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vgbnm
|
Is it possible that a virus could act as a vaccine for several other worse viruses?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might be thinking of the development of the smallpox vaccine, in which scientists noted that milkmaids who were exposed to cowpox did not develop smallpox. They initially used the cowpox virus as a vaccine for smallpox since it induced an immune response against smallpox antigens. Now, they used the vaccinia virus, with a similar idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Someone who I work with is about to begin working on creating flu viruses that express antigenic proteins from other viruses on their surface to act as vaccines, or something along those lines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "as arumbar already pointed out, this is exactly the case with smallpox, modern small pox vaccinations actually contain the related virus *vaccinia* (smallpox is called *variola*). \"Vaccination\" actually comes from \"vaccinia\", natch.\n\nThis is less useful for virus that are more topologically varied, such as the flu virus; you might be vaccinated for one type of flu, and a very closely related variant might already be different enough that the vaccination doesn't protect you.\n\nedit: as for the \"intentional tribal reservoir\" idea you posit, I don't really know much about tribal peoples and their knowledge of disease, but I don't think any stone-age peoples were capable of such forward thought given their limited knowledge base",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "793631",
"title": "Cancer vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Hypothesized problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "A vaccine against a particular virus is relatively easy to create. The virus is foreign to the body, and therefore expresses antigens that the immune system can recognize. Furthermore, viruses usually only provide a few viable variants. By contrast, developing vaccines for viruses that mutate constantly such as influenza or HIV has been problematic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49197",
"title": "Antiviral drug",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Vaccinations.:Limitations of vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Vaccines are very effective on stable viruses, but are of limited use in treating a patient who has already been infected. They are also difficult to successfully deploy against rapidly mutating viruses, such as influenza (the vaccine for which is updated every year) and HIV. Antiviral drugs are particularly useful in these cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892665",
"title": "Parvovirus",
"section": "Section::::Management and therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Currently, no vaccine exists to prevent infection by all parvoviruses, but recently, the virus's capsid proteins, which are noninfectious molecules, have been suggested acting as antigens for improving of vaccines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40710591",
"title": "ANTI (computer virus)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The most commonly encountered strains of ANTI have only subtle effects, and thus can exist and spread indefinitely without being noticed until an antivirus application is run. Due to a bug in the virus, it cannot spread if MultiFinder is running, which prevents it from infecting System 7 and later versions of Mac OS as well as System 5 and 6 running MultiFinder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167679",
"title": "Virus",
"section": "Section::::Role in human disease.:Prevention and treatment.:Vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1384,
"text": "Vaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses. Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses. Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with viral infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Smallpox infections have been eradicated. Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans, and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines can consist of live-attenuated or killed viruses, or viral proteins (antigens). Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, which do not cause the disease but, nonetheless, confer immunity. Such viruses are called attenuated. Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity (who are described as immunocompromised), because in these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines. These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine. Subunit vaccines are safe for immunocompromised patients because they cannot cause the disease. The yellow fever virus vaccine, a live-attenuated strain called 17D, is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1742315",
"title": "Vaccine hesitancy",
"section": "Section::::Common themes.:Other vaccine myths.:Natural Infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Another common anti-vaccine myth is that natural infection produces better immune protection against contracting the illness in the future when compared to vaccination. In some cases, actual infection with the illness may produce lifelong immunity; however, natural disease carries a higher risk of harming a person's health than vaccines. For example, natural varicella infection carries a higher risk of bacterial superinfection with Group A streptococci.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25394605",
"title": "Genetically modified virus",
"section": "Section::::Health applications.:Vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1343,
"text": "Most vaccines consist of viruses that have been attenuated, disabled, weakened or killed in some way so that their virulent properties are no longer effective. Genetic engineering could theoretically be used to create viruses with the virulent genes removed. In 2001, it was reported that genetically modified viruses can possibly be used to develop vaccines against diseases such as, AIDS, herpes, dengue fever and viral hepatitis by using a proven safe vaccine virus, such as adenovirus, and modify its genome to have genes that code for immunogenic proteins that can spike the immune systems response to then be able to fight the virus. Genetic engineered viruses should not have reduced infectivity, invoke a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines. As such they are generally considered safer and more efficient than conventional vaccines, although concerns remain over non-target infection, potential side effects and horizontal gene transfer to other viruses. Another approach is to use vectors to create novel vaccines for diseases that have no vaccines available or the vaccines that are do not work effectively, such as AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. Vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cfenn
|
according to einstein's theory of relativity, events that occur at the same time for one observer could occur at different times for another. what does this mean? what are some eli5 examples?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you want to do further research on this, a good specific search phrase is the relativity of simultaneity. \n\nA common example is called the train and platform. \n\nImagine there is a box car, with open sides, and a shuttered lantern in the middle. There's a guy standing by the lantern, ready to open it.\n\nThe train is moving along the tracks, approaching a platform, where another guy is standing.\n\nAs the train car passes the guy on the platform, the guy in the train opens the shutters on the lamp. For the guy in the train car, the lamp, and the edges of the train car, are all stationary objects. Since the lamp is in the middle of the train car, it takes the light the same amount of time to reach the front wall as it takes to reach the back wall, since they are equally distant.\n\nTo the guy on the platform, the rear wall of the train is approaching where the light came from, and the front wall is receding from where the light came from, so the light will reach the rear wall before it reaches the front wall. It has a shorter distance to travel one way than the other.\n\nThis wouldn't be true if the light moving 'backwards' was slowed down by being emitted from a train moving forwards, but we can experimentally verify this is not the case, both observers would see both beams of light moving at the same speed, so the only alternative is that what is simultaneous for the guy in the train is not for the guy on the platform. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3406142",
"title": "Relativity of simultaneity",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an \"absolute\" sense that two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space. If one reference frame assigns precisely the same time to two events that are at different points in space, a reference frame that is moving relative to the first will generally assign different times to the two events (the only exception being when motion is exactly perpendicular to the line connecting the locations of both events).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31296",
"title": "Tachyon",
"section": "Section::::Tachyons in relativity theory.:Causality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The problem can be understood in terms of the relativity of simultaneity in special relativity, which says that different inertial reference frames will disagree on whether two events at different locations happened \"at the same time\" or not, and they can also disagree on the order of the two events (technically, these disagreements occur when the spacetime interval between the events is 'space-like', meaning that neither event lies in the future light cone of the other).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Physical definition.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Einstein (\"The Meaning of Relativity\"): \"Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relative to K, which register the same simultaneously.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83071",
"title": "Eternalism (philosophy of time)",
"section": "Section::::The present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Special relativity eliminates the concept of absolute simultaneity and a universal present: according to the relativity of simultaneity, observers in different frames of reference can have different measurements of whether a given pair of events happened at the same time or at different times, with there being no physical basis for preferring one frame's judgments over another's. However, there are events that may be non-simultaneous in all frames of reference: when one event is within the light cone of another—its causal past or causal future—then observers in all frames of reference show that one event preceded the other. The causal past and causal future are consistent within all frames of reference, but any other time is \"elsewhere\", and within it there is no present, past, or future. There is no physical basis for a set of events that represents the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Spacetime in special relativity.:Spacetime interval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "In special relativity, however, the distance between two points is no longer the same if measured by two different observers when one of the observers is moving, because of Lorentz contraction. The situation is even more complicated if the two points are separated in time as well as in space. For example, if one observer sees two events occur at the same place, but at different times, a person moving with respect to the first observer will see the two events occurring at different places, because (from their point of view) they are stationary, and the position of the event is receding or approaching. Thus, a different measure must be used to measure the effective \"distance\" between two events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57264039",
"title": "Einstein's thought experiments",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Pursuing a beam of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Rather than the thought experiment being at all incompatible with aether theories (which it is not), the youthful Einstein appears to have reacted to the scenario out of an intuitive sense of wrongness. He felt that the laws of optics should obey the principle of relativity. As he grew older, his early thought experiment acquired deeper levels of significance: Einstein felt that Maxwell's equations should be the same for all observers in inertial motion. From Maxwell's equations, one can deduce a single speed of light, and there is nothing in this computation that depends on an observer's speed. Einstein sensed a conflict between Newtonian mechanics and the constant speed of light determined by Maxwell's equations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18404",
"title": "Lorentz transformation",
"section": "Section::::Physical formulation of Lorentz boosts.:Physical implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- Relativity of simultaneity: Suppose two events occur simultaneously () along the x axis, but separated by a nonzero displacement . Then in , we find that formula_16, so the events are no longer simultaneous according to a moving observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8v73wr
|
How does consuming caffeine compare to absorbing it through your skin?
|
[
{
"answer": "We can change this question to \"How does swallowing Drug X compare to absorbing it through your skin?\"\n\nFirst of all, it's important to remember that our skin is pretty amazing at keeping things out. It is not a great absorber of substances, period. Most ointments and creams that you apply will find it very difficult to get to the dermis (the deep part of your skin), and extremely difficult to go deeper than that to big blood vessels.\n\nNow, most drugs have an ideal method of delivery. Some are absorbed through your gut, some by injection and some by breathing them in. Caffeine is at the end of the day, another drug, that is absorbed reasonably well through your gut.\n\nSo going back to your question, studies showed that about 2micrograms of caffein per square cm of your skin is absorbed an hour at best. Coffee's caffeine contents vary, from 100mg to 300mg in your triple venti coffee. Even if we go for 100mg, this is 50,000cm^2 of skin that we would need for the caffeine to get to the *first layer* of skin. In 1 hour! And we only have 1900cm^2 of skin in the first place! And, only a tiny amount of coffee is abosrobed in the first place.\n\nSo, if you just rub the same amount as what you'd drink, nothing would happen. Absolutely nothing except perhaps causing some irritation of the skin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "Section::::Potential health risks.:Systemic absorption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Absorption through the skin is increased when lotions are applied and then covered with an occlusive layer, when they are applied to large areas of the body, or when they are applied to damaged or broken skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues. Peak blood concentration is reached within 1–2 hours. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (C) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e., 1/3.5) of the oral amounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166189",
"title": "Autonomic nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Caffeine effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Caffeine is a bio-active ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible that other bio-active ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2041040",
"title": "Fipronil",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "In contrast to neonicotinoids such as acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam, which are absorbed through the skin to some extent, fipronil is not absorbed substantially through the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604727",
"title": "Coffee",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly broken down by hepatic enzymes. The excreted metabolites are mostly paraxanthines—theobromine and theophylline—and a small amount of unchanged caffeine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282399",
"title": "Caffeinism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Caffeine is also an ingredient of several medications, many of them over-the-counter and prescription drugs. The consensus is to consider caffeine a drug with pharmacological effects acting throughout the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Enhancing performance.:Cognitive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that reduces fatigue and drowsiness. At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and the desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
58o51w
|
who writes the stuff that goes in fortune cookies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Apparently, the [CFO of the company who manufactures the fortune cookies](_URL_0_). Maybe that's why they so often refer to wealth?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49592",
"title": "Fortune cookie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "A fortune cookie is a crisp and sugary cookie usually made from flour, sugar, vanilla, and sesame seed oil with a piece of paper inside, a \"fortune\", on which is an aphorism, or a vague prophecy. The message inside may also include a Chinese phrase with translation and/or a list of lucky numbers used by some as lottery numbers; since relatively few distinct messages are printed, in the recorded case where winning numbers happened to be printed, the lottery had an unexpectedly high number of winners sharing a prize. Fortune cookies are often served as a dessert in Chinese restaurants in the United States and other Western countries, but are not a tradition in China. The exact origin of fortune cookies is unclear, though various immigrant groups in California claim to have popularized them in the early 20th century. They most likely originated from cookies made by Japanese immigrants to the United States in the late 19th or early 20th century. The Japanese version did not have the Chinese lucky numbers and was eaten with tea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27945098",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Progressive Era (1890–1919).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "BULLET::::- A fortune cookie is a crisp cookie usually made from flour, sugar, vanilla, and oil with a \"fortune\" wrapped inside. A \"fortune\" is a piece of paper with words of faux wisdom or a vague prophecy. In the United States, it is usually served with Chinese food in Chinese restaurants as a dessert. The message inside may also include a list of lucky numbers and a Chinese phrase with translation. Contrary to belief, the fortune cookie associated as a Chinese invention is a fallacy. In 1914, the Japanese-American named Makoto Hagiwara of the Japanese Tea Garden in San Francisco, California, introduced the fortune cookie and is thus recognized as its inventor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "780849",
"title": "O-mikuji",
"section": "Section::::Relation to fortune cookies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The random fortunes in fortune cookies may be derived from o-mikuji; this is claimed by Seiichi Kito of Fugetsu-Do, and supported by evidence that American fortune cookies derive from 19th century Kyoto cookies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25720732",
"title": "Dave Morice",
"section": "Section::::Hyperpoems and Ultranovels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Great American Fortune Cookie Novel is a romance made by collaging together more than 2,000 different fortune cookie fortunes to tell the story. Over 500 people donated fortunes to the project, and they are listed in the book as co-authors. Backwords Planet, a sci-fi fantasy novel, is a word-order palindrome in which the words in the first half reverse their order to make the second half. Haloosa Nation, a love story, has four levels of nonsense and uses puns throughout.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49592",
"title": "Fortune cookie",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Fortune cookies have become an iconic symbol in American culture, inspiring many products. There are fortune cookie-shaped jewelry, a fortune cookie-shaped Magic 8 Ball, and silver-plated fortune cookies. Fortune cookie toilet paper, with words of wisdom that appear when the paper is moistened, has become popular among university students in Italy and Greece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49592",
"title": "Fortune cookie",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Fortune cookies are used for marketing. For example, the film \"Kung Fu Panda 3\" was promoted by putting quotes from the protagonist of the film on fortune cookie slips. Lotteries have also been advertised by suggesting lottery number picks on fortune cookie slips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49592",
"title": "Fortune cookie",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The non-Chinese origin of the fortune cookie is humorously illustrated in Amy Tan's 1989 novel \"The Joy Luck Club\", in which a pair of immigrant women from China find jobs at a fortune cookie factory in America. They are amused by the unfamiliar concept of a fortune cookie but, after several hilarious attempts at translating the fortunes into Chinese, come to the conclusion that the cookies contain not wisdom but \"bad instruction\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vq8jz
|
If a curveball was thrown in an obstacle-free, zero-gravity environment, would it follow a spiral pattern or return to the pitcher? If it's a spiral - does it curve inwards or outwards?
|
[
{
"answer": "The curve of the ball is dependant on the resistance of the air to the spinning motion. All pitches take advantage of such resistance. A ball will even rise once it catches the air just right. A spinning ball in an space with air but without gravity would move in a curve until the air resistance stopped the spin. In a gravity free space the spin is independant of the angle of motion of the ball so spin would have no effect on trajectory. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "467830",
"title": "Curveball",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "On the other hand, a curveball, thrown with topspin, creates a higher pressure zone on top of the ball, which deflects the ball downward in flight. Instead of counteracting gravity, the curveball adds additional downward force, thereby gives the ball an exaggerated drop in flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157813",
"title": "Knuckleball",
"section": "Section::::Grip and motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Over the distance from the pitcher's mound to home plate, the effect of these forces is that the knuckleball can \"flutter,\" \"dance,\" \"jiggle,\" or curve in two different directions during its flight. A pitch thrown completely without spin is less desirable, however, than one with only a very slight spin (so that the ball completes between one-quarter and one-half a rotation on its way from the pitcher to the batter). This will cause the position of the stitches to change as the ball travels, which changes the drag that gives the ball its motion, thus making its flight even more erratic. Even a ball thrown without rotation will \"flutter\", due to the \"apparent wind\" it feels as its trajectory changes throughout its flight path.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467830",
"title": "Curveball",
"section": "Section::::Grip and action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The delivery of a curveball is entirely different from that of most other pitches. The pitcher at the top of the throwing arc will snap the arm and wrist in a downward motion. The ball first leaves contact with the thumb and tumbles over the index finger thus imparting the forward or \"top-spin\" characteristic of a curveball. The result is the exact opposite pitch of the four-seam fastball's backspin, but with all four seams rotating in the direction of the flight path with forward-spin, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the intended flight path much like a reel-type mower or a bowling ball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2094884",
"title": "Gyroball",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "When throwing a gyroball, a pitcher holds the side of the ball with a fastball grip placed on the baseball's center (or equator). The pitcher's hips and throwing shoulder must be in near-perfect sync, something the book refers to as \"double-spin mechanics.\" According to Tezuka, the arm angle needs to be low, no higher than a sidearm delivery. As the pitcher rotates his shoulder, he snaps his wrist and pulls down his fingers rather than flipping them over the ball, as happens with curveballs. For the correct spin axis, the equatorial plane must first be determined by the proper finger pressure during release. The ball rolls off the index and middle fingers to the thumb side of the hand as the pitch is released. If gripped in the right manner, the rotation will have a true side-spin; if the ball is held above or below its equator, the rotation would be unstable. When the pitcher lets go, he must pronate his wrist, or turn it so the palm faces third base. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "467830",
"title": "Curveball",
"section": "Section::::Grip and action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "From a hitter's perspective, the curveball will start in one location (usually high or at the top of the strike zone) and then dive rapidly as it approaches the plate. The most effective curveballs will start breaking at the height of the arc of the ball flight, and continue to break more and more rapidly as they approach and cross through the strike zone. A curveball that a pitcher fails to put enough spin on will not break much and is colloquially called a \"hanging curve\". Hanging curves are usually disastrous for a pitcher because the low velocity, non-breaking pitch is left high in the zone where hitters can wait on it and drive it for power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5164137",
"title": "Sidearm",
"section": "Section::::Ball movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "The various spins pitchers commonly employ—fastballs, curveballs, sliders, cutters—cause the ball to diverge from a \"normal\" trajectory. This is caused by the Magnus effect, which makes the ball move in the direction of its rotation. Batters learn these spins and their likely trajectories, but predominantly from high-axis pitchers whose pitches rotate around a mostly horizontal axis. Sidearm pitches rotate similarly, but around an approximately vertical axis. This causes common pitches to behave very uncommonly. For example, the four-seam fastball, when thrown by overhand power pitchers, seems to \"hop\", or rise on its way to the plate. This is because the ball is rotating backwards, lowering the air pressure above the ball. The same pitch thrown by the sidearm pitcher causes a horizontal rotation, and consequent sideways movement. Sidearm pitchers whose deliveries are below the horizontal throw a fastball that rotates nearly forward, so the ball will sink rather than rise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4440449",
"title": "Topspin",
"section": "Section::::Baseball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "In baseball, the curveball, a type of pitch which usually has downward movement, is thrown in such a way as to put topspin on the ball. Its close relatives are the slider and the slurve. The \"curve\" of the ball varies from pitcher to pitcher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
57gi6g
|
How were voters made aware of U.S. presidential candidates before radio and television?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've [written about this before](_URL_0_), but essentially, newspapers both shaped and were shaped by early political parties, and a national network of subsidized distribution through the postal service meant that most towns had access to multiple newspaper titles. To quote from that earlier answer: \n\n > Anyhow, in the years after Freneau and Fenno, partisans would often organize them around newspapers, and printing presses were some of the first things to arrive in new towns. The way that the system generally worked was that each party might find an enterprising local person to serve as editor of the paper, and a skilled printer to actually produce the paper (printers themselves, being ink-stained wretches who often had deformities related to the physical difficulties of printing, were not often party leaders). The editor/printer would print political news, party platforms, and write screeds against his opposing editor, and they would often be rewarded (if the party was in power) with patronage, in the form of postmasterships and printing contracts. Newspapers also printed party ballots, which was crucial in an era before standardized ballots provided by the government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I asked a very similar question a month ago and got a good answer from u/lord_mayor_of_reddit\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "505341",
"title": "United States presidential nominating convention",
"section": "Section::::History.:Television coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The increase of the media at these conventions originally led to a growth in the public's interest in elections. Voter turnout in the primaries increased from less than five million voters in 1948 to around thirteen million in 1952. By broadcasting the conventions on the television, people were more connected to the suspense and the decisions being made, therefore making them more politically aware, and more educated voters. When scholars studied the 1976 conventions they determined that by watching nomination conventions, even viewers that were not previously very politically active developed a much stronger interest in the election process and the candidate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454476",
"title": "2001 Australian federal election",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Political scientists have suggested that television coverage has subtly transformed the political system, with a spotlight on leaders rather than parties, thereby making for more of an American presidential-style system. In this election, television news focused on international issues, especially terrorism and asylum seekers. Minor parties were largely ignored as the two main parties monopolised the media's attention. The election was depicted as a horse-race between Howard and Beazley, with Howard running ahead and therefore being given more coverage than his Labor rival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21491579",
"title": "United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Trends.:Technology and media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Advances in technology and media have also affected presidential campaigns. The invention of both radio and television have given way to the reliance of national political advertisements across those methods of communication. National advertisements such as Lyndon B. Johnson's 1964 commercial \"Daisy\", Ronald Reagan's 1984 commercial \"Morning in America\", and George H. W. Bush's 1988 commercial \"Revolving Door\" became major factors in those respective elections. In 1992, George H. W. Bush's promise of \"\" was extensively used in the commercials of Bill Clinton and Bush's other opponents with significant effect during the campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235869",
"title": "The Daily Show",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "In late 2004, the National Annenberg Election Survey at the University of Pennsylvania ran a study of American television viewers and found that fans of \"The Daily Show\" had a more accurate idea of the facts behind the 2004 presidential election than most others, including those who primarily got their news through the national network evening newscasts and through reading newspapers. However, in a 2004 campaign survey conducted by the Pew Research Center those who cited comedy shows such as \"The Daily Show\" as a source for news were among the least informed on campaign events and key aspects of the candidates' backgrounds while those who cited the Internet, National Public Radio, and news magazines were the most informed. Even when age and education were taken into account, the people who learned about the campaigns through the Internet were still found to be the most informed, while those who learned from comedy shows were the least informed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5392786",
"title": "News media in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Agenda-setting.:Horse race approach to political campaign coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The study found that the US news media deprive the American public of what Americans say they want: voters are eager to know more about the candidates’ positions on issues and their personal backgrounds, more about lesser-known candidates and more about debates. Commentators have pointed out that when covering election campaigns news media often emphasize trivial facts about the candidates but more rarely provide the candidates' specific public stances on issues that matter to voters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52226495",
"title": "Sexism in American political elections",
"section": "Section::::The role of media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Since the first televised presidential debate in 1960, the rise of media, especially visual media, has had increased importance on political elections. By televising elections, more emphasis was placed on the physical appearance of the candidates and how that reflected their perceived ability or skill. As well, the idea of what a president looked like was cemented in American minds as a white male. This such coverage has only increased since the rise of social media. This poses additional challenges to female candidates. They have difficulties getting equal news coverage to their male counterparts, receiving 50% less coverage. When covered, the information emphasizes on the female candidates’ personal traits, such as physical appearance, rather than their positions on political issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40558",
"title": "1936 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Pre-election polling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "That same year, George Gallup, an advertising executive who had begun a scientific poll, predicted that Roosevelt would win the election, based on a quota sample of 50,000 people. He also predicted that the \"Literary Digest\" would mis-predict the results. His correct predictions made public opinion polling a critical element of elections for journalists and indeed for politicians. The Gallup Poll would become a staple of future presidential elections, and remains one of the most prominent election polling organizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
54ryjb
|
Sex positions names in the last centuries (1200-1800)
|
[
{
"answer": "Let me offer a small window into the names of sex positions as one guide called them c. 1500.\n\nIn the summer of 1524, an artist named Giulio Romano was working on painting saints in the Vatican. In the spirit of bored workers and doodling schoolchildren everywhere, he decided to dash off 16 sketches of obscene character to amuse his friends. In the words of one contemporary, these sketches \"dealt with the various attitudes and postures in which lewd men have intercourse with lewd women.\" Had this been a century beforehand, a good number of rich and powerful nobles would have had a laugh at the sketches, passed them around to their friends, and then they would have disappeared forever. However, along with the printing press, another German technology with great and terrible potential had filtered down into Italy—engraving.\n\nInspired by the printing press, artists looking for mass reproduction had turned to carving a block of wood, filling the gaps with ink, and then pressing them on paper, resulting in what was called a 'woodblock print.' These woodblocks were capable of several thousand impressions, and were often colored in with watercolors or by hand. In fact, woodblocks were most often used to create playing cards. The downside to using wood was that the images would begin to fade and wear down after a few thousand impressions. Additionally, like with the printing press, demand very quickly outstripped supply, and an alternative method was needed. This alternative was found in copper, first by goldsmiths (who had a right to metal engraving under feudal law), and then by painters, the most famous and influential of which was Albrecht Dürer. Dürer, much like Aretino, realized that the developing middle class could not yet afford to own beautiful paintings or decorations, but they could afford copper engravings, which could be sold by the hundreds of thousands. \n\nAlthough Dürer was the first to realize the potential profits and fame, he was not the only one. One Marcantonio Raimondi (who drew our picture of Aretino above)\t, from Bologna, stole Dürer's engraving technique and used it to print a few hundred copies of Romano's dirty pictures, arguing in a letter to his friend that \"they will circulate, and [you and I] will at the same time become both rich and famous.\" And they did. However, Raimondi perhaps sold the engravings far too eagerly and recklessly, to every possible customer, which, even in Rome, led to his arrest and imprisonment by Clement VI. In a lucky break, his friend Pietro Aretino managed to secure his release. The thankful Raimondi showed Aretino the engravings that he had been imprisoned for, and Aretino declared that he was inspired by them, and wrote 16 sonnets to go along with them, dedicating them in a letter to “all hypocrites [such as Giberti], for I am all out of patience with their scurvy strictures and their villainous judgment and that dirty custom that forbids the eyes to see what most delights them. What harm is there to see a man possess a woman? Are the beasts freer than we?” The pairing of the engravings with Aretino’s dirty poems created something really unique—perhaps the first Playboy Magazine in all of history. \n\nThe combined work of these three men was a work called *I Modi* and it was explosive in its success, crossing Europe like wildfire and being translated and spewed into new editions for centuries. The origanls are largely lost, the British Library has the only recorded surviving ones from the second edition--you can see a picture here of the remainders:_URL_0_\n\nHowever in 1602, one Agostino Carracci made copies of the originals for a French translation. These editions that he captioned with the names of various Greek and Roman figures and god(desse)s are the versions that come down to us today. Their subtitles would go on to describe some sexual positions for the next century or so. For example, the position that we call wheelbarrow was termed the Bacchanal style in later pornography. Another, the Herculean described what we might call a standing position. I've compiled several of these in this imgur album [super NSFW]\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "496022",
"title": "Captain Pugwash",
"section": "Section::::Libel case regarding double entendres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "There is a persistent urban legend, repeated by the now defunct UK newspaper the \"Sunday Correspondent\", that ascribes sexually suggestive names – such as Master Bates, Seaman Staines, and Roger (meaning \"have sex with\") the Cabin Boy – to \"Captain Pugwash\"'s characters, and indicating that the captain's name was a slang Australian term for oral sex. The origin of this myth is likely due to student rag mags from the 1970s. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167748",
"title": "Sex position",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Philaenis of Samos, possibly a hetaira (courtesan) of the Hellenistic period (3rd–1st century BC). The \"Kama Sutra\" of Vatsyayana, believed to have been written in the 1st to 6th centuries, has a notorious reputation as a sex manual. Different sex positions result in differences in the depth of sexual penetration and the angle of penetration. Many attempts have been made to categorize sex positions. Alfred Kinsey categorized six primary positions, The earliest known European medieval text dedicated to sexual positions is the \"Speculum al foderi\", sometimes known as \"The Mirror of Coitus\" (or literally \"a mirror for fuckers\"), a 15th-century Catalan text discovered in the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42210490",
"title": "History of bisexuality",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Japan.:Middle class same-sex love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "Male prostitutes and actor-prostitutes serving male clientele were originally restricted to the \"wakashū\" age category, as adult men were not perceived as desirable or socially acceptable sexual partners for other men. During the 17th century, these men (or their employers) sought to maintain their desirability by deferring or concealing their coming-of-age and thus extending their \"non-adult\" status into their twenties or even thirties; this eventually led to an alternate, status-defined \"shudō\" relationship which allowed clients to hire \"boys\" who were, in reality, older than themselves. This evolution was hastened by mid-17th century bans on the depiction of the \"wakashū\"'s long forelocks, their most salient age marker, in kabuki plays; intended to efface the sexual appeal of the young actors and thus reduce violent competition for their favors, this restriction eventually had the unintended effect of de-linking male sexual desirability from actual age, so long as a suitably \"youthful\" appearance could be maintained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "440559",
"title": "Homosexuality in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Meiji Japan.:Kabuki and male prostitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "Male prostitutes and actor-prostitutes serving male clientele were originally restricted to the \"wakashū\" age category, as adult men were not perceived as desirable or socially acceptable sexual partners for other men. During the 17th century, these men (or their employers) sought to maintain their desirability by deferring or concealing their coming-of-age and thus extending their \"non-adult\" status into their twenties or even thirties; this eventually led to an alternate, status-defined \"shudō\" relationship which allowed clients to hire \"boys\" who were, in reality, older than themselves. This evolution was hastened by mid-17th-century bans on the depiction of the \"wakashū\"'s long forelocks, their most salient age marker, in kabuki plays; intended to efface the sexual appeal of the young actors and thus reduce violent competition for their favors, this restriction eventually had the unintended effect of de-linking male sexual desirability from actual age, so long as a suitably \"youthful\" appearance could be maintained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11661468",
"title": "Naming conventions for women in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::High Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "In the era of Augustus and thereafter, Roman women used more varied first names and sometimes even two first names. Naming practice became less rigid, as is evidenced among women of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. While Augustus's wives were known by their father's \"gens\" name (Clodia Pulchra, Scribonia, and Livia) and Tiberius's wives were known by their fathers' less-known gentilical names (Vipsania Agrippina and Julia the Elder), by the third generation of the Imperial family, naming patterns had changed. Julia's daughters by her second husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa were Julia the Younger and Agrippina the Elder, not Vipsania Tertia and Vipsania Quarta. Likewise, Agrippina the Elder's daughters were Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Livilla, and not named for their father's adoptive family, the \"gens\" Julia. Likewise, in the family of Octavia the Younger and Mark Antony, the naming patterns for their daughters (Antonia Major and Antonia Minor) and Octavia's by her first husband (Claudia Marcella Major and Claudia Marcella Minor) are conventional, but that for their granddaughter Livilla (daughter of Nero Claudius Drusus) is not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164225",
"title": "Japanese name",
"section": "Section::::Historical names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Women's personal name changes were recorded less often, so they may not have changed their names as frequently as men did, but women who went into service as maids or entertainers frequently changed their names for the duration of their service. During their employment, their temporary names were treated as their legal names. For example, a maid who was involved in legal dealings in Kyoto in 1819-1831 signed legal documents as Sayo during one period of employment and as Mitsu during a later period of employment, but she signed as Iwa, presumably her birth name, when she was between jobs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224070",
"title": "Missionary position",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and other usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "From then on, the story of the name's origin may have been retold until it became largely accepted, with its connection to Kinsey and Malinowski having faded. Writers began using the expression for sexual intercourse in the late 1960s, and as Alex Comfort's bestseller \"The Joy of Sex\" (1972) and the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" (1976) spread the term \"missionary position\", it gradually replaced older names. By the 1990s, it had spread to other languages: \"Missionarsstellung\" (German), \"postura del misionero\" (Spanish), \"missionarishouding\" (Dutch) and \"position du missionaire\" (French).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6e9goo
|
why are some roofs shaped like this ? (northern france so not a snow area)
|
[
{
"answer": "Might want to check that link again. I'm not seeing any roof there. It just shows random stuff every time it loads.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What I'm interested in is why the gradient changes and not just stays constant like it does in other areas... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The steep pitch at the top provides for better clearance of rain, debris, and in rare cases snow. The shallow pitch at the bottom prevents the eaves from going so low that they hit people in the head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe this is called a [bonnet roof](_URL_0_), and the purpose is to give a little more eave coverage to keep water away from the foundation, and to provide shade for plants growing next to the house. The extra shade also helps to keep the house cooler. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1551912",
"title": "Flat roof",
"section": "Section::::Flat roofs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Flat roofs exist all over the world and each area has its own tradition or preference for materials used. In warmer climates, where there is less rainfall and freezing is unlikely to occur, many flat roofs are simply built of masonry or concrete and this is good at keeping out the heat of the sun and cheap and easy to build where timber is not readily available. In areas where the roof could become saturated by rain and leak, or where water soaked into the brickwork could freeze to ice and thus lead to 'blowing' (breaking up of the mortar/brickwork/concrete by the expansion of ice as it forms) these roofs are not suitable. Flat roofs are characteristic of the Egyptian, Persian, and Arabian styles of architecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981",
"title": "Alps",
"section": "Section::::Alpine people and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss or slate. Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold. In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called \"tavaillon\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26118",
"title": "Roof",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Drainage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "In general, the pitch of the roof is proportional to the amount of precipitation. Houses in areas of low rainfall frequently have roofs of low pitch while those in areas of high rainfall and snow, have steep roofs. The longhouses of Papua New Guinea, for example, being roof-dominated architecture, the high roofs sweeping almost to the ground. The high steeply-pitched roofs of Germany and Holland are typical in regions of snowfall. In parts of North America such as Buffalo, USA or Montreal, Canada, there is a required minimum slope of 6 inches in 12 inches, a pitch of 30 degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16019935",
"title": "Stockholm during the Swedish Empire",
"section": "Section::::Birth of a capital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "...because the buildings all have flattened roofs, covered with birch-bark and verdant turfs in the same manner as the peasant's cottages in Russia. The roofs serve as pasturage, and on some goats are kept grazing, whom occasionally jumps over the street from one building to another and then back again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31022305",
"title": "List of roof shapes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Roof shapes vary from almost flat to steeply pitched. They can be arched or domed; a single flat sheet or a complex arrangement of slopes, gables and hips; or truncated (terraced, cut) to minimize the overall height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103141",
"title": "Thatching",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Some claim thatch cannot cope with regular snowfall but, as with all roofing materials, this depends on the strength of the underlying roof structure and the pitch of the surface. A law passed in 1640 in Massachusetts outlawed the use of thatched roofs in the colony for this reason. Thatch is lighter than most other roofing materials, typically around , so the roof supporting it does not need to be so heavily constructed, but if snow accumulates on a lightly constructed thatched roof, it could collapse. A thatched roof is usually pitched between 45–55 degrees and under normal circumstances this is sufficient to shed snow and water. In areas of extreme snowfall, such as parts of Japan, the pitch is increased further.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38461203",
"title": "Black Forest house",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Roof.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The great roof, with its long overhangs, sweeps right down to the ground floor at the sides, shading the walls of the house in summer whilst allowing the sun, now much lower in the sky, to warm the walls in winter. Depending on the situation, the roof was covered with wooden shingles or thatch, whilst today they are generally covered with tiles. In the high regions of the Black Forest, where cattle farming and forestry predominate, shingles are overwhelmingly used, whilst in the valleys, thatch is most common. The half-hipped roof, with its sides sloping in all directions, reduces the wind loading area and reduces wear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fcjx3p
|
what is a brokered convention and what would that mean for the u.s. democratic primary?
|
[
{
"answer": "In simplest terms, the nominees do not have a majority to become the \"Democratic Nominee.\"\n\nA convention occurs where negotiations go on behind the scenes to try to get other nominees to drop out while delegates continue to vote and revote until a majority occurs. For instance, perhaps one nominee will promise another nominee the VP spot or a cabinet spot.\n\nWhat does this mean? It means that whomever is picked in the end as the nominee for the Democratic Party does not have a united party behind them. If that person does not have a united party behind them, then most likely the other major party will win the election (because a lot of people will vote for someone else - like an independent).\n\nSo, if the priority is getting Trump out of the White House, the last thing the Democratic Party wants is a Brokered Convention.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a nominating convention for a party's presidential nominee (i.e. the Democratic or Republican National Convention), it is required that a candidate receive a majority ( > 50%) of all the delegate's votes in order to secure the nomination.\n\nIf a candidate does not achieve this majority in the first round of voting, the convention becomes 'open' or 'brokered'.\n\nIn a brokered convention, all regular delegates who were pledged to a candidate (because of primary results in their respective states) are 'released', and can vote for whoever they like.\n\nIn the DNC this year this is important, because super-delegates (delegates assigned by the party leadership and not via primaries) cannot vote in the first round of voting. If an open convention happens, they would then get a vote.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13688521",
"title": "Brokered convention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In United States politics, a brokered convention (sometimes referred to as an open convention and closely related to a contested convention) can occur during a presidential election when a political party fails to choose a nominee on the first round of delegate voting at the party's nominating convention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185311",
"title": "United States presidential primary",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Types of primaries and caucuses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Nearly all states have a \"binding\" primary or caucus, in which the results of the election depending on state law or party rules legally \"bind\" some or all of the delegates to vote for a particular candidate at the national convention, for a certain number of ballots or until the candidate releases the delegates. Some binding primaries are \"winner-take-all\" contests, in which all of a state's delegates are required to vote for the same candidate. In a \"proportional vote\", a state's delegation is allocated in proportion to the candidates' percent of the popular vote in a congressional district. In many of those states that have proportional vote primaries, a candidate must meet a certain threshold in the popular vote to be given delegates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15318806",
"title": "Nevada caucuses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The Nevada caucuses are an electoral event in which citizens of the U.S. state of Nevada meet in precinct caucuses to elect delegates to the corresponding county conventions. There are 17 counties in Nevada and so there are 17 conventions. The county conventions then select delegates to Nevada's State Convention, which then choose delegates for the presidential nominating conventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37643953",
"title": "2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "The Democratic Party presidential primaries and caucuses are indirect elections in which voters elect delegates to the 2016 Democratic National Convention; these delegates in turn directly elect the Democratic Party's presidential nominee. In some states, the party may disregard voters' selection of delegates or selected delegates may vote for any candidate at the state or national convention (\"non-binding\" primary or caucus). In other states, state laws and party rules require the party to select delegates according to votes, and delegates must vote for a particular candidate (\"binding\" primary or caucus). There are 4,051 pledged delegates and 714 superdelegates in the 2016 cycle. Under the party's delegate selection rules, the number of pledged delegates allocated to each of the 50 U.S. states and Washington, D.C. is determined using a formula based on three main factors:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185311",
"title": "United States presidential primary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1209,
"text": "The presidential primary elections and caucuses held in the various states, the District of Columbia, and territories of the United States form part of the nominating process of candidates for United States presidential elections. The United States Constitution has never specified the process; political parties have developed their own procedures over time. Some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered, generally beginning sometime in January or February, and ending about mid-June before the general election in November. State and local governments run the primary elections, while caucuses are private events that are directly run by the political parties themselves. A state's primary election or caucus is usually an indirect election: instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for president, they determine the number of delegates each party's national convention will receive from their respective state. These delegates then in turn select their party's presidential nominee. The first state in the United States to hold its presidential primary was New Hampshire in 1920.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509001",
"title": "Republican National Convention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "In case of a brokered convention, Rule 40(b) of the 2016 convention rules states that a candidate must have the support of a majority of the delegates of at least eight delegations in order to get the nomination. On the first ballot, delegates from all states and territories except Colorado, Wyoming, North Dakota, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam and a few from Louisiana must vote for the candidate who won their support on the day of their state's primary or caucus. On the second ballot, 55 percent of the delegates are free to vote for whomever they want. By the third ballot, 85 percent of the delegates are free.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16108443",
"title": "Texas caucuses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The Texas caucuses are a political event associated with primaries, the process by which voters in the U.S. state of Texas ultimately select their parties' nominees for various offices. The process as a whole has been referred to as the Texas Two-step, after the partner dance of the same name, because Texans were required to first vote in the primary election in order to be eligible for participation in party caucuses in which delegates were selected. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
axavw7
|
What is rocket fuel and how do we get it?
|
[
{
"answer": "You’re not entirely wrong on the gasoline thing, believe it or not. IIRC, the first stage of the Saturn V was powered by a mixture of liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene. You’re also right about ice: you can electrolyse water into its base components, hydrogen and oxygen, and use that as fuel. Granted it’s not necessarily as simple as I describe it but that’s the gist of it. If you really feel like learning about rocket fuel, I suggest reading Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants by John Drury Clark. You can find the entire text online for free (can’t give it to you now, mobile). \n\nEDIT: [Here’s the book for you](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many types.\n\nSolid fuel is usually ammonium perchlorate composite propellant (APCP) that burns aluminium. Additives include iron oxide catalyst, a binder like HTPB or PNAB that holds the fuel together and acts as secondary fuel, and epoxy curing agent. There are other solid fuels but APCP is the most efficient and widespread in space rocketry.\n\nLiquid fuels also have two distinct types.\n\n Hypergolic fuels ignite on contact and most of them are liquid at room temperatures, give or take. This means they aren't cryogenic and as such are used in deep space missions without evaporating. Examples include various hydrazine derivatives like UDMH or MMH. Oxidized by nitrogen tetroxide. Toxic. Hypergolic monopropellants exist that use a metal catalyst (iirc iridium or platinum, don't remember), these are usually used in maneuvering thrusters of space probes.\n\nCryogenic fuels refer to liquid oxygen and hydrogen components. They're not used past geostationary orbits since they evaporate in a matter of hours for hydrogen to couple days at most with extra insulation for oxygen. Other than hydrogen, kerosene is the most widespread and traditional fuel, with works on methane under way. Exotic paper designs of the past included fluorine oxidizers and pentaborane fuel - very efficient, immensely toxic, and a huge pain in the ass to store: fluorine is very corrosive. Main use for hydrolox and kerolox engines is ascent through geostationary transfer insertion. \n\nAnother type is noble gas used in electric engines, chiefly xenon. Miniscule thrust, immense efficiency. Used for attitude correction and station keeping of satellites or main propulsion for the DAWN space probe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27945098",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Roaring Twenties and the Jazz Age (1920–1928).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 296,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 296,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The liquid-fuel rocket is a rocket with an engine that uses propellants in liquid form. On March 16, 1926 in Auburn, Massachusetts, Dr. Robert H. Goddard, the \"father of modern rocketry\", launched the first liquid-fueled rocket in history, which used liquid oxygen and gasoline as propellants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60323001",
"title": "Aircraft engine performance",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting aircraft engine performance.:Fuel.:Rocket fuel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1579,
"text": "Rocket fuel consists of solid, liquid and gel state fuels for propulsion. In order to power rockets, a fuel and an oxidiser are mixed within the combustion chamber, producing a high energy propulsive exhaust as thrust. The main uses for rocket fuel are for space shuttle boosters in order to propel the craft out of the atmosphere, or for missiles. Solid rocket propellant does not degrade in long-term storage and remains reliable on combustion. This allows munitions to remain loaded and fired when needed, which is highly regarded for military use. Once ignited, solid rocket propellants cannot be shutdown. The fuel and the oxidiser are stored within a metal casing. Once ignited, the fuel burns from the centre of the solid compound towards the edges of the metal casing. Burn rates and intensity are manipulated by the changing of the shape of a channel between the fuel and the casing shell. Two varieties of solid rocket fuel propellants exist. These include homogeneous and composite solid rocket fuels. These fuels are characteristically dense, stable at ordinary temperatures and easily storable. Liquid fuels are more controllable than solid rocket fuels, and can be shutoff after ignition and restarted, as well as offering greater thrust control. Liquid propellants are stored in two parts in an engine, as the fuel in one tank and an oxidiser in another. These liquids are mixed in the combustion chamber and ignited. Hypergolic fuel is mixed and ignites spontaneously, requiring no separate ignition. Liquid fuel compounds include petroleum, hydrogen and oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34030592",
"title": "Rocket Fuel Is The Key",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Rocket Fuel Is The Key formed in early 1994 when guitarist Scott McNearney moved to Kansas City and began to search for like-minded people to make music with. Bringing in Ed Przychodzki on drums and Vic Denson on bass guitar the lineup was finished six months later. Following the creation of a demo and extensive touring the band they were approached by a New York label to record their debut album.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "807570",
"title": "Cryogenic fuel",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Combustible.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "These fuels utilize the beneficial liquid cryogenic properties along with the flammable nature of the substance as a source of power. These types of fuel are well known primarily for their use in rockets including the Intercontinental ballistic missile. Some common combustible fuels include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26301",
"title": "Rocket",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Propellant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank or casing, prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust. For chemical rockets often the propellants are a fuel such as liquid hydrogen or kerosene burned with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen or nitric acid to produce large volumes of very hot gas. The oxidiser is either kept separate and mixed in the combustion chamber, or comes premixed, as with solid rockets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26301",
"title": "Rocket",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Energy.:Energy efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Since the energy ultimately comes from fuel, these considerations mean that rockets are mainly useful when a very high speed is required, such as ICBMs or orbital launch. For example, NASA's space shuttle fires its engines for around 8.5 minutes, consuming 1,000 tonnes of solid propellant (containing 16% aluminium) and an additional 2,000,000 litres of liquid propellant (106,261 kg of liquid hydrogen fuel) to lift the 100,000 kg vehicle (including the 25,000 kg payload) to an altitude of 111 km and an orbital velocity of 30,000 km/h. At this altitude and velocity, the vehicle has a kinetic energy of about 3 TJ and a potential energy of roughly 200 GJ. Given the initial energy of 20 TJ, the Space Shuttle is about 16% energy efficient at launching the orbiter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21188370",
"title": "Fuel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1q7y2t
|
Is it easier to slow a car by holding the brakes, or by pressing and releasing them?
|
[
{
"answer": "a few things.\n\nfirstly you're not 'creating more inertia'. inertia is a property of all bodies with mass which is just a consequence of Newton's Laws: a body will maintain its motion unless acted upon by a force, and the force required to achieve a certain change in velocity (i.e. acceleration = change in velocity / time) is F = mass * acceleration.\n\nIf you want to change the velocity of a car from v to zero you will have to provide a certain force for a certain time. It does not matter how you break up that time, everything is linear. So no, in that sense there is no difference between breaking all at once or breaking in bits.\n\nI think your question is inspired by the fact that if you're driving an old car without anti-lock breaks and going very fast or on slippery ground it makes sense to 'pulse' the break pedal to stop in the shortest possible time. (Anti-lock breaks automate that process.) \n\nHowever, that has its origin in an entirely different phenomenon. If you have an object lying on a surface then you need to exert some minimum force F = mu_s w to get it moving. w is just the object's weight, and mu_s is the *coefficient of static friction*. The bigger it is the harder the object is to move (so for example the coefficient of static friction of a tire on road is quite high, but of roller scates on ice is very small. It varies for each combination of materials.)\n\nOn the other hand, if an object is already moving and you just want to keep it moving at the same velocity you will have to apply a force F = mu_k w. (so for example you're shoving a box and you want to move it across the room.) w is again the weight, but now mu_k is the *coefficient of kinetic friction*. \n\nHere's the rub: the coefficient of kinetic friction is always less than the coefficient of static friction. This is why, when you're trying to move a heavy object by shoving it, getting it moving is the hardest part (you have to fight the larger coefficient of static friction). Once it moves it's less work for you to keep it moving.\n\nThis explains why you want to pulse the break. If you're going very fast and your tires roll without slipping then your tire surface does not actually move in relation to the road surface. So if you apply the breaks then the tires will exert force on the road, which in turn exerts a force back and slows down the car, up to the maximum force possible by the coefficient of static friction.\n\nHowever, if the breaking force exceeds that value then your wheels lock up and start to slip on the road. The coefficient of kinetic friction now dictates the maximum stopping force, which is smaller than before slipping and increases the time taken to come to a complete stop. So rather than breaking maximally hard, you should optimally break to the greatest extent that does not cause slippage. That's where 'pulsing the break' comes form. It avoids breaking so strongly that your tires loose grip on the road, therefore reducing the friction that stops your car. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59587",
"title": "Anti-lock braking system",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "BULLET::::2. The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration of the car is impossible (and in actuality the rapid deceleration means the wheel is about to slip), so it reduces the pressure to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the wheel can actually significantly change speed. The result is that the wheel slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the wheels very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32410",
"title": "Vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Control.:Stopping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "To further increase the rate of deceleration or where the brakes have failed, several mechanisms can be used to stop a vehicle. Cars and rolling stock usually have hand brakes that, while designed to secure an already parked vehicle, can provide limited braking should the primary brakes fail. A secondary procedure called forward-slip is sometimes used to slow airplanes by flying at an angle, causing more drag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3368045",
"title": "Fishtailing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Similar behaviour is evident during heavy braking in all types of road vehicles, due to weight transfer to the front. This can be mitigated by re-proportioning the braking forces (more to the front, less to the rear) to keep the rear wheels from locking up. Most modern cars use anti-lock brakes (ABS) which addresses this problem. Older cars may have less sophisticated technical systems for lessening this tendency or the driver alone must actively modulate the brakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4121606",
"title": "Self-levelling suspension",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Most of the braking power is on the front wheels of a vehicle, which means you will have more effective braking when more weight is over the front wheels. When the rear end has a heavy load, the braking is not as effective. The weight is concentrated on the rear end of the vehicle, and the rear brakes need to do all of the work. When braking quickly in this situation, the front brakes will be easier to lock up because of the lack of weight transfer to the front of the vehicle. Self-levelling suspension lifts the rear end of the vehicle up to spread out the weight more evenly. This puts the weight back onto the front end of the vehicle, which lets the brakes do their job more effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51530415",
"title": "Tank steering systems",
"section": "Section::::Differential braking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "The main disadvantage, like the clutch braking system, is that steering dissipates heat through the brakes. Unlike the clutched system, however, in this case all turning requires braking. This can be used on lighter tanks, but the amount of kinetic energy in larger tanks makes the required brakes impractically large. Another disadvantage is that the differential will allow the tracks to turn at different speeds no matter what the cause may be. This may be the application of braking, but also occurs as the tank travels over terrain; if one side of the tank enters softer terrain and slows down, the tank will naturally turn towards that side. Forward momentum tends to offset this effect, so it is mainly a problem at low speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1519764",
"title": "Brake fade",
"section": "Section::::Factors contributing to fade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "Brake fade typically occurs during heavy or sustained braking. Many high-speed vehicles use disc brakes, and many European heavy vehicles use disc brakes. Many U.S. and third-world heavy vehicles use drum brakes due to their lower purchase price. On heavy vehicles, air drag is often small compared to the weight, so the brakes dissipate proportionally more energy than on a typical car or motorcycle. Thus, heavy vehicles often need to use engine compression braking, and slow down so braking energy is dissipated over a longer interval. Recent studies have been performed in the United States to test the stopping distances of both drum brakes and disc brakes using a North American Standard called FMVSS-121. The results showed that when newer compounding of friction materials typically used in disc brakes is applied to drum brakes that there is virtually no difference in stopping distance or brake fade. As the United States changed its FMVSS-121 rules for Class Eight trucks built in 2012 to reduce stopping distances by about 1/3rd there was no recommendation to use either drum or disc brakes in the current law. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65423",
"title": "Brake",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed against the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5b6dkl
|
Did Hispanics go to segregated schools in the southwest prior to brown v. Board?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. But Brown v. Board of Education was not the ruling that ended the segregation. There are two types of segregation. One is \"de jure\" or by law segregation, meaning segregation based on laws on the books. The other is \"customary\" segregation, or segregation that was not based on laws but custom. California had de jure segregation, and was one of the earliest states to grapple with segregation, which makes sense since it had a large population of Hispanics. In Mendez v. Westminster, a 1945 case, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a decision that segregation of schools was unconstitutional. Brown v. Board of Education quoted Mendez and adopted much of its reasoning. In 1947, California's segregation of Hispanic schools ended. Following Mendez, a case in Texas, Delgado v. Bastrop Independent School District, led to a ruling that customary segregation was unconstitutional (Texas did not have de jure segregation). I am less familiar with the histories in the other states. I will note that the Treaty of Guadalupe required that Hispanics be classified as white in the Soutwest, which is why most segregation was customary, not de jure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11967890",
"title": "Freedom of Choice (schools)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Ten years after the US Supreme Court ruled in \"Brown II (1955)\" for school racial integration with \"all deliberate speed,\" many school districts in states with school segregation gave their students the right to choose between white and black schools, independently of their race. In practice, most schools remained segregated, with only a small minority of black students choosing to attend a white school and no white student choosing black schools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10895673",
"title": "Definitions of whiteness in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Specific ethnic groups.:Asian Americans.:East Asian Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "In a precursor to \"Brown v. Board\" the 1947, federal legal case \"Mendez v. Westminster\" fought to take down segregated schools for Mexican American and white students, in doing so this prompted Governor Earl Warren to repeal a state law calling for segregation of Native American and Asian American students in California. Further proof that East Asians were segregated in the American education system during the Jim Crow era of the United States. However, as a result of the Wysinger vs. Crookshank, 82 Cal 588, 720, (1890) ruling, Blacks were integrated into California's education system and thus never attended segregated public schools during the Jim Crow era in California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52410190",
"title": "Timeline of Latino civil rights in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Important Achievements and Milestones in the Fight for Latino Civil Rights.:1940-1950.:Delgado V. The Bastrop Independent School District.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "After World War II, the League of United Latin American Citizens filed a lawsuit in Texas to eliminate educational segregation of Mexican-American children in school systems. In June 1948, the federal court in Austin stated that this kind of segregation was unconstitutional because it violated the Fourteenth Amendment. After the decision, Mexican-Americans were officially classified as white, and were no longer subject to the \"separate-but-equal\" doctrine. The Texas State Board of Education issued an accommodating statement of policy and instructed local school districts to abolish segregation of Mexican Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42913389",
"title": "School integration in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Impact on Hispanic populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1394,
"text": "The implementation of school integration policies did not just affect black and white students; in recent years, scholars have noted how the integration of public schools significantly affected Hispanic populations in the south and southwest. Historically, Hispanic-Americans were legally considered white. A group of Mexican-Americans in Corpus Christi, Texas challenged this classification, as it resulted in discrimination and ineffective school integration policies. In \"Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District\" (1970), the Federal District Court decreed that Hispanic-Americans should be classified as an ethnic minority group, and that the integration of Corpus Christi schools should reflect that. In 2005, historian Guadalupe San Miguel authored \"Brown Not White\", an in-depth study of how Hispanic populations were used by school districts to circumvent truly integrating their schools. It detailed that when school districts officially categorized Hispanic students as ethnically white, a predominately African-American school and a predominately Hispanic school could be combined and successfully pass the integration standards laid out by the U.S. government, leaving white schools unaffected. San Miguel describes how the Houston Independent School District used this loophole to keep predominately white schools unchanged, at the disadvantage of Hispanic students.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "663596",
"title": "Citizens' Councils",
"section": "Section::::Birth and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled in \"Brown vs. Board of Education\" that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Schools and other public facilities were segregated by state law in Southern states. Some sources claim that the first White Citizens' Council started after this in Greenwood, Mississippi. Others say that the group originated in Indianola, Mississippi. The recognized leader was Robert B. Patterson of Indianola, a plantation manager and a former captain of the Mississippi State University football team. Additional chapters were established in many other southern towns. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33839009",
"title": "History of Mexican Americans in Houston",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In the 20th century, when schools were legally segregated by race (the Jim Crow era), Mexican-Americans attended schools legally designated for white students. Until 1970 the Houston Independent School District (HISD) counted its Hispanic and Latino students as \"white.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59086186",
"title": "Townsend Park High School",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1559,
"text": "Prior to the Brown v Board of Education decision in 1954, Arkansas law required school districts to maintain separate schools for black and white students. Traditionally, schools were operated on a neighborhood basis, and this allowed the white-dominated school board to continue operating segregated schools because the neighborhoods themselves were segregated. In 1959 the court case \"Dove v. Parham\" ruled that three negro students had the right to attend Dollarway High School. Segregationists including Jim Johnson and Amis Guthridge incited a riot and prevented this from happening for some period of time. Because of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the school board reluctantly instituted a choice plan, which resulted in a very small number of black students attending Dollarway, but no white students attending Townsend Park. A very small number of teachers had also been transferred between the old systems. Judge Henley ruled in \"Cato v. Parham\" that this did not satisfy the requirement for integration. White members of the school board admitted that race was still a consideration in their zoning, and that they ignored the input of the board's only black member. Judge Henley ordered that the zoning be withdrawn and that the faculty be reassigned so that the percentages were approximately equal to the percentages of the population. In 1970 the schools were finally integrated, with Townsend Park High School becoming Townsend Park Elementary, which it remained until it closed in 2016. High school students were sent to Dollarway High School.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
349tf0
|
Does the earth rotating have any effect on us seeing the clouds move?
|
[
{
"answer": "Directly? No. It's *not* like the clouds are holding still while the surface of the Earth rotates beneath them. The entire planet and the atmosphere rotate together, conserving angular momentum. However...\n\nIndirectly? Yes. Unlike the surface, the atmosphere is free to move north and south. As the equator heats up from all the direct sunlight there, air moves towards the poles to redistribute that heat. Air that was once moving with same angular momentum as the surface at the equator has now shifted closer to the poles, and thus closer to the axis of rotation. In order to conserve angular momentum, then, it must start rotating faster, like an ice skater pulling in his arms. This helps create the prevailing westerlies, a.k.a. the jet streams, and explains why a lot of the weather at mid-latitudes (over most of the US and Europe) comes from the west and moves towards the east.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4323846",
"title": "Identification studies of UFOs",
"section": "Section::::Common causes of misidentification and UFOs.:Misperception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "According to Hendry, moving clouds may also sometimes confuse observers by creating induced motion. Hendry believes this occasionally makes observers also believe objects have suddenly disappeared or make a rapid departure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474404",
"title": "High-pressure area",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "However, because the planet is rotating underneath the atmosphere, and frictional forces arise as the planetary surface drags some atmosphere with it, the air flow from center to periphery is not direct, but is twisted due to the Coriolis effect, or the merely apparent force that arise when the observer is in a rotating frame of reference. Viewed from above this twist in wind direction is in the same direction as the rotation of the planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1209823",
"title": "Rotating reference frame",
"section": "Section::::Coriolis effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth. Moving objects on the surface of the Earth experience a Coriolis force, and appear to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern. Movements of air in the atmosphere and water in the ocean are notable examples of this behavior: rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would on a non-rotating planet, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator, and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47515",
"title": "Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Vortex streets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "These patterns are formed from a phenomenon known as a Kármán vortex which is named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore von Kármán. Wind driven clouds can form into parallel rows that follow the wind direction. When the wind and clouds encounter high elevation land features such as a vertically prominent islands, they can form eddies around the high land masses that give the clouds a twisted appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783",
"title": "Coriolis force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1459,
"text": "In popular (non-technical) usage of the term \"Coriolis effect\", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation per day, so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared to other forces; its effects generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean. Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important. This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator. Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54962",
"title": "Geophysics",
"section": "Section::::Physical phenomena.:Fluid dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Geophysical fluid dynamics is a primary tool in physical oceanography and meteorology. The rotation of the Earth has profound effects on the Earth's fluid dynamics, often due to the Coriolis effect. In the atmosphere it gives rise to large-scale patterns like Rossby waves and determines the basic circulation patterns of storms. In the ocean they drive large-scale circulation patterns as well as Kelvin waves and Ekman spirals at the ocean surface. In the Earth's core, the circulation of the molten iron is structured by Taylor columns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47515",
"title": "Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Effects on the troposphere, climate, and climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Tropospheric clouds exert numerous influences on Earth's troposphere and climate. First and foremost, they are the source of precipitation, thereby greatly influencing the distribution and amount of precipitation. Because of their differential buoyancy relative to surrounding cloud-free air, clouds can be associated with vertical motions of the air that may be convective, frontal, or cyclonic. The motion is upward if the clouds are less dense because condensation of water vapor releases heat, warming the air and thereby decreasing its density. This can lead to downward motion because lifting of the air results in cooling that increases its density. All of these effects are subtly dependent on the vertical temperature and moisture structure of the atmosphere and result in major redistribution of heat that affect the Earth's climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tdz29
|
How were illegitimate children viewed in medieval China?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on situation to situation. However, since your character is a female, she would be suffering a fair bit.\n_________\n\nIt ancient China, bloodlines are very important, and it links directly to the status of a person (as well as the inheritance that may come with it).\n\nA son born to the legal wife of a man would be considered the proper heir 嫡子, and would have first consideration in inheriting all estates and titles when the man passes away. This status would be irregardless if the age of any of the other sons the man may have with other women. As such, the proper heir would be pampered the most in the family, and given all the best benefits possible. Only when the proper heir has brothers by the same parents, would there be a question of inheritance.\n\nA son born to a concubine of a man 庶子 would be considered part of the family, but would not stand to inherit anything. If his mother was especially pampered, he may be allowed certain privileges, but these would still be considerably less than that provided to the proper heir. However, if the man has no son with his legal wife, the concubine's son may be promoted to be the heir, often through having the legal wife adopt the son as her own.\n\nA son who was illegitimate, however, would not be treated as part of the family at all. Although the term 庶子 was also used to describe such sons, if their mother was not married to their father, they would be regarded as outcasts, and most would not be even allowed to enter the family home. Even if the birth father did show some concern for the child by bringing him into the family, the boy would often be mistreated. As such, they would have no chance of inheriting anything from the family. The only exception would be if none of the man's wives or concubines have sons, in which case the illegitimate son would be adopted, but would have to cut off all ties to his birth mother.\n\nThe most famous examples would probably be the uncle-nephew pair Wei Qing 卫青 and Huo Qubing 霍去病. Wei Qing was the illegitimate child of Wei Ao 卫媪 and Zheng Ji 郑季. Wei Ao was married to another man, and life was difficult enough for the family's existing children (Wei Ao already had one son and three daughters with her husband), so she sent Wei Qing to live with his father instead. However, Wei Qing's father made the young boy shepherd sheep, and the legitimate children in the Zheng family bullied him, ordering him around like a slave. Thus he decided to go back to his mother's family, and was employed as a stable boy by his mother's mistress (princess Pingyang 平阳公主).\n\nHuo Qubing was the son of Wei Qing's sister Wei Shao-er 卫少儿 and Huo Zhongru 霍仲孺. Huo Zhongru was fearful of acknowledging his son (most probably because Wei Shao-er was a serving lady to princess Pingyang, and he might be punished for being with her), and so Huo Qubing had to grow up being part of the servants in the princess' house. More fortunately for him, his auntie Wei Zifu 卫子夫 soon won the emperor's favour, and he was brought to court to be brought up and became a general at the age of 19.\n_____________\nThese information would only apply to sons, because sons were the ones who stood to inherit family estates. Taking your backstory into consideration, a daughter born to an upper class family would be reasonably well brought up as a lady, and would be married off at a suitable age to be a bride to a (hopefully) rich or powerful family. However, an illegitimate daughter would not be accepted into the family at all, and would have to live off whatever her mother's family could provide for her.\n\nIf her mother's family had enough money, she may still have a relatively easy life, but would not be permitted much freedom as it would be considered a family shame to let her be seen on the streets. She would also be married off as soon as possible to cut off her ties to the family.\n\nIf her mother's family did not have money to provide for her, she would probably be sold off - if fortunate, to a family that has no children and are looking to adopt; if unfortunate, to the brothel so that her mother could gain some quick cash. The family would not want to keep her, since an additional person means an additional mouth to fill.\n\nHopefully, these information helps out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37723068",
"title": "Slavery in Asia",
"section": "Section::::China.:Yuan Dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Many Han Chinese were enslaved in the process of the Mongol invasion of China proper. According to Japanese historian Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also certain numbers of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan dynasty. Moreover, there is no evidence that Han Chinese, who were considered to rank at the bottom of Yuan society by some research, were subjected to particularly cruel abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27992",
"title": "Slavery",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Many Han Chinese were enslaved in the process of the Mongol invasion of China proper. According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also a certain number of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan dynasty. Moreover, there is no evidence that the Han Chinese, who were at the bottom of Yuan society according to some research, suffered particularly cruel abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13383601",
"title": "Mongol conquest of China",
"section": "Section::::Conquest of Southern Song.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Many Han Chinese were enslaved in the process of the Mongols invasion of China proper. According to Japanese historian Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also a certain number of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan dynasty. However, there is no evidence that Han Chinese, who were considered people of the bottom of Yuan society according to some researchers, suffered particularly cruel abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39026898",
"title": "Pork knuckles and ginger stew",
"section": "Section::::Legend.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "According to legend in the early Ming Dynasty there lived a butcher who had the good fortune to marry a very pretty, kind and gumptious girl. However, their happiness was broken by the fact that even after several years of marriage, the wife was still without child. Now in traditional Chinese feudalism, there are three unfilial sins, and of these failure to bear a descendant to carry the family name is by far the most unforgivable. Therefore, the butcher’s mother forced the two to divorce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26316",
"title": "Racial segregation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Imperial China.:Qing dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The Qing Dynasty was founded not by the Han Chinese who form the majority of the Chinese population, but the Manchus, who are today an ethnic minority of China. The Manchus were keenly aware of their minority status, however, it was only later in the dynasty that they banned intermarriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472969",
"title": "Heqin",
"section": "Section::::Qing dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu in early Qing were sometimes married to imperial daughters, although this is much less frequent than the case where Aisin Giroro women married to Mongolian aristocrats or other Manchu elite. Unlike the marriage between Manchu and Mongolians that lasted throughout the Qing Dynasty, the marriages between Emperor's daughters and Han Generals ceased before 1750.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28978421",
"title": "Nobility",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "It was a custom in China for the new dynasty to ennoble and enfeoff a member of the dynasty which they overthrew with a title of nobility and a fief of land so that they could offer sacrifices to their ancestors, in addition to members of other preceding dynasties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1klyog
|
how do physicists shoot beams of small particles, like electrons, protons, and neutrons?
|
[
{
"answer": "Electrons are easy; they're the social butterflies of the subatomic realm. They flit about very promiscuously. And because they have electric charge, they're easy to manipulate with electric fields.\n\nThe general process by which electron beams are created involves passing an electric current (which is a flow of electrons, essentially) through some kind of conductor that, when it gets hot, sprays electrons out. This phenomenon is called *thermionic emission,* and it generally means that the *thermal* energy of the electrons exceeds the *binding* energy of the electrons, so they escape from whatever material you're using.\n\nOnce the electrons get sprayed out of the hot cathode, their trajectories are \"bent\" by the presence of electric fields. The spray is therefore shaped into a collimated beam.\n\nProton beams are a bit more complicated, because protons don't come flying off of hot things the way electrons do. Generally the way proton beams are created is by taking hydrogen gas — which is just protons with electrons clinging to them — and stripping off the electrons with a strong electric field. Electrons are very light particles compared to protons, so it's possible to yank them away and send the protons shooting off in the opposite direction. From there, it's the same story: Shape the spray of protons with electric fields to create a beam.\n\nNeutrons are even more complicated. They're electrically neutral, which means we can't touch them — literally. There's no way for you to accelerate a neutron. Instead, they have to be *made* by knocking hydrogen atoms together. Most hydrogen atoms contain just a single proton and a single electron, but some — called deuterium — have a neutron in there as well. If you smack two deuterium atoms together in the right way, they glomp together to make a helium atom, and eject the extra neutron. Do this in a very precise fashion, and you can create a beam of neutrons shooting out of a piece of metal. You can't control the beam the way you can with electrons or protons, because again, neutrons have no electric charge and can't be touched. But you get a beam nonetheless, which you can point at things to make a wide variety of interesting things happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Particles with an electric charge get accelerated when they enter an electric field, and get deflected when the enter a magnetic field. If you place the source in an electric field, all particles will get accelerated in one direction, creating a beam. \nYou can then use magnetic fields to force your particles onto certain trajectories (like a circle or a spiral). If you combine the two effects, you can build very sophisticated \"filters\" that only particles with a certain velocity can pass through, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "453420",
"title": "Directed-energy weapon",
"section": "Section::::Particle-beam weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Particle-beam weapons can use charged or neutral particles, and can be either endoatmospheric or exoatmospheric. Particle beams as beam weapons are theoretically possible, but practical weapons have not been demonstrated yet. Certain types of particle beams have the advantage of being self-focusing in the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4952672",
"title": "Hydrogen–deuterium exchange",
"section": "Section::::Detection.:Neutron crystallography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "High intensity neutron beams are generally generated by spallation at linac particle accelerators such as the Spallation Neutron Source. Neutrons diffract crystals similarly to X-rays and can be used for structural determination. Hydrogen atoms, with between one and zero electrons in a biological setting, diffract X-rays poorly and are effectively invisible under normal experimental conditions. Neutrons scatter from atomic nuclei, and are therefore capable of detecting hydrogen and deuterium atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26877140",
"title": "Electrostatic nuclear accelerator",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "These accelerators are being used for nuclear medicine in medical physics, sample analysis using techniques such as PIXE in the material sciences, depth profiling in solid state physics, and to a lesser extent secondary ion mass spectrometry in geologic and cosmochemical works, and even neutron beams can be made from the charged particles emerging from these accelerators to perform neutron crystallography in condensed matter physics. The principles used in electrostatic nuclear accelerators could be used to accelerate any charged particles, but particle physics operates at much higher energy regimes than these machines can achieve, and there are various better methods suited for making electron beams, so these accelerators are used for accelerating nuclei.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326386",
"title": "Ion source",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Particle accelerators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "In particle accelerators an ion source creates a particle beam at the beginning of the machine, the \"source\". The technology to create ion sources for particle accelerators depends strongly on the type of particle that needs to be generated: electrons, protons, H ion or a Heavy ions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188888",
"title": "Neutron source",
"section": "Section::::Medium-sized devices.:Light ion accelerators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Traditional particle accelerators with hydrogen (H), deuterium (D), or tritium (T) ion sources may be used to produce neutrons using targets of deuterium, tritium, lithium, beryllium, and other low-Z materials. Typically these accelerators operate with energies in the 1 MeV range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2077685",
"title": "Particle-beam weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "A particle-beam weapon uses a high-energy beam of atomic or subatomic particles to damage the target by disrupting its atomic and/or molecular structure. A particle-beam weapon is a type of directed-energy weapon, which directs energy in a particular and focused direction using particles with minuscule mass. Some particle-beam weapons have potential practical applications, e.g. as an antiballistic missile defense system for the United States and its cancelled Strategic Defense Initiative. They have been known by myriad names: phasers, particle accelerator guns, ion cannons, proton beams, lightning rays, rayguns, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23891",
"title": "Particle radiation",
"section": "Section::::Types and production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Particle accelerators can also produce neutrino beams. Neutron beams are mostly produced by nuclear reactors. For the production of electromagnetic radiation, there are many methods, depending upon the wave length (see electromagnetic spectrum).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ve8lx
|
Could a holographic monitor exist? Is it even possible?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't remember what the technology is or called, sorry. But I remember recently reading about a system using very very small mirrors on micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) to create a real \"hologram\" (of the kind formed by the interference of light)\n\nHere we go: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25488366",
"title": "Holographic screen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "A holographic screen is a two dimensional display technology that uses coated glass media for the projection surface of a video projector. \"Holographic\" refers not to a stereoscopic effect (for that, see Holographic display), but to the coating that bundles light using formed microlenses. The lens design and attributes match the holographic area. The lenses may appear similar to the fresnel lenses used in overhead projectors. The resulting effect is that of a free-space display, because the image carrier appears very transparent. Additionally, the beam manipulation by the lenses can be used to make the image appear to be floating in front of or behind the glass, rather than directly on it. However, this display is only two-dimensional and not true three-dimensional. It is unclear if such a technology will be able to provide acceptable three-dimensional images in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9596720",
"title": "Computer-generated holography",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Alternatively, the holographic image can be brought to life by a holographic 3D display (a display which operates on the basis of interference of coherent light), bypassing the need of having to fabricate a \"hardcopy\" of the holographic interference pattern each time. Consequently, in recent times the term \"computer-generated holography\" is increasingly being used to denote the whole process chain of synthetically preparing holographic light wavefronts suitable for observation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89769",
"title": "Screensaver",
"section": "Section::::Entertainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The screensaver is also a creative outlet for computer programmers. The Unix-based screensaver XScreenSaver collects the display effects of other Unix screensavers, which are termed \"display hacks\" in the \"jargon file\" tradition of US computer science academics. It also collects forms of computer graphics effects called \"demo effects\", originally included in demos created by the demo scene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15636666",
"title": "Holographic display",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "A holographic display is a type of display that utilizes light diffraction to create a virtual three-dimensional image of an object. Holographic displays are distinguished from other forms of 3D imaging in that they do not require the aid of any special glasses or external equipment for a viewer to see the image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40661277",
"title": "Holography in fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Video games have used fictional holographic technology that reflected real life misrepresentations of potential military use of holograms, such as the \"mirage tanks\" in \"\" that can disguise themselves as trees. Holographic decoys are used in games such as \"\" and \"Crysis 2\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15636666",
"title": "Holographic display",
"section": "Section::::Types of Holographic Displays.:Touchable Holograms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "Touchable holograms were originally a Japanese invention that became further developed by American microprocessor company Intel. Touchable hologram technology is the closest modern representation of the holographic displays that one might see in sci-fi movies such as Star Wars and particularly in the Star Trek television franchise. This display is unique in that it can detect a user's touch by sensing movements in the air. The device then provides haptic feedback to the user by sending an ultrasonic air blast in return. In Intel's demonstration of this technology, the display was showcased representing a touchless, responsive piano. A possible implementation for this technology would be interactive displays in public kiosks; because this type of display does not require a user to physically touch a screen, it ensures that bacteria and viruses do not get transmitted from person to person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66338",
"title": "Holography",
"section": "Section::::In fiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Video games have used fictional holographic technology that reflected real life misrepresentations of potential military use of holograms, such as the \"mirage tanks\" in \"\" that can disguise themselves as trees. Holographic decoys are used in games such as \"Halo Reach\" and \"Crysis 2\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dg8r5
|
what is to be gained from this trip to pluto?
|
[
{
"answer": "The objective is \"Curiosity\". If you're looking for a reason like Pluto is made up entirely of gold or vanilla ice cream, which is possible, than you're missing the point. The biggest point of all satellites is to sustain our appetite for curiosity. Humans are naturally curious, and exploring is in our genetic makeup as humans. Our pursuit of knowledge has begun since human has first existed and will continue until our last breath as a species. We are curious, what's out there in space, what do the other planets in our solar system look like, what are they made off, has there been any sign of other intelligent life form landing on the planet? The true objective is finding answers to questions we don't know, or don't understand...yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Consider from the perspective of before the mission was launched. There's a major body in the solar system, that everyone knows the name of, that we know almost nothing about besides what we can infer from its size and distance from the Sun and the general chemical composition of its surface. The best picture we have of it is [this](_URL_2_). \n\nThen you determine that for less than the price of one B-2 bomber ([New Horizons](_URL_1_)) ([B-2](_URL_0_)) you can find out what it looks like, get information about it that could potentially teach you more about how the solar system formed and evolved over time, help inspire a new generation of youths to pursue careers in science, feed everyone's curiosity, and display your country's technological prowess and economic strength (in a way that benefits society and isn't aggressive) by being the first and only to send a mission there. That seems like a no-brainer to me. Even if you don't get a tangible benefit like a new gadget or resources, it's still worth the tiny fraction of your country's yearly budget.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In truth is the same as what NASA wanted to find when they first went to the moon the knew there was nothing there and they didn't have anything to ask that they didn't know, the reason was to find things we don't know so a question is created and we can figure them out, ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4446977",
"title": "Pluto in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "BULLET::::- In \"World's Fair 1992\" by Robert Silverberg (1968), a U.S.-led expedition reaches Pluto in less than two weeks using a nuclear-powered spacecraft capable of continuous acceleration. The spacecraft, \"Pluto I,\" collects five crab-like indigenous Plutonians and returns them to Earth orbit for study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Early mission proposals.:The Pluto Underground, Pluto 350 and Mariner Mark II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "In May 1989, a group of scientists and engineers, including Alan Stern and Fran Bagenal, formed an alliance called the \"Pluto Underground\". It was named in homage of the Mars Underground, another group of scientists that successfully lobbied for the restart of missions to Mars, following the lack of such since the Viking program. The group started a letter writing campaign which aimed to bring to attention Pluto as a viable target for exploration. In 1990, because of pressure from the scientific community, including those of the Pluto Underground, engineers at NASA decided to look into concepts for a mission to Pluto. At the time, it was thought that the atmosphere of Pluto would freeze and fall to the surface during winter, and so a lightweight spacecraft was desirable, as it would be able to reach Pluto before such an event would occur. One of the earliest concepts was for a 40-kilogram spacecraft that would reach Pluto in five to six years. The idea was shortly scrapped, however, because of the infeasibility of miniaturizing scientific instruments aboard such a spacecraft to that size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::\"New Horizons\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "After an intense political battle, a revised mission to Pluto called \"New Horizons\" was granted funding from the US government in 2003. \"New Horizons\" was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. The mission leader, S. Alan Stern, confirmed that some of the ashes of Clyde Tombaugh, who died in 1997, had been placed aboard the spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390914",
"title": "Pluto Kuiper Express",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "As proposed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 1992, the Pluto Fast Flyby mission was to be two craft weighing 150 kg (330.7 lb) each. The voyage from Earth to Pluto was to take seven or eight years, with a launch as early as 1998. The two craft would be timed to view different sides of Pluto. The budget for the mission was said to be no more than $400-million, with NASA administrator Daniel Goldin wholeheartedly supporting the proposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44213780",
"title": "2015 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events.:July.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 297,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 297,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "BULLET::::- NASA's \"New Horizons\" spacecraft performs a close flyby of Pluto, becoming the first spacecraft in history to visit the distant world. It will explore the area for five months, before entering the Kuiper belt and eventually leaving the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Early mission proposals.:Proposed exploration (2003).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "A Pluto orbiter/lander/sample return mission was proposed in 2003. The plan included a twelve-year trip from Earth to Pluto, mapping from orbit, multiple landings, a warm water probe, and possible \"in situ\" propellant production for another twelve-year trip back to Earth with samples. Power and propulsion would come from the bimodal MITEE nuclear reactor system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938115",
"title": "21st century",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Space exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- 2015 – On July 14, NASA's \"New Horizons\" spacecraft became the first to fly by Pluto, on a mission to photograph and collect data on its planetary system. No other spacecraft has yet performed such a mission so far from Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k5fz7
|
Baghdad was one of the biggest centers of learning of its time. Because of items like the Baghdad Battery recently being found, how advanced was this city before the Mongols burned it to the ground?
|
[
{
"answer": "I terms of macro technology, and the technology most people had access to Baghdad would have been about equal to most of the other cities around. Technology spreads quickly. It is likely that various things would have been more prevalent there because it was an extremely wealthy city as well as a trade and governmental center. But it is unlikely the city itself had many things that would not have been found elsewhere.\n\nI am not an expert in the Baghdad battery and as I understand it, the recent political upheavals have taken a serious toll on the amount of archaeology happening in the region.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7515928",
"title": "Iraq",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million, and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city and burned its library during the siege of Baghdad in the 13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4492",
"title": "Baghdad",
"section": "Section::::History.:Stagnation and invasions (10th to 16th centuries).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "On 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Chingiz Khan (Genghis Khan), during the siege of Baghdad. Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate. It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilisation never fully recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286478",
"title": "Baghdad Battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The Baghdad Battery or Parthian Battery is a set of three artifacts which were found together: a ceramic pot, a tube of copper, and a rod of iron. It was discovered in modern Khujut Rabu, Iraq, close to the metropolis of Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian (150 BC – 223 AD) and Sasanian (224–650 AD) empires, and it is considered to date from either of these periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14519632",
"title": "History of Baghdad",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Baghdad was founded 1,250 years ago on 30 July 762. It was designed by caliph Al-Mansur. According to 11th-century scholar Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi – each course consisted of 162,000 bricks for the first third of the wall's height, 150,000 for the second third and 140,000 for the final section, bonded together with bundles of reeds. The outer wall was 80ft high, crowned with battlements and flanked by bastions. A deep moat ringed the outer wall perimeter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54604579",
"title": "Iraqi art",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "For centuries, Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid caliphate; its library was unrivalled and a magnet for intellectuals around the known world. However, in 1258, Baghdad fell to the Mongol invaders, who pillaged the city, decimating mosques, libraries and palaces, thereby destroying most of the city's literary, religious and artistic assets. The Mongols also killed between 200,000 and one million people, leaving the population totally demoralised and the city barely habitable. Iraqi art historians view this period as a time when the \"chain of pictorial art\" was broken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354356",
"title": "Hulagu Khan",
"section": "Section::::Siege of Baghdad.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The Mongols under Chinese general Guo Kan laid siege to the city on January 29, 1258, constructing a palisade and a ditch and wheeling up siege engines and catapults. The battle was short by siege standards. By February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. The caliph tried to negotiate but was refused. On February 10 Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of destruction. The Grand Library of Baghdad, containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantity of books flung into the river. Citizens attempted to flee but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28669429",
"title": "List of mosques in Jerusalem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Jerusalem, considered the holiest city for Christians and Jews, was one of the earliest cities conquered by the Muslim Arabs. The Dome of the Rock is the oldest preserved Islamic structure in the world. Today the city still contains several mosques, including the Al-Aqsa mosque which served as the first \"qibla\" for about a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17akvw
|
What's the oldest prepared drink that could still be safely consumed? What's the oldest food?
|
[
{
"answer": "The oldest food? 36,000 year old bison, if Dale Guthrie is to be believed (*Frozen Fauna of the Mammoth Steppe*, 1990). That is however an anomalous condition--fast-frozen in ice, and only a few morsels edible.\n\n[edit: and no, we have no reputable accounts of people actually eating unfrozen mammoth in recorded history.]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oldest food? Honey wins out over every other known food. Edible (though crystallized) Honey has even been found in ancient tombs. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54716",
"title": "Natufian culture",
"section": "Section::::Material culture.:Other finds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "In 2018, the world's oldest brewery was found, with residue of 13,000-year-old beer, in a prehistoric cave near Haifa in Israel when researchers were looking for clues into what plant foods the Natufian people were eating. This is 8,000 years earlier then experts had previously thought beer was invented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21621387",
"title": "St. Peter Stiftskulinarium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Based on these and other claims, the \"Stiftskulinarium\" is perhaps the oldest existing restaurant in the world, and likely the oldest in Europe. Christopher Columbus, Johann Georg Faust, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart are said to have been served at the restaurant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2701591",
"title": "History of alcoholic drinks",
"section": "Section::::Archaeological record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The world's oldest brewery was discovered in 2018 in a prehistoric burial site in a cave near Haifa in Israel. Researchers have found residue of 13,000-year-old beer that they think might have been used for ritual feasts to honor the dead. The traces of a wheat-and-barley-based alcohol were found in stone mortars carved into the cave floor. It had been thought that beer-making originated in Babylon 5000 years ago. This new discovery precedes that by 8000 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46574981",
"title": "Multigrain bread",
"section": "Section::::Use in brewing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "A 4,000-year-old Mesopotamian recipe for brewing beer from multigrain loaves of bread mixed with honey is the oldest surviving beer recipe in the world. The Brussels Beer Project microbrewery in Belgium has developed an amber beer with a 7% alcohol by volume named Babylone that incorporates this recipe using leftover, unsold fresh bread donated by supermarkets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52290308",
"title": "Women in brewing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Archaeologists have confirmed that a beverage dated to 7000–6600 B.C. and brewed in the Neolithic settlement of Jiahu, is the oldest known grog. Analysis on pottery shows the chemical makeup of the drink was from a combination of honey mead, mixed with a concoction of rice, grapes, and hawthorn fruit—creating a mixed beer and wine beverage. Though the process used to break down the rice grain, whether chewing or malting, is unknown, women in both Japan and Taiwan in the modern age still engage in chewing rice to begin the fermentation process for making alcohol. In Chinese legend, Yi Di, wife of Yu the Great, is credited with making the first alcohol from rice grains. A female divine being in Ainu mythology known as Kamui Fuchi was the protector of brewing and brewers prayed to her and offered libations to ensure the warding off of evil spirits which might spoil the batch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12052764",
"title": "Mazawattee Tea Company",
"section": "Section::::Trivia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "On 10 March 2010 the \"Mirror\" wrote an article on the oldest food found in people's homes. One of these mentioned was a 69-year-old gas-proof tin of Mazawattee tea. The tin has never been opened and belongs to a resident of Cowes in the Isle of Wight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33615549",
"title": "Patrick Edward McGovern",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Laboratory for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health.:Modern re-creations of ancient beverages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "In the late 1990s, the laboratory and collaborators analyzed the extraordinarily well-preserved organic residues inside the largest known Iron Age drinking-set, excavated inside the burial chamber of the Midas Tumulus at Gordion in Turkey, ca. 740-700 B.C. The reconstruction of the \"funerary feast\"–which paired a mixed or extreme fermented beverage of grapes, barley and honey, viz. wine, beer and mead (\"Midas Touch,\" see below) with a spicy, barbecued lamb and lentil stew–is the first time that an ancient meal has been re-created based solely on the chemical evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5igdia
|
sound doesn't travel through space. it's a wavelength. light travels infinitely without degrading and it's a wavelength. what gives?
|
[
{
"answer": " > we'd hear sound, then microwave and radio frequency then eventually colors\n\nThat was bullshit.\n\nSound is the vibration of a medium with non-zero mass.\n\nLight is transmitted by photons, massless particles.\n\nThem being waves is the only commonality between them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sound is a vibration carried by a medium.\n\nLight is carried by it's own particle, the photon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light is actually a particle that behaves, for the most part, like a wave. Photons of light are small packets of energy that are emitted from light sources. These photons travel as waves, that is to say, they have frequencies and wavelengths, which gives light different colours. Sound on the other hand is particles of air (or whatever medium the sound is passing through) creating high and low pressure areas that alternate between high and low, which creates the sound wave. When that pressure reaches your ear, your brain interprets that particular pressure as a sound. (Side note, that's why speakers move back and forth).\n\nTL;DR: Light is a particle that moves like a wave, which means that it can move through space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your mistake here is in thinking that radio waves are sound waves. They aren't. Radio waves are literally a different spectrum of light wave. It's only after a radio receives and converts them to sound via a speaker that sound is created. The speaker creates the compression through the medium (air). This is why radio waves can travel through space, and sound waves cannot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So sound is the vibration of the air around you. When you slap your hand on a table, you shake the table, in turn shaking the air around the table, which in turn shakes your ear drum, and you process that as sound.\n\nLight in the other hand is a combination of electric waves permeating in the XY plane and magnetic waves permeating in the XZ plane, which tug and push on each other through the properties of electro-magnetism to traverse in the X direction. \n\nThis is radiation, not vibrations, and does not require a medium to travel through. This is because light pushes itself by the properties of what it is made of, so is self sustaining. Sound pushes OTHER THINGS and as such is not self sustaining. That is the fundamental difference between the two.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994087",
"title": "Sound",
"section": "Section::::Physics of sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98132",
"title": "Radio wave",
"section": "Section::::Speed, wavelength, and frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Radio waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light. When passing through a material medium, they are slowed according to that object's permeability and permittivity. Air is thin enough that in the Earth's atmosphere radio waves travel very close to the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7781606",
"title": "Plasma receiver",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "There is no air in outer space, nor there is any other type of medium capable of transmitting any vibration from a source to a human ear. However, there are sources in outer space that do vibrate at frequencies that would be audible by a human, if only there were some sort of transmitting media to carry those vibrations from the source to a human eardrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "271195",
"title": "Radio propagation",
"section": "Section::::Free space propagation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Radio waves in vacuum travel at the speed of light. The Earth's atmosphere is thin enough that radio waves in the atmosphere travel very close to the speed of light, but variations in density and temperature can cause some slight refraction (bending) of waves over distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "For instance, sound will travel 1.59 times faster in nickel than in bronze, due to the greater stiffness of nickel at about the same density. Similarly, sound travels about 1.41 times faster in light hydrogen (protium) gas than in heavy hydrogen (deuterium) gas, since deuterium has similar properties but twice the density. At the same time, \"compression-type\" sound will travel faster in solids than in liquids, and faster in liquids than in gases, because the solids are more difficult to compress than liquids, while liquids in turn are more difficult to compress than gases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58991",
"title": "Fog",
"section": "Section::::Sound propagation and acoustic effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Sound typically travels fastest and farthest through solids, then liquids, then gases such as the atmosphere. Sound is affected during fog conditions due to the small distances between water droplets, and air temperature differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41812",
"title": "Transmission medium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Electromagnetic radiation can be transmitted through an optical medium, such as optical fiber, or through twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, or dielectric-slab waveguides. It may also pass through any physical material that is transparent to the specific wavelength, such as water, air, glass, or concrete. Sound is, by definition, the vibration of matter, so it requires a physical medium for transmission, as do other kinds of mechanical waves and heat energy. Historically, science incorporated various aether theories to explain the transmission medium. However, it is now known that electromagnetic waves do not require a physical transmission medium, and so can travel through the \"vacuum\" of free space. Regions of the insulative vacuum can become conductive for electrical conduction through the presence of free electrons, holes, or ions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
118ihd
|
There's Planck Length, Planck Time, and Planck Temperature, each of which corresponds to a universal maximum of minimum(unless i am mistaken). Does this mean there can be such thing as a "Planck Number?"
|
[
{
"answer": "The Planck length/time/temperature/mass etc. are not the largest/smallest quantity you can write down, nor are they necessarily the largest/smallest quantity of that type that you can write down. What they represent is the scale at which one must pay attention to both quantum mechanics and general relativity (the Compton wavelength and Sqhwarzschild radius of a Planck mass particle are equal to each other), and thus a scale beyond which one will need a theory that harmonizes quantum mechanics and general relativity (a quantum gravity theory).\n\nNotice that these represent things with units, something about the scale of what is possible in the universe. Pure numbers are dimensionless, and so are a different kind of object to begin with. In addition, numbers are abstract quantities defined in the context of mathematics; the \"Planck quantities\" represent empirical features of the universe. We could, for example, imagine a universe in which the constants of nature had different values, thereby changing the Planck length; but changing those values won't change the number \"5\" to something else.\n\nHere's another example: There is some element that has the largest possible atomic number; let's be generous and just say that that number is under 200. That just tells us about nuclei and atoms; it doesn't tell us that numbers above 200 aren't meaningful.",
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"answer": "I think this is a very good question. None of the \"Planck numbers\" are absolute. All of these measurements only represent limits of our understanding of physics.\n\nThe Planck length much smaller than anything we can currently measure. In string theory it's about the size of the vibrating strings which compose the most basic particles. In the theory of quantum gravity, anything less than a Planck length apart would appear to be in the same location (sort of a resolution limit of space).\n\nThe Planck time is just how long it takes for light to travel across the planck length. Since light is the fastest thing we know of, that's the smallest time we can imagine measuring.\n\nThe Planck temperature is a temperature so hot that gravity would play a significant role in how quantum particles behave--this is also something we don't know how to deal with yet.\n\nSo no there is no Planck number. One day discoveries could be made to expand the limit of these Planck values.\n\nIf you want to talk numbers...\n\nPlanck T = 10^32 Kelvin\n\nLifespan of a black hole the mass of the sun = [10^66 years](_URL_0_).\n\nOne can find physically relevant numbers that exceed these values.\n\nEDIT: I think the Planck temperature can be confusing to think about. Here's a [PBS article](_URL_1_) that should help.",
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"answer": "No, there is no smallest or largest finite number. For any (large) finite number x, x + 1 > x . If you are talking about non-finite numbers, then first you need to refine the concept of number size.\n\nFor any small (I assume you mean \"close to but greater than zero\") number z, z / 2 < z.\n\nBy the way, /r/askmath exists.",
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"answer": "**The answer you're looking for doesn't require any understanding of physics at all**, and certainly doesn't require an understanding of things like Schwarzschild radii or Compton wavelengths.\n\nAlthough the Planck units describe (what we believe to be) fundamental values, they *express* those values in *arbitrarily defined, human-invented units*. Planck temperature, for instance, can be expressed in Kelvin, degrees Fahrenheit, or any other unit of temperature you care to invent -- *and in each of those units, the number itself will be different.* You can even define a unit \"Planck temperatures\", abbreviated PT, in which the Planck temperature itself is expressed as \"exactly 1 PT\". You can see that the *number*, then, is arbitrary, and so it can't possibly have any special mathematical properties.\n\n**Nothing in physics can debar any particular number from representing a physically meaningful quantity, nor can it restrict what sort of mathematical operations can be done with that number.**",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "43537463",
"title": "Size",
"section": "Section::::Conceptualization and generalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "In physics, the Planck length, denoted , is a unit of length, equal to . It is a base unit in the system of Planck units, developed by physicist Max Planck. The Planck length can be defined from three fundamental physical constants: the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, and the gravitational constant. According to the generalized uncertainty principle (a concept from speculative models of quantum gravity), the Planck length is, in principle, within a factor of 10, the shortest measurable length – and no theoretically known improvement in measurement instruments could change that. By contrast, the largest measurable thing is the observable universe. The proper distance – the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including the present – between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is , making the diameter of the observable universe about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "174386",
"title": "Planck time",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The Planck time (also known as Planck second) was first suggested by Max Planck in 1899. He suggested that there existed some fundamental natural units for length, mass, time and energy. Planck derived these using dimensional analysis only using what he considered the most fundamental universal constants: the speed of light, the Newton gravitational constant and the Planck constant. The Planck time is considered by many physicists to be the shortest possible measurable time interval; however, this is still a matter of debate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Physical definition.:Quantized time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Planck time (~ 5.4 × 10 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "748908",
"title": "Planck length",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In physics, the Planck length, denoted , is a unit of length that is the distance light travels in one unit of Planck time. It is equal to It is a base unit in the system of Planck units, developed by physicist Max Planck. The Planck length can be defined from three fundamental physical constants: the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, and the gravitational constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174386",
"title": "Planck time",
"section": "Section::::Physical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The Planck time is the unique combination of the gravitational constant , the special-relativistic constant , and the quantum constant , to produce a constant with dimension of time. Because the Planck time comes from dimensional analysis, which ignores constant factors, there is no reason to believe that exactly one unit of Planck time has any special physical significance. Rather, the Planck time represents a rough time scale at which quantum gravitational effects are likely to become important. This essentially means that while smaller units of time can exist, they are so small their effect on our existence is negligible. The nature of those effects, and the exact time scale at which they would occur, would need to be derived from an actual theory of quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19594213",
"title": "Planck constant",
"section": "Section::::Significance of the value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "174386",
"title": "Planck time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In quantum mechanics, the Planck time () is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. A Planck time unit is the time required for light to travel a distance of 1 Planck length in a vacuum, which is a time interval of approximately 5.39 × 10 s. The unit is named after Max Planck, who was the first to propose it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
36cl0v
|
What strategic threat did Nazi Germany actually pose to the United States before December 7, 1941?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hitler's immediate aim was dominance of the continent; however, once this had been achieved, it us unlikely that Germany would have tolerated the United States as a rival for 'weltmacht', or world power. Between the u-boat menace, the German naval plan Z, and other potential threats (ie Amerika Bomber project, German nuclear programme), even if the United States did not face an immediate threat, it was a threat that would rear it's *very* ugly head in the future. \n\nThere were also distinct fears that the Germans would attempt to influence Latin America, such as Juan Peron's Novo Estado in Argentina. There were various American war plans for intervention, in Brazil as one example, to head off Nazi attempts to carve out a sphere of influence.\n\nHence the lend lease program. By strengthening Germany's enemies, the united States could prevent the need for intervention, unlike in WWI. This proved not to be the case however, and involvement in a second, more terrible world war would be required.\n\nThat answer your question? ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36880",
"title": "Nuclear warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.:1940s.:Immediately after the Japan bombings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "For several years after World War II, the United States developed and maintained a strategic force based on the Convair B-36 bomber that would be able to attack any potential enemy from bomber bases in the United States. It deployed atomic bombs around the world for potential use in conflicts. Over a period of a few years, many in the American defense community became increasingly convinced of the invincibility of the United States to a nuclear attack. Indeed, it became generally believed that the threat of nuclear war would deter any strike against the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19704038",
"title": "Overman Committee",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "World War I, in which the United States and its allies fought - among other Central Powers - the German Empire, raised concern about the German threat to the United States. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 were passed in response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25004296",
"title": "Air War Plans Division",
"section": "Section::::Public knowledge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "German agents monitoring American newspapers wired the compromised secret program to Berlin where Franz Halder, Chief of the German General Staff, realized its critical importance. On 12 December, Adolf Hitler issued Directive 39 which countered the American strategic bombing and invasion plans by massing air defenses around key industries and by greatly increasing Atlantic Ocean attacks so that an Allied invasion fleet could not be formed. Hitler directed his forces opposing the Soviet Union to go on the defensive so that they could hold their ground at least cost. Four days later, after visiting the Eastern Front and seeing the extent of his strategic failures there, Hitler \"angrily and irrationally rescinded Directive 39\" and focused his armies once again on the attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4042584",
"title": "Germany–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.:Pre 1933.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 168,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 168,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "BULLET::::- Small, Melvin. \"The United States and the German \"Threat\" to the Hemisphere, 1905–1914.\" \"The Americas\" 28#3 (1972): 252–270. Says there was no threat because Germany accepted the Monroe Doctrine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3425570",
"title": "U.S.–British Staff Conference (ABC–1)",
"section": "Section::::Agreements reached at the conference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "The US-British Staff Conference Report of 1941 established the general military principles, resources, and deployment strategies for a joint Allied military strategy. The British approach to the Nazi problem varied from the initial US plan. The British initially called for a Sun Tsu approach of attacking the flanks and periphery of the Nazi interests (North Africa, middle east, etc.). By contrast, the US, following a Clausewitz-based approach sought a sledge-hammer, mass on mass battle with Nazi Germany. The plan assumed that if the U.S. went to war with Nazi Germany, it would likely go to war with both Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan as well. The general principles of agreement stated that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41670479",
"title": "Erich Raeder during World War II",
"section": "Section::::1941: Going to war with America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "In January 1941, Raeder launched the successful Operation Berlin, where \"Gneisenau\" and \"Scharnhorst\" were sent out on a raid into the North Atlantic that lasted until March 1941. On 4 February 1941, Raeder sent Hitler a memo suggesting that the continual neutrality of the United States was not in the best interests of the \"Reich\", and suggested that having the United States as an enemy might even be \"advantageous for the German war effort\" if that would bring in Japan into the war against Britain and the United States. Hitler rejected that advice, saying that it was better at present to keep the U.S. neutral, since as long as the Americans were neutral, they were limited in how far they could support the British. On 18 March 1941, Raeder asked Hitler to end the rules that U-boats could not fire on American warships unless fired upon first, and instead demanded a policy that would allow the \"Kriegsmarine\" to sink all American warships on sight. Raeder also warned Hitler that Germany needed to take over the French colonies in West Africa, and warned that it would \"most dangerous\" if the United States should gain influence in French Africa. Hitler said he needed more time to think about what Raeder had suggested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38702523",
"title": "List of fictional United States presidencies of historical figures (P–R)",
"section": "Section::::R.:Franklin D. Roosevelt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Clash of Eagles\" by Leo Rutman, in December, 1941. Nazi Germany has vanquished the United Kingdom and launches a major invasion across the Atlantic. German forces under Erwin Rommel land in Quebec and sweep down Canada, New England, and the Ohio Valley to New York City and declared the eastern United States an occupied territory. The rest of the United States remains unoccupied but perilously exposed to further attacks. President Franklin Roosevelt and the government administration evacuate the endangered Washington, D.C. and flee westward to California. Eventually, he would be able to return victoriously after a courageous rebellion in New York has driven the Nazis out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
}
] | null |
6a90uz
|
Why do babies frequently wake up in the middle of the night?
|
[
{
"answer": "We all wake up during the night. That is normal during certain sleep stages. Unlike infants, we have learned to go back to sleep. These waking moments are usually short and we forget about them afterwards, or we actually be awake and go to the toilet, etc. The 'half-awake' state can cause sleepwalking. You'll be fully awake, but not fully conscious. The opposite happens as well: you're fully conscious, but your body is still asleep. That is when we experience sleep paralysis.\n\nFor infants this is new. Everything new can be scary, because they lack the experience to deal with it. I once had to calm a crying child who was thirsty, but actually half asleep. I had to keep him standing up to drink, then 'walk' him back to his bed to continue his sleep.\n\nSmall humans are weird. ",
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},
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"answer": "Babies wake up frequently to eat. Their stomachs are tiny and a lot of metabolic processes occur during sleep, so they burn a lot of energy. Especially in the beginning, they'll wake up every couple hours out of hunger. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Babies can't resolve errors on their own, like being too hot or too cold or hungry or thirsty. So when they wake up they need their needs to be met and they'll cry to make that happen. My daughter is 18 months old and we see her wake up frequently on her monitor. She's been sleep trained now though, and she has more capacity to meet her own needs, so she doesn't bother us. She sleeps in a flannel sleep sack with leg holes so she can adjust how much skin is exposed to get the right temperature, and she has a sippy cup of water and a book in her crib. Now, she'll typically wake up, roll around, sit up, have a little water, then lie down, roll a little and go back to sleep. This happens every hour or so. In the morning, she wakes up in a good mood most of the time.\n\nWhen she was a baby, she'd wake up and we'd have to take care of that kind of thing for her. The other factor is she can eat more at dinner than before so she doesn't wake herself in the night for food. That was a big one.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31411458",
"title": "Infant sleep training",
"section": "Section::::Other influences on infant sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "In terms of infant feeding, breastfeeding has been found to be associated with more waking at night than bottle-fed infants because of the infant’s ability to digest breast milk more quickly than formula. Thus, breast-fed infants have been observed to begin sleeping through the night at a later age than bottle-fed infants: bottle fed infants tend to begin sleeping through the night between 6–8 weeks, while breastfed infants may take until 17 weeks before sleeping through the night. Seventeen weeks of age is still within the first 4–5 months of the infants’ life; therefore, this cannot really be considered a delay in sleep consolidation. There are many benefits to breastfeeding infants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31411458",
"title": "Infant sleep training",
"section": "Section::::The development of sleep over the first year.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Every child is different and each child's sleep becomes regular at different ages within a particular range. In the first few months of life, each time the baby is laid down for bed and each time he or she awakens is an opportunity for the infant to learn sleep self-initiation and to fall asleep without excessive external help from their caregiver. Experts say that the ideal bedtime for an infant falls between 6 pm and 8 pm, with the ideal wake-up time falling between 6 am and 7 am. At four months of age, infants typically take hour naps two to three times a day, with the third nap dropped by about nine months. By one year of age, the amount of sleep that most infants get nightly approximates to that of adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1638491",
"title": "Ferber method",
"section": "Section::::Ferberization summarized.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The technique is targeted at infants as young as four months of age. A few babies are capable of sleeping through the night at three months, and most are capable of sleeping through the night at six months. Before six months of age, the baby may still need to feed during the night and it is probable that the baby will require a night feeding before three months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286191",
"title": "Torticollis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Physical therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "BULLET::::- Encouraging prone playtime (tummy time). Although the Back to Sleep campaign promotes infants sleeping on their backs to avoid sudden infant death syndrome during sleep, parents should still ensure that their infants spend some waking hours on their stomachs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113055",
"title": "Temperament",
"section": "Section::::Main models.:Thomas and Chess's nine temperament characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "- Parents of middle class children were more likely to report behavior problems before the age of nine and the children had sleep problems. This may be because children start preschool between the ages of three and four. Puerto Rican children under the age of five showed rare signs of sleep problems, however, sleep problems became more common at the age of six.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33095524",
"title": "Benaroya Research Institute",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "In 2018, BRI researchers contributed to a key finding about babies’ sleep patterns: Many infants sleep better – and longer – when they start eating solid foods. In the study, half the babies subsisted entirely on breast milk until six months of age, while the other half started eating solid foods at three months of age. Compared to babies who were solely breast-fed, the infants who ate solid food slept for two more hours per week and woke up two fewer times per night. The findings were published in JAMA Pediatrics, and the study was led by Gideon Lack, a professor at King's College London whose work is funded by the Immune Tolerance Network – which is housed at BRI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31411458",
"title": "Infant sleep training",
"section": "Section::::Good sleep conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first year individual differences in crying reflect the history of maternal responsiveness rather than constitutional differences in infant irritability. She also notes: consistency and promptness of maternal response is associated with decline in frequency and duration of infant crying. The sleep position is also important to prevent SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
5om0cw
|
How do we know about 1,700 planets?
|
[
{
"answer": "Except in a [handful of cases](_URL_1_), we do not have direct images of those planets.\n\nRather, we detect the planets by their effects. Planets can be detected by slight changes in the wavelength of light of the host star; as the planet orbits the star, it pulls the star first one way and then the other, and due to the Doppler effect, this leads to a slight variation in the wavelengths of light we receive from the star. A second important method is the *transit method* (it is used by\nthe [Kepler mission](_URL_2_), for example). In this, scientists observe slight dips in the brightness of a star when a planet orbits in front of the star.\n\nYou can read about various other detection methods [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5214143",
"title": "XO-1b",
"section": "Section::::Transit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "While astronomers had detected more than 180 extrasolar planets, XO-1b is only the tenth planet discovered using the transit method. It is only the second planet found using telephoto lenses. The first, TrES-1, in the constellation Lyra, was reported in 2004. The transit method allows astronomers to determine a planet's mass and size. Astronomers use this information to deduce the planet's characteristics, such as density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48510",
"title": "Terrestrial planet",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar terrestrial planets.:Frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In 2013, astronomers reported, based on \"Kepler\" space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth- and super-Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists. However, this does not give estimates for the number of extrasolar terrestrial planets, because there are planets as small as Earth that have been shown to be gas planets (see KOI-314c).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48201905",
"title": "OGLE-2014-BLG-0124Lb",
"section": "Section::::Type of planet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "OGLE-2014-BLG-0124Lb is known as an exoplanet. These planets are located outside of our solar system. The Kepler telescope has allowed astronomers to discover thousands of these types of planets. Exoplanets obviously range in size, types, and orbits, but using this technique will help us search for planets that are of similar size to Earth. Since microlensing can determine the distance from the planet to the star and astronomers can identify its size, it can help determine if a planet could be habitable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::Scientific search.:Extrasolar planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "There is at least one planet on average per star. About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an \"Earth-sized\" planet in the habitable zone, with the nearest expected to be within 12 light-years distance from Earth. Assuming 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, that would be 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if red dwarfs are included. The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the trillions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25776254",
"title": "American Astronomical Society 215th meeting",
"section": "Section::::Super-earth HD156668b.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "There are over 400 exoplanets thus far discovered, and only a very small number are categorized as Super-earth class. Finding such planets as HD156668b, which are closer to earth in size, has become a priority in Astronomy science. For example, the Kepler mission, is part of the intense popular interest surrounding the discovery of hundreds of planets orbiting other stars. Kepler telescope, however has a more specific mission - to discover hundreds of terrestrial planets which are defined as exoplanets that are one half to twice the size of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10883868",
"title": "Super-Earth",
"section": "Section::::Discoveries.:Others by year.:2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In June 2008, European researchers announced the discovery of three super-Earths around the star HD 40307, a star that is only slightly less massive than our Sun. The planets have at least the following minimum masses: 4.2, 6.7, and 9.4 times Earth's. The planets were detected by the radial velocity method by the HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher) in Chile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "Several thousands of planets around other stars (\"extrasolar planets\" or \"exoplanets\") have been discovered in the Milky Way. As of , known extrasolar planets in planetary systems (including multiple planetary systems), ranging in size from just above the size of the Moon to gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter have been discovered, out of which more than 100 planets are the same size as Earth, nine of which are at the same relative distance from their star as Earth from the Sun, i.e. in the circumstellar habitable zone. On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20. A 2012 study, analyzing gravitational microlensing data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6i3x9n
|
how do the denotations of words change so much over time? like gay meaning happy but now homosexual, or faggot meaning bundle of sticks to a derogatory term for homosexual.
|
[
{
"answer": "[**Etymology of the word 'Gay'**](_URL_0_):\n\nIn the world's earliest meanings, going back to the 12th centry, it meant joyful, carefree, uninhibited, bright and showy, etc.\n\nBy the early 1800's, the word's implication of uninhibited pleasure had become euphemistically associated with immorality and lack of sexual inhibitions. Oxford dictionary at the time changed its definition of the word to include *\"addicted to pleasures and dissipations. Often euphemistically: Of loose and immoral life”.*\n\nThe word became associated with illicit sex and prostitution. A promiscuous man might be euphemistically called a \"gay lothario\"; a prostitute might be called a \"gay woman,\" a brothel called a \"gay house.\"\n\nBy the 1920's the euphemistic use of the word had started to shift from implying sexual promiscuity in general, to specifically gay sex when the word was applied to men. The ongoing association with \"bright and showy\" clothing also became associated with frivolity and femininity in men.\n\nBut at the same time, the word also continued to be used casually to just mean carefree or joyous. To call a man \"gay\" to imply he was homosexual was a bit like saying he was \"artistic\" in the same manner, or to say a woman was \"sporty\" to imply she was lesbian. There was no non-degrading term for homosexual at the time.\n\nIn the mid-50's, gay people had started to organize and develop a sense of group identity. Within these groups, there was a desire for a new word to identify themselves with that was neither a slur (\"sodomite\" and etc), nor pathologizing (\"homosexual\" was a psychiatric diagnosis of mental illness). For decades the word \"gay\" had been used among homosexual men as a non-insulting euphemism, so in the mid-50's this word was adopted as a direct term of identity.\n\nAfter Stonewall and the start of the modern gay rights movement in 1969, the use of the word \"gay\" to directly mean \"homosexual man\" (and later both men and women) became public knowledge. Which pretty much ended the casual use of the word to mean \"carefree.\"\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5171128",
"title": "Gay",
"section": "Section::::Generalized pejorative use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "When used with a derisive attitude (e.g., \"that was so gay\"), the word \"gay\" is pejorative. While retaining its other meanings, its use among young people as a general term of disparagement is common. This pejorative usage has its origins in the late 1970s, with the word gaining a pejorative sense by association with the previous meaning: homosexuality was seen as inferior or undesirable. Beginning in the 1980s, and especially in the late 1990s, the usage as a generic insult became common among young people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5171128",
"title": "Gay",
"section": "Section::::History.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "In English, the word's primary meaning was \"joyful\", \"carefree\", \"bright and showy\", and the word was very commonly used with this meaning in speech and literature. For example, the optimistic 1890s are still often referred to as the \"Gay Nineties\". The title of the 1938 French ballet \"Gaîté Parisienne\" (\"Parisian Gaiety\"), which became the 1941 Warner Brothers movie, \"The Gay Parisian\", also illustrates this connotation. It was apparently not until the 20th century that the word began to be used to mean specifically \"homosexual\", although it had earlier acquired sexual connotations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102866",
"title": "Gay bashing",
"section": "Section::::Context.:Bullying of LGBT youth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "A research study of 78 eleven to fourteen-year-old boys conducted in twelve schools in London, England between 1998 and 1999 revealed that respondents who used the word \"gay\" to label another boy in a derogatory manner intended the word as \"just a joke\", \"just a cuss\" and not as a statement of one's perceived sexual orientation. American sociologist Michael Kimmel and American psychologist Gregory Herek write that masculinity is a renunciation of the feminine and that males shore up their sense of their masculinity by denigrating the feminine and ultimately the homosexual. Building on the notion of masculinity defining itself by what it is not, some researchers suggest that in fact the renunciation of the feminine may be misogyny. These intertwining issues were examined in 2007, when American sociologist CJ Pascoe described what she calls the \"fag discourse\" at an American high school in her book, \"Dude, You're a Fag\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2906866",
"title": "Semantic change",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gay — Originally meant (13th century) \"lighthearted\", \"joyous\" or (14th century) \"bright and showy\", it also came to mean \"happy\"; it acquired connotations of immorality as early as 1637, either sexual e.g., \"gay woman\" \"prostitute\", \"gay man\" \"womanizer\", \"gay house\" \"brothel\", or otherwise, e.g., \"gay dog\" \"over-indulgent man\" and \"gay deceiver\" \"deceitful and lecherous\". In the United States by 1897 the expression \"gay cat\" referred to a hobo, especially a younger hobo in the company of an older one; by 1935, it was used in prison slang for a homosexual boy; and by 1951 and clipped to \"gay\", referred to homosexuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5171128",
"title": "Gay",
"section": "Section::::Generalized pejorative use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "In a 2013 article published in the \"Journal of Interpersonal Violence\", University of Michigan researchers Michael Woodford, Alex Kulick and Perry Silverschanz, alongside Appalachian State University professor Michael L. Howell, argued that the pejorative use of the word \"gay\" was a microaggression. Their research found that college-age men were more likely to repeat the word pejoratively if their friends said it, while they were less likely to say it if they had lesbian, gay or bisexual peers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5171128",
"title": "Gay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "At about the same time, a new, pejorative use became prevalent in some parts of the world. Among younger speakers, the word has a meaning ranging from derision (e.g., equivalent to \"rubbish\" or \"stupid\") to a light-hearted mockery or ridicule (e.g., equivalent to weak, unmanly, or lame). In this use, the word rarely means \"homosexual\", as it is often used, for example, to refer to an inanimate object or abstract concept of which one disapproves. The extent to which these usages still retain connotations of homosexuality has been debated and harshly criticized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "394434",
"title": "LGBT slang",
"section": "Section::::History and context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Many terms that originated as gay slang have become part of the popular lexicon. For example, the word \"drag\" was popularized by Hubert Selby Jr. in his book \"Last Exit to Brooklyn\". \"Drag\" has been traced back by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to the late 19th Century. Conversely, words such as \"banjee\", while well-established in a subset of gay society, have never made the transition to popular use. Conversations between gay men have been found to use more slang and fewer commonly known terms about sexual behavior than conversations between straight men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
350eha
|
Why did European explorers translate the titles of the rulers of China and Japan as "emperor" but translate titles of the rulers of other East Asian countries as "King"?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! not discouraging other responses, but you might get something out of these earlier threads\n\n* [Why the title of the Japanese monarch is translated as \"Emperor\", and the Thai monarch is called \"King\"?](_URL_2_)\n\n* [What is the difference between a king and an emperor? Why were there empires in Rome, Japan, and China, but kingdoms in Africa and Europe?](_URL_0_)\n\n* [Who were Emperors and who were Kings?](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10111",
"title": "Emperor",
"section": "Section::::East Asian tradition (Sinosphere).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The rulers of China and (once Westerners became aware of the role) Japan were always accepted in the West as emperors, and referred to as such. The claims of other East Asian monarchies to the title may have been accepted for diplomatic purposes, but it was not necessarily used in more general contexts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188120",
"title": "Qara Khitai",
"section": "Section::::Association with China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "After the Tang dynasty, non-Han Chinese empires gained prestige by connecting themselves with China, and the Khitan Gurkans used the title of \"Chinese emperor\", and was also called the \"Khan of Chīn\". The Qara Khitai used the \"image of China\" to legitimize their rule to the Central Asians. The Chinese emperor, together with the rulers of the Turks, Arabs, India and the Byzantine Romans, were known to Islamic writers as the world's \"five great kings\". Qara Khitai kept the trappings of a Chinese state, such as Chinese coins, Chinese imperial titles, the Chinese writing system, tablets, seals, and used Chinese products like porcelein, mirrors, jade and other Chinese customs. The adherence to Liao Chinese traditions has been suggested as a reason why the Qara Khitai did not convert to Islam. Despite the Chinese trappings, there were comparatively few Han Chinese among the population of the Qara Khitai. These Han Chinese had lived in Kedun during the Liao dynasty, and in 1124 migrated with the Khitans under Yelü Dashi along with other people of Kedun, such as the Bohai, Jurchen, and Mongol tribes, as well as other Khitans in addition to the Xiao consort clan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19257688",
"title": "Conquest dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Scope of China (Zhongguo).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "According to Russian scholars S.V. Dmitriev and S.L. Kuzmin, despite usage of the term \"China\", these empires had their official names by the names of their dynasties. Non-Han people considered themselves as subjects of the Yuan and Qing states not equating them to China. This resulted from different ways of the Yuan and Qing legitimization for different peoples in these empires. The Qing Emperor was referred to as Bogda Khan by the Mongols. According to Dmitriev and Kuzmin, Liao, Jin, Yuan and Qing were multi-national empires led by non-Chinese peoples, to whom the conquered China or its part was joined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47394533",
"title": "Names of the Qing dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Names in other languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1223,
"text": "Apart from the English name of \"China\" or the \"Chinese Empire\", it is also known in similar names in other western languages such as \"Chine\" in French, \"Китаем\" in Russian, and \"Sinici Imperii\" in Latin, which are the standard translations for \"China\" or \"Chinese Empire\" in these languages. For example, in the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, the first international treaty signed by the Qing, the term \"Китайском\" meaning \"Chinese\" was used to refer to the Qing side in the Russian version of the treaty, and the term \"Imperium Sinicum\" meaning \"Chinese Empire\" was used to refer to the Qing empire in the Latin version of the treaty. Sometimes the names for \"Great Qing\" also appeared in such treaties. For example, the term \"Imperii Tai-tscim\" meaning \"Empire of the Great Qing\" appeared in the Latin version of the Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) along with \"Sinenses\" meaning \"Chinese\". In Japanese-language version of some treaties during the Qing dynasty, the Kanji for the \"Qing state\" (淸國, \"Shinkoku\") was also used, although it is not found in Chinese-language version of treaties during the Qing dynasty (in Chinese version of the treaties the word for Great (大) always appeared before the word for Qing (淸)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10111",
"title": "Emperor",
"section": "Section::::East Asian tradition (Sinosphere).:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "Japanese monarchs were given their official title by the Chinese emperor. The new Japanese monarch after coming into power would send a representative to China and receive the anointment. They would receive their official title on several golden plates of several meters tall. Since the Japanese monarchs changed their title to 天皇 (Heavenly Emperor) in 607, the Chinese emperor refused to anoint the Japanese king, thus, ending relations with Japan for the next few hundred years. Although the Japanese emperors used Chinese imperial titles, rarely was the Chinese-style \"Son of Heaven\" used. In the Japanese language, the word \"tennō\" is restricted to Japan's own monarch; \"kōtei\" (皇帝) is used for foreign emperors. Historically, retired emperors often kept power over a child-emperor as de facto regent. For a long time, a \"shōgun\" (formally the imperial generalissimo, but made hereditary) or an imperial regent wielded actual political power. In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a figurehead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20756311",
"title": "Hua–Yi distinction",
"section": "Section::::Conceptualization of the Hua–Yi distinction in non-Chinese states.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "However in 607 Prince Shotoku of Japan stated its perspective of being independent and equal to China in a diplomatic letter by referring to the Japanese ruler as an emperor (“日出處天子致書日沒處天子無恙云云” An emperor of where the sun rises is writing to an emperor of where the sun sets). It was taken as an insult by the Chinese emperor of the time, Emperor Yang of Sui, since in Hua–Yi distinction emperor is a title for the ruler of China, but not for other foreign countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28170",
"title": "Son of God",
"section": "Section::::Rulers and Imperial titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Throughout history, emperors and rulers ranging from the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1000 BC) in China to Alexander the Great (c. 360 BC) to the Emperor of Japan (c. 600 AD) have assumed titles that reflect a filial relationship with deities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e3coih
|
how can something made of mostly empty space be “sharp”?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine you took thousands of pingpong balls and superglued them together in to the shape of a knife blade, where the cutting edge has only one row of balls then gets progressively denser as it goes back.\n\nNow imagine you took a bunch more balls and glued them together in to a big block but only using rubber cement which is not nearly as strong.\n\nYou would be able to take that big pingpong knife and basically push it through the block that you made.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "First: You identify \"solid\" with \"in physical contact\" while \"solid\" is actually \"with a strong magnetic field that makes it impossible to pass through\". What you see as empty space is as \"hard\" as the empty space between an object and the table it's resting on. \n\nSecond: A [sharp blade](_URL_0_) is on a much larger scale than atoms. \nA \"sharp shaped\" meteorite could cut a planet in two, even with an edge more blunt than a mountain range.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Sharpness isn't really a property of an atom. In general, \"sharpness\" is macroscopic, i.e. on a larger scale than atoms and molecules. Sharpness really is just about the shape of the object, or the organization of the atoms. Esentially you have a very thin edge on a knife that can still be several hundred atoms across. When you push a knife through something you separate the other object along a very thin line of stress, which causes it to cut cleanly. The properties of the atoms lend to the material of the knife, which affects how well the atoms can stay arranged in that \"sharp\" configuration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're misperceiving what \"atoms are mostly made of empty space\" implies. In our big-people world, there's \"stuff\", that you can touch and pushes back against your finger and you'll feel the contact and so on, and \"empty space\" that you can just move through. And you think this \"stuff\" is equivalent to the physics concept of \"things that have mass/energy\", and so when you hear \"an atom has a nucleus and electrons that have mass, but those are tiny and it's mostly empty space\" you picture yourself flying through that empty space with no resistance.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBut the reality is, it's not *mass* that's resisting against your finger when you touch something. It's the *electromagnetic repulsion and attraction* between the electrons on that thing and your finger. Those electromagnetic forces make it *impossible* for atoms to just go through one another (quantum tunnelling aside, dunno about that), just like it's impossible for your hand to go through a block of concrete (and indeed, for the exact same reason since your hand and the concrete are made of said atoms; it's the repulsion between the electrons on the atoms of the concrete and your hand that are keeping one from going through the other. If you hand were a cloud of neutrinos it would go through fine).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo while it is accurate in a certain sense to say \"atoms are made of mostly empty space\", if we're using \"empty space\" to mean \"what an atom can freely move through\" then it would be just as accurate to say \"atoms are impenetrable balls\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So in a way, is the act of cutting more or less a battle of electromagnetic forces than it is a separation of matter, if that makes sense? Would that mean that hardness is related to the amount of electromagnetic repulsion, enhanced by tighter/more efficiently configured molecules? Or am I completely off on thinking of sharpness or hardness in that sort of way? Thank you for providing such helpful information in your answer, unfortunately I have always struggled with the math side of things, so I have never taken a physics class. I’m sure much of this is rudimentary and basic lol",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3136380",
"title": "Scary sharp",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "The most notable advantage of the scary sharp system is speed and cost. Anyone with access to sandpaper and a reasonably flat surface can sharpen any cutting tool, often with good results. Unlike traditional stones, no maintenance is required for the scary-sharp set-up, since the sharpening surface does not form a hollow with repeated, uneven usage. A hollowed surface is undesirable in most sharpening situations, an example being the flat surface required in the back (as opposed to the beveled surface) of most woodworking plane irons. Compared to stones, sandpaper is lower in cost as well. A fresh sheet of sandpaper often cuts significantly faster than a bench sharpening stone. For this reason, coarse-grit papers can be used to dress damaged cutting edge quickly, removing chips along the edge and preparing it for the next stage/grit of edge refinement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1112015",
"title": "Scheimpflug principle",
"section": "Section::::Depth of field.:Selective focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The region of sharpness can also be made very small by using large tilt and a small \"f\"-number. For example, with 8° tilt on a 90 mm lens for a small-format camera, the total vertical DoF at the hyperfocal distance is approximately\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5587936",
"title": "Tilt–shift photography",
"section": "Section::::Camera movements.:Tilt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "In applications such as landscape photography, getting everything sharp is often the objective; by using tilt, both the foreground and background can often be made sharp without the use of a large \"f\"-number. When the PoF coincides with an essentially flat subject, the entire subject is in focus; for a subject that is not flat, obtaining foreground and background sharpness relies on the depth of field, though the sharpness can often be obtained with a smaller \"f\"-number than would be needed without the use of tilt. Basically, this shifts the whole plane of focus keeping one of the three axes as it is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47793176",
"title": "Design of plastic components",
"section": "Section::::Feature Based Rules.:Fillet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Sharp corners increase concentrations, which are prone to air entrapments, air voids, and sink marks hence weakening the structural integrity of the plastic part. It must be eliminated using radii whenever is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22362525",
"title": "Gunk (mereology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "If point-sized objects are always simple, then a gunky object does not have any point-sized parts. By usual accounts of gunk, such as Alfred Tarski's in 1929, three-dimensional gunky objects also do not have other degenerate parts shaped like one-dimensional curves or two-dimensional surfaces. (See also \"Whitehead's point-free geometry\".)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "635183",
"title": "Grind",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "A sharp object works by concentrating forces which creates a high pressure due to the very small area of the edge, but high pressures can nick a thin blade or even cause it to roll over into a rounded tube when it is used against hard materials. An irregular material or angled cut is also likely to apply much more torque to hollow-ground blades due to the \"lip\" formed on either side of the edge. More blade material can be included directly behind the cutting edge to reinforce it, but during sharpening some proportion of this material must be removed to reshape the edge, making the process more time-consuming. Also, any object being cut must be moved aside to make way for this wider blade section, and any force distributed to the grind surface reduces the pressure applied at the edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3410731",
"title": "Sharps waste",
"section": "Section::::Sharps containers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "A sharps container is a hard plastic container that is used to safely dispose of hypodermic needles and other sharp medical instruments, such as IV catheters and disposable scalpels. They are often sealable and self-locking, as well as rigid, which prevents waste from penetrating or damaging the sides of the container. In the United States, sharps containers are usually red and marked with the universal biohazard symbol for ease of recognition. Elsewhere, they are often yellow. Waste is loaded into the container until it reaches a certain height, which is usually around three-quarters of the way full. At that point, the container is emptied or disposed of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bavtt
|
Why can't we see in colour in a dark room?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your retina has two types of cells: rods and cones. Cones see in colour, but their number is much smaller and they aren't very sensitive. Rods are much more numerous and sensitive, but they don't see colour.\n\nTherefore, when you're in the dark you only see with your rods: you can make out shapes that your cones would never pick up, but you lose the capacity to distinguish colour.\n\nOn a side note, rods are also responsible for peripheral vision. \n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2022036",
"title": "Closed-eye hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 1: Visual noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "This can be seen when the eyes are closed and looking at the back of the eyelids. In a bright room, a dark red can be seen, owing to a small amount of light penetrating the eyelids and taking on the color of the blood it has passed through. In a dark room, blackness can be seen or the object can be more colourful. But in either case it is not a flat unchanging redness/blackness. Instead, if actively observed for a few minutes, one becomes aware of an apparent disorganized motion, a random field of lightness/darkness that overlays the redness/blackness of closed eyelids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248581",
"title": "Darkness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Human vision is unable to distinguish color in conditions of either high brightness or high darkness. In conditions with insufficient light levels, color perception ranges from achromatic to ultimately black.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12723421",
"title": "Colour cast",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Certain types of light can cause film and digital cameras to have a colour cast. Illuminating a subject with light sources of different colour temperatures will usually cause colour cast problems in the shadows. In general, the human eye does not notice the unnatural colour, because our eyes and brains adjust and compensate for different types of light in ways that cameras cannot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29150377",
"title": "Empirical theory of perception",
"section": "Section::::Wholly empirical approach to visual perception.:The wholly empirical strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "The wholly empirical approach holds that this experience is the sole determinant of perceptual qualities. The reason percipients see an object as dark or light, the argument goes, is that in both our own past and the past of the species it paid off to see it that particular way. Returning to the bucket analogy, imagine that each of the three hoses pumps out water of a different color: one pumps out black water, one pumps out gray water, and one pumps out clear water. All one sees is the water in the bucket, which can be clear, gray, black, or any shade in between. As expected, it is impossible to perform some calculation on the color of the water in the bucket to find out how much water came out of each hose. Now imagine that it is your job to bet on how much water came out of the gray hose. The output ratios of the hoses are not random, but co-vary in all kinds of complicated ways based on the time of day, how long it takes to fill up the bucket, etc. At first your behavior in response to the color of the bucket might not be so good, but over time this would gradually improve as different shades and behaviors in response became associated by trial and error. The key is that in order to improve you have to know whether or not your behaviors worked by interacting with the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1886691",
"title": "Theory of Colours",
"section": "Section::::Goethe's theory.:Light and dark spectra.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Since the colour phenomenon relies on the adjacency of light and dark, there are two ways to produce a spectrum: with a light beam in a dark room, and with a dark beam (i.e., a shadow) in a light room.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80868",
"title": "High color",
"section": "Section::::16-bit high color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Readers with normal vision should see the individual shades of green relatively easily, while the shades of red should be difficult to see, and the shades of blue are likely indistinguishable. More rarely, some systems support having the extra bit of colour depth on the red or blue channel, usually in applications where that colour is more prevalent (photographing of skin tones or skies, for example).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22884719",
"title": "Philosophy of color",
"section": "Section::::Color discourse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Michael Tye argues, among other things, that there is only one correct way to see colors. Therefore, the colorblind and most mammals do not really have color vision because their vision differs from the vision of \"normal\" humans. Similarly, creatures with more advanced color vision, although better able to distinguish objects than people, are suffering from color illusions because their vision differs from humans. Tye advanced this particular position in an essay called \"True Blue\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qvvds
|
Who would like to discuss Foucault to me?
|
[
{
"answer": "Interesting!\n\nFoucault essentially suggests that we can use history and 'genealogy' to study certain institutions of contemporary/modern society and that this can give us a sense of their true purpose. One claim is that there is a distinction between truth and appearances, though this is as ancient as philosophy itself. Another claim is that 'ways of thinking' can imprison people through their very worlds of possibilities. \n\nAt the heart of his work is a claim that the ways in which people make sense of 'true' or 'false' or 'correct' or 'wrong' or 'logical or 'illogical' is formed through certain historical and philosophical processes that ultimately result from political considerations that are arbitrary but appear legitimate, natural, and rational. He is not saying that we don't have truth in our world (penicillin works!). \n\nI think discourse theory is useful in understanding contemporary and modern societies. It is not the be all end all, but as with Descartes and Locke, Foucault provides tools which are uniquely suited for his society. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57526047",
"title": "Foucault (Deleuze book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Foucault is a 1986 book on the work of Michel Foucault by Gilles Deleuze. Deleuze, like in his other works on major philosophers, thinks along with Foucault instead of trying to write a guide to his philosophy. The book focuses on the conceptual underpinnings of Foucault's extensive work by considering in depth two of his paradigmatic works, \"The Archaeology of Knowledge\" (1969) and \"Discipline and Punish\" (1975). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27072132",
"title": "Educational capital",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Local knowledge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "In \"The Essential Foucault: Selections from Essential Works of Foucault\", Michel Foucault also offers alternatives for thought and new courses for active learners in education in his discussion of the reshaping of the self, “…even for the slave or for the mad, under situations where the models of selfhood are imposed from outside, a certain self-crafting is required…and each crafting of a relation with the self arises out of, and entails, a crafting of one’s relations to others – be they one’s superiors, one’s pupils, one’s colleagues…” (xxi) This idea is similar to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s understanding of the child as an “active” learner and also Paulo Freire’s \"conscientization\". American anthropologist Clifford Geertz also posits the importance of the local knowledge and common sense of people involved in everyday life:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38025189",
"title": "Foucault (Merquior book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Foucault (1985; second edition 1991) is a book about the French intellectual Michel Foucault by the Brazilian critic and sociologist José Guilherme Merquior, in which the author provides a critical evaluation of Foucault and his works, including \"Madness and Civilization\" (1961) and \"The History of Sexuality\" (1976). \"Foucault\" received praise from several scholars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2496957",
"title": "Power-knowledge",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Foucault incorporates this inevitable mutuality into his neologism power-knowledge, the most important part of which is the hyphen that links the two aspects of the integrated concept together (and alludes to their inherent inextricability).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38025189",
"title": "Foucault (Merquior book)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "Colin Gordon reviewed \"Foucault\" in \"The Times Literary Supplement\". Alan Swingewood gave the book a positive review in the \"British Journal of Sociology\", calling it \"elegant and well-informed\". Swingewood endorsed many of Merquior's criticisms of Foucault, and wrote that Merquior was perhaps correct to conclude that Foucault \"embraces nihilism.\" Merquior's work was praised by the critics Roger Kimball and Camille Paglia, who both suggested that it shows that Foucault made elementary errors in every area he wrote about; Paglia called Merquior's exposé hilarious. Though supportive of \"Foucault\" in general, Paglia criticized Merquior for failing to discuss what she saw as Foucault's enormous debts to French sociologist Émile Durkheim. The literature professor John M. Ellis called \"Foucault\" the best general account of Foucault's \"oeuvre\", while Gregory R. Johnson called it one of Merquior's \"minor classics.\" Conversely, Paul Bové, writing in his introduction to the English translation of Gilles Deleuze's \"Foucault\" (1986), dismissed Merquior's criticisms of Foucault as arrogant and stupid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20903552",
"title": "Worldwide LaRouche Youth Movement",
"section": "Section::::LaRouche Youth Movement.:Pedagogy and campaigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "LaRouche is highly critical of contemporary college curricula, and has designed his own pedagogy for members of his youth movement, which he describes as \"the reliving of the crucial discoveries of universal physical-scientific principle by, successively, the ancient Pythagoreans and Plato and the modern science of Johannes Kepler,\" combined with the performance of classical vocal music, particularly Johann Sebastian Bach's \"Jesu, meine Freude\". They spend time in what are called \"Monge brigades,\" which emphasize readings of Vladimir Vernadsky, Alexander Hamilton, Carl Gauss and Bernhard Riemann. The LaRouche Youth have been assisted around the U.S. in performance workshops on classical music, as well as African-American spirituals, by well known musicians William Warfield and Sylvia Olden Lee, and in drama performance by actor Robert Beltran.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47643",
"title": "Michel Foucault",
"section": "Section::::Later life.:Collège de France and \"Discipline and Punish\": 1970–75.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1291,
"text": "Foucault desired to leave Vincennes and become a fellow of the prestigious Collège de France. He requested to join, taking up a chair in what he called the \"history of systems of thought,\" and his request was championed by members Dumézil, Hyppolite, and Vuillemin. In November 1969, when an opening became available, Foucault was elected to the Collège, though with opposition by a large minority. He gave his inaugural lecture in December 1970, which was subsequently published as \"L'Ordre du discours\" (\"The Discourse of Language\"). He was obliged to give 12 weekly lectures a year—and did so for the rest of his life—covering the topics that he was researching at the time; these became \"one of the events of Parisian intellectual life\" and were repeatedly packed out events. On Mondays, he also gave seminars to a group of students; many of them became a \"Foulcauldian tribe\" who worked with him on his research. He enjoyed this teamwork and collective research, and together they would publish a number of short books. Working at the Collège allowed him to travel widely, giving lectures in Brazil, Japan, Canada, and the United States over the next 14 years. In 1970 and 1972, Foucault served as a professor in the French Department of the University at Buffalo in Buffalo, New York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38ms50
|
why don't our bodies have long term storage for air like we do with food?
|
[
{
"answer": "Humans very rarely are in situations where they don't have easy access to air. Humans were until recently often in situations where they didn't have easy access to food. Hence we evolved to store fat, and not air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42491910",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera",
"section": "Section::::Storage methods and materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Good storage can extend the life of an item and is an important aspect of preventative conservation. Storage should be cool, dry, clean, and stable. Items should be kept away from radiators or vents, which can cause environmental fluctuations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38349107",
"title": "Space farming",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "In addition to maintaining a shelf-life and reducing total mass, the ability to grow food in space would help reduce the vitamin gap in astronaut's diets and provide fresh food with improved taste and texture. Currently, much of the food supplied to astronauts is heat treated or freeze dried. Both of these methods, for the most part, retain the properties of the food pre-treatment. However, vitamin degradation during storage can occur. A 2009 study noted significant decreases in vitamins A, C and K as well as folic acid and thiamin can occur in as little as one year of storage. A mission to Mars could require food storage for as long as five years, thus a new source of these vitamins would be required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7367038",
"title": "Vacuum packing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Vacuum packing greatly reduces the bulk of non-food items. For example, clothing and bedding can be stored in bags evacuated with a domestic vacuum cleaner or a dedicated vacuum sealer. This technique is sometimes used to compact household waste, for example where a charge is made for each full bag collected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Shelf-stable food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292032",
"title": "Food storage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Food storage allows food to be eaten for some time (typically weeks to months) after harvest rather than solely immediately. It is both a traditional domestic skill and, in the form of food logistics, an important industrial and commercial activity. Food preservation, storage, and transport, including timely delivery to consumers, are important to food security, especially for the majority of people throughout the world who rely on others to produce their food. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "995994",
"title": "Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor",
"section": "Section::::Lifespan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Shelf life can be maximised by keeping the cell in the sealed bag as supplied by the manufacturer until being put into service, storing the cell before and between use at or below room temperature, - a range of from 10 to 22°C is recommended by a manufacturer - and avoid storing the cell in warm or dry environments for prolonged periods, particularly areas exposed to direct sunlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12150929",
"title": "Angelo Di Pietro (inventor)",
"section": "Section::::Angelo Di Pietro's Rotary Positive Displacement Air Engine.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The viability of using compressed air as energy storage has been questioned in cars and other forms of transportation given the energy losses during the air compression and dehydration process, the need for energy to add heat during the expansion phase and the low energy density of compressed air compared to rechargeable batteries. On the other hand, the compressed air tanks require no exotic materials and have fewer problems with safe disposal at the end of their life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1re0dp
|
what would happen if i play a negative mold of a record?
|
[
{
"answer": "The needle would ride in a large flat groove between two peaks that would make the groove on a record.\n\nIf you could play it, it would play from the end to the beginning because the groove would go in the opposite direction. \n\nAny sound you hear, besides the sound of the needle scratching on that flat space, would only be the left or the right because the needle can't touch both edges of a groove at the same time. It would also be backwards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155259",
"title": "Skip (audio playback)",
"section": "Section::::Vinyl gramophone records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Vinyl records are easily scratched and vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops and, in extreme cases, they can cause the needle (stylus) to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating an unintentional locked groove that repeats the same 1.8 seconds (at 33⅓ RPM) or 1.3 seconds (at 45 RPM) of track over and over again. Locked grooves are not uncommon and are even heard occasionally in broadcasts. The locked groove gave rise to the expression \"broken record\" referring to someone who continually repeats the same statement with little if any variation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172121",
"title": "Phonograph record",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.:Vinyl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Vinyl records do not break easily, but the soft material is easily scratched. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating a \"locked groove\" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase \"like a broken record\" or \"like a scratched record\", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself. Locked grooves are not uncommon and were even heard occasionally in radio broadcasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19203347",
"title": "Fuck It, We'll Do It Live",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Post-production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "No post-production overdubbing was done in the studio. Occasional wrong notes can be heard in the final product of the recording. Wednesday 13 admitted, \"First off, let me say this is a live recording. This is not a live recording where we went back into the studio and overdubbed guitar parts or vocals. This is us ... LIVE! If we make a mistake, you will hear it. If my voice cracks, you hear it. This is as close to a live experience as we could give.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "862496",
"title": "Assertiveness",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Broken record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The \"broken record\" technique consists of simply repeating your requests or your refusals every time you are met with resistance. The term comes from vinyl records, the surface of which when scratched would lead the needle of a record player to loop over the same few seconds of the recording indefinitely. \"As with a broken record, the key to this approach is repetition ... where your partner will not take no for an answer.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8975473",
"title": "LP record",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Vinyl records are vulnerable to dust, heat warping, scuffs, and scratches. Dust in the groove is usually heard as noise and may be ground into the vinyl by the passing stylus, causing lasting damage. A warp can cause a regular \"wow\" or fluctuation of musical pitch, and if substantial it can make a record physically unplayable. A scuff will be heard as a swishing sound. A scratch will create an audible tick or pop once each revolution when the stylus encounters it. A deep scratch can throw the stylus out of the groove; if it jumps to a place farther inward, part of the recording is skipped; if it jumps outward to a part of the groove it just finished playing, it can get stuck in an infinite loop, playing the same bit over and over until someone stops it. This last type of mishap, which in the era of brittle shellac records was more commonly caused by a crack, spawned the simile \"like a broken record\" to refer to annoying and seemingly endless repetition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11614250",
"title": "The Great Deceiver (King Crimson album)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Many of the recordings on this album are band improvisations. \"The Law of Maximum Distress\" appears in two sections, as the tape ran out in the middle of the song. Much of the missing material seems to be used on \"The Mincer\" from \"Starless and Bible Black\". As Robert Fripp notes in the CD jacket, \"Most live recording follows the policy of two machines in use simultaneously to meet an eventuality such as this. We learn.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873583",
"title": "Transient Random-Noise Bursts with Announcements",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The majority of the first 1,500 vinyl copies were destroyed due to bad pressing quality. The third track \"Pack Yr Romantic Mind\" was re-recorded because the song initially had a George Harrison sample the band was unable to receive permission to use. The end of the last track, \"Lock-Groove Lullaby\", extends into a lock groove repeating a phrase sampled from Perrey and Kingsley's \"The Savers\" on their album \"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ajwr4y
|
the difference between amortization and depreciation
|
[
{
"answer": "Amortization is an accounting technique used to lower the cost value of a finite-life or intangible asset incrementally through scheduled charges to income. Amortization is the paying off of debt with a fixed repayment schedule in regular installments over time like with a mortgage or a car loan.\n\nDepreciation is a reduction in the value of an asset with the passage of time, due in particular to wear and tear.\n\nSo, amortization is in reference to paying off debt with a certain fixed payment plan. So this is like a car loan or a mortgage. You pay $200 a month for 36 months and then it’s done, etc.\n\nDepreciation is the loss of value over time. \n\nAmortization is the gradual reduction of debt over a given period.\n\n\nI don’t really see how they are related though? What else do you mean by your question?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're wondering which would be applied to something, depreciation is for things that physically wear out, like machinery, while amortization is for things that don't physically wear out, but eventually expire, like a patent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Amortization is used in two ways. \n\nLoan repayments - When you make a loan payment, there are two parts to it, one is the principal reduction and the other the interest charge. The principal reduction is an amortization of the original loan debt.\n\nAmortization is also used to reduce the value of **intangible** assets. You can amortize a previously capitalized R & D cost or amortize an expensive piece of software etc. This basically means you are taking an expense against the original value of that asset to show it is worth less over time.\n\nDepreciation is a similar concept used for **tangible** assets. Again, it is a charge taken periodically to reduce the value of the asset in order to recognize that is less valuable over time. Eg. cars, equipment. In some cases, there may be \"rules\" in GAAP that specify how certain assets can be depreciated - but generally it is possible to pick what is believed to be suitable. \n\nSince both amortization and depreciation are non-cash charges (i.e. you're not really paying anyone) it has the impact of reducing net profit without impacting cash flow. This has a benefit for income tax purposes but may also make it look like a company isn't making much profit even though it is cash flow positive.\n\nMost companies (public) will publish a figure called EBITDA - earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortization. This gives you a better sense of the \"operational performance\" of the company. \n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13834732",
"title": "Amortization (tax law)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In tax law, amortization refers to the cost recovery system for intangible property. Although the theory behind cost recovery deductions of amortization is to deduct from basis in a systematic manner over an asset's estimated useful economic life so as to reflect its consumption, expiration, obsolescence or other decline in value as a result of use or the passage of time, many times a perfect match of income and deductions does not occur for policy reasons. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698333",
"title": "Amortization (business)",
"section": "Section::::Amortization of intangible assets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "In accounting, amortization refers to expensing the acquisition cost minus the residual value of intangible assets in a systematic manner over their estimated \"useful economic lives\" so as to reflect their consumption, expiry, and obsolescence, or other decline in value as a result of use or the passage of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14602979",
"title": "Selig v. United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Conceptually, amortization is a mechanism that allows taxpayers to recover the cost of property over the life of an asset when they are precluded from taking an immediate and full deduction. Practically, this means that taxpayers may recover the cost in small amounts over time. There are two forms of such recovery: depreciation and amortization. \"Selig\" deals with amortization. The general rule for amortization is set forth in Section 197 of the Internal Revenue Code. The \"Selig\" case demonstrates some of the practical problems in cost allocation prior to the enactment of Section 197.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265322",
"title": "Amortization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Amortisation (or amortization; ) is paying off an amount owed over time by making planned, incremental payments of principal and interest. To amortise a loan means \"to kill it off\". In accounting, amortisation refers to charging or writing off an intangible asset's cost as an operational expense over its estimated useful life to reduce a company's taxable income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698333",
"title": "Amortization (business)",
"section": "Section::::Amortization of intangible assets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "While theoretically amortization is used to account for the decreasing value of an intangible asset over its useful life, in practice many companies will amortize what would otherwise be one-time expenses through listing them as a capital expense on the cash flow statement and paying off the cost through amortization, having the effect of improving the company's net income in the fiscal year or quarter of the expense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8083063",
"title": "Accelerated depreciation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Accelerated depreciation refers to any one of several methods by which a company, for 'financial accounting' or tax purposes, depreciates a fixed asset in such a way that the amount of depreciation taken each year is higher during the earlier years of an asset’s life. For financial accounting purposes, accelerated depreciation is expected to be much more productive during its early years, so that depreciation expense will more accurately represent how much of an asset’s usefulness is being used up each year. For tax purposes, accelerated depreciation provides a way of deferring corporate income taxes by reducing taxable income in current years, in exchange for increased taxable income in future years. This is a valuable tax incentive that encourages businesses to purchase new assets. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698333",
"title": "Amortization (business)",
"section": "Section::::Amortization of intangible assets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Depreciation is a corresponding concept for tangible assets. Methodologies for allocating amortization to each accounting period are generally the same as these for depreciation. However, many intangible assets such as goodwill or certain brands may be deemed to have an indefinite useful life and are therefore not subject to amortization (although goodwill is subjected to an impairment test every year).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vvlcz
|
Why didn't the indigenous Australian's have domesticated animals? Especially dogs?
|
[
{
"answer": "They did. Not dogs because dogs aren't native to Australia but we used to have similar animals called dingos, which have been bred with dogs to the extent there are no pure breed dingos left, which were domesticated by the Aboriginals.\n\nAs for the other animals, the Aboriginals were a nomadic people and I imagine that carrying or waiting for a wombat or possum to follow you was not an appealing option when the place you're going to is going to have both that you can kill and eat without waiting around for them to follow you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " Theres a great book that was part of the education curriculum at one point called \"Last of the Nomads\". In that book the aboriginal couple had close relationship with dingoes. It was quite sad that when the couple were saved or removed from the desert during drought the dingoes would die from lack of water. As the couple dug up ground water for the dingoes to drink.\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416702",
"title": "Dingo–dog hybrid",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "European domestic dogs arrived in Australia in the 18th century, during the European colonization. Since then, some of those dogs dispersed into the wild (both deliberately and accidentally) and founded feral populations, especially in places where the dingo numbers had been severely reduced due to human intervention. Although there are few records of such releases, their occurrence is supported by reports of free-living dogs of specific breeds being seen or captured in remote areas. The spread of farming and grazing activities in the 19th century led to a further spread of other domestic dogs, both pet and feral ones. Interbreeding with the native dingoes has probably been occurring since the arrival of domestic dogs in the year 1788.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62893",
"title": "Dingo",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of purebreds.:Hybridisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "European domestic dogs first arrived in Australia during the European colonisation. These dogs reverted to the wild (both unintentionally and intentionally), produced feral populations and interbred with the existing dingoes. Hybrids of dingoes and domestic dogs exist today in all wild dog populations of Australia, with their numbers having increased to such a degree that any completely \"pure\" populations may no longer exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4927738",
"title": "Mammals of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Placental mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Since human settlement, many placental mammals have been introduced to Australia and are now feral. The first was the dingo; fossil evidence suggests that people from the north brought the dingo to Australia about years ago. When Europeans settled Australia they intentionally released many species into the wild, including the red fox, brown hare, and the European rabbit. Other domestic species have escaped and over time have produced wild populations, including the cat, fallow deer, rusa deer, chital, domestic horse, donkey, pig, domestic goat, water buffalo, and dromedary. Only three species of Australia's non-indigenous placental mammals were not deliberately introduced: the house mouse, black rat and brown rat. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62893",
"title": "Dingo",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Cultural.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Similar to how Europeans acquired dingoes, the Aboriginal people of Australia acquired dogs from the immigrants very quickly. This process was so fast that Francis Barrallier (surveyor on early expeditions around the colony at Port Jackson) discovered in 1802 that five dogs of European origin were there before him. One theory holds that other domestic dogs adopt the role of the \"pure\" dingo. Introduced animals, such as the water buffalo and the domestic cat, have been adopted into the indigenous Aboriginal culture in the forms of rituals, traditional paintings, and dreamtime stories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53558330",
"title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Dog food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "For thousands of years, dogs (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig) as sled dogs, have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life, for transportation and companionship. Except for dogs, there were no important domesticated animals in aboriginal times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303159",
"title": "Conquistador",
"section": "Section::::Military advantages.:Equipment and animals.:Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "The Spaniards were also skilled at breeding dogs for war, hunting and protection. The Molossers, Spanish war dogs and sheep dogs they used in battle were effective as a psychological weapon against the natives, who, in many cases, had never seen domesticated dogs. Although some indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere did have domestic dogs, including the current Southwestern US, Aztec and other Central American peoples, the inhabitants of the Arctic/Tundra regions (Inuit, Aleut, Cree), and possibly some South American groups similar to South American fox (\"Pseudalopex culpaeus\") or Yagan dog, during the conquest of the Americas, Spanish conquistadors used Spanish Mastiffs and other Molossers in battle against the Taínos, Aztecs and Mayans. These specially trained dogs were feared because of their strength and ferocity. The strongest big breeds of broad-mouthed dogs were specifically trained for battle. These war dogs were used against barely clothed troops. They were armoured dogs trained to kill and disembowel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28871384",
"title": "Free-ranging dog",
"section": "Section::::Categories of dogs.:Free-ranging unowned dogs.:\"Wild\" dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "That \"wild dogs\" exist is debated. Some authors propose that this term applies to the Australian dingo and dingo-feral dog hybrids. They believe that these have a history of independence from humans and should no longer be considered as domesticated. Others disagree, and propose that the dingo was once domesticated and is now a feral dog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bycgj
|
why do some porn sites not need 18+ proof, but some do?
|
[
{
"answer": "perhaps the one that needs no proof isn't operating in the US or a country that requires proof of age",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1133408",
"title": "Pornography laws by region",
"section": "Section::::Africa.:South Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Pornography rated X18 is permitted by the law only if sold to persons over the age of 18 in registered stores. It is an offense to host a pornographic web site in South Africa because of the difficulty of age-verification and the requirement that pornography only be distributed from designated, licensed physical premises. It is also unlawful to visually represent bestiality (also rated XX), but not in text descriptions. Supplying violent pornography is an offence in any form, but the law allows the production of pornography that is not prohibited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22239137",
"title": "Adult film industry regulations",
"section": "Section::::Internet pornography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Within nations that allow at least some types of pornography, models are often required to be at least a specific age (18 is most common). Various nations have various rules as to how a site must ensure that all porn models featured on it are of age such as strict record-keeping laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22239137",
"title": "Adult film industry regulations",
"section": "Section::::Internet pornography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1375,
"text": "Many nations that allow at least some types of pornography attempt to ensure that those under their legal age for accessing pornography (often 18 or 21) cannot easily access it. Various measures have been tried but with varying success. Within the United States, most websites have taken voluntary steps to ensure that visitors to their sites are not underage. Many Web sites provide a warning upon entry, warning minors and those not interested in viewing porn not to view the site, and requiring one to affirm that one is at least 18 and wishing to view pornographic content. Such warnings are at times used with other techniques, specifically on commercial and premium streaming sites. Commercial pornography websites generally restrict access to any pornographic content until a membership has been purchased using a credit card. This serves as both a way to collect payment and an age verification method since credit cards are usually not issued to minors. Age verification services have also appeared offering access to any Web site that participates in their program without additional charge. The users need only verify their age with the verification service, which then issues a username and password that can access all sites that use its services. Most age verification sites charge either a monthly or yearly fee to those wanting access to participating sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25225226",
"title": "Adult non-pornographic website",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Adult non-pornographic websites are difficult to classify in most mainstream web directories and search engines. Due to the nature of their sexual content, they are often mistaken in searches as pornographic sites, even when the \"adult\" content is informational. However, people who visit them are often seeking something other than pornography, such as information on a wide variety of sexual topics or discussions with other individuals. Wikipedia's articles on these relevant topics can be lumped into this category of website because of their graphic nature and educational intent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3652110",
"title": "Censorship in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Subject matter and agenda.:Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "\"Indecent\" websites, such as those offering unrated games, any kind of pornography (not only child pornography), and gambling, are also blocked. Attempts to access these sites are automatically redirected to the warning page showing \"This site is legally blocked by the government regulations.\" Search engines are required to verify age for some keywords deemed \"inappropriate\" for minors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "848963",
"title": "Video game censorship",
"section": "Section::::Korea Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "\"Indecent\" websites, such as those offering unrated games, any kind of pornography (not only child pornography), and gambling, are also blocked. Attempts to access these sites are automatically redirected to the warning page showing \"This site is legally blocked by the government regulations.\" Search engines are required to verify age for some keywords deemed \"inappropriate\" for minors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60577742",
"title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Selective censorship or surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The UK has also announced plans requiring pornography sites worldwide to add age verification to prevent children from viewing them. UK based websites which fail to comply will be fined, while overseas sites will be blocked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3n577p
|
In the Game of Thrones TV series (and book) bastards from different regions all share a common surname to identify them, Snow or Flowers for example. Does this system have any evidence in history or was it invented by the author?
|
[
{
"answer": "Responses covering more regions/cultures of Medieval Europe are welcome; meanwhile you may be interested in these\n\n* [Bastard names](_URL_0_)\n\n* [During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, how was the surname of illegitimate children determined?](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a sports reporter called Dan LeBatard and I've always wondered if his ancestor was a Bastard. Does anyone know anything about this name?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Denmark-Norway there was a tradition in the 1500s-1600s to name the illegitimate sons and daughters of the king Gyldenløve (literal translation to english would be \"Golden Lion\".\n\nChristian IV, Frederik III and Christian V of Denmark all had several children by various mistresses who all carried the surname Gyldenløve.\n\nSo at least for Danish royalty there at one time was a \"system\" of naming bastards if you will.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35366912",
"title": "Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies",
"section": "Section::::Ancestry of Woden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The name at the head of this pedigree is that of another legendary Scandinavian, \"Geat\", apparently the eponymous ancestor of the Geats and perhaps once a god. This individual has also been taken as corresponding to Gapt, the head of the genealogy of the Goths as given by Jordanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57851690",
"title": "Baggins of Hobbiton",
"section": "Section::::Family Branches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "There were two known branches of the Baggins Family. These were the Chubb-Bagginses and the Sackville-Bagginses. This happened when a female head of a family marries a male of another family. In order for the female's maiden name to be preserved through her descendants, a double surname is given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50235087",
"title": "Azerbaijani name",
"section": "Section::::Surname origins.:Clan surnames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Certain surnames derives from clan names of old nobility such as Safavi, Bakikhanov and others. Most of these were already adopted by nobility in early stages of Russian Empire domination in Caucasus. Older surnames also have suffix \"-ski\" like Shikhlynski or Hajinsky. Others mostly incorporate noble titles like \"bey\" or \"khan\" with addition of suffixes like \"-ov\" or \"-li\" (for instance, \"Rustamkhanli\" or \"Amirkhanov\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4839317",
"title": "Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde",
"section": "Section::::Successor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The personal name \"\" was commonly employed by the Cumbrian royal dynasty. This name lays behind the place name of Dundonald/Dundonald Castle (), derived from the British \"*Din Dyfnwal\". Although no Cumbrian monarch can be specifically linked to this location, any one of those named \"Dyfnwal\" could be the eponym. Another place that could have been named after any of these like-named kings is Cardonald ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2447663",
"title": "Substantive title",
"section": "Section::::Granted titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Although official, titles shared by members of a dynasty are non-substantive, the \"Almanach de Gotha\" historically recording them as prefixes to the given name, whereas substantive titles usually followed the titleholder's given name. Substantive titles are often granted to royalty in honour of an important dynastic occasion: with the baptism of a new dynast, coming of age, or an approved wedding. Recent examples include Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex. The \"Almanach de Gotha\" treated similarly titles used by dynasties of abolished monarchies: the head of the house bearing a traditional title of the dynasty in lieu of or after the given name (e.g. Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza), while cadets shared a princely title as prefix in addition to any suffixed substantive title accorded them as individuals by the head of the house (e.g. Infante Miguel, Duke of Viseu and Prince Aimone, Duke of Apulia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873394",
"title": "List of legendary kings of Sweden",
"section": "Section::::\"Gesta Danorum\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Certain kings of Sweden appear in the Danish \"Gesta Danorum\" by Saxo Grammaticus. Of these, some (for example Athisl/Adils, Hunding/Fjölnir, Halfdan, Sigurd Hring, Ragnar Lodbrok and Erik and Alrik) are based on the same traditions as the West Norse Ynglingatal, Ynglinga saga and \"Historia Norwegiae\". Moreover, the dynasties are the same, i.e. the descendants of the god Frey (i.e. the Ynglings) and intermediary Skjöldungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57541924",
"title": "Panduvamshis of Mekala",
"section": "Section::::Possible successors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The two dynasties were different in several ways. Only one king of the Dakshina Kosala dynasty is known to have a name ending in \"-bala\", while all but one kings of the Mekala dynasty had names ending in -\"bala\". The copper-plate inscriptions of the Dakshina Kosala dynasty are composed in prose, and are inscribed in \"box-headed\" characters (although some private stone inscriptions from their reign are inscribed in \"nail-headed characters\"). On the other hand, the inscriptions of the Mekala dynasty are composed in a mixture of prose and verse, and are inscribed in \"nail-headed\" characters. The Dakshina Kosala rulers prefixed the word \"mahat\" to their names, which was not a practice among the Mekala rulers. Lastly, the Dakshina Kosala rulers were Vaishnavites, unlike the Mekala rulers, who were Shaivites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
]
}
] | null |
23e4ur
|
When was music viewed as a popular way of protesting government actions?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the first instances I can think of is the [Carmina Burana](_URL_1_) - no, not Carl Orff's 1936 work, but rather the 11th and 12th century text that he drew his lyrics from. The Carmina Burana contains songs by the Goliards, a sect of the clergy who we see were very critical of the Catholic Church, particularly in their abuse of simony and penchant for greed.\n\nA more mainstream example that comes to mind is probably the emergence of [opera buffa](_URL_0_) (comic opera) in the early 18th century. Because the intended audience of opera buffa was the middle classes (as opposed to opera seria, which was created largely for the aristocracy and royalty), librettists (story writers) often strongly satirized political conditions of the day. Since the scathing, lightly veiled commentary was couched in music, humor, and costumes, the underlying message was able to slip past typical censorship and into the mainstream.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33257452",
"title": "Protest songs in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The tradition of protest songs in the United States is a long one that dates back to the 18th century and colonial period, the American Revolutionary War and its aftermath. In the 19th century topical subjects for protest in song included abolition, slavery, poverty, and the Civil War amongst other subjects. In the 20th century civil liberties, civil rights, women's rights, economic injustice, politics and war were among the popular subjects for protest in song. In the 21st century the long tradition continues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21342679",
"title": "The arts and politics",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Folk and protest music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "In the 1960s the songs of Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, and others protested further racism, war, and the military-industrial complex, continuing an American artistic tradition of political protest founded during its colonial era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12000337",
"title": "Contemporary folk music",
"section": "Section::::Folk revival of the mid-20th century in the English-speaking countries.:The mid-1960s through the early 1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "During this period, the term \"protest music\" was often used to characterize folk music with topical political themes. The convergence of the civil rights movement and folk music on the college campus led to the popularity of artists like Bob Dylan and his brand of protest music. As Folk singers and songwriters such as Phil Ochs, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Arlo Guthrie and Tom Paxton followed in Woody Guthrie's footsteps, writing \"protest music\" and topical songs and expressing support for various causes including the American Civil Rights Movement and anti-war causes associated with the Vietnam War. . Songs like Dylan's \"Blowin' in the Wind\" became an anthem for the civil rights movement, and he sang ballads about many other current issues of the time, such as \"Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" about the Cuban missile crisis. Dylan is quoted having said \"there's other things in this world besides love and sex that're important, too.\" A number of performers who had begun their careers singing largely traditional material, as typified by Baez and Collins, began to write their own material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266137",
"title": "Protest",
"section": "Section::::Typology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "BULLET::::- Protest song is a song which protests perceived problems in society. Every major movement in Western history has been accompanied by its own collection of protest songs, from slave emancipation to women's suffrage, the labor movement, civil rights, the anti-war movement, the feminist movement, the environmental movement. Over time, the songs have come to protest more abstract, moral issues, such as injustice, racial discrimination, the morality of war in general (as opposed to purely protesting individual wars), globalization, inflation, social inequalities, and incarceration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33257452",
"title": "Protest songs in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Twentieth Century.:1960s: The Civil Rights Movement, Vietnam War, and Peace and Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 2292,
"text": "The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s often used Negro spirituals as a source of protest, changing the religious lyrics to suit the political mood of the time. The use of religious music helped to emphasize the peaceful nature of the protest; it also proved easy to adapt, with many improvised call-and-response songs being created during marches and sit-ins. Some imprisoned protesters used their incarceration as an opportunity to write protest songs. These songs were carried across the country by Freedom Riders, and many of these became Civil Rights anthems. Many soul singers of the period, such as Sam Cooke (\"A Change Is Gonna Come\" (1965)), Otis Redding and Aretha Franklin (\"Respect\"), James Brown (\"Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud\" (1968); \"I Don't Want Nobody to Give Me Nothing (Open Up the Door, I'll Get It Myself)\" (1969)), Curtis Mayfield & The Impressions (\"We're a Winner\") (1967); and Nina Simone (\"Mississippi Goddam\" (1964), \"To Be Young, Gifted and Black\" (1970)) wrote and performed many protest songs which addressed the ever-increasing demand for equal rights for African Americans during the civil rights movement. The predominantly white music scene of the time also produced a number of songs protesting racial discrimination, including Janis Ian's \"Society's Child (Baby I've Been Thinking)\" in 1966, about an interracial romance forbidden by a girl's mother and frowned upon by her peers and teachers and a culture that classifies citizens by race. Steve Reich's 13-minute-long \"Come Out\" (1966), which consists of manipulated recordings of a single spoken line given by an injured survivor of the Harlem Race Riots of 1964, protested police brutality against African Americans. In late 1968, Sly and the Family Stone released the single \"Everyday People\", which became the band's first number-one hit. \"Everyday People\" was a protest against prejudices of all kinds, and popularized the catchphrase \"different strokes for different folks.\" The Family Stone featured Caucasians Greg Errico and Jerry Martini in its lineup, as well as females Rose Stone and Cynthia Robinson; making it the first major integrated band in rock history. Sly & the Family Stone's message was about peace and equality through music, and this song reflects the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8152147",
"title": "Freedom songs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Music of the civil rights era was crucial to the productivity of the movement. Music communicated unspeakable feelings and the desire for radical change across the nation. Music strengthened the movement, adding variety to freedom progression strategies. Music was highly successful in that the songs were direct and repetitive, getting the message across clearly and efficiently. Melodies were simple with repeating choruses, which allowed easy involvement within both black and white communities furthering the spread of the song's message. There was often more singing than talking during protests and demonstrations, showing how powerful the songs really were. Nurturing those who came to participate in the movements was vital, which would be done in the form of song. Participants felt a connectedness with one another and their movement through the songs. Freedom songs were often used politically to grab the attention of the nation to address the severity of segregation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23477",
"title": "Protest song",
"section": "Section::::By location.:Britain and Ireland.:Early British protest songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "These industrial protest songs were largely ignored during the first English folk revival of the later 19th and early 20th century, which had focused on songs that had been collected in rural areas where they were still being sung and on music education. They were revived in the 1960s and performed by figures such as A. L. Lloyd on his album \"The Iron Muse\" (1963). In the 1980s the anarchist rock band Chumbawamba recorded several versions of traditional English protest songs as \"English Rebel Songs 1381–1914\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
excbir
|
how does a bread making machine work?
|
[
{
"answer": "It automates the process of kneading (by mashing the ingredients with a rotating paddle, usually) then lets the dough sit (and beeps at you to remove the paddle so it doesn't get stuck), then bakes it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Making bread is not that complicated. You take flour, water, salt and yeast and knead them together to make a dough. You allow the dough to rise and then you apply heat to bake the dough into bread.\n\nA bread making machine does exactly that. It's basically a bucket with some rotating paddles. You put the ingredients in and the machine will mix the ingredients, knead the dough, allow it to rise and then bake it into a bread.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1093416",
"title": "Bread machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "A bread making machine or bread maker is a home appliance for turning raw ingredients into baked bread. It consists of a bread pan (or \"tin\"), at the bottom of which are one or more built-in paddles, mounted in the center of a small special-purpose oven. This small oven is usually controlled by a simple built-in computer using settings input via a control panel. Most bread machines have different cycles for different kinds of dough—including white bread, whole grain, European-style (sometimes labelled \"French\"), and dough-only (for pizza dough and shaped loaves baked in a conventional oven). Many also have a timer to allow the bread machine to activate without operator attendance, and some high-end models allow the user to program a custom cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1093416",
"title": "Bread machine",
"section": "Section::::Use and features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The machine takes a few hours to make a loaf of bread. The ingredients are first rested and bought up to optimal temperature. The ingredients are then turned into a dough by stirring with a paddle. The dough is then proofed using ideal temperature control, and then baked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369473",
"title": "Bara brith",
"section": "Section::::Recipe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "The bread is made by mixing flour (either white or self raising), yeast (if not using self-raising flour), butter, mixed dried fruit (such as raisins, currants and sultanas), mixed spices and an egg. Some recipes favour soaking the dried fruit in tea overnight before the baking. This mixture is then proofed to allow fermentation to take place. After an initial period, the air is knocked out of the mixture and it is allowed to proof once more. This period of preparation can take up to two hours, including the resting time for the bread mixture. It is then baked in an oven. Bara brith is traditionally served at tea time, alongside tea. It is normally served in slices with butter spread on one side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31167189",
"title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Foods.:Grains and bread.:Bread making.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Bread making began with the milling of the grain. It was a difficult and time-consuming task, performed by women. Each household stored its own grain, and it is estimated that it required at least three hours of daily effort to produce enough flour to make sufficient bread for a family of five. The earliest milling was performed with a pestle and mortar, or a stone quern consisting of a large lower stone that held the grain and a smooth upper stone that was moved back and forth over the grains (). This often left small pieces of grit in the flour. The use of the millstone became more widespread during the Iron Age, resulting in greater speed and increased production of flour. Smaller versions for household use, the rotary or beehive quern, appeared during the early Persian period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20783788",
"title": "Burebrot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The bread is made by mixing rye and wheat flour, water, salt, yeast and a leavening agent into a dough, which is formed into a round shape. After 70 to 90 minutes, the surface is cut with a knife to create a decorative lozenge pattern and the bread is baked first at a high, then at a moderate temperature until the crust is crunchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4572828",
"title": "Chorleywood bread process",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The Chorleywood bread process allows the use of lower-protein wheats and reduces processing time, the system being able to produce a loaf of bread from flour to sliced and packaged form in about three and a half hours. This is achieved through the addition of Vitamin C, fat, yeast, and intense mechanical working by high-speed mixers, not feasible in a small-scale kitchen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4572828",
"title": "Chorleywood bread process",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Bread had for millennia been made from wheat flour by manually kneading a dough with a raising agent, typically yeast, leaving it to ferment, then baking. In 1862 a radically new and much cheaper industrial-scale process was developed by John Dauglish, using water with dissolved carbon dioxide instead of yeast, with no need for an eight-hour fermentation. Dauglish's method, used by the Aerated Bread Company that he set up, dominated commercial bread baking for a century until the Chorleywood process was developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
427mp1
|
The Roman Republic and Greek(Athenian) Democracy are traditionally dated to 509 BC and 508 BC respectively. Is this a coincidence or could they have possibly drawn inspiration from the same root cause?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not a coincidence at all, but not for the reason that you think. The traditional date if the expulsion of the Tarquins *must* be a later tradition attempting to imitate the Athenian one. That Rome had kings and that some of these kings were probably Etruscan is pretty certain, but the precise dating of the expulsion of the kings and the exact events as described by later sources like Dionysius of Halicarnassus and of course Livy are certainly an invention. The expulsion of the kings by two leaders, one of whom is incited by sexual assault (Collatinus for the Tarquins and Harmodius for the Pisistratids) against a female relative by a younger relative of the tyrant (Lucretia by Sextus Tarquin or Harmodius' sister by Hipparchus) is simply too obviously an imitation of the Athenian story to be accurate, and generally scholars dismiss the story as it is presented. I mean, for Christ's sake the Tarquins were expelled in exactly the same year as the Pisistratids, 510. This isn't the only time when we see obvious attempts to link the pre-Republican or earliest Republican traditions with Greek traditions of about the same period. Stories like Horatius Cocles and the sacrifice of the 300 Fabii are both quite obviously influenced by the defense of Thermopylae. These stories probably are based on something real (obviously the expulsion of the Tarquins is based on something that actually happened, as the kingship at Rome ended after all) or at least are based on older native traditions, but the Greek influence of obvious and very much there",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54244722",
"title": "Earliest Greek democracies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "This is a list of the Greek democracies for which there is some evidence in the Archaic period, following Eric Robinson's book \"The First Democracies\" (Stuttgart, 1997). Most of them probably pre-date the establishment of democracy in Athens by Cleisthenes in 508-507 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53872280",
"title": "Democracy and economic growth",
"section": "Section::::Ancient beginnings and correlation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The period of Ancient Greece 4th century B.C. and later of the Roman Empire marks the beginning not only of democracy, but as well as its connection to economic growth. All throughout history, up until the present they have stayed intertwined. While there is no doubt of their existing relationship, whether it being in favor of economic development or democracy, there is no evidence to claim that it is in fact a causal relationship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27490645",
"title": "List of kings of Argos",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Before the establishment of a democracy, the Ancient Greek city-state of Argos was ruled by kings. Most of them are probably mythical or only semi-historical. This list is based on that given by Eusebius of Caesarea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51992830",
"title": "Athenian democracy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Athenian democracy developed around the sixth century BC in the Greek city-state (known as a polis) of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, and is often described as the first known democracy in the world. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most following the Athenian model, but none are as well documented as Athens'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51992830",
"title": "Athenian democracy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "However, when Rome fought Macedonia in 200, the Athenians abolished the first two new tribes and created a twelfth tribe in honour of the Pergamene king. The Athenians declared for Rome, and in 146 BC Athens became an autonomous \"civitas foederata\", able to manage internal affairs. This allowed Athens to practice the forms of democracy, though Rome ensured that the constitution strengthened the city's aristocracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51992830",
"title": "Athenian democracy",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "In the age of Cicero and Caesar, Rome was a republic, but not a democracy. Furthermore, it would be misleading to say that the tradition of Athenian democracy was an important part of the 18th-century revolutionaries' intellectual background. The classical example that inspired the American and French revolutionaries, as well as the English radicals, was Rome rather than Greece. Thus, the Founding Fathers who met in Philadelphia in 1787, did not set up a Council of the Areopagos, but a Senate, that, eventually, met on the Capitol. Following Rousseau (1712–1778), \"democracy came to be associated with popular sovereignty instead of popular participation in the exercise of power.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95816",
"title": "Direct democracy",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Early Athens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Athenian democracy developed in the Greek city-state of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, around 600 BC. Athens was one of the very first known democracies. Other Greek cities set up democracies, and even though most followed an Athenian model, none were as powerful, stable, or well-documented as that of Athens. In the direct democracy of Athens, the citizens did not nominate representatives to vote on legislation and executive bills on their behalf (as in the United States) but instead voted as individuals. The public opinion of voters was influenced by the political satire of the comic poets in the theatres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ne3hs
|
Did the Mongols leave any long-term institutional or cultural legacy in the places they conquered?
|
[
{
"answer": "one point of reference: in his book \"Russia and the Golden Horde\", Halperin concludes that while the Mongols had a traumatic effect on the Russians, they left surprisingly few traces of their culture or language, considering that they were the overlords of Russia for centuries. the Russians had to pay their taxes and toe certain lines, but their main interaction with the Mongols was paying taxes or tributes or being raided as punishment for disobedience. at least that's how Halperin tells it. he did note details on legacies when they came up, maybe aspects of court etiquette, but i can't remember.. i'll look it up if no one else knows.\n\nand I don't have a particular source on it, but I've read many times the claim that the Mongols had similarly little effect on China - their interaction with the populace was focused on extraction and security, aspects in which they were completely replaced when they were driven out of the country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jack Weatherford in his work : \" Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World\" outlines that the Khan and his Horde spread policies of religious tolerance to every region they conquered. While this would not be a long standing practice after the fall of the Mongol Empire, it was a piece of Mongol Culture carried to the realms it touched during their period of imperial influence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Rene Grousset's Empire of the Steppes, Rene points to the mongolian conquest of Russia being the first step in the nationalization of Russia away from principalities. Moscow benefited greatly from this because they got special treatment from the Mongols for one reason or another. Kiev, the historically greatest city of Rus. When the Mongols sacked Kiev, something like 2,000 people survived from a population of 60,000. This happened across Rus and Moscow capitalized with trade and became a rich city. So when the Mongol military might weakened, Ivan IV (the terrible) capitalized by defeating the remnants and taking over basically the modern day borders of Russia as we know it. This likely would not have happened without centuries of Mongol rule as Muscovite's are ethnically nothing like people across the Urals, so it was the Mongolians that first brought a sense of nationality to Russians.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7599091",
"title": "Moghulistan",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "When the Mongols conquered most of Asia and Russia in the 13th century and constructed the Mongol Empire, they lived as minorities in many of the regions they had subdued, such as Iran and China. As a result, the Mongols in these regions quickly adopted the local culture. For example, in the Persian Ilkhanate the Mongol khans adopted Islam after less than half a century, while the khans of the Yuan Dynasty embraced Chinese court customs. In contrast, the Mongols and their subordinates who settled in what came to be known as Moghulistan were in origin steppe nomads from Mongolia. Because of this, they were much more resistant to changing their way of life; they retained their primarily nomadic lifestyle for several centuries and were among the last of the Mongols who converted to Islam to do so. During the 14th century the inhabitants of Moghulistan were known as \"Mogul\" and the area they occupied was called \"Mirza/Baig\". This term is also used by numerous people in South Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The Mongol Empire — at its height the largest contiguous empire in history — had a lasting impact, unifying large regions. Some of these (such as eastern and western Russia and the western parts of China) remain unified today. Mongols might have been assimilated into local populations after the fall of the empire, and some of their descendants adopted local religions; for example, the eastern khanate largely adopted Buddhism, and the three western khanates adopted Islam, largely under Sufi influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29147260",
"title": "Mongol invasions of Durdzuketia",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "During what was the late Middle Ages of Western Europe, the Caucasus was invaded by Mongols and their Turkic vassals. The first appearance of Mongol troops in the Caucasus was an arrival of scouts in 1220-1222. Kypchak Turkic peoples - some of which becoming future affiliates of Genghis Khan - had been invading and settling areas further and further South and West (a process that had was continuing since the fall of the Khazars), including the fertile river valleys of the Terek and the Kuban. In the 1230s, the Mongols gained rule over the Kypchaks, and turned them into vassals. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36220",
"title": "1250s",
"section": "Section::::Events and trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "The decade was perhaps most dominated by the Mongols, who under the leadership of Möngke Khan continued their rapid expansion throughout Asia both to the east and west of their home territories. The Mongols destroyed the Kingdom of Dali in Laos, and captured the Goryeo kingdom in Korea, Anatolia in Turkey, and the Islamic center of Baghdad, where tens or hundreds of thousands were killed as the city was burned to the ground. In Thailand the Lannathai kingdom was founded. In Japan, a new sect of Buddhism was formed, while in Korea the carving of Buddhist scriptures on 81,000 wooden blocks was completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12264347",
"title": "Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania",
"section": "Section::::History.:Aftermath (after 1241).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The Mongols conquered the steppes as far as the Lower Danube. They massacred or enslaved many Cumans, but significant Cuman groups survived and preserved their separate identity in the Mongol Empire until the end of the 14th century. The Holy See did not abandon the idea of proselytizing in Cumania after the Mongol invasion, and Pope Innocent IV praised the Dominicans for their successful missions to the Cumans in 1253. However, Pope Nicholas III mentioned in a 7 October 1278 letter that Catholics had disappeared from the Diocese of Cumania because no bishop lived there since the destruction of the episcopal see. The pope urged Philip, Bishop of Fermo (his legate in Hungary) to investigate the situation in the former bishopric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1940668",
"title": "Turco-Mongol tradition",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The Mongols under Genghis Khan (1162-1227) created in 1206 one of the largest land-based empires in history, permanently joining much of Eurasia into one political system. Since then, there has existed a portion of Mongolian society that adopted Turkic languages. For example, from the modern Mongolian ethnic group, the Uriankhai, who live in the Xinjiang (Western China) and in the western part of Mongolia, speak the Tuvan language (one of the Turkic languages) as their native language. Nations of Turkic nomadic people such as the Göktürks and Uighurs and ethnic groups that spoke Turkic languages such as Naimans and Ongud lived in the Mongolian Plateau during the time of Genghis Khan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47826238",
"title": "Spread of Islam",
"section": "Section::::By region.:Inner Asia and Eastern Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Some of the Mongolian tribes became Islamized. Following the brutal Mongol invasion of Central Asia under Hulagu Khan and after the Battle of Baghdad (1258), Mongol rule extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in Asia. The Mongols destroyed the caliphate and persecuted Islam, replacing it with Buddhism as the official state religion. In 1295 however, the new Khan of the Ilkhanate, Ghazan, converted to Islam, and two decades later the Golden Horde under Uzbeg Khan (reigned 1313-1341) followed suit. The Mongols had been religiously and culturally conquered; this absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6i2ajp
|
in mmos, what stops a game from having large scale battles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Technology.\n\n\nLarge battles require lots of network battle and actions from the game engines. Animating that much on a large scale is difficult as well even with 3d technology.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For starters everyone's pc would have to be capable of rendering that many characters in one spot, as well as register all the actions made by those characters. But I would imagine there would be a lot of stress on the servers having everyone in spot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rendering and communication of actions. [This is a good example of a massive number of players doing battle](_URL_0_). A thing to note of this is that in real time it took 21 hours, in actual play time it was about 2 hours. TiDi is explained at the bottom of that link. \n\nThe tldr, is that with the number of players connected in one spot, you over load what the servers can render, keeping track of everyones actions and effectively communicating that to every player takes a lot of power. What it comes down to is that no one actually runs that much hardware, and even more importantly, no one has the software to handle that much information in that way. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4301963",
"title": "Rhapsody: A Musical Adventure",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Battles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The battles are fought in a tactical role-playing game fashion. However, unlike other games in this genre, the battles tend to last less than a minute, with the exception of boss battles, and require little tactics. This makes the game stand out in its genre and may have also led to its limited mainstream success with more hardcore players of the genre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9313699",
"title": "Dark Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The battle system received mixed reviews. AllGame's J.C. Barnes found the game's use of elemental attacks awkward; \"Rooms can have anywhere from three to five monsters at a time, each having different elemental attributes. This means that gamers will most likely have to kill a monster that's weak against a specific attribute, open the weapon menu, select another attribute for the other monster, close the menu and repeat until all the monsters are defeated. He also found the dungeon crawling aspect somewhat repetitive. \"GamePro\" called the fighting \"monotonous,\" arguing that the game \"doesn't do the basics right.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2254265",
"title": "Hybrid Heaven",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Because of this, the Vs. Battle Mode plays like a regular 3D fighting game but with some unique RPG elements. In addition to regular punching, kicking, and grappling attacks, energy can be saved up to five times to allow for combos, achieved by either the player editing their own during a fight (one move at a time), or by choosing preset or saved combos. The battle system of \"Hybrid Heaven\" has a strong emphasis on leveling up. Experience using an offense or a defense directly correlates with the player's statistical abilities when performing that move in the future, with separate statistics for each limb, the torso, and the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39731877",
"title": "Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Z",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "\"Battle of Z\" is a team fighting action title that lets up to eight players battle it out against one another in a gameplay and graphical style similar to those of \"Dragon Ball: Zenkai Battle Royale\". The game can have up to four players in cooperative play, and lets players perform attacks together and heal one another. It also supports online multiplayer battles, and PS Vita ad-hoc connection. A multiplayer restriction in this game is that two players can not play on the same console; the developers say this is due to wanting a player having the best possible graphics in full screen. \"Battle of Z\" features over 70 characters, as well as team battles against giant characters such as Great Ape Vegeta, Great Ape Gohan, and Hirudegarn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6941133",
"title": "Bomberman Land Touch!",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Battle mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Battle mode consists of the traditional maze-like gameplay, where multiple Bomber People blow their way through obstacles, collect power-ups, and attempt to defeat the other Bomber People. Also, the game allows players to compete in a deathmatch contest with 10 players in LAN or across the world with the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2107097",
"title": "Jagged Alliance 2",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Battles occur whenever the player's and enemy forces occupy the same sector. This can happen if enemy or player forces arrive at a hostile sector or the player's actions cause a previously friendly or neutral force to become hostile. The game proceeds in real-time until a member of one force spots an enemy. The game then switches to turn-based play. The battles are played on the tactical screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39475415",
"title": "Guilty Gear Xrd",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The Battle Mode comprises the arcade mode, which unveils part of the game's story after the player defeats eight opponents; a versus mode, in which the player can have offline battles with a second player or against a CPU; and a special \"M.O.M\" mode. The M.O.M. Mode, which is an acronym for \"Medal of Millionaires\", is a variation of the regular survival mode in which the player earns medals based on performance and improves through a progression system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hem8k
|
What percentage of the human genome defines our body and what percentage defines our brain?
|
[
{
"answer": "that is not how it works. many of the areas of the genome which code for \"body\" also code for brain structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To give a rough idea of the actual proprtion of brain-important DNA/ non brain-important DNA (important meaning not essential for forming the brain, but required for correct functioning), consider that almost any cytogenetically visible deletion of DNA (which may be ~1% of the genome - could be more, could be less, will also have other effects) will produce a phenotype with some degree of mental retardation, usually towards the severe end of the scale, as a result of the loss of genes with some kind of 'brain defining' function. Deletions of particular regions will cause specific syndromes with distinct phenotypic abnormalites, but mental retardation is practically a constant. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is not a good way to think of DNA - generally speaking, there is an embryonic development phase, a growth phase, and a maintenance phase in humans. You cannot really separate one from the other, and even in each particular phase there is often no such clear distinction in roles - there is no \"brain\" gene. I mean, there are some genes that clearly function in the CNS only, but a better bi-phase separation of all our genes, instead of \"brain\" and \"body\", would probably be \"CNS\" and \"not CNS\".\n\nIt's like asking what percentage of a car is involved in going, and what percentage of a car is involved in stopping. Some things, like the accelerator and brakes, are clearly involved only in one aspect. Then what about the wheels? They're clearly involved in both, in a way. What about the body? Without the car body, the whole question is meaningless. And what about something extraneous, like the radio antenna? This is why I'm saying that you're better off categorizing car parts as \"involved in moving\" and \"not involved in moving\" - and even then it's still kind of a weird way to think of a car's parts.\n\nWhat actually happens is that from a single diploid cell, through many regulatory steps, forms a tube structure. From that, we get our head, limbs, and trunk structures. Somewhere in that process the central nervous system (which includes the spinal cord) develops alongside all these steps - the process is called [neurulation](_URL_1_).\n\nA family of proteins containing the [homeobox](_URL_0_) domain are important in this step, as well as the Wnt/[Sonic hedgehog](_URL_2_) protein network. I think these are along the lines of what you're looking for, but to answer your question, if you're going to think of DNA as a software program, you have to rethink how you're categorizing the parts of the end product (the human). If you do brain/body then the premise won't make much sense, much like asking what percentage of code for a game encodes for the top half of the screen, and what percentage of code encodes for the bottom half of the screen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3763482",
"title": "Brain size",
"section": "Section::::Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Studies on human brain size, largely based on participants of European ancestry, tend to find an average adult brain volume of 1260 cubic centimeters (cm) for men and 1130 cm for women. There is, however, substantial variation between individuals; one study of 46 adults, aged 22–49 years and of mainly European descent, found an average brain volume of 1273.6 cm for men, with a range of 1052.9 to 1498.5 cm, and 1131.1 cm for women, with a range of 974.9 to 1398.1 cm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27809",
"title": "Chemical synapse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The adult human brain is estimated to contain from 10 to 5 × 10 (100–500 trillion) synapses. Every cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly a billion (short scale, i.e. 10) of them. The number of synapses in the human cerebral cortex has separately been estimated at 0.15 quadrillion (150 trillion)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42888",
"title": "Human genome",
"section": "Section::::Molecular organization and gene content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "The total length of the human genome is over 3 billion base pairs. The genome is organized into 22 paired chromosomes, plus the X chromosome (one in males, two in females) and, in males only, one Y chromosome. These are all large linear DNA molecules contained within the cell nucleus. The genome also includes the mitochondrial DNA, a comparatively small circular molecule present in each mitochondrion. Basic information about these molecules and their gene content, based on a reference genome that does not represent the sequence of any specific individual, are provided in the following table. (Data source: Ensembl genome browser release 87, December 2016 for most values; Ensembl genome browser release 68, July 2012 for miRNA, rRNA, snRNA, snoRNA.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22364466",
"title": "Timeline of United States discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Twenty-first century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 337,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 337,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "BULLET::::- The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is stored on 23 chromosome pairs. Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. While working at the National Institute of Health, Craig Venter discovered a technique for rapidly identifying all of the mRNAs present in a cell, and began to use it to identify human brain genes. The short cDNA sequence fragments discovered by this method are called expressed sequence tags. Through his scientific research of bringing the world one step closer to personalized medicine, Craig Venter was listed on Time Magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "586357",
"title": "Artificial general intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Processing power needed to simulate a brain.:Complications of and criticisms to AI approaches, based on simulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "In addition, the scale of the human brain is not currently well-constrained. One estimate puts the human brain at about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses. Another estimate is 86 billion neurons of which 16.3 billion are in the cerebral cortex and 69 billion in the cerebellum. Glial cell synapses are currently unquantified but are known to be extremely numerous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44284",
"title": "Non-coding DNA",
"section": "Section::::Fraction of noncoding genomic DNA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "In eukaryotes, genome size, and by extension the amount of noncoding DNA, is not correlated to organism complexity, an observation known as the C-value enigma. For example, the genome of the unicellular \"Polychaos dubium\" (formerly known as \"Amoeba dubia\") has been reported to contain more than 200 times the amount of DNA in humans. The pufferfish \"Takifugu rubripes\" genome is only about one eighth the size of the human genome, yet seems to have a comparable number of genes; approximately 90% of the \"Takifugu\" genome is noncoding DNA. Therefore, most of the difference in genome size is not due to variation in amount of coding DNA, rather, it is due to a difference in the amount of non-coding DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19588",
"title": "Mitochondrion",
"section": "Section::::Genome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule of about 16 kilobases. It encodes 37 genes: 13 for subunits of respiratory complexes I, III, IV and V, 22 for mitochondrial tRNA (for the 20 standard amino acids, plus an extra gene for leucine and serine), and 2 for rRNA. One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9l2xeu
|
How are space probes like Cassini protected from colliding with asteroids and space scrap?
|
[
{
"answer": "There really isn't much in space, it's not like the movies. For example when we say \"asteroid field\", we mean that there is a 1km or larger asteroid every 2million miles or so, which is further than the distance from the earth to the moon. [Source is stackexchange](_URL_0_) but it's simple math.\n\nThe odds of a satellite hitting anything in space is so astronomically low that it's not worth doing anything about it. You really need to try if you want to hit anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't, at least on a macroscopic level. The asteroid belt is so sparse that it's not even a consideration when sending progress to Jupiter and beyond. At microscopic scales it really depends on where the probe is going. The proves that have made close encounters with comets have used \"Wipple Shields\" when passing close to the comets. These are layered piles of Kevlar and other materials that basically act like a ballistic vest in the direction of travel.\n\nCassini is an interesting case. During the initial dive of the proximal orbits that eventually lead to is destruction, it was oriented so that the main antenna was in the direction of travel. (This was during its first dives between the rings and the planet). This would cause the main antenna to serve as a shield of sorts to protect the body of the probe. When it was discovered that part of space was much emptier then was originally thought, they ran later missions in other orientations so they could do radio Science on the rings.\n\nThe biggest issue, though is radiation and the damage it causes. Juno, currently in orbit around Jupiter, had its electronics inside a titanium vault that helps to shield them from the intense radiation caused by Jupiter's magnetic field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everything in space travels in elliptical orbits (following [Kepler's laws](_URL_1_)) and NASA maintains a rigorous database of where most stuff is. (There is a software called [STK](_URL_0_) that you can use to load and view the data set, although I cannot find the data set at this moment and STK takes some pretty rigorous computational power) So between these two things, there isn't a lot of randomness in terms of where stuff is (over the course of the billions of years of our solar system, almost everything has been pulled together gravitationally so stuff moves in clusters; think planets and moons or the Kuiper belt).\n\nSpace probes are then also moving in elliptical orbits (I think Voyager I is traveling in an escape orbit from the sun, which is different mathematically in terms of time predictions but is still a type of ellipsis), which are similarly predictable. So they aren't protected from collisions so much as able to avoid them in the first place.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAs more and more satellites go up around earth, this has become increasingly concerning because everything needs to go through the LEO layer (where most stuff gets ditched) and collisions can be devastating there because things tend to have a lot of momentum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54431373",
"title": "Double Asteroid Redirection Test",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) is a planned space probe that will demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon for planetary defense purposes. The mission is intended to test whether a spacecraft impact could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4582566",
"title": "Space Battleship Yamato (fictional spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Weaponry / defences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "BULLET::::- : Used in the first and second seasons, this involves using the Shock Cannons to fire showers of small metal probes into asteroid fields; these devices are magnetically controlled and can bring the asteroids close to the ship, forming a hard shell resistant to enemy fire. This can then be turned into a fast-rotating orbiting ring, its angle controlled from the bridge, which can be used to block individual shots. As a final act, the asteroids can be expelled at high speed in all directions to destroy any ships that venture too close.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52882371",
"title": "Motu Patlu: In Alien World!",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "During their journey, their spaceship narrowly evades collision with asteroids in Axar's orbit, but a slight impact leads to the risk of the ship detonating maximised to the highest degree and endangers the crew. Involving danger to his life, Motu attempts a manual docking operation to repair the damaged part of the ship but nearly dies after floating away and landing on an asteroid. Patlu saves him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49636659",
"title": "Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "A Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle (HAIV) is a spacecraft being developed by NASA to deflect dangerous Near Earth objects (NEOs) such as comets and asteroids that threaten colliding with Earth. HAIVs focus on utilizing powerful explosives, such as nuclear bombs, to achieve deflection by detonating on the surface of the NEO to change its trajectory away from Earth. This method of asteroid impact avoidance is intended to be used on dangerous NEOs detected within a short time frame (less than 5 years) before a possible impact event with Earth. The idea came about when asteroid detection became accurate and since then, scientists and engineers have come up with a well thought out design for an HAIV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49636659",
"title": "Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "After detecting many of the asteroids in the Solar System and observing their composition through meteorite remains, NASA has identified multiple large asteroids that may collide with Earth. To combat these NEOs, NASA has come up with the following design for an HAIV. The vehicle is split into two major parts; the leader craft and the follower craft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31883732",
"title": "OSIRIS-REx",
"section": "Section::::Mission.:Sample acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "OSIRIS-REx will then halt the drift away from the asteroid in case it is necessary to return for another sampling attempt. The spacecraft will use images and spinning maneuvers to verify the sample has been acquired as well as determine its mass and verify it is in excess of the required . In the event of a failed sampling attempt, the spacecraft will return for another try. There is enough nitrogen gas for three attempts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36703024",
"title": "AIDA (mission)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "The Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment (AIDA) mission is a proposed pair of space probes which would study and demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon. The mission is intended to test whether a spacecraft could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth. The concept proposes two spacecraft: \"Hera\" (built by ESA) would orbit the asteroid, and \"Double Asteroid Redirection Test\" (\"DART\") (built by NASA) would impact its moon. Besides the observation of the change of orbital parameters of the asteroid moon, the observation of the plume, the crater, and the freshly exposed material will provide unique information for asteroid deflection, science and mining communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c75lz
|
How does the body maintain itself without correct nutrients? (example inside)
|
[
{
"answer": "She doesn't, and that causes all kinds of problems. Quoting the article you linked\n\n\"Readman could not be reached for comment but according to her doctors, she is malnourished and has the health of an 80 year old. \n\n\"That sounds like an accurate assessment,\" says Lisa Kaufman, a pediatrician at Village Pediatrics who has not treated Readman. \"A diet of instant noodles has likely wreaked incredible amounts of havoc on her organs. The body—especially one that's still developing—needs protein, minerals, and nutrients to grow; that's just basic common sense. Without it, this girl has probably suffered stunted growth and IQ, osteoporosis, heart and kidney damage, and high blood pressure. Her lifespan has likely been shortened as well.\" \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25734471",
"title": "Medical nutrition therapy",
"section": "Section::::Dietary needs and disease processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Normally, individuals obtain the necessary nutrients their bodies require through normal daily diets that process the foods accordingly within the body. Nevertheless, there are circumstances such as disease, distress, stress, and so on that may prevent the body from obtaining sufficient nutrients through diets alone. In such conditions, a dietary supplementation specifically formulated for their individual condition may be required to fill the void created by the specific condition. This can come in form of Medical Nutrition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66575",
"title": "Nutrient",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures, such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted to smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy, such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fermentation products (ethanol or vinegar), leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105948",
"title": "Essential fatty acid",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Essential fatty acids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Essential nutrients are defined as those that cannot be synthesized \"de novo\" in sufficient quantities for normal physiological function. This definition is met for LA and ALA but not the longer chain derivatives in adults. The longer chain derivatives particularly, however, have pharmacological properties that can modulate disease processes, but this should not be confused with dietary essentiality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66575",
"title": "Nutrient",
"section": "Section::::Essentiality.:Non-essential nutrients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a significant impact on health; these substances can be beneficial or toxic. For example, dietary fiber is not absorbed in the human digestive tract, but is important in maintaining the bulk of a bowel movement to avoid constipation. A subset of dietary fiber, soluble fiber, can be metabolized by bacteria residing in the large intestine. Soluble fiber is marketed as serving a prebiotic functionpromoting \"healthy\" intestinal bacteria. Bacterial metabolism of soluble fiber also produces short-chain fatty acids like butyric acid, which may be absorbed into intestinal cells as a source of calories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165423",
"title": "Digestion",
"section": "Section::::Non-destructive digestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66575",
"title": "Nutrient",
"section": "Section::::Essentiality.:Essential nutrients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized in the body – either at all or in sufficient quantities – and thus must be obtained from a dietary source. Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of homeostasis in mammals, essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular metabolic processes and maintaining tissue and organ function. In the case of humans, there are nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins and fifteen minerals that are considered essential nutrients. In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21525",
"title": "Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Nutrients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "The list of nutrients that people are known to require is, in the words of Marion Nestle, \"almost certainly incomplete\". As of 2014, nutrients are thought to be of two types: macronutrients which are needed in relatively large amounts, and micronutrients which are needed in smaller quantities. A type of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, i.e. non-digestible material such as cellulose, is required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Some nutrients can be stored - the fat-soluble vitamins - while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients, or for some vitamins and minerals, too much of a required nutrient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3747g1
|
What's the best source to obtain scientific papers regarding a particular subject?
|
[
{
"answer": "In physics, math and astronomy, the [arXiv](_URL_0_) is a free pre-print server you can use. When scientists in these fields write papers that become accepted for publication, they often post their papers on this archive. All papers are free access, so you don't need to worry about being trapped behind a paywall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23424345",
"title": "International Youth Library",
"section": "Section::::Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The international book inventories and historical collections of the library are one of a kind and made available to researchers in a scientific reading room for studies. A scholarship program for foreign scientists, financed by the Foreign Office, pursues the goal of supporting the research in the area of the international child and youth literature, supporting the illustration, and promoting scientific exchange and international co-operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6585052",
"title": "Libertas Academica",
"section": "Section::::Subject home pages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Pages containing the most recent papers published in the entire set of journals are available for some subjects, including bioinformatics, biology, biomarkers, cancer, chemistry, drugs & therapeutics, genes & therapeutics, and medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43427",
"title": "Nature (journal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "There are many fields of research in which important new advances and original research are published as either articles or letters in \"Nature.\" The papers that have been published in this journal are internationally acclaimed for maintaining high research standards. Fewer than 8% of submitted papers are accepted for publication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406618",
"title": "Scientific literature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "Scientific literature comprises scholarly publications that report original empirical and theoretical work in the natural and social sciences, and within an academic field, often abbreviated as the literature. Academic publishing is the process of contributing the results of one's research into the literature, which often requires a peer-review process. Original scientific research published for the first time in scientific journals is called the primary literature. Patents and technical reports, for minor research results and engineering and design work (including computer software), can also be considered primary literature. Secondary sources include review articles (which summarize the findings of published studies to highlight advances and new lines of research) and books (for large projects or broad arguments, including compilations of articles). Tertiary sources might include encyclopedias and similar works intended for broad public consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28970227",
"title": "Scientific Research Publishing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Scientific Research Publishing (SCIRP) is an academic publisher of presumably peer-reviewed open-access electronic journals, conference proceedings, and scientific anthologies of questionable quality. Although it has an address in southern California, in reality it is a \"Chinese operation\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44616376",
"title": "Nikola Mollov",
"section": "Section::::Scientific works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "As a result of all these studies, over 120 scientific papers have been published in national and international scientific journals as well as in 14 author's patents. In addition, these findings were included in 14 Ph.D. dissertations by research fellows and assistant professors as well as many student's thesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39908858",
"title": "Cambridge Digital Library",
"section": "Section::::Science Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The pieces that the Library plans to use in the scientific portion of its digital library focuses on original \"scientific\" manuscripts. The Library holds a large collection in the history of science. These begin with the works of Sir Isaac Newton. The Library also has many papers from other famous scientists, including Charles Darwin, Lord Kelvin, Adam Sedgwick, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, James Clerk Maxwell, and Sir George Gabriel Stokes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6v7x16
|
what is nat and what does it do / what is static nat?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have a single Internet connection, and you only get a single address from your Internet Service Provider, but you have multiple devices that you want to connect to the Internet- your laptop, your phone, your game console, and so on.\n\n One way to connect multiple devices through a single connection is Network Address Translation, or NAT. You have a single device (your router) connected to the public Internet, and the rest of the devices are connected to a private network. When each of your devices wants to communicate across the Internet, they send messages to your router and your router relays the information to the destination, making all the traffic look like it comes from that one public facing Internet connection. Your router keeps track of which device was communicating with which server so when the responses come back, it knows which device to send it to. \n\nThis works fine for sending traffic, but with only one IP address connected to your router, none of your devices other than that router are publicly accessible from the outside Internet. So if you want to run a server (whether it's a website or a game server) on one of your devices, there's no direct way for people outside your network to send requests to your computer. Static NAT is a way of setting up your network so that your router forwards the requests it receives to a specific computer within your network. That way, your computer inside the private network can receive requests from the greater Internet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "NAT basically translates a device ip adress to another address. This is usually so that the device can talk to the internet. Inside your home there are multiple ip addresses (your phone, your computer, your fridge maybe) but these can only talk within your home. When you need to talk to the internet your router will translate those devices to an ip address that can actually talk to other internet ip addresses.\n\nThere's more applications than just that but that would be the general, eli5 gist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "NAT - Network Address Translation.\n\nYou live in a private home. Your devices connect to a private address called a LAN, a Local Area Network. Even if you have routers, switches and other devices, without a device to connect you to a WAN, Wide Area Network, you will only ever see your devices and never out to the internet.\n\nYou live in a city, in a state, in a larger world. Every home has its own \"private network\". So to help reduce strain on the ISPs that connect the world together, a NAT solution was devised.\n\nNAT, takes your private network, and assigns an address to your private address' gateway called a Public IP.\n\nThink of it like your home. You have a Living room, a Bedroom, a Bathroom, and a Kitchen. That's 4 addresses. Everyone else in the world also has these as well. So sending information to each one with it's own address would be tedious, time consuming, and redundant.\n\nSo, your LAN is made up of all the rooms in your home and your Private network is established. Your public network, is the Post office box outside your home. This is the access point that links the WAN to your personal LAN.\n\nSo in computer terms:\n\n* Your computer is assigned a network address of 192.168.0.20.\n* Your mother's computer is also assigned a network address of 192.168.0.20.\n* Both of your computers talk to a Gateway who's address is 192.168.0.1.\n* Your Gateways are assigned their own \"public\" IP addresses. Yours is 24.24.25.25 and your mothers is 7.7.9.8.\n* With this setup, your Gateways will search and find the other's Public IP address and trade information when you email Eachother, but the local Private addresses stay the same.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50447273",
"title": "NATS Messaging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "NATS is an open-source messaging system (sometimes called message-oriented middleware). The NATS server is written in the Go programming language. Client libraries to interface with the server are available for dozens of major programming languages. The core design principles of NATS are performance, scalability, and ease of use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2304466",
"title": "NAT traversal",
"section": "Section::::Network address translation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "NAT devices allow the use of private IP addresses on private networks behind routers with a single public IP address facing the Internet. The internal network devices communicate with hosts on the external network by changing the source address of outgoing requests to that of the NAT device and relaying replies back to the originating device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53036",
"title": "Network address translation",
"section": "Section::::Basic NAT.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The simplest type of NAT provides a one-to-one translation of IP addresses. RFC 2663 refers to this type of NAT as \"basic NAT\"; it is often also called a \"one-to-one NAT\". In this type of NAT, only the IP addresses, IP header checksum and any higher level checksums that include the IP address are changed. Basic NATs can be used to interconnect two IP networks that have incompatible addressing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15354800",
"title": "TCP hole punching",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "NAT traversal, through TCP hole punching, establishes bidirectional TCP connections between Internet hosts in private networks using NAT. It does not work with all types of NATs, as their behavior is not standardized. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50447273",
"title": "NATS Messaging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Synadia develops and provides support for NATS. NATS was originally developed by Derek Collison as the messaging control plane for Cloud Foundry and was written in Ruby. NATS was later ported to Go. The source code is released under the Apache 2.0 License. NATS consists of:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24423073",
"title": "National AIDS Trust",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "NAT was founded October 1987 as a non-government organisation (NGO) by the Department of Health, in order to deal with the escalating concern with HIV and AIDS nationally. Today NAT's funding comes from public donations, corporate supporters, grant-making trusts and foundations and its own fundraising work – it doesn't receive funding from the UK Government. NAT is a policy and campaigning charity, working to improve the national response to HIV through policy development, expertise and the provision of practical resources rather than through offering direct support services to people living with HIV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53036",
"title": "Network address translation",
"section": "Section::::Methods of translation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Especially, most NATs combine \"symmetric NAT\" for outgoing connections with \"static port mapping\", where incoming packets addressed to the external address and port are redirected to a specific internal address and port. Some products can redirect packets to several internal hosts, \"e.g.\", to divide the load between a few servers. However, this introduces problems with more sophisticated communications that have many interconnected packets, and thus is rarely used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4xlv9x
|
why are distance runners so skinny?
|
[
{
"answer": "The more you weigh, the more work you have to do to move yourself over a long distance. Sprinters need to be muscular since short distance events are more about accelerating to your top speed quickly and maintaining that speed for a few seconds while distance events are about maintaining a moderate (but still very fast) pace for anywhere from 14-15 minutes for a 5k to just over 2 hours for a marathon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10301769",
"title": "Running economy",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting running economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Various studies have shown marathon runners to be more economical than middle distance runners and sprinters at speeds of 6–12 miles per hour (10-19 kilometers per hour). At those speeds, film analysis has shown that sprinters and middle distance have more vertical motion than marathoners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Running kinematic description.:Stride length, hip and knee function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Biomechanical factors associated with elite runners include increased hip function, use and stride length over recreational runners. An increase in running speeds causes increased ground reaction forces and elite distance runners must compensate for this to maintain their pace over long distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3443107",
"title": "List of world records in athletics",
"section": "Section::::Bonus payments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Some middle-distance runners have specialized in acting as pacemakers in longer races, receiving a fee without even finishing the race, and possibly a bonus if a record results. This is a useful occupation for athletes who are capable of running accurately to a specified pace, but not capable of the very fastest times to become champions in their own right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17036496",
"title": "Parkrun",
"section": "Section::::Participation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "A 2015 qualitative study by the University of Loughborough found that runners attending a parkrun for the first time were typically motivated for weight loss or an improvement in their physical fitness. On the other hand, there were a range of different motivations for runners to continue regularly taking part, with runners wanting to beat their personal record time, to reach a certain number of runs and join a \"milestone club\", to enjoy being outdoors at the park, to make new friends through volunteering or to meet existing friends or family for the run.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2830344",
"title": "Falling Up (poetry collection)",
"section": "Section::::Poems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Runners - A track team runs very fast and have gotten good at it…mainly because their coach is a lion that chases them and that their field has a lot of obstacles that they have to jump over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28148137",
"title": "Bogotá Half Marathon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The elite race has featured a number of high profile runners, including former marathon world record holder and champion Catherine Ndereba, two-time Saint Silvester Road Race winner James Kwambai, Olympic medallist and New York City Marathon champion Joyce Chepchumba and 2005 World Half Marathon champion Fabiano Joseph. The race is not typically conducive to fast times as the city is located at 2,600 meters above sea level, some 8,530 feet, a factor which inhibits long distance runners. However, it is considered a perfect training ground for professional athletes and runners looking to run the World's Marathon Majors in Berlin, Chicago and New York happening in the fall each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Running kinematic description.:Stride length, hip and knee function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The difference even between world class and national level distance runners has been associated with more efficient hip joint function. The increase in velocity likely comes from the increased range of motion in hip flexion and extension, allowing for greater acceleration and velocity. The hip extensors and hip extension have been linked to more powerful knee extension during toe-off, which contributes to propulsion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
65jgod
|
why did canada get rid of the penny?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it's not necessary, and stopping the manufacture and distribution saved the Crown a lot of money. We just round prices up or down after tax, and it balances out in the end.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Canada got rid of the penny because the penny costs more to make than it's worth. \n\nA good video: [Canada gets rid of the penny](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit: put in the right link",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same reason we've gotten rid of the half-penny, it's become an essentially worthless amount of currency in day-to-day transactions and additionally costs more to create than it's worth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The cost of production is a bit of a red herring. A coin can be used thousands of times and each time it gets used it is still worth a penny, so divide the cost of production by how many times the penny is used to get a more realistic figure. \nThe biggest reason is that the penny had so little buying power that it was not worth carrying them around and using them to pay for things. It had become basically a *one way coin* in that it was given as change to purchasers and then either discarded or tossed in a jar somewhere and forgotten about. \n So basically the penny was no longer used as a means of payment by just about everyone except that person in front of me at the express checkout. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4948497",
"title": "Shinplaster",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The Government of the Dominion was able to fix the problem caused by the importation and commerce created by American coinage imported into Canada. they printed additional $.25 notes with no plate number. This ended the importation and Canadians used Canadian notes to fuel their economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101846",
"title": "Canadian dollar",
"section": "Section::::History: From the Canadian pound to the Canadian dollar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "The 1850s in Canada were a decade of wrangling over whether to adopt a sterling monetary system or a decimal monetary system based on the US dollar. The British North American provinces, for reasons of practicality in relation to the increasing trade with the neighbouring United States, had a desire to assimilate their currencies with the American unit, but the imperial authorities in London still preferred sterling as the sole currency throughout the British Empire. The British North American provinces nonetheless gradually adopted currencies tied to the American dollar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3613568",
"title": "Coinage of Upper Canada",
"section": "Section::::Bank of Upper Canada Coinage (1850-57).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In 1863, the Bank of Upper Canada complained to the Canadian government that it had a hard time trying to issue their final coinage because of the change to decimal currency. The government bought the coins and stored them in a warehouse as copper bullion. After Canadian Confederation, the coins were melted in 1873 under government supervision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560173",
"title": "Penny (Canadian coin)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Abolition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "There had been repeated debate about ceasing production of the penny because of the cost of producing it and a perceived lack of usefulness. In mid-2010 the Standing Senate Committee on National Finance began a study on the future of the one-cent coin. On December 14, 2010, the Senate finance committee recommended the penny be removed from circulation, arguing that a century of inflation had eroded the value and usefulness of the one-cent piece. A 2007 survey indicated that 37 percent of Canadians used pennies, but the government continued to produce about 816million pennies per year, equal to 24 pennies per Canadian. The Royal Canadian Mint had been forced to produce large numbers of pennies because they disappeared from circulation, as people hoarded these coins or simply avoided using them. In 2011 the Royal Canadian Mint had minted 1.1billion pennies, more than doubling the 2010 production number of 486.2million pennies. In late 2010, finance committee members of the Canadian Senate estimated that the average Canadian had as many as 600 pennies hoarded away, taken out of circulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3162582",
"title": "Sterling area",
"section": "Section::::Canada and Newfoundland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "Canada and Newfoundland did not join the sterling area because their dollar currencies had effectively been linked to the US dollar until they were forced off the gold standard in 1931 along with Britain. But while Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa all responded to the end of the gold standard by pegging their pounds to the pound sterling, Canada and Newfoundland instead pegged their dollars to the US dollar. So Canada and Newfoundland did not stand to gain by joining an exchange control bloc intended to protect the external value of sterling. The absence of Canada and Newfoundland from the sterling area was beneficial to Britain, as it curtailed capital flight to the North American mainland. Canada nevertheless introduced its own exchange controls at the outbreak of war; these were maintained until 1953. Canada's exchange controls were 'sterling area-friendly', in that their purpose was more to prevent capital flight to the US than to prevent flight to the sterling area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560173",
"title": "Penny (Canadian coin)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "In Canada, a penny is a coin worth one cent, or of a dollar. According to the Royal Canadian Mint, the official national term of the coin is the \"one-cent piece\", but in practice the terms \"penny\" and \"cent\" predominate. Originally, \"penny\" referred to a two-cent coin. When the two-cent coin was discontinued, \"penny\" took over as the new one-cent coin's name. \"Penny\" was likely readily adopted because the previous coinage in Canada (up to 1858) was the British monetary system, where Canada used British pounds, shillings, and pence as coinage alongside U.S. decimal coins and Spanish milled dollars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1279228",
"title": "Nickel (Canadian coin)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Due to a rise in the price of silver, Canadian coinage was debased from sterling silver (925 fine) to 800 fine in 1920. In 1922, silver was removed entirely from the five-cent coin, replacing it with a coin of roughly the same dimensions and mass as the American nickel. However, unlike the American coin, which was 75% copper and 25% nickel, the Canadian coin was pure nickel, as Canada was the world's largest producer of the metal. This coin has since been known almost universally as the nickel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1605bz
|
i hope everyone here knows about the simple english wikipedia (url in text)
|
[
{
"answer": "This is amazing! My brother will love this!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "407869",
"title": "Simple English Wikipedia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "The Simple English Wikipedia is an English-language edition of the online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, primarily written in basic English and special English. It was launched in 2001. It is one of five Wikipedias written in an Anglic language, the others being the English Wikipedia, the Pitkern-Norfuk Wikipedia, the Scots Wikipedia, and the Old English Wikipedia, though the last is largely unintelligible to speakers of the modern language. The site has the stated aim of providing an encyclopedia for \"people with different needs, such as students, children, adults with learning difficulties, and people who are trying to learn English\". As of 2020, the site contains over content pages, and has more than registered users, of whom are currently active.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407869",
"title": "Simple English Wikipedia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "The articles on the Simple English Wikipedia are usually shorter than their English Wikipedia counterparts, typically presenting only basic information: Tim Dowling of \"The Guardian\" newspaper explained that \"the Simple English version tends to stick to commonly accepted facts\". The interface is also more simply labeled; for instance, the \"Random article\" link on the English Wikipedia is replaced with a \"Show any page\" link; users are invited to \"change\" rather than \"edit\" pages; clicking on a red link shows a \"page not created\" message rather than the usual \"page does not exist\". The project uses around 1,500 common English words, and is based on Basic English, an 850-word auxiliary international language created by Charles Kay Ogden in the 1920s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328159",
"title": "English Wikipedia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The Simple English Wikipedia is a variation in which most of the articles use only basic English vocabulary. There is also the Old English (Ænglisc/Anglo-Saxon) Wikipedia (). Community-produced news publications include \"The Signpost\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407869",
"title": "Simple English Wikipedia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Simple English Wikipedia's basic presentation style makes it ideal for beginners learning English. Its simpler word structure and syntax, while detracting from the raw information standpoint, can make the information easy to understand. Material from the Simple English Wikipedia forms the basis for One Encyclopedia per Child, a One Laptop per Child project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328159",
"title": "English Wikipedia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The English Wikipedia is the English-language edition of the free online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Founded on 15 January 2001, it is the first edition of Wikipedia and, , has the most articles of any of the editions. As of 2020, of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English-language edition. This share has gradually declined from more than 50 percent in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages. As of 08 2020, there are articles on the site, having surpassed the 5 million mark on 1 November 2015. In October 2015, the combined text of the English Wikipedia's articles totalled 11.5 gigabytes when compressed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5043734",
"title": "Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Language editions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "In addition to the top six, nine other Wikipedias have over one million articles each: Russian, Italian, Spanish, Waray-Waray, Polish, Vietnamese, Japanese, Chinese and Portuguese), four more have over 500,000 articles (Ukrainian, Persian, Catalan and Arabic), 40 more have over 100,000 articles, and 78 more have over 10,000 articles. The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 0.1*floor(/100000) million articles. , according to Alexa, the English subdomain (en.wikipedia.org; English Wikipedia) receives approximately 57% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages (Russian: 9%; Chinese: 6%; Japanese: 6%; Spanish: 5%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37995171",
"title": "History of encyclopedias",
"section": "Section::::Twenty-first century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The English Wikipedia, which was started in 2001, became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 article stage. By late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the copyleft GNU Free Documentation License. As of August 2009, Wikipedia had over 3 million articles in English and well over 10 million combined in over 250 languages. Wikipedia currently has articles in English. Since 2003, other free encyclopedias like the Chinese-language Baidu Baike and Hudong, as well as English language encyclopedias like Citizendium and Knol have appeared. Knol has been discontinued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3k0sp3
|
Isn't it an evolutionary advantage for a living disease not to be fatal to us?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not necessarily, though logically you would think so since it makes all kinds of sense. While some viruses or other diseases do evolve toward lower lethality, it appears to be more of a special occurrence, rather than the rule. Take the [rabies virus](_URL_3_), for instance. It causes a disease which is almost invariably fatal. Until the [Milwaukee protocol](_URL_5_) was introduced in 2004, no one had been recorded to survive rabies exposure without receiving the vaccine in time, however attempts to replicate the Milwaukee protocol have since failed, but extended the patients' lifetimes by around 30 days as /u/AGreatWind mentioned below. In essence, it was about 100% fatal in humans (not in all animals, however), and yet [is believed to have been around for about 1500 years](_URL_6_), giving it plenty of time to develop reduced virulence if it was going to.\n\nIn the 1950s, a poxvirus known as [myxoma virus](_URL_1_), normally spread by mosquitoes or fleas, was released as a biological control measure against an exploding European rabbit (*Oryctolagus cuniculus*) population, which had been introduced in Australia in the 1800s. Myxoma virus's native host is the South American rabbit *Sylvilagus brasiliensis*, in which it causes only mild virulence. In European rabbits however, it causes a disease known as [myxomatosis](_URL_2_), and is highly lethal. The original strain released into the European rabbit population in Australia was known as Standard Laboratory Strain, or SLS (super original, I know), and was phenomenally lethal - approximately 99.8% of rabbits infected with it died, usually within 14 days. A population of over 600 million rabbits was reduced by 85% to around 100 million, before the rabbit population began to rebound. \n\n[Here is an excellent discussion piece on the evolution of viral virulence](_URL_0_). To summarize however, the rabbits experienced a strong selective pressure for alleles conferring protection to the disease, as the mortality of immunologically naive European rabbits in Australia exposed to SLS decreased from > 90% to < 50% in only a few generations, and eventually dropped even lower. At the same time however, the virus itself diverged into a number of different circulating strains (all of which have been shown to have diverged from SLS) with reduced mortality. Eventually though, below a certain limit (approximately 50% mortality), the virus was no longer able to spread efficiently, presumably because the viral titer in the skin (where mosquitoes or fleas would bite) was not high enough to survive the transfer to the next host. As such, the virus evolved toward *moderate* lethality, rather than a state of *a*virulence. \n\nSo while it would seem to make sense that a disease would want to develop some sort of non-fatal infection, it is usually not the case. Instead, viruses tend evolve toward enhanced *transmission*, which can come about through decreased or even increased mortality. [I highly recommend reading the aforementioned link](_URL_0_) for a more thorough explanation on disease evolution, as this applies to more than just viruses. Additionally, the same blog has [another excellent post on how the rabbits themselves evolved toward enhanced resistance to myxoma virus](_URL_4_), if you are interested in learning more about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, pathogens that are fatal to people typically thrive in another host. So, they evolved quite well to co-exist with another host, and the fact that they are lethal to people is just a coincidence — a coincidence that we tend to interpret as significant when we forget we, as a species, aren't really a big deal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As with all things in evolutionary biology, you have to weigh the trade-offs to determine an evolutionarily stable strategy - and there may be multiple optima. For example, cholera is a highly virulent disease. While it kills its host relatively quickly, it is also transmitted very easily - through contaminated water/fluids. So in the short time between infection and death, the host has already spread a lot of the bacteria around in feces, etc. such that the bacteria have already \"reproduced\" in the evolutionary sense. Because of this facile route of transmission, the optimum for cholera seems to be closer to highly transmissible/highly fatal than non-fatal. \n\nBerkeley does a good job explaining it for the lay reader if you're interested. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A large portion of the diseases fatal to humans are transmitted through contact with animals. The disease usually isn't fatal to the animal host, but is to humans.\n\nEbola comes from fruit bats. \nBubonic plague from fleas. \nAvian flu from birds. \netc... \n\nThe increase of the human population increases chances of contact with wild animals and increases the potential to spread lethal diseases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "812109",
"title": "Evolvability",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Many human diseases are capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as pharmaceutical drugs. These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics. Predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens, and devising strategies to slow or circumvent the development of resistance, demands deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6641085",
"title": "Survival rate",
"section": "Section::::Net survival rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Relative survival has the advantage that it does not depend on accuracy of the reported cause of death; cause specific survival has the advantage that it does not depend on the ability to find a similar population of people without the disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1528711",
"title": "Human extinction",
"section": "Section::::Perception of and reactions to human extinction risk.:Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Substantially larger numbers, such as 500 million deaths, and especially qualitatively different scenarios such as the extinction of the entire human species, seem to trigger a different mode of thinking... People who would never dream of hurting a child hear of an existential risk, and say, \"Well, maybe the human species doesn't really deserve to survive\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9236",
"title": "Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Evolutionary theory has many applications in medicine. Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as pharmaceutical drugs. These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1239866",
"title": "Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Depopulation from disease.:Virulence and mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Viral and bacterial diseases that kill victims before the illnesses spread to others tend to flare up and then die out. A more resilient disease would establish an equilibrium; if its victims lived beyond infection, the disease would spread further. The evolutionary process selects against quick lethality, with the most immediately fatal diseases being the most short-lived. A similar evolutionary pressure acts upon victim populations, as those lacking genetic resistance to common diseases die and do not leave descendants, whereas those who are resistant procreate and pass resistant genes to their offspring. For example, in the first fifty years of the sixteenth century, an unusually strong strain of syphilis killed a high proportion of infected Europeans within a few months; over time, however, the disease has become much less virulent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36643113",
"title": "Damage control surgery",
"section": "Section::::Resuscitation.:Permissive hypotension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Subsequent animal studies have shown equivalent outcomes with no real benefit in mortality Recently there has been further data in trauma patients that has demonstrated increased survival rates [Morrison,2011]. Cotton and colleagues found that the use of a permissive hypotentsion resuscitation strategy resulted in better outcomes (increased 30-day survival) in those undergoing damage control laparotomy. This would not be used in situations where patients might have injuries such as a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) considering that such patients are excluded from the studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2065799",
"title": "Biopesticide",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "BULLET::::- Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any other form of control. If the target population is not exterminated or rendered incapable of reproduction, the surviving population can acquire a tolerance of whatever pressures are brought to bear, resulting in an evolutionary arms race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ephz2a
|
why does it feel good to talk badly about someone who’s wronged us?
|
[
{
"answer": "When we talk badly about someone who’s wronged us, we are contrasting their behavior to ours; making us feel entirely separated from ‘wrong’ behavior. When we can view ourselves (and help others to view us) as separate from wrong behavior, we feel better. This is similar to watching TV shows such as ‘Hoarders’ and ‘My 600 lb Life’ in my opinion. Often, the viewers that derive pleasure from these shows are those that feel good about being able to say that at least their house is not “that bad” or at least they aren’t “that large”.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "True ELI5: \nWe like to punish people who do bad things, so they do less of the bad things. If we tell others about someone doing bad, we get more people to punish the bad person. We think this is a good thing, that's why this makes us feel good.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4234464",
"title": "My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)",
"section": "Section::::Summary and themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "that no one is perfect but most people are good; that people can't be judged by their worst or weakest moments; that harsh judgments can make hypocrites of us all; that a lot of life is just showing up and hanging on; that laughter is often the best, and sometimes the only, response to pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32767240",
"title": "Mario Borrelli",
"section": "Section::::Life.:The Casa dello scugnizzo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "I could reply: “Because I love you”. If someone from outside addresses me the same question, what do you think I should reply? “Because I love them”. Even this sounds like a sentence that has become rusty by centuries of abandonment. We have become Pharisees and always prefer considering the poor as the sole responsibles of their misery.»\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490105",
"title": "How to Win Friends and Influence People",
"section": "Section::::Major sections and points.:Twelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::2. Show respect for the other person's opinions. Never say \"You're wrong.\" We must never tell people flat out that they are wrong. It will only serve to offend them and insult their pride. No one likes to be humiliated; we must not be so blunt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25796499",
"title": "Wayne Baker",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "\"Maybe what we're hearing from our politicians in Washington about how bad things are, how divided we are, maybe that's not true. Maybe the American people are sensible and do have this common ground.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23213",
"title": "Political correctness",
"section": "Section::::Usage in selected regions.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "\"'Political correctness' has become a popular phrase because it catches a certain kind of self-righteous and judgmental tone in some and a pervasive anxiety in others – who, fearing that they may do something wrong, adjust their facial expressions, and pause in their speech to make sure they are not doing or saying anything inappropriate. The climate this has created on campuses is at least as bad in Canada as in the United States.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191043",
"title": "Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria",
"section": "Section::::Political stances.:Suicide bombers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "People who support and found reasons to feel good over these incidents are doing more than one wrong thing: first, ignoring the tragedy of killing an innocent group of people. Second, not thinking about the reaction of showing they found satisfaction in the incidents. Third, they are considered accomplices in the crime. Fourth, they are committing a wrongful act not approved by religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31910898",
"title": "Common English usage misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Misconception: \"\"I feel badly\" is the correct negative response to \"How do you feel?\"\" The expression \"I feel badly\" is often used in English, but it is not usually possible as a meaningful reply to this question because it means \"I feel guilty\" and implies or often requires an addition beginning with \"about...\". According to Paul Brians in \"Common Errors in English Usage\", \" 'I feel bad' is standard English\", and \" 'I feel badly' is an incorrect hyper-correction by people who think they know better than the masses.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5tcfmd
|
can churches in the united states of america offer sanctuary?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, churches in the US do not have the legal authority to prevent the police from entering to make an arrest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't have any special protections from search warrants. They are somewhat reluctant to storm a church given the optics, but when push comes to shove they'll do it anyway, ala Waco, TX.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2998342",
"title": "Sanctuary movement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "At its peak, Sanctuary involved over 500 in the United States which, by declaring themselves official \"sanctuaries,\" committed to providing shelter, protection, material goods and often legal advice to Central American refugees. Various denominations were involved, including the Lutherans, United Church of Christ, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, Jews, Unitarian Universalists, Quakers, and Mennonites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52317773",
"title": "Sanctuary campus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "A sanctuary campus is any college or university, typically in North America and Western Europe, that adopts policies to protect members of the campus community who are undocumented immigrants. The term is modeled after \"sanctuary city\", a status that has been adopted by over 30 municipalities. Proposed policies on sanctuary campuses include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10511069",
"title": "Sanctuary city",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Sanctuary city (; ) refers to municipal jurisdictions, typically in North America and Western Europe, that limit their cooperation with the national government's effort to enforce immigration law. Leaders of sanctuary cities say they want to reduce fear of deportation and possible family break-up among people who are in the country illegally, so that such people will be more willing to report crimes, use health and social services, and enroll their children in school. In the United States, municipal policies include prohibiting police or city employees from questioning people about their immigration status and refusing requests by national immigration authorities to detain people beyond their release date, if they were jailed for breaking local law. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Sanctuary cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "There is no official definition of \"sanctuary city\". Cities which have been referred to as \"sanctuary cities\" by various politicians include Washington, D.C.; New York City; Los Angeles; Chicago; San Francisco; San Diego; Austin; Salt Lake City; Dallas; Detroit; Honolulu; Houston; Jersey City; Minneapolis; Miami; Denver; Aurora, Colorado; Baltimore; Seattle; Portland, Oregon; Portland, Maine; and Senath, Missouri, have become \"sanctuary cities\", having adopted ordinances refraining from stopping or questioning individuals for the sole purpose of determining their immigration status. Most of these ordinances are in place at the state and county, not city, level. These policies do not prevent the local authorities from investigating crimes committed by illegal immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion and controversy.:Response of government.:State and local response.:Sanctuary cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 209,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 209,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "There has been controversy around sanctuary cities, one response from the state and local governments. Many American cities have designated themselves as sanctuary cities and many other state and municipal governments discourage the reporting of illegal immigrants to U.S. immigration and Customs Enforcement. A sanctuary city is defined as a city that follows certain practices to protect illegal immigrants; these include – cities that do not allow municipal funds or resources to be used to enforce federal immigration laws, usually by not allowing police or municipal employees to inquire about one's immigration status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2998342",
"title": "Sanctuary movement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The Sanctuary movement was a religious and political campaign in the United States that began in the early 1980s to provide safe-haven for Central American refugees fleeing civil conflict. The movement was a response to federal immigration policies that made obtaining asylum difficult for Central Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10511069",
"title": "Sanctuary city",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Laws and policies by state and city.:California.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "BULLET::::- Berkeley became the first city in the United States to pass a sanctuary resolution on November 8, 1971. Additional local governments in certain cities in the United States began designating themselves as sanctuary cities during the 1980s. Some have questioned the accuracy of the term \"sanctuary city\" as used in the US. The policy was initiated in 1979 in Los Angeles, to prevent the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) from inquiring about the immigration status of arrestees. Many Californian cities have adopted \"sanctuary\" ordinances banning city employees and public safety personnel from asking people about their immigration status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kwu1y
|
How does the evidence support the fact that photons are particles?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, because the ionization happens depending the frequency, not the total energy of incident radiation (intensity, proportional to amplitude^2 × frequency). If the thing was purely wave-like, any wavelength of light should be able to ionize the atom, given an amplitude high enough. This does not happen, experimentally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The photoelectric effect can be explained via a semi-classical approach where the atoms are described using quantum mechanics and the light is described as a classical electromagnetic wave.\n\nThere is a pretty famous paper about it by Lamb and Scully titled \"The photoelectric effect without photons.\" Note that they are most definitely not arguing that light isn't quantized, just that its not explicitly necessary to explain the photoelectric effect. The paper is a little bit controversial (as in people argue on internet forums) mostly by way of its somewhat dramatic title. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A continuous wave would \"fill up the electron\" with the energy needed until the electron. IE a wave would insert x energy per second and if the electron needed 5x energy, it would take 5 energy per second.\n\nWhat we experimentally see is that this never happens. If the electron needs x energy to be released, we can shine .99x energy light waves at it for all eternity and no electrons will be emitted. As soon as it hits 1.00x, electrons come flying out. That means it's all or nothing. \n\nThe word \"particle\" is a bit misconstrued here as nobody thinks of photons as little balls of light. \"particle\" is used to differentiate this all or nothing behavior from a continuous wave behavior. Wave-like things that interact discretely is a more accurate label than \"particle.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40748127",
"title": "Bond hardening",
"section": "Section::::A fraction of a photon?:Breakdown of the photon model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "One can say that the photon is not a particle but as a mere quantum of energy that is usually exchanged in integer multiples of ħω, but not always, as it is the case in the above experiment. From this point of view, photons are quasiparticles, akin to phonons and plasmons, in a sense less \"real\" than electrons and protons. Before dismissing this view as unscientific, its worth recalling the words of Willis Lamb, who won a Nobel prize in the area of quantum electrodynamics:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of both waves and particles. For example, a single photon may be refracted by a lens and exhibit wave interference with itself, and it can behave as a particle with definite and finite measurable position or momentum, though not both at the same time as per Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The photon's wave and quantum qualities are two observable aspects of a single phenomenon—they cannot be described by any mechanical model; a representation of this dual property of light that assumes certain points on the wavefront to be the seat of the energy is not possible. The quanta in a light wave are not spatially localized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "In the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and other elementary particles are described as a necessary consequence of physical laws having a certain symmetry at every point in spacetime. The intrinsic properties of particles, such as charge, mass, and spin, are determined by this gauge symmetry. The photon concept has led to momentous advances in experimental and theoretical physics, including lasers, Bose–Einstein condensation, quantum field theory, and the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances. Recently, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers, and for applications in optical imaging and optical communication such as quantum cryptography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17939",
"title": "Light",
"section": "Section::::Historical theories about light, in chronological order.:Electromagnetic theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "In the quantum theory, photons are seen as wave packets of the waves described in the classical theory of Maxwell. The quantum theory was needed to explain effects even with visual light that Maxwell's classical theory could not (such as spectral lines).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6936414",
"title": "Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation",
"section": "Section::::de Broglie waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "In 1923 Louis de Broglie addressed the question of whether all particles can have both a wave and a particle nature similar to the photon. Photons differ from many other particles in that they are massless and travel at the speed of light. Specifically de Broglie asked the question of whether a particle that has both a wave and a particle associated with it is consistent with Einstein's two great 1905 contributions, the special theory of relativity and the quantization of energy and momentum. The answer turned out to be positive. The wave and particle nature of electrons was experimentally observed in 1927, two years after the discovery of the Schrödinger equation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28068786",
"title": "Neutrino theory of light",
"section": "Section::::Problems with the neutrino theory of light.:Bose–Einstein commutation relations.:Perkins’ attempt to solve problem.:Blackbody radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The main evidence indicating that photons are bosons comes from the Blackbody radiation experiments which are in agreement with Planck's distribution. Perkins calculated the photon distribution for Blackbody radiation using the second quantization method, but with a composite photon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6432722",
"title": "Photon polarization",
"section": "Section::::Photons: The connection to quantum mechanics.:The nature of probability in quantum mechanics.:Probability for a single photon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "There are two ways in which probability can be applied to the behavior of photons; probability can be used to calculate the probable number of photons in a particular state, or probability can be used to calculate the likelihood of a single photon to be in a particular state. The former interpretation violates energy conservation. The latter interpretation is the viable, if nonintuitive, option. Dirac explains this in the context of the double-slit experiment:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5qcevk
|
assuming weight loss is purely about "calories in vs. calories out," how is it possible for the body to go into "starvation mode" and temporarily prevent weight loss from occurring
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer... It doesn't.\n\nLong answer, it stores a bunch of water.\n\nSo, your body has fat cells. Those cells store fat. When they're full of fat, that's it. They're 100% full fat cells. However, as you start losing weight and using those fat stores, those cells start getting smaller. So at say 50% full of fat, it's like a half deflated balloon. So as you lose weight you get hundreds of millions of half deflated fat cells.\n\nBecause our body is super efficient, it doesn't want to get rid of the cells yet because \"we might need them again\". But also half full cells are a waste as well. So the body starts replacing the Fat with water. Once the fat cells are completely full of water for a while, the body, being as efficient as it is, decides that maintaining these cells isn't worth the effort, we were holding on just in case, but it seems we're just wasting energy to do that. That's when your body starts getting rid of the water and the cells themselves.\n\nEdit: TL:DR - Body replaces the fat in fat cells with water for a while before getting rid of the fat cells. (This is part of the reason it's important to drink a lot of water when attempting to lose weight)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My girlfriend told me a story earlier this week about an obese woman who was a regular at her restaurant job. She stopped coming in for one year, but then showed up at a healthy weight, mostly unrecognizable. She explained that she saw almost no weight loss for close to a year before ultimately dropping her weight \"all at once\" and says she was quite shocked. \n\nThese great answers really clarify why that might happen but it's pretty sad to think about the amount of obese people who must be giving up after a few months of seeing very dismal results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Weight loss != fat loss. Water retention is a large confounding factor, especially when your diet is protein deficient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What people think is starvation mode is a myth. Starvation mode exists ONLY when you are so malnourished and underweight that your organs are going to start shutting down and you will die. So as a last clutch attempt your body tries to prevent any more weight loss to prevent death. Starvation mode is not something that happens to obese, overweight, or normal weighted people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Calories in vs calories out is 100% correct in that it loses fat/uses fat cells and stored energy (including muscle) as a result of the lack of energy being ingested via food sources. \n\nWith this in mind, your body will tend to reserve water when a decrease in weight is present. Now, let's get one thing clear. You don't lose fat cells, you lose the contents of those fat cells.\n\ni.e. Your fat cells remain the same throughout life, but the size, shape and storage of them increases/decreases throughout the course of your life. It would be inefficient for the body to recreate and destroy these over the course of a lifetime.\n\nFurther reading: Be careful eating a severe caloric deficits as this may impact your ability to resume a normal eating lifestyle thereafter. \n\nYou can actually reverse diet your way to losing weight by slowly increasing your food intake (without weight gain) and then having a deficit from this will result in weight loss. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39421470",
"title": "Caloric deficit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "As the calories required for energy homeostasis decreases as the organisms's mass decreases, if a moderate deficit is maintained eventually a new (lower) weight will be reached and maintained, and the organism will no longer be at caloric deficit. A permanent severe deficit, on the other hand, which contains too few calories to maintain a healthy weight level, will eventually result in starvation and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149933",
"title": "Weight gain",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "A commonly asserted \"rule\" for weight gain or loss is based on the assumption that one pound of human fat tissue contains about 3,500 kilocalories (often simply called \"calories\" in the field of nutrition). Thus, eating 500 fewer calories than one needs per day should result in a loss of about a pound per week. Similarly, for every 3500 calories consumed above the amount one needs, a pound will be gained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400199",
"title": "Weight loss",
"section": "Section::::Unintentional.:Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Continuing weight loss may deteriorate into wasting, a vaguely defined condition called cachexia. Cachexia differs from starvation in part because it involves a systemic inflammatory response. It is associated with poorer outcomes. In the advanced stages of progressive disease, metabolism can change so that they lose weight even when they are getting what is normally regarded as adequate nutrition and the body cannot compensate. This leads to a condition called anorexia cachexia syndrome (ACS) and additional nutrition or supplementation is unlikely to help. Symptoms of weight loss from ACS include severe weight loss from muscle rather than body fat, loss of appetite and feeling full after eating small amounts, nausea, anemia, weakness and fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400199",
"title": "Weight loss",
"section": "Section::::Intentional.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Weight loss is achieved by adopting a lifestyle in which fewer calories are consumed than are expended. According to the UK National Health Service this is best achieved by monitoring calories eaten and supplementing this with physical exercise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Nutritional displacement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The \"empty calories\" argument states that a diet high in added sugar will reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients. This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake, a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity. Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400199",
"title": "Weight loss",
"section": "Section::::Myths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Some popular beliefs attached to weight loss have been shown to either have less effect on weight loss than commonly believed or are actively unhealthy. According to Harvard Health, the idea of metabolism being the \"key to weight\" is \"part truth and part myth\" as while metabolism does affect weight loss, external forces such as diet and exercise have an equal effect. They also commented that the idea of changing one's rate of metabolism is under debate. Diet plans in fitness magazines are also often believed to be effective, but may actually be harmful by limiting the daily intake of important calories and nutrients which can be detrimental depending on the person and are even capable of driving individuals away from weight loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48173169",
"title": "Global Energy Balance Network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "GEBN's view of weight and metabolic health promoted the idea that weight loss can be achieved by taking more exercise while maintaining the same level of consumption - this view \"crosses a line by advancing a view that falls outside the scientific consensus\", and presents an overly simplistic view of the energy balance equation, with experts noting that \"evidence for eating less as a weight-loss strategy is much, much stronger than the evidence for moving more\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14tyk0
|
When/How did the idea of citizenship first develop in (I believe, correct me if I'm wrong) Athens?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unfortunately, Athenian/Attic identity develops during a period of time when our sources are scant. However, most scholarship today tend to emphasize the role of the Peisistratids of forging the disparate regions of Attica into a single entity. Archaeological evidence shows that period as one of religious consolidation, as large pan-Attic monuments appear on the Acropolis, and the Panathenaic games forged a common identity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The evolution of citizenship was not particularly linear. You are right that ancient Greece and Rome had \"citizens\" as a social class, but those groups were still very different than what we would today call citizens. For one they were limited in various ways, wealth, place of birth, gender, etc. In Athens, only about 20% of the total population qualified as citizens. Roman citizenship was particularly complicated especially after the rise of the empire. There were not only rules as to who could become a citizen but several different levels of citizenship for individuals living in different parts of the empire.\n\nThen there is the problem of continuity. After the fall of Rome, Roman citizenship did not retain much meaning in most of Europe. Nevertheless, some places kept at least the idea of citizenship alive. For example, in Visigothic and medieval Spain (the Christian parts anyways), cities retained a notion of citizenship within the concept of vecinidad. Individuals who qualified for vecino status were considered citizens of that city. Depending on how the city was governed, that could include voting rights for the cabildo (city council). But even in this example, there was no concept of citizenship to the kingdom. Thus, one might be a vecino of Toledo, but they were still a subject of the king of Castilla. \n\nIn most parts of medieval and early modern Europe, most of the populations were considered subjects of the king not citizens of the nation. It really isn't until after the rise of liberalism in the late 18th and early 19th c. that political thought began to conceive of national citizenship to be the core of political life. Again the evolution is not even. For example, the English Civil War of the 17th c. drastically changed the relationship between the monarchy and its subjects (particularly wealthy powerful subjects). The monarchy became more dependent on support from certain sectors of the population and lost power vis-a-vis the Parliament. On the other hand the 17th c saw the rise of French Absolutism. Even as the rest of Western Europe began to adopt ideas of citizenship in the early 19th c., Spain was a holdout. The liberal Constitution of 1812 included discussions of citizenship, but was only in force for several short periods. \n\nTL;DR Although Greece and Rome had citizens our notions come more from 18th c. political philosophy than ancient traditions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "131928",
"title": "Metic",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The history of foreign migration to Athens dates back to the archaic period. Solon was said to have offered Athenian citizenship to foreigners who would relocate to his city to practice a craft. However, metic status did not exist during the time of Solon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34634219",
"title": "History of citizenship",
"section": "Section::::Ancient conceptions.:Ancient Greece.:Spartan citizenship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 2300,
"text": "Several thinkers suggest that ancient Sparta, not Athens, was the originator of the concept of citizenship. Spartan citizenship was based on the principle of equality among a ruling military elite called Spartiates. They were \"full Spartan citizens\"—men who graduated from a rigorous regimen of military training and at age 30 received a land allotment called a kleros, although they had to keep paying dues to pay for food and drink as was required to maintain citizenship. In the Spartan approach to phalanx warfare, virtues such as courage and loyalty were particularly emphasized relative to other Greek city-states. Each Spartan citizen owned at least a minimum portion of the public land which was sufficient to provide food for a family, although the size of these plots varied. The Spartan citizens relied on the labor of captured slaves called helots to do the everyday drudgework of farming and maintenance, while the Spartan men underwent a rigorous military regimen, and in a sense it was the labor of the helots which permitted Spartans to engage in extensive military training and citizenship. Citizenship was viewed as incompatible with manual labor. Citizens ate meals together in a \"communal mess\". They were \"frugally fed, ferociously disciplined, and kept in constant training through martial games and communal exercises,\" according to Hosking. As young men, they served in the military. It was seen as virtuous to participate in government when men grew older. Participation was required; failure to appear could entail a loss of citizenship. But the philosopher Aristotle viewed the Spartan model of citizenship as \"artificial and strained\", according to one account. While Spartans were expected to learn music and poetry, serious study was discouraged. Historian Ian Worthington described a \"Spartan mirage\" in the sense that the mystique about military invincibility tended to obscure weaknesses within the Spartan system, particularly their dependence on helots. In contrast with Athenian women, Spartan women could own property, and owned at one point up to 40% of the land according to Aristotle, and they had greater independence and rights, although their main task was not to rule the homes or participate in governance but rather to produce strong and healthy babies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55351476",
"title": "Ius Doni",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "It has been widely accepted that the historical origins of citizenship date back to Ancient Greece, but citizenship and citizenship law, as we understand them today, came into existence along with the formation of modern nation-states in the 18th and 19th centuries. \"Ius doni\", as a specific mode of citizenship acquisition, is a result of social transformation. The gradual development of citizenship from a more formal structure to a subjective right was precipitated by the French Revolution. This transition from the birthright principle (\"ius soli\") to the principle of descent (\"ius sanguinis\") represented a significant paradigm shift brought about by the Code Civil in 1804. This transition ultimately extended to all of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34634219",
"title": "History of citizenship",
"section": "Section::::Ancient conceptions.:Ancient Greece.:Polis citizenship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "There is more widespread agreement that the first real instances of citizenship began in ancient Greece. And while there were precursors of the relation in societies before then, it emerged in readily discernible form in the Greek city-states which began to dot the shores of the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea, the Adriatic Sea, and elsewhere around the Mediterranean perhaps around the 8th century BCE. The modern day distinction sometimes termed \"consent versus descent\" distinction—that is, citizenship by choice versus birthright citizenship, has been traced back to ancient Greece. And thinkers such as J.G.A. Pocock have suggested that the modern-day ideal of citizenship was first articulated by the ancient Athenians and Romans, although he suggested that the \"transmission\" of the sense of citizenship over two millennia was essentially a myth enshrouding western civilization. One writer suggests that despite the long history of China, there never was a political entity within China similar to the Greek polis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34634219",
"title": "History of citizenship",
"section": "Section::::Ancient conceptions.:Ancient Greece.:Athenian citizenship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Athenian citizenship was based on obligations of citizens towards the community rather than rights given to its members. This was not a problem because people had a strong affinity with the polis; their personal destiny and the destiny of the entire community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous. It was a source of honour and respect. According to one view, the citizenry was \"its own master\". The people were sovereign; there was no sovereignty outside of the people themselves. In Athens, citizens were both ruler and ruled. Further, important political and judicial offices were rotated to widen participation and prevent corruption, and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly. Pocock explained:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34634219",
"title": "History of citizenship",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "While there is disagreement about when the relation of citizenship began, many thinkers point to the early city-states of ancient Greece, possibly as a reaction to the fear of slavery, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years. In Roman times, citizenship began to take on more of the character of a relationship based on law, with less political participation than in ancient Greece but a widening sphere of who was considered to be a citizen. In the Middle Ages in Europe, citizenship was primarily identified with commercial and secular life in the growing cities, and it came to be seen as membership in emerging nation-states. In modern democracies, citizenship has contrasting senses, including a \"liberal-individualist\" view emphasizing needs and entitlements and legal protections for essentially passive political beings, and a \"civic-republican\" view emphasizing political participation and seeing citizenship as an active relation with specific privileges and obligations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6784",
"title": "Citizenship",
"section": "Section::::History.:Polis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. \"Polis\" meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation, but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might \"really have worked\" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ozdme
|
When did doctors and psychologists begin to see sex as part of a healthy lifestyle and even necessary? Was there open debate about it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The one time there's a question I can tanswer, and I do not have my sources on hand, curses. With that said, there are actually a few names like Kinsey, Masters & Johnson, and a few others that come up, with Kinsey and Johnsons making the claim the claim that sex was not just for procreation. Kinsey, if I'm not mistaken, was the first to suggest treatment for transgendered individuals. Unfortunately, I do not have my text with me, but if you like I can elaborate more, later tonight? \n\n[this wiki article provides some basic info] (_URL_0_) but the text I am using for my course on human sexuality has way more information, and it's truely fascinating how sexuality is treated and how we see a change in attitude through the late 19th and 20th centuries.But again, the wiki, of course, does not have all the information\n\nedit: If promises of explanations are not acceptable, I apologize and will just elaborate later tonight ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US, the major issue regarding sex was Anthony Comstock. The view of sex as healthy did not emerge until the \"Chastity\" Laws pushed through by Comstock began to erode. Comstock began his anti-obscenity crusade in the 1860's in New York City. Appalled by what he saw in the city, he began ratting on sex trade operators to the police. This was small-time. In 1873, he convinced the US Congress to pass what became known as the Comstock Act. The law made it a federal crime to ship contraceptives through the mail or across state lines. Everyone wasn't onboard with Comstock. Margaret Sanger opposed Comstock's crusade. In 1936 U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals heard the case of United States v. One Package. The court ruled that physicians could distribute contraceptives across state lines. The Kinsey Reports were published in 1948 and 1953. Kinsey's work was soon followed by Masters & Johnson. The watershed event was probably the FDA approving \"The Pill\" in 1960. Horney Baby-Boomers were coming of age and with the pill to prevent pregnancy and penicillin to cure then known STD's it was Katy Bar the Door. \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, in a lot of religions, for example Judaism and Islam, sex is seen as part of healthy lifestyle *for married couples* (which is supposed to be the \"normal state of things\" in those faiths). I'm not a medical historian, but I'd be shocked if Jewish and Islamic doctors haven't been said sex is part of a healthy lifestyle, since the beginning of those faiths. As for psychologists, perhaps the closest thing we have are the mystics, and they were really into sex (generally!! obviously there are exceptions).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57733051",
"title": "Studies in the Psychology of Sex Vol. 7",
"section": "Section::::Reception and influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "All seven volumes of \"Studies in the Psychology of Sex\" were widely accepted in the scientific community, even with the progressive perspectives in which it portrayed human sexuality and perversions. Despite this, the book was not published in England until the middle of the 20th century, as it was strongly believed that putting Ellis’ ideas into the public would increase the rates of individuals with sexual perversions. For a long time, concepts like eonism and undinism were assumed to be effects of other psychological disorders such a schizophrenia. Ellis’ innovative take on these perversions and their origins attempted to normalise them and demonstrate that these individuals can be functioning members of society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "411851",
"title": "Sexual dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In modern times, the genuine clinical study of sexual problems is usually dated back no further than 1970 when Masters and Johnson's \"Human Sexual Inadequacy\" was published. It was the result of over a decade of work at the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation in St. Louis, involving 790 cases. The work grew from Masters and Johnson's earlier \"Human Sexual Response\" (1966).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47646",
"title": "Hippie",
"section": "Section::::Ethos and characteristics.:Love and sex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The clinical study \"Human Sexual Response\" was published by Masters and Johnson in 1966, and the topic suddenly became more commonplace in America. The 1969 book \"Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid to Ask)\" by psychiatrist David Reuben was a more popular attempt at answering the public's curiosity regarding such matters. Then in 1972 appeared \"The Joy of Sex\" by Alex Comfort, reflecting an even more candid perception of love-making. By this time, the recreational or 'fun' aspects of sexual behavior were being discussed more openly than ever before, and this more 'enlightened' outlook resulted not just from the publication of such new books as these, but from a more pervasive sexual revolution that had already been well underway for some time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065584",
"title": "Sex therapy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Sexologists such as Henry Havelock Ellis and Alfred Kinsey began conducting research in the area of human sexuality during the first half of the 20th century. This work was groundbreaking and controversial in the scientific arena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40568761",
"title": "Levi Suydam",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "By this time, medical authority had grown to the point where the medical profession became able to determine the validity of someone's sex. Reis describes how medical discourse during the mid 19th-century typified \"the themes of dishonesty and sexual promiscuity lurk in what were otherwise dispassionate and clinical medical cases. Foremost in the narrative is the subject’s shiftiness, as if bodily ambiguity meant that the person’s word also lacked clarity and could not be trusted\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15179951",
"title": "Human sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Sociocultural aspects.:Sexuality in history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "During the beginning of the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, many changes in sexual standards occurred. New, dramatic, artificial birth control devices such as the condom and diaphragm were introduced. Doctors started claiming a new role in sexual matters, urging that their advice was crucial to sexual morality and health. New pornographic industries grew and Japan adopted its first laws against homosexuality. In western societies, the definition of homosexuality was constantly changing; western influence on other cultures became more prevalent. New contacts created serious issues around sexuality and sexual traditions. There were also major shifts in sexual behavior. During this period, puberty began occurring at younger ages, so a new focus on adolescence as a time of sexual confusion and danger emerged. There was a new focus on the purpose of marriage; it was increasing regarded as being for love rather than only for economics and reproduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "250193",
"title": "Child sexuality",
"section": "Section::::In Western cultures.:Theories and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Research into youthful sexuality has been largely conducted over the 20th century in the Western World and is mostly concerned with suppression for reasons of religion and/or fears about the spread of sexually transmitted infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6gmlcb
|
how does the atm count and verify cash inserted in envelopes?
|
[
{
"answer": " > How do machines count cash in envelopes?\n\nThey don't. They record the transaction and when the drop box is transferred to a bank later on the bank employees manually count and verify the amount of money was correct.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If it's all in an envelope, the machine doesn't verify it. It just trusts you. However, when the deposit is audited & verified later and there's only a $20 bill in there versus $2000, you're going to be in deep shit for fraud.\n\nMost cash-accepting ATMs these days don't do envelope deposits anymore. Cash is fed into the machine where it can electronically count it and deposit it accordingly. \n\nChecks are scanned and handled electronically, but the the ATM may still ask you to input or verify the amount of the check. This is another case of \"if you like to the ATM, you're on the hook for fraud\". Sure, if you accidentally enter $470 instead of $450, I doubt the bank will go after you (they'll just eventually debit the extra $20). But if you deposit a $20 check and say it's $2000, expect a knock on your door from the local police department.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10548715",
"title": "BancNet Payment System",
"section": "Section::::Systems components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The operation is rudimentary: the cashier swipes a customer's ATM card on the terminal and keys in payment amount. The cardholder then selects his bank account and keys in the ATM Personal identification number (PIN). If the requested amount is successfully debited from the customer's account, receipts will be printed for both the customer and retailer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40745",
"title": "Authenticator",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Multi-factor authenticators.:ATM Card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "To withdraw cash from an automated teller machine (ATM), a bank customer inserts an ATM card into a cash machine and types a PIN. The input PIN is compared to the PIN stored on the card’s chip. If the two match, the ATM withdrawal can proceed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10998605",
"title": "Currency-counting machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "In some modern automated teller machines, currency counters allow for cash deposits without envelopes, since they can identify which bills have been inserted instead of just how many. The user is given the chance to review the automatic counter's idea of the quantity and kinds of the inserted banknotes before the deposit is complete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7594",
"title": "Cash register",
"section": "Section::::In current use.:Scanner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Modern cash registers may be connected to a handheld or stationary barcode reader so that a customer's purchases can be more rapidly scanned than would be possible by keying numbers into the register by hand. The use of scanners should also help prevent errors that result from manually entering the product's barcode or pricing. At grocers, the register's scanner may be combined with a scale for measuring product that is sold by weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46628",
"title": "Automated teller machine",
"section": "Section::::Reliability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "To aid in reliability, some ATMs print each transaction to a roll-paper journal that is stored inside the ATM, which allows its users and the related financial institutions to settle things based on the records in the journal in case there is a dispute. In some cases, transactions are posted to an electronic journal to remove the cost of supplying journal paper to the ATM and for more convenient searching of data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46628",
"title": "Automated teller machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Using an ATM, customers can access their bank deposit or credit accounts in order to make a variety of financial transactions, most notably cash withdrawals and balance checking, as well as transferring credit to and from mobile phones. ATMs can also be used to withdraw cash in a foreign country. If the currency being withdrawn from the ATM is different from that in which the bank account is denominated, the money will be converted at the financial institution's exchange rate. Customers are typically identified by inserting a plastic ATM card (or some other acceptable payment card) into the ATM, with authentication being by the customer entering a personal identification number (PIN), which must match the PIN stored in the chip on the card (if the card is so equipped), or in the issuing financial institution's database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12236304",
"title": "Banknote counter",
"section": "Section::::Electronic counters for bills/ money and coins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Electronic cash counters tend to be small in size, silent, battery operated, very fast and accurate. They are often used on the desktops of bank tellers to check customer deposits or withdrawals or by retailers to count money from cash registers. Although their capability varies by model, typically they can count both notes and coins and check standard bank bundles or bags/rolls of coin to ensure that they are correct. This technology was invented in 1979 by Edgar Biss who went on to form the global company Tellermate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ayx9l
|
How devastating would a kinetic weapon (projectile dropped from orbit) actually be?
|
[
{
"answer": "By increasing distance from earth and mass, you could scale them up to the size of the impact that created the moon. The question is why you would do that. Much easier to pack explosives into a vehicle that doesn't have to travel that far.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Popular science has a short article: [Rods from God](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A telephone pole is about 12 meters tall with a radius of about 23 cm. Conveniently this is a volume of almost exactly 2 cubic meters. Tungsten has a density of 19250 kg / cubic meter. So the mass of a tungsten telephone pole is about 38500 kg.\n\nTerminal velocity of a dropped bullet is about 90 m/s. Using that velocity with the above mass gives a kinetic energy of about 156 MJ.\n\nThe Hiroshima atomic bomb had a detonation energy of around 60 TJ, which is about 385x more energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "956982",
"title": "Space warfare",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical space weaponry.:Kinetic bombardment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Kinetic weapons have always been widespread in conventional warfare—bullets, arrows, swords, clubs, etc.—but the energy a projectile would gain while falling from orbit would make such a weapon rival all but the most powerful explosives. A direct hit would presumably destroy all but the most hardened targets without the need for nuclear weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1931092",
"title": "S-400 missile system",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "BULLET::::- Practical probability of success 83.3% (for 1 missile, not 2). One day overcome 1500 km (railway transport), occupied position. Destroyed 10 targets, applied 12 missiles. Targets were at extra high and super low height. In conditions of strong interference, and at the maximum range (250 km), a small-sized target (China) was destroyed, the target speed was 3 km/s (ballistic missile).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144553",
"title": "Projectile",
"section": "Section::::Kinetic projectiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Some kinetic weapons for targeting objects in spaceflight are anti-satellite weapons and anti-ballistic missiles. Since in order to reach an object in orbit it is necessary to attain an extremely high velocity, their released kinetic energy alone is enough to destroy their target; explosives are not necessary. For example: the energy of TNT is 4.6 MJ/kg, and the energy of a kinetic kill vehicle with a closing speed of 10 km/s is of 50 MJ/kg. This saves costly weight and there is no detonation to be precisely timed. This method, however, requires direct contact with the target, which requires a more accurate trajectory. Some hit-to-kill warheads are additionally equipped with an explosive directional warhead to enhance the kill probability (e.g. Israeli Arrow missile or U.S. Patriot PAC-3).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2999725",
"title": "Kinetic bombardment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "A kinetic bombardment or a kinetic orbital strike is the hypothetical act of attacking a planetary surface with an inert projectile, where the destructive force comes from the kinetic energy of the projectile impacting at very high speeds. The concept originated during the Cold War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5435751",
"title": "Around the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "When the projectile reaches the point of neutral attraction, the rockets are fired, but it is too late. The projectile begins a fall onto the Earth from a distance of 160,000 miles, and it is to strike the Earth at a speed of 115,200 miles per hour, the same speed at which it left the mouth of the Columbiad. All hope seems lost for Barbicane, Nicholl and Ardan. Four days later, the crew of a US Navy vessel, \"Susquehanna\", spots a bright meteor fall from the sky into the sea. This turns out to be the returning projectile, and the three men inside are found to be alive and are rescued. They are treated to lavish homecoming celebrations as the first people to leave Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2999725",
"title": "Kinetic bombardment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Kinetic bombardment has the advantage of being able to deliver projectiles from a very high angle at a very high speed, making them extremely difficult to defend against. In addition, projectiles would not require explosive warheads, and—in the simplest designs—would consist entirely of solid metal rods, giving rise to the common nickname \"Rods from God\". Disadvantages include the technical difficulties of ensuring accuracy and the high costs of positioning ammunition in orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507168",
"title": "Close-in weapon system",
"section": "Section::::Gun systems.:Limitations of gun systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "BULLET::::- Limited kill probability: even if the missile is hit and damaged, this may not be enough to destroy it entirely or to alter its course enough to prevent the missile, or fragments from it, from hitting its intended target, particularly as the interception distance is short. This is especially true if the gun fires kinetic-energy-only projectiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ho6t7
|
META: Can we talk about the clear increase in "throughout history" or trivia-seeking questions?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're becoming more popular. The more casual people that join the group, the more superficial questions it receives. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "nsdwight has the gist of it. As the sub grows, we attract a larger audience, an audience that, unfortunately, contains more people who don't know the rules and don't bother to read them. We do our best to filter vague and low-effort questions, but can't catch all of them. If you see them, report them! Everyone can contribute.\n\nUnless you're talking about submissions that are not being removed- if that's the case, care to provide examples?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just hit report when I see these types of questions on this subreddit. It usually gets taken down within 15 minutes after that. If it's been up for a while, I send a moderation message to make sure the report gets seen (partially because \"ignore reports\" is a thing and partially because it's pretty difficult to accidentally miss an orange-red message indicator).\n\nAlso, yes, it's likely just growing pains. People often don't read the rules thoroughly before posting. That's why moderators are here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10236830",
"title": "Stozhary",
"section": "Section::::Festival History.:Stozhary 2003.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "For the first time in the festival Stozhary history the philosophic round-table discussions took place. Headed by Nazip Hamitov (Ph. D., professor, author and radio programme host, writer, script writer and psychoanalyst) the discussions analysed wide spectrum of issues involving: \"Eros and Thanatos in cinema\", \"The Evolution of Masculine and Feminine\", \"Masculinization of a Woman and Feminization of a Man\", \"Love Metamorphoses in Cinema on the Turn of Millennia: passion, friendship, co-creativity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23508546",
"title": "Sundeep Waslekar",
"section": "Section::::Big Questions of Our Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "\"Big Questions of Our Time\" is a collection of essays by Sundeep Waslekar and Ilmas Futehally, which anticipate the worlds future. Including the future of governance as well as the technological, ecological, economic, political, social, cultural and philosophical changes that may take place in the twenty-first century. This book was also published in Marathi by Saket Publications with the title \"Navya Yugacha Arambh\". Three editions of the Marathi version have already been published since the books release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39311224",
"title": "Harry Lourandos",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "It is for his contribution to the Intensification debate that Lourandos is best known. Intensification involved an increase in human manipulation of the environment (for example, the construction of eel traps in Victoria), population growth, an increase in trade between groups, a more elaborate social structure, and other cultural changes. A shift in stone tool technology, involving the development of smaller and more intricate points and scrapers, occurred around this time. This was probably also associated with the introduction to the mainland of the Australian dingo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5342528",
"title": "Lark Rise to Candleford",
"section": "Section::::Critical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "Because Thompson wrote her account some forty years after the events she describes she was able to identify the period as a pivotal point in rural history: the time when the quiet, close-knit and peaceful rural culture, governed by the seasons, began a transformation, through agricultural mechanisation, better communications and urban expansion, into the homogenised society of today. The transformation is not explicitly described. It appears as allegory, for example in Laura's first visit to Candleford without her parents: the journey from her tiny village to the sophisticated town representing the temporal changes that would affect her whole community. Although the works are autobiographical, Thompson distances herself from her childhood persona by telling the tale in the third person; she appears in the book as \"Laura Timmins\", rather than her real maiden name of Flora Timms. This device allows Thompson to comment on the action, using the voice of \"Laura\" as the child she was and as the adult narrator, without imposing herself into the work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3563054",
"title": "An Essay on the Principle of Population",
"section": "Section::::2nd to 6th editions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In the course of this enquiry I found that much more had been done than I had been aware of, when I first published the Essay. The poverty and misery arising from a too rapid increase of population had been distinctly seen, and the most violent remedies proposed, so long ago as the times of Plato and Aristotle. And of late years the subject has been treated in such a manner by some of the French Economists; occasionally by Montesquieu, and, among our own writers, by Dr. Franklin, Sir James Stewart, Mr. Arthur Young, and Mr. Townsend, as to create a natural surprise that it had not excited more of the public attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42043065",
"title": "FESTAC 77",
"section": "Section::::The Festival.:Colloquium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The colloquium was at the heart of the festival, and was held daily during first two weeks of activities. About 700 writers, artists and scholars participated in the lectures. The theme of the lectures borders on the lack of intellectual freedom and the ambivalence experienced by Third World countries that sometimes turn to their colonizers for expertise while attempting to establish an image of confidence and independence to themselves as well as the rest of the world. The declared purpose of the colloquium was to seek answers to the questions of how to revive and foster black and African artists and how to facilitate international acceptance and access to outlets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2036118",
"title": "Cultural lag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Cultural lag creates problems for a society in a multitude of ways. The issue of cultural lag tends to permeate any discussion in which the implementation of some new technology is a topic. For example, the advent of stem cell research has given rise to many new, potentially beneficial medical technologies; however these new technologies have also raised serious ethical questions about the use of stem cells in medicine. Cultural lag is seen as a critical ethical issue because failure to develop broad social consensus on appropriate applications of modern technology may lead to breakdowns in social solidarity and the rise of social conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8jk8ta
|
What is the minimum amount of gravity of a planet needed to sustain a breathing atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "Don’t know the math for this, but Saturn’s moon, Titan has a very thick atmosphere but only has about 2% the mass of Earth. Other factors play into a planet having an atmosphere, though. A good magnetic field prevents solar wind and deadly cosmic rays from stripping one away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a complex question. Mars may have had an atmosphere with conditions similar to that of earth, such that liquid water could exist out in the open. However, Mars' atmosphere slowly eroded over time, due to solar wind.\n\nSo the question is, could a planet not only sustain an atmosphere of a given composition, but could it hold onto that atmosphere long term? \n\nThis will depend not just on the gravity of the planet, but also on what you presume it's atmosphere's composition is, and on the average temperature given.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a general rule: A gas escapes over geological timescales if the escape velocity is less than ~8 times the typical speed of this gas in the atmosphere ([Jeans escape](_URL_0_)). If the escape velocity is higher, it can still lose its atmosphere via other processes, e.g. induced by sunlight.\n\nThe typical speed is proportional to the absolute temperature divided by the particle mass. The escape velocity is proportional to the square root of (the planet's mass divided by the radius). Planets with the same surface gravitational attraction can have different escape velocities.\n\nSome caveats: The relevant temperature is not the surface temperature, but the temperature in the upper atmosphere. For Earth this is 1400 K, for example. The escape is usually dominated by the lightest gas - for oxygen this is not O2, but H2O or even individual oxygen atoms.\n\nMars can hold an atmosphere for millions of years - very long on human timescales, but very short compared to the age of it.\n\nTitan can hold it even longer as it is colder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48814",
"title": "Aerobot",
"section": "Section::::Basics of balloons.:The Mars aerobot effort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The atmospheric pressure on Mars is about 150 times less than that of Earth. In such a thin atmosphere, a balloon with a volume of 5,000 to 10,000 cubic meters (178,500 to 357,000 cubic feet) could carry a payload of 20 kilograms (44 pounds), while a balloon with a volume of 100,000 cubic meters (3,600,000 cubic feet) could carry 200 kilograms (440 pounds).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3528649",
"title": "Colonization of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "At present it has not been established whether the gravity of Mars, 0.38 times that of the Earth, would be sufficient to avoid bone decalcification and loss of muscle tone experienced by astronauts living in a micro-g environment. In contrast, Venus is close in size and mass to the Earth, resulting in a similar surface gravity (0.904 \"g\") that would likely be sufficient to prevent the health problems associated with weightlessness. Most other space exploration and colonization plans face concerns about the damaging effect of long-term exposure to fractional \"g\" or zero gravity on the human musculoskeletal system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15111",
"title": "Interplanetary spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Design requirements for manned interplanetary travel.:Life support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Life support systems must be capable of supporting human life for weeks, months or even years. A breathable atmosphere of at least 35 kPa (5psi) must be maintained, with adequate amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and controlled levels of carbon dioxide, trace gases and water vapor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56677683",
"title": "Mars suit",
"section": "Section::::Environmental design requirements.:Breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Humans take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide and water vapor when they breathe, and typically breathe between 12 and 20 times per minute at rest and up to 45 times per minute under high activity. At standard sea level conditions on Earth of , humans are breathing in 20.9% oxygen, at a partial pressure of . This is the required oxygen supply corresponding to normal Earth conditions. Humans generally require supplemental oxygen at altitudes above , so the absolute minimum safe oxygen requirement is a partial pressure of For reference, the Apollo EMU used an operating pressure of on the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9091093",
"title": "Effects of high altitude on humans",
"section": "Section::::Effects as a function of altitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Humans have survived for two years at , 475 millibars of atmospheric pressure), which is the highest recorded permanently tolerable altitude; the highest permanent settlement known, La Rinconada, is at . At extreme altitudes, above , 383 millibars of atmospheric pressure), sleeping becomes very difficult, digesting food is near-impossible, and the risk of HAPE or HACE increases greatly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202898",
"title": "Atmosphere of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Density and mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, \"The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 kg.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56677683",
"title": "Mars suit",
"section": "Section::::Environmental design requirements.:Pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "But the Martian atmosphere contains only 0.13–0.14% oxygen, compared to 20.9% of Earth's atmosphere. Thus breathing the Martian atmosphere is impossible; oxygen must be supplied, at a pressure in excess of the Armstrong limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gj1m7
|
Can you feed a bird so that it gets too fat to fly? Or would it die from health complications before it ever reached that point?
|
[
{
"answer": "There you go. This [kookaburra](_URL_0_) ate way too much bbq and could no longer fly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not birds, but there was an interesting study where they increased the mass of bats by injecting saline into their peritoneal cavities and studied their flight characteristics under varied loading.\n\n1. J Iriarte-Diaz, DK Riskin, KS Breuer, SM Swartz (2012) \"Kinematic Plasticity during Flight in Fruit Bats: Individual Variability in Response to Loading\" PloS One 7 (5), e36665\n2. Leigh C. MacAyeal, Daniel K. Riskin, Sharon M. Swartz and Kenneth S. Breuer (2011) \"Climbing flight performance and load carrying in lesser dog-faced fruit bats (Cynopterus brachyotis).\"Journal of Experimental Biology214 786-794",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember hearing at a lecture about birds given by a guy who runs a conservation that some types of vultures will eat until they can't fly because they don't find meals that often, and will just walk on the ground until a predator appears, in which case they will vomit in its face to distract/blind it, thus lowering their weight and letting them fly again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's common to see wedge tailed eagles in the Australian outback who have gorged on dead kangaroo or other roadkill to the point where they can't fly away anymore. They usually die from not being able to get out of the way of other oncoming vehicles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer is yes. In both domesticated birds and captive wild birds they can gain weight to the point of being unable to fly. Flying is exercise, and weight is a burden, and all the pneumatized bone in the world won't undue an extra body weights' worth of fat. \nSource: I'm an avian vet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "City pigeons rely too much on food from tourists and such that they get so fat they can't fly. Seriously, go to your nearest city attraction and look at all the fat flightless pigeons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a pigeoner and a person with friends that are falconers I can tell you the answer is yes. A falvons weight must be maintained properly for them yo hunt and return to the falconer. I have personally had pigeons that could barely get off the ground because the food i was feeding was to high in protien and fat. Overall weight is really important when it comes to birds. If they are too fat they will not fly well. Even fatter and and they cant get off the ground.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really an answer to your question, but I believe many species of vultures will gorge themselves to a point where they cannot fly since they've gotta make the most of their meals... If something spooks them, they'll regurgitate their meal so they're light enough to fly again.\n\n\nedit: someone already posted this fact...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "230149",
"title": "Foie gras",
"section": "Section::::Production methods.:Alternative production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a ventromedian hypothalamic (VMH) lesion will tend not to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than a non-lesioned animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the bird's food consumption when permitted to eat \"ad libitum\", by a factor of more than two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6866222",
"title": "Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Excessive dietary energy intake is believed to be the cause of fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome. Heredity may also play a role, but it is not the entire cause for the disease. Birds housed in cages will more likely be affected because they are unable to exercise to burn off the extra dietary energy. A 2019 study showed 74% of caged hens died from FLHS whereas only 0–5% of mortalities in hens from cage-free barn or free-range systems were attributed to this condition . Walking hens are less likely to develop this problem. The disease is observed most often in birds that appear to be healthy and in a state of high egg production. As a result, death can occur quite unexpectedly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350065",
"title": "Great snipe",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The birds are noted for their fast, non-stop flying capabilities over huge distances. They can fly up to , with researchers finding little evidence of wind assistance. Some have been recorded to fly non-stop for 84 hours over . Their wings are not especially aerodynamic, lacking pointed tips, and they typically do not stop to feed despite having opportunities. The birds instead rely on stores of fat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25174978",
"title": "Insect farming",
"section": "Section::::As feed and food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Insects are promising to be used as the animal feed. For instance, fly larvae can replace the fish meal due to the similar amino acid composition. It is possible to formulate the fish meal to increase unsaturated fatty acid. Wild birds and free-range poultry can consume insects inform an adult, larval and pupal naturally. Grasshoppers and moth, as well as the housefly, are reported as the feed supplements of poultry. Apart from that, insects have the potential as the feeds for reptile, soft monkey as well as birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2478240",
"title": "Forced molting",
"section": "Section::::Mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Some birds die during forced molting and it has been recommended that the flock must be managed so that mortality does not exceed 1.25% over the 1–2 weeks of (nearly complete) feed withdrawal, compared to a 0.5% to 1.0% monthly mortality in a well-managed flock under low-stress conditions. Alternative methods of forced molting which do not use total food withdrawal, e.g. creating a dietary mineral imbalance, generally result in lower mortality rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285802",
"title": "Marabou stork",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and ecology.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1495,
"text": "This large and powerful bird eats mainly carrion, scraps, and faeces but will opportunistically eat almost any animal matter it can swallow. It occasionally eats other birds including \"quelea\" nestlings, pigeons, doves, pelican and cormorant chicks, and even flamingos. During the breeding season, adults scale back on carrion and take mostly small, live prey since nestlings need this kind of food to survive. Common prey at this time may consist of fish, frogs, insects, eggs, small mammals and reptiles such as crocodile hatchlings and eggs, and lizards and snakes. Though known to eat putrid and seemingly inedible foods, these storks may sometimes wash food in water to remove soil. When feeding on carrion, marabou frequently follow vultures, which are better equipped with hooked bills for tearing through carrion meat and may wait for the vultures to cast aside a piece, steal a piece of meat directly from the vulture or wait until the vultures are done. As with vultures, marabou storks perform an important natural function by cleaning areas via their ingestion of carrion and waste. Increasingly, marabous have become dependent on human garbage and hundreds of the huge birds can be found around African dumps or waiting for a hand out in urban areas. Marabous eating human garbage have been seen to devour virtually anything that they can swallow, including shoes and pieces of metal. Marabous conditioned to eating from human sources have been known to lash out when refused food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14228605",
"title": "Bresse chicken",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The birds are kept free range for at least four months. From about 35 days they are fed cereals and dairy products; the diet is intentionally kept low in protein so that the birds will forage for insects. They are then \"finished\" in an épinette, a cage in a darkened fattening shed, where they are intensively fed on maize and milk. \"Poulets\" or pullets are fattened for two weeks, and slaughtered at a minimum age of four months and a minimum weight of ; \"poulardes\" or large hens are fattened for four weeks and slaughtered at five months, when they weigh at least ; \"chapons\" or capons are also fattened for four weeks, and are slaughtered at eight months or more, at a minimum weight of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hq93f
|
Can an ant find its way home?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends... the Argentine ants have a mega-colony in CA that stretches over 560miles.\n\nThe long and short of it is that ants are blind without chemical scent trails. So unless his home colony has ants that have made it a mile away into your yard, the ant will not find its way back.\n\nIt would in all likelihood get attacked by your yards colony. There are rare exceptions of colonies that take \"prisoners\", but probably not in your yard. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "588615",
"title": "Ant colony optimization algorithms",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "In the natural world, ants of some species (initially) wander randomly, and upon finding food return to their colony while laying down pheromone trails. If other ants find such a path, they are likely not to keep travelling at random, but instead to follow the trail, returning and reinforcing it if they eventually find food (see Ant communication).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31695936",
"title": "Dorylus molestus",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The species is capable of surviving in environments other than forests, but it is not yet known if they can survive easily without even a small nearby forest. This ant species inspired early swarm intelligence studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2594",
"title": "Ant",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.:Navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Foraging ants travel distances of up to from their nest and scent trails allow them to find their way back even in the dark. In hot and arid regions, day-foraging ants face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk. Diurnal desert ants of the genus \"Cataglyphis\" such as the Sahara desert ant navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled. Distances travelled are measured using an internal pedometer that keeps count of the steps taken and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field (optical flow). Directions are measured using the position of the sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24855175",
"title": "Cephalotes atratus",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "This ant usually builds its nest in a hollow in a large live or dead tree. A small entrance may lead to a complex of tunnels and chambers, all excavated by the ants. From the nest the workers emerge by day to forage on other parts of the tree, or cross to contiguous trees, and make use of the crevices in the bark as runways to descend to the ground where they also forage. Auxiliary nests may sometimes be found a little apart from the main colony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2116156",
"title": "Pharaoh ant",
"section": "Section::::Foraging.:Trails.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "While pheromones explain the pharaoh ant's foraging ability, each forager's capability to find its way back to the nest requires a different explanation. In fact, the pharaoh ant relies on geometry to show it the way home. Each fork in the trail system spreads at an angle between 50 and 60 degrees. When returning to the nest, a forager that encounters a fork will almost always take the path that deviates less from its current direction. In other words, it will never choose an acute angle that would drastically change its direction. Using this algorithm, each forager is able to find its way back to the nest. If the fork angle is experimentally increased to an angle between 60 and 120 degrees, \"M. pharaonis\" foragers were significantly less able to find their nest. This method of decision-making reduces the wasted energy that would result from traveling in the wrong direction and contributes to the pharaoh ant's efficiency in foraging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14325023",
"title": "Solenopsis molesta",
"section": "Section::::Habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The habitat of \"Solenopsis molesta\" is vast, because they can survive just about anywhere. They can live in people’s homes, in the cracks or under the floorboards. They can build nests anywhere, but usually near the nests of other species they steal from. They usually nest under rocks, in any exposed soil, or rotting logs. If they cannot find any of these things, then they move into another colony. Their nests are generally large for the ants’ size, and have tunnels that lead to another ant colony for a reliable and steady food source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34609542",
"title": "Doleromyrma darwiniana",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution and habitat.:Habitat preferences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "They prefer to settle in areas of dry forest as they nest in various sections such as under rocks, within the soils or in rotten logs. The ant’s main habitat within the dry forest is dense coastal shrub. They also sometimes inhabit the abandoned nests of other ant species. Within New Zealand, Darwin’s Ant has become a household pest, owing to its wide food preference, in particularly sugary food items. There have been cases of nests being found in potted plants outside urban dwellings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10t6ge
|
Istanbul to Ankara: What factors were involved in the switch?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ankara became the capital because it was used by Atatürk as his headquarters while Constantinople/Istanbul was occupied by the Allies. The Grand National Assembly was established there. That's the main reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition Istanbul (or Konstantiniyye) had for long been the symbol of the multi-cultural ottoman empire (and ofc. the greek, byzantine empire), containing significant amounts of non-turkish elements (specifically Greek) which Atatürk despised. \n\nWhen Atatürk wanted to create his new turkish national state Istanbul simply had too much history behind itself to be used as the symbol of a revolutionary nationalistic and modern moment. Ankara were thus preferred.\n\nIn addition the aforementioned \"occupation\" of Istanbul by the allied powers greatly influenced the decision as you cant really lead the struggle against the greeks from occupied territory. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It seems very similar to the switch from Petrograd to Moscow ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've also heard it said that Ankara was preferable because it was in land; making it less susceptible to attack. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suggest reading Reset: Iran, Turkey and America's Future, by Stephen Kinzer. It goes into great detail surrounding Istanbul to Ankara and how Turkey became the first secular muslim state.\n\nIf you're interested in the middle east and how it is over looked throughout much of history, I suggest reading Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World through Islamic Eyes by Tanim Ansary. It is one of my favorite books.\n\nThey are both really easy reads and seriously have changed my outlook on the middle east, how the west interprets middle eastern history etc. I highly suggest them!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It’s interesting, reading these responses, to see that Istanbul/Constantinople lost its status as a capital for many of the same reasons Constantine made it a capital to begin with: the “new” capital was in a more central location, the “old” capital was geographically isolated and vulnerable, and the new regime wanted to make a cultural break with the past.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34378115",
"title": "September 1963",
"section": "Section::::September 12, 1963 (Thursday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Ankara Agreement was signed in the capital of Turkey, between representatives of the European Economic Community (EEC) and Turkey, and provided for gradual entrance of Turkey into the European Community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3391396",
"title": "Istanbul",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "The city held the strategic position between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. It was also on the historic Silk Road. It controlled rail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and was the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Russia always wanted control so it would have an outlet. In 1923 Ankara was chosen instead as the new Turkish capital after the Turkish War of Independence, and the city's name was changed to Istanbul. Nevertheless, the city maintained its prominence in geopolitical and cultural affairs. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them. Arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established towards the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802",
"title": "Ankara",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1029,
"text": "On 23 April 1920 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of Atatürk and the Turkish National Movement during the Turkish War of Independence. Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role the former Turkish capital Istanbul (Constantinople) following the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city, located at the center of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the long-haired Angora goat (the source of mohair), and the Angora cat. The area is also known for its pears, honey and muscat grapes. Although situated in one of the driest places of Turkey and surrounded mostly by steppe vegetation except for the forested areas on the southern periphery, Ankara can be considered a green city in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at per head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17427948",
"title": "Economy of Istanbul",
"section": "Section::::Financial Sector.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Istanbul has always been the \"financial capital\" of Turkey, even after Ankara became the new political capital in 1923. The opening of specific markets in the city during the 1980s further strengthened this status. Inaugurated at the beginning of 1986, the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) is the sole securities market of Turkey, established to provide trading in equities, right coupons, Government bonds, Treasury bills, revenue sharing certificates, bonds issued by the Privatization Administration and corporate bonds, and to carry out overnight transactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36237397",
"title": "Culture of Istanbul",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "The culture of Istanbul has its basis in the city that has been the capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. However, when the Turkish Republic turned its focus away from Istanbul and toward Ankara, the city's cultural scene throughout the mid-20th century lay relatively stagnant, seeing limited success on the international, and even national, level. The government of the new republic established programs that served to engender Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital. Although much of Turkey's culture had its roots in Istanbul, it was not until the 1980s and 1990s that Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802",
"title": "Ankara",
"section": "Section::::History.:Turkish republican capital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1113,
"text": "After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called \"Ulus\", and a new section, called \"Yenişehir\". Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered on Kızılay Square, has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923, when it was \"a small town of no importance\". In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. Ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked Izmir as Turkey's second largest city, after Istanbul. Ankara's urban population reached 4,587,558 in 2014, while the population of Ankara Province reached 5,150,072 in 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3391396",
"title": "Istanbul",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara. The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital. Much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
805noh
|
Questions regarding nicknames
|
[
{
"answer": "The Viet Cong were referred to using the military phonetic alphabet (V-C = Victor Charlie) shortened to Charlie.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53430",
"title": "Nickname",
"section": "Section::::People.:Physical characteristics, personality, or lifestyle.:Personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Nicknames can be a descriptor of a personality characteristic or the opposite of a personality characteristic. These types of nicknames were often used in fairy tales such as \"Snow White\". Sometimes such nicknames may be indicative of a physical disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53430",
"title": "Nickname",
"section": "Section::::People.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Nicknames are usually awarded to a person and they are not always chosen by the recipient themselves. Some nicknames are derogatory name calls. Note: the majority of the following examples are American English usage. Please see bullying definition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53430",
"title": "Nickname",
"section": "Section::::Conventions in various languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1227,
"text": "To inform an audience or readership of a person's nickname without actually calling them by their nickname, English nicknames are generally represented in quotes between the bearer's first and last names (e.g., \"Dwight David \"Ike\" Eisenhower\", \"Daniel Lamont \"Bubba\" Franks\", etc.). However, it is also common for the nickname to be identified after a comma following the full real name or later in the body of the text, such as in an obituary (e.g., \"Frankie Frisch, \"The Fordham Flash\"\"). The middle name is generally eliminated (if there is one), especially in speech. Like English, German uses (German-style) quotation marks between the first and last names (e.g., \"Andreas Nikolaus „Niki“ Lauda\"). Other languages may use other conventions; for example, Italian writes the nickname after the full name followed by \"detto\" 'called' (e.g., \"Salvatore Schillaci detto Totò\"), in Spanish the nickname is written in formal contexts at the end in quotes following \"alias\" (e.g. \"Alfonso Tostado, alias «el Abulense»\"), and Slovenian represents nicknames after a dash or hyphen (e.g., \"Franc Rozman – Stane\"). The latter may cause confusion because it resembles an English convention sometimes used for married and maiden names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53430",
"title": "Nickname",
"section": "Section::::Uses in various societies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "In Anglo-American culture, a nickname is often based on a shortening of a person's proper name. However, in other societies, this may not necessarily be the case. For example: \"my nickname is farmer Phil\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43086986",
"title": "Lists of nicknames",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "This is a list of nickname-related list articles on Wikipedia. A nickname is \"a familiar or humorous name given to a person or thing instead of or as well as the real name.\" A nickname is often considered desirable, symbolising a form of acceptance, but can sometimes be a form of ridicule. A moniker also means a nickname or personal name. The word often distinguishes personal names from nicknames that became proper names out of former nicknames. English examples are Bob and Rob, nickname variants for Robert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "907702",
"title": "Westkapelle, Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Nicknames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "To avoid confusion, nicknames were — and are — used in daily life. These vary enormously, and are sometimes attached to a single person but sometimes also to a family, and often a combination of both. The nickname can be derived from someone's real name, refer to one of his or her parents (and sometimes multiple generations back), and/or come from something completely different — again, combinations of these factors are commonplace. Outsiders who are not aware of this custom can experience difficulties because of it, since someone's real name is sometimes only barely known: he or she is really only known by the nickname, and remembering the real name is a bit of an effort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15071142",
"title": "List of city nicknames in Texas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Some of the nicknames are positive, while others are derisive. The unofficial nicknames listed here are those that have been used for such a long time or have gained so wide a currency that they have become well known in their own right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bxlcw
|
how is it legal to have tinted license plate covers?
|
[
{
"answer": "The ones I've seen leave the license plates readable, the idea is if a speed trap camera takes a picture it'll make the plate unreadable in the photo. Fortunately they don't actually work, so no one really cares.\n\nIf your plate is obscured to the point where you can't read it with the naked eye, it is extremely illegal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The law is not protecting you. They broke the law by hiding their plate. The law only effects law breakers. If they are caught breaking the law, they will be punished. If someone chooses not to follow the law, well we are all screwed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49369831",
"title": "Vehicle registration plates of Madagascar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Until 2014, the license plate showing white text on black background, with aluminum plate Scripture by removing the black coating production reasons silver precipitates. Decorative fonts are officially not allowed, but are tolerated in private vehicles; License plates do not exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19960966",
"title": "Vehicle registration plates of Ecuador",
"section": "Section::::Current plates.:Plate colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Depending on the type of vehicle, license plates have different colors. Since June 2012, with the modification of the vehicle code, the form of the license plates was modified. Private vehicles continue with black characters on a white background. For non-private vehicles, the new license plates keep the same differentiating color as previously used, but the color is no longer applied to the entire license plate. These newer plates only have a colored upper border, and the rest of the license plate is white. This change was made in a way that improves the visibility of license plates, in particular to cameras and radars. All older style plates were expected to be replaced by 2019; however, the older style plates will remain valid until replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30838933",
"title": "LIDAR traffic enforcement",
"section": "Section::::Registration plates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Vehicle registration plates are an important part of traffic enforcement and in most jurisdictions the government holds a monopoly on the their manufacture, although this may be contracted out. Normally it is illegal for private citizens to modify, make and affix their own plates, as this is equivalent to forging an official document. California plates are required to be 6 in tall and 12 in wide, a usual standard, and have a reflective surface that is particularly sensitive to infrared light, which enables it to be imaged at night, enables Automatic License Plate Recognition, allows LIDAR devices to receive a strong reflective signal return, and have tamper-resistant markings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16796398",
"title": "Vehicle registration plates of Illinois",
"section": "Section::::Temporary registration permits.:2001 to present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "\"Responding to complaints that temporary vehicle tags help criminals escape detection, Secretary of State Jessie White announced a $2 million program [on] Tuesday [June 19, 2001] to introduce tamper-proof temporary license plates that will allow police to know the identity of vehicle owners.\" He also called the black on yellow permit design, \"One of the finest devised by man.\" These tags were the size of regular license plates, they incorporated a hologram in a strip across the entire plate, they had numbers the same size as a regular license plate, and they were immediately entered into law enforcement databases upon being issued. The expiration date was under a clear film to make them tamper-proof. Plates were valid for 90 days, which was the same length as the old system, and only a single permit for the rear of the vehicle was issued. The first day of issue was June 12, 2001 with these earliest permits being distributed to drivers license facilities, auto dealers, and currency exchanges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1657551",
"title": "Automatic number-plate recognition",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Imaging hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Many countries now use license plates that are retroreflective. This returns the light back to the source and thus improves the contrast of the image. In some countries, the characters on the plate are not reflective, giving a high level of contrast with the reflective background in any lighting conditions. A camera that makes use of active infrared imaging (with a normal colour filter over the lens and an infrared illuminator next to it) benefits greatly from this as the infrared waves are reflected back from the plate. This is only possible on dedicated ANPR cameras, however, and so cameras used for other purposes must rely more heavily on the software capabilities. Further, when a full-colour image is required as well as use of the ANPR-retrieved details, it is necessary to have one infrared-enabled camera and one normal (colour) camera working together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59633672",
"title": "Vehicle registration plates of the United States for 1911",
"section": "Section::::Passenger baseplates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "In the table below, a light green background indicates that the owner of the vehicle was required to provide their own license plates. These plates are called \"prestate\" by most collectors. In the prestate era many states only provided the license plate number on a small disc or on paper, and the owner was required to have their license plate(s) made. These early license plates were created from kits that could be purchased at a hardware store, may have been available from automobile clubs or associations, they were forged by blacksmiths or other tradesmen, or the owner may have made their own plate with whatever materials they had on hand. Prestate plates were made from a variety of materials, but most often were made of leather, steel, or wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59633681",
"title": "Vehicle registration plates of the United States for 1912",
"section": "Section::::Passenger baseplates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "In the table below, a light green background indicates that the owner of the vehicle was required to provide their own license plates. These plates are called \"prestate\" by most collectors. In the prestate era many states only provided the license plate number on a small disc or on paper, and the owner was required to have their license plate(s) made. These early license plates were created from kits that could be purchased at a hardware store, may have been available from automobile clubs or associations, they were forged by blacksmiths or other tradesmen, or the owner may have made their own plate with whatever materials they had on hand. Prestate plates were made from a variety of materials, but most often were made of leather, steel, or wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nn05r
|
vampires might not be real, but how exactly does the internal anatomy work of creatures that live strictly off of blood?
|
[
{
"answer": "Their anatomy isn't that different from other similar animals. They drink blood which goes into their stomach and is digested to get nutrition. There is a lot of energy to be gained from eating blood just like eating other parts of an animal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4018103",
"title": "Vampire (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Vampires in the Buffyverse live on a diet of blood, preferring fresh human blood; they can distinguish the blood of different animals by flavor, and those who do not drink human blood enjoy that of otters. They require no other food or drink, and although they can ingest it they generally find it bland. Prolonged deprivation of blood can impair a vampire's higher brain functions and they become \"living skeletons\", but lack of blood will not result in a vampire's death. They do not need to breathe airalthough they can breathe to speak or smokeand they cannot pass breath on to others via CPR. They are affected by drugs, poisons, and electricity and they can be sedated and tasered. Some vampires enjoy both alcoholic and caffeinated beverages, and tobacco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2284808",
"title": "The Saga of Darren Shan",
"section": "Section::::Main characters.:Darren Shan's Vampires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 2070,
"text": "The vampires in \"The Darren Shan Saga\" are different from vampires found in popular culture. They are alive, meaning that they can be killed by a well-placed bullet, mutilation, decapitation or piercing of the heart (though they will wake up within a day or less if their neck is broken). Vampires do not have fangs nor do they drink from the neck, but cut a vein of a victim with their hard, and sharp nails; drinking small amounts of blood, and then healing it with their saliva. Their nails can also be used to scale walls in a spider-like manner. Draining all of a human's blood would have a vampire part of the spirit of the victim, allowing the vampire to see into their memories (Darren does this in \"The Vampire's Assistant\", to save the spirit of his dying friend). Vampires do not combust when exposed to sunlight, but it will burn them easily and exposure for four to five hours will kill them. They can, however, remain active during the day (provided they remain in the shade) and are not bothered by garlic, silver, or holy objects. Fresh human blood is the most nutritious for vampires, but they can feed on preserved human blood or the blood of certain animals when necessary. Some animals' blood, however, is toxic to vampires. Vampires cannot reproduce; further vampires are created by blood-to-blood contact with humans, traditionally through the fingertips, but if any creature, human or animal, were to orally ingest vampire blood, it would be driven into a murderous frenzy and then die (similar to rabies). Vampires are not immortal; they age at one-tenth the human rate (half-vampires at one-fifth). This comes into play in the series when Darren meets an old girlfriend he had; now they are adults but Darren still looks about the same as he did when they first met. The oldest vampire in the series is Paris Skyle, who was \"Blooded\" at age two and lived for over eight hundred years. Vampires cast reflections and shadows but cannot be photographed due to a particular vibration of their atoms. Also, as in folklore, vampires sleep in coffins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150052",
"title": "Vampire: The Masquerade",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Game system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "\"Vampire\" is based on the Storyteller System. In addition to the general Storyteller rules, it uses a number of specific mechanics aimed towards simulating the vampiric existence. A vampire has a \"blood pool\" signifying the amount of human blood or \"vitae\" currently in their body; this blood can be spent to power abilities and perform supernatural tricks. These tricks simulate many of those portrayed in film, such as turning into animals or mist, sleeping in the ground or having unnatural charisma and powers of hypnotic suggestion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32610315",
"title": "Live Evil (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "Vampires are finding their own undead bodies being mutated by the pollution of the host's blood, tainted with hard drugs and sexually transmitted diseases, alcohol, diabetes, anti-depressants, and cigarettes: substances that change the blood and makes it undrinkable for vampires. The scarcity of good blood has incited an underground civil war between various groups of vampires. A clique of 4 vampires, led by Benedict (Mark Hengst), struggle to find sustenance by seeking victims with untainted blood. The group is being stalked by a samurai sword-wielding vampire-killing Priest (Tim Thomerson), who leaves a note on the bodies of slain vampires in the form of a playing card inscribed with the words \"Live Evil\". In order to survive both their race's own fierce infighting and the biological pollution found in human blood, the group desperately seeks out Max (Ken Foree), a \"blood pusher\" who steals from hospital blood banks to offer the freshest and purest blood around. But they may not have time to enjoy it, because the vengeful Priest is hot on their trail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489701",
"title": "Ultraviolet (TV serial)",
"section": "Section::::Vampirism as depicted in the series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "Vampires in the series are depicted as ageless and immortal. They are stronger and faster than normal humans, to the extent that a physical encounter between a human and vampire will almost always be fatal for the human. Vampires lack most of the supernatural powers attributed to them in folklore, such as turning into bats, mist or wolves. The folkloric lack of a reflection is extended in the series: vampires are invisible to electronic devices. They can not be imaged by video cameras, and can not be recorded on video tape or film. Their voices can not be transmitted electronically and ink will not hold an impression of their fingerprints. Vampire DNA is invisible under an electron microscope. Vampires use voice synthesis software to communicate via telephone. They use cars with blacked out windows in order to move outside during the day, and time-locked coffins for long-distance travel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4309709",
"title": "Anita Blake mythology",
"section": "Section::::Undead.:Vampires.:Vampire characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Superhuman Physical Attributes\". A key characteristic which distinguishes vampires from humans and even other undead is their supernaturally augmented bodies. Their strength is superhuman; able to lift average-sized cars and injure humans with ease, and they move with incredible celerity. Vampires slowly and subtly grow stronger both in physical prowess as well as psychic potency with age; those with several centuries of undeath can send grown men flying across a room with the slightest touch, accidentally kill a human with a backhanded slap, eviscerate giant animals, and move with such speed that they appear to teleport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150052",
"title": "Vampire: The Masquerade",
"section": "Section::::Vampires in \"World of Darkness\".:The embrace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Vampires may create more of themselves by draining a human to the point of death and then feeding the victim some of their blood. The creator vampire is known as a \"sire\", the newly created vampire a \"childe\" and the creation process is referred to as the \"embrace\". Very little vitae is required to trigger the metamorphosis but the victim must be freshly dead. It does not work on corpses that are more than a few minutes old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sntkh
|
why are tv cooking shows allowed to kill live animals but other tv/movies can't harm animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Any TV/movie can kill animals they just choose not to. In Pink Flamingo they kill a chicken for example. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides lobsters I don't think I've seen any live animals being killed on cooking shows in the US. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure if they're not allowed, or if networks are just unwilling to suffer the backlash that they'd receive from animal right's activists. IIRC survivor had a huge flap a couple years ago because they killed a hog.\n\nIn terms of justification, cooking shows that feature meat necessarily require the killing of animals, and showing that really can't be criticized. Animal rights advocates would probably like more shown because it would force people to see where their meat comes from, step by step. TV shows that are primarily entertainment would have a harder time justifying the killing of animals for mere entertainment's sake. If Game of Thrones went around killing horses on purpose just for realism, they'd be crucified in the court of public opinion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nothing under US law prohibits the airing of content that shows violence against or the killing of live animals. \n\nContent providers largely self impose not airing animal abuse as it would upset program advertisers by associating them with less than reputable content, audiences have a cultural predisposition to be against unnecessarily harming animals, and building an image of someone who provides that kind of content reflects poorly on a businesses brand. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22977115",
"title": "AfrikaBurn",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Pets are not allowed at the event. This is due to concerns for the safety of both the animals (loud noises and an inhospitable environment), and the participants. In addition, fireworks, flares and fire lanterns are not permitted. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47048387",
"title": "Lychee and Dog Meat Festival",
"section": "Section::::Animal welfare concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The local residents and festival organizers claim that the dogs are killed humanely and that \"eating dog is no different from eating pork or beef\". Animal rights activists and campaigners, however, claim that the animals are \"treated cruelly\", based on photographs of the event. A witness claimed that some of the dogs eaten appeared to be stolen household pets, judging by their collars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156999",
"title": "Circus",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Animal acts.:Controversy.:Worldwide animal acts controversy and laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "City ordinances banning performances by wild animals have been enacted in San Francisco (2015), Los Angeles (2017), and New York City (2017). These bans include movies, TV shows, ads, petting zoos, or any showcase of animals where they are in direct contact with the audience. The reason being the high chance of the animals to harm someone in the audience. This is due to their instincts which humans cannot control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7375375",
"title": "Sky lantern",
"section": "Section::::Dangers.:Legal status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Despite their use for centuries, there has been growing concern by some about the potential danger to cause crop or building fires and even harm animals that may eat their remains. Despite the general lack of prevalence some places have banned them for these reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13560962",
"title": "National Farmers Organization",
"section": "Section::::The Holding Action of 1967.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Many public slaughters were held in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Farmers would kill their own animals in front of media representatives. However, this effort backfired because it angered television audiences to see animals being needlessly and wastefully killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26740295",
"title": "Fatal Attractions (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Each episode deals with two or three stories of people who keep animals as pets that are generally not meant to live in domestic environments and often are hostile to mankind in general. Episodes explore how these owners come to develop a psychological dependence on these animals, to the point of allowing themselves to get so close to these animals that the line between predator and prey becomes blurred or even non-existent. Episodes usually depict someone getting hurt or killed as a result of keeping exotic species as household pets. Each story is tied together at the end, as part of the overall theme of why wild animals should remain in the wild and not in backyards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6164716",
"title": "Miami Animal Police",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The show also highlights the work of various private companies that remove wild animals from places they shouldn't be, including escaped exotic pets which can pose a hazard to native wildlife and/or local residents if left unchecked. The most frequently featured of these private contractors is Todd Hardwick of Pesky Critters Wildlife Control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5k35nw
|
What was the mindset for veterans who lived through both WW1 and WW2
|
[
{
"answer": "What was the \"mindset\" for them? And are you looking for generalities, because there were a LOT of veterans with a lot of different thoughts about a lot of different things. What does your question actually mean? I don't think you can possibly get a substantive answer to this question, as vaguely worded as it is.\n\nThis subreddit needs an FAQ on how to write a question about history that can actually be answered in the way the subreddit itself demands answers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "295693",
"title": "Back-to-the-land movement",
"section": "Section::::The movement in North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The Canadian writer Farley Mowat says that many returned veterans after World War II sought a meaningful life far from the ignobility of modern warfare, regarding his own experience as typical of the pattern. In Canada, those who sought a life completely outside of the cities, suburbs, and towns frequently moved into semi-wilderness environs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10432769",
"title": "The Big Six (Ghana)",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Christiansborg cross-roads shooting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "On 20 February 1948, Dr. Nkrumah and Dr. J. B. Danquah met and addressed World War II veterans who had been agitating for their end-of-service benefits following World War II at the Palladium Cinema, Accra. These veterans had fought with the Gold Coast Regiment of the Royal West African Frontier Force and had not been paid their gratuities on their return home. Nkrumah and Danquah both gave their support and encouraged the veterans in their protest over their post-war neglect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1585284",
"title": "Hollister riot",
"section": "Section::::Rise of motorcycles after World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "After World War II, countless veterans came back to America and many of them had a difficult time readjusting to civilian life. They searched for the adventure and adrenaline rush associated with life at war that had now left them. Civilian life felt too monotonous for some men who also craved feelings of excitement and danger. Others sought the close bonds and camaraderie found between men in the army. Furthermore, certain men wanted to combat their horrifying war memories and experiences that haunted them, many in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder. Thus, motorcycling emerged stronger than ever as a substitute for wartime experiences such as adventure, excitement, danger and camaraderie. Men who had been a part of the motorcycling world before the war were now joined by thousands of new members. The popularity of motorcycling grew dramatically after World War II because of the effects of the war on veterans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21759521",
"title": "Combat Stress (charitable organisation)",
"section": "Section::::History before 1919.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Soldiers (and other frontline personnel) returning home from World War I suffered greatly from the horrors of war that they had witnessed. Many returning veterans suffered from what was then known as shell shock; now known as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "446253",
"title": "West Texas A&M University",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Many returning veterans from World War II enrolled at the institution in the latter 1940s, taking advantage of new G.I. Bill of Rights assistance. Conditions were so overcrowded for a time that the former soldiers slept in the gymnasium, and beds were brought from a former prisoner of war camp in Hereford.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "522287",
"title": "Great Depression in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Government reaction.:New Deal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "World War I veterans built on a history of postwar political activism to play an important role in the expansion of state-sponsored social welfare in Canada. Arguing that their wartime sacrifices had not been properly rewarded, veterans claimed that they were entitled to state protection from poverty and unemployment on the home front. The rhetoric of patriotism, courage, sacrifice, and duty created powerful demands for jobs, relief, and adequate pensions that should, veterans argued, be administered as a right of social citizenship and not a form of charity. At the local, provincial, and national political levels, veterans fought for compensation and recognition for their war service, and made their demands for jobs and social security a central part of emerging social policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25571081",
"title": "Beaufort War Hospital",
"section": "Section::::History.:First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "Veterans of World War I had little affection for the military hospitals; many memoirists complained of an inhumanity that seemed to increase with distance from the battlefield. At the front, wounded soldiers were treated by fellow-combatants and by familiar regimental doctors. 'The wounded man' recalled one soldier, ‘ is in a moment a little baby and all the rest become the tenderest of mothers. One holds his hand; another lights his cigarette. Before this, it is given to few to know the love of those who go together through the long valley of the shadow of death.' (76) All this changed in the rear of the battle zone and in the general hospitals back in ‘Blighty’. Given the restrictions on wartime transport their journey from the front might be surprisingly rapid. Gilbert Spencer (Stanley Spencer's younger brother who also served as a medical orderly) recalled his first terrifying moments at Beaufort when he was surrounded by a 'ward full of wounded Gallipoli soldiers, their skins sunburnt and their clothes bleached and the soil of Suvla Bay still on their boots.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ccn25
|
what is the theoretical limit to wireless communication transmission speed? what is the limiting factor?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's two factors:\n\nThere's the speed of light, which limits the *latency* — the delay between sending and receiving.\n\nThe second is *bandwidth*, which is how much data can be sent in a certain amount of time with a certain amount of power.\n\nThe Pluto probe currently has a bandwidth of about *1 kilobyte per second*. This upper limit exists because the *modulation* of the signal — shifting it up and down in frequency — has to be slower, the pulses have to be longer, to prevent them from being drowned out by background noise.\n\nIf the probe could transmit with more energy, the pulses could be more easily distinguished from background noise, and so could be shorter, and the bandwidth increased. \n\nThere's nothing that can be done about the *latency*. That's a hard limit on the physics of the universe.\n\nIf there were amplifiers / repeaters every so often along a path between the probe and Earth, the *bandwidth* **could** be increased, because the power of the transmission would be stronger, the closer it physically is to the receiver. \n\nThere are, of course, significant logistics challenges behind deploying, powering, and managing those hypothetical amplifiers and repeaters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25982270",
"title": "Smallband",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "According to the Acceptable use policy of most providers where this limitation is in place, the speed is comparable to that of an old dial-up connection. However, there were numerous complaints by customers that the actual speed was lower. In response to these complaints, Telenet (cable internet provider) in October 2007 increased the speed from 32 kbps downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream to 192 kbit/s downstream and 64 kbit/s upstream, for http data traffic only. All other traffic shaping remained at 32 kbit/s downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12824727",
"title": "Sliding window protocol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "For the highest possible throughput, it is important that the transmitter is not forced to stop sending by the sliding window protocol earlier than one round-trip delay time (RTT). The limit on the amount of data that it can send before stopping to wait for an acknowledgment should be larger than the bandwidth-delay product of the communications link. If it is not, the protocol will limit the effective bandwidth of the link.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22073769",
"title": "Packet aggregation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) Local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), is an example of a protocol that employs packet aggregation to increase efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22073882",
"title": "Packet segmentation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 gigabit/s) local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), is an example of a protocol that employs packet segmentation to increase reliability over noisy media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334423",
"title": "AX.25",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "At the speeds commonly used to transmit packet radio data (rarely higher than 9,600 bit/s, and typically 1,200 bit/s), the use of additional network layers with AX.25 is impractical due to the data overhead involved. This is not a limitation of AX.25 \"per se\", but places constraints on the sophistication of applications designed to use it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45206",
"title": "Submarine communications cable",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:Optical telephone cables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "As of 2012, operators had \"successfully demonstrated long-term, error-free transmission at 100 Gbps across Atlantic Ocean\" routes of up to , meaning a typical cable can move tens of terabits per second overseas. Speeds improved rapidly in the previous few years, with 40 Gbit/s having been offered on that route only three years earlier in August 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3560982",
"title": "Protocol spoofing",
"section": "Section::::Spoofing techniques.:File transfer spoofing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Since the next packet of data cannot be sent until the ACK for the previous packet is received. In the case of XModem, for instance, that means it takes of a second for the cycle to complete for a single packet. This means that the overall speed is only half the theoretical maximum, or a 50% channel efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45lpvg
|
is there any solid reason why we view/record videos and pictures in a rectangular way. and why not just a square?
|
[
{
"answer": "This has been asked in various ways before though I'm pressed to think up good search terms. \n\nA simple answer is that our field of vision of wider than tall so it makes sense for video to be the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you close one eye, you'll see a round field of view. However, humans have two eyes separated by some distance. With both eyes open, we get a elliptical field of view that is wider than it is tall.\n\nThis is turned into a rectangular field of view because it is easier to make rectangular camera film and camera sensors than elliptical ones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A landscape format rectangle mimics how our eyes normally see. Furthermore, our eyes normally scan images horizontally. Most writing is done side-to-side, only a few languages use top-to-bottom writing (and even those languages sometime use side-to-side formatting).\n\nAs to the relative dimensions of the rectangle, called the aspect ratio, various formats have been used over the years, and continue to be used. The earliest movies were just shot in a simple square format (ie aspect ratio of 1:1). But as filmmaking became more sophisticated, people started experimenting with other aspect ratios.\n\nIn general, people just prefer watching movies in non-square aspect ratios, whether it's a common 4:3 ratio or the 2.35:1 ultra-wide format of Cinemascope, which was used for a lot of sweeping epic films in the 50s and 60s.\n\nThere has never (to my knowledge) been a popular format for films that is taller than it is wide, which is why when people record videos with their phones held vertically, it just looks *wrong* to us.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The history of aspect ratios is quite complicated. The academy ratio was established to allow sound to be stored in 2 edges of approximately square frames, so that the video portion had an aspect ratio of about 1.37, which TV mimicked with 1.33. Cinemas decided to be as different from TV thereafter as possible, thinking ultra widescreen would give people a motivation to continue attending film screenings. This is why 2.35 became so common. The golden ratio (about 1.62) has never been used as an aspect ratio staple.\n\nHDTV was designed to be 1.78 so that it would compromise between ultra-widescreen films and old TV shows, and each would take up about the same majority of the screen if uncropped. (The trick was to use a geometric mean of two common aspect ratios, as too much cropping looks bad.) Nowadays film-makers have become happier about working with roughly this aspect ratio. The hope now is that Blu-ray releases will be similar enough to a full cinema experience to sell well.\n\nAs history has run its course, a number of aspect ratio stereotypes have become established. For example, 1.78 is typical of documentaries, while 1.33 is typical of very old films and pre-2000s television. Some TV and film productions have been made in aspect ratios chosen to ape such stereotypes for works that want to ape a certain genre. For example, some comedy films that seek a fake documentary feel go with 1.78, while *The Artist* made sure to use the same aspect ratio as silent films.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it's efficient. Most of what we are interested in seeing is happening on the surface of the earth, which is way wider than it is high. Those vertical videos recorded on smartphones are so annoying because they show a lot of uninteresting sky at the top and ground at the bottom, and what is interesting is crammed into a little space in the middle, and you may be missing some maybe-relevant stuff off to the sides.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Glove and Boots do a good job of explaining thoughts on a very concerning condition that helps answer you question.\n\nVertical Video Syndrome \n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "877342",
"title": "Texture filtering",
"section": "Section::::Filtering methods.:Anisotropic filtering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1153,
"text": "When a surface is at a high angle relative to the camera, the fill area for a texture will not be approximately square. Consider the common case of a floor in a game: the fill area is far wider than it is tall. In this case, none of the square maps are a good fit. The result is blurriness and/or shimmering, depending on how the fit is chosen. Anisotropic filtering corrects this by sampling the texture as a non-square shape. The goal is to sample a texture to match the pixel footprint as projected into texture space, and such a footprint is not always axis aligned to the texture. Further, when dealing with sample theory a pixel is not a little square therefore its footprint would not be a projected square. Footprint assembly in texture space samples some approximation of the computed function of a projected pixel in texture space but the details are often approximate, highly proprietary and steeped in opinions about sample theory. Conceptually though the goal is to sample a more correct anisotropic sample of appropriate orientation to avoid the conflict between aliasing on one axis vs. blurring on the other when projected size differs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876233",
"title": "Aspect ratio (image)",
"section": "Section::::Current video standards.:1:1 (Square).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Square displays are rarely used in devices and monitors. Nonetheless, video consumption on social apps has grown rapidly and led to the emergence of new video formats more suited to mobile devices that can be held in horizontal and vertical orientations. In that sense, square video was popularized by mobile apps such as Instagram and has since been supported by other major social platforms including Facebook and Twitter. It can fill nearly twice as much screen space compared to 16:9 format (when the device is held differently while viewing from how video was recorded).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224148",
"title": "Cinerama",
"section": "Section::::History.:Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The impact these films had on the big screen cannot be assessed from television or video, or even from 'scope prints, which marry the three images together with the seams clearly visible. Because they were designed to be seen on a curved screen, the geometry looks distorted on television; someone walking from left to right appears to approach the camera at an angle, move away at an angle, and then repeat the process on the other side of the screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5573068",
"title": "Photography triplet",
"section": "Section::::Ordering and time line.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Images are usually located from left to right with oldest (in terms of story) on left and newest on right side. For vertical triplet, older image is usually on the top and more recent on bottom. When photos are not related in time, then they are arranged to be most pleasant to viewer's eye (such as dark to bright) or using some logical arrangements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32350951",
"title": "Pictometry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Because they are taken from an angle, the pixels associated with Pictometry images are trapezoidal, rather than rectangular. This necessitates special software and algorithms to accurately determine objects’ size and position on the maps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37339066",
"title": "Strip photography",
"section": "Section::::Video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Videos in the wide \"strip\" format can be arbitrarily wide, possibly too wide to fit on a given display. One way to view them is by panning the image horizontally (display only part of the image, panning the frame sideways) while looping through the video. Geometrically this corresponds to replicating the output formula_8 array in the third variable, then cutting diagonally. If the frame advances 1 pixel at a time and the output resolution and frame rate are the same as the input, then the entire strip video will be seen and (with technical assumptions on start and end) the output video will be the same resolution and duration as the input. Rather than looping, which introduces a jump, the video can bounce back and forth between endpoints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5550368",
"title": "Pixel aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Digital video processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Unfortunately, not all standard TV pictures are exactly 4:3: As mentioned earlier, in analog video, the center of a picture is well-defined but the edges of the picture are not standardized. As a result, some analog devices (mostly PAL devices but also some NTSC devices) generated motion pictures that were horizontally (slightly) wider. This also proportionately applies to anamorphic widescreen (16:9) pictures. Therefore, to maintain a safe margin of error, ITU-R BT.601 required sampling 16 more non-square pixels per line (8 more at each edge) to ensure saving all video data near the margins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
46q0gi
|
Are all the particles in the universe quantum entangled or does that only happen under specific conditions?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would argue yes as entanglement as well as superposition are intrinsic aspects of a quantum world, but saying that 'everything is entangled' is not a particularly useful or helpful notion. The reason for this is that entanglement happens too much and too easily killing all the delicate quantum effects we so carefully try to cultivate in the laboratory. This process is called decoherence and is a major reason why the weird quantum world generates \"classical\" physics as we move to larger systems. Here's an excellent enthusiast level look at it: \n\n* Zurek. Decoherence and the transition from quantum to classical -- REVISITED. PHYSICS TODAY, 44:36-44 (1991/2003) _URL_0_\n\nWhat people call EPR entanglement is more correctly described as isolated entanglement. Systems which are allowed to coalesce with each other, but not with the outside world. This only happens under specific conditions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "887587",
"title": "Nothing comes from nothing",
"section": "Section::::Modern physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Quantum mechanics proposes that pairs of virtual particles are being created from quantum fluctuations in this \"empty\" space all the time. If these pairs do not mutually annihilate right away, they could be detected as real particles, for example if one falls into a black hole and its opposite is emitted as Hawking radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25336",
"title": "Quantum entanglement",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Methods of creating entanglement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "It is also possible to create entanglement between quantum systems that never directly interacted, through the use of entanglement swapping. Two independently-prepared, identical particles may also be entangled if their wave functions merely spatially overlap, at least partially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28751",
"title": "Faster-than-light communication",
"section": "Section::::Proposed mechanisms.:Quantum nonlocality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Quantum mechanics is non-local in the sense that distant systems can be entangled. Entangled states lead to correlations in the results of otherwise random measurements, even when the measurements are made nearly simultaneously and at far distant points. The impossibility of superluminal communication led Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen to propose that quantum mechanics must be incomplete (see EPR paradox).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7850102",
"title": "Quantum mind",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Conceptual problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1605,
"text": "Quantum entanglement is a physical phenomenon often invoked for quantum mind models. This effect occurs when pairs or groups of particles interact so that the quantum state of each particle cannot be described independently of the other(s), even when the particles are separated by a large distance. Instead, a quantum state has to be described for the whole system. Measurements of physical properties such as position, momentum, spin, and polarization, performed on entangled particles are found to be correlated. If one of the particles is measured, the same property of the other particle immediately adjusts to maintain the conservation of the physical phenomenon. According to the formalism of quantum theory, the effect of measurement happens instantly, no matter how far apart the particles are. It is not possible to use this effect to transmit classical information at faster-than-light speeds (see Faster-than-light § Quantum mechanics). Entanglement is broken when the entangled particles decohere through interaction with the environment; for example, when a measurement is made or the particles undergo random collisions or interactions. According to David Pearce, \"In neuronal networks, ion-ion scattering, ion-water collisions, and long-range Coulomb interactions from nearby ions all contribute to rapid decoherence times; but thermally-induced decoherence is even harder experimentally to control than collisional decoherence.\" He anticipated that quantum effects would have to be measured in femtoseconds, a trillion times faster than the rate at which neurons function (milliseconds).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162797",
"title": "Individuation",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:In physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Two quantum entangled particles cannot be understood independently. Two or more states in quantum superposition, e.g., as in Schrödinger's cat being simultaneously dead and alive, is mathematically not the same as assuming the cat is in an individual alive state with 50% probability. The Heisenberg's uncertainty principle says that complementary variables, such as position and momentum, cannot both be precisely known – in some sense, they are not individual variables. A \"natural criterion of individuality\" has been suggested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25336",
"title": "Quantum entanglement",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Meaning of entanglement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Quantum systems can become entangled through various types of interactions. For some ways in which entanglement may be achieved for experimental purposes, see the section below on methods. Entanglement is broken when the entangled particles decohere through interaction with the environment; for example, when a measurement is made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "893337",
"title": "Local hidden-variable theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The theory of quantum entanglement predicts that separated particles can briefly share common properties and respond to certain types of measurement as if they were a single particle. In particular, a measurement on one particle in one place can alter the probability distribution for the outcomes of a measurement on the other particle at a different location. If a measurement setting in one location instantaneously modifies the probability distribution that applies at a distant location, then local hidden variables are ruled out. For an expanded description, see Bell's theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
blr6rs
|
how does the weather change so drastically for just a few days and then go back?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you have ever listened to the weather man you've probably heard the term \"Cold front\" or \"Warm front\" as they tell you the weather. These fronts are masses of air with various attributes, they could be cold & moist, warm & dry, warm & moist, etc. The leading edges of these fronts are pretty strong and they can push away or go under the current mass of air in an area, when this happens the weather changes.\n\nSometimes these changes are just drops or increases in temperature, sometimes these changes result in lots of steady rain, and sometimes they result in violent thunderstorms. **But the ELI5 is that there are masses of air types floating around and they push and interact with each other and help create our weather.**\n\nSo right now a cold front has entered your area and probably has gone under the warm air you've been having and once that cold air has left your warm air will will return (although it really never left, in some cases it was just above the cold front!)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "70807",
"title": "Thunderstorm",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:Mature stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Typically, if there is little wind shear, the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out', but, if there is sufficient change in wind speed or direction, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a supercell, where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32019",
"title": "Geography of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The main influence on U.S. weather is the polar jet stream which migrates northward into Canada in the summer months, and then southward into the US in the winter months. The jet stream brings in large low pressure systems from the northern Pacific Ocean that enter the US mainland over the Pacific Northwest. The Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada, and Rocky Mountains pick up most of the moisture from these systems as they move eastward. Greatly diminished by the time they reach the High Plains, much of the moisture has been sapped by the orographic effect as it is forced over several mountain ranges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21830",
"title": "Nature",
"section": "Section::::Atmosphere, climate, and weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Weather is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes to the environment, so accurate weather forecasting is limited to only a few days. Overall, two things are happening worldwide: (1) temperature is increasing on the average; and (2) regional climates have been undergoing noticeable changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41560533",
"title": "Early 2014 North American cold wave",
"section": "Section::::Extended cold.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "During the last week of March, meteorologists expected average temperatures to return sometime from April to mid-May. On April 10, 2014, a ridge of high pressure moved into the Eastern United States, bringing average and above-average temperatures to the region, which ended the cold wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195193",
"title": "Sky",
"section": "Section::::Use in weather forecasting.:Tropical cyclones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1169,
"text": "Within 36 hours of the passage of a tropical cyclone's center, the pressure begins to fall and a veil of white cirrus clouds approaches from the cyclone's direction. Within 24 hours of the closest approach to the center, low clouds begin to move in, also known as the bar of a tropical cyclone, as the barometric pressure begins to fall more rapidly and the winds begin to increase. Within 18 hours of the center's approach, squally weather is common, with sudden increases in wind accompanied by rain showers or thunderstorms. Within six hours of the center's arrival, rain becomes continuous. Within an hour of the center, the rain becomes very heavy and the highest winds within the tropical cyclone are experienced. When the center arrives with a strong tropical cyclone, weather conditions improve and the sun becomes visible as the eye moves overhead. Once the system departs, winds reverse and, along with the rain, suddenly increase. One day after the center's passage, the low overcast is replaced with a higher overcast, and the rain becomes intermittent. By 36 hours after the center's passage, the high overcast breaks and the pressure begins to level off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32684041",
"title": "Pacific Equatorial Forest",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Starting in late December, a change in atmospheric pressure shifts ocean currents so that warm waters come closer to shore and displace the cold waters. During this time, air and water temperatures, tides, sea levels and wave heights, and relative humidity all rise. These conditions produce heavy rainfall that used to last through August, but now usually only lasts into May. Rain during the rainy season is punctuated by sunny weather. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36621166",
"title": "The Sims 3: Seasons",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "There are new transformative weather effects in the expansion, including wind. The sky is an indicator of what weather will take place; for example, clouds will get darker, which means the storm is approaching. Gardening can be affected by the weather. Snow and rain will gather on roadways. Cars will not slip off the road. Temperature will control how easily snow will accumulate on the ground or trees, or how quickly waters such as puddles will evaporate. In the Fall Sims can rake leaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3v3cbl
|
why is being transgender not considered sexist?
|
[
{
"answer": "imagine you were in the other gender's body, but had all the exact same thoughts and interests as you do now. that is a bit different than just a boy who likes dolls.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't about the things you like to do, it's about who you feel you are. These things are quite different. Like you said, if a boy wants to play with barbies or a girl wants a toy gun, whatever! It doesn't have anything to do with being transgender. I think the confusion for you might be coming from the fact that if children exhibit these traits and then grow up to be transgender it's not because those things are inherently \"girl things\" or \"boy things\" but because culture often dictates that they are. So if a little boy feels like a girl (but doesn't know how to express it) he will do things that in his mind feel right, and those things will often be things that his culture has deemed \"girl things\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Liking feminine or masculine things doesn't make someone a man or a woman, but in transgender people it just seems to be symptom of the condition. \n\nOne of the surprising things about being transgender is that transgender children tend to play with toys that are opposite of their natal sex, they tend to predominately play with kids opposite of their natal sex (kids usually play with other kids of their own gender), and prefer clothing opposite of their natal sex. \n\nPsychologists even use these activities to diagnose the children:\n\n > To be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, a person has to have symptoms that last for at least six months.\n\n > In children, these symptoms may include:\n\n > Consistently saying they are really a girl even though they have the physical traits of a boy or really a boy if they have the physical traits of a girl\n\n > Strongly preferring friends of the sex with which they identify\n\n > Rejecting the clothes, toys, and games typical for boys or girls\n \n > Refusing to urinate in the way -- standing or sitting -- that other boys or girls typically do\n \n > Saying they want to get rid of their genitals and have the genitals of their true sex\n \n > Believing that even though they have the physical traits of a girl they will grow up to be a man; or believing if they have the physical traits of a boy they will still be a woman when they grow up\n \n > Having extreme distress about the body changes that happen during puberty\n\n_URL_0_\n\nNote that a child must have body dysphoria symptoms and insist they are or want to be the opposite sex to get a diagnosis, so gender non-conforming kids wouldn't make it.\n\nThat's just the way science understands the condition. Just as another piece of evidence, have you ever seen a trans woman who chooses to dress in masculine clothes everyday? Or a trans man who wants to dress in feminine clothes everyday? I haven't. This behavior really needs explaining. My interpretation is gender identity causes the individual to generally (not 100% of the time) imitate other people of their gender identity.\n\nHowever I would agree that someone saying they knew they were a woman because they like feminine things is a tad sexist. There are a significant amount of people who are gender non-conforming. A better statement would be that liking things of the opposite gender is a sign that some is transgender (though it's not a perfect sign).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I feel like you're not going to get a rational explanation on this topic. Let me just point out that there are plenty of men who act very feminine, and vice versa, who feel absolutely no need to get surgery, so for those who do, the motivation has to go beyond just the desire to participate in activities considered appropriate for the opposite gender, since as you pointed out, there's nothing wrong with a person feeling comfortable with themselves while behaving in a way customarily associated with the opposite gender. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "632922",
"title": "Sex-positive feminism",
"section": "Section::::Related major political issues.:Gender identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Many transgender people see gender identity as an innate part of a person. Some feminists also criticize this belief, arguing instead that gender roles are societal constructs, and are not related to any natural factor. Sex-positive feminists support the right of all individuals to determine their own gender and promote gender fluidity as one means for achieving gender equality. Patrick Califia has written extensively about issues surrounding feminism and transgender issues, especially in \"Sex Changes: Transgender Politics\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11840450",
"title": "LGBT rights in Bangladesh",
"section": "Section::::Human rights reports.:2017 United States Department of State report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 2297,
"text": "BULLET::::- Acts of Violence, Discrimination, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity\"Consensual same-sex sexual activity is illegal under the law. LGBTI groups reported police used the law as a pretext to bully LGBTI individuals, as well as those considered effeminate regardless of their sexual orientation, and to limit registration of LGBTI organizations. Some groups also reported harassment under a suspicious behavior provision of the police code. The transgender population has long been a marginalized, but recognized part of society, but it faced continued high levels of fear, harassment, and law enforcement contact in the wake of violent extremist attacks against vulnerable communities. Members of LGBTI communities received threatening messages via telephone, text, and social media, and some were harassed by police. In May, RAB forces raided the Chayaneer Community Center in Keranigan during a dinner organized by the LGBTI community from that area. According to witnesses, 28 individuals were arrested of the 120 persons present at the time of the raid. The witnesses also stated RAB separated the diners into small groups and beat them before identifying individuals for arrest. During the raid RAB announced to the media the raid was conducted based on suspicion of homosexual activity and allowed the media to photograph some of the arrested individuals. RAB later announced the attendees were not engaged in “illegal sexual activities” at the time of the raid and were instead arrested for possession of narcotics—specifically \"yaba\" (a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine) and cannabis. The court system remanded four of the individuals. Of the remaining 24 individuals, 12 were detained for further questioning and 12 were sent directly to jail. Following these events and continued harassment, many members of LGBTI communities, including the leadership of key support organizations, continued to reduce their activities and sought refuge both inside and outside of the country. This resulted in severely weakened advocacy and support networks for LGBTI persons. Organizations specifically assisting lesbians continued to be rare. Strong social stigma based on sexual orientation was common and prevented open discussion of the subject.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11185",
"title": "Feminism",
"section": "Section::::Movements and ideologies.:Transgender people.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Feminist views on transgender people differ. Some feminists do not view trans women as women, believing that they have male privilege due to their sex assignment at birth. Additionally, some feminists reject the concept of transgender identity due to views that all behavioral differences between genders are a result of socialization. In contrast, other feminists and transfeminists believe that the liberation of trans women is a necessary part of feminist goals. Third-wave feminists are overall more supportive of trans rights. A key concept in transfeminism is of transmisogyny, which is the irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against transgender women or feminine gender-nonconforming people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67084",
"title": "Transphobia",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "Other transgender rights authors argue that a significant part of the oppositional sexist origin of transphobia, and especially of the forms that incite violence towards transsexual people, is linked to psychological claims of difference between male sexuality and female sexuality in the brain's protection mechanisms from committing sex crimes. These authors argue that the assumption that men's acceptable sexuality is based on category-specific sexual arousal while women's acceptable sexual behavior is said to be due to lower sex drive and especially higher sexual inhibitions causes allegations that transsexual people have neither safety system in the brain and are sex criminals, and recommend information about flaws in studies that claim to show such sex differences (including the possibility that fear of being alleged to be inappropriately sexually aroused may deter more men than women from taking part in sexual arousal studies) as a remedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41131721",
"title": "Transgender inequality",
"section": "Section::::Transgender and transgender inequality definitions.:Common misconceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "A common misconception is that a transgender person is therefore gay. However, being transgender focuses on gender identity and not sexual orientation. A transgender person may identify with any sexual orientation. Another important misconception is that individuals who crossdress are transgender. However, many crossdressers are comfortable with their assigned sex. Even though individuals who participate in crossdressing are officially under the Transgender Umbrella, most do not identify as transgender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50682430",
"title": "LGBT in Chile",
"section": "Section::::LGBT people.:Living conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "In Chile, transgender people are often associated with homosexuality. Transgender women are mostly discriminated, unable to enter the labor market so their only way of survival is prostitution, therefore they are exposed to violence and police harassment. According to a 2009 study conducted by RedLacTrans, about 95% of Chilean transgender women work as prostitutes because of family, social and employment discrimination. As for transgender men, in many cases they decide to violate their gender identity using female or unisex clothes to get a job. Since 2007, name and sex change on legal documents are only allowed by court order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3582654",
"title": "Sexual minority",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Some transgender and transsexual people dislike the term \"sexual minority\" for yet another reason. They argue that the phenomenon of transsexuality or transgender has nothing to do with sex, sexual practices or sexual orientation, but it relates to the gender, gender dysphoria and gender-variant behavior or feelings. Thus, they feel it is incorrect to classify them as \"sexual minority\", when, in fact, they are gender-variant minority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sk543
|
If forced to spin, whether for a game or as a contest, what is the most effective way to avoid sever dizziness?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do what ballerinas do. Keep your head in one position and turn it fast and stop, fast and stop, fast and stop. This is precisely why they do this - to not get dizzy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29947",
"title": "Trick-taking game",
"section": "Section::::Follow suit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1221,
"text": "In some trick games--typically ones in which players are not penalized for winning tricks, and there is no requirement for trumping or following suit when possible--players may \"slough\", or play a card face down. A card so played is incapable of winning the trick; but sloughing has the advantage that the other players cannot see what card is played. As this form of sloughing has the potential to be used to cheat in most games (i.e. playing a winning card face-down to avoid taking an \"overtrick\" or a trick containing penalty points) and is thus not allowed, \"sloughing\" in the vernacular more often refers to simply discarding an off-suit card on a trick, particularly one that could be dangerous to that player if kept. This form of sloughing is important in evasion games and in some contract games where \"overtricks\" are penalized; in Oh Hell, for instance, a player who cannot follow suit may elect to discard a card that would win if played to follow suit later, thus reducing the chance that the player will \"bag\", or take more tricks than needed. This is common in Hearts, where high-value cards (especially Spades and Hearts) are dangerous as they increase the chance of winning a trick with penalty points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1799177",
"title": "Tilt (poker)",
"section": "Section::::Tilting others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The act of putting an opponent on tilt may not pay off in the short run, but if some time is put into practicing it, a player can quickly become an expert at “tilting” other players (with or without using bad manners). In theory, the long-run payoff of this tactic is a monetarily positive expectation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753939",
"title": "Coup (bridge)",
"section": "Section::::Deceptive Coups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The act of deliberately misplaying a hand in order to induce a mistake by an opponent which results in either the same or a superior result. Even when the gambit does not yield a material gain, it usually induces a big psychological impact on the opponents who were offered a trick for free but couldn't have believed it were possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19186049",
"title": "Jack Change It",
"section": "Section::::Strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Players can try to hold on to their trick cards until needed because if they are used early, the opponent can tell if the player has any trick cards to block any moves. This can be risky, however, as most versions of the rules state that the game cannot end on a trick card. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409416",
"title": "Glossary of partner dance terms",
"section": "Section::::S - Z.:Spotting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "It must be done by rotating the head as close to perfectly in the horizontal plane as possible so as not to defeat the purpose of minimizing dizziness in those so predisposed. The most common spotting is 180° to and away from one's partner, or the LOD and a full 360° from the original spot, be it LOD, OLOD, or toward or away from one's partner, a wall for example. It can be done in apart/free position or less frequently in Closed Position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "One way to mask the symptoms of the spins is to avoid staring at moving objects, such as people who are dancing or ceiling fans. Instead, it helps to stare at a non-moving object and slowly blink a few times. However, it will make things worse to keep one's eyes closed for an extended period. In minor cases of the spins, simply sitting alone in a quiet place or taking a walk is all it takes to make them subside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5076628",
"title": "Double Leg (trick)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "In tricking, this move can be done from a run, a step in, a standing position, or from another move in a combo. A standing position and linking it in or at the end of a combo are more difficult due to the height and amount of torque needed. In Capoeira, it can be done from a ginga or from another move in a combo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zxa7f
|
Wondering about the origins of current Japanese cultural norms
|
[
{
"answer": "Japanese people show emotion... they're just more subdued about it, and you need to look for non-verbal clues a bit more than you're probably used to.\n\nIt was considered a loss of face to show strong emotions in public, if you're asking about the origin of this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is conjecture, but I wouldn't be surprised if the severe homogeneity of their culture and population makes it a great deal easier to pick up on nuanced social cues and empathise with one another without overt displays of emotion like a more mixed population tends to produce. Probably talking bollocks, but it gave me pause for thought.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As ShakaUVM suggested, there's simply a lot of non-verbal or non-explicit expression. Some of it will also play out more explicitly in word choice, as word choice is a bit less ambiguous in Japanese than in English with explicit degrees of politeness by conjugation and word choice. That said, there's a lot of value placed on being essentially 'psychic' and picking up contextual clues well enough to not be told something explicitly.\n\nMy hypothesis as to the origin of this is that a resource poor nation aspiring to Imperial China seeks minimalism/nuance as day to day expression rather than grandiosity (comparatively) and it begins to infect other parts of culture and language.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Misinformed - totally. There's a very healthy and life-affirming display of emotion in Japan, in and out of families. Lived there for 20 years, so have some experience.\n\nEnglish speaking individuals tend to communicate emotions verbally. They get a bit buggered when they come across people who don't just use verbal, and even more buggered when they don't speak the other language reasonably fluently too.\n\nEnglish speakers convey a vast range of subtle emotions with their language - imagine speaking another language to that level of fluency. That needs to be done before emotional communication can be asessed - and that's without the nonverbals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15573",
"title": "Japan",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Japanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins. Contemporary culture combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures. Twenty-two sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147737",
"title": "Japanese tea ceremony",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The next major period in Japanese history was the Muromachi Period, pointing to the rise of , centered around the gorgeous cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his villa in the northern hills of Kyoto (Kinkaku-ji), and later during this period, the rise of Higashiyama Culture, centered around the elegant cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimasa and his retirement villa in the eastern hills of Kyoto (Ginkaku-ji). This period, approximately 1336 to 1573, saw the budding of what is generally regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28272",
"title": "Shinto",
"section": "Section::::History.:Yayoi Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "Japanese culture begins to develop in no small part due to influences from mainland trade and immigration from China. During this time in the pre-writing historical period, objects from the mainland start appearing in large amounts, specifically mirrors, swords, and jewels. All three of these have a direct connection to the imperial divine status as they are the symbols of imperial divinity and are Shinto honorary objects. Also the rice culture begins to blossom throughout Japan and this leads to the settlement of society, and seasonal reliance of crops. Both of these changes are highly influential on the Japanese people's relationship to the natural world, and likely development of a more complex system of religion. This is also the period that is referenced as the beginning of the divine imperial family. The Yayoi culture was a clan based culture that lived in compounds with a defined leader who was the chief and head priest. They were responsible for the relationship with their \"gods\" Kami and if one clan conquered another, their \"god\" would be assimilated. The earliest records of Japanese culture were written by Chinese traders who described this land as \"Wa\". This time period led to the creation of the Yamato culture and development of formal Shinto practices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167104",
"title": "Culture of Japan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The inhabitants of Japan experienced a long period of relative isolation from the outside world during the Tokugawa shogunate after Japanese missions to Imperial China, until the arrival of the \"Black Ships\" and the Meiji period. Today, the culture of Japan stands as one of the leading and most prominent cultures around the world, mainly due to the global reach of its popular culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29785134",
"title": "Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Tokugawa period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1172,
"text": "During this time, Japan remained isolated from the world, so its culture developed with very little foreign influence. One of the major cultural movements of the Tokugawa period was the institution of a branch of scholarship called \"kokugaku\" (), literally \"National Studies\" and commonly translated as \"Japanese Studies\". Practitioners of the movement, or \"Kokugakushu\", attempted to distinguish between what was genuine Japanese culture and what was foreign culture, and to restore Japanese culture to what it was before the influence of foreigners—especially the Chinese. Their work had a large focus on Shinto, Japan's indigenous religion. Early Tokugawa Confucians tried to link Shinto with China by pinpointing its Chinese origins. The Hirata school of the \"kokugaku\" movement responded by initiating a project to \"Japanize\" the \"I Ching\", a book that was a major influence on Shinto, by claiming it was of Japanese origin. The project was completed with Aizawa Seishisai emptying the \"I Ching\" of its Chinese content. The rise in national self-respect during this time resulted in Japan viewing itself as the center of a \"civilized world surrounded by barbarians.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186932",
"title": "Japanese people",
"section": "Section::::Arts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Since the Meiji Restoration, Japan has absorbed elements of Western culture and has given them a \"Japanese\" feel or modification into it. Its modern decorative, practical and performing arts works span a spectrum ranging from the traditions of Japan to purely Western modes. Products of popular culture, including J-pop, J-rock, manga and anime have found audiences and fans around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167104",
"title": "Culture of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Japanese popular culture not only reflects the attitudes and concerns of the present day, but also provides a link to the past. Popular films, television programs, manga, music, anime and video games all developed from older artistic and literary traditions, and many of their themes and styles of presentation can be traced to traditional art forms. Contemporary forms of popular culture, much like the traditional forms, provide not only entertainment but also an escape for the contemporary Japanese from the problems of an industrial world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35gcv2
|
Looking to learn more about Canadian History
|
[
{
"answer": "From my perspective — and it's biased toward the Yukon/Alaska — I'd recommend working your way through Pierre Berton's bibliography. While he wrote some duds here and there, most of his 50 titles are pretty good.\n\nI'd recommend *The Klondike Fever*, *The Promised Land: Settling the West* and *Marching As To War* as three to get you started. Those three condense a lot of his bibliography. Once you've gotten through those, grab his two volumes on the War of 1812 (one covers 1812-1813, the other 1814-1815) his two volumes on the Canadian Pacific Railway, *The Arctic Grail*, *Vimy*, *Niagra* and *The Great Depression.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5196860",
"title": "Bibliography of Canadian history",
"section": "Section::::Historiography and guides to the scholarly literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 385,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 385,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "BULLET::::- Schultz, John. ed. \"Writing About Canada: A Handbook for Modern Canadian History\" (1990), chapters by experts on politics, economics, ideas, regions, agriculture, business, labor, women, ethnicity and war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48814622",
"title": "Historiography of Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The historiography of Canada deals with the manner in which historians have depicted, analyzed, and debated the history of Canada. It also covers the popular memory of critical historical events, ideas and leaders, as well as the depiction of those events in museums, monuments, reenactments, pageants and historic sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2460300",
"title": "Historica Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Historica Canada is the country's largest organization dedicated to enhancing awareness of Canadian history and citizenship. All of its programs are offered bilingually and reached more than 28 million Canadians last year. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5747943",
"title": "David Ross McCord",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "\"David McCord created one of the earliest and most important collections of objects, images and manuscripts associated with the history of Canada. Convinced that an understanding of the past strengthens national identity, he devoted most of his life and personal fortune to gathering and documenting some 15,000 items related to Aboriginal, French and British history in North America. This man of vision bequeathed his outstanding collection to McGill University, which fulfilled his dream of founding a museum for the benefit of all Canadians.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43298261",
"title": "Pierre Turgeon (writer)",
"section": "Section::::Works.:History books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Canada: A People's History\", Volume 1 and 2 (in collaboration with Don Gillmor), Ed. McClelland&Steward et Editions Fidès 2000. Winner of the Ex-Libris Price of The Association of Canada's Bookstores. Mention of the best book on Canada's history given by the ministry of \"PCanadian Heritage\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1758289",
"title": "Canadian Historical Association",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The Canadian Historical Association (CHA; French \"Société historique du Canada\", SHC) is a Canadian organization founded in 1922 for the purposes of promoting historical research and scholarship. It publishes the \"Journal of the Canadian Historical Association\", \"The CHA Bulletin\" and a well-respected series of booklets featuring concise treatments of particular aspects of Canadian history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47529670",
"title": "Henry Cummings Campbell",
"section": "Section::::Publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1959. A bibliography of Canadiana : being items in the Public Library of Toronto, Canada, relating to the early history and development of Canada. Edited by Gertrude M. Boyle, assisted by Marjorie Colbeck ; with an introduction by Henry C. Campbell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hrt0o
|
why as seen on tv products are sold in "3 payments of $19.95" or something like that.
|
[
{
"answer": "Primarily for two reasons: \n\n1) Splitting up the cost of a product over multiple payments gives the potential buyer the impression that the product is actually cheaper than it is. Ex. One payment of $60 vs three payments of $19.99. The fact that the sellers do not round up is also by intention. Even though we see $19.99 or $19.95 we don't equate that with $20, our immediate association puts it with $19 which seems cheaper to us. \n\n2) There is some flexibility with these payments as by being able to pay in installments reduces a small portion of the financial burden on the buyer - making him/her more likely to buy it. It's like saying \"Well, okay, I can pay $19 bucks this month and get the product, and worry about the two other payments later!\" Out of sight - out of mind. Hope this helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain doesn't process things intelligently that's why.\n\nYou see 19 and your brain thinks it's cheaper. \"Only *three* payments of 19? What a steal!\"\n\nInstead of just looking at it and going \"Yeah, Sixty bucks got it.\"\n\nEdit: Just to clarify, I wasn't saying you're dumb, I was saying we're all dumb.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56162993",
"title": "African Clean Energy",
"section": "Section::::The Business Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The product is sold direct to consumers in these countries using an instalment-based payment model. This ensures that the product is affordable to people who would be unable to afford a large lump sum payment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2711345",
"title": "Total revenue test",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::- Product A currently sells for $10. The seller decides to increase the price to $15, but finds that he ends up making less money. This is because he is selling fewer of the product due to the increased price, and his total revenue has fallen. The demand for this product must be elastic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28014782",
"title": "Criticism of advertising",
"section": "Section::::Costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Few consumers are aware of the fact that they are the ones paying for every cent spent for public relations, advertisements, rebates, packaging etc., since they ordinarily get included in the price calculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3435260",
"title": "ISDB-T International",
"section": "Section::::Start of regular broadcasts and implementation status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "At launch on December 2, 2007, set-top boxes were available for prices ranging between R$900 (~US$450) and R$1200 (~US$600), inhibiting sales. But after 8 months the prices dropped quickly to around R$300 (~US$150). The Federal Government announced subsidies worth 1 billion Reais (~US$556 millions) so these prices will face a new reduction phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9069540",
"title": "World of Springfield",
"section": "Section::::Level of success.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The sets were released during the dot-com bubble and a healthy economic environment in the United States. The figures themselves cost between $5.99 USD and $7.99 USD each, while the playsets generally ranged from $20 USD to $25 USD at the end of 2004. There were also special releases that were in the $60 USD range. Even at minimal retail, 200+ figures and 40 playsets meant a large financial commitment. In addition, there were a dozen exclusives and mail-in figures that required extra work to obtain the figures — often via an online auction. However, the early success of the series and the healthy economy added extra momentum to the line for a few more years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38637689",
"title": "Consumer Rights Directive 2011",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- Additional payments (on top of the main price of a purchase) which would need to have active or express consent of the consumer. An example is that pre-ticked boxes which the consumer must 'untick' will no longer be allowed\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12930726",
"title": "WCW Galoob Action Figures",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "The US released figures are usually valued from $10US to $20US in great condition. The UK line, especially the UK exclusives are considerably more valuable, with the loose figures ranging from $5US to $30US and MOC figures from $25US to more than $200US\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
calzmf
|
Were wolves domesticated only once, with all dogs descended from that single progenitor population, or did the process of domesticating wolves occur independently in different societies?
|
[
{
"answer": "While we have a fair bit of overlap, given that this predates written history, you may want to consider X-posting this to /r/AskAnthropology as well as this falls within their purview. And for that matter, I would note that /r/AskScience would also be an appropriate venue given the biological science aspects of the question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20777185",
"title": "Dogs in ancient China",
"section": "Section::::Domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "An examination of the genetic evidence by Carles Vila and others confirms that the progenitor of the domestic dog is the wolf (\"Canis lupus\"). The suggested date of their domestication is about 100,000 BC. While accepting the wolf as the ancestor, paleontologists and archaeologists believe domestication came much later. A reconstruction by a joint team of researchers from China and Sweden postulates that humans may have domesticated dogs from wolves as recently as 15,000 years ago. They found that, while most dogs share a common gene pool, genetic diversity is highest in East Asia, suggesting dogs have been domesticated there the longest. Genetic research suggests that all domestic dogs worldwide may have originated from possibly three female wolves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5141410",
"title": "Origin of the domestic dog",
"section": "Section::::Divergence from wolves.:Place of genetic divergence.:Two origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "The hypothesis is that two genetically different, and possibly now extinct, wolf populations were domesticated independently in eastern and western Eurasia to produce paleolithic dogs. The eastern Eurasian dogs then dispersed westward alongside humans, reaching western Europe 6,400–14,000 years ago where they partially replaced the western paleolithic dogs. A single domestication is thought to be due to chance, however dual domestication on different sides of the world is unlikely to have happened randomly and it suggests that external factors - an environmental driver - may have forced wolves to work together with humans for survival. It is possible that wolves took advantage of resources that humans had, or humans may have been introduced to wolves in an area in which they didn't previously live.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5141410",
"title": "Origin of the domestic dog",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "The genetic divergence between dogs and wolves occurred between 40,000–20,000 years ago, just before or during the Last Glacial Maximum. This timespan represents the upper time-limit for the commencement of domestication because it is the time of divergence and not the time of domestication, which occurred later. The domestication of animals commenced over 15,000 years ago, beginning with the grey wolf (\"Canis lupus\") by nomadic hunter-gatherers. The archaeological record and genetic analysis show the remains of the Bonn–Oberkassel dog buried beside humans 14,200 years ago to be the first undisputed dog, with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago. It was not until 11,000 years ago that people living in the Near East entered into relationships with wild populations of aurochs, boar, sheep, and goats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4269567",
"title": "Dog",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "The genetic divergence between dogs and wolves occurred between 40,000–20,000 years ago, just before or during the Last Glacial Maximum. This timespan represents the upper time-limit for the commencement of domestication because it is the time of divergence and not the time of domestication, which occurred later. The domestication of animals commenced over 15,000 years ago, beginning with the grey wolf (\"Canis lupus\") by nomadic hunter-gatherers. The archaeological record and genetic analysis show the remains of the Bonn–Oberkassel dog buried beside humans 14,200 years ago to be the first undisputed dog, with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago. It was not until 11,000 years ago that people living in the Near East entered into relationships with wild populations of aurochs, boar, sheep, and goats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5141410",
"title": "Origin of the domestic dog",
"section": "Section::::Dog domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 YBP, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia. The remains of large carcasses left by human hunter-gatherers may have led some wolves into entering a migratory relationship with humans. This could have led to their divergence from those wolves that remained in the one territory. A closer relationship between these wolves — or proto-dogs — and humans may have then developed, such as hunting together and mutual defence from other carnivores and other humans. Around 10,000 YBP agriculture was developed resulting in a sedentary lifestyle, along with phenotype divergence of the dog from its wolf ancestors, including variance in size. In the Victorian era, directed human selection developed the modern dog breeds, which resulted in a vast range of phenotypes. Each of these domestication phases have left their mark on the dog's genome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18593371",
"title": "Self-domestication",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "While humans may have intentionally domesticated wolves into dogs, an alternate hypothesis is that wolves effectively domesticated themselves by establishing a mutually beneficial relationship with prehistoric humans. They scavenged on the remains of the prey animals left by the prehistoric people at the human settlements or the kill sites. Those wolves that were less anxious and aggressive thrived, continued to follow the prehistoric humans, and colonized the human-dominated environments, generation after generation. Gradually, the first primitive dogs emerged from this group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5141410",
"title": "Origin of the domestic dog",
"section": "Section::::Dog domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "There is clear evidence that dogs were derived from gray wolves during the initial phases of domestication and that no other canine species was involved. The wolf population(s) that were involved are likely to be extinct. Despite numerous genetic studies of both modern dogs and ancient dog remains, there is no firm consensus regarding either the timing or location(s) of domestication, the number of wolf populations that were involved, or the long-term effects domestication has had on the dog's genome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47q8uf
|
Are fields real or just a mathematical tool?
|
[
{
"answer": "The strongest statement physics can ever make is \"this model makes accurate predictions.\" It cannot tell you whether the model is what's \"really\" going on or not, because there is no other way to test the model.\n\nWhether something is \"real\" or not is a matter of philosophy. You could argue that any model which makes perfect physical predictions is reality because all correct descriptions of reality are equivalent, sort of like they're just different languages expressing the same concept. I dunno, it certainly isn't science at that point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a really interesting question and draws not only on physics but also philosophy and ontology (what really exists). \n\nI wrote out several answers to this question but none of them felt adequate to me (continuously backspacing and re-typing). \n\nFields are an excellent model for a large number of phenomena, and provide excellent predictive power. However, models don't equate to reality. There is in fact no test for what is \"real\", because what appears to be real on our length scales is modelled to be completely different on a different length scale (for example the fact that atoms are 99% space, but we seed objects as \"solid\"). \n\nAnyway, philosophy really deals with the ontology of scientific models and statements. It's an interesting subject. But from a physics standpoint, the ontology of fields isn't really \"provable\". \n\nBut... to try and answer your question, we use fields in (e.g. Electromagnetism) to generalise what we predict to be virtual particle interactions, and this video describes this phenomena well: \n\n_URL_0_\n\nHope this helps",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "928",
"title": "Axiom",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Modern development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "When mathematicians employ the field axioms, the intentions are even more abstract. The propositions of field theory do not concern any one particular application; the mathematician now works in complete abstraction. There are many examples of fields; field theory gives correct knowledge about them all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10603",
"title": "Field (mathematics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The best known fields are the field of rational numbers, the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers. Many other fields, such as fields of rational functions, algebraic function fields, algebraic number fields, and \"p\"-adic fields are commonly used and studied in mathematics, particularly in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most cryptographic protocols rely on finite fields, i.e., fields with finitely many elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44391005",
"title": "Information field theory",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "Fields play an important role in science, technology, and economy. They describe the spatial variations of a quantity, like the air temperature, as a function of position. Knowing the configuration of a field can be of large value. Measurements of fields, however, can never provide the precise field configuration with certainty. Physical fields have an infinite number of degrees of freedom, but the data generated by any measurement device is always finite, providing only a finite number of constraints on the field. Thus, an unambiguous deduction of such a field from measurement data alone is impossible and only probabilistic inference remains as a means to make statements about the field. Fortunately, physical fields exhibit correlations and often follow known physical laws. Such information is best fused into the field inference in order to overcome the mismatch of field degrees of freedom to measurement points. To handle this, an information theory for fields is needed, and that is what information field theory is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26998617",
"title": "Field (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Field theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1323,
"text": "It is possible to construct simple fields without any prior knowledge of physics using only mathematics from several variable calculus, potential theory and partial differential equations (PDEs). For example, scalar PDEs might consider quantities such as amplitude, density and pressure fields for the wave equation and fluid dynamics; temperature/concentration fields for the heat/diffusion equations. Outside of physics proper (e.g., radiometry and computer graphics), there are even light fields. All these previous examples are scalar fields. Similarly for vectors, there are vector PDEs for displacement, velocity and vorticity fields in (applied mathematical) fluid dynamics, but vector calculus may now be needed in addition, being calculus over vector fields (as are these three quantities, and those for vector PDEs in general). More generally problems in continuum mechanics may involve for example, directional elasticity (from which comes the term \"tensor\", derived from the Latin word for stretch), complex fluid flows or anisotropic diffusion, which are framed as matrix-tensor PDEs, and then require matrices or tensor fields, hence matrix or tensor calculus. The scalars (and hence the vectors, matrices and tensors) can be real or complex as both are fields in the abstract-algebraic/ring-theoretic sense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10603",
"title": "Field (mathematics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Fields serve as foundational notions in several mathematical domains. This includes different branches of analysis, which are based on fields with additional structure. Basic theorems in analysis hinge on the structural properties of the field of real numbers. Most importantly for algebraic purposes, any field may be used as the scalars for a vector space, which is the standard general context for linear algebra. Number fields, the siblings of the field of rational numbers, are studied in depth in number theory. Function fields can help describe properties of geometric objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99491",
"title": "Exponentiation",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations.:Finite fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 208,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 208,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "A field is an algebraic structure in which multiplication, addition, subtraction, and division are all well-defined and satisfy their familiar properties. The real numbers, for example, form a field, as do the complex numbers and rational numbers. Unlike these familiar examples of fields, which are all infinite sets, some fields have only finitely many elements. The simplest example is the field with two elements formula_148 with addition defined by formula_149 and formula_150, and multiplication formula_151 and formula_152.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28730822",
"title": "Algebraic number field",
"section": "Section::::Local-global principle.:Local and global fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Many results valid for function fields also hold, at least if reformulated properly, for number fields. However, the study of number fields often poses difficulties and phenomena not encountered in function fields. For example, in function fields, there is no dichotomy into non-archimedean and archimedean places. Nonetheless, function fields often serves as a source of intuition what should be expected in the number field case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bp8ad
|
why is it more common for employers to provide health insurance plans as opposed to individuals getting their own insurance? why doesn't this group approach differ from other types of insurance, like home, life and auto, where customers often get insurance directly with an insurance company?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is an accidental remnant of wage controls during the world war. Certain industries could only offer so much salary, ao they started offering healthcare as an artificial raise. Then that became expected. Then it started to become law. Businesses could negotiate good rates, and paying 5k for someone's healthcare saved you the taxes that having to pay that in salary would cost. Eventually you were told that the goal of adulthood was to find a job that offered a good salary and healthcare.\n\nIt really isnt a system anyone would set up intentionally, but it accidently started and has slowly become too \"normal\" for most people to consider changing it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It began during World War II, when the government restricted employers from raising employees' wages, so they had to attract good people by offering benefits including health insurance. At some point, we decided to make it tax-deductible for employers, and then every employer jumped on the bandwagon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Historically speaking, health insurance was a fringe benefit offered to attract workers at a time when wages were frozen (due to the WWII war effort). Offering insurance was a way to circumvent the restriction, and greatly benefited companies to attract labor due to the shortage of workers. \n\nOf course, it does predate WWII. Health insurance was formed for more labor intensive work (i.e, mining) to safe guard the workers from the hazard of the job. After WWII, the trend with businesses stuck and health insurance companies grew into businesses themselves that benefited off it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a concept in insurance called anti-selection. People who know their house is in a place subject to fires or hurricanes will tend to seek insurance. People who know their health isn't perfect will tend to seek life insurance. All of this leads to a tendency for insurers to see more claims per policy than would be the case if they were insuring a random sample. Group insurance helps with this to some extent. When an insurer sells a policy to a big employer it gets closer to a random sample. Some of the employees will turn out to be sick, some will be healthy but it is less likely that the average group member will be sicker than what would be expected from a random sample. \n\nThis isn't perfect of course. People with health issues will try to find jobs with an employer who offers health insurance. People who develop health issues after becoming employed will tend to stay in their jobs to keep their insurance. \n\nThis is one reason why national health care can be more efficient than the system we have in the USA. Everyone pays into the system via taxes. Everyone sick and healthy is covered.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8243661",
"title": "Ezekiel Emanuel",
"section": "Section::::Portable health insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "In the article \"Why Tie Health Insurance to a Job?\", Emanuel said that employer based health insurance should be replaced by state or regional insurance exchanges that pool individuals and small groups to pay the same lower prices charged to larger employers. Emanuel said that this would allow portable health insurance even to people that lose their jobs or change jobs, while at the same time preserving the security of employer based health benefits by giving consumers the bargaining power of a large group of patients. According to Emanuel, this would end discrimination by health insurance companies in the form of denial of health insurance based on age or preexisting conditions. In \"Solved!\", Emanuel said that Universal Healthcare Vouchers would solve the problem of rapidly increasing health care costs, which, rising at three times the rate of inflation, would result in higher copayments, fewer benefits, stagnant wages and fewer employers willing to pay for health care benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3740173",
"title": "Group insurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Group insurance is an insurance that covers a group of people, for example the members of a society or professional association, or the employees of a particular employer for the purpose of taking insurance. Group coverage can help reduce the problem of adverse selection by creating a pool of people eligible to purchase insurance who belong to the group for reasons other than the wish to buy insurance, which might be because they are a worse than average risk. Grouping individuals together allows insurance companies to give lower rates to companies, \"Providing large volume of business to insurance companies gives us greater bargaining power for clients, resulting in cheaper group rates.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15343730",
"title": "Health insurance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Supplemental coverage.:Accidental death and dismemberment insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "BULLET::::- Health insurance companies are not actually providing traditional insurance, which involves the pooling of risk, because the vast majority of purchasers actually do face the harms that they are \"insuring\" against. Instead, as Edward Beiser and Jacob Appel have separately argued, health insurers are better thought of as low-risk money managers who pocket the interest on what are really long-term healthcare savings accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16540624",
"title": "Healthcare in Russia",
"section": "Section::::Private health care coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Most of the individuals who buy health insurance are related to people covered by employer-sponsored schemes, with the rest accounting for less than 2% of all policies. As companies cut back on their healthcare policies, employees in some cases resort to buying them individually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4085676",
"title": "Health care prices in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Nature of the healthcare markets.:Price transparency issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "Since the majority (85%) of Americans have health insurance, they do not directly pay for medical services. Insurance companies, as payors, negotiate health care pricing with providers on behalf of the insured. Hospitals, doctors, and other medical providers have traditionally disclosed their fee schedules only to insurance companies and other institutional payors, and not to individual patients. Uninsured individuals are expected to pay directly for services, but since they lack access to pricing information, price-based competition may be reduced. The introduction of high-deductible insurance has increased demand for pricing information among consumers. As high-deductible health plans rise across the country, with many individuals having deductibles of $2500 or more, their ability to pay for costly procedures diminishes, and hospitals end up covering the cost of patients care. Many health systems are putting in place price transparency initiatives and payments plans for their patients so that the patients better understand what the estimated cost of their care is, and how they can afford to pay for their care over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33680807",
"title": "James C. Robinson (health economist)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Can insurance companies maintain profitability in the years to come? Insurance companies still rely on the employer based book of business which is in constant flux with the implementation of the Affordable Care Act, some insurance companies need to reduce premiums due to regulatory pressures on excess revenue, the market place itself is changing from insured to self-insured, from comprehensive to high-deductible plan design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24476757",
"title": "America's Healthy Future Act",
"section": "Section::::Proposal details.:Components of the proposal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1317,
"text": "Individuals would be able to buy their insurance from an exchange created in their state, which would be created in 2010. Premiums would be capped at 13% of the buyer's income, with the rest of the costs paid by subsidies. Insurance companies would be required to cover certain services such as hospitalization, maternity care, newborn care, chemotherapy, and pediatric care. Their plans would be presented as either bronze, silver, gold, and platinum options, sorted by the least to the most expensive. Only individuals and firms with fifty or fewer employees would be eligible to use the exchanges until 2017, when states would bring in larger employers. In 2022, they would become open to all. Persons who are not lawfully in the United States would not be permitted to participate in the exchange, either with or without subsidies. According to Baucus: In order to prevent undocumented immigrants from accessing the state exchanges obtaining federal health care tax credits, the Chairman's Mark requires verification of the following personal data. Name, social security number, and date of birth will be verified with Social Security Administration (SSA) data. For individuals claiming to be U.S. citizens, if the claim of citizenship is consistent with SSA data then the claim will be considered substantiated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ucekg
|
How do fields form, especially those right next to densely wooded areas?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you give an example of this?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10432337",
"title": "Farmer-managed natural regeneration",
"section": "Section::::In practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Seemingly treeless fields may contain seeds and living tree stumps and roots which have the ability to sprout new stems and regenerate trees. Even this 'bare' millet field in West Africa contains hundreds of living stumps per hectare which are buried beneath the surface like an underground forest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4239514",
"title": "Field (agriculture)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "In agriculture, a field is an area of land, enclosed or otherwise, used for agricultural purposes such as cultivating crops or as a paddock or other enclosure for livestock. A field may also be an area left to lie fallow or as arable land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24015417",
"title": "Gatton, Surrey",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Elevations, soil and geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1496,
"text": "Three main types of soil form bands from north to south. However in the fields to the northeast, i.e. mostly made up of Upper Gatton Park and Farm, there is a round area of \"free-draining, slightly acid, sandy soil\" which as the Soilscape study indicates is used for dry pasture, coniferous woodland and, as not stated there, for wheat. One wood includes a small section in the east the \"freely draining slightly acid loamy soil\" that provides the infill of the Downs and is seen for example in Kingswood and counterintuitively all of the southern developed parts of Reigate, Redhill, most of Dorking, much and all of central Croydon and all around the lowland commons, heaths and parks of south-west London. Throughout the north, the soil is fertile \"slightly acid loamy and clayey soil with impeded drainage\", interrupted by a steep narrow middle course of mid-fertility \"shallow lime-rich soils over chalk or limestone\" which the M25 motorway passes through in Gatton, producing a sheer chalk face on the northern bank east of the Junction 8 interchange, whereas on its very gradual descent to the north-west close to Leatherhead grassed banks surround a far more shallow chalk cutting of the M25 — the only other locations where the M25 passes through chalk slopes are approaching Junction 4 close to Orpington, Halstead and Shoreham, Kent. Across the south of Gatton Park and Reigate Hill Golf Course soil is \"slowly permeable, seasonally wet slightly acid but base-rich, loamy and clayey\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60729333",
"title": "The Field of the Cloth of Gold (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The Great Field lies on a bend in the river, bounded on three sides by water and to the north by wilderness. It is populated by a growing number of tents, and its story is told by the unnamed narrator - one of the first to pitch camp. As the year advances from Spring to Summer each new arrival adds complexity to the fledgling society, its unwritten rules and petty jealousies. A large regimented group set up a tent village in the south of the field and digs a drainage ditch which divides both the field and opinion and the narrator is forced to take sides. Further groups arrive and threaten the delicate balance of power, then Hippo - clad in just a coarse blanket brings a message that he proclaims all must hear...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11174316",
"title": "Headland (agriculture)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "A Headland, in agriculture, is the area at each end of a planted field. In some areas of the United States, this area is known as the Turnrow. It is used for turning around with farm implements during field operations and is the first area to be harvested to minimize crop damage. The rows run perpendicular to the lay of the field and are usually two, three or four times the width of the implement used for planting the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15527230",
"title": "Mù Cang Chải District",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The water source of the fields comes from the upper streams and waterfalls. When there are low points in the mountain it is important to overcome this by moving water from higher places. Bamboo is cut in half and used as a tool to transfer water using natural gravity into the fields, according to Hmong People’s experience of working on it, the water is moved into the first terrace then a gate is opened to make the water flow into the next terrace using a gate. This process avoids flooding the fields and retains the soil fertility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1059617",
"title": "Old-growth forest",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Topography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds. Mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits (tree throws) by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals. Pits expose humus-poor, mineral-rich soil and often collect moisture and fallen leaves, forming a thick organic layer that is able to nurture certain types of organisms. Mounds provide a place free of leaf inundation and saturation, where other types of organisms thrive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6uy3oz
|
why does it sound odd shortening "you are" to "you're" in the sentence "i'm ready when you are"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because in this form the word *you* is emphasized, spoken more loudly. So also emphasizing the *are* leaves the listener wondering: *are* what?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60309669",
"title": "Latin tenses",
"section": "Section::::The infinitive.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 337,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 337,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The infinitives of 'I am' are ' 'to be', ' 'to have been', and ' (often shortened to ') 'to be going to be'. Other irregular present infinitives are ' (sometimes in Plautus and Lucretius ') 'to be able', and '/' 'to eat'. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14144",
"title": "Hiberno-English",
"section": "Section::::Grammar and syntax.:Other grammatical influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 242,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 242,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Now is often used at the end of sentences or phrases as a semantically empty word, completing an utterance without contributing any apparent meaning. Examples include \"Bye now\" (= \"Goodbye\"), \"There you go now\" (when giving someone something), \"Ah now!\" (expressing dismay), \"Hold on now\" (= \"wait a minute\"), \"Now then\" as a mild attention-getter, etc. This usage is universal among English dialects, but occurs more frequently in Hiberno-English. It is also used in the manner of the Italian 'prego' or German 'bitte', for example a barman might say \"Now, Sir.\" when delivering drinks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1810640",
"title": "Namlish",
"section": "Section::::Some observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"I'm coming\" can mean numerous things. Usually, it means \"I'm leaving and coming back within 5 minutes or not at all\". Whereas \"I'm coming now now\" means \"I'm coming right back now for sure\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468847",
"title": "Going-to future",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The \"going to\" of this future construction is frequently contracted in colloquial English to \"gonna\", and in some forms of English the copula may also be omitted. Hence \"You're going to like it\" could be said as \"You're gonna like it\" or just \"You gonna like it\". In the first person, \"I'm gonna\" may further contract to \"I'm'n'a\" or \"I'mma\" , or frequently . (For derived forms found in English-based creole languages, see below.) This is true even when the main verb is elided, as in \"Yes, I'm/you're/etc. gonna (do that).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2063402",
"title": "Valleyspeak",
"section": "Section::::Features/Qualifiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Like\" as a discourse marker. \"Like\" is used as a filler word, similar to \"um\" or \"er,\" as in, \"I'm, like, about to call my friend.\" It does not add content to the sentence, instead allowing time for the speaker to formulate what they will say next. The word is always unstressed when used in this way. This discourse marker is usually used to introduce quoted speech. For example, a person can start a conversation with stating, \"So, um, I'm like \"Where did he go? and she was um, like, 'I don't know, I haven't seen him.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4149",
"title": "Bulgarian language",
"section": "Section::::Grammar.:Other features.:Conjunctions and particles.:But.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Very often, different words can be used to alter the emphasis of a sentence – e.g. while and both mean \"I smoke, but I shouldn't\", the first sounds more like a statement of fact (\"...but I mustn't\"), while the second feels more like a \"judgement\" (\"...but I oughtn't\"). Similarly, and both mean \"I don't want to, but he does\", however the first emphasizes the fact that \"he\" wants to, while the second emphasizes the \"wanting\" rather than the person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10224",
"title": "E-Prime",
"section": "Section::::Different functions of \"to be\".:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Contractions formed from a pronoun and a form of \"to be\" are also not used, including: I'm, you're, we're, they're, he's, she's, it's, there's, here's, where's, how's, what's, who's, and that's. E-Prime also prohibits contractions of \"to be\" found in nonstandard dialects of English, such as \"ain't\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lkors
|
Do arteries unclog eventually? Or is plaque build up permanent?
|
[
{
"answer": "HDL participates in a process called [reverse cholesterol transport](_URL_0_) that can remove ~~plaque~~ cholesterol from peripheral tissue. As qxrt points out, this might not remove the plaque itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HDL carries lipids back to the liver and can reduce the rate of the plaque-forming process through reduction of inflammation and sequestering of cholesterol, but once the actual plaque forms, it becomes calcified, and it's relatively permanent. I only say relatively since it's likely that there are some processes going on that reduce the plaque (since most biological systems are in a constant state of flux, with opposing forces balancing out to create homeostasis).\n\nI'm personally not familiar with whether there's research to take advantage of any existing mechanisms of plaque breakdown, but current treatments involve either installing a bypass artery or busting open the artery, plaque and all, with a stent. There's no current treatment that removes the plaque itself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It really depends on how much plaque you have. Arteries can actually be partially clogged up to around 70% and you would still be fine (assuming you don't exert yourself too much) as certain arteries will enlarge or shrink in diameter to move blood throughout body properly. At that point, you may or may not want the plaque (usually calcified cholesterol and fat) to breakdown. If large pieces of plaque don't get dissolved, but stay in large chunks you might end up getting a stroke or a heart attack depending on where the plaque breakdown occurs. So in the case of stroke or a heart attack, blood is something in the human body that can breakdown plaque. \n\nNon-calcified fat may be reversible. Also it's important to realize plaques do not form everywhere in the arterial system. They generally occur in spaces with retrograde or stagnant blood flow. One reason why aerobic exercise is important is that it mechanically induces the epithelial cells in your blood vessels to produce more nitric oxide which prevents or inhibits fat from attaching to the arterial surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are also ways to mechanically \"unclog\" arteries although their long term effectiveness rates are moderately low and patients often require repeat interventions to ensure that their arteries remain patent.\n\nPictures may be NSFL.\n\nOccluded arteries in the periphery (carotid, femoral, iliac, popliteal, etc) are treated through a variety of means. There are large \"open\" procedures to treat [occluded femoral arteries that often involve using vein or graft to establish flow](_URL_2_) or - [surgical dissection of the carotid artery](_URL_0_). \n\nOther-times, practitioners can approach an occluded vessel [percutaneously through an access catheter](_URL_1_) (of varying diameter, from 4french through 28french for some aortic stent grafts)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HDL participates in a process called [reverse cholesterol transport](_URL_0_) that can remove ~~plaque~~ cholesterol from peripheral tissue. As qxrt points out, this might not remove the plaque itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HDL carries lipids back to the liver and can reduce the rate of the plaque-forming process through reduction of inflammation and sequestering of cholesterol, but once the actual plaque forms, it becomes calcified, and it's relatively permanent. I only say relatively since it's likely that there are some processes going on that reduce the plaque (since most biological systems are in a constant state of flux, with opposing forces balancing out to create homeostasis).\n\nI'm personally not familiar with whether there's research to take advantage of any existing mechanisms of plaque breakdown, but current treatments involve either installing a bypass artery or busting open the artery, plaque and all, with a stent. There's no current treatment that removes the plaque itself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It really depends on how much plaque you have. Arteries can actually be partially clogged up to around 70% and you would still be fine (assuming you don't exert yourself too much) as certain arteries will enlarge or shrink in diameter to move blood throughout body properly. At that point, you may or may not want the plaque (usually calcified cholesterol and fat) to breakdown. If large pieces of plaque don't get dissolved, but stay in large chunks you might end up getting a stroke or a heart attack depending on where the plaque breakdown occurs. So in the case of stroke or a heart attack, blood is something in the human body that can breakdown plaque. \n\nNon-calcified fat may be reversible. Also it's important to realize plaques do not form everywhere in the arterial system. They generally occur in spaces with retrograde or stagnant blood flow. One reason why aerobic exercise is important is that it mechanically induces the epithelial cells in your blood vessels to produce more nitric oxide which prevents or inhibits fat from attaching to the arterial surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are also ways to mechanically \"unclog\" arteries although their long term effectiveness rates are moderately low and patients often require repeat interventions to ensure that their arteries remain patent.\n\nPictures may be NSFL.\n\nOccluded arteries in the periphery (carotid, femoral, iliac, popliteal, etc) are treated through a variety of means. There are large \"open\" procedures to treat [occluded femoral arteries that often involve using vein or graft to establish flow](_URL_2_) or - [surgical dissection of the carotid artery](_URL_0_). \n\nOther-times, practitioners can approach an occluded vessel [percutaneously through an access catheter](_URL_1_) (of varying diameter, from 4french through 28french for some aortic stent grafts)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "852692",
"title": "Intravascular ultrasound",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "The progressive accumulation of plaque within the artery wall over decades is the setup for vulnerable plaque which, in turn, leads to heart attack and stenosis (narrowing) of the artery (known as coronary artery lesions). IVUS is of use to determine both plaque volume within the wall of the artery and/or the degree of stenosis of the artery lumen. It can be especially useful in situations in which angiographic imaging is considered unreliable; such as for the lumen of ostial lesions or where angiographic images do not visualize lumen segments adequately, such as regions with multiple overlapping arterial segments. It is also used to assess the effects of treatments of stenosis such as with hydraulic angioplasty expansion of the artery, with or without stents, and the results of medical therapy over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4219434",
"title": "Brain ischemia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Blockage of arteries due to plaque buildup may also result in ischemia. Even a small amount of plaque build up can result in the narrowing of passageways, causing that area to become more prone to blood clots. Large blood clots can also cause ischemia by blocking blood flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2771113",
"title": "Carotid endarterectomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Atherosclerosis causes plaque to form within the carotid artery walls, usually at the fork where the common carotid artery divides into the internal and external carotid artery. The plaque build up can narrow or constrict the artery lumen, a condition called stenosis. Rupture of the plaque can cause the formation of a blood clot in the artery. A piece of the formed blood clot often breaks off and travels (embolizes) up through the internal carotid artery into the brain, where it blocks circulation, and can cause death of the brain tissue, a condition referred to as ischemic stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42294288",
"title": "Circulating endothelial cell",
"section": "Section::::Role in cardiovascular disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Prior to a myocardial infarction (MI or heart attack), plaque may accumulate in the coronary arteries, Some plaque formations may rupture, causing a mechanical dislodgment of endothelial cells creating CEC. The plaque that stays lodged in the coronary arteries may restrict blood flow to the cardiac muscle. This causes ischemia; the progressive death of cardiac muscle due to lack of oxygen. If the heart muscles have prolonged ischemia this may lead to the detachment of endocardial endothelial cells which can also create CEC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "838449",
"title": "Atheroma",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Stenosis and closure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "If the muscular wall enlargement eventually fails to keep up with the enlargement of the atheroma volume, or a clot forms and organizes over the plaque, then the lumen of the artery becomes narrowed as a result of repeated ruptures, clots & fibrosis over the tissues separating the atheroma from the blood stream. This narrowing becomes more common after decades of living, increasingly more common after people are in their 30s to 40s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2785255",
"title": "Carotid artery stenosis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The plaque can be stable and asymptomatic, or it can be a source of embolization. Emboli break off from the plaque and travel through the circulation to blood vessels in the brain. As the vessels get smaller, an embolus can lodge in the vessel wall and restrict the blood flow to parts of the brain. This ischemia can either be temporary, yielding a transient ischemic attack, or permanent resulting in a thromboembolic stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5876",
"title": "Coronary artery disease",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1239,
"text": "Typically, coronary artery disease occurs when part of the smooth, elastic lining inside a coronary artery (the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle) develops atherosclerosis. With atherosclerosis, the artery's lining becomes hardened, stiffened, and accumulates deposits of calcium, fatty lipids, and abnormal inflammatory cells – to form a plaque. Calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite) deposits in the muscular layer of the blood vessels appear to play a significant role in stiffening the arteries and inducing the early phase of coronary arteriosclerosis. This can be seen in a so-called metastatic mechanism of calciphylaxis as it occurs in chronic kidney disease and hemodialysis (Rainer Liedtke 2008). Although these people suffer from a kidney dysfunction, almost fifty percent of them die due to coronary artery disease. Plaques can be thought of as large \"pimples\" that protrude into the channel of an artery, causing a partial obstruction to blood flow. People with coronary artery disease might have just one or two plaques, or might have dozens distributed throughout their coronary arteries. A more severe form is \"chronic total occlusion\" (CTO) when a coronary artery is completely obstructed for more than 3 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47bw1b
|
Can anyone please explain the difference between LUMENS and candela per square meter (CD/sqm) (In human language) as a measure of light brightness?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lumen gives the *total* amount of human-visible light given out. How bright the light actually is will depend on how wide the beam is. A very wide beam with a lot of lumens is as bright as a very narrow beam with a few lumens.\n\nA candela is maybe a more useful unit here. A candela tells you how intense the human-visible light is in every direction. It's independent of the size of the beam - it's basically the brightness \"per beam size\", if that makes sense. A 1 candela beam with a very small beam width looks just as bright as a 1 candela beam with a very large beam width. The both illuminate with the same brightness, it's just that one covers a bigger area than the other. So it's maybe a better unit for a headlight. Though it might not matter if all lights have similar beam-widths.\n\nHowever, \"candelas per square metre\" is a bit odd. As a unit, it makes sense, and it's something that we use in astronomy. It means something like \"the brightness in a specific direction per square metre of source\". That is, it's useless unless you actually know the size of the light source. I don't think that's the intent - it's probably mislabelled, and it really means just candelas.\n\nGiven that, it's quite likely that they're using the units incorrectly. So I wouldn't completely trust when they say \"lumens\" that they don't actually mean \"lumens\". Which isn't super helpful, I know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "426889",
"title": "Photometry (optics)",
"section": "Section::::Photometric quantities.:Watts versus lumens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The lumen is defined as amount of light given into one steradian by a point source of one candela strength; while the candela, a base SI unit, is defined as the luminous intensity of a source of monochromatic radiation, of frequency 540 terahertz, and a radiant intensity of 1/683 watts per steradian. (540 THz corresponds to about 555 nanometres, the wavelength, in the green, to which the human eye is most sensitive. The number 1/683 was chosen to make the candela about equal to the standard candle, the unit which it superseded).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163049",
"title": "Lumen (unit)",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The lumen can be thought of casually as a measure of the total \"amount\" of visible light in some defined beam or angle, or emitted from some source. The number of candelas or lumens from a source also depends on its spectrum, via the nominal response of the human eye as represented in the luminosity function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1052660",
"title": "Bicycle lighting",
"section": "Section::::Measures of light output.:Total luminous flux in lumens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The lumen (lm) is the SI unit for luminous flux, the total amount of light emitted by a source, weighted according to the sensitivity of the human eye to various colours of light. Lumens per watt is a common measure of the efficacy of a light source. The luminous flux is of less value for bicycle lighting due to the importance of directionality. Luminous intensity is much more useful, but lumens per watt is a handy way to compare the output of otherwise similar lights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163049",
"title": "Lumen (unit)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "The lumen (symbol: lm) is the SI derived unit of luminous flux, a measure of the total quantity of visible light emitted by a source per unit of time. Luminous flux differs from power (\"radiant flux\") in that radiant flux includes all electromagnetic waves emitted, while luminous flux is weighted according to a model (a \"luminosity function\") of the human eye's sensitivity to various wavelengths. Lumens are related to lux in that one lux is one lumen per square meter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6928954",
"title": "Luma (video)",
"section": "Section::::Luma versus relative luminance.:Use of relative luminance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "While luma is more often encountered, relative luminance is sometimes used in video engineering when referring to the brightness of a monitor. The formula used to calculate relative luminance uses coefficients based on the CIE color matching functions and the relevant standard chromaticities of red, green, and blue (e.g., the original NTSC primaries, SMPTE C, or Rec. 709). For the Rec. 709 (and sRGB) primaries, the linear combination, based on pure colorimetric considerations and the definition of relative luminance is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155869",
"title": "Lux",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.:Relationship between illuminance and irradiance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The peak of the luminosity function is at 555 nm (green); the eye's image-forming visual system is more sensitive to light of this wavelength than any other. For monochromatic light \"of this wavelength\", the amount of illuminance for a given amount of irradiance is maximum: 683.002 lux per 1 W/m; the irradiance needed to make 1 lux at this wavelength is about 1.464 mW/m. Other wavelengths of visible light produce fewer lux per watt-per-meter-squared. The luminosity function falls to zero for wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16745138",
"title": "Lumen method",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The lumen method in brief consists of calculation of the \"cavity ratios\" of the upper, middle, and lower volumes of the space to be lighted. The lower cavity is from the floor to the working height, the upper cavity is from the lower edge of the luminaires to the ceiling, and the middle cavity is the volume between these planes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7uy952
|
What were the predominant armor types worn in ancient southwest Asia?
|
[
{
"answer": "The most common armour was scale body armour with a helmet of approximately conical or hemispherical shape. Surviving scales are commonly bronze, but bronze has an advantage in survival over rawhide and iron, which were also used. Descriptions of metal armour often describe it \"gold\" or \"silver\", which might refer to bronze and iron, respectively. Scale body armour could be either short, to the waist or hips, or long, covering to about knee level. Most armours appear to have been sleeveless or with short sleeves.\n\nNext most common would be lamellar, either short or long, and sleeveless or short-sleeved, like scale armours. Again, surviving lamellae are often bronze, but rawhide and iron were used too.\n\nMail probably appears in the region in late antiquity, and was in use by the early 3rd century AD. The first major users of mail in the area appear to be the Sassanids.\n\nThere are some armours with long sleeves for the arms, notably cataphract armours. Scale sleeves were used, and art suggest lamellar sleeves. Sassanid armoured cavalry would typically have long mail sleeves. Horse armour was also in use. I don't recall seeing mail horse armour, but both scale and lamellar horse armour were used.\n\nThere was some use of plate armour, from the mid/late first millenium BC. Body armour included round plates used to protect the torso, and more complete plate cuirasses, but these seem to be much less common than scale/lamellar/mail which appear much more often in art. Plate greaves were used; this was quite likely Greek/Hellenistic influence.\n\nH. Russell Robinson, \"Oriental Armour\" covers antiquity in the first chapter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664628",
"title": "Brigandine",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "Protective clothing and armour have been used by armies from earliest recorded history; the King James Version of the Bible [Jeremiah 46:4] translates the Hebrew סריון \"ÇiRYON\" or שריון \"SiRYoN\" \"coat of mail\" as \"brigandine\". Medieval brigandines were essentially a refinement of the earlier coat of plates, which developed in the late 12th century, typically of simpler construction made of larger plates. The Asian-originated armour reached Europe after the Mongol invasion in 1240 that destroyed the Kievan Rus' and generated extensive damage to the Kingdom of Hungary in 1241. The new armour became very popular first in Eastern Europe, especially in Hungary, towards the end of the 13th century and after having proved effective was adopted by the medieval states from West Europe several decades later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25902705",
"title": "Laminar armour",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Less known examples were present in Asia from Iran to Mongolia, including Central Asia. Laminar armor from animal skins has also been traditionally made and worn in the Arctic areas of what are now Siberia, Alaska and Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2147",
"title": "Armour",
"section": "Section::::Personal.:History.:Early.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "In East Asia many types of armour were commonly used at different times by various cultures, including scale armour, lamellar armour, laminar armour, plated mail, mail, plate armour and brigandine. Around the dynastic Tang, Song, and early Ming Period, cuirasses and plates (mingguangjia) were also used, with more elaborate versions for officers in war. The Chinese, during that time used partial plates for \"important\" body parts instead of covering their whole body since too much plate armour hinders their martial arts movement. The other body parts were covered in cloth, leather, lamellar, or Mountain pattern. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of various animals, with more exotic ones such as the rhinoceros.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12710177",
"title": "Mirror armour",
"section": "Section::::Description and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Early types of this armour were known among the Celtiberians, by the Romans, in the Middle East, Central Asia, India, Russia, Siberia (where it was worn by Siberian natives before the Russian conquest), Mongolia, Indochina and China (including Tibet too).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334113",
"title": "Body armor",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Eastern armor has a long history, beginning in Ancient China. In East Asian history laminated armor such as lamellar, and styles similar to the coat of plates, and brigandine were commonly used. Later cuirasses and plates were also used. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armor was made out of rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, their samurai armor being a result of this influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25902705",
"title": "Laminar armour",
"section": "Section::::Medieval laminar armour.:Middle East and Central Asian laminar armour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "According to Bobrov, until the end of the 15th century the most popular armour in certain regions including Central Asia and Iran was lamellar armour, brigandines, and laminar armour. However, in Iran since the 15th century lamellar and laminar armour were typical only in the south, while during the 15th century the typical armour in the north was plated mail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1814113",
"title": "Korean armour",
"section": "Section::::Three Kingdoms Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The best preserved armors from the three kingdoms period originate almost exclusively from the Gaya confederacy. The armour from Gaya are the best examples of plate armor from ancient times rivaling those of Mediterranean basin from the same period. These Gaya style plate armour are categorized into three types- one is made by joining vertical steel bands to form a single plate, another by joining horizontal bands, and the other by putting small triangular steel pieces together. The first type is found in Gaya and Silla, while most examples for the other two are found in Gaya but some have been found in northern Baekje. Similar styles have been also found in Kyushu and Honsu, Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gdrv0
|
why does raw seafood smell so much stronger than other animal proteins?
|
[
{
"answer": " I'm definitely not an expert - but as there are no comments o will add my two cents.\n\nI think humans evolved to notice bad smells like raw meat, feaces, sour milk etc... as a defence mechanism.\n\nAlso some fish in markets and shops still have sea slime on them (normal thing for fish) this stuff stinks but is a good sign when buying fresh fish :)\n\nHopefully someone comes in with a better answer though \n\nSource: used to be a chef",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chemicals in fish digestive systems that break down food (ie: other fish) turn on the fish's own body when it dies, speeding up decomposition. This is why you're supposed to gut a fish asap.\n\nThe chemicals that cause the odor itself come from the decomposition and are called amines.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10936364",
"title": "Tastes like chicken",
"section": "Section::::Possible explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Seafood, however, would logically have a more distinctive flavor. (The extent of its divergence is not consistent; tuna was said to taste enough like chicken that a prominent tuna canner named its product Chicken of the Sea.) Also, although mammals are tetrapods, very few mammals taste like chicken, which implies that there had been a mutation that changed their flavor on that branch of the evolutionary tree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876171",
"title": "Surströmming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "During the production of surströmming, just enough salt is used to prevent the raw herring from rotting while allowing it to ferment. A fermentation process of \"at least six months\" gives the fish its characteristic strong smell and somewhat acidic taste. According to a Japanese study, a newly opened can of surströmming has one of the most putrid food smells in the world, even stronger than similarly fermented fish dishes such as the Korean hongeohoe or Japanese kusaya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47849884",
"title": "Asam pedas",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Fish and seafood — such as mackerel, mackerel tuna, tuna, skipjack tuna, red snapper, gourami, pangasius, hemibagrus or cuttlefish — either the whole body or sometimes only the fish heads are added to make a spicy and tart fish stew. It is important that the fish remain intact for serving so generally the fish is added last.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47629643",
"title": "Shark meat",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Unprocessed shark meat may have a strong odor of ammonia, due to the high urea content that develops as the fish decomposes. The urea content and ammonia odor can be reduced by marinating the meat in liquids such as lemon juice, vinegar, milk, or saltwater. Preparation methods include slicing the meat into steaks and fillets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26866",
"title": "Seafood",
"section": "Section::::Texture and taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1257,
"text": "Over 33,000 species of fish and many more marine invertebrate species have been described. Bromophenols, which are produced by marine algae, gives marine animals an odor and taste that is absent from freshwater fish and invertebrates. Also, a chemical substance called dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) that is found in red and green algae is transferred to animals in the marine food chain. When broken down, dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is produced, and is often released during food preparation when fresh fish and shellfish are heated. In small quantities it creates a specific smell one associates with the ocean, but which in larger quantities gives the impression of rotten seaweed and old fish. Another molecule known as TMAO occurs in fishes and give them a distinct smell. It also exists in freshwater species, but becomes more numerous in the cells of an animal the deeper it lives, so that fish from the deeper parts of the ocean has a stronger taste than species who lives in shallow water. Eggs from seaweed contains sex pheromones called dictyopterenes, which are meant to attract the sperm. These pheromones are also found in edible seaweeds, which contributes to their aroma. However, only a small number of species are commonly eaten by humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2410182",
"title": "Hydrolyzed vegetable protein",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Food technologists have long known that protein hydrolysis produces a meat bouillon-like odor and taste. In 1831, Berzelius obtained products having a meat bouillon taste when hydrolysing proteins with hydrochloric acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23634",
"title": "Protein",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "In animals such as dogs and cats, protein maintains the health and quality of the skin by promoting hair follicle growth and keratinization, and thus reducing the likelihood of skin problems producing malodours. Poor-quality proteins also have a role regarding gastrointestinal health, increasing the potential for flatulence and odorous compounds in dogs because when proteins reach the colon in an undigested state, they are fermented producing hydrogen sulfide gas, indole, and skatole. Dogs and cats digest animal proteins better than those from plants but products of low-quality animal origin are poorly digested, including skin, feathers, and connective tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d1h2q
|
How did knights poop?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'd like to make it clear before I post that I'm not an academic historian, however I've done a fair bit of reading on medieval arms and armour as I'm a practitioner of HEMA and re-enactment - I've also worn, sparred and occasionally even pooped in various types and combinations of chain and plate.\n\nBased on research by [Jones](_URL_3_) (2011), the term 'knight' has been used to describe a large and very diverse range of people. Medieval writers even referred to Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great as knights. I'm going to assume for the purposes of this answer that you're referring to knights in the sense of the martial elite of the middle ages/medieval period. The types of armour worn by knights between the 11th and 16th century varied quite dramatically - technological developments meant that armour changed significantly and quickly in that period. The precise types of armour that were commonly worn until the mid 14th century are hard to ascertain as pictorial sources are very open to interpretation - hardened leather and metal are difficult to differentiate from illustrations and this is compounded by the fact that fabric surcoats were commonly worn over armour, meaning that the armour underneath was seldom shown. Archaeological evidence also suggests that many knights used armour that was out of date - knights and men-at-arms, especially those who weren't very wealthy, commonly wore armour that was around 50-60 years old. \n\n\nEvidence on metallurgy technology suggests that metal plate armour wasn't in common use until the late 14th century. The chain/ringmail, padded clothing and leather armour preceding that wouldn't have been hard to remove if you needed to urinate/defecate. Operating under the assumption that when you refer to knights being 'suited up' you mean suits of plate armour worn by European knights and men-at-arms I'll focus on that. By 1400 or so metal plate armour began to be worn in the form of breastplates and faulds (articulated plate skirts) covering the torso, rebraces, vambraces and pauldrons covering the arms & shoulders, sabatons, greaves, cuisses and poleyns protected the legs and feet - all of these would have been attached to padded clothing worn underneath. The groin was still protected by a mail skirt - meaning that it could be easily lifted and padded undergarments pulled down in order to defecate.\n\nPlate armour of the type you're most likely thinking of was developed in the 15th century, when it diversified into Gothic and Milanese styles. Gothic armour emphasised mobility and flexibility with a more articulated design and used a mail skirt or underpants (braies) to cover the groin. Gothic gauntlets typically featured individually articulated plates for each section of the finger, meaning that the wearer would still have sufficient dexterity to lift up a skirt and/or pull down the padded cloth or chain underwear covering the arse. Milanese plate was typically heavier and less articulated, but still had a short, articulated skirt at the back meaning that the undergarment could be pulled down. Milanese 'mitten' gauntlets didn't have individually articulated fingers but wearers still retained dexterity as the finger and thumb plates were attached by a single leather strap just below the knuckle with a leather glove underneath (see [here](_URL_1_) for an example).\n\nIn the 16th century 'Maximillian' plate was developed - it was lighter, more highly articulated and sometimes [gorgeously decorated](_URL_5_). Gauntlets remained largely the same and plate skirts and codpieces became more common (chain was still used at the rear in some cases), although the arse was still accessible due to plated skirts being either flared or shortened at the back, meaning dropping trou and pinching one out could still be done relatively easily. By the mid/late 17th century plate armour was mostly obsolete due to firearms becoming more and more common.\n\nThe reasoning behind the derrière being so accessible in plate armour designs wasn't just to make taking a dump easier - in order for your legs to have proper freedom of movement you can't just strap a plate to it. Similarly, if you want to ride a horse (as was common for knights) then having metal plates between you and the saddle makes riding much more difficult and incredible uncumfortable. It would also make sitting down a rather problematic experience. Sources are Jones (as linked above), [Lawrence](_URL_4_), and [Clayton et al.](_URL_0_). If you're interested in medieval knights and their arms & armour then Jones is definitely worth a read. [This Channel 4 Documentary](_URL_6_) is also very informative and is really enjoyable; I highly recommend checking it out. \n\nWhen you're in a stressful situation (such as being in or gearing up for battle) then the body's adrenal response as a 'fight or flight' mechanism [stimulates your colon and rectum to contract](_URL_2_), meaning you're unlikely to need to drop a deuce when you don't have the time to pull up your skirt and drop trou. Accidents probably happened if the individual was experiencing 'digestive discomfort', but that's purely conjecture.\n\nThat's the limit of my experience and reading on the issue, I hope it helps!\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2146448",
"title": "Pauldron",
"section": "Section::::Jousting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Typical tournament armor for jousting would be padded with cloth to avoid damage from an opponent's lance, and prevent to metal of the pauldron from scraping against the breastplate. This protective cloth pad would extend about half an inch from the rolled edge of the armor, and it was secured in place with rivets along the entire edge. In battle, this cloth protection could not be too thick, else the knight would have no arm mobility for battle. However, in a safer tournament setting, mobility was less important compared to safety, thus leading to heavier padding. In fact, knights in this era could be padded to the point where they look \"more wide than tall\", as compared with contemporary depictions of jousting armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27478380",
"title": "Winifred Knights",
"section": "Section::::Dress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Knights was known for her distinctive dress, a stylised version of nineteenth century Italian peasant costume, characterised by a loose ankle-length skirt, a plain buttoned blouse, a wide brimmed black hat and coral necklace and earrings. Several of Knights paintings include self-portraits, including \"The Deluge\" and \"The\" \"Marriage at Cana.\" Knights can be seen in the foreground of \"The Deluge\" and is the third figure on the left hand side, seated at the table in \"The\" \"Marriage at Cana\", in both paintings Knights depicts herself wearing distinctive dress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "694495",
"title": "Pospolite ruszenie",
"section": "Section::::Rise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Before the 13th century, the feudal levy of knights was the customary method employed in the raising of Polish armies in the Kingdom of Poland of the Late Middle Ages. The earliest mentions of the term can be traced to the reign of Władysław I the Elbow-high (1320–1333). Statutes of Casimir the Great made the service in the military obligatory for all knights-landowners, under the penalty of land confiscation. The more wealthy knights provided a lances fournies unit (known in Poland as \"kopia\"), and the less prosperous ones served as a light horseman or even infantryman. They were obliged to take arms and defend the country, and to participate in wars in foreign lands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339213",
"title": "Scutage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Scutage is a medieval English tax levied on holders of a knight's fee under the feudal land tenure of knight-service. Under feudalism the king, through his vassals, provided land to knights for their support. The knights owed the king military service in return. The knights were allowed to \"buy out\" of the military service by paying scutage. As time passed the kings began to impose a scutage on holders knight's fees, even in time of peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7029997",
"title": "Medieval cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Historiography and sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. The image of nobles gumming their way through multi-course meals of nothing but mush has lived side by side with the contradictory apparition of the \"mob of uncouth louts (disguised as noble lords) who, when not actually hurling huge joints of greasy meat at one another across the banquet hall, are engaged in tearing at them with a perfectly healthy complement of incisors, canines, bicuspids and molars\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4335351",
"title": "Tournament of Knights",
"section": "Section::::Game Instructions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "If by mistake you knock down the Lady before the knights, then you have “offended” the Lady. This will result in a penalty. This means you will lose your battle position and must, even if the opposing team has not yet thrown, immediately remove all your balls from the arena (including the balls in the triangles). Note that it is not permissible to throw any of the balls you may have left over from the current joust. The Lady is replaced upright. If a knight is knocked down, it remains fallen (it does not need to be knocked down again). On your next turn, you must start all over again (from baseline 1) to try to achieve the battle position again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2139753",
"title": "Cuisses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Cuisses are a form of medieval armour worn to protect the thigh. The word is the plural of the French word \"cuisse\" meaning 'thigh'. While the skirt of a maille shirt or tassets of a cuirass could protect the upper legs from above, a thrust from below could avoid these defenses. Thus, cuisses were worn on the thighs to protect from such blows. Padded cuisses made in a similar way to a gambeson were commonly worn by knights in the 12th and 13th centuries, usually over chausses, and may have had poleyns directly attached to them. Whilst continental armours typically had cuisses that did not protect the back of the thigh, English cuisses were typically entirely encapsulating, due to the English preference for foot combat over the mounted cavalry charges favoured by continental armies. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ve10k
|
When we mix two colors, do we create a new pigment, or are the colors still separate, just impossible to distinguish?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tiny spots of yellow and green. Paint mixtures aren't chemical reactions, there is no bonding. I mean, I can't speak to all paints, but oil, watercolour, and acrylic at least are all distinct pigments suspended in various solutions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the visible light hits a molecule, depending on what molecule it is, it will absorb a specific set of wavelengths of the light. The light that does not get absorbed will be reflected back, which is what we see. So the color of our subject is correlated with what wavelenghts that does not get absorbed.\n\nIn a mixture of 2 colors, some of the molecules will absorb some wavelengths, while the other molecules will absorb some different wavelengths. This leads to the change in color.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "405803",
"title": "Complementary colors",
"section": "Section::::In different color models.:Traditional color model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "In this traditional scheme, a complementary color pair contains one primary color (yellow, blue or red) and a secondary color (green, purple or orange). The complement of any primary color can be made by combining the two other primary colors. For example, to achieve the complement of yellow (a primary color) one could combine red and blue. The result would be purple, which appears directly across from yellow on the color wheel. Continuing with the color wheel model, one could then combine yellow and purple, which essentially means that all three primary colors would be present at once. Since paints work by absorbing light, having all three primaries together produces a black or gray color (see subtractive color). In more recent painting manuals, the more precise subtractive primary colors are magenta, cyan and yellow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455672",
"title": "Color theory",
"section": "Section::::Traditional color theory.:Complementary colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "One reason the artist's primary colors work at all is due to the imperfect pigments being used have sloped absorption curves, and change color with concentration. A pigment which is pure red at high concentrations can behave more like magenta at low concentrations. This allows it to make purples that would otherwise be impossible. Likewise, a blue that is ultramarine at high concentrations appears cyan at low concentrations, allowing it to be used to mix green. Chromium red pigments can appear orange, and then yellow, as the concentration is reduced. It is even possible to mix very low concentrations of the blue mentioned and the chromium red to get a greenish color. This works much better with oil colors than it does with watercolors and dyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19110121",
"title": "Color mixing",
"section": "Section::::Additive mixing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The additive mixing of colors is not commonly taught to children, as it does not correspond to the mixing of physical substances (such as paint) which would correspond to subtractive mixing. Two beams of light that are superimposed mix their colors additively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25921922",
"title": "Impossible color",
"section": "Section::::Real colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Real colors are colors that can be produced by a physical light source. Any additive mixture of two real colors is also a real color. When colors are displayed in the CIE 1931 XYZ color space, additive mixture results in a color along the line between the colors being mixed. By mixing any three colors, one can therefore create any color contained in the triangle they describe — this is called the gamut formed by those three colors, which are called primary colors. Any colors outside of this triangle cannot be obtained by mixing the chosen primaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1141496",
"title": "Neo-impressionism",
"section": "Section::::Divisionism.:Color theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1200,
"text": "Charles Blanc's Grammaire des arts du dessin introduced Seurat to the theories of color and vision that would inspire chromo-luminarism. Blanc's work, drawing from the theories of Michel Eugène Chevreul and Eugène Delacroix, stated that optical mixing would produce more vibrant and pure colors than the traditional process of mixing pigments. Mixing pigments physically is a subtractive process with cyan, magenta, and yellow being the primary colors. On the other hand, if colored light is mixed together, an additive mixture results, a process in which the primary colors are red, green and blue. The optical mixture which characterized Divisionism—the process of mixing color by juxtaposing pigments—is different from either additive or subtractive mixture, although combining colors in optical mixture functions the same way as additive mixture, i.e. the primary colors are the same. In reality, Seurat's paintings did not actually achieve true optical mixing; for him, the theory was more useful for causing vibrations of color to the viewer, where contrasting colors placed near each other would intensify the relationship between the colors while preserving their singular separate identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19110121",
"title": "Color mixing",
"section": "Section::::Additive mixing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "By convention, the three primary colors in additive mixing are red, green, and blue. In the absence of light of any color, the result is black. If all three primary colors of light are mixed in equal proportions, the result is neutral (gray or white). When the red and green lights mix, the result is yellow. When green and blue lights mix, the result is a cyan. When the blue and red lights mix, the result is magenta. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "979990",
"title": "Secondary color",
"section": "Section::::Subtractive secondaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Pigments, such as inks and paint, display color by absorbing some wavelengths of light and reflecting the remainder. When pigments are combined, they absorb the combination of their colors, and reflect less. Thus, combining pigments results in a darker color. This is called subtractive color-mixing, as mixing pigments subtracts wavelengths from the light that is reflected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34s6m7
|
Would you feel yourself spinning in absolutely empty space? If not, how is this possible?
|
[
{
"answer": "Since spinning is a constant acceleration (constant change in velocity vector) the fluids in your ears should be displaced, and thus you should still be able to feel that you are spinning and get nauseous. If the spin is slow enough, I'd imagine that with zero reference points and a nearly non-existant fluid displacement, you wouldn't know you are spinning. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is an easy test you can do to check if you're spinning: get your arms and feet close to your body, then point them away from you. \nIf you're spinning this will change the rate at which you spin, caused by the conservation of angular momentum: Just like a pirouette in figure skating: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem with Mach's principle was more of a philosophical kind with regards to space itself. If we consider an empty unviserse, would it be possible to measure a rotation or not? It breaks down to \"is there an absolute space or not?\", because relative to an absolute space, one could measure a rotation/fictitious forces. \nAs others already pointed out, you would feel fluids in your body being displaced. In terms of \"how does this work out when there is no absolute space\": A rotating object in an empty universe would define a _global_ [metric](_URL_0_) different to the one of a non rotating object. It therefore should always be possible to find out if an object is rotating, which was pretty substantial to [Einsteins general relativity](_URL_1_):\n > Einstein realized that the overall distribution of matter would determine the metric tensor, which tells you which frame is rotationally stationary. Frame dragging and conservation of gravitational angular momentum makes this into a true statement in the general theory in certain solutions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The most common general symptom of having the spins is described by its name: the feeling that one has the uncontrollable sense of spinning, although one is not in motion, which is one of the main reasons an intoxicated person may vomit. The person has this feeling due to impairments in vision and equilibrioception. Diplopia (double vision) or polyplopia are common, as well as the symptoms of motion sickness and vertigo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1209823",
"title": "Rotating reference frame",
"section": "Section::::Fictitious forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Scientists in a rotating box can measure the speed and direction of their rotation by measuring these fictitious forces. For example, Léon Foucault was able to show the Coriolis force that results from Earth's rotation using the Foucault pendulum. If Earth were to rotate many times faster, these fictitious forces could be felt by humans, as they are when on a spinning carousel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "One way to mask the symptoms of the spins is to avoid staring at moving objects, such as people who are dancing or ceiling fans. Instead, it helps to stare at a non-moving object and slowly blink a few times. However, it will make things worse to keep one's eyes closed for an extended period. In minor cases of the spins, simply sitting alone in a quiet place or taking a walk is all it takes to make them subside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33643424",
"title": "O'Neill cylinder",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Artificial gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "indicate that, at such low rotation speeds, few people would experience motion sickness due to coriolis forces acting on the inner ear. People would, however, be able to detect spinward and antispinward directions by turning their heads, and any dropped items would appear to be deflected by a few centimetres. The central axis of the habitat would be a zero-gravity region, and it was envisaged that recreational facilities could be located there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1935558",
"title": "Ingo Swann",
"section": "Section::::Swann's descriptions of Jupiter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "[6:16:37] If I turn, the whole thing seems enormously flat. I mean, if I get the feeling that if a man stood on those sands, I think he would sink into them [laughs]. Maybe that's where that liquid feeling comes from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62580",
"title": "Motion sickness",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Motion is felt but not seen.:Centrifuge motion sickness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Rotating devices such as centrifuges used in astronaut training and amusement park rides such as the Rotor, and the Gravitron can cause motion sickness in many people. While the interior of the centrifuge does not appear to move, one will experience a sense of motion. In addition, centrifugal force can cause the vestibular system to give one the sense that downward is in the direction away from the center of the centrifuge rather than the true downward direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42766221",
"title": "Rotor wing",
"section": "Section::::Magnus rotors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "When a spinning body passes through air at right angles to its axis of spin, it experiences a sideways force in the third dimension. This Magnus effect was first demonstrated on a spinning cylinder by Gustav Magnus in 1872. If the \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10re9m
|
How long does light last for?
|
[
{
"answer": " > What is light,\n\nLight is what you perceive when a photon of light hits a photo-receptor protein in one of the cells in your eye. The protein gets energy from the light that prompts a conformaitonal change (it wiggles), and this wiggle causes a change in the rate-of-fire of the neurons in your eye. This signals (\"tells\") the brain that you have seen light.\n\nLight is made of little tiny particles called photons. All photons travel at the \"speed of light\", c, around 300,000,000 m/s. They travel at the speed of light from every frame of reference. So if you are moving towards the light, you still measure it moving at c. If you are moving away from the light, it is still moving at c, from your perspective.\n\nThere are an infinite number of different photons that can be created, because each photon has a specific \"energy\". There are high-energy photons and low-energy photons, and everything in between. High-energy photons are dangerous, and can cause cancer (gamma rays, X rays). Low energy photons are pretty much harmless (radio waves, visible light).\n\nAll the different energies of light lie on a \"spectrum\". Humans can only detect a narrow range of light energies, from red to purple. Red photons have less energy, green have an in-between amount, and purple has the most. Above purple is ultraviolet (higher energy). Below red is infrared (low energy).\n\n{Humans glow. We emit photons. But these photons are low-energy infrared photons, which humans can't detect. So we can't see ourselves glow. But snakes can detect infrared photons. So snakes can see us glow!}\n\n > what is dark?\n\nDark is a human/animal perception. It occurs when no light hits the sensory apparatus (the eye).\n\n > Does it degrade in any way\n\nYes and no. When it is travelling through empty space, light does not have an expiration date. We can look in the sky and see photons from 1 billion years ago. It is only when light hits and interacts with an object that it changes. Light can be absorbed and converted to heat. Or converted to energy (as in solar cells or plants doing photosynthesis).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light doesn't degrade in any way - powerful telescopes can be used to see objects at the detectible edge of the universe, approximately 13 billion light years away (and thus the light took 13 billion years to reach earth).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "178713",
"title": "Light-second",
"section": "Section::::Use in astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Multiples of the light-second can be defined, although apart from the light-year, they are more used in popular science publications than in research works. For example, a light-minute is 60 light-seconds, and the average distance between Earth and the Sun is 8.317 light-minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6767087",
"title": "Pregnancy and Infant Loss Remembrance Day",
"section": "Section::::Observances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Lighting begins at the International Date Line, in the first time zone, remaining lit a period of one hour, with the next time zone lighting respectively, moving through each time zone as the Wave of Light circumnavigates the globe. The result is a continuous chain of light encompassing and spanning across the world and around the globe for a 24-hour period, illuminating the night in love and light in honor and remembrance of our children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178713",
"title": "Light-second",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The light-second is a unit of length useful in astronomy, telecommunications and relativistic physics. It is defined as the distance that light travels in free space in one second, and is equal to exactly .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29507591",
"title": "Wadjemup Lighthouse",
"section": "Section::::Tourism and modern operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The light is above sea level and has a nominal range of and geographical range of . Its current light characteristic is a single flash of 0.07 seconds every 7.5 seconds with an eclipse of 7.43 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23473595",
"title": "Light-year",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The light-year is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances and measures about 9.46 trillion kilometres (9.46 x 10 km) or 5.88 trillion miles (5.88 x 10 mi). As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a light-year is the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year (365.25 days). Because it includes the word \"year\", the term light-year is sometimes misinterpreted as a unit of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38632089",
"title": "Face the Clock",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Rounds 1 to 4.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Each of the 7 lights refers to a time between 30 seconds and 2 minutes, 30 seconds. The times are 30 seconds/45 seconds/1 minute/1 minute, 30 seconds/1 minute, 45 seconds/2 minutes/2 minutes, 30 seconds. This time refers to the length of time of each round.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "819116",
"title": "Two Trees of Valinor",
"section": "Section::::Creation and destruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Each Tree, in turn, would give off light for seven hours (waxing to full brightness and then slowly waning again), with the ends of their cycles overlapping so that at one hour each of \"dawn\" and \"dusk\" soft gold and silver light would be given off together. In total, therefore, one \"day\" of first silver then gold light lasted twelve hours. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ahoyc
|
Is it possible to have multiple earth like planets in a planetary system?
|
[
{
"answer": "It really depends on the planets. Venus and Mars are both within the \"Goldilocks zone\" for Sol. Depending on who's math they are right on the edge though. Venus ended up with a runaway greenhouse effect and now has an acid atmosphere, Mars lost its magnetic field and was stripped of its atmosphere. At one point, both of those planets were quite similar to earth so it can be done.\n\nThe safe zone isn't a single orbit, it is a rather wide area so you could easily sneak a couple planetary orbits in there. There are billions of stars out there, anything that can exist almost certainly does exist, we just haven't found it yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42635006",
"title": "Habitability of binary star systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Planets that orbit just one star in a binary pair are said to have \"S-type\" orbits, whereas those that orbit around both stars have \"P-type\" or \"circumbinary\" orbits. It is estimated that 50–60% of binary stars are capable of supporting habitable terrestrial planets within stable orbital ranges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2087248",
"title": "Master of Orion II: Battle at Antares",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Star systems have at most five colonizable planets, and a few have none. Players can colonize all solid planet types, while gas giants and asteroids can be made habitable with the planet construction technology. Colonizable planets vary in several ways, making some more desirable than others:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2014936",
"title": "Solar analog",
"section": "Section::::By potential habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Terrestrial planets in multiple star systems, those containing three or more stars, are not likely to have stable orbits in the long term. Stable orbits in binary systems take one of two forms: S-Type (satellite or circumstellar) orbits around one of the stars, and P-Type (planetary or circumbinary) orbits around the entire binary pair. Eccentric Jupiters may also disrupt the orbits of planets in habitable zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763",
"title": "Exoplanet",
"section": "Section::::Planet-hosting stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Some planets orbit one member of a binary star system, and several circumbinary planets have been discovered which orbit around both members of binary star. A few planets in triple star systems are known and one in the quadruple system Kepler-64.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "311217",
"title": "Physics and Star Wars",
"section": "Section::::Tatooine's twin stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In the past scientists thought that planets would be unlikely to form around binary stars. However, recent simulations indicate that planets are just as likely to form around binary star systems as single-star systems. Of the 3457 exoplanets currently known, 146 actually orbit binary star systems (and 39 orbit multiple star systems with 3 or more stars). Specifically, they orbit what are known as \"wide\" binary star systems where the two stars are fairly far apart (several AU). Tatooine appears to be of the other type — a \"close\" binary, where the stars are very close, and the planets orbit their common center of mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42635006",
"title": "Habitability of binary star systems",
"section": "Section::::Non-circumbinary planet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "In non circumbinary planets, if a planet's distance to its primary exceeds about one fifth of the closest approach of the other star, orbital stability is not guaranteed. Whether planets might form in binaries at all had long been unclear, given that gravitational forces might interfere with planet formation. Theoretical work by Alan Boss at the Carnegie Institution has shown that gas giants can form around stars in binary systems much as they do around solitary stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52713",
"title": "Binary star",
"section": "Section::::Astrophysics.:Research findings.:Planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "While a number of binary star systems have been found to harbor extrasolar planets, such systems are comparatively rare compared to single star systems. Observations by the Kepler space telescope have shown that most single stars of the same type as the Sun have plenty of planets, but only one-third of binary stars do. According to theoretical simulations, even widely separated binary stars often disrupt the discs of rocky grains from which protoplanets form. On the other hand, other simulations suggest that the presence of a binary companion can actually improve the rate of planet formation within stable orbital zones by \"stirring up\" the protoplanetary disk, increasing the accretion rate of the protoplanets within.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cczczz
|
how come seedless cherries aren’t a thing like seedless grapes and oranges?
|
[
{
"answer": "The \"seed\" in a cherry is called a pit, and if I'm not mistaken, it's where the juicy part of the cherry came from. Similar to dates and plums. In contrast, the seeds of grapes and oranges are intended to produce more grapevines/orange trees",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because no one has been able to figure out how to create one.\n\nThe same applies to all other stone fruits, like apricots, plums, peaches, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17839446",
"title": "Davidsonia johnsonii",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The fruit is a deep burgundy colour, with a sour flavour and is popular in jams. It is cultivated in small plantations. Due to infertile seeds it can only be propagated from cuttings or division. Hence all cultivated material is derived from clones of wild plants. Plants take at least six years to produce fruit. Some selections are heavy bearing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2456432",
"title": "Heirloom tomato",
"section": "Section::::Seed collecting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Heirloom seeds can be easily collected and usually almost all seeds will continue to show the traits of the original seed because this family of tomatoes almost always self-pollinates. Dramatic cross-pollination may occur in the presence of pollinating insects during flowering. Collecting heirloom seed is as easy as picking ripe tomatoes, chopping or mashing into a jar till less than half-full, filling with water, shaking from time to time and allowing to decompose for 1–6 days until seeds sink to the bottom, then rinsing until the seeds are clean, and drying. This decomposition is beneficial because it discourages transmission of diseases to the seed, the drying promotes better germination, and because the seeds are easier to separate when they are clean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29114389",
"title": "Blue tomato",
"section": "Section::::Conventional breeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "While tomatoes have the genes for producing anthocyanins, these genes are typically not expressed in the fruit in most commercial varieties. The result is that the pigments are limited to leaves and stems, where they are not eaten and would not provide any health benefit. With this in mind, researchers at Oregon State University have produced blue tomatoes using conventional breeding techniques, cross-pollinating domestic tomatoes with wild varieties that possess the \"Anthocyanin fruit\" (Aft) allele. As of the 2012 growing season, Oregon State University developed blue tomato seeds became commercially available under the cultivar name \"Indigo Rose\". The blue color is produced mostly by the anthocyanin petunidin on the outside of the tomato where the fruit is exposed to direct sunlight. The shaded side of the fruit is green when unripe, red when ripe, and the inside is red or deep pink. The tomatoes are small, about 2 inches across, round, and grow in clusters of 6 to 8. Flavor is described as slightly acidic. The vines are said to be indeterminate but compact, and disease resistant. While the concentration of anthocyanins is still very low compared to other fruits like blueberries, the pigments do improve the resistance of the fruits to the fungus Botrytis cinerea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78195",
"title": "Prunus cerasus",
"section": "Section::::Origins and cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Unlike most sweet cherry varieties, sour cherries are self fertile or self pollenizing (sometimes inaccurately referred to as self-pollinating). Two implications of this are that seeds generally run true to the cultivar, and that much smaller pollinator populations are needed because pollen only has to be moved within individual flowers. In areas where pollinators are scarce, growers find that stocking beehives in orchards improves yields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276409",
"title": "Raspberry",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "All cultivars of raspberries have perennial roots but, many do not have perennial shoots. In fact, most raspberries have shoots that are biennial (meaning shoots grow in the first growing season and fruits grow off of those shoots during the second growing season). The flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513591",
"title": "Viticulture",
"section": "Section::::The grape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Each grape berry contains a pedicel which attaches to the rachis. The main function of the rachis is to allow the grapes receive their water and nutrients. The pollination and fertilization of grapes results in one to four seeds within the berry. When fertilization does not occur, seedless grapes are formed, which are sought after for the production of raisins. Regardless of pollination and fertilization, most plants will produce around 100 to 200 grapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2455842",
"title": "Strawberry",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Strawberries may also be propagated by seed, though this is primarily a hobby activity, and is not widely practiced commercially. A few seed-propagated cultivars have been developed for home use, and research into growing from seed commercially is ongoing. Seeds (achenes) are acquired either via commercial seed suppliers, or by collecting and saving them from the fruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uvbja
|
The maya treated the lower classes extremely poorly for over 2000 years, why was there no successful rebellion?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you elaborate? In what way do you think the Maya lower class was mistreated (and consistently for so long at that)? Is there some particular piece of evidence that led you to that conclusion?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46998769",
"title": "History of the Maya civilization",
"section": "Section::::Classic period (c. 250–900 AD).:Classic Maya collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "By the 9th and 10th centuries, this resulted in collapse of the system of rulership based around the divine power of the ruling lord. In the northern Yucatán, individual rule was replaced by a ruling council formed from elite lineages. In the southern Yucatán and central Petén, kingdoms generally declined; in western Petén and some other areas, the changes were catastrophic and resulted in the rapid depopulation of cities. Within a couple of generations, large swathes of the central Maya area were all but abandoned. Relatively rapid collapse affected portions of the southern Maya area that included the southern Yucatán Peninsula, northern Chiapas and Guatemala, and the area around Copán in Honduras. The largest cities had populations numbering 50,000 to 120,000 and were linked to networks of subsidiary sites. Both the capitals and their secondary centres were generally abandoned within a period of 50 to 100 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10443117",
"title": "Classic Maya collapse",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Collapse of trade routes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1281,
"text": "It has been hypothesized that the decline of the Maya is related to the collapse of their intricate trade systems, especially those connected to the central Mexican city of Teotihuacán. Preceding improved knowledge of the chronology of Mesoamerica, Teotihuacan was believed to have fallen during 700–750, forcing the \"restructuring of economic relations throughout highland Mesoamerica and the Gulf Coast\". This remaking of relationships between civilizations would have then given the collapse of the Classic Maya a slightly later date. However, after knowing more about the events and the periods when they occurred, it is believed that the strongest Teotihuacan influence was during the 4th and 5th centuries. In addition, the civilization of Teotihuacan started to lose its power, and maybe abandoned the city, during 600–650. This differs greatly from the previous belief that Teotihuacano power decreased during 700–750. But since the new decline date of 600–650 has been accepted, the Maya civilizations are now thought to have lived on and prospered \"for another century and more\" than what was previously believed. Rather than the decline of Teotihuacan directly preceding the collapse of the Maya, their decline is now seen as contributing \"to the 6th-century 'hiatus'\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15354388",
"title": "Southern Maya area",
"section": "Section::::The Early and Middle Classic: Chocolate Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1213,
"text": "It may be argued in favor of a greater unity in the Southern Maya Area than the ethnic and linguistic diversity might otherwise indicate simply by virtue of the fact that a “Preclassic collapse” occurred extending through much of the Southern Maya Area . In the Southern Maya Area, in times called Classic for the Maya in the Lowlands to the north, tantalizing evidence exists of an abhorrence of a vacuum in the materially very rich breadbasket of the Area – and, as mentioned, particularly of a continuation of what must have been an extraordinary intensively cultivated commodity of enormous importance in Mesoamerica, and the Maya, in cuisine, ideologically, and even as currency, cacao. In the Guatemalan piedmont, located not more than sixty kilometers east of Chocola, Cotzumalguapa, of Middle Classic trajectory, is renowned for carved stone sculpture intimately associating decapitation and other sacrifice with cacao, associations we must conclude are representative of fierce warfare over this commodity, and copious ethnohistory from early after the Spanish Conquest makes reference to “chiefs” and chiefdoms fighting over production and distribution of the chocolate bean and/or its processed forms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32530425",
"title": "Maya Research Program",
"section": "Section::::Current Excavations.:Understanding the Classic Collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "What happened to Classic Maya civilization? Why did the entire society collapse—region wide—during a short crisis in the mid-ninth century A.D.? Was it persistent warfare? Agricultural or environmental collapse? Overpopulation? Drought? Or some combination . . . of some other factors altogether? Because of the extent of the Blue Creek site (from Middle Preclassic to the Terminal Classic collapse) and because of the length of time and extent of our studies, MRP is in a unique position to analyze a wealth of data that may provide critical insights into this mystery. This is an overarching focus of research over the coming years, into which all of our new projects will feed. This is at the vanguard of scholarship, impacting the debate about the Classic Maya collapse among scholars and institutions around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3966054",
"title": "Mexico",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second Republic and Second Empire (1846–1867).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The Caste War of Yucatán, the Maya uprising that began in 1847, was one of the most successful modern Native American revolts. Maya rebels, or Cruzob, maintained relatively independent enclaves in the peninsula until the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28176973",
"title": "Preclassic Maya",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Maya society underwent a series of profound transformations between c. 100 AD and 250 AD, which resulted in the cessation of monumental building at many Preclassic cities and the inferred collapse of their political and economic systems, often characterized as the \"Preclassic Collapse.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10443117",
"title": "Classic Maya collapse",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Other explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Anthropologist Joseph Tainter wrote extensively about the collapse of the Southern Lowland Maya in his 1988 study \"The Collapse of Complex Societies\". His theory about Maya collapse encompasses some of the above explanations, but focuses specifically on the development of and the declining marginal returns from the increasing social complexity of the competing Maya city-states. Psychologist Julian Jaynes suggested that the collapse was due to a failure in the social control systems of religion and political authority, due to increasing socioeconomic complexity that overwhelmed the power of traditional rituals and the king's authority to compel obedience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37eyzz
|
Is temperature vary based on the point of reference?
|
[
{
"answer": "Good question, and yes. We understand the asymptotic Hawking temperature, it becomes a constant for sufficiently distant observers at rest. In simplified units it takes on the form, \n\n T = k/2pi \n k = surface gravity at event horizon \n\nLet's look at Schwarzschild coordinates, \n\n ds^2 = -(1-R/r)(cdt)^2 + (dr)^2/(1-R/r) + angle terms \n R = Schwarzschild radius \n\nThis corresponds to a frame which \"hovers\" above the black hole at a fixed radius, as you can see the temperature is modified by the curvature, \n\n T = a/2pi = (k/2pi)/√(1-R/r) \n\n* Unruh. [\"Notes on black hole evaporation\"](_URL_1_) Phys.Rev. D14 (1976) \n\nHere we see, the hovering temperature relies on the inverse of the square root of the curvature. There are two important features:\n\n1. As you recede to flat space r-- > big, you recover the famous Hawking temperature. \n\n2. As you approach the Event Horizon of the black hole, the temperature blows up to infinity. We can attribute this to the acceleration an observer must maintain to not fall into the black hole.\n\nWhat about free falling into the black hole? Like if I decided to jump in? Unfortunately, I could not find an exact mathematical treatment--except to say that there is an exact solution for 6-dimensional spacetime. \n\n* Brynjolfsson, Thorlacius. \"Taking the Temperature of a Black Hole\" JHEP 2008. _URL_3_ \n\n* Kim, Choi, Park. \"Local free-fall Temperature of GMGHS Black Holes\" Phys. Rev. D 89. 2013. _URL_2_ \n\n* _URL_0_ \n\nAll these suggest that the free falling observer will see a finite radiation bath (which isn't precisely thermal) on the order of the Hawking temperature even as they cross the horizon--so they won't burn up!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamic approach.:Local thermodynamic equilibrium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "It makes good sense, for example, to say of the extensive variable , or of the extensive variable , that it has a density per unit volume, or a quantity per unit mass of the system, but it makes no sense to speak of density of temperature per unit volume or quantity of temperature per unit mass of the system. On the other hand, it makes no sense to speak of the internal energy at a point, while when local thermodynamic equilibrium prevails, it makes good sense to speak of the temperature at a point. Consequently, temperature can vary from point to point in a medium that is not in global thermodynamic equilibrium, but in which there is local thermodynamic equilibrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Basic theory.:Thermodynamic equilibrium axiomatics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1396,
"text": "For axiomatic treatment of thermodynamic equilibrium, since the 1930s, it has become customary to refer to a zeroth law of thermodynamics. The customarily stated minimalist version of such a law postulates only that all bodies, which when thermally connected would be in thermal equilibrium, should be said to have the same temperature by definition, but by itself does not establish temperature as a quantity expressed as a real number on a scale. A more physically informative version of such a law views empirical temperature as a chart on a hotness manifold. While the zeroth law permits the definitions of many different empirical scales of temperature, the second law of thermodynamics selects the definition of a single preferred, absolute temperature, unique up to an arbitrary scale factor, whence called the thermodynamic temperature. If internal energy is considered as a function of the volume and entropy of a homogeneous system in thermodynamic equilibrium, thermodynamic absolute temperature appears as the partial derivative of internal energy with respect the entropy at constant volume. Its natural, intrinsic origin or null point is absolute zero at which the entropy of any system is at a minimum. Although this is the lowest absolute temperature described by the model, the third law of thermodynamics postulates that absolute zero cannot be attained by any physical system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3281057",
"title": "Thermodynamic instruments",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamic meters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law, the volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device called a barometer may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A calorimeter is a device which is used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Basic theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "Experimental physicists, for example Galileo and Newton, found that there are indefinitely many empirical temperature scales. Nevertheless, the zeroth law of thermodynamics says that they all measure the same quality. This means that for a body in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, every correctly calibrated thermometer, of whatever kind, that measures the temperature of the body, records one and the same temperature. For a body that is not in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, different thermometers can record different temperatures, depending respectively on the mechanisms of operation of the thermometers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18253454",
"title": "Theory of conjoint measurement",
"section": "Section::::Measurement and quantification.:The classical / standard definition of measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "For some other quantities, it is easier or has been convention to estimate ratios between attribute \"differences\". Consider temperature, for example. In the familiar everyday instances, temperature is measured using instruments calibrated in either the Fahrenheit or Celsius scales. What are really being measured with such instruments are the magnitudes of temperature differences. For example, Anders Celsius defined the unit of the Celsius scale to be 1/100th of the difference in temperature between the freezing and boiling points of water at sea level. A midday temperature measurement of 20 degrees Celsius is simply the ratio of the Celsius unit to the midday temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6212669",
"title": "Electron temperature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Temperature is a statistical quantity. The formal definition is T = dU/dS, the change in internal energy with respect to entropy, holding volume and particle number constant. A practical definition comes from the fact that the atoms, molecules, or whatever particles in a system have an average kinetic energy. The average means to average over the kinetic energy of all the particles in a system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81884",
"title": "Newton's law of cooling",
"section": "Section::::Rate-of-change of temperature-difference version of the law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "As noted in the section above, accurate formulation for temperatures may require analysis based on changing heat transfer coefficients at different temperatures, a situation frequently found in free-convection situations, and which precludes accurate use of Newton's law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14atnx
|
Why can't we run 64 bit applications in a 32 bit operating system, even if the CPU supports 64 bit?
|
[
{
"answer": "A 32 bit operating system running on an x64 processor causes the processor to run in a 32-bit mode. For example, it uses 32-bit addressing in its virtual memory system.\nSee for example: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The application (64-bit) has to go through the software layer (32-bit) before it communicates with the hardware (64-bit).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24806506",
"title": "Windows 8",
"section": "Section::::Software compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The 64-bit version runs on CPUs compatible with x86 8th generation (known as x86-64, or x64) or newer, and can run 32-bit and 64-bit programs. 32-bit programs and operating system are restricted to supporting only of memory while 64-bit systems can theoretically support of memory. 64-bit operating systems require a different set of device drivers than those of 32-bit operating systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148285",
"title": "64-bit computing",
"section": "Section::::64-bit applications.:Software availability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "64-bit versions of Windows cannot run 16-bit software. However, most 32-bit applications will work well. 64-bit users are forced to install a virtual machine of a 16- or 32-bit operating system to run 16-bit applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148285",
"title": "64-bit computing",
"section": "Section::::64-bit applications.:Software availability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 1158,
"text": "x86-based 64-bit systems sometimes lack equivalents of software that is written for 32-bit architectures. The most severe problem in Microsoft Windows is incompatible device drivers for obsolete hardware. Most 32-bit application software can run on a 64-bit operating system in a compatibility mode, also termed an emulation mode, e.g., Microsoft WoW64 Technology for IA-64 and AMD64. The 64-bit Windows Native Mode driver environment runs atop 64-bit NTDLL.DLL, which cannot call 32-bit Win32 subsystem code (often devices whose actual hardware function is emulated in user mode software, like Winprinters). Because 64-bit drivers for most devices were unavailable until early 2007 (Vista x64), using a 64-bit version of Windows was considered a challenge. However, the trend has since moved toward 64-bit computing, more so as memory prices dropped and the use of more than 4 GB of RAM increased. Most manufacturers started to provide both 32-bit and 64-bit drivers for new devices, so unavailability of 64-bit drivers ceased to be a problem. 64-bit drivers were not provided for many older devices, which could consequently not be used in 64-bit systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "615924",
"title": "Windows XP Professional x64 Edition",
"section": "Section::::Software compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Although 32-bit applications can be run transparently, the mixing of the two types of code within the same process is not allowed. A 64-bit program cannot use a 32-bit dynamic-link library (DLL) and similarly a 32-bit program cannot use a 64-bit DLL. This may lead to the need for library developers to provide both 32-bit and 64-bit binary versions of their libraries. Specifically, 32-bit shell extensions for Windows Explorer fail to work with 64-bit Windows Explorer. Windows XP x64 Edition ships with both 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Windows Explorer. The 32-bit version can become the default Windows Shell. Windows XP x64 Edition also includes both 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Internet Explorer 6, so that user can still use browser extensions or ActiveX controls that are not available in 64-bit versions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24594678",
"title": "WoW64",
"section": "Section::::Application compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "32-bit applications that include only 32-bit kernel-mode device drivers, or that plug into the process space of components that are implemented purely as 64-bit processes (e.g. Windows Explorer) cannot be executed on a 64-bit platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16898671",
"title": "Windows XP editions",
"section": "Section::::64-bit editions.:Software compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Although 32-bit applications can be run transparently, the mixing of the two types of code within the same process is not allowed. A 64-bit application cannot link against a 32-bit library (DLL) and, similarly, a 32-bit application cannot link against a 64-bit library. This may lead to the need for library developers to provide both 32- and 64-bit binary versions of their libraries. Windows XP x64 Edition includes both 32- and 64-bit versions of Internet Explorer 6, in order to allow for the possibility that some third-party browser plugins or ActiveX controls may not yet be available in 64-bit versions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148285",
"title": "64-bit computing",
"section": "Section::::64-bit applications.:32-bit vs 64-bit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "On 64-bit hardware with x86-64 architecture (AMD64), most 32-bit operating systems and applications can run with no compatibility issues. While the larger address space of 64-bit architectures makes working with large data sets in applications such as digital video, scientific computing, and large databases easier, there has been considerable debate on whether they or their 32-bit compatibility modes will be faster than comparably priced 32-bit systems for other tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p6vm1
|
Why do rivers meander?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not an expert but...\n\nWater takes the path of least resistance. So if the ground is lower in one spot vs another, that is the direction the river will take. Or if the ground is softer or more prone to erosion, that will help to guide the path of the river.\n\n\nOnce the river is bent, the erosion will be strongest on the outside of the curve, which will cause the curves to become more and more pronounced over time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35659147",
"title": "Patterns in nature",
"section": "Section::::Types of pattern.:Chaos, flow, meanders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Meanders are sinuous bends in rivers or other channels, which form as a fluid, most often water, flows around bends. As soon as the path is slightly curved, the size and curvature of each loop increases as helical flow drags material like sand and gravel across the river to the inside of the bend. The outside of the loop is left clean and unprotected, so erosion accelerates, further increasing the meandering in a powerful positive feedback loop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30830079",
"title": "Meander cutoff",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1344,
"text": "Meandering rivers flow higher and hence with more total flow, pressure and erosion on the outside of their bends due to forming a vortex as in a stirred coffee cup and consequently the river erodes more the outer bank. On the inside bend of a river, the level is lower, secondary flow moves sand and gravel across the river bed creating shallows and point bars, and friction of air and perturbances of the bed act against a higher proportion of the column of water, being shorter, slowing the water to varying degrees. Rivers are commonly described and interpreted by their sinuosity. The term is equally used to describe the actual incidence of and potential tendency of a river to curve or meander over its length. It is expressed as the ratio of the distance between two distant points in a river following the middle-of-the-river course of the river as compared with the straight distance between those points. Three conventional categorizations of rivers or their reaches exist. Meandering rivers a sinuosity value/ratio of greater than 1.5. A sinuosity value of less than 1.1 is a “straight” river. Between these values, a river is described as sinuous which describes those in a transitory state between the two states. Braided rivers do not follow this same convention. Meandering rivers trend in the direction of increasing sinuosity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71320",
"title": "Entrenched river",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The meanders that form part of either an entrenched river or meander valley are most commonly known as \"incised meanders\". They are commonly classified as either an \"ingrown meander\" or an \"entrenched meander\". For a long time, it was argued that ingrown meander occurs when downcutting process is slow and the river can cause lateral erosion, leading to an asymmetric valley. In addition, it was also argued for a long time that an entrenched meander forms when there is a rapid incision of the river bed such that the river does not have the opportunity to erode the lateral side. This leads to symmetrical valleys with a gorge-like appearance. However, more detailed studies have shown the development of ingrown meanders versus entrenched meanders depends on a complex mixture of factors such as bedrock lithology, tectonic activity, and climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842395",
"title": "River",
"section": "Section::::Flow.:Direction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Rivers flowing downhill, from river source to river mouth, do not necessarily take the shortest path. For alluvial streams, straight and braided rivers have very low sinuosity and flow directly down hill, while meandering rivers flow from side to side across a valley. Bedrock rivers typically flow in either a fractal pattern, or a pattern that is determined by weaknesses in the bedrock, such as faults, fractures, or more erodible layers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37400459",
"title": "Slip-off slope",
"section": "Section::::Freely Meandering Rivers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "In a freely meandering river, a \"slip-off slope\" is characterized by a gentle slope composed of sand and pebbles on the inside convex bank of a meander loop, across the channel from a cut bank or river-cut cliff. As water in a meandering river travels around a bend, it moves in a secondary corkscrew-like flow as it travels downstream, in a pattern called helicoidal flow. This phenomenon causes increased water velocity in the outside bend of the meander, driving lateral bank erosion. It is also responsible for slower water velocity on the inner bend of the meander. This low velocity allows eroded sediments from the cut bank side to be deposited on the inner bank. The deposition of material at the toe of a slip-off slope often results in the formation of a point bar. Geologically, the environment in which a slip-off slope is deposited is considered to be one of low energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30830079",
"title": "Meander cutoff",
"section": "Section::::Cutoff channel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "A river constantly evolves and as it does, meanders that were once a part of the river are abandoned in favor of a route that is more efficient for a river to take. As these old meanders are cutoff from the rest of the river, a new channel, or cutoff channel, is formed. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842308",
"title": "Stream",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Meanders are looping changes of direction of a stream caused by the erosion and deposition of bank materials. These are typically serpentine in form. Typically, over time the meanders gradually migrate downstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9rzw9h
|
why is a vehicle released in (for example) 2018 called a 2019?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because retail products need to appear new. Since the 2019 model will be the \"new\" model for some portion of the 2019 year, you don't want people asking, \"this is last year's model, where is this year's?\" If it's marked 2018 as it may disincentivize them from buying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because people are less likely to buy cars with the previous year in the model name, so they name cars after the next year. It's not just cars. For example, Magic the Gathering's Core Set 2019 was released on July 13, 2018. Major retailers like Walmart are less willing to stock items with the previous year in the item's name.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There isn’t really a singular reason rather a few different things that led to it. \n\nFord started releasing the next year’s model in the fall for those in agriculture. That was when they had the most money so they released the model at a time that people could buy next year’s model instead of buying the almost year old current year model. \n\nOther companies followed suit and started releasing in the fall, after WWII they settled on Oct 1 for an industry standard. \n\nJumping to the 60s this also coincided with the rising television industry’s start of the fall season which always sees a spike in viewership which meant more people seeing ads",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a marketing scheme.\n\nIf you want to produce as many cars as possible in 2019, you'll have to let out a teaser on the market in 2018 already. Else, you'd have a pretty dull January in the factory while everyone runs to the dealer, decides and signs up for one to be delivered sometime in February/March.\n\nGenerally speaking, the manufacturers *could* just release their new model \"sometime around summer\" and say \"this is the New Car With Large Hatchback that supersedes the older Car With Hatchback we sold last year*, but many people tend to think of new in terms of \"is it related this year? No. Then it ain't new\" and you have to adapt to that a bit to survive on the market.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1485770",
"title": "Toyota FJ Cruiser",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "On 5 November 2013, Toyota USA announced the 2014 model year Trail Teams edition would be called the \"Ultimate Edition\" and that the 2014 model year would be the last for the FJ Cruiser in that market. It continued to be made for sale in other markets such as Australia until its export to that market was discontinued in August 2016. It is still sold in the Middle East as of August 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290181",
"title": "Toyota Land Cruiser",
"section": "Section::::Comfort oriented models.:J200 (2007–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In February 2019, Toyota introduced a Heritage edition of the Land Cruiser at the Chicago Auto Show as part of the 60th anniversary of the introduction of the FJ40. Toyota will only build 1200 vehicles and they will only be available as a 5-seater sold in the United States. Sales are expected to begin in the third quarter of 2019 for the 2020 model year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "695346",
"title": "New York City Subway rolling stock",
"section": "Section::::Future fleet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Originally, 168 additional cars were proposed to be built and provided for service on the , , , and services between 2015 and 2019; the contract number for these growth cars was unknown, but they were not delivered prior to 2019. However, it is expected that these \"new\" cars could be cars displaced from other services after the R179s are delivered, as some of the R32s (which were originally planned to be replaced completely by the R179s) will not be replaced until the R211 order is delivered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "798543",
"title": "Motor Trend",
"section": "Section::::New Car Guides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "vehicles. In September the issue looks at the latest cars (sedans, coupes, etc.) for the next coming calendar year, whilst in October the magazine looks at off-roaders, MPVs and sport-utility vehicles (SUVs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1436547",
"title": "DMC DeLorean",
"section": "Section::::DMC Texas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Due to the passage of the Low Volume Vehicle Manufacturing Act, DMC Texas announced that they would be producing replica DeLoreans with an expected release date in 2017. DMC anticipates to build approximately 50 vehicles per year over the next 6 years with an estimated retail price of US$100,000. In October 2016, DMC announced that they are expecting to build 12 units in the first production year with as many as 50 in the second year of production. In February 2018, it was reported that production should start in January 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290181",
"title": "Toyota Land Cruiser",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The is a series of four-wheel drive vehicles produced by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota. It is Toyota's longest running series of models. , the sales of the Land Cruiser totalled more than 6.5 million units worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7034102",
"title": "Toyota Land Cruiser (J70)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "2014: Toyota introduced the 4-door wagon GRJ76 and double-cabin GRJ79 pickup body in the Japan market as a limited-edition '30th Anniversary' Series 70. This model came with the 1GR-FE V6 petrol engine and 5 speed manual transmission. This model was on limited sale in Japan only until June 2015 when Japanese law required all new vehicles to come with Vehicle Skid Control, something the 70 Series does not have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5k4y3c
|
who controls the internet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Officially, no, no one controls the internet. With no primary head server & formal control of the internet now ceded to ICANN (a non-for-profit private company) instead of the US government, the US government is relatively lacking in direct methods to police the whole thing.\n\nHowever, plenty of technology is still *physically* within US and therefore under jurisdiction, and they can and do attempt to monitor traffic. US companies have to comply with US law, and they have been made to hand over information from their servers. Additionally, the US has data collection and montoring methods. How successful they are varies due to tools like encryption being used, but the government certainly tries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Short answer is \"no\" on both accounts. \n\nLonger answer is that yes, there is monitoring on many levels of the internet that is maintained by agencies and law enforcement as well as by NGOs and lobby organizations. \n\nA government agency is unlikely to care that you're torrenting, but will care if you're making terrorist plots. Law enforcement will likely not care about your torrents either, but will care if you run a pedophile ring, and NGOs such as the MPAA will very much care about your torrenting, but they ahve very limited access to the internet. \n\nThe US government does not control the internet. It isn't unlikely that they exert greater control than they let on through surveillance , as indicated by the last few years' leaks, and them asking corporations to install backdoors in software. \n\nThe US did not create the internet either, really. They _did_ create ARPAnet, which is a predecessor and have had a great hand in shaping and developing the internet, or at least universities have, but the greater question is \"what is the internet\", which makes things more complicated. \n\nThe internet is many things. The internet is infrastructure - It is radio towers to distribute wifi and cables to run ethernet through, some of them transcontinental and transoceanic. \n\nThe internet is hardware - It is routers and switches and modems and servers\n\nThe internet is also software, with applications, sites, server software, DNS, storage, databases. \n\nMany of these layers and segments are distributed, and none of them are government controlled - Most are controlled by working groups and organizations that work with maintaining and developing standards, and more hands-on with private companies who manufacture and support the hardware and software which runs these things. \n\nTo reconnect to your first question: Yes, there is monitoring by agencies and law enforcement to hinder illegal activities such as trade with drugs, weapons and people, wire fraud, financing or plotting terrorism etc, but it's not one single entity that monitors the entire internet for it, rather government agencies and law enforcement that all work according to the laws and interests of teir nation (or the EU, or NATO, or whatever), with collaboration where possible and necessary. \n\nThis also involves a lot of real-world work as well, monitoring people, suspects, their activities, working to establish links between online personae and real-world people etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The internet is a semi-organized collection of computers that are all interconnected with each other in various random ways. Decisions about how those connections should work are made unofficially by popular consensus. Decisions about how each computer should work are made by the owner of each computer.\n\nNobody directly controls the entire Internet, in the same way that nobody controls all the roads and highways and cars and boats and trains and airplanes in the world, but you can still travel anywhere you want.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one person owns the entire Internet. However, the entity that \"owns\" the largest chunk of the web is Google. One time when *all* Google products (Google Search, Gmail, YouTube, Drive, Docs, et cetera) stopped working for **five minutes**, global internet traffic dropped by a staggering **40%**. Since so much internet traffic is with Google products, it's safe to say they \"own\" more of the Internet than anyone else.\n\nHope that was a satisfactory answer :D\n\n^(*All Google products shall perish from under the sky*)\n\n^(*Reddit alone shall live*)\n\n^(*Reddit alone shall live*)\n\n^(*Never to die*)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "100245",
"title": "Internet service provider",
"section": "Section::::Law enforcement and intelligence assistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Internet service providers in many countries are legally required (e.g., via Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) in the U.S.) to allow law enforcement agencies to monitor some or all of the information transmitted by the ISP, or even store the browsing history of users to allow government access if needed (e.g. via the Investigatory Powers Act 2016 in the United Kingdom). Furthermore, in some countries ISPs are subject to monitoring by intelligence agencies. In the U.S., a controversial National Security Agency program known as PRISM provides for broad monitoring of Internet users traffic and has raised concerns about potential violation of the privacy protections in the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Modern ISPs integrate a wide array of surveillance and packet sniffing equipment into their networks, which then feeds the data to law-enforcement/intelligence networks (such as DCSNet in the United States, or SORM in Russia) allowing monitoring of Internet traffic in real time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27913563",
"title": "Right to Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Links to other rights.:Right to freedom of speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The Internet's power is said to lie in its removal of a government’s control of information. Online on the Internet, any individuals can publish anything, which allows citizens to circumvent the government’s official information sources. This has threatened governing regimes and lead to many censoring or cutting Internet service in times of crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51981305",
"title": "Censorship in Bahrain",
"section": "Section::::Censored outlets.:Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The government maintains control over the Internet by requiring all websites to register with the Information Affairs Authority (IAA). Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are indirectly controlled through the Telecommunications Regulation Authority (TRA) under the pretext of helping to protect intellectual property. A resolution issued by the Ministry of Culture and Information in January 2009 requires all ISPs to install a website blocking software chosen by the Ministry. The IAA and select Ministries within the government can decide to block certain websites, which is then enforced by the ISP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60577749",
"title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Asia",
"section": "Section::::Little or no censorship or surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 225,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 225,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The government controls domestic Internet servers and sporadically monitors Internet usage, but by the end of 2012 it apparently did not have the ability to block access to Web sites. Authorities have developed infrastructure to route all Internet traffic through a single gateway, enabling them to monitor and restrict content. However, they apparently had not utilized this increased capability as of the end of 2012. The law generally protects privacy, including that of mail, telephone, and electronic correspondence, but the government reportedly continues to violate these legal protections when there is a perceived security threat. Security laws allow the government to monitor individuals' movements and private communications, including via cell phones and e-mail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14587123",
"title": "Media of Iceland",
"section": "Section::::Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The internet is unrestricted by the government, and is used by around 97% of the population. Government has put in place rules that force telecommunication companies to block popular file sharing sites like The Pirate Bay and KickassTorrents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29744677",
"title": "Computer surveillance in the workplace",
"section": "Section::::Internet usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Internet surveillance is the monitoring of Internet data traffic, web access, and other online activity. This may include monitoring any Internet traffic including encrypted web browser traffic on Secure Socket Layer (SSL) connections, personal web-based email, and personal banking sites. Research done by American Management Association that nearly 30 percent of all employers in the United States monitor employee e-mails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15507932",
"title": "Internet in Laos",
"section": "Section::::Censorship and surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "The government controls domestic Internet servers and sporadically monitors Internet usage, but by the end of 2012 it apparently did not have the ability to block access to Web sites. Authorities have developed infrastructure to route all Internet traffic through a single gateway, enabling them to monitor and restrict content. However, they apparently had not utilized this increased capability as of the end of 2012. The National Internet Committee under the Prime Minister’s Office administers the Internet system. The office requires Internet service providers to submit quarterly reports and link their gateways to facilitate monitoring, but the government’s enforcement capability appears limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rs97q
|
What elements/compounds give Jupiter its colors?
|
[
{
"answer": "**The short answer**: Hydrocarbon hazes, Rayleigh scattering, and some unknown compound.\n\n**The long answer**: For the primary whites and browns that cover most of the planet, you need to realize that almost everything you see when you look at Jupiter is ammonia clouds, which on their own are bright white. Some latitudes are regions of upwelling (zones), and have high ammonia cloud-tops, while other latitudes are regions of downwelling (belts), and have low ammonia cloud-tops. In between these high and low heights sits a thick brown hydrocarbon haze, very chemically similar to smog. The cloud-tops in the zones are sticking up above most of the haze and thus appear fairly white. The cloud-tops in the belts, though, lie below the haze layer, and thus appear colored brown by the overlying haze.\n\nFor the occasional bluish regions seen just to the north and south of the equator, these are some of the rare cloud clearings that occur in very strong downwelling regions. We're actually peering through the ammonia top cloud layer, and perhaps even down through the ammonium hydrosulfide middle cloud layer and the bottom water cloud layer. So, in those regions we're looking at just clear air, which has the exact same color as it does one Earth, blue. This is entirely due to Rayleigh scattering, the same reason that Earth's sky is blue.\n\nThen there's the reds, notably in Jupiter's Great Red Spot, although also occasionally seen in another big vortex here and there. As of right now, we don't actually know what makes the Great Red Spot red - this is generally known as the Jovian chromophore problem. Since this color is only seen in very large vortices, it's believed to be caused by some mixture of compounds already present on the planet getting pushed very high in the atmosphere by these vortices. In three dimensions, the Great Red Spot is essentially shaped like a wedding cake, so the cloud-tops at the center of the spot are at very high altitudes where there's a lot more ultraviolet light. You can end up producing all kinds of odd substances through UV photochemistry of trace substances in the atmosphere, and the working hypothesis at this point is that it's some kind of imine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30972",
"title": "Jupiter trojan",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1183,
"text": "Spectroscopically, the Jupiter trojans mostly are D-type asteroids, which predominate in the outer regions of the asteroid belt. A small number are classified as P or C-type asteroids. Their spectra are red (meaning that they reflect more light at longer wavelengths) or neutral and featureless. No firm evidence of water, organics or other chemical compounds has been obtained . 4709 Ennomos has an albedo slightly higher than the Jupiter-trojan average, which may indicate the presence of water ice. Some other Jupiter Trojans, such as 911 Agamemnon and 617 Patroclus, have shown very weak absorptions at 1.7 and 2.3 μm, which might indicate the presence of organics. The Jupiter trojans' spectra are similar to those of the irregular moons of Jupiter and, to a certain extent, comet nuclei, though Jupiter trojans are spectrally very different from the redder Kuiper belt objects. A Jupiter trojan's spectrum can be matched to a mixture of water ice, a large amount of carbon-rich material (charcoal), and possibly magnesium-rich silicates. The composition of the Jupiter trojan population appears to be markedly uniform, with little or no differentiation between the two swarms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Cloud layers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2719753",
"title": "Scattered disc",
"section": "Section::::Comets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "There are many differences between SDOs and JFCs, even though many of the Jupiter-family comets may have originated in the scattered disc. Although the centaurs share a reddish or neutral coloration with many SDOs, their nuclei are bluer, indicating a fundamental chemical or physical difference. One hypothesis is that comet nuclei are resurfaced as they approach the Sun by subsurface materials which subsequently bury the older material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27127",
"title": "Sulfur",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Natural occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Sulfur, usually as sulfide, is present in many types of meteorites. Ordinary chondrites contain on average 2.1% sulfur, and carbonaceous chondrites may contain as much as 6.6%. It is normally present as troilite (FeS), but there are exceptions, with carbonaceous chondrites containing free sulfur, sulfates and other sulfur compounds. The distinctive colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon Io are attributed to various forms of molten, solid, and gaseous sulfur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36909893",
"title": "Polyhalogen ions",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Most polyhalogen ions are intensely colored, with deepened color as the atomic weight of the constituent element increases. The well-known starch-iodine complex has a deep blue color due to the linear ions present in the amylose helix. Some colors of the common species were listed below:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30972",
"title": "Jupiter trojan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish, featureless spectra. No firm evidence of the presence of water, or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained, but it is thought that they are coated in tholins, organic polymers formed by the Sun's radiation. The Jupiter trojans' densities (as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves) vary from 0.8 to 2.5 g·cm. Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System's formation or slightly later, during the migration of giant planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5879",
"title": "Caesium",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The golden colour of caesium comes from the decreasing frequency of light required to excite electrons of the alkali metals as the group is descended. For lithium through rubidium this frequency is in the ultraviolet, but for caesium it enters the blue–violet end of the spectrum; in other words, the plasmonic frequency of the alkali metals becomes lower from lithium to caesium. Thus caesium transmits and partially absorbs violet light preferentially while other colours (having lower frequency) are reflected; hence it appears yellowish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pulaz
|
how did spacex develop rocket technology so quickly?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not like they're starting with the same technology as nasa when it was founded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "SpaceX was working directly with space agencies, building on top of the technology and knowledge-base that had already been developed over many decades. Rather than re-inventing the wheel, they stood on the shoulders of giants (so to speak).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40707762",
"title": "Falcon 9 v1.0",
"section": "Section::::Development history.:Funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "While SpaceX spent its own money to develop its first launch vehicle, the Falcon 1, the development of the Falcon 9 was accelerated by the purchase of several demonstration flights by NASA. This started with seed money from the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program in 2006. SpaceX was selected from more than twenty companies that submitted COTS proposals. Without the NASA money, development would have taken longer, Musk said.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "832774",
"title": "SpaceX",
"section": "Section::::Spacecraft and flight hardware.:Rocket engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Since the founding of SpaceX in 2002, the company has developed three families of rocket engines — Merlin and the retired Kestrel for launch vehicle propulsion, and the Draco control thrusters. SpaceX is currently developing two further rocket engines: SuperDraco and Raptor. SpaceX is currently the world's most prolific producer of liquid fuel rocket engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "832774",
"title": "SpaceX",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "SpaceX is actively pursuing several different research and development programs. Most notable are those intended to develop reusable launch vehicles, an interplanetary transport system and a global telecommunications network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "832774",
"title": "SpaceX",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure.:Headquarters, manufacturing and refurbishment facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "SpaceX utilizes a high degree of vertical integration in the production of its rockets and rocket engines. SpaceX builds its rocket engines, rocket stages, spacecraft, principal avionics and all software in-house in their Hawthorne facility, which is unusual for the aerospace industry. Nevertheless, SpaceX still has over 3,000 suppliers with some 1,100 of those delivering to SpaceX nearly weekly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39636436",
"title": "SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Development work began in earnest before 2012 when SpaceX started to design the Raptor rocket engine which will propel all versions of the BFR launch vehicle (now renamed \"Super Heavy\") and spacecraft (now renamed \"Starship\"). Rocket engine development is one of the longest subprocesses in the design of new rockets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163878",
"title": "Iterative and incremental development",
"section": "Section::::Use in hardware and embedded systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "SpaceX has been explicit about its effort to bring iterative design practices into the space industry, and uses the technique on spacecraft, launch vehicles, electronics and avionics, and operational flight hardware operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55382641",
"title": "BFR (rocket)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The SpaceX next-generation launch vehicle design combines several elements that, according to Musk, will make long-duration, beyond Earth orbit (BEO) spaceflights possible. The design is projected by SpaceX to reduce the per-ton cost of launches to low Earth orbit (LEO) and of transportation between BEO destinations. It will also serve all use cases for the conventional LEO market. This will allow SpaceX to focus the majority of their development resources on the next-generation launch vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
95yjal
|
Why were the Turkish states able to assimilate Anatolia so quickly? Why didn't Persia or the Balkans assimilate?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll start off my answer by pointing out that significant parts of Iran and Afghanistan were in fact Turkified; Azerbaijan, parts of Fars, northeastern Iran, and northern and central Afghanistan. The main reason this happened, I would argue, is that the climate and habitat of these regions were (similarly to Anatolia) suitable to Turkish nomads. [I'm not too knowledgeable on Ottoman rule in the Balkans, so I'll leave that to someone else.[Though I would hazard a guess that Ottoman government was considerably more sedentary than their earlier Turkic colleagues and so were less concerned with the settlement of migrating Turkic tribes.]]\n\nThe reason for this suitability lies in the mix of mountainous and flat terrain. The Turkic nomads who invaded Iran from Central Asia, and eventually moved further into Anatolia, practiced vertical transhumance. This involved the seasonal migration of the nomads' animal herds: down into the valleys/plains during the winter, and up into the lower reaches of the mountains during summer. \nThe reason for the noticeably smaller degree of Turkification in Iran and Afghanistan compared to Anatolia is due to the presence in Iran/Afghanistan of competing groups. Kurds, Lurs, Pashtuns and many other Iranian groups already engaged in forms of nomadic pastoralism and so would have provided competition for space with the incoming Turks. \nAnatolia on the other hand, was populated mostly by urbanised, sedentary Greeks, Armenians, and Syriacs. There likely were some native nomadic groups, but certainly not to the same degree as Iran and Afghanistan. Consequently, the migrating Turks faced relatively little competition during their settlement of Anatolia.\n\nThere were obviously other factors involved, such as the power vacuum in Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert as the regional nobility fled to Constantinople to take part in the Byzantine intrigues (pun definitely intended) to select a new emperor, or in the remarkable ability of these Turkic tribes to assimilate Islamic and Christian ideas into their pre-existing pagan-influenced governing ideology. However, to reiterate it is the suitability of the terrain that I find to be the most important factor in the Turkification of these regions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6603245",
"title": "Armenia–Turkey relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Turk migration to Anatolia from Central asia and the rise of empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1460,
"text": "In the resulting chaos, the Turks easily overran much of the Byzantine empire and, despite Byzantine reconquests and occasional western incursions in the form of crusading armies, a series of Turkish states were established in Anatolia. These Turkic tribes came around the south end of the Caspian Sea for the most part, and hence absorbed and transmitted Islamic culture and civilization in contrast to other Turks who, such as the Cumans, became partially Westernized and Christianized. With some superiority in population and organization, regional power naturally came to rest in the hands of the Turkic speaking population. Many Turkic people came into the region fleeing from the Mongol invasions, and others later came in as soldiers fighting in the ranks of Mongol armies. Turkic Islamized populations also absorbed large numbers of the older inhabitants of Asia Minor, including Greeks, Phyrigians, and Armenians, who went over to the Islamic religion and Turkic language, creating a frontier society. Armenian communities continued to flourish under relatively tolerant Ottoman rule for centuries, either as minority populations in urban areas or as exclusively Armenian towns in rural areas. In cities such as Istanbul and İzmir, Armenians played particularly important roles; an 1851 New York Times report, for instance, indicates that Armenians comprised nearly one quarter of the population of Istanbul at that time, with over 200,000 residents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4764461",
"title": "World War I",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Peace treaties and national boundaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, with much of its Levant territory awarded to various Allied powers as protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much less stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7695456",
"title": "Partition of the Ottoman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Independence movements.:Republic of Turkey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Between 1918 and 1923, Turkish resistance movements led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk forced the Greeks and Armenians out of Anatolia, while the Italians never established a presence. The Turkish revolutionaries also suppressed Kurdish attempts to become independent in the 1920s. After the Turkish resistance gained control over Anatolia, there was no hope of meeting the conditions of the Treaty of Sèvres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15190852",
"title": "Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)",
"section": "Section::::Strategy and tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "After the Imperial army suffered defeat in Asia Minor, Andronikos III saw Anatolia as a lost cause and began reorganizing the Byzantine fleet; as a result the Aegean remained an effective defense against Turkish incursions until Gallipoli was at last captured by the Turks in 1354. From then on, the Byzantine military engaged in small scale warfare against her weak Crusader opponents, mixing in diplomacy and subterfuge, often exploiting civil conflict amongst their Ottoman opponents. In the Peloponnese, territory continued to be re-conquered by the Byzantines against the weak crusaders until the mid 15th century, when the Byzantine enclave in Morea was finally conquered by the Ottomans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1061749",
"title": "Battle of Nicopolis",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Broader ramifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "By their victory at Nicopolis, the Turks discouraged the formation of future European coalitions against them. They maintained their pressure on Constantinople, tightened their control over the Balkans, and became a greater threat to central Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1220680",
"title": "Islam in Turkey",
"section": "Section::::History.:Islamic empires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "In 1068 Alp Arslan and allied Turkmen tribes recaptured many Abbasid lands and even invaded Byzantine regions, pushing further into eastern and central Anatolia after a major victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The disintegration of the Seljuk dynasty, the first unified Turkic dynasty, resulted in the rise of subsequent, smaller, rival Turkic kingdoms such as the Danishmends, the Sultanate of Rum, and various Atabegs who contested the control of the region during the Crusades and incrementally expanded across Anatolia until the rise of the Ottoman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802",
"title": "Ankara",
"section": "Section::::History.:Turkish republican capital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Following the Ottoman defeat at World War I, the Ottoman capital Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and much of Anatolia were occupied by the Allies, who planned to share these lands between Armenia, France, Greece, Italy and the United Kingdom, leaving for the Turks the core piece of land in central Anatolia. In response, the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Angora in 1920. After the Turkish War of Independence was won and the Treaty of Sèvres was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. A few days earlier, Angora had officially replaced Constantinople as the new Turkish capital city, on 13 October 1923, and Republican officials declared that the city's name is Ankara.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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