, Thracian and Celtic languages, as the peoples that spoke those languages were recorded by both ancient and modern historians to have lived in lands inhabited by Illyrians at one period of time in history or another. Last, but certainly not least, any comprehensive study of Illyrian language must take into account the Indo-European glossary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "618691",
"title": "Ancient (Stargate)",
"section": "Section::::Language and writing system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The Ancients' language is a precursor of Latin, but it is still distinct. There are many similarities between the two languages, and someone with a decent knowledge of Latin may, given time and practice, be able to understand Ancient as well. The Ancient language and writing system is also used by the Ori and their followers, who share the same ancestry. Since the Wraiths were created by the Iratus bug absorbing Ancient DNA, the Wraiths' language seems to be a derivative of the Ancient language, and the two use the same writing system. The Wraiths' language is therefore relatively easy to translate by experienced Ancient speakers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
5q20wg
|
Why were so many willing to fight for and defend the institution of slavery, even when they owned no slaves?
|
[
{
"answer": "So when speaking about Southern society in the Antebellum period, what is important to understand is that the South was *not* simply a society in which people owned slaves, but rather it was a *slave society*. I hope that the difference is appreciable, but to make it clear, what I mean to say is that slavery permeated it at every level, from the richest of plantation owners with hundreds of slaves working their fields, to the lowliest backwoods 'cracker' barely scraping sustenance from their small patch of dirt. I'm incredibly fond of this quote from Bertram Wyatt-Brown in describing what a slave society means, as it also will be of the utmost importance in the next point:\n\n > Policing one's own ethical sphere was the natural complement of the patriarchal order. When Southerners spoke of liberty, they generally meant the birthright to self-determination of one's place in society, not the freedom to defy sacred conventions, challenge longheld assumptions, or propose another scheme of moral or political order. If someone, especially a slave, spoke or acted in a way that invaded that territory or challenged that right, the white man so confronted had the inalienable right to meet the lie and punish the opponent. Without such a concept of white liberty, slavery would have scarcely lasted a moment. There was little paradox or irony in this juxtaposition from the cultural perspective. Power, liberty, and honor were all based upon community sanction, law, and traditional hierarchy as described in the opening section.\n\nThe point is, the slave was a *foil*, of sorts, something which any whiteman could hold himself up against, and in fact, in many ways it was the *non*-slave owning whites who felt invested in the system. Not only was \"slave owner\" something to which a poor whiteman could aspire to, but the slaves provided him with someone who, no matter how low he might sink, he still could look down upon. The thought of a blackman outranking him would be an abhorrent thought to a poor white man. One very interesting aspect which Wyatt-Brown talks about in \"Southern Honor\" is the slave patrols, which would generally be made up of lowerclass whites, and led by *slightly* better off Yeoman farmers, and often found themselves in conflict with slaveowners, especially those who were seen as too lenient and lacking in discipline. The men of the slave patrol had a vested interest in ensuring the blacks remained the lowest rung of society, and they felt threatened by masters who, to quote one incident \"upheld his negroes in their rascality\" - in this case didn't whip one of his slaves enough for a perceived transgression.\n\nThe fear of a post-slavery society was a terrifying prospect, and one which was played upon heavily in the bid to 'sell' secession. The best example of this comes from the Southern Commissioners, men who were sent by the earliest states to secede to other slave states then 'on the fence' in an effort to sway them. In their speeches and correspondence, they make apple reference to the basest of fears of what free blacks, unfettered from the institution of slavery by Northern abolitionists, will unleash. They don't only speak to the possibility of black persons negatively affecting the labor market at the expense of poor whites, or of the 'negroes' elevating themselves above whitemen, \"the slaveholder and nonslaveholder sharing the same fate; all be degraded to a position of equality with free negroes\", a prospect that was bad enough, but speak of whitemen being murdered in their sleep, \"*wives and daughters [subjected] to pollution and violation to gratify the lusts of half-civilized Africans*\", and in the end, an \"*eternal war of races, desolating the land with blood, and utterly wasting and destroying all the resources of the countr*\". \n\nSo the point is that slavery, and the desire to protect it, was far more than simply about the economic interests of the planter class with their plantations, or the small farmer who could best afford one or two. The very structure of Southern society was in too many ways focused around slavery, and what it meant to be free, to be white, to be a *man*, were all set up in explicit opposition to the enslaved blacks. To be sure, we can find an unending parade of Southerners, both slaveowner (roughly 1/3 of Southern soldiers came from slaveowning families) and nonslaveowner (roughly 2/3 of Southern soldiers came from nonslaveowning families) alike, who echo the sentiments of one Kentuckian in his desire to emulate Washington in \"*bursting the bonds of tyranny*\" or a Texan enlisted man who wrote home that \"*Liberty and freedom in this western world [...] so we dissolved our alliance with this oppressive foe and are now enlisted in 'The Holy Cause of Liberty and Independence' again*\" . If I had the time or inclination I could find thousands of those, as we have no shortage of letters and diaries preserved from this period, but we must return to Wyatt-Brown above in understanding what *Liberty* meant to a Southerner. To them *Liberty* was a very different concept than what it is to us today. *Liberty* was part of slave society, and defined by slave society. They were going to war in the name of *Liberty*, but that *Liberty* was not only the *Liberty* to own slaves, which many of them could only aspire to, but to define oneself in opposition to a slave, which was available to every white man.\n\nTo be sure, not all necessarily expressed themselves in such 'high-falutin' terms - and we can find our fair share of grumblings that \"*this is a Rich mans Woar But the poor man has to doo the fiting*\". In his study of letters and diaries, James M. McPherson notes that it patriotic and ideological sentiments were more common with soldiers from slaveowning families, or from states with high slave populations (he notes the most interesting difference being \"82 percent from South Carolina avowed patriotic convictions, compared with 47 percent from North Carolina\"), as well as a similar split with soldiers who joined in the first year, and those later on, but but even those who saw their need to fight as a more basic defense of home and family from Yankee aggression were fighting for a way of life which they saw as threatened, and one which would be irreparably changed with abolition. \n\n\"Apostles of Disunion\" by Charles Dew\n\n\"Southern Honor\" by Bertram Wyatt-Brown\n\n\"What They Fought For, 1861-1865\" by James McPherson\n\nEdit: Formatting",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "29860034",
"title": "Slavery during the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Emancipation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Throughout the war, slave were emancipating themselves. The two major events which allowed slaves to choose freedom were the increased possibility of escaping as white men who otherwise controlled slaves leaving the plantations for the Confederate Army and the advance of Union troops into close proximity. To prevent the former, attempts were made to better organize slave patrol and use the militia for such control, but these were less effective because the slave owners especially experienced in keeping their own slaves in bondage were often away in the Army. The advance of the Union Army had large effect on slavery in the areas they came to control. The first region the Union Army captured was the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. Confederates reported that after their masters fled, the slaves in those areas pillaged their masters’ property. The Union also made gains in western Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Mississippi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1812258",
"title": "Testimony of equality",
"section": "Section::::Racial equality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
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"end_character": 426,
"text": "Friends also eventually became leaders in the anti-slavery movement, although a realization of the wrongness of slavery did not develop for almost a century. In the 18th century John Woolman began to stir the conscience of Friends concerning the owning of slaves. Some, such as Benjamin Lay, used immoderate tracts and shock tactics to encourage speedy rejection of both slave ownership and participation in the slave trade. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8654403",
"title": "Proslavery",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.:Political proslavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 620,
"text": "These and other arguments fought for the rights of the propertied elite against what were perceived as threats from the abolitionists, lower classes and non-whites to gain higher standards of living. Economic self-interest of slaveholders certainly played a role, as slaves represented a massive amount of wealth – at the time of the Civil War some historians estimate the over 20% of private wealth in the US was slaves. They saw the abolition of slavery as a threat to their powerful Southern economy: an economy that revolved almost entirely around the plantation system and was supported by the use of black slaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "293722",
"title": "Confederate States Army",
"section": "Section::::African Americans and the Confederate Army.:Using slaves as soldiers.:Opposition from Confederates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers. Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of the Confederacy's existence, and thus, using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal. According to historian Paul D. Escott:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4683060",
"title": "Aztec slavery",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Slaves in the Aztec society.:Slavery of war captives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
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"text": "Slavery was most difficult for war captives who, after being captured, could be sold. In addition, they could also be sacrificed at a religious ceremony or festival. For example, slaves were selected to be \"ixiptla\", which is a representation of a god. They believed that the god would, in turn, represent a force of celestial natures such as the wind or the moon, and that through by sacrificing the slave, it would satisfy the god, who would then bring good fortune to the people. And, in the event of a nobleman's death, slaves could be killed, and buried with him, to assist him in the underworld, as they assisted him in life. The body parts of sacrificed slaves could be taken home and eaten with maize and salt as an extension of their sacrifice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "40318770",
"title": "Abolitionism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Religion and morality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Slave owners were angry over the attacks on what some Southerners (including the politician John C. Calhoun) referred to as their peculiar institution of slavery. Starting in the 1830s, Southerners developed a vehement and growing ideological defense of slavery. Slave owners claimed that slavery was a positive good for masters and slaves alike, and that it was explicitly sanctioned by God. Biblical arguments were made in defense of slavery by religious leaders such as the Rev. Fred A. Ross and political leaders such as Jefferson Davis. Southern biblical interpretations contradicted those of the abolitionists; a popular one was that the curse on Noah's son Ham and his descendants in Africa was a justification for enslavement of blacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8654403",
"title": "Proslavery",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.:Political proslavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Southern pro-slavery theorists asserted that slavery eliminated this problem by elevating all free people to the status of \"citizen\", and removing the landless poor (the \"mudsill\") from the political process entirely by means of enslavement. Thus, those who would most threaten economic stability and political harmony were not allowed to undermine a democratic society, because they were not allowed to participate in it. So, in the mindset of pro-slavery men, slavery was for protecting the common good of slaves, masters, and society as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
uhoju
|
What can you tell us about the formation of national identities?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Imagined Communities](_URL_0_), you can start there.",
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"answer": "Well, there are two significant events that develop, one for the idea of the modern state system, and another for national identity.\n\nFor the modern state system, you want to look at the [Treaty of Westphalia](_URL_1_), signed in 1648. This treaty introduced the policy of state sovereignty, essentially the belief that states should be able to guide themselves, and that they have an innate existence given to them by the recognition of other states. This was the birth of the modern state system.\n\nFor nationality, the first display and arguably its first use is with the French Emperor Napoleon I, and the levee en masse. Napoleon was the first to weaponize nationality, where before people would typically signify themselves with their family or perhaps county, Napoleon had men identifying with the nation of France, making it a point of pride and honor. This led to the mass recruitment of millions, which allowed him to drive into Europe the way he did.\n\n[For a source on Napoleon and Nationalism, i found this website, which provides a nice, brief explanation.](_URL_0_)\n\nI am sure there are some better resources out there, perhaps someone would be wiling to delve into it more.",
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"answer": "I'm obviously no expert--would love to read responses from some medievalists in the subreddit!--and I realize this is sloppy, so caveat lector....\n\nYou can see hints of nationalism cropping up as early as the Hundred Years War (if not earlier--but I dont know much about that), and language is a good lens through which to see this. Up until Henry V (r. 1413-1422), English was an acquired tongue for the English monarchs [can anyone verify this? I know I have read this but I can't find a reputable site to back me up], French being the primary language; in fact, the first English king to even be born in England was Richard I in 1189, but he grew up in Aquitaine. With the ongoing conflicts with the French came the rise of national unity (clearly I am oversimplifying this), and I can imagine monarchs wanting to distance themselves from their French ties (which they did, but gradually). In 1362, Edward III adopted a law that declared that all government affairs had to be conducted in English. And with near total loss of land on the Continent, I feel that'd be the (or a) nail in the coffin: the French are different; we're over here, they're over there, we speak different languages, and they suck. Here's an [an old-ass article](_URL_0_) that probably says something to the same effect but much more eloquently and intelligently (though I don't have access to it at the moment).\n\nSo, by the mid-15th century, it seems that French and English national identities were established. I don't have any specific quotations for you at the moment (though could investigate if you're interested), but you can see in [Joan of Arc's trial documents (1431)](_URL_1_) that there are nationalistic sentiments at play. They speak unabashedly of 'the French' and 'the English', and it's no accident that she's a national hero.\n\nI would imagine this will have played out very differently in, say, Italy, where there were numerous city-states with their own regional pride at stake.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1929895",
"title": "National identity",
"section": "Section::::National identity as a collective phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "National identity can be thought as a collective product. Through socialization, a system of beliefs, values, assumptions and expectations is transmitted to group members. The collective elements of national identity may include national symbols, traditions, and memories of national experiences and achievements. These collective elements are rooted in the nation's history. Depending on how much the individual is exposed to the socialization of this system, people incorporate national identity to their personal identity to different degrees and in different ways, and the collective elements of national identity may become important parts of individual's definition of the self and how they view the world and their own place in it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1929895",
"title": "National identity",
"section": "Section::::Formation of national identity.:Conceptualization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "National identity requires the process of self-categorization and it involves both the identification of in-group (identifying with one's nation), and differentiation of out-groups (other nations). By recognizing commonalities such as having common descent and common destiny, people identify with a nation and form an in-group, and at the same time they view people that identify with a different nation as out-groups. Social identity theory suggests a positive relationship between identification of a nation and derogation of other nations. By identifying with one's nation, people involve in intergroup comparisons, and tend to derogate out-groups. However, several studies have investigated this relationship between national identity and derogating other countries, and found that identifying with national identity does not necessarily result in out-group derogation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58486454",
"title": "The Virtue of Nationalism",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "According to Hazony, national identity is based not on race or biological homogeneity, but on \"bonds of mutual loyalty\" to a shared culture and a shared history that bind diverse groups into a national unit. Hazony argues that the social cohesion enabled by a nation-state where a common language and history are shared by the majority of the population can produce a level of trust that enables the production of social and moral goods, such as civil and political liberties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "49076265",
"title": "Role of national identification in mental structure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The role of national identification in mental structure or psychological role of national identity emanates from the ideology of identity formation, which in other cases, is referred to as individuation. Therefore, individuation is the development of dissimilar temperament of a person, which constitutes to a continuous entity and how a person is known or recognized. Thus, national identification is both a philosophical and ethical concept. It is where all citizens are alienated into nations delimited by specific geographical boundaries, thus sharing same social, cultural and political ideology. Members of a specific nation forming national identity share collective identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10978811",
"title": "Identity formation",
"section": "Section::::Self-concept.:Ethnic and national identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "National identity is an ethical and philosophical concept whereby all humans are divided into groups called nations. Members of a \"nation\" share a common identity, and usually a common origin, in the sense of ancestry, parentage or descent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10978811",
"title": "Identity formation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Identity formation, also known as individuation, is the development of the distinct personality of an individual regarded as a persisting entity (known as personal continuity) in a particular stage of life in which individual characteristics are possessed and by which a person is recognized or known (such as the establishment of a reputation). This process defines individuals to others and themselves. Pieces of the person's actual identity include a sense of continuity, a sense of uniqueness from others, and a sense of affiliation. Identity formation leads to a number of issues of personal identity and an identity where the individual has some sort of comprehension of themselves as a discrete and separate entity. This may be through individuation whereby the undifferentiated individual tends to become unique, or undergoes stages through which differentiated facets of a person's life tend toward becoming a more indivisible whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1929895",
"title": "National identity",
"section": "Section::::Formation of national identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "National identity is not an inborn trait and it is essentially socially constructed. A person's national identity results directly from the presence of elements from the \"common points\" in people's daily lives: national symbols, language, colors, nation's history, blood ties, culture, music, cuisine, radio, television, and so on. Under various social influences, people incorporate national identity into their personal identities by adopting beliefs, values, assumptions and expectations which align with one's national identity. People with identification of their nation view national beliefs and values as personally meaningful, and translate these beliefs and values into daily practices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
2uaz8g
|
what is epistemology and ontology?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't think this can be answered easily, and I'm still confused after hours of consideration. The definition also depends on in what context you're using these terms.\n\nThis is what I've distilled the two into (please correct me if I'm wrong!):\n\nOntology is what we consider as knowledge or what we consider are 'things' to know while epistemology is the way in which we transfer and gather that information or knowledge.",
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},
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"answer": "Epistemology asks the question \"What is knowledge?\"\n\nOntology asks the question \"What is existence?\"",
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},
{
"answer": "In computer science people sometimes use the term Ontology when talking systems that categorize *everything* or a whole domain of knowledge. e.g. if you had to put a label on every link that Google indexes you might talk about the ontology of the link categories. Or in that spirit you might think of the Dewey Decimal System as an ontology for categorizing books.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Epistemologist here. Epistemology is the theory of knowledge. It asks questions like what counts as a true claim. It might also ask questions about what is objective knowledge, or if objectivity is possible. Ontology is the theory of being. So, it asks questions about the essential nature of things that exist like human beings. It is also interested in the relationship between beings or things which exist. In general if you were to say \"there is an ontological difference between X and Y\" you mean there is a difference in their nature. As opposed to saying there is a logical difference between them, which is only a difference in how we think about them. ",
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"answer": "How do we know things? \n\nIt's a good question. Probably an important one. In order to answer it, we need to figure out what we mean by \"things.\" What does it mean to be a thing? What properties does a thing have? How does a thing relate to other things? Those are the problems faced by the study of Ontology. In order to make sense of our world with the tools available to us (primarily language), we have to figure out how to categorize and order things and ideas and notions of existence. Ontology examines the ideas we use to make those structures and categories.\n\nBack to the original question: How do we know things? \n\nWell, we've got the things part taken care of. Now we need to figure out what we mean by \"know.\" What does it mean to know something? How do we arrive at a state where we can say that we know that thing? What does our understanding of knowledge mean for the way we gather the information that leads to it? Those are questions of Epistemology. If, for example, we say that knowledge of something means that we have a justified true belief in that thing, then we have to interrogate what provides justification of the truth of our beliefs. Empiricism says that knowledge, or a justified true belief, can only be gained through the experience of the senses. That's a (dramatically oversimplified) version of the Epistemology that drives classical notions of Science and Scientific Inquiry. \n\nThere are interesting debates to be had in these areas. There are some who might say that Epistemology is a sort of specific Ontology of things in the category called \"Knowledge\" (a position that has some merit). But, they're pretty important concepts that cause a lot of confusion.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "22500921",
"title": "Outline of knowledge",
"section": "Section::::Epistemology (philosophy of knowledge).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
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"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Epistemology – philosophy of knowledge. It is the study of knowledge and justified belief. It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate in this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12776125",
"title": "Index of epistemology articles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Epistemology (from Greek ἐπιστήμη – \"episteme\"-, \"knowledge, science\" and λόγος, \"logos\") or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the questions \"What is knowledge?\", \"How is knowledge acquired?\", \"What do people know?\", \"How do we know what we know?\", and \"Why do we know what we know?\". Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6556377",
"title": "Outline of epistemology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Epistemology or theory of knowledge – branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. The term was introduced into English by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier (1808–1864). Epistemology asks the questions: \"What is knowledge?\", \"How is knowledge acquired?\", and \"What do people know?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548540",
"title": "Gaston Bachelard",
"section": "Section::::Life and work.:The role of epistemology in science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "The role of epistemology is to show the history of the (scientific) production of concepts; those concepts are not just theoretical propositions: they are simultaneously abstract and concrete, pervading technical and pedagogical activity. This explains why \"The electric bulb is an object of scientific thought… an example of an abstract-concrete object.\" To understand the way it works, one has to take the detour of scientific knowledge. Epistemology is thus not a general philosophy that aims at justifying scientific reasoning. Instead it produces regional histories of science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4119715",
"title": "Glossary of education terms (D–F)",
"section": "Section::::E.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "BULLET::::- Epistemology: (from the Greek words \"episteme\" (knowledge) and \"logos\" (word/speech)) The branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. Historically, it has been one of the most investigated and most debated of all philosophical subjects. Much of this debate has focused on analysing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth and belief. Much of this discussion concerns the justification of knowledge claims, that is the grounds on which one can claim to know a particular fact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9247",
"title": "Epistemology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification. Epistemology addresses such questions as: \"What makes justified beliefs justified?\", \"What does it mean to say that we know something?\", and fundamentally \"How do we know that we know?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13692155",
"title": "Philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Categories.:Epistemology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme). Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ainyc
|
why is it, when i hear a song i havn't heard in years, i can feel like i'm in the same mood and state of mind from when last i heard it.
|
[
{
"answer": "I know exactly what you are talking about. And one reason that this might happen is due to classical conditioning. Have you heard of Pavlov and his dogs? A biologist, I believe, discovered that his [dogs salivated whenever he rung a bell](_URL_1_). Pavlov would ring a bell, wait for a bit, and then feed his dogs. After a few tries, the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell because they subconsciously expect their meal.\n\nThis is the very basic form of conditioning. The same thing can happen with music. Whenever you listened to a song (*unconditioned stimulus*) in high school, for example, you were probably also doing something at the same time whether it was reading a book, falling asleep, thinking about your current problems and situations in life, etc. Your brain associates those feelings/thoughts/experiences with whatever stimulus (in this case a song) was happening at the same time. This is called **acquisition.**\n\nThere is also the topic of **extinction** in classical conditioning. Without going into a lot of detail, if the stimulus stops being repeated over time, the connection will weaken. However, the connection has a high chance of spontaneously being made again. That is called **spontaneous recovery.** [This graph](_URL_0_) shows you what happens in the case with Pavlov and his dogs. As the graph shows, the dogs produced increasing amounts of saliva during **acquisition** for each time they were fed after the bell was rung. During **extinction,** the dogs still expected the food even though the bell was rung. But when no food was given to them, they quickly lost that connection as shown by the decrease in saliva production. After a while, the connection would return again for a short time (like when you listen to the song again after a few years) and the conditioned response (in this case the thoughts and feelings you had back then) would return. But if you were to continue to listen to the song without thinking of those thoughts you had before, your mind will slowly break that connection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44193962",
"title": "Bloodline (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Season 1 (2015).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Sometimes you know something's coming. You can feel it. In the air. In your gut. And you don't sleep at night. The voice in your head is telling you that something is going to go terribly wrong and there's nothing you can do to stop it. That's how I felt when my brother came home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33355886",
"title": "Car crash of Marika Gombitová",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:\"Nočné lampy\" interview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "I remember that day, even though it makes me sad thinking of it or when I'm questioned about it. I remember that night, well, that afternoon when I called Janko [Lehotský], I mean by phone, that I didn't feel well and [I] didn't want to go to the concert, if there's something [he] could do about it. Of course there wasn't, there was a concert in Brno, so we went. It was very bad weather, I can remember that. But after the concert, there was so much sadness in the dressing room, because then, well, Meky [Žbirka] announced, I mean, that he's done with Janko and is leaving with Laco [Lučenič] to make a solo band. And I, actually, didn't know who I belonged to. It was a very sad moment ... point in time. Well then, Janko didn't make a comment on anything and I, I didn't know, I mean, whether I'm staying with Janko or whom in fact. And that's how we actually split up, said good-byes and went home. And well then, what happened just happened. That's how I recall it. I don't know, guys, if they want to have their say. I see it like this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37253608",
"title": "I Knew You Were Trouble",
"section": "Section::::Background and release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "\"I had just gone through an experience that made me write this song about like knowing the second you see someone like, 'Oh, this is going to be interesting. It's going to be dangerous, but look at me going in there anyway... I think that for me, it was the first time I ever kind of noticed that in myself, like when you are curious about something you know might be bad for you, but you know that you are going to go for it anyway because if you don't, you'll have greater regrets about not seeing where that would go, but I think that for me it all went along with this record that was pushing boundaries, like the sound of this record pushes boundaries, it was writing about something I hadn't written before.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3318239",
"title": "Glossary of psychiatry",
"section": "Section::::D.:Déjà pensé.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In \"Déjà pensé\", a completely new thought sounds familiar to the person and he feels as he has thought the same thing before at some time.This feeling can be caused by seizures which occur in certain parts of the temporal lobe and possibly other areas of the brain as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35480600",
"title": "Put It Down (Brandy song)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "\"I just felt like, [when] being gone for such a long time, you need to come back with something strong and shock people. Make them go, 'Wow, who is that? Oh my God, that's Brandy? I didn't' even know she can sound like that. Didn't know she would do a song like that?' Because It's completely different than anything I've ever done.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1810673",
"title": "Rooster (song)",
"section": "Section::::Lyrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Yeah. He's heard this song. He's only seen us play once, and I played this song for him when we were in this club opening for Iggy Pop. I'll never forget it. He was standing in the back and he heard all the words and stuff. Of course, I was never in Vietnam and he won't talk about it, but when I wrote this it felt right...like these were things he might have felt or thought. And I remember when we played it he was back by the soundboard and I could see him. He was back there with his big gray Stetson and his cowboy boots — he's a total Oklahoma man — and at the end, he took his hat off and just held it in the air. And he was crying the whole time. This song means a lot to me. A lot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59194382",
"title": "The Man. The Music. The Show.",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "He later clarified, \"I want every night to feel like those people saw something that only happened that night [...] I've been on stage a lot over my life and I probably feel more at home there than anywhere.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ar0x6
|
when a fly comes into my house, is it happy to be there or would it rather be outside in its "natural" environment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Insects are attracted to light. The fly doesn't doesn't know it's inside your house because it doesn't have the concept of indoors/outdoors. Just light. If you closed all your windows, turned off the lights, and left the door open, the fly will happily let itself out. And put away your food.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11065623",
"title": "Nemopteridae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Their flight is delicate and they have a circling flight to avoid walls when they are trapped indoors. The long streamer is conspicuous when the insects are flying and these are the elongated and spatulate hindwings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7351021",
"title": "Lesser house fly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The lesser house fly or little house fly, Fannia canicularis, is somewhat smaller () than the common housefly. It is best known for its habit of entering buildings and circling near the center of rooms. It is slender, and the median vein in the wing is straight. Larvae feed on all manner of decaying organic matter, including carrion. Among the Fanniidae, this species is the one most frequently associated with myiasis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40526419",
"title": "Lutzomyia shannoni",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The habitat of the fly is generally hardwood forest. It is nocturnal, resting during the day in dark, humid spots such as holes in trees or animal burrows. Oviposition and larval development take place in similar spots, often in crevices filled with organic debris. In the United States it is common in the hollows of tree species such as laurel oak (\"Quercus laurifolia\") and southern live oak (\"Q. virginiana\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3716621",
"title": "Fly (tent)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Disadvantages of flies include that a person is still exposed to the elements such as mosquitoes and cold weather and that it can be difficult to put a fly up if there are limited natural vertical structures such as trees in the camping area. Flies, however, can be put up using poles or jury-rigged, for example, using paddles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5687489",
"title": "Australasian grebe",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "They are not strong flyers and will fly distances only at night, presumably to avoid predators. They tend not to leave their home base if there is sufficient food. If disturbed they will dive and re-surface 10–15 metres away rather than fly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9332763",
"title": "Medical entomology",
"section": "Section::::The Housefly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "The housefly is a very common and cosmopolitan species which transmits diseases to man. The organisms of both amoebic and bacillary dysenteries are picked up by flies from the faeces of infected people and transferred to clean food either on the fly's hairs or by the fly vomiting during feeding. Typhoid germs may be deposited on food with the fly's faeces. The house fly cause the spread of yaws germs by carrying them from a yaws ulcer to an ordinary sore. Houseflies also transmit poliomyelitis by carrying the virus from infected faeces to food or drink. Cholera and hepatitis are sometimes fly-borne. Other diseases carried by houseflies are Salmonella, tuberculosis, anthrax, and some forms of ophthalmia. They carry over 100 pathogens and transmit some parasitic worms. The flies in poorer and lower-hygiene areas usually carry more pathogens. Some strains have become immune to most common insecticides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19637950",
"title": "Housefly",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Flies are a nuisance, disturbing people at leisure and at work, but they are disliked principally because of their habits of contaminating foodstuffs. They alternate between breeding and feeding in dirty places with feeding on human foods, during which process they soften the food with saliva and deposit their faeces, creating a health hazard. However, fly larvae are as nutritious as fish meal, and could be used to convert waste to feed for fish and livestock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
51dyqx
|
how do bus stop buttons work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could it be that you had a button that never actually worked because they forgot to wire it up? :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While those are historically wired, there is nothing that says they have to be. The wires run around the whole bus and are a real pain to find a fault in, so it makes sense to go wireless.\n\nThere are buttons out there with a radio transmitter that are powered by the actual pressing of the button itself, so you don't need any batteries and all that. They activate from the power produced by the pressed button and transmit for half a second or so before going to sleep again.\n\nAll you need is a handful of sensibly placed receivers around the bus that pick up the signal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have said, it's probably wireless. If you don't mind the lagality of it, a fun practical joke would be to steal the button and carry it in your pocket, and whenever a bus passes by, press it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "817396",
"title": "Kill switch",
"section": "Section::::Elevators and escalators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Elevators often have a red two-way button on the control panel which is either marked \"Emergency Stop\" or \"Run/Stop\". Normally, the button is in the \"up\" or unpushed position, allowing the elevator to \"run\" in normal service. When the button is pushed, the elevator comes to an immediate stop. When the button is pulled back out, it resumes normal service, thus the reason for the use of the phrase \"Run/Stop\". Escalators will typically have a key-operated control that will turn the escalator off, or change its direction to up or down. Next to the key switch will be a red \"Emergency Stop\" button, which is used in the event of equipment failure, or where there is a potential for injury, such as when someone's shoe gets stuck in the \"comb\" at the top or bottom of the escalator and there is a risk of serious injury. The key switch is used to return the escalator to service after it has been stopped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::Signals.:Pedestrian call buttons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Sometimes, call buttons work only at some intersections, at certain times of day, or certain periods of the year, such as in New York City or in Boston, Massachusetts. In Boston, some busy intersections are programmed to give a pedestrian cycle during certain times of day (so pushing the button is not necessary) but at off-peak times a button push is required to get a pedestrian cycle. In neighboring Cambridge, a button press is always required if a button is available, though the city prefers to build signals where no button is present and the pedestrian cycle always happens between short car cycles. In both cases the light will not turn immediately, but will wait until the next available pedestrian slot in a pre-determined rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::Signals.:Pedestrian call buttons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "Reports suggest that many walk buttons in some areas, such as New York City and the United Kingdom, may actually be either placebo buttons or nonworking call buttons that used to function correctly. In the former case, these buttons are designed to give pedestrians an illusion of control while the crossing signal continues its operation as programmed. However, in instances of the latter case, such as New York City's, the buttons were simply deactivated when traffic signals were updated to automatically include pedestrian phases as part of every signal cycle. In such instances these buttons may be removed during future updates to the pedestrian signals. In the United Kingdom, pressing a button at a standalone pedestrian crossing that is unconnected to a junction will turn a traffic light red immediately, but this is not necessarily the case at a junction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19373997",
"title": "Elevator",
"section": "Section::::Special operating modes.:Inspection service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Elevators have a car top inspection station that allows the car to be operated by a mechanic in order to move it through the hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button. The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::Signals.:Pedestrian call buttons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Call buttons are installed at traffic lights with a dedicated pedestrian signal, and are used to bring up the pedestrian \"walk\" indication in locations where they function correctly. In the majority of locations where call buttons are installed, pushing the button does not light up the pedestrian walk sign immediately. One Portland State University researcher notes of call buttons in the US, \"Most [call] buttons don’t provide any feedback to the pedestrian that the traffic signal has received the input. It may appear at many locations that nothing happens.\" However, there are some locations where call buttons do provide confirmation feedback. At such locations, pedestrians are more likely to wait for the \"walk\" indications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "557643",
"title": "Stop sign",
"section": "Section::::Placement and standardization.:In North America.:On school buses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "A pivoting arm equipped with a stop sign is a piece of equipment required by law on North American school buses. The sign normally stows flat on the left side of the bus, and is deployed by the driver while picking up or dropping off passengers. Some buses have two such stop arms, one near the front facing forwards, and one near the rear facing backwards. The stop sign is retroreflective and equipped either with red blinking lights above and below the legend or with a legend that is illuminated by LEDs. Unlike a normal stop sign, this sign requires other vehicles travelling in both directions to remain stopped until the sign is retracted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2357908",
"title": "Automotive lighting",
"section": "Section::::Conspicuity, signal and identification lights.:Lateral.:Turn signals.:Electrical connection and switching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Some transit buses, such as those in New York, have had, since at least the 1950s, turn signals activated by floor-mounted momentary-contact footswitches on the floor near the driver's left foot (on left-hand drive buses). The foot-activated signals allow bus drivers to keep both hands on the steering wheel while watching the road and scanning for passengers as they approach a bus stop. New York City Transit bus drivers, among others, are trained to step continuously on the right directional switch while servicing a bus stop, to signal other road users they are intentionally dwelling at the stop, allowing following buses to skip that stop. This method of signalling requires no special arrangements for self-cancellation or passing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3i540k
|
The extent of the roman empires trading influence.
|
[
{
"answer": "We do know that Roman coins and Indian goods have been found in South India and Rome respectively.\n\nIndian traders used to trade till Egypt directly and Roman traders would take over from there and this process worked in the reverse.\n\nIndian export guilds actively traded in Indian luxuries AND Wootz Steel with Egypt, Rome and China to the east.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1965658",
"title": "Roman economy",
"section": "Section::::Trade and commodities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Trade in the early Roman Empire allowed Rome to become as vast and great as it did. Emperor Augustus, despite his intense public and private spending, took control of trade from the government and expanded Roman influence by opening new trading markets in overseas areas such as Britain, Germany, and Africa. Rome dominated trade and influence over the world in the age of the Roman Empire but could not advance in their industrial and manufacturing processes. This ultimately threatened the expanding trading and commerce industries that Augustus brought about, as well as the strong standing of the Empire in the eyes of the Romans and the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50080000",
"title": "Travel in Classical antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Motivations.:Trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Trade between different nations was an integral reason for travel. During the Roman Empire, trade was conducted with nations as disparate as China, India, and Tanzania. Generally, Roman and Chinese traders exchanged statues and other processed goods in exchange for Chinese silk. Trade in the city of Rome was focused around providing food for the city's massive population; as such, the trade of grain and other foods was subsidized by the government. Grain was brought into the city from all around empire: Egypt, Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily were all sources for the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54253",
"title": "Silk Road",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Roman Empire (30 BCE-3rd century).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1250,
"text": "Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, regular communications and trade between China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The Roman Empire inherited eastern trade routes that were part of the Silk Road from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs. With control of these trade routes, citizens of the Roman Empire received new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole. The Roman-style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju, capital of the Silla kingdom (Korea) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula. The Greco-Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase, and according to Strabo (II.5.12), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India. The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza (known today as Bharuch ) and Barbaricum (known today as the city of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan ) and continued along the western coast of India. An ancient \"travel guide\" to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52618246",
"title": "Pompeii Lakshmi",
"section": "Section::::Trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Rome played an important part in the Eastern oriental trade of antiquity, they imported many goods from India and at the same time set up their own trading stations in the country. According to Cobb, trading through land routes such as crossing the Arabian Peninsula and Mesopotamia, and through seaborne trade from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean were used by the Romans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3220893",
"title": "Lex Claudia",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.:Third Century naval expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "After Rome's expansion during the First Punic War (263-241 BC), Roman imperialism around the Mediterranean Sea saw the beginnings of economic exploitations of newly formed provinces. This naval activity increased throughout the third century. The passage of the \"lex Claudia\", designed to restrict shipping, is indicative of this increased naval activity. For if there was no naval merchant activity, there would have been no need for such a law. The development of coinage and credit systems as well as the advancement in communication through roads, rivers and harbours, meant that long-distance trade became a significant aspect of the empire's economy. Imported goods included food, slaves, metals and luxury goods, while exports consisted largely of pottery, gold and silver. Rome's commercial interests were further expanded after Sicily and Sardinia become a province at the end of the First Punic War. Commercial ships were expensive and costly to maintain, meaning that only members of the upper classes (senators and equestrians) were able to invest in long-distance shipping. However, it should be noted that little is definitively known concerning the exact circumstances that led to the creation of the \"lex Claudia.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29678",
"title": "Trade",
"section": "Section::::History.:Later trade.:Mediterranean and Near East.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "From the beginning of Greek civilization until the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice to Europe from the far east, including India and China. Roman commerce allowed its empire to flourish and endure. The latter Roman Republic and the Pax Romana of the Roman empire produced a stable and secure transportation network that enabled the shipment of trade goods without fear of significant piracy, as Rome had become the sole effective sea power in the Mediterranean with the conquest of Egypt and the near east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1392685",
"title": "Ex fida bona",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "This was a condition to permanent trade relations during the rise of Rome. It was during the 2nd century BC that the Roman praetors started using this principle, as commerce grew in the Mediterranean sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yttiv
|
why was samsung sued by apple for ui patent infringements when they use a google ui?
|
[
{
"answer": "They heavily modify the UI. They use googles underlying operating system, but install touch wiz on top of it, which changes many of the behaviors. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As /u/SecureThruObscure pointed out, Samsung heavily mods the UI.\n\nLet's take [this image](_URL_1_) for comparison. On the left is Stock Android 4.0 (ICS) which is what Google makes availble. On the right is still Android 4.0, but running an additional layer of customization from Samsung that they call [TouchWiz](_URL_0_).\n\n- Notice how Samsung uses the dots to denote number of active homescreens. \n- Notice how the Phone icon samsung uses is very close to how it looks on the iPhone, but differs completely from the one on Stock Android.\n- The Contacts app's icon is also closer to what Apple uses than it to to the Stock Android icon.\n\nThere are other things too, of course. This is why Apple is just very pissed at Samsung. Not only did they make their phones look like their iPhone, they even made that attempt in software.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::Dutch courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Apple initially sued Samsung on grounds of patent infringement, specifically European patents 2.059.868, 2.098.948, and 1.964.022. On the 24th of October, 2011, a court in the Hague ruled only a photo gallery app in Android 2.3 was indeed infringing a patent (EP 2.059.868), resulting in an import ban of three Samsung telephones (the Galaxy S, Galaxy S II, and Ace) running the infringing software. Phones operating more recent versions of Android remained unaffected. This made the import and sale of the banned phone models with updated software still legal. This ruling was widely interpreted as a favourable one for Samsung, and an appeal by Apple may still be forthcoming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82738",
"title": "Xerox Star",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Xerox did go to trial to protect the Star user interface. In 1989, after Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of its Macintosh user interface in Windows, Xerox filed a similar lawsuit against Apple. However, this suit was thrown out on procedural grounds, not substantive, because a three-year statute of limitations had passed. In 1994, Apple lost its suit against Microsoft, not only the issues originally contested, but all claims to the user interface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::Dutch courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "In late October 2011, the civil court in The Hague ruled for Apple in rejecting Samsung's infringement arguments and denied Samsung's motion made there; Samsung appealed the decision and in January 2012, the Dutch appeals court overruled the civil court decision, rejecting Apple's claim that Samsung's Galaxy Tab 10.1 infringed its design rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "345676",
"title": "Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation, 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994), was a copyright infringement lawsuit in which Apple Computer, Inc. (now Apple Inc.) sought to prevent Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard from using visual graphical user interface (GUI) elements that were similar to those in Apple's Lisa and Macintosh operating systems. The court ruled that, \"Apple cannot get patent-like protection for the idea of a graphical user interface, or the idea of a desktop metaphor [under copyright law]...\". In the midst of the \"Apple v. Microsoft\" lawsuit, Xerox also sued Apple alleging that Mac's GUI was heavily based on Xerox's. The district court dismissed Xerox's claims without addressing whether Apple's GUI infringed Xerox's. Apple lost all claims in the \"Microsoft\" suit except for the ruling that the trash can icon and folder icons from Hewlett-Packard's NewWave windows application were infringing. The lawsuit was filed in 1988 and lasted four years; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1994, and Apple's appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court was denied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::South Korean courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The court ruled that Samsung violated one of Apple's utility patents, over the so-called \"bounce-back\" effect in iOS, and that Apple was in violation of two of Samsung's wireless patents. Apple's claims that Samsung copied the designs of the iPhone and iPad were deemed invalid. The court also ruled that there was \"no possibility\" that consumers would confuse the smartphones of the two brands, and that Samsung's smartphone icons did not infringe upon Apple's patents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21291898",
"title": "Windows 2.0",
"section": "Section::::Legal conflict with Apple.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "On March 17, 1988, Apple Inc. filed a lawsuit against Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, accusing them of violating copyrights Apple held on the Macintosh System Software. Apple claimed the \"look and feel\" of the Macintosh operating system, taken as a whole, was protected by copyright and that Windows 2.0 violated this copyright by having the same icons. The judge ruled in favor of Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft on all but 10 of the 189 graphical user interface elements that Apple sued on, and the court found the remaining 10 GUI elements could not be copyrighted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::German courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "On September 9, 2011, the German court ruled in favor of Apple, with a sales ban on the Galaxy Tab 10.1. The court found that Samsung had infringed Apple's patents. Presiding judge Johanna Brueckner-Hofmann said there was a \"clear impression of similarity\". Samsung would appeal the decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c4jwau
|
You hear often that is space you lose muscle mass because of atrophy from the 0 gravity. Is it actually possible to GAIN mass with enough exercise or is it always a losing battle?
|
[
{
"answer": "I mean, you can work out and gain mass, but the statement about muscle is taking into account that you follow the same routine as in earth and were stabilized on not gainong/losing muscle. \n\nWhat it means is that since you don't make work against gravity to walk, move things, etc. Doing the same workout with the same diet you would lose muscle, as you are doing less force and consequently your muscles are doing less work so they aren't as needed, so they reduce mass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "516838",
"title": "Micro-g environment",
"section": "Section::::Health effects of the micro-g environment.:Musculoskeletal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "In the first two weeks that the muscles are unloaded from carrying the weight of the human frame during space flight, whole muscle atrophy begins. Postural muscles contain more slow fibers, and are more prone to atrophy than non-postural muscle groups. The loss of muscle mass occurs because of imbalances in protein synthesis and breakdown. The loss of muscle mass is also accompanied by a loss of muscle strength, which was observed after only 2–5 days of spaceflight during the Soyuz-3 and Soyuz-8 missions. Decreases in the generation of contractile forces and whole muscle power have also been found in response to microgravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723734",
"title": "Muscle",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Atrophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Atrophy is of particular interest to the manned spaceflight community, because the weightlessness experienced in spaceflight results is a loss of as much as 30% of mass in some muscles. Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46246471",
"title": "ISS year-long mission",
"section": "Section::::Health studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The International Space Station developed exercise equipment, including treadmills and resistance devices to limit muscle atrophy in a low gravity environment. Weightlessness causes body fluids in astronauts to accumulate in the upper half of the body, leading to facial edema and unwelcome side effects. One problem may be the low gravity affecting the body in unforeseen ways and it can be hard detect the cause and effect of gravity on the body. Space seems to cause trouble for a number of body parts including bone, sometimes the eyes, and a classic problem is space sickness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "712319",
"title": "Atrophy",
"section": "Section::::Muscle atrophies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "\"Disuse atrophy\" of muscles and bones, with loss of mass and strength, can occur after prolonged immobility, such as extended bedrest, or having a body part in a cast (living in darkness for the eye, bedridden for the legs etc.). This type of atrophy can usually be reversed with exercise unless severe. Astronauts in microgravity must exercise regularly to minimize atrophy of their limb muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34095626",
"title": "Neuroscience in space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1162,
"text": "Adaptation to weightlessness involves not just the Sensory-motor coupling functions, but some autonomic nervous system functions as well. Sleep disorders and orthostatic intolerance are also common during and after spaceflight. There is no hydrostatic pressure in a weightless environment. As a result, the redistribution of body fluids toward the upper body causes a decrease in leg volume, which may affect muscle viscosity and compliance. An increase in intracranial pressure may also be responsible for a decrease in near visual acuity. In addition, muscle mass and strength both decrease as a result of the reduced loading in weightlessness. Moreover, approximately 70% of astronauts experience space motion sickness to some degree during the first days. The drugs commonly used to combat motion sickness, such as scopolamine and promethazine, have soporific effects. These factors can lead to chronic fatigue. The challenge of integrative space medicine and physiology is to investigate the adaptation of the human body to spaceflight as a whole, and not just as the sum of body parts because all body functions are connected and interact with each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1614102",
"title": "Effect of spaceflight on the human body",
"section": "Section::::Physiological effects.:Weightlessness.:Bone and muscle deterioration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "A major effect of long-term weightlessness involves the loss of bone and muscle mass. Without the effects of gravity, skeletal muscle is no longer required to maintain posture and the muscle groups used in moving around in a weightless environment differ from those required in terrestrial locomotion. In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back muscles or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. Consequently, some muscles atrophy rapidly, and without regular exercise astronauts can lose up to 20% of their muscle mass in just 5 to 11 days The types of muscle fibre prominent in muscles also change. Slow twitch endurance fibres used to maintain posture are replaced by fast twitch rapidly contracting fibres that are insufficient for any heavy labour. Advances in research on exercise, hormone supplements and medication may help maintain muscle and body mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50506253",
"title": "Locomotion in space",
"section": "Section::::Challenges of locomotion in reduced gravity.:Effects on the human body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The muscle volume can decrease up to 20% over a six-month mission, and the bone density can decrease at a rate of approximately 1.4% at the hip in a month's time. A study done by Fitts and Trappe examined the effects of prolonged space flight (defined as approximately 180 days) on human skeletal muscle using muscle biopsies. Prolonged weightlessness was shown to cause significant loss in the mass, force, and power production in the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles. Many countermeasures to these effects exist, but thus far they are not sufficient to compensate for the detrimental effects of space travel and astronauts need extensive rehabilitation upon their return to Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qkjxn
|
what are some civilizations that rose to a peak and than to a downfall?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [\"trivia seeking\" questions](_URL_1_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of disjointed, partial responses, and not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about an historical event, period, or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact. For further explanation of the rule, feel free to consult [this META thread](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44642927",
"title": "Club of great powers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "This period saw a systematic rise and fall of civilizations. Many civilizations went through the same cycle of creation, fluorescence, and fall of centralized states which include: the middle Elamite kingdom in western Iran, Kassite Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia, the Hittite new kingdom in Anatolia, and the new kingdom Egypt. While they did not all rise to the equal amount of power and influence at the same time, they did organize and participate in an international system of diplomacy, trade, and culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6258",
"title": "Civilization",
"section": "Section::::Fall of civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "BULLET::::- Arnold J. Toynbee in his \"A Study of History\" suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen. The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a cultural elite became a parasitic elite, leading to the rise of internal and external proletariats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872396",
"title": "Rise of Nations: Rise of Legends",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "\"Rise of Legends\" retains most of the features from \"Rise of Nations\", like city building, borders, attrition, assimilations, non-depletable resources and the Conquer The World (CTW) campaigns. However, \"Rise of Legends\" also introduces new features of its own, such as city districts, heroes, dominances, a more simplified economy (with only two resources) and neutral, siegeable units and buildings. The reality-based resource wood has been replaced by Timonium. Unlike its predecessor, which offered the player 18 civilizations to choose from, \"Rise of Legends\" has only three races. These are the technological Vinci, the magical Alin, and the alien-like Cuotl, who replace the Wealth resource with Energy, offering a new gather strategy. Each race is completely distinct from the others, allowing for different gameplay depending on the player's choice. It also makes use of the AGEIA PhysX physics engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3328588",
"title": "Societal collapse",
"section": "Section::::Changes occurring with collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Reversion/Simplification: A society's adaptive capacity may be reduced by either a rapid change in population or societal complexity, destabilizing its institutions and causing massive shifts in population and other social dynamics. In cases of collapse, civilizations tend to revert to less complex, less centralized socio-political forms using simpler technology. These are characteristics of a Dark Age. Examples of such societal collapse are: the Hittite Empire, the Mycenaean civilization, the Western Roman Empire, the Mauryan and Gupta Empires in India, the Mayas, the Angkor in Cambodia, the Han and Tang dynasties in China and the Mali Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6258",
"title": "Civilization",
"section": "Section::::Fall of civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Civilizations have generally ended in one of two ways; either through being incorporated into another expanding civilization (e.g. As Ancient Egypt was incorporated into Hellenistic Greek, and subsequently Roman civilizations), or by collapse and reversion to a simpler form, as happens in what are called Dark Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4740275",
"title": "Martin Mystère",
"section": "Section::::Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "In the true history of the world (according to the comic \"Before The Great Flood\"), two major civilizations emerged on two different continents, named Mu (a pseudo-Asiatic realm ruled by an authoritarian, collectivistic philosophy) and Atlantis (a proto-Aryan regime devoted to individualism and capitalism); despite their ideological differences, both had developed advanced civilizations, comparable to the 'Eighties' ideas of an early 21st century. As a result of their rivalry, a great war flared up after several proxy conflicts fought over Gondwana, which ultimately saw the employment of nuclear warheads and other final weapons; in the end the losing side, triggered a doomsday machine, which plunged the world in a veritable cataclysm, destroying nearly every sign of the antediluvian civilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66640",
"title": "Arnold J. Toynbee",
"section": "Section::::Academic and cultural influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "...examined the rise and fall of 26 civilizations in the course of human history, and he concluded that they rose by responding successfully to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of elite leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1klwho
|
How prominent were gangs and outlaws in the wild west?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not really a historian or qualified to answer this question on my own; however, I would point to Pierre Berton's book *Klondike: The Last Great Gold Rush* as an excellent read. The Klondike gold rush is later and far removed from what we typically think of as the wild west. Nevertheless, a lot of the actors in the Klondike gold rush drifted west over time and have history in earlier frontier areas.\n\nOne notable figure who had a prominent role in Skagway, Alaska during the gold rush and other places earlier in his life, is [Soapy Smith](_URL_0_), the so-called dictator of Skagway. He and his gang had the town firmly in his grasp to the misfortunate of those who were unlucky enough to be caught up in his many confidence-games. His era in Skagway is a very entertaining read (as is the rest of the book).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is a article that lists several sources that claims that the entire pop culture idea of the wild west is completely overblown by Hollywood \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31594514",
"title": "List of Old West gangs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "A number of Old West gangs left a lasting impression on American history. While rare, the incidents were retold and embellished by dime novel and magazine authors during the late 19th century. The most notable shootouts took place on the American frontier in Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Some like the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral were the outcome of long-simmering feuds and rivalries but most were the result of a confrontation between outlaws and law enforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407401",
"title": "Alias Smith and Jones",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Operating primarily in Wyoming Territory (1868–1890), Hannibal Heyes and Jedediah 'Kid' Curry (whose boyish face spawned the nickname) are the two most successful outlaws in the history of the West. However, the West is starting to catch up with the modern world; safes are becoming harder to crack, trains more difficult to stop, and posses more adept at tracking them down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "891924",
"title": "Bill Doolin",
"section": "Section::::The Wild Bunch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "The Wild Bunch was the most powerful outlaw group in the Old West for a time. However, because of the relentless pursuit of the Three Guardsmen (lawmen Bill Tilghman, Chris Madsen, and Heck Thomas) many of the gang had been either captured or killed by the end of 1894. In late 1894, gang member Bill Dalton was killed by U.S. marshals. Rewards were offered for their capture or death, the lure of which often turned friends into foes to collect the money. On May 1, 1895, gang members Charlie Pierce and George \"Bittercreek\" Newcomb were shot and killed by the bounty hunters known as the Dunn Brothers. The bounty hunter team that killed Pierce and Newcomb were the older brothers of George Newcomb's teenage girlfriend, Rose Dunn. It was alleged that she had betrayed Newcomb, but it is more likely that her brothers simply trailed her to the outlaws' hideout.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13912871",
"title": "Big Muddy Badlands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "In the nineteenth and early twentieth century the Badlands formed the northern end of the \"Outlaw Trail\", a series of trails and stopping areas utilized by outlaws in the American West spanning from Canada to Mexico. Outlaws such as Henry Borne and his brother Coyote Pete, Sam Kelly, the Pigeon Toed Kid, and the notorious Sundance Kid turned up in the area. Today ranching and tourism are important in the sparsely populated area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400177",
"title": "Wild Bunch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The Wild Bunch, also known as the Doolin–Dalton Gang or the Oklahombres, were a gang of American outlaws based in the Indian Territory that were active in Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma Territory during the 1890s—robbing banks and stores, holding up trains, and killing lawmen. They were also known as The Oklahoma Long Riders because of the long dusters that they wore. Of all the outlaw gangs produced by the American Old West (the gang was formed in the last decade of the 19th century), none met a more violent end than the Wild Bunch. Only two of its eleven members survived into the 20th century, and all eleven met violent deaths in gun battles with lawmen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252507",
"title": "American frontier",
"section": "Section::::Social history.:Law and order.:Banditry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 202,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 202,
"end_character": 1440,
"text": "The major type of banditry was conducted by the infamous outlaws of the West, including Jesse James, Billy the Kid, the Dalton Gang, Black Bart, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch and hundreds of others who preyed on banks, trains, stagecoaches, and in some cases even armed government transports such as the Wham Paymaster Robbery and the Skeleton Canyon Robbery. Some of the outlaws, such as Jesse James, were products of the violence of the Civil War (James had ridden with Quantrill's Raiders) and others became outlaws during hard times in the cattle industry. Many were misfits and drifters who roamed the West avoiding the law. In rural areas Joaquin Murieta, Jack Powers, Augustine Chacon and other bandits terrorized the state. When outlaw gangs were near, towns would occasionally raise a posse to drive them out or capture them. Seeing that the need to combat the bandits was a growing business opportunity, Allan Pinkerton ordered his National Detective Agency, founded in 1850, to open branches out West, and they got into the business of pursuing and capturing outlaws. There was plenty of business thanks to the criminals such as the James Gang, Butch Cassidy, Sam Bass, and dozens of others. To take refuge from the law, outlaws would use the advantages of the open range, remote passes and badlands to hide. While some settlements and towns in the frontier also house outlaws and criminals, which were called \"outlaw towns\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34992875",
"title": "Augustine Chacon",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Chacon Gang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Over the next few years, Chacon led a gang which operated primarily as horse thieves and cattle rustlers. They lived in the Sierra Madre of Sonora but routinely crossed into Arizona to commit crimes and sell off stolen property. The author of \"Famous sheriffs & western outlaws\", William MacLeod Raine, says that Chacon's band was the \"worst gang of outlaws that ever infested the border.\" Multiple murders, rapes, robberies and other crimes were attributed to the gang, but they always seemed to escape capture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
50p6uf
|
how does modern dsl achieve the speeds it does with using regular telephone wire/rj-11?
|
[
{
"answer": "I work for ATT as a technician, and I may not be able to give you a super technical explanation, but I'll try. \n\nTypical Cable companies use Coax to carry signal down the line. Coax cords have a string of copper on the center which is generally wrapped in a weave of metals with a rubber shell. They can push greater speeds down the line because they have a higher source. Unless you're talking about Fiber, which ATT and just about every other company is laying and using now. \n\nTo get to your main question though, \"old telephone wire\" is really just copper cable. If it's REALLY old it may be made of lead, but that's generally not the case. You will most likely have fiber going to a node, and then twisted copper wire going to terminals in people's yards, then a twisted copper drop going to the house, which is then connected to your internal wiring. Usually the wiring inside a house can be Cat5, or Cat3. Most of the time if the houses are older you will run into \"quad wire\" which was used, and still is used for alarm systems, to run phone lines previously. \n\nTL;DR They are both copper wires at heart, and it it just runs the same. Lol. Sorry for the long speech. :) \n\nEDIT: As for the RJ-11, our internet just runs off one twisted pair of two wires, so technically we only need 1/5th of the full RJ-11. Unless it's a bonded pie and we would use two pairs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > The local phone company offers 40mbps- just mind boggling to me that they're able to achieve that throughput on a regular telephone line.\n\nIt's all about bandwidth. That is the range of frequencies you can use for communication.\n\nHigher speeds have been mostly about getting closer (and the occasional EM black magic). \n\nEarly dial up systems used 3000 hz of bandwidth, which is what a long distance phone call uses. This gave a theoretical limit of 30kbps (28.8 kbps modems were typical).\n\nYou couldn't go faster because the phone system only provided 3000 Hz of bandwidth, this was plenty for human voice communication. If you used frequencies lower than 400 Hz or higher than 3400 Hz the telephone system that carried dial up would just cut off the extra.\n\nLater, we got a little cleverer. You could install the dial up receiver in the exchange, before it went onto the long distance network (which has the 3000Hz limit). This allowed you to use more frequency and 56k Dial Up was born.\n\nHowever higher frequencies don't travel as well, so you still had an upper limit to how much bandwidth you could put through the phone line. \n\nTo get closer ISPs installed cabinets closer to people's homes, this allowed them to use much more bandwidth in the existing copper cables, because the signals didn't travel as far. ADSL was born using over *1 million Hz* of bandwidth (~25kHz - 1100 kHz). \n\nThe downside is that while dial up could run for a very long distance, ADSL drops off quite quickly. ADSL speeds decrease significantly after 2km. ADSL2+ is faster, but drops off rapidly after ~1.5 km. VDSL2+ is the faster, offering up to 60mbps, but speed drops dramatically after just ~500meters.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "remember the 14kbps to 36kpbs to 56kpbs to 112kpbs and so on and so fore? these are technology in it's receiving part of the modem. basically as long as the wire in telephone jack can maintain it's voltage without corrupting it's data over that distance, and the recipient can make it out of what the sender is trying to say at that speed, it can goes as fast as 40mbps as you stated.\n\ntechnology algorithm + the medium physical bandwidth = speed of transfer.\n\nwith 40mbps on your telephone line, you make sure there is no water in the trunking or else you are fucked since the frequency is so fast. you won't be fucked if it was a 56kbps because it is slow and the other end still be able to understand the signal even if it have been amplified in water.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41037",
"title": "Digital Signal 0",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Because of its fundamental role in carrying a single phone call, the DS0 rate forms the basis for the digital multiplex transmission hierarchy in telecommunications systems used in North America. To limit the number of wires required between two involved in exchanging voice calls, a system was built in which multiple DS0s are multiplexed together on higher capacity circuits. In this system, twenty-four (24) DS0s are multiplexed into a DS1 signal. Twenty-eight (28) DS1s are multiplexed into a DS3. When carried over copper wire, this is the well-known T-carrier system, with T1 and T3 corresponding to DS1 and DS3, respectively. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25982270",
"title": "Smallband",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "According to the Acceptable use policy of most providers where this limitation is in place, the speed is comparable to that of an old dial-up connection. However, there were numerous complaints by customers that the actual speed was lower. In response to these complaints, Telenet (cable internet provider) in October 2007 increased the speed from 32 kbps downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream to 192 kbit/s downstream and 64 kbit/s upstream, for http data traffic only. All other traffic shaping remained at 32 kbit/s downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1656873",
"title": "Wire speed",
"section": "Section::::Related terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "The wire speed should not be confused with the line bitrate, also known as \"gross bit rate\", \"raw bitrate\" or data signalling rate, which is 125 Mbit/s in fast Ethernet. In case there is a physical layer overhead, for example due to line coding or error-correcting codes, the line bitrate is higher than the wire speed. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59546",
"title": "Dial-up Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Modern dial-up modems typically have a maximum theoretical transfer speed of 56 kbit/s (using the V.90 or V.92 protocol), although in most cases, 40–50 kbit/s is the norm. Factors such as phone line noise as well as the quality of the modem itself play a large part in determining connection speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2778175",
"title": "Be Un Limited",
"section": "Section::::Services and fair-use policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The majority of users who were 500 metres or less from their local telephone exchanges were expected to achieve connection speeds close to the advertised maximum; with Annex M and interleaving disabled ('fastpath') on a 300-metre loop length, a sync speed of 24 Mbit/s downstream and 2.5 Mbit/s upstream was easily achievable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41038",
"title": "Digital subscriber line",
"section": "Section::::DSL technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The line-length limitations from telephone exchange to subscriber impose severe limits on data transmission rates. Technologies such as VDSL provide very high-speed but short-range links. VDSL is used as a method of delivering \"triple play\" services (typically implemented in fiber to the curb network architectures).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40973575",
"title": "History of smart antennas",
"section": "Section::::Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Dial-up modems developed by Gandalf Technologies and Telebit in the 1970s and 1980s used OFDM to achieve higher speeds. Amati Communications Corp. used its discrete multi-tone (DMT) form of OFDM to transmit data at higher speeds over phone lines also carrying phone calls in digital subscriber line (DSL) applications. OFDM is part of the digital audio broadcasting (DAB) and digital video broadcasting (DVB) standards developed in Europe. OFDM is also used in the 802.11a and 802.11g wireless LAN standards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vi1gn
|
If I were to adopt a child from 5,000 y/a and raise them in modern day America, would they grow up to be a "normal" person?
|
[
{
"answer": "The [modern human](_URL_0_) is thought to of come about ~50,000 years ago. So any significant time before that (say 100,000 years) and you have an entirely different species. So 5,000 years ago they were just as intellectually equipped as we are today. But bring that back 50,000 years and it's questionable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3277057",
"title": "Blawith and Subberthwaite",
"section": "Section::::Population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Most people who live in the area are aged between 30 and 59. This tends to be couples who are likely to have children, due to there being a great number of people aged up to 14 years in the area and few single parents. In 1995 it was recorded that there were 0 single parents and 32 children aged 0–14.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106730",
"title": "Vail, Arizona",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:2010 census.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "People from 0–4 years old were 7.45% of the population, children from ages 5–17 were 23.2% of the population, adults 18-64 were 62.04% of the total, and people 65 and over were 7.31% of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567678",
"title": "MTV News: Unfiltered",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "As you can probably guess, it's not easy to be a parent, now try to imagine how hard it would be if you were a sixteen-year-old high school student. Karly Hart called us so she could show other teens how traumatic and exhausting the experience can be; and how the parenting process voids out any remaining sense of freedom and youthful abandon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "663088",
"title": "International adoption of South Korean children",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.:1999 to 2016 US adoptees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "From 1999 to 2015, there have been 20,058 Koreans adopted by US families. Of these 20,058 children, 12,038 (about 60%) have been male and 8,019 (about 40%) have been female. Of these 20,058 children, 16,474 were adopted when they were less than one year old, 3,164 were adopted when they were between one and two years old and 310 were adopted when they were between three and four years old. Of these 20,058 children, 19,222 of them immigrated to the United States using the IR-4 Immediate Relative Immigrant Visa, and 836 of them immigrated to the United States using the IR-3 Immediate Relative Immigrant Visa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4722813",
"title": "Child Citizenship Act of 2000",
"section": "Section::::To whom this act applies.:General requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The child must have at least one U.S. citizen parent by birth or naturalization, be under 18 years of age (at the time the law took effect, the child had to be born no earlier than February 27, 1983), live in the legal and physical custody of the U.S. citizen parent, and be admitted as an immigrant for lawful permanent residence. In addition, if the child is adopted, the adoption must be full and final.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21120005",
"title": "List of presidential qualifications by country",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The person must be a natural-born citizen of the United States and must have been a permanent resident of the United States of America for at least 14 years. Each candidate must be at least 35 years of age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38585842",
"title": "Child care licensing in North Carolina",
"section": "Section::::North Carolina licensing rules in relation to other states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The 2010 US Census showed that nearly 7.4 million children under the age of five who had working mothers were in some form of care other than their parents. By elementary school age (considered ages 5 to 11) more than six percent of these children were home without adult supervision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
84zs0p
|
[chemistry] Do electrons ever switch places within the same atom?
|
[
{
"answer": "Electrons don't come with labels, fundamentally. You can't distinguish \"this\" electron from \"that\" one, they're all identical. Whenever you have a system of multiple identical particles, the wavefunction for the system must include all possible combinations of each electron being at each position.\n\nSo the total wavefunction for a multi-electron atom must be some combination of this kind.\n\nClassically, you would consider the mismatched terms to be one electron switching places with another, but quantum-mechanically, that doesn't make sense, because the electrons were never distinguishable things to begin with.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "706247",
"title": "Electronic band structure",
"section": "Section::::Why bands and band gaps occur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "The electrons of a single, isolated atom occupy atomic orbitals each of which has a discrete energy level. When two or more atoms join together to form into a molecule, their atomic orbitals overlap. The Pauli exclusion principle dictates that no two electrons can have the same quantum numbers in a molecule. So if two identical atoms combine to form a diatomic molecule, each atomic orbital splits into two molecular orbitals of different energy, allowing the electrons in the former atomic orbitals to occupy the new orbital structure without any having the same energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11807",
"title": "Ferromagnetism",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.:Exchange interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "When two nearby atoms have unpaired electrons, whether the electron spins are parallel or antiparallel affects whether the electrons can share the same orbit as a result of the quantum mechanical effect called the exchange interaction. This in turn affects the electron location and the Coulomb (electrostatic) interaction and thus the energy difference between these states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516762",
"title": "Intersystem crossing",
"section": "Section::::Singlet and triplet states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "When an electron in a molecule with a singlet ground state is excited (\"via\" absorption of radiation) to a higher energy level, either an excited singlet state or an excited triplet state will form. A singlet state is a molecular electronic state such that all electron spins are paired. That is, the spin of the excited electron is still paired with the ground state electron (a pair of electrons in the same energy level must have opposite spins, per the Pauli exclusion principle). In a triplet state the excited electron is no longer paired with the ground state electron; that is, they are parallel (same spin). Since excitation to a triplet state involves an additional \"forbidden\" spin transition, it is less probable that a triplet state will form when the molecule absorbs radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9769502",
"title": "Localized molecular orbitals",
"section": "Section::::Equivalence of localized and delocalized orbital descriptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "For molecules with a closed electron shell, in which each molecular orbital is doubly occupied, the localized and delocalized orbital descriptions are in fact equivalent and represent the same physical state. It might seem, again using the example of water, that placing two electrons in the first bond and two \"other\" electrons in the second bond is not the same as having four electrons free to move over both bonds. However, in quantum mechanics all electrons are identical and cannot be distinguished as \"same\" or \"other\". The total wavefunction must have a form which satisfies the Pauli exclusion principle such as a Slater determinant (or linear combination of Slater determinants), and it can be shown that if two electrons are exchanged, such a function is unchanged by any unitary transformation of the doubly occupied orbitals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206",
"title": "Atomic orbital",
"section": "Section::::Electron placement and the periodic table.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (\"electron configuration\"). The first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the Pauli exclusion principle). These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals, as well as , or spin quantum number. Thus, two electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of . However, \"only\" two electrons, because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1564226",
"title": "Aufbau principle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Electron behavior is elaborated by other principles of atomic physics, such as Hund's rule and the Pauli exclusion principle. Hund's rule asserts that if multiple orbitals of the same energy are available, electrons will occupy different orbitals singly before any are occupied doubly. If double occupation does occur, the Pauli exclusion principle requires that electrons which occupy the same orbital must have different spins (+1/2 and −1/2).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1682086",
"title": "Hund's rules",
"section": "Section::::Rule 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Due to the Pauli exclusion principle, two electrons cannot share the same set of quantum numbers within the same system; therefore, there is room for only two electrons in each spatial orbital. One of these electrons must have, (for some chosen direction \"z\") \"m\" = , and the other must have \"m\" = −. Hund's first rule states that the lowest energy atomic state is the one that maximizes the total spin quantum number for the electrons in the open subshell. The orbitals of the subshell are each occupied singly with electrons of parallel spin before double occupation occurs. (This is occasionally called the \"bus seat rule\" since it is analogous to the behaviour of bus passengers who tend to occupy all double seats singly before double occupation occurs.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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